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diff --git a/28587-0.txt b/28587-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9c5b56b --- /dev/null +++ b/28587-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,28523 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus, by +Ammianus Marcellinus + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus + +Author: Ammianus Marcellinus + +Translator: C. D. Yonge + +Release Date: April 22, 2009 [EBook #28587] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROMAN HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Greg Bergquist and The Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully +preserved. Only obvious typographical errors have been corrected. + +This text contains several phrases in Greek and have been represented +with the appropriate unicode characters. + +Your browser should be set to read the UTF-8 character set. + + + + + THE + ROMAN HISTORY + OF + AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS + + DURING THE REIGNS OF + + THE EMPERORS CONSTANTIUS, JULIAN, JOVIANUS, + VALENTINIAN, AND VALENS. + + + TRANSLATED BY + C.D. YONGE, M.A. + + + _WITH A GENERAL INDEX_ + + [Illustration] + + LONDON + G. BELL AND SONS, LTD + 1911 + + [_Reprinted from Stereotype plates._] + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Of Ammianus Marcellinus, the writer of the following History, we know +very little more than what can be collected from that portion of it +which remains to us. From that source we learn that he was a native of +Antioch, and a soldier; being one of the _prefectores domestici_--the +body-guard of the emperor, into which none but men of noble birth were +admitted. He was on the staff of Ursicinus, whom he attended in several +of his expeditions; and he bore a share in the campaigns which Julian +made against the Persians. After that time he never mentions himself, +and we are ignorant when he quitted the service and retired to Rome, in +which city he composed his History. We know not when he was born, or +when he died, except that from one or two incidental passages in his +work it is plain that he lived nearly to the end of the fourth century: +and it is even uncertain whether he was a Christian or a Pagan; though +the general belief is, that he adhered to the religion of the ancient +Romans, without, however, permitting it to lead him even to speak +disrespectfully of Christians or Christianity. + +His History, which he divided into thirty-one books (of which the first +thirteen are lost, while the text of those which remain is in some +places imperfect), began with the accession of Nerva, A.D. 96, where +Tacitus and Suetonius end, and was continued to the death of Valens, +A.D. 378, a period of 282 years. And there is probably no work as to the +intrinsic value of which there is so little difference of opinion. +Gibbon bears repeated testimony to his accuracy, fidelity, and +impartiality, and quotes him extensively. In losing his aid after A.D. +378, he says, "It is not without sincere regret that I must now take +leave of an accurate and faithful guide, who has composed the history of +his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which +usually affect the mind of a contemporary." Professor Ramsay (in Smith's +Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography) says, "We are indebted to him +for a knowledge of many important facts not elsewhere recorded, and for +much valuable insight into the modes of thought and the general tone of +public feeling prevalent in his day. Nearly all the statements admitted +appear to be founded upon his own observations, or upon the information +derived from trustworthy eye-witnesses. A considerable number of +dissertations and digressions are introduced, many of them highly +interesting and valuable. Such are his notices of the institutions and +manners of the Saracens (xiv. 4), of the Scythians and Sarmatians (xvii. +12), of the Huns and Alani (xxxi. 2), of the Egyptians and their country +(xxii. 6, 14-16), and his geographical discussions upon Gaul (xv. 9), +the Pontus (xxii. 8), and Thrace (xxvii. 4). Less legitimate and less +judicious are his geological speculations upon earthquakes (xvii. 7), +his astronomical inquiries into eclipses (xx. 3), comets (xxv. 10), and +the regulation of the calendar (xxvi. 1); his medical researches into +the origin of epidemics (xix. 4); his zoological theory on the +destruction of lions by mosquitos (xviii. 7), and his horticultural +essay on the impregnation of palms (xxiv. 3). In addition to industry in +research and honesty of purpose, he was gifted with a large measure of +strong common sense, which enabled him in many points to rise superior +to the prejudices of his day, and with a clear-sighted independence of +spirit which prevented him from being dazzled or over-awed by the +brilliancy and the terrors which enveloped the imperial throne. But +although sufficiently acute in detecting and exposing the follies of +others, and especially in ridiculing the absurdities of popular +superstition, Ammianus did not entirely escape the contagion. The +general and deep-seated belief in magic spells, omens, prodigies, and +oracles, which appears to have gained additional strength upon the first +introduction of Christianity, evidently exercised no small influence +over his mind. The old legends and doctrines of the pagan creed, and the +subtle mysticism which philosophers pretended to discover lurking below, +when mixed up with the pure and simple but startling tenets of the new +faith, formed a confused mass which few intellects could reduce to order +and harmony." + +The vices of our author's style, and his ambitious affectation of +ornament, are condemned by most critics; but some of the points which +strike a modern reader as defects evidently arise from the alteration +which the Latin language had already undergone since the days of Livy. +His great value, however, consists in the facts he has made known to us, +and is quite independent of the style or language in which he has +conveyed that knowledge, of which without him we should have been nearly +destitute. + +The present translation has been made from Wagner and Erfurdt's edition, +published at Leipzig in 1808, and their division of chapters into short +paragraphs has been followed. + +_Feb._ 1862. + + + + +THE HISTORY OF AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS. + +THE FIRST THIRTEEN BOOKS ARE LOST. + + + + +BOOK XIV. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. The cruelty of the Cæsar Gallus.--II. The incursions of the + Isaurians.--III. The unsuccessful plans of the Persians.--IV. The + invasion of the Saracens, and the manners of that people.--V. The + punishment of the adherents of Magnentius.--VI. The vices of the + senate and people of Rome.--VII. The ferocity and inhumanity of the + Cæsar Gallus.--VIII. A description of the provinces of the + East.--IX. About the Cæsar Constantius Gallus.--X. The Emperor + Constantius grants the Allemanni peace at their request.--XI. The + Cæsar Constantius Gallus is sent for by the Emperor Constantius, + and beheaded. + + +I. + +A.D. 353. + +§ 1. After the events of an expedition full of almost insuperable +difficulties, while the spirits of all parties in the state, broken by +the variety of their dangers and toils, were still enfeebled; while the +clang of trumpets was ringing in men's ears, and the troops were still +distributed in their winter quarters, the storms of angry fortune +surrounded the commonwealth with fresh dangers through the manifold and +terrible atrocities of Cæsar Gallus:[1] who, when just entering into the +prime of life, having been raised with unexpected honour from the +lowest depth of misery to the highest rank, exceeded all the legitimate +bounds of the power conferred on him, and with preposterous violence +threw everything into confusion. For by his near relationship to the +royal family, and his connection with the name of Constantine, he was so +inflated with pride, that if he had had more power, he would, as it +seemed, have ventured to attack even the author of his prosperity. + +2. His wife added fuel to his natural ferocity; she was a woman +immoderately proud of her sisterly relationship to Augustus, and had +been formerly given in marriage by the elder Constantine to King +Hannibalianus,[2] his brother's son. She was an incarnate fury: never +weary of inflaming his savage temper, thirsting for human blood as +insatiably as her husband. The pair, in process of time, becoming more +skilful in the infliction of suffering, employed a gang of underhand and +crafty talebearers, accustomed in their wickedness to make random +additions to their discoveries, which consisted in general of such +falsehoods as they themselves delighted in; and these men loaded the +innocent with calumnies, charging them with aiming at kingly power, or +with practising infamous acts of magic. + +3. And among his less remarkable atrocities, when his power had gone +beyond the bounds of moderate crimes, was conspicuous the horrible and +sudden death of a certain noble citizen of Alexandria, named Clematius. +His mother-in-law, having conceived a passion for him, could not prevail +on him to gratify it; and in consequence, as was reported, she, having +obtained an introduction by a secret door into the palace, won over the +queen by the present of a costly necklace, and procured a fatal warrant +to be sent to Honoratus, at that time count-governor of the East, in +compliance with which Clematius was put to death, a man wholly innocent +of any kind of wickedness, without being permitted to say a word in his +defence. + +4. After this iniquitous transaction, which struck others also with fear +lest they should meet with similar treatment, as if cruelty had now +obtained a licence, many were condemned on mere vague suspicion; of whom +some were put to death, others were punished by the confiscation of +their property, and driven forth as exiles from their homes, so that +having nothing left but their tears and complaints, they were reduced to +live on the contributions of their friends; and many opulent and famous +houses were shut up, the old constitutional and just authority being +changed into a government at the will of a bloodthirsty tyrant. + +5. Nor amid these manifold atrocities was any testimony of an accuser, +not even of a suborned one, sought for, in order to give at least an +appearance of these crimes being committed according to law and statute, +as very commonly even the most cruel princes have done: but whatever +suited the implacable temper of Cæsar was instantly accomplished in +haste, as if its accordance with human and divine law had been well +considered. + +6. After these deeds a fresh device was adopted, and a body of obscure +men, such as, by reason of the meanness of their condition, were little +likely to excite suspicion, were sent through all the districts of +Antioch, to collect reports, and to bring news of whatever they might +hear. They, travelling about, and concealing their object, joined +clandestinely in the conversational circles of honourable men, and also +in disguise obtained entrance into the houses of the rich. When they +returned they were secretly admitted by back doors into the palace, and +then reported all that they had been able to hear or to collect; taking +care with an unanimous kind of conspiracy to invent many things, and to +exaggerate for the worse all they really knew; at the same time +suppressing any praises of Cæsar which had come to their ears, although +these were wrung from many, against their consciences, by the dread of +impending evils. + +7. And it had happened sometimes that, if in his secret chamber, when no +domestic servant was by, the master of the house had whispered anything +into his wife's ear, the very next day, as if those renowned seers of +old, Amphiaraus or Marcius, had been at hand to report it, the emperor +was informed of what had been said; so that even the walls of a man's +secret chamber, the only witnesses to his language, were viewed with +apprehension. + +8. And Cæsar's fixed resolution to inquire into these and other similar +occurrences was increased by the queen, who constantly stimulated his +desire, and was driving on the fortunes of her husband to headlong +destruction, while she ought rather, by giving him useful advice, to +have led him back into the paths of truth and mercy, by feminine +gentleness, as, in recounting the acts of the Gordiani, we have related +to have been done by the wife of that truculent emperor Maximinus. + +9. At last, by an unsurpassed and most pernicious baseness, Gallus +ventured on adopting a course of fearful wickedness, which indeed +Gallienus, to his own exceeding infamy, is said formerly to have tried +at Rome; and, taking with him a few followers secretly armed, he used to +rove in the evening through the streets and among the shops, making +inquiries in the Greek language, in which he was well skilled, what were +the feelings of individuals towards Cæsar. And he used to do this boldly +in the city, where the brillancy of the lamps at night often equalled +the light of day. At last, being often recognized, and considering that +if he went out in this way he should be known, he took care never to go +out except openly in broad daylight, to transact whatever business which +he thought of serious importance. And these things caused bitter though +secret lamentation, and discontent to many. + +10. But at that time Thalassius was the present prefect[3] of the +palace, a man of an arrogant temper; and he, perceiving that the hasty +fury of Gallus gradually increased to the danger of many of the +citizens, did not mollify it by either delay or wise counsels, as men in +high office have very often pacified the anger of their princes; but by +untimely opposition and reproof, did often excite him the more to +frenzy; often also informing Augustus of his actions, and that too with +exaggeration, and taking care, I know not with what intention, that what +he did should not be unknown to the emperor. And at this Cæsar soon +became more vehemently exasperated, and, as if raising more on high than +ever the standard of his contumacy, without any regard to the safety of +others or of himself, he bore himself onwards like a rapid torrent, with +an impetuosity which would listen to no reason, to sweep away all the +obstacles which opposed his will. + + +II. + +§ 1. Nor indeed was the East the only quarter which this plague affected +with its various disasters. For the Isaurians also, a people who were +accustomed to frequent alternations of peace, and of turbulence which +threw everything into confusion with sudden outbreaks--impunity having +fostered their growing audacity and encouraged it to evil--broke out in +a formidable war. Being especially excited, as they gave out by this +indignity, that some of their allies, having been taken prisoners, were +in an unprecedented manner exposed to wild beasts, and in the games of +the amphitheatre, at Iconium, a town of Pisidia. + +2. And as Cicero[4] says, that "even wild beasts, when reminded by +hunger, generally return to that place where they have been fed before." +So they all, descending like a whirlwind from their high and pathless +mountains, came into the districts bordering on the sea: in which hiding +themselves in roads full of lurking-places, and in defiles, when the +long nights were approaching, the moon being at that time new, and so +not yet giving her full light, they lay wait for the sailors; and when +they perceived that they were wrapped in sleep, they, crawling on their +hands and feet along the cables which held the anchors, and raising +themselves up by them, swung themselves into the boats, and so came +upon the crews unexpectedly, and, their natural ferocity being inflamed +by covetousness, they spared not even those who offered no resistance, +but slew them all, and carried off a splendid booty with no more trouble +than if it had been valueless. + +3. This conduct did not last long, for when the deaths of the crews thus +plundered and slaughtered became known, no one afterwards brought a +vessel to the stations on that coast; but, avoiding them as they would +have avoided the deadly precipices of Sciron,[5] they sailed on, without +halting, to the shores of Cyprus, which lie opposite to the rocks of +Isauria. + +4. Therefore as time went on, and no foreign vessels went there any +more, they quitted the sea-coast, and betook themselves to Lycaonia, a +country which lies on the borders of Isauria. And there, occupying the +roads with thick barricades, they sought a living by plundering the +inhabitants of the district, as well as travellers. These outrages +aroused the soldiers who were dispersed among the many municipal towns +and forts which lie on the borders. And they, endeavouring to the utmost +of their strength to repel these banditti, who were spreading every day +more widely, sometimes in solid bodies, at others in small straggling +parties, were overcome by their vast numbers. + +5. Since the Isaurians, having been born and brought up amid the +entangled defiles of lofty mountains, could bound over them as over +plain and easy paths, and attacked all who came in their way with +missiles from a distance, terrifying them at the same time with savage +yells. + +6. And very often our infantry were compelled in pursuit of them to +climb lofty crags, and, when their feet slipped, to catch hold of the +shrubs and briars to raise themselves to the summits; without ever being +able to deploy into battle array, by reason of the narrow and difficult +nature of the ground, nor even to stand firm; while their enemy running +round in every direction hurled down upon them fragments of rock from +above till they retired down the declivities with great danger. Or +else, sometimes, in the last necessity fighting bravely, they were +overwhelmed with fragments of immense bulk and weight. + +7. On this account they subsequently were forced to observe more +caution, and whenever the plunderers began to retire to the high ground, +our soldiers yielded to the unfavourable character of the country and +retired. But whenever they could be met with in the plain, which often +happened, then charging them without giving them time to combine their +strength, or even to brandish the javelins of which they always carried +two or three, they slaughtered them like defenceless sheep. + +8. So that these banditti, conceiving a fear of Lycaonia, which is for +the most part a champaign country, since they had learnt by repeated +proofs that they were unequal to our troops in a pitched battle, betook +themselves by unfrequented tracks to Pamphylia. This district had long +been free from the evils of war, but nevertheless had been fortified in +all quarters by strong forts and garrisons, from the dread entertained +by the people of rapine and slaughter, since soldiers were scattered +over all the neighbouring districts. + +9. Therefore hastening with all speed, in order by their exceeding +celerity of movement to anticipate all rumour of their motions, trusting +to their strength and activity of body, they travelled by winding roads +until they reached the high ground on the tops of the mountains, the +steepness of which delayed their march more than they had expected. And +when at last, having surmounted all the difficulties of the mountains, +they came to the precipitous banks of the Melas, a deep river and one +full of dangerous currents, which winds round the district, protecting +the inhabitants like a wall, the night which had overtaken them +increased their fears, so that they halted for a while awaiting the +daylight. For they expected to be able to cross without hindrance, and +then, in consequence of the suddenness of their inroad, to be able to +ravage all the country around; but they had incurred great toil to no +purpose. + +10. For when the sun rose they were prevented from crossing by the size +of the river, which though narrow was very deep. And while they were +searching for some fishing-boats, or preparing to commit themselves to +the stream on rafts hastily put together, the legions which at that +time were wintering about Side, came down upon them with great speed and +impetuosity; and having pitched their standards close to the bank with a +view to an immediate battle, they packed their shields together before +them in a most skilful manner, and without any difficulty slew some of +the banditti, who either trusted to their swimming, or who tried to +cross the river unperceived in barks made of the trunks of trees +hollowed out. + +11. And the Isaurians having tried many devices to obtain success in a +regular battle, and having failed in everything, being repulsed in great +consternation, and with great vigour on the part of the legions, and +being uncertain which way to go, came near the town of Laranda. And +there, after they had refreshed themselves with food and rest, and +recovered from their fears, they attacked several wealthy towns; but +being presently scared by the support given to the citizens by some +squadrons of horse which happened to be at hand, and which they would +not venture to resist in the extensive plains, they retreated, and +retracing their steps summoned all the flower of their youth which had +been left at home to join them. + +12. And as they were oppressed with severe famine, they made for a place +called Palea, standing on the sea-shore, and fortified with a strong +wall; where even to this day supplies are usually kept in store, to be +distributed to the armies which defend the frontier of Isauria. + +13. Therefore they encamped around this fortress for three days and +three nights, and as the steepness of the ground on which it stood +prevented any attempt to storm it without the most deadly peril, and as +it was impossible to effect anything by mines, and no other manoeuvres +such as are employed in sieges availed anything, they retired much +dejected, being compelled by the necessities of their situation to +undertake some enterprise, even if it should be greater than their +strength was equal to. + +14. Then giving way to greater fury than ever, being inflamed both by +despair and hunger, and their strength increased by their unrestrainable +ardour, they directed their efforts to destroy the city of Seleucia, the +metropolis of the province, which was defended by Count Castucius, whose +legions were inured to every kind of military service. + +15. The commanders of the garrison being forewarned of their approach +by their own trusty scouts, having, according to custom, given, out the +watchword to the troops, led forth all their forces in a rapid sally, +and having with great activity passed the bridge over the river +Calicadnus, the mighty waters of which wash the turrets of the walls, +they drew out their men as if prepared for battle. But as yet no man +left the ranks, and the army was not allowed to engage; for the band of +the Isaurians was dreaded, inasmuch as they were desperate with rage, +and superior in number, and likely to rush upon the arms of the legions +without any regard to their lives. Therefore as soon as the army was +beheld at a distance, and the music of the trumpeters was heard, the +banditti halted and stood still for a while, brandishing their +threatening swords, and after a time they marched on slowly. And when +the steady Roman soldiery began to deploy, preparing to encounter them, +beating their shields with their spears (a custom which rouses the fury +of the combatants, and strikes terror into their enemies), they filled +the front ranks of the Isaurians with consternation. But as the troops +were pressing forward eagerly to the combat their generals recalled +them, thinking it inopportune to enter upon a contest of doubtful issue, +when their walls were not far distant, under protection of which the +safety of the whole army could be placed on a solid foundation. + +16. Therefore the soldiers were brought back inside the walls in +accordance with this resolution, and all the approaches and gates were +strongly barred; and the men were placed on the battlements and +bulwarks, having vast stones and weapons of all kinds piled close at +hand, so that if any one forced his way inside he might be overwhelmed +with a multitude of missiles and stones. + +17. But those who were shut up in the walls were at the same time +greatly afflicted, because the Isaurians having taken some vessels which +were conveying grain down the river, were well provided with abundance +of food, while they themselves, having almost consumed the usual stores +of food, were in a state of alarm dreading the fatal agonies of +approaching famine. When the news of this distress got abroad, and when +repeated messages to this effect had moved Gallus Cæsar, because the +master of the horse was kept away longer than usual at that season, +Nebridius the count of the East was ordered to collect a military force +from all quarters, and hastened forward with exceeding zeal to deliver +the city, so wealthy and important, from such a peril. And when this was +known the banditti retired, without having performed any memorable +exploit, and dispersing, according to their wont, they sought the +trackless recesses of the lofty mountains. + + +III. + +§ 1. While affairs were in this state in Isauria, and while the king of +Persia was involved in wars upon his frontier, repulsing from his +borders a set of ferocious tribes which, being full of fickleness, were +continually either attacking him in a hostile manner, or, as often +happens, aiding him when he turned his arms against us, a certain noble, +by name Nohodares, having been appointed to invade Mesopotamia, whenever +occasion might serve, was anxiously exploring our territories with a +view to some sudden incursion, if he could anywhere find an opportunity. + +2. And because since every part of Mesopotamia is accustomed to be +disturbed continually, the lands were protected by frequent barriers, +and military stations in the rural districts, Nohodares, having directed +his march to the left, had occupied the most remote parts of the +Osdroene, having devised a novel plan of operations which had never +hitherto been tried. And if he had succeeded he would have laid waste +the whole country like a thunderbolt. + +3. Now the plan which he had conceived was of this kind. There is a town +in Anthemusia called Batne, built by the ancient Macedonians, a short +distance from the river Euphrates, thickly peopled by wealthy merchants. +To this city, about the beginning of the month of September, a great +multitude of all ranks throng to a fair, in order to buy the wares which +the Indians and Chinese send thither, and many other articles which are +usually brought to this fair by land and sea. + +4. The leader before named, preparing to invade this district on the +days set apart for this solemnity, marching through the deserts and +along the grassy banks of the river Abora, was betrayed by information +given by some of his own men, who being alarmed at the discovery of +certain crimes which they had committed, deserted to the Roman +garrisons, and accordingly he retired again without having accomplished +anything; and after that remained quiet without undertaking any further +enterprise. + + +IV. + +§ 1. At this time also the Saracens, a race whom it is never desirable +to have either for friends or enemies, ranging up and down the country, +if ever they found anything, plundered it in a moment, like rapacious +hawks who, if from on high they behold any prey, carry it off with rapid +swoop, or, if they fail in their attempt, do not tarry. + +2. And although, in recounting the career of the Prince Marcus, and once +or twice subsequently, I remember having discussed the manners of this +people, nevertheless I will now briefly enumerate a few more particulars +concerning them. + +3. Among these tribes, whose primary origin is derived from the +cataracts of the Nile and the borders of the Blemmyæ, all the men are +warriors of equal rank; half naked, clad in coloured cloaks down to the +waist, overrunning different countries, with the aid of swift and active +horses and speedy camels, alike in times of peace and war. Nor does any +member of their tribes ever take plough in hand or cultivate a tree, or +seek food by the tillage of the land; but they are perpetually wandering +over various and extensive districts, having no home, no fixed abode or +laws; nor can they endure to remain long in the same climate, no one +district or country pleasing them for a continuance. + +4. Their life is one continued wandering; their wives are hired, on +special covenant, for a fixed time; and that there may be some +appearance of marriage in the business, the intended wife, under the +name of a dowry, offers a spear and a tent to her husband, with a right +to quit him after a fixed day, if she should choose to do so. And it is +inconceivable with what eagerness the individuals of both sexes give +themselves up to matrimonial pleasures. + +5. But as long as they live they wander about with such extensive and +perpetual migrations, that the woman is married in one place, brings +forth her children in another, and rears them at a distance from either +place, no opportunity of remaining quiet being ever granted to her. + +6. They all live on venison, and are further supported on a great +abundance of milk, and on many kinds of herbs, and on whatever birds +they can catch by fowling. And we have seen a great many of them wholly +ignorant of the use of either corn or wine. + +7. So much for this most mischievous nation. Now let us return to the +subject we originally proposed to ourselves. + + +V. + +§ 1. While these events were taking place in the East, Constantius was +passing the winter at Arles; and after an exhibition of games in the +theatre and in the circus, which were displayed with most sumptuous +magnificence, on the tenth of October, the day which completed the +thirtieth year of his reign, he began to give the reins more freely to +his insolence, believing every information which was laid before him as +proved, however doubtful or false it might be; and among other acts of +cruelty, he put Gerontius, a count of the party of Magnentius, to the +torture, and then condemned him to banishment. + +2. And as the body of a sick man is apt to be agitated by even trifling +grievances, so his narrow and sensitive mind, thinking every sound that +stirred something either done or planned to the injury of his safety, +made his victory[6] mournful by the slaughter of innocent men. + +3. For if any one of his military officers, or of those who had ever +received marks of honour, or if any one of high rank was accused, on the +barest rumour, of having favoured the faction of his enemy, he was +loaded with chains and dragged about like a beast. And whether any enemy +of the accused man pressed him or not, as if the mere fact that his +name had been mentioned was sufficient, every one who was informed +against or in any way called in question, was condemned either to death, +or to confiscation of his property, or to confinement in a desert +island. + +4. For his ferocity was excited to a still further degree when any +mention was made of treason or sedition; and the bloodthirsty +insinuations of those around him, exaggerating everything that happened, +and pretending great concern at any danger which might threaten the life +of the emperor, on whose safety, as on a thread, they hypocritically +exclaimed the whole world depended, added daily to his suspicions and +watchful anger. + +5. And therefore it is reported he gave orders that no one who was at +any time sentenced to punishment for these or similar offences should be +readmitted to his presence for the purpose of offering the usual +testimonies to his character, a thing which the most implacable princes +have been wont to permit. And thus deadly cruelty, which in all other +men at times grows cool, in him only became more violent as he advanced +in years, because the court of flatterers which attended on him added +continual fuel to his stern obstinacy. + +6. Of this court a most conspicuous member was Paulus, the secretary, a +native of Spain, a man keeping his objects hidden beneath a smooth +countenance, and acute beyond all men in smelling out secret ways to +bring others into danger. He, having been sent into Britain to arrest +some military officers who had dared to favour the conspiracy of +Magnentius, as they could not resist, licentiously exceeded his +commands, and like a flood poured with sudden violence upon the fortunes +of a great number of people, making his path through manifold slaughter +and destruction, loading the bodies of free-born men with chains, and +crushing some with fetters, while patching up all kinds of accusations +far removed from the truth. And to this man is owing one especial +atrocity which has branded the time of Constantius with indelible +infamy. + +7. Martinus, who at that time governed these provinces as deputy, being +greatly concerned for the sufferings inflicted on innocent men, and +making frequent entreaties that those who were free from all guilt +might be spared, when he found that he could not prevail, threatened to +withdraw from the province, in the hope that this malevolent inquisitor, +Paulus, might be afraid of his doing so, and so give over exposing to +open danger men who had combined only in a wish for tranquillity. + +8. Paulus, thinking that this conduct of Martinus was a hindrance to his +own zeal, being, as he was, a formidable artist in involving matters, +from which people gave him the nickname of "the Chain," attacked the +deputy himself while still engaged in defending the people whom he was +set to govern, and involved him in the dangers which surrounded every +one else, threatening that he would carry him, with his tribunes and +many other persons, as a prisoner to the emperor's court. Martinus, +alarmed at this threat, and seeing the imminent danger in which his life +was, drew his sword and attacked Paulus. But because from want of +strength in his hand he was unable to give him a mortal wound, he then +plunged his drawn sword into his own side. And by this unseemly kind of +death that most just man departed from life, merely for having dared to +interpose some delay to the miserable calamities of many citizens. + +9. And when these wicked deeds had been perpetrated, Paulus, covered +with blood, returned to the emperor's camp, bringing with him a crowd of +prisoners almost covered with chains, in the lowest condition of squalor +and misery; on whose arrival the racks were prepared, and the +executioner began to prepare his hooks and other engines of torture. Of +these prisoners, many of them had their property confiscated, others +were sentenced to banishment, some were given over to the sword of the +executioner. Nor is it easy to cite the acquittal of a single person in +the time of Constantius, where the slightest whisper of accusation had +been brought against him. + + +VI. + +§ 1. At this time Orfitus was the governor of the Eternal City, with the +rank of prefect; and he behaved with a degree of insolence beyond the +proper limits of the dignity thus conferred upon him. A man of prudence +indeed, and well skilled in all the forensic business of the city, but +less accomplished in general literature and in the fine arts than was +becoming in a nobleman. Under his administration some very formidable +seditions broke out in consequence of the scarcity of wine, as the +people, being exceedingly eager for an abundant use of that article, +were easily excited to frequent and violent disorders. + +2. And since I think it likely that foreigners who may read this account +(if, indeed, any such should meet with it) are likely to wonder how it +is that, when my history has reached the point of narrating what was +done at Rome, nothing is spoken of but seditions, and shops, and +cheapness, and other similarly inconsiderable matters, I will briefly +touch upon the causes of this, never intentionally departing from the +strict truth. + +3. At the time when Rome first rose into mundane brilliancy--that Rome +which was fated to last as long as mankind shall endure, and to be +increased with a sublime progress and growth--virtue and fortune, though +commonly at variance, agreed upon a treaty of eternal peace, as far as +she was concerned. For if either of them had been wanting to her, she +would never have reached her perfect and complete supremacy. + +4. Her people, from its very earliest infancy to the latest moment of +its youth, a period which extends over about three hundred years, +carried on a variety of wars with the natives around its walls. Then, +when it arrived at its full-grown manhood, after many and various +labours in war, it crossed the Alps and the sea, till, as youth and man, +it had carried the triumphs of victory into every country in the world. + +5. And now that it is declining into old age, and often owes its +victories to its mere name, it has come to a more tranquil time of life. +Therefore the venerable city, after having bowed down the haughty necks +of fierce nations, and given laws to the world, to be the foundations +and eternal anchors of liberty, like a thrifty parent, prudent and rich, +intrusted to the Cæsars, as to its own children, the right of governing +their ancestral inheritance. + +6. And although the tribes are indolent, and the countries peaceful, and +although there are no contests for votes, but the tranquillity of the +age of Numa has returned, nevertheless, in every quarter of the world +Rome is still looked up to as the mistress and the queen of the earth, +and the name of the Roman people is respected and venerated. + +7. But this magnificent splendour of the assemblies and councils of the +Roman people is defaced by the inconsiderate levity of a few, who never +recollect where they have been born, but who fall away into error and +licentiousness, as if a perfect impunity were granted to vice. For as +the lyric poet Simonides teaches us, the man who would live happily in +accordance with perfect reason, ought above all things to have a +glorious country. + +8. Of these men, some thinking that they can be handed down to +immortality by means of statues, are eagerly desirous of them, as if +they would obtain a higher reward from brazen figures unendowed with +sense than from a consciousness of upright and honourable actions; and +they even are anxious to have them plated over with gold, a thing which +is reported to have been first done in the instance of Acilius Glabrio, +who by his wisdom and valour had subdued King Antiochus. But how really +noble a thing it is to despise all these inconsiderable and trifling +things, and to bend one's attention to the long and toilsome steps of +true glory, as the poet of Ascrea[7] has sung, and Cato the Censor has +shown by his example. For when he was asked how it was that while many +other nobles had statues he had none, replied: "I had rather that good +men should marvel how it was that I did not earn one, than (what would +be a much heavier misfortune) inquire how it was that I had obtained +one." + +9. Others place the height of glory in having a coach higher than usual, +or splendid apparel; and so toil and sweat under a vast burden of +cloaks, which are fastened to their necks by many clasps, and blow about +from the excessive fineness of the material; showing a desire, by the +continual wriggling of their bodies, and especially by the waving of the +left hand, to make their long fringes and tunics, embroidered in +multiform figures of animals with threads of various colours, more +conspicuous. + +10. Others, with not any one asking them, put on a feigned severity of +countenance, and extol their patrimonial estates in a boundless degree, +exaggerating the yearly produce of their fruitful fields, which they +boast of possessing in numbers from east to west, being forsooth +ignorant that their ancestors, by whom the greatness of Rome was so +widely extended, were not eminent for riches; but through a course of +dreadful wars overpowered by their valour all who were opposed to them, +though differing but little from the common soldiers either in riches, +or in their mode of life, or in the costliness of their garments. + +11. This is how it happened that Valerius Publicola was buried by the +contributions of his friends, and that the destitute wife of Regulus +was, with her children, supported by the aid of the friends of her +husband, and that the daughter of Scipio had a dowry provided for her +out of the public treasury, the other nobles being ashamed to see the +beauty of this full-grown maiden, while her moneyless father was so long +absent on the service of his country. + +12. But now if you, as an honourable stranger, should enter the house of +any one well off, and on that account full of pride, for the purpose of +saluting him, at first, indeed, you will be hospitably received, as +though your presence had been desired; and after having had many +questions put to you, and having been forced to tell a number of lies, +you will wonder, since the man had never seen you before, that one of +high rank should pay such attention to you who are but an unimportant +individual; so that by reason of this as a principal source of +happiness, you begin to repent of not having come to Rome ten years ago. + +13. And when relying on this affability you do the same thing the next +day, you will stand waiting as one utterly unknown and unexpected, while +he who yesterday encouraged you to repeat your visit, counts upon his +fingers who you can be, marvelling, for a long time, whence you come, +and what you want. But when at length you are recognized and admitted to +his acquaintance, if you should devote yourself to the attention of +saluting him for three years consecutively, and after this intermit your +visits for an equal length of time, then if you return to repeat a +similar course, you will never be questioned about your absence any more +than if you had been dead, and you will waste your whole life in +submitting to court the humours of this blockhead. + +14. But when those long and unwholesome banquets, which are indulged in +at certain intervals, begin to be prepared, or the distribution of the +usual dole-baskets takes place, then it is discussed with anxious +deliberation whether when those to whom a return is due are to be +entertained, it is proper to invite also a stranger; and if, after the +matter has been thoroughly sifted, it is determined that it may be done, +that person is preferred who waits all night before the houses of +charioteers, or who professes a skill in dice, or pretends to be +acquainted with some peculiar secrets. + +15. For such entertainers avoid all learned and sober men as +unprofitable and useless; with this addition, that the nomenclators[8] +also, who are accustomed to make a market of these invitations and of +similar favours, selling them for bribes, do for gain thrust in mean and +obscure men at these dinners. + +16. The whirlpools of banquets, and the various allurements of luxury, I +omit, that I may not be too prolix, and with the object of passing on to +this fact, that some people, hastening on without fear of danger, drive +their horses, as if they were post-horses, with a regular licence, as +the saying is, through the wide streets of the city, over the roads +paved with flint, dragging behind them large bodies of slaves like bands +of robbers; not leaving at home even Sannio,[9] as the comic poet says. + +17. And many matrons, imitating these men, gallop over every quarter of +the city with their heads covered, and in close carriages. And as +skilful conductors of battles place in the van their densest and +strongest battalions, then their light-armed troops, behind them the +darters, and in the extreme rear troops of reserve, ready to join in the +attack if necessity should arise; so, according to the careful +arrangements of the stewards of these city households, who are +conspicuous by wands fastened to their right hands, as if a regular +watchword had been issued from the camp, first of all, near the front +of the carriage march all the slaves concerned in spinning and working; +next to them come the blackened crew employed in the kitchen; then the +whole body of slaves promiscuously mixed up with a gang of idle +plebeians from the neighbourhood; last of all, the multitude of eunuchs, +beginning with the old men and ending with the boys, pale and unsightly +from the distorted deformity of their features; so that whichever way +any one goes, seeing troops of mutilated men, he will detest the memory +of Semiramis, that ancient queen who was the first person to castrate +male youths of tender age; doing as it were a violence to nature, and +forcing it back from its appointed course, which at the very first +beginning and birth of the child, by a kind of secret law revealing the +primitive fountains of seed, points out the way of propagating +posterity. + +18. And as this is the case, those few houses which were formerly +celebrated for the serious cultivation of becoming studies, are now +filled with the ridiculous amusements of torpid indolence, re-echoing +with the sound of vocal music and the tinkle of flutes and lyres. +Lastly, instead of a philosopher, you find a singer; instead of an +orator, some teacher of ridiculous arts is summoned; and the libraries +closed for ever, like so many graves; organs to be played by water-power +are made; and lyres of so vast a size, that they look like waggons; and +flutes, and ponderous machines suited for the exhibitions of actors. + +19. Last of all, they have arrived at such a depth of unworthiness, that +when, no very long time ago, on account of an apprehended scarcity of +food, the foreigners were driven in haste from the city; those who +practised liberal accomplishments, the number of whom was exceedingly +small, were expelled without a moment's breathing-time; yet the +followers of actresses, and all who at that time pretended to be of such +a class, were allowed to remain; and three thousand dancing-girls had +not even a question put to them, but stayed unmolested with the members +of their choruses, and a corresponding number of dancing masters. + +20. And wherever you turn your eyes, you may see a multitude of women +with their hair curled, who, as far as their age goes, might, if they +had married, been by this time the mothers of three children, sweeping +the pavements with their feet till they are weary, whirling round in +rapid gyrations, while representing innumerable groups and figures +which the theatrical plays contain. + +21. It is a truth beyond all question, that, when at one time Rome was +the abode of all the virtues, many of the nobles, like the Lotophagi, +celebrated in Homer, who detained men by the deliciousness of their +fruit, allured foreigners of free birth by manifold attentions of +courtesy and kindness. + +22. But now, in their empty arrogance, some persons look upon everything +as worthless which is born outside of the walls of the city, except only +the childless and the unmarried. Nor can it be conceived with what a +variety of obsequious observance men without children are courted at +Rome. + +23. And since among them, as is natural in a city so great as to be the +metropolis of the world, diseases attain to such an insurmountable +degree of violence, that all the skill of the physician is ineffectual +even to mitigate them; a certain assistance and means of safety has been +devised, in the rule that no one should go to see a friend in such a +condition, and to a few precautionary measures a further remedy of +sufficient potency has been added, that men should not readmit into +their houses servants who have been sent to inquire how a man's friends +who may have been seized with an illness of this kind are, until they +have cleansed and purified their persons in the bath. So that a taint is +feared, even when it has only been seen with the eyes of another. + +24. But nevertheless, when these rules are observed thus stringently, +some persons, if they be invited to a wedding, though the vigour of +their limbs be much diminished, yet, when gold is offered[10] in the +hollow palm of the right hand, will go actively as far as Spoletum. +These are the customs of the nobles. + +25. But of the lower and most indigent class of the populace some spend +the whole night in the wine shops. Some lie concealed in the shady +arcades of the theatres; which Catulus was in his ædileship the first +person to raise, in imitation of the lascivious manners of Campania, or +else they play at dice so eagerly as to quarrel over them; snuffing up +their nostrils and making unseemly noises by drawing back their breath +into their noses; or (and this is their favourite pursuit of all others) +from sunrise to evening they stay gaping through sunshine or rain, +examining in the most careful manner the most sterling good or bad +qualities of the charioteers and horses. + +26. And it is very wonderful to see an innumerable multitude of people +with great eagerness of mind intent upon the event of the contests in +the chariot race. These pursuits, and others of like character, prevent +anything worth mentioning or important from being done at Rome. +Therefore we must return to our original subject. + + +VII. + +§ 1. His licentiousness having now become more unbounded, the Cæsar +began to be burdensome to all virtuous men; and discarding all +moderation, he harassed every part of the East, sparing neither those +who had received public honours, nor the chief citizens of the different +cities; nor the common people. + +2. At last by one single sentence he ordered all the principal persons +at Antioch to be put to death; being exasperated because when he +recommended that a low price should be established in the market at an +unseasonable time, when the city was threatened with a scarcity, they +answered him with objections, urged with more force than he approved; +and they would all have been put to death to a man, if Honoratus, who +was at that time count of the East, had not resisted him with +pertinacious constancy. + +3. This circumstance was also a proof, and that no doubtful or concealed +one, of the cruelty of his nature, that he took delight in cruel sports, +and in the circus he would rejoice as if he had made some great gain, to +see six or seven gladiators killing one another in combats which have +often been forbidden. + +4. In addition to these things a certain worthless woman inflamed his +purpose of inflicting misery; for she, having obtained admission to the +palace, as she had requested, gave him information that a plot was +secretly laid against him by a few soldiers of the lowest rank. And +Constantina, in her exultation, thinking that her husband's safety was +now fully secured, rewarded and placed this woman, in a carriage, and in +this way sent her out into the public street through the great gate of +the palace, in order, by such a temptation, to allure others also to +give similar or more important information. + +5. After these events, Gallus being about to set out for Hierapolis, in +order, as far as appearance went, to take part in the expedition, the +common people of Antioch entreated him in a suppliant manner to remove +their fear of a famine which for many reasons (some of them difficult to +explain) it was believed was impending; Gallus, however, did not, as is +the custom of princes whose power, by the great extent of country over +which it is diffused, is able continually to remedy local distresses, +order any distribution of food to be made, or any supplies to be brought +from the neighbouring countries; but he pointed out to them a man of +consular rank, named Theophilus, the governor of Syria, who happened to +be standing by, replying to the repeated appeals of the multitude, who +were trembling with apprehensions of the last extremities, that no one +could possibly want food if the governor were not willing that they +should be in want of it. + +6. These words increased the audacity of the lower classes, and when the +scarcity of provisions became more severe, urged by hunger and frenzy, +they set fire to and burnt down the splendid house of a man of the name +of Eubulus, a man of great reputation among his fellow-citizens; and +they attacked the governor himself with blows and kicks as one +especially made over to them by the judgment of the emperor, kicking him +till he was half dead, and then tearing him to pieces in a miserable +manner. And after his wretched death every one saw in the destruction of +this single individual a type of the danger to which he was himself +exposed, and, taught by this recent example, feared a similar fate. + +7. About the same time Serenianus, who had previously been duke[11] of +Phoenicia, to whose inactivity it was owing, as we have already +related, that Celse in Phoenicia was laid waste, was deservedly and +legally accused of treason and no one saw how he could possibly be +acquitted. He was also manifestly proved to have sent an intimate friend +with a cap (with which he used to cover his own head) which had been +enchanted by forbidden acts to the temple of prophecy,[12] on purpose to +ask expressly whether, according to his wish, a firm enjoyment of the +whole empire was portended for him. + +8. And in these days a twofold misfortune occurred: first, that a heavy +penalty had fallen upon Theophilus who was innocent; and, secondly, that +Serenianus who deserved universal execration, was acquitted without the +general feeling being able to offer any effectual remonstrance. + +9. Constantius then hearing from time to time of these transactions, and +having been further informed of some particular occurrences by +Thalassius, who however had now died by the ordinary course of nature, +wrote courteous letters to the Cæsar, but at the same time gradually +withdrew from him his support, pretending to be uneasy, least as the +leisure of soldiers is usually a disorderly time, the troops might be +conspiring to his injury: and he desired him to content himself with the +schools of the Palatine,[13] and with those of the Protectors, with the +Scutarii, and Gentiles. And he ordered Domitianus, who had formerly been +the Superintendent of the Treasury, but who was now promoted to be a +prefect, as soon as he arrived in Syria, to address Gallus in persuasive +and respectful language, exhorting him to repair with all speed to +Italy, to which province the emperor had repeatedly summoned him. + +10. And when, with this object, Domitianus had reached Antioch, having +travelled express, he passed by the gates of the palace, in contempt of +the Cæsar, whom, however, he ought to have visited, and proceeded to the +general's camp with ostentatious pomp, and there pretended to be sick; +he neither visited the palace, nor ever appeared in public, but keeping +himself private, he devised many things to bring about the destruction +of the Cæsar, adding many superfluous circumstances to the relations +which he was continually sending to the emperor. + +11. At last, being expressly invited by the Cæsar, and being admitted +into the prince's council-chamber, without making the slightest preface +he began in this inconsiderate and light-minded manner: "Depart," said +he, "as you have been commanded, O Cæsar, and know this, that if you +make any delay I shall at once order all the provisions allotted for the +support of yourself and your court to be carried away." And then, having +said nothing more than these insolent words, he departed with every +appearance of rage; and would never afterwards come into his sight +though frequently sent for. + +12. The Cæsar being indignant at this, as thinking he had been +unworthily and unjustly treated, ordered his faithful protectors to take +the prefect into custody; and when this became known, Montius, who at +that time was quæstor, a man of deep craft indeed, but still inclined to +moderate measures,[14] taking counsel for the common good, sent for the +principal members of the Palatine schools and addressed them in pacific +words, pointing out that it was neither proper nor expedient that such +things should be done; and adding also in a reproving tone of voice, +that if such conduct as this were approved of, then, after throwing down +the statues of Constantius the prefect would begin to think how he might +also with the greater security take his life also. + +13. When this was known Gallus, like a serpent attacked with stones or +darts, being now reduced to the extremity of despair, and eager to +insure his safety by any possible means, ordered all his troops to be +collected in arms, and when they stood around him in amazement he +gnashed his teeth, and hissing with rage, said,-- + +14. "You are present here as brave men, come to the aid of me who am in +one common danger with you. Montius, with a novel and unprecedented +arrogance, accuses us of rebellion and resistance to the majesty of the +emperor, by roaring out all these charges against us. Being offended +forsooth that, as a matter of precaution, I ordered a contumacious +prefect, who pretended not to know what the state of affairs required, +to be arrested and kept in custody." + +15. On hearing these words the soldiers immediately, being always on the +watch to raise disturbances, first of all attacked Montius, who happened +to be living close at hand, an old man of no great bodily strength, and +enfeebled by disease; and having bound his legs with coarse ropes, they +dragged him straddling, without giving him a moment to take breath, as +far as the general's camp. + +16. And with the same violence they also bound Domitianus, dragging him +head first down the stairs; and then having fastened the two men +together, they dragged them through all the spacious streets of the city +at full speed. And, all their limbs and joints being thus dislocated, +they trampled on their corpses after they were dead, and mutilated them +in the most unseemly manner; and at last, having glutted their rage, +they threw them into the river. + +17. But there was a certain man named Luscus, the governor of the city, +who, suddenly appearing among the soldiers, had inflamed them, always +ready for mischief, to the nefarious actions which they had thus +committed; exciting them with repeated cries, like the musician who +gives the tune to the mourners at funerals, to finish what they had +begun: and for this deed he was, not long after, burnt alive. + +18. And because Montius, when just about to expire under the hands of +those who were tearing him to pieces, repeatedly named Epigonius and +Eusebius, without indicating either their rank or their profession, a +great deal of trouble was taken to find out who they were; and, lest the +search should have time to cool, they sent for a philosopher named +Epigonius, from Lycia, and for Eusebius the orator, surnamed Pittacos, +from Emissa; though they were not those whom Montius had meant, but +some tribunes, superintendents of the manufactures of arms, who had +promised him information if they heard of any revolutionary measures +being agitated. + +19. About the same time Apollinaris, the son-in-law of Domitianus, who a +short time before had been the chief steward of the Cæsar's palace, +being sent to Mesopotamia by his father-in-law, took exceeding pains to +inquire among the soldiers whether they had received any secret +despatches from the Cæsar, indicating his having meditated any deeper +designs than usual. And as soon as he heard of the events which had +taken place at Antioch, he passed through the lesser Armenia and took +the road to Constantinople; but he was seized on his journey by the +Protectors, and brought back to Antioch, and there kept in close +confinement. + +20. And while these things were taking place there was discovered at +Tyre a royal robe, which had been secretly made, though it was quite +uncertain who had placed it where it was, or for whose use it had been +made. And on that account the governor of the province, who was at that +time the father of Apollinaris, and bore the same name, was arrested as +an accomplice in his guilt; and great numbers of other persons were +collected from different cities, who were all involved in serious +accusations. + +21. And now, when the trumpets of internal war and slaughter began to +sound, the turbulent disposition of the Cæsar, indifferent to any +consideration of the truth, began also to break forth, and that not +secretly as before. And without making any solemn investigation into the +truth of the charges brought against the citizens, and without +separating the innocent from the guilty, he discarded all ideas of right +or justice, as if they had been expelled from the seat of judgment. And +while all lawful defence on trials was silent, the torturer, and +plunderer, and the executioner, and every kind of confiscation of +property, raged unrestrained throughout the eastern provinces of the +empire, which I think it now a favourable moment to enumerate, with the +exception of Mesopotamia, which I have already described when I was +relating the Parthian wars; and also with the exception of Egypt, which +I am forced to postpone to another opportunity. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. After passing over the summit of Mount Taurus, which towards the +east rises up to a vast height, Cilicia spreads itself out for a very +great distance--a land rich in all valuable productions. It is bordered +on its right by Isauria, which is equally fertile in vines and in many +kinds of grain. The Calycadnus, a navigable river, flows through the +middle of Isaurus. + +2. This province, besides other towns, is particularly adorned by two +cities, Seleucia, founded by King Seleucus, and Claudiopolis, which the +Emperor Claudius Cæsar established as a colony. For the city of Isauria, +which was formerly too powerful, was in ancient times overthrown as an +incurable and dangerous rebel, and so completely destroyed that it is +not easy to discover any traces of its pristine splendour. + +3. The province of Cilicia, which exults in the river Cydnus, is +ornamented by Tarsus, a city of great magnificence. This city is said to +have been founded by Perseus, the son of Jupiter and Danaë; or else, and +more probably, by a certain emigrant who came from Ethiopia, by name +Sandan, a man of great wealth and of noble birth. It is also adorned by +the city of Anazarbus, which bears the name of its founder; and by +Mopsuestia, the abode of the celebrated seer Mopsus, who wandered from +his comrades the Argonauts when they were returning after having carried +off the Golden Fleece, and strayed to the African coast, where he died a +sudden death. His heroic remains, though covered by Punic turf, have +ever since that time cured a great variety of diseases, and have +generally restored men to sound health. + +4. These two provinces being full of banditti were formerly subdued by +the proconsul Servilius, in a piratical war, and were passed under the +yoke, and made tributary to the empire. These districts being placed, as +it were, on a prominent tongue of land, are cut off from the main +continent by Mount Amanus. + +5. The frontier of the East stretching straight forward for a great +distance, reached from the banks of the river Euphrates to those of the +Nile, being bounded on the left by the tribes of the Saracens and on +the right by the sea. + +6. Nicator Seleucus, after he had occupied that district, increased its +prosperity to a wonderful degree, when, after the death of Alexander, +king of Macedonia, he took possession of the kingdom of Persia by right +of succession; being a mighty and victorious king, as his surname +indicates. And making free use of his numerous subjects, whom he +governed for a long time in tranquillity, he changed groups of rustic +habitations into regular cities, important for their great wealth and +power, the greater part of which at the present day, although they are +called by Greek names which were given them by the choice of their +founder, have nevertheless not lost their original appellations which +the original settlers of the villages gave them in the Assyrian +language. + +7. After Osdroene, which, as I have already said, I intend to omit from +this description, the first province to be mentioned is Commagena, now +called Euphratensis, which has arisen into importance by slow degrees, +and is remarkable for the splendid cities of Hierapolis, the ancient +Ninus, and Samosata. + +8. The next province is Syria, which is spread over a beautiful +champaign country. This province is ennobled by Antioch, a city known +over the whole world, with which no other can vie in respect of its +riches, whether imported or natural: and by Laodicea and Apameia, and +also by Seleucia, all cities which have ever been most prosperous from +their earliest foundation. + +9. After this comes Phoenicia, a province lying under Mount Lebanon, +full of beauty and elegance, and decorated with cities of great size and +splendour, among which Tyre excels all in the beauty of its situation +and in its renown. And next come Sidon and Berytus, and on a par with +them Emissa and Damascus, cities founded in remote ages. + +10. These provinces, which the river Orontes borders, a river which +passes by the foot of the celebrated and lofty mountain Cassius, and at +last falls into the Levant near the Gulf of Issus, were added to the +Roman dominion by Cnæus Pompey, who, after he had conquered Tigranes, +separated them from the kingdom of Armenia. + +11. The last province of the Syrias is Palestine, a district of great +extent, abounding in well-cultivated and beautiful land, and having +several magnificent cities, all of equal importance, and rivalling one +another as it were, in parallel lines. For instance, Cæsarea, which +Herod built in honour of the Prince Octavianus, and Eleutheropolis, and +Neapolis, and also Ascalon, and Gaza, cities built in bygone ages. + +12. In these districts no navigable river is seen: in many places, too, +waters naturally hot rise out of the ground well suited for the cure of +various diseases. These regions also Pompey formed into a Roman province +after he had subdued the Jews and taken Jerusalem: and he made over +their government to a local governor. + +13. Contiguous to Palestine is Arabia, a country which on its other side +joins the Nabathæi--a land full of the most plenteous variety of +merchandize, and studded with strong forts and castles, which the +watchful solicitude of its ancient inhabitants has erected in suitable +defiles, in order to repress the inroads of the neighbouring nations. +This province, too, besides several towns, has some mighty cities, such +as Bostra, Gerasa, and Philadelphia, fortified with very strong walls. +It was the Emperor Trajan who first gave this country the name of a +Roman province, and appointed a governor over it, and compelled it to +obey our laws, after having by repeated victories crushed the arrogance +of the inhabitants, when he was carrying his glorious arms into Media +and Parthia. + +14. There is also the island of Cyprus, not very far from the continent, +and abounding in excellent harbours, which, besides its many municipal +towns, is especially famous for two renowned cities, Salamis and Paphos, +the one celebrated for its temple of Jupiter, the other for its temple +of Venus. This same Cyprus is so fertile, and so abounding in riches of +every kind, that without requiring any external assistance, it can by +its own native resources build a merchant ship from the very foundation +of the keel up to the top sails, and send it to sea fully equipped with +stores. + +15. It is not to be denied that the Roman people invaded this island +with more covetousness than justice. For when Ptolemy, the king, who was +connected with us by treaty, and was also our ally, was without any +fault of his own proscribed, merely on account of the necessities of our +treasury, and slew himself by taking poison, the island was made +tributary to us, and its spoils placed on board our fleet, as if taken +from an enemy, and carried to Rome by Cato. We will now return to the +actions of Constantius in their due order. + + +IX. + +§ 1. Amid all these various disasters, Ursicinus, who was the governor +of Nisibis, an officer to whom the command of the emperor had +particularly attached me as a servant, was summoned from that city, and +in spite of his reluctance, and of the opposition which he made to the +clamorous bands of flatterers, was forced to investigate the origin of +the pernicious strife which had arisen. He was indeed a soldier of great +skill in war, and an approved leader of troops; but a man who had always +kept himself aloof from the strife of the forum. He, alarmed at his own +danger when he saw the corrupt accusers and judges who were associated +with him, all emerging out of the same lurking-places, wrote secret +letters to Constantius informing him of what was going on, both publicly +and in secret; and imploring such assistance as, by striking fear into +Gallus, should somewhat curb his notorious arrogance. + +2. But through excessive caution he had fallen into a worse snare, as we +shall relate hereafter, since his enemies got the opportunity of laying +numerous snares for him, to poison the mind of Constantius against him; +Constantius, in other respects a prince of moderation, was severe and +implacable if any person, however mean and unknown, whispered suspicion +of danger into his ears, and in such matters was wholly unlike himself. + +3. On the day appointed for this fatal examination, the master of the +horse took his seat under the pretence of being the judge; others being +also set as his assessors, who were instructed beforehand what was to be +done: and there were present also notaries on each side of him, who kept +the Cæsar rapidly and continually informed of all the questions which +were put and all the answers which were given; and by his pitiless +orders, urged as he was by the persuasions of the queen, who kept her +ear at the curtain, many were put to death without being permitted to +soften the accusations brought against them, or to say a word in their +own defence. + +4. The first persons who were brought before them were Epigonius and +Eusebius, who were ruined because of the similarity of their names to +those of other people; for we have already mentioned that Montius, when +just at the point of death, had intended to inculpate the tribunes of +manufactures, who were called by these names, as men who had promised to +be his supports in some future enterprise. + +5. Epigonius was only a philosopher as far as his dress went, as was +evident, when, having tried entreaties in vain, his sides having been +torn with blows, and the fear of instant death being presented to him, +he affirmed by a base confession that his companion was privy to his +plans, though in fact he had no plans; nor had he ever seen or heard +anything, being wholly unconnected with forensic affairs. But Eusebius, +confidently denying what he was accused of, continued firm in unshaken +constancy, loudly declaring that it was a band of robbers before whom he +was brought, and not a court of justice. + +6. And when, like a man well acquainted with the law, he demanded that +his accuser should be produced, and claimed the usual rights of a +prisoner; the Cæsar, having heard of his conduct, and looking on his +freedom as pride, ordered him to be put to the torture as an audacious +calumniator; and when Eusebius had been tortured so severely that he had +no longer any limbs left for torments, imploring heaven for justice, and +still smiling disdainfully, he remained immovable, with a firm heart, +not permitting his tongue to accuse himself or any one else. And so at +length, without having either made any confession, or being convicted of +anything, he was condemned to death with the spiritless partner of his +sufferings. He was then led away to death, protesting against the +iniquity of the times; imitating in his conduct the celebrated Stoic of +old, Zeno, who, after he had been long subjected to torture in order to +extract from him some false confession, tore out his tongue by the roots +and threw it, bloody as it was, into the face of the king of Cyprus, who +was examining him. + +7. After these events the affair of the royal robe was examined into. +And when those who were employed in dyeing purple had been put to the +torture, and had confessed that they had woven a short tunic to cover +the chest, without sleeves, a certain person, by name Maras, was brought +in, a deacon, as the Christians call him; letters from whom were +produced, written in the Greek language to the superintendent of the +weaving manufactory at Tyre, which pressed him to have the beautiful +work finished speedily; of which work, however, these letters gave no +further description. And at last this man also was tortured, to the +danger of his life, but could not be made to confess anything. + +8. After the investigation had been carried on with the examination, +under torture of many persons, when some things appeared doubtful, and +others it was plain were of a very unimportant character, and after many +persons had been put to death, the two Apollinares, father and son, were +condemned to banishment; and when they had come to a place which is +called Crateræ, a country house of their own, which is four-and-twenty +miles from Antioch, there, according to the order which had been given, +their legs were broken, and they were put to death. + +9. After their death Gallus was not at all less ferocious than before, +but rather like a lion which has once tasted blood, he made many similar +investigations, all of which it is not worth while to relate, lest I +should exceed the bounds which I have laid down for myself; an error +which is to be avoided. + + +X. + +§ 1. While the East was thus for a long time suffering under these +calamities, at the first approach of open weather, Constantius being in +his seventh consulship, and the Cæsar in his third, the emperor quitted +Arles and went to Valentia, with the intention of making war upon the +brothers Gundomadus and Vadomarius, chiefs of the Allemanni; by whose +repeated inroads the territories of the Gauls, which lay upon their +frontier, were continually laid waste. + +2. And while he was staying in that district, as he did for some time +while waiting for supplies, the importation of which from Aquitania was +prevented by the spring rains which were this year more severe than +usual, so that the rivers were flooded by them, Herculanus arrived, a +principal officer of the guard, son of Hermogenes, who had formerly been +master of the horse at Constantinople, and had been torn to pieces in a +popular tumult as we have mentioned before. And as he brought a faithful +account of what Gallus had done, the emperor, sorrowing over the +miseries that were passed, and full of anxious fear for the future, for +a time stilled the grief of his mind as well as he could. + +3. But in the mean time all the soldiery being assembled at +Cabillon,[15] began to be impatient of delay, and to get furious, being +so much the more exasperated because they had not sufficient means of +living, the usual supplies not yet having arrived. + +4. And in consequence of this state of things, Rufinus, at that time +prefect of the camp, was exposed to the most imminent danger. For he +himself was compelled to go among the soldiers, whose natural ferocity +was inflamed by their want of food, and who on other occasions are by +nature generally inclined to be savage and bitter against men of civil +dignities. He was compelled, I say, to go among them to appease them and +explain on what account the arrival of their corn was delayed. + +5. And the task thus imposed on him was very cunningly contrived, in +order that he, the uncle of Gallus, might perish in the snare; lest he, +being a man of great power and energy, should rouse his nephew to +confidence, and lead him to undertake enterprises which might be +mischievous. Great caution, however, was used to escape this; and, when +the danger was got rid of for a while, Eusebius, the high chamberlain, +was sent to Cabillon with a large sum of money, which he distributed +secretly among the chief leaders of sedition: and so the turbulent and +arrogant disposition of the soldiers was pacified, and the safety of the +prefect secured. Afterwards food having arrived in abundance the camp +was struck on the day appointed. + +6. After great difficulties had been surmounted, many of the roads +being buried in snow, the army came near to Rauracum[16] on the banks of +the Rhine, where the multitude of the Allemanni offered great +resistance, so that by their fierceness the Romans were prevented from +fixing their bridge of boats, darts being poured upon them from all +sides like hail; and, when it seemed impossible to succeed in that +attempt, the emperor being taken by surprise, and full of anxious +thoughts, began to consider what to do. + +7. When suddenly a guide well acquainted with the country arrived, and +for a reward pointed out a ford by night, where the river could be +crossed; and the army crossing at that point, while the enemy had their +attention directed elsewhere, might without any one expecting such a +step, have and waste the whole country, if a few men of the same nation +to whom the higher posts in the Roman army were intrusted had not (as +some people believe) informed their fellow-countrymen of the design by +secret messengers. + +8. The disgrace of this suspicion fell chiefly on Latinus, a commander +of the domestic guard, and on Agilo, an equerry, and on Scudilo, the +commander of the Scutarii, men who at that time were looked up to as +those who supported the republic with their right hands. + +9. But the barbarians, though taking instant counsel on such an +emergency, yet either because the auspices turned out unfavourable, or +because the authority of the sacrifices prohibited an instant +engagement, abated their energy, and the confidence with which they had +hitherto resisted; and sent some of their chiefs to beg pardon for their +offences, and sue for peace. + +10. Therefore, having detained for some time the envoys of both the +kings, and having long deliberated over the affair in secret, the +emperor, when he had decided that it was expedient to grant peace on the +terms proposed, summoned his army to an assembly with the intention of +making them a short speech, and mounting the tribunal, surrounded with a +staff of officers of high rank, spoke in the following manner: + +11. "I hope no one will wonder, after the long and toilsome marches we +have made, and the vast supplies and magazines which have been provided, +from the confidence which I felt in you, that now although we are close +to the villages of the barbarians, I have, as if I had suddenly changed +my plans, adopted more peaceful counsels. + +12. "For if every one of you, having regard to his own position and his +own feelings, considers the case, he will find this to be the truth: +that the individual soldier in all cases, however strong and vigorous he +may be, regards and defends nothing but himself and his own life; while +the general, looking on all with impartiality as the guardian of their +general safety, is aware that the common interest of the people cannot +be separated from his own safety; and he is bound to seize with alacrity +every remedy of which the condition of affairs admits, as being put into +his hand by the favour of the gods. + +13. "That therefore I may in a few words set before you and explain on +what account I wished all of you, my most faithful comrades, to assemble +here, I entreat you to listen attentively to what I will state with all +the brevity possible. For the language of truth is always concise and +simple. + +14. "The kings and people of the Allemanni, viewing with apprehension +the lofty steps of your glory (which fame, increasing in magnificence, +has diffused throughout the most distant countries), now by their +ambassadors humbly implore pardon for their past offences, and peace. +And this indulgence I, as a cautious and prudent adviser of what is +useful, think expedient to grant them, if your consent be not wanting: +being led to this opinion by many considerations, in the first place +that so we may avoid the doubtful issues of war; in the second place, +that instead of enemies we may have allies, as they promise we shall +find them; further, that without bloodshed we may pacify their haughty +ferocity, a feeling which is often mischievous in our provinces; and +last of all, recollecting that the man who falls in battle, overwhelmed +by superior weapons or strength, is not the only enemy who has to be +subdued; and that with much greater safety to the state, even while the +trumpet of war is silent, he is subdued who makes voluntary submission, +having learnt by experience that we lack neither courage against rebels, +nor mercy towards suppliants. + +15. "To sum up, making you as it were the arbitrators, I wait to see +what you determine: having no doubt myself, as an emperor always +desirous of peace, that it is best to employ moderation while prosperity +descends upon us. For, believe me, this conduct which I recommend, and +which is wisely chosen, will not be imputed to want of courage on your +part, but to your moderation and humanity." + +16. As soon as he had finished speaking, the whole assembly being ready +to agree to what the emperor desired, and praising his advice, gave +their votes for peace; being principally influenced by this +consideration, that they had already learnt by frequent expeditions that +the fortune of the emperor was only propitious in times of civil +troubles; but that when foreign wars were undertaken they had often +proved disastrous. On this, therefore, a treaty being made according to +the customs of the Allemanni, and all the solemnities being completed, +the emperor retired to Milan for the winter. + + +XI. + +§ 1. At Milan, having discarded the weight of other cares, the emperor +took into his consideration that most difficult gordian knot, how by a +mighty effort to uproot the Cæsar. And while he was deliberating on this +matter with his friends in secret conference by night, and considering +what force, and what contrivances might be employed for the purpose, +before Gallus in his audacity should more resolutely set himself to +plunging affairs into confusion, it seemed best that Gallus should be +invited by civil letters, under pretence of some public affairs of an +urgent nature requiring his advice, so that, being deprived of all +support, he might be put to death without any hindrance. + +2. But as several knots of light-minded flatterers opposed this opinion, +among whom was Arbetio, a man of keen wit and always inclined to +treachery, and Eusebius, a man always disposed to mischief, at that time +the principal chamberlain, they suggested that if the Cæsar were to quit +those countries it would be dangerous to leave Ursicinus in the East, +with no one to check his designs, if he should cherish ambitious +notions. + +3. And these counsels were supported by the rest of the royal eunuchs, +whose avarice and covetousness at that period had risen to excess. These +men, while performing their private duties about the court, by secret +whispers supplied food for false accusations; and by raising bitter +suspicions of Ursicinus, ruined a most gallant man, creating by +underhand means a belief that his grown-up sons began to aim at supreme +power; intimating that they were youths in the flower of their age and +of admirable personal beauty, skilful in the use of every kind of +weapon, well trained in all athletic and military exercises, and +favourably known for prudence and wisdom. They insinuated also that +Gallus himself, being by nature fierce and unmanageable, had been +excited to acts of additional cruelty and ferocity by persons placed +about him for that purpose, to the end that, when he had brought upon +himself universal detestation, the ensigns of power might be transferred +to the children of the master of the horse. + +4. When these and similar suspicions were poured into the ears of +Constantius, which were always open to reports of this kind, the +emperor, revolving different plans in his mind, at last chose the +following as the most advisable course. He commanded Ursicinus in a most +complimentary manner to come to him, on the pretence that the urgent +state of certain affairs required to be arranged by the aid of his +counsel and concurrence, and that he had need of such additional support +in order to crush the power of the Parthian tribes, who were threatening +war. + +5. And that he who was thus invited might not suspect anything +unfriendly, the Count Prosper was sent to act as his deputy till he +returned. Accordingly, when Ursicinus had received the letters, and had +obtained a sufficient supply of carriages, and means of travelling, +we[17] hastened to Milan with all speed. + +6. The next thing was to contrive to summon the Cæsar, and to induce him +to make the like haste. And to remove all suspicion in his mind, +Constantius used many hypocritical endearments to persuade his own +sister, Gallus's wife, whom he pretended he had long been wishing to +see, to accompany him. And although she hesitated from fear of her +brother's habitual cruelty, yet, from a hope that, as he was her +brother, she might be able to pacify him, she set out; but when she +reached Bithynia, at the station named Cæni Gallici, she was seized with +a sudden fever and died. And after her death, her husband, considering +that he had lost his greatest security and the chief support on which he +relied, hesitated, taking anxious thought what he should do. + +7. For amid the multiplicity of embarrassing affairs which distracted +his attention, this point especially filled his mind with apprehension, +that Constantius, determining everything according to his own sole +judgment, was not a man to admit of any excuse, or to pardon any error; +but being, as he was, more inclined to severity towards his kinsmen than +towards others, would be sure to put him to death if he could get him +into his power. + +8. Being therefore in this critical situation, and feeling that he had +to expect the worst unless he took vigilant care, he embraced the idea +of seizing on the supreme power if he could find any opportunity: but +for two reasons he distrusted the good faith of his most intimate +councillors; both because they dreaded him as at once cruel and fickle, +and also because amid civil dissensions they looked with awe upon the +loftier fortune of Constantius. + +9. While perplexed with these vast and weighty anxieties he received +continual letters from the emperor, advising and entreating him to come +to him; and giving him hints that the republic neither could nor ought +to be divided; but that every one was bound to the utmost of his power +to bring aid to it when it was tottering; alluding in this to the +devastations of the Gauls. + +10. And to this suggestion he added an example of no great antiquity, +that in the time of Diocletian and his colleague,[18] the Cæsars obeyed +them as their officers, not remaining stationary, but hastening to +execute their orders in every direction. And that even Galerius went in +his purple robe on foot for nearly a mile before the chariot of +Augustus[19] when he was offended with him. + +11. After many other messengers had been despatched to him, Scudilo the +tribune of the Scutarii arrived, a very cunning master of persuasion +under the cloak of a rude, blunt disposition. He, by mixing flattering +language with his serious conversation, induced him to proceed, when no +one else could do so, continually assuring him, with a hypocritical +countenance, that his cousin was extremely desirous to see him; that, +like a clement and merciful prince, he would pardon whatever errors had +been committed through thoughtlessness; that he would make him a partner +in his own royal rank, and take him for his associate in those toils +which the northern provinces, long in a disturbed state, imposed upon +him. + +12. And as when the Fates lay their hand upon a man his senses are wont +to be blunted and dimmed, so Gallus, being led on by these alluring +persuasions to the expectation of a better fortune, quitted Antioch +under the guidance of an unfriendly star, and hurried, as the old +proverb has it, out of the smoke into the flame;[20] and having arrived +at Constantinople as if in great prosperity and security, at the +celebration of the equestrian games, he with his own hand placed the +crown on the head of the charioteer Corax, when he obtained the victory. + +13. When Constantius heard this he became exasperated beyond all bounds +of moderation; and lest by any chance Gallus, feeling uncertain of the +future, should attempt to consult his safety by flight, all the +garrisons stationed in the towns which lay in his road were carefully +removed. + +14. And at the same time Taurus, who was sent as quæstor into Armenia, +passed by without visiting or seeing him. Some persons, however, by the +command of the emperor, arrived under the pretence of one duty or +another, in order to take care that he should not be able to move, or +make any secret attempt of any kind. Among whom was Leontius, afterwards +prefect of the city, who was sent as quæstor; and Lucillianus, as count +of the domestic guards, and a tribune of the Scutarii named Bainobaudes. + +15. Therefore after a long journey through the level country, when he +had reached Hadrianopolis, a city in the district of Mount Hæmus, which +had been formerly called Uscudama, where he stayed twelve days to +recover from his fatigue, he found that the Theban legions, who were in +winter quarters in the neighbouring towns of those parts, had sent some +of their comrades to exhort him by trustworthy and sure promises to +remain there relying upon them, since they were posted in great force +among the neighbouring stations; but those about him watched him with +such diligent care that he could get no opportunity of seeing them, or +of hearing their message. + +16. Then, as letter after letter from the emperor urged him to quit that +city, he took ten public carriages, as he was desired to do, and leaving +behind him all his retinue, except a few of his chamberlains and +domestic officers, whom he had brought with him, he was in this poor +manner compelled to hasten his journey, his guards forcing him to use +all speed; while he from time to time, with many regrets, bewailed the +rashness which had placed him in a mean and despised condition at the +mercy of men of the lowest class. + +17. And amid all these circumstances, in moments when exhausted nature +sought repose in sleep, his senses were kept in a state of agitation by +dreadful spectres making unseemly noises about him; and crowds of those +whom he had slain, led on by Domitianus and Montius, seemed to seize and +torture him with all the torments of the Furies. + +18. For the mind, when freed by sleep from its connection with the body, +is nevertheless active, and being full of the thoughts and anxieties of +mortal pursuits, engenders mighty visions which we call phantoms. + +19. Therefore his melancholy fate, by which it was destined he should be +deprived of empire and life, leading the way, he proceeded on his +journey by continual relays of horses, till he arrived at Petobio,[21] a +town in Noricum. Here all disguise was thrown off, and the Count +Barbatio suddenly made his appearance, with Apodemius, the secretary for +the provinces, and an escort of soldiers whom the emperor had picked out +as men bound to him by especial favours, feeling sure that they could +not be turned from their obedience either by bribes or pity. + +20. And now the affair was conducted to its conclusion without further +disguise or deceit, and the whole portion of the palace which is outside +the walls was surrounded by armed men. Barbatio, entering the palace +before daybreak, stripped the Cæsar of his royal robes, and clothed him +with a tunic and an ordinary soldier's garment, assuring him with many +protestations, as if by the especial command of the emperor, that he +should be exposed to no further suffering; and then said to him, "Stand +up at once." And having suddenly placed him in a private carriage, he +conducted him into Istria, near to the town of Pola, where it is +reported that Crispus, the son of Constantine, was formerly put to +death. + +21. And while he was there kept in strict confinement, being already +terrified with apprehensions of his approaching destruction, Eusebius, +at that time the high chamberlain, arrived in haste, and with him +Pentadius the secretary, and Mallobaudes the tribune of the guard, who +had the emperor's orders to compel him to explain, case by case, on what +accounts he had ordered each of the individuals whom he had executed at +Antioch to be put to death. + +22. He being struck with a paleness like that of Adrastus[22] at these +questions, was only able to reply that he had put most of them to death +at the instigation of his wife Constantina; being forsooth ignorant that +when the mother of Alexander the Great urged him to put to death some +one who was innocent, and in the hope of prevailing with him, repeated +to him over and over again that she had borne him nine months in her +womb, and was his mother, that emperor made her this prudent answer, "My +excellent mother, ask for some other reward; for the life of a man +cannot be put in the balance with any kind of service." + +23. When this was known, the emperor, giving way to unchangeable +indignation and anger, saw that his only hope of establishing security +firmly lay in putting the Cæsar to death. And having sent Serenianus, +whom we have already spoken of as having been accused of treason, but +acquitted by intrigue, and Pentadius the secretary, and Apodemius the +secretary for the provinces, he commanded that they should put him to +death. And accordingly his hands were bound like those of some +convicted thief, and he was beheaded, and his carcass, which but a +little while ago had been the object of dread to cities and provinces, +deprived of head and defaced: it was then left on the ground. + +24. In this the supervision of the supreme Deity manifested itself to be +everywhere vigilant. For not only did the cruelties of Gallus bring +about his own destruction, but they also who, by their pernicious +flattery and instigation, and charges supported by perjury, had led him +to the perpetration of many murders, not long afterwards died miserably. +Scudilo, being afflicted with a liver complaint which penetrated to his +lungs, died vomiting; while Barbatio, who had long busied himself in +inventing false accusations against Gallus, was accused by secret +information of aiming at some post higher than his command of infantry, +and being condemned, though unjustly, was put to death, and so by his +melancholy end made atonement to the shade of the Cæsar. + +25. These, and innumerable other actions of the same kind, Adrastea, who +is also called Nemesis, the avenger of wicked and the rewarder of good +deeds, is continually bringing to pass: would that she could always do +so! She is a kind of sublime agent of the powerful Deity, dwelling, +according to common belief, above the human circle; or, as others define +her, she is a substantial protection, presiding over the particular +destinies of individuals, and feigned by the ancient theologians to be +the daughter of Justice, looking down from a certain inscrutable +eternity upon all terrestrial and mundane affairs. + +26. She, as queen of all causes of events, and arbitress and umpire in +all affairs of life, regulates the urn which contains the lots of men, +and directs the alternations of fortune which we behold in the world, +frequently bringing our undertakings to an issue different from what we +intended, and involving and changing great numbers of actions. She also, +binding the vainly swelling pride of mankind by the indissoluble fetters +of necessity, and swaying the inclination of progress and decay +according to her will, sometimes bows down and enfeebles the stiff neck +of arrogance, and sometimes raises virtuous men from the lowest depth, +leading them to a prosperous and happy life. And it is on this account +that the fables of antiquity have represented her with wings, that she +may be supposed to be present at all events with prompt celerity. And +they have also placed a rudder in her hand and given her a wheel under +her feet, that mankind may be aware that she governs the universe, +running at will through all the elements.[23] + +27. In this untimely manner did the Cæsar, being himself also already +weary of life, die, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, having reigned +four years. He was born in the country of the Etrurians, in the district +of Veternum,[24] being the son of Constantius, the brother of the +Emperor Constantine; his mother was Galla, the sister of Rufinus and +Cerealis, men who had been ennobled by the offices of consul and +prefect. + +28. He was a man of splendid stature and great beauty of person and +figure, with soft hair of a golden colour, his newly sprouting beard +covering his cheeks with a tender down, and in spite of his youth his +countenance showed dignity and authority. He differed as much from the +temperate habits of his brother Julian, as the sons of Vespasian, +Domitian and Titus, differed from each other. + +29. After he had been taken by the emperor as his colleague, and raised +to the highest eminence of power, he experienced the fickle +changeableness of fortune which mocks mortality, sometimes raising +individuals to the stars, at others sinking them to the lowest depths +of hell. + +30. And though the examples of such vicissitudes are beyond number, +nevertheless I will only enumerable a few in a cursory manner. This +changeable and fickle fortune made Agathocles, the Sicilian, a king from +being a potter, and reduced Dionysius, formerly the terror of all +nations, to be the master of a grammar school. This same fortune +emboldened Andriscus of Adramyttium, who had been born in a fuller's +shop, to assume the name of Philip, and compelled the legitimate son of +Perseus[25] to descend to the trade of a blacksmith to obtain a +livelihood. Again, fortune surrendered Mancinus[26] to the people of +Numantia, after he had enjoyed the supreme command, exposed Veturius[27] +to the cruelty of the Samnites, Claudius[28] to that of the Corsicans, +and made Regulus[29] a victim to the ferocity of the Carthaginians. +Through the injustice of fortune, Pompey,[30] after he had acquired the +surname of the Great by the grandeur of his exploits, was murdered in +Ægypt at the pleasure of some eunuchs, while a fellow named Eunus, a +slave who had escaped from a house of correction, commanded an army of +runaway slaves in Sicily. How many men of the highest birth, through the +connivance of this same fortune, submitted to the authority of Viriathus +and of Spartacus![31] How many heads at which nations once trembled have +fallen under the deadly hand of the executioner! One man is thrown into +prison, another is promoted to unexpected power, a third is hurled down +from the highest rank and dignity. But he who would endeavour to +enumerate all the various and frequent instances of the caprice of +fortune, might as well undertake to number the sands or ascertain the +weight of mountains. + + +[1] Gallus and his brother Julian were the nephews of the great +Constantine, sons of his brother Julius. When Constantius, who succeeded +Constantine on the throne, murdered his uncles and most of his cousins, +he spared these two, probably on account of their tender age. + +[2] Hannibalianus was another nephew of Constantine. That emperor raised +his own three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans, to the +dignity of Cæsar; and of his two favourite nephews, Dalmacius and +Hannibalianus, he raised the first, by the title of Cæsar, to an +equality with his cousins; "in favour of the latter he invented the new +and singular appellation of Fortitissimus, to which he annexed the +flattering distinction of a robe of purple and gold. But of the whole +series of Roman princes in any age of the empire Hannibalianus alone was +distinguished by the title of _king_, a name which the subjects of +Tiberius would have detested as the profane and cruel insult of +capricious tyranny."--Gibbon, cxviii. The editor of Bohn's edition adds +in a note: "The title given to Hannibalianus did not apply to him as a +_Roman_ prince, but as king of a territory assigned to him in Asia. This +territory consisted of Pontus, Cappadocia, and the lesser Armenia, the +city of Cæsarea being chosen for his residence."--Gibbon, Bohn's +edition, vol. ii. pp. 256, 257. + +[3] "There was among the commanders of the soldiery one prefect who was +especially entitled Præsens, or Præsentalis, because his office was to +be always in the court or about the person of the prince, and because +the emperor's body-guard was under his particular orders."--H. Valesius. + +[4] The passage is found in Cicero's Oration pro Cluentio, c. 25. + +[5] Sciron was a pirate slain by Theseus, v. Ov. Metam. vii. 44 and the +Epistle of Ariadne to Theseus. + + "Cum fuerit Sciron lectus, torvusque Procrustes." + +[6] His victory over Magnentius, whom he defeated at Mursa, on the +Doave, in the year 351. Magnentius fled to Aquileia, but was pursued, +and again defeated the next year, at a place called Mons Seleuci, in the +neighbourhood of Gap, and threw himself on his own sword to avoid +falling into the hands of Constantius. + +[7] Hesiod. Ammianus refers to the passage in Hesiod's Op. et Dies, 289, +beginning--τῆς δ’ ἀρεῆς ίδρῶτα θεοὶ προπάροιθεν ἔθησαν. + +[8] A nomenclator was a slave who attended a great noble in his walk +through the city to remind him of the names of those whom he met. See +Cicero pro Muræna, c. 36. + +[9] The name of a slave in the Eunuch, of Terence, who says, act. iv sc. +8--Sannio alone stays at home. + +[10] It was customary on such solemnities, as also on the occasion of +assuming the toga virilis, or entering on any important magistracy, to +make small presents of money to the guests who were invited to celebrate +the occasion. Cf. Plin. Epist. x. 117. + +[11] The Latin is Dux. It is about this period that the title Duke and +Count, which we have already had, arose, indicating however at first not +territorial possessions, but military commands; and it is worth noticing +that the rank of Count was the higher of the two. + +[12] Constantine, on his conversion to Christianity, had issued an edict +forbidding the consultation of oracles; but the practice was not wholly +abandoned till the time of Theodosius. + +[13] Schools was the name given at Rome to buildings where men were wont +to meet for any purpose, whether of study, of traffic, or of the +practice of any art. The schools of the Palatine were the station of the +cohorts of the guard. The "Protectors or Guards" were a body of soldiers +of higher rank, receiving also higher pay; called also "Domestici or +household troops," as especially set apart for the protection of the +imperial palace and person. The "Scutarii" (shield-bearers) belonged to +the Palatine schools; and the Gentiles were troops enlisted from among +those nations which were still accounted barbarous. + +[14] Gibbon here proposes for le_n_itatem to read le_v_itatem, +fickleness; himself describing Montius as "a statesman whose art and +experience were frequently betrayed by the levity of his +disposition."--Cap. xix., p. 298, vol. iii., Bohn's edition. + +[15] Châlons sur Saône. + +[16] Near Basle. + +[17] It will be observed that Ammianus here speaks of himself as in +attendance upon Ursicinus. + +[18] Maximianus Herculius. + +[19] Diocletian. + +[20] As we say, Out of the frying-pan into the fire. + +[21] The town of Pettau, on the Drave. + +[22] A paleness such as overspread the countenance of Adrastus when he +saw his two sons-in-law, Pydeus and Polynices, slain at Thebes. Virgil +speaks of Adrasti pallentis imago, Æn. vi. 480. + +[23] Ammianus here confounds Nemesis with Fortuna. Compare Horace's +description of the latter goddess, Lib. i. Od. 34:-- + + " ... Valet ima summis + Mutare, et insignia attenuat deus + Obscura promens: hinc apicem rapax + Fortuna cum stridore acuto + Sustulit; hic posuisse gaudet." + +Or, as it is translated by Dr. Francis:-- + + "The hand of Jove can crush the proud + Down to the meanness of the crowd: + And raise the lowest in his stead: + But rapid Fortune pulls him down, + And snatches his imperial crown, + To place, not _fix_ it, on another's head." + +[24] Near the modern city of Sienna. + +[25] See Plutarch's Life of Æmilius, c. 37. The name of the young prince +was Alexander. + +[26] Called also Hostilius; cf. Vell. Paterc. ii. 1. + +[27] Cf. Liv. ix. c. x.; Cicero de Officiis, iii. 30. + +[28] Cf. Val. Max. vi. 3. + +[29] Cf. Horace, Od. iv. ult.; Florus, ii. 1. The story of the cruelties +inflicted on Regulus is now, however, generally disbelieved. + +[30] The fate of Pompey served also as an instance to Juvenal in his +satire on the vanity of human wishes. + + Provida Pompeio diderat Campania febres + Optandas, sed multæ urbes et publica vota + Vicerunt; igitur Fortuna ipsius et urbis + Servatum victo caput abstulit. + +Sat. X. 283, &c. + +[31] Spartacus was the celebrated leader of the slaves in the Servile +War. + + + + +BOOK XV. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. The death of the Cæsar Gallus is announced to the emperor.--II. + Ursicinus, the commander of the cavalry in the East; Julian, the + brother of the Cæsar Gallus; and Gorgonius, the high chamberlain, + are accused of treason.--III. The adherents and servants of the + Cæsar Gallus are punished.--IV. The Allemanni of the district of + Lintz are defeated by the Emperor Constantius with great loss.--V. + Silvanus, a Frank, the commander of the infantry in Gaul, is + saluted as emperor at Cologne; and on the twenty-eighth day of his + reign is destroyed by stratagem.--VI. The friends and adherents of + Silvanus are put to death.--VII. Seditions of the Roman people are + repressed by Leontius, the prefect of the city; Liberius, the + bishop, is driven from his see.--VIII. Julian, the brother of + Gallus, is created Cæsar by the Emperor Constantius, his uncle; and + is appointed to command.--IX. On the origin of the Gauls, and from + whence they derive the names of Celts and Gauls; and of their + treaties.--X. Of the Gallic Alps, and of the various passes over + them.--XI. A brief description of Gaul, and of the course of the + River Rhone.--XII. Of the manners of the Gauls.--XIII. Of + Musonianus, prefect of the Prætorium in the East. + + +I. + +A.D. 354. + +§ 1. Having investigated the truth to the best of our power we have +hitherto related all the transactions which either our age permitted us +to witness, or which we could learn from careful examination of those +who were concerned in them, in the order in which the several events +took place. The remaining facts, which the succeeding books will set +forth, we will, as far as our talent permits, explain with the greatest +accuracy, without fearing those who may be inclined to cavil at our work +as too long; for brevity is only to be praised when, while it puts an +end to unseasonable delays, it suppresses nothing which is well +authenticated. + +2. Gallus had hardly breathed his last in Noricum, when Apodemius, who +as long as he lived had been a fiery instigator of disturbances, caught +up his shoes and carried them off, journeying, with frequent relays of +horses, so rapidly as even to kill some of them by excess of speed, and +so brought the first news of what had occurred to Milan. And having made +his way into the palace, he threw down the shoes before the feet of +Constantius, as if he were bringing the spoils of a king of the +Parthians who had been slain. And when this sudden news arrived that an +affair so unexpected and difficult had been executed with entire +facility in complete accordance with the wish of the emperor, the +principal courtiers, according to their custom, exerting all their zeal +in the path of flattery, extolled to the skies the virtue and good +fortune of the emperor, at whose nod, as if they had been mere common +soldiers, two princes had thus been deprived of their power, namely, +Veteranio and Gallus. + +3. And Constantius being exceedingly elated at the exquisite taste of +this adulation, and thinking that he himself for the future should be +free from all the ordinary inconveniences of mortality, now began to +depart from the path of justice so evidently that he even at times laid +claim to immortality; and in writing letters with his own hand, would +style himself lord of the whole world; a thing which, if others had +said, any one ought to have been indignant at, who laboured with proper +diligence to form his life and habits in emulation of the constitutional +princes who had preceded him, as he professed to do. + +4. For even if he had under his power the infinities of worlds fancied +by Democritus, as Alexander the Great, under the promptings of +Anaxarchus, did fancy, yet either by reading, or by hearing others +speak, he might have considered that (as mathematicians unanimously +agree) the circumference of the whole earth, immense as it seems to us, +is nevertheless not bigger than a pin's point as compared with the +greatness of the universe. + + +II. + +§ 1. And now, after the pitiable death of the Cæsar, the trumpet of +judicial dangers sounded the alarm, and Ursicinus was impeached of +treason, envy gaining more and more strength every day to attack his +safety; envy which is inimical to all powerful men. + +2. For he was overcome by this difficulty, that, while the ears of the +emperor were shut against all defences which were reasonable and easy of +proof, they were open to all the secret whispers of calumniators, who +pretended that his name was almost disused among all the districts of +the East, and that Ursicinus was urged by them both privately and +publicly to be their commander, as one who could be formidable to the +Persian nation. + +3. But this magnanimous man stood his ground immovably against whatever +might happen, only taking care not to throw himself away in an abject +manner, and grieving from his heart that innocence had no safe +foundation on which to stand. And the more sad also for this +consideration, that before these events took place many of his friends +had gone over to other more powerful persons, as in cases of official +dignity the lictors go over to the successors of former officers. + +4. His colleague Arbetio was attacking him by cajoling words of feigned +good-will, often publicly speaking of him as a virtuous and brave man; +Arbetio being a man of great cunning in laying snares for men of simple +life, and one who at that season enjoyed too much power. For as a +serpent that has its hole underground and hidden from the sight of man +observes the different passers-by, and attacks whom it will with a +sudden spring, so this man, having been raised from being a common +soldier of the lowest class to the highest military dignities, without +having received any injury or any provocation, polluted his conscience +from an insatiable desire of doing mischief. + +5. Therefore, having a few partners in his secrets for accomplices, he +had secretly arranged with the emperor when he asked his opinion, that +on the next night Ursicinus should be seized and carried away from the +sight of the soldiers, and so be put to death uncondemned, just as +formerly Domitius Corbulo, that faithful and wise defender of our +provinces, is said to have been slain in the miserable period of Nero's +cruelty. + +6. And after the matter had been thus arranged, while the men destined +for the service of seizing Ursicinus were waiting for the appointed +time, the emperor's mind changed to mercy, and so this impious deed was +put off for further consideration. + +7. Then the engine of calumny was directed against Julian, who had +lately been brought to court; a prince who afterwards became memorable, +but who was now attacked with a twofold accusation, as the iniquity of +his enemies thought requisite. First, that he had gone from the Park of +Macellum, which lies in Cappadocia, into Asia, from a desire of +acquiring polite learning. Secondly, that he had seen his brother as he +passed through Constantinople. + +8. And when he had explained away the charges thus brought against him, +and had proved that he had not done either of these things without being +ordered, he would still have perished through the intrigues of the +abandoned court of flatterers, if he had not been saved by the favour of +the supreme Deity, with the assistance of Queen Eusebia. By her +intercession he obtained leave to be conducted to the town of Como, in +the neighbourhood of Milan; and after he had remained there a short time +he was permitted to go to Greece for the purpose of cultivating his +literary tastes, as he was very eager to do. + +9. Nor were there wanting other incidents arising out of these +occurrences, which might be looked upon as events under the direction of +Providence, as some of them were rightly punished, while others failed +of their design, proving vain and ineffective. But it occasionally +happened that rich men, relying on the protection of those in office, +and clinging to them as the ivy clings to lofty trees, bought acquittals +at immense prices; and that poor men who had little or no means of +purchasing safety were condemned out of hand. And therefore truth was +overshadowed by falsehood, and sometimes falsehood obtained the +authority of truth. + +10. In these days Gorgonius also was summoned to court, the man who had +been the Cæsar's principal chamberlain. And though it was made plain by +his own confession that he had been a partner in his undertakings, and +sometimes a chief instigator of them, yet through the conspiracy of the +eunuchs justice was overpowered by dexterously arranged falsehoods, and +he was acquitted and so escaped the danger. + + +III. + +§ 1. While these events were taking place at Milan, battalions of +soldiers were brought from the East to Aquileia, with a number of +members of the court, who, being broken in spirit, while their limbs +were enfeebled by the weight of their chains, cursed the protraction of +their lives which were surrounded with every variety of misery. For they +were accused of having been the ministers of the ferocity of Gallus, and +it was believed to be owing to them that Domitian had been torn to +pieces, and that Montius and others had been brought to destruction. + +2. Arboreus, and Eusebius, at that time high chamberlain, both men of +insane arrogance, and equally unjust and cruel, were appointed to try +these men. And they, without any careful examination, or making any +distinction between the innocent and the guilty, condemned some to +scourgings, others to torture and exile, some they adjudged to serve in +the lowest ranks of the army, and the rest they condemned to death. And +when they had thus filled the sepulchres with dead bodies, they returned +as if in triumph, and brought an account of their exploits to the +emperor, who was notoriously severe and implacable against all offences +of the kind. + +3. After this, throughout the rest of his reign, Constantius, as if +resolved to reverse the prescribed arrangement of the Fates, behaved +with greater violence than ever, and opened his heart to numbers of +designing plotters. And owing to this conduct, many men arose who +watched for all kinds of reports, at first attacking, as with the +appetite of wild beasts, those in the enjoyment of the highest honours +and rank, and afterwards both poor and rich indiscriminately. Not like +those Cibyratæ in the time of Verres,[32] fawning on the tribunal of a +single lieutenant, but harassing the limbs of the whole republic by +means of all the evils that arose anywhere. + +4. Among these men Paulus and Mercurius were especially conspicuous, the +first a Dacian born, the latter a Persian. Mercurius was a notary, and +Paulus had been promoted from being a steward of the emperor's table to +a receivership in the provinces. Paulus, as I have already mentioned, +had been nicknamed The Chain, because in weaving knots of calumnies he +was invincible, scattering around foul poisons and destroying people by +various means, as some skilful wrestlers are wont in their contests to +catch hold of their antagonists by the heel. + +5. Mercurius was nicknamed Count of Dreams, because (as a dog fond of +biting secretly fawns and wags his tail while full of inward spite) he +forced his way into feasts and companies, and if any one in his sleep +(when nature roves about with an extraordinary degree of freedom) +communicated to a friend that he had seen anything, exaggerated it, +colouring it for the most part with envenomed arts, and bore it to the +open ears of the emperor. And for such speeches men were attacked with +formidable accusations, as if they had committed inexpiable crimes. + +6. The news of these events having got abroad, men were so cautious of +even relating nocturnal dreams, that, in the presence of a stranger, +they would scarcely confess they had slept at all. And some accomplished +men lamented that they had not been born in the country of Mount +Atlas,[33] where it is said that dreams never occur, though what the +cause of such a fact is, we must leave to those who are learned in such +matters to decide. + +7. Amid all these terrible investigations and punishments, another +disaster took place in Illyricum, which from some empty words involved +many in danger. At an entertainment given by Africanus, the governor of +the second Pannonia, at Sirmium, some men having drunk rather too much, +and thinking there was no witness of their proceedings, spoke freely of +the existing imperial government, accusing it as most vexatious to the +people. And some of them expressed a hope that a change, such as was +wished for by all, might be at hand, affirming that this was portended +by omens, while some, with incredible rashness, affirmed that the +auguries of their ancestral house promised the same thing. + +8. Among those present at the banquet was Gaudentius, one of the +secretaries, a stupid man, and of a hasty disposition. And he looking +upon the matter as serious, reported it to Rufinus, who was at that time +the chief commander of the guard of the prætorian prefecture, a man +always eager for the most cruel measures, and infamous for every kind of +wickedness. + +9. He immediately, as if borne on wings, flew to the court of the +emperor, and so bitterly inflamed him, always easy of access and +susceptible of impressions from suspicious circumstances of this kind, +that without a moment's deliberation he ordered Africanus and all who +had been partakers of his fatal banquet to be seized. And when this was +done, the wicked informer, always fond of whatever is contrary to +popular manners, obtained what he most coveted, a continuation of his +existing office for two years. + +10. To arrest these men, Teutomeres, the chief of the Protectores, was +sent with his colleague; and he loaded them all with chains, and +conducted them, as he had been ordered, to the emperor's court. But when +they arrived at Aquileia, Marinus, who from having been a drillmaster +had been promoted to a tribuneship, but who at that time had had no +particular duty, being a man who had held dangerous language, and who +was in other respects of an intemperate disposition, being left in an +inn while things necessary for the journey were being prepared, stabbed +himself with a knife which he accidentally found, and his bowels gushed +out, so that he died. The rest were conducted to Milan, and subjected to +torture; and having been forced by their agony to confess that while at +the banquet they had used some petulant expressions, were ordered to be +kept in penal confinement, with some hope, though an uncertain one, of +eventual release. But Teutomeres and his colleague, being accused of +having allowed Marinus to kill himself, were condemned to banishment, +though they were afterwards pardoned through the intercession of +Arbetio. + + +IV. + +§ 1. Soon after this transaction had been thus terminated, war was +declared against the tribes of the Allemanni around Lentia,[34] who had +often made extensive incursions into the contiguous Roman territories. +The emperor himself set out on the expedition, and went as far as +Rhætia, and the district of the Canini.[35] And there, after long and +careful deliberation, it was decided to be both honourable and expedient +that Arbetio, the master of the horse, should march with a division of +the troops, in fact with the greater part of the army, along the borders +of the lake of Brigantia, with the object of coming to an immediate +engagement with the barbarians. And I will here describe the character +of the ground briefly, as well as I can. + +2. The Rhine rising among the defiles of lofty mountains, and forcing +its way with immense violence through steep rocks, stretches its onward +course without receiving any foreign waters, in the same manner as the +Nile pours down with headlong descent through the cataracts. And it is +so abundantly full by its own natural riches that it would be navigable +up to its very source were it not like a torrent rather than a stream. + +3. And soon after it has disentangled itself from its defiles, rolling +onward between high banks, it enters a vast lake of circular form, which +the Rhætian natives call Brigantia,[36] being four hundred and sixty +furlongs in length, and of nearly equal extent in breadth, +unapproachable on account of a vast mass of dark woods, except where the +energy of the Romans has made a wide road through them, in spite of the +hostility of the barbarians, and the unfavourable character both of the +ground and the climate. + +4. The Rhine forcing its way into this pool, and roaring with its +foaming eddies, pierces the sluggish quiet of the waters, and rushes +through the middle from one end to the other. And like an element +separated from some other element by eternal discord, without any +increase or diminution of the volume of water which it has brought into +the lake, it comes forth from it again with its old name and its +unalloyed power, never having suffered from the contact, and so proceeds +till it mingles with the waves of the sea. + +5. And what is exceedingly strange, the lake is not moved at all by this +rapid passage of the river through it, nor is it affected by the muddy +soil beneath the waters of the lake; the two bodies of water being +incapable of mingling with each other. A thing which would be supposed +impossible, did not the very sight of the lake prove the fact. + +6. In a similar manner, the Alpheus, rising in Arcadia, being seized +with a love for the fountain Arethusa,[37] passing through the Ionian +sea, as is related by the poets, proceeds onward till it arrives at the +neighbourhood of its beloved fountain. + + * * * * * + +7. Arbetio not choosing to wait till messengers arrived to announce the +approach of the barbarians, although he knew the fierce way in which +they begin their wars, allowed himself to be betrayed into a hidden +ambush, where he stood without the power of moving, being bewildered by +the suddenness of his disaster. + +8. In the mean time the enemy, showing themselves, sprang forth from +their hiding-places and spared not one who came in their way, but +overwhelmed them with every kind of weapon. For none of our men could +offer the smallest resistance, nor was there any hope of any of them +being able to save their lives except by a speedy flight. Therefore, +being intent only on avoiding wounds, our soldiers, losing all order, +ran almost at random in every direction, exposing their backs to the +blows of the enemy. Nevertheless the greater part of them, scattering +themselves among narrow paths, were saved from danger by the protecting +darkness of the night, and at the return of day recovered their courage +and rejoined their different legions. But still by this sad and +unexpected disaster a vast number of common soldiers and ten tribunes +were slain. + +9. The Allemanni were greatly elated at this event, and advanced with +increased boldness, every day coming up to the fortifications of the +Romans while the morning mists obscured the light; and drawing their +swords roamed about in every direction, gnashing their teeth, and +threatening us with haughty shouts. Then with a sudden sally our +Scutarii would rush forth, and after being stopped for a moment by the +resistance of the hostile squadrons, would call out all their comrades +to join them in the engagement. + +10. But the greater part of our men were alarmed by the recollection of +their recent disaster, and Arbetio hesitated, thinking everything +pregnant with danger. Upon this three tribunes at once sallied forth, +Arintheus who was a lieutenant commander of the heavy troops, Seniauchus +who commanded the cavalry of the Comites,[38] and Bappo who had the +command of the Promoti[39] and of those troops who had been particularly +intrusted to his charge by the emperor. + +11. These men, looking on the common cause as their own, resolved to +repel the violence of the enemy according to the example of their +ancient comrades. And pouring down upon the foe like a torrent, not in a +regular line of battle, but in desultory attacks like those of banditti, +they put them all to flight in a disgraceful manner. Since they, being +in loose order and straggling, and hampered by their endeavours to +escape, exposed their unprotected bodies to our weapons, and were slain +by repeated blows of sword and spear. + +12. Many too were slain with their horses, and seemed as they lay on +their backs to be so entangled as still to be sitting on them. And when +this was seen, all our men who had previously hesitated to engage in +battle with their comrades, poured forth out of the camp; and now, +forgetful of all precautions, they drove before them the mob of +barbarians, except such as flight had saved from destruction, trampling +on the heaps of slain, and covered with gore. + +13. When the battle was thus terminated the emperor in triumph and joy +returned to Milan to winter quarters. + + +V. + +A.D. 355. + +§ 1. After these unhappy circumstances, accompanied as they were with +equal calamities in the provinces, a whirlwind of new misfortunes arose +which seemed likely to destroy the whole state at once, if Fortune, +which regulates the events of human life, had not terminated a state of +affairs which all regarded with great apprehension, by bringing the +dangers to a speedy issue. + +2. From the long neglect with which these provinces had been treated, +the Gauls, having no assistance on which to rely, had borne cruel +massacres, with plunder and conflagration, from barbarians who raged +throughout their land with impunity. Silvanus, the commander of the +infantry, being a man well suited to correct these evils, went thither +at the command of the emperor, Arbetio at the same time urging with all +his power that this task should be undertaken without delay, with the +object of imposing the dangerous burden of this duty on his absent +rival, whom he was vexed to see still in prosperity.... + +3. There was a certain man named Dynamius, the superintendent of the +emperor's beasts of burden, who had begged of Silvanus recommendatory +letters to his friends as of one who was admitted to his most intimate +friendship. Having obtained this favour, as Silvanus, having no +suspicion of any evil intention, had with great simplicity granted what +he was asked, Dynamius kept the letters, in order at a future time to +plan something to his injury. + +4. Therefore, when the aforesaid commander had gone to the Gauls in the +service of the republic, and while he was engaged in repelling the +barbarians, who already began to distrust their own power, and to be +filled with alarm, Dynamius, being restless, like a man of cunning and +practised deceitfulness, devised a wicked plot; and in this it is said +he had for his accomplices Lampadius, the prefect of the prætorian +guard, Eusebius, who had been the superintendent of the emperor's privy +purse, and was known by the nickname of Mattyocopa,[40] and Ædesius, +formerly keeper of the records, whom this prefect had contrived to have +elected consul, as being his dearest friend. He then with a sponge +effaced the contents of the letters, leaving nothing but the address, +and inserted a text materially differing from the original writing, as +if Silvanus had asked, by indirect hints, and entreated his friends who +were within the palace, and those who had no office (among whom was +Albinus of Etruria, and many others), to aid him in projects of loftier +ambition, as one who would soon attain the imperial throne. This bundle +of letters he thus made up, inventing at his leisure, in order with them +to endanger the life of this innocent man. + +5. Dynamius was appointed to investigate these charges on behalf of the +emperor; and while he was artfully weaving these and similar plans, he +contrived to enter alone into the imperial chamber, choosing his +opportunity, and hoping to entangle firmly in his meshes the most +vigilant guardian of the emperor's safety. And being full of wicked +cunning, after he had read the forged packet of letters in the council +chamber, the tribunes were ordered to be committed to custody, and also +several private individuals were commanded to be arrested and brought up +from the provinces, whose names were mentioned in those letters. + +6. But presently Malarichus, the commander of the Gentiles, being struck +with the iniquity of the business, and taking his colleagues to his +counsel, spoke out loudly that men devoted to the preservation of the +emperor ought not to be circumvented by factions and treachery. He +accordingly demanded that he himself, his nearest relations being left +as hostages, and Mallobaudes, the tribune of the heavy-armed soldiers, +giving bail that he would return, might be commissioned to go with speed +to bring back Silvanus, who he was certain had never entertained the +idea of any such attempt as these bitter plotters had imputed to him. +Or, as an alternative, he entreated that he might become security for +Mallobaudes, and that their officers might be permitted to go and do +what he had proposed to take upon himself. + +7. For he affirmed that he knew beyond all question that, if any +stranger were sent, Silvanus, who was inclined to be somewhat +apprehensive of danger, even when no circumstances were really +calculated to alarm him, would very likely throw matters into confusion. + +8. But, although the advice which he gave was useful and necessary, he +spoke as to the winds, to no purpose. For by the counsels of Arbetio, +Apodemius, who was a persevering and bitter enemy to all good men, was +sent with letters to summon Silvanus to the presence. When he had +arrived in Gaul, taking no heed of the commission with which he was +charged, and caring but little for anything that might happen, he +remained inactive, without either seeing Silvanus, or delivering the +letters which commanded him to appear at court. And having taken the +receiver of the province into his counsels, he began with arrogance and +malevolence to harass the clients and servants of the master of the +horse, as if that officer had been already condemned and was on the +point of being executed. + +9. In the mean time, while the arrival of Silvanus was looked for, and +while Apodemius was throwing everything, though quiet before, into +commotion, Dynamius, that he might by still more convincing proofs +establish belief in his wicked plots, had sent other forged letters +(agreeing with the previous ones which he had brought under the +emperor's notice by the agency of the prefect) to the tribune of the +factory at Cremona: these were written in the names of Silvanus and +Malarichus, in which the tribune, as one privy to their secrets, was +warned to lose no time in having everything in readiness. + +10. But when this tribune had read the whole of the letters, he was for +some time in doubt and perplexity as to what they could mean (for he did +not recollect that those persons whose letters he had thus received had +ever spoken with him upon private transactions of any kind); and +accordingly he sent the letters themselves, by the courier who had +brought them, to Malarichus, sending a soldier also with him; and +entreated Malarichus to explain in intelligible language what he wanted, +and not to use such obscure terms. For he declared that he, being but a +plain and somewhat rude man, had not in the least understood what was +intimated so obscurely. + +11. Malarichus the moment he received the letters, being already in +sorrow and anxiety, and alarmed for his own fate and that of his +countryman Silvanus, called around him the Franks, of whom at that time +there was a great multitude in the palace, and in resolute language laid +open and proved the falsehood of the machinations by which their lives +were threatened, and was loud in his complaints. + +12. When these things became known to the emperor, he appointed the +members of his secret council and the chief officers of his army to make +further investigation of the matter. And when the judges appeared to +make light of it, Florentius the son of Nigridianus, who at that time +filled the post of master of the offices,[41] having examined the +writings carefully, and detecting beneath them some vestiges of the tops +of the former words which had been effaced, perceived, as was indeed the +case, that by interpolations of the original letter, matters very +different from any of which Silvanus was author had been written over +them, according to the fancy of the contriver of this forgery. + +13. On this the cloud of treachery was dispersed, and the emperor, +informed of the truth by a faithful report, recalled the powers granted +to the prefect, and ordered him to be submitted to an examination. +Nevertheless he was acquitted through the active combination of many of +his friends; while Eusebius, the former treasurer of the emperor's +secret purse, being put to the torture, confessed that these things had +been done with his privity. + +14. Ædesius, affirming with obstinate denial that he had never known +anything which had been done in the matter, escaped, being adjudged +innocent. And thus the transaction was brought to an end, and all those +who had been accused in the original information were acquitted; and +Dynamius, as a man of exceeding accomplishments and prudence, was +appointed to govern Etruria with the rank of corrector. + +15. While these affairs were proceeding, Silvanus was living at +Agrippina,[42] and having learnt by continual information sent to him +by his friends what Apodemius was doing with the hope of effecting his +ruin; and knowing also how impressible the mind of the feeble emperor +was; began to fear lest in his absence, and without being convicted of +any crime, he might still be treated as a criminal. And so, being placed +in a situation of the greatest difficulty, he began to think of trusting +himself to the good faith of the barbarians. + +16. But being dissuaded from this by Laniogaisus, at that time a +tribune, whom we have already spoken of as the only person who was +present with Constans when he was dying, himself serving at that time as +a volunteer; and being assured by Laniogaisus that the Franks, of whom +he himself was a countryman, would put him to death, or else betray him +for a bribe, he saw no safety anywhere in the present emergency, and so +was driven to extreme counsels. And by degrees, having secretly +conferred with the chiefs of the principal legions, and having excited +them by the magnitude of promised rewards, he tore for use on this +occasion the purple silk from the insignia of the dragons[43] and +standards, and so assumed the title of emperor. + +17. And while these events are passing in Gaul, one day, a little before +sunset, an unexpected messenger arrived at Milan, relating fully that +Silvanus, being ambitious to rise above his place as commander of the +infantry, had tampered with the army, and assumed the imperial dignity. + +18. Constantius, at this amazing and unexpected event, seemed as if +struck by a thunderbolt of fate, and having at once summoned a council +to meet at the second watch, all the nobles hastened to the palace. No +one had either mind to conceive or tongue to recommend what was best to +be done; but in suppressed tones they mentioned the name of Ursicinus as +a man eminent for skill in affairs of war, and one who had been +undeservedly exposed to most injurious treatment. He was immediately +sent for by the principal chamberlain, which is the most honourable kind +of summons, and as soon as he entered the council-chamber was offered +the purple to salute much more graciously than at any former time. +Diocletian was the first who introduced the custom of offering reverence +to the emperor after this foreign manner and royal pretension; whereas +all former princes, as we read, had been saluted like judges. + +19. And so the man who a little while before, through the malevolent +persecution of certain of the courtiers, had been termed the whirlpool +of the East, and who had been accused of a design to aim at the supreme +power for his sons, was now recommended as one who was a most skilful +general, who had been the comrade of the great Constantine, and as the +only man capable of extinguishing the threatened conflagration. And +though the reasons for which he was sent for were honest, they were not +wholly free from underhand motives. For while great anxiety was felt +that Silvanus should be destroyed as a most formidable rebel, yet, if +that object miscarried, it was thought that Ursicinus, being damaged by +the failure, would himself easily be ruined; so that no scruple, which +else was to be feared, would interpose to save him from destruction. + +20. While arrangements were being made for accelerating his journey, the +general was preparing to repel the charges which had been brought +against him; but the emperor prevented him, forbidding him in +conciliatory language, saying that this was not an opportunity suitable +for undertaking any controversy in defence of his cause, when the +imminent necessity of affairs rather prompted that no delay should be +interposed to the restoration of parties to their pristine concord +before the disunion got worse. + +21. Therefore, after a long deliberation about many things, the first +and most important matter in which consultation was held, was by what +means Silvanus could be led to think the emperor still ignorant of his +conduct. And the most likely manner to confirm him in his confidence +appeared to be that he should be informed, in a complimentary despatch, +that Ursicinus was appointed his successor, and that he was invited to +return to court with undiminished power. + +22. After this affair was arranged, the officer who had brought the news +to Milan was ordered to depart with some tribunes and ten of the +Protectores and domestic guard as an escort, given to him at his own +request, to aid him in the discharge of his public duty. And of these I +myself was one, with my colleague Verrinianus; and all the rest were +either friends or relations of mine. + +23. And now all of us, fearing mainly for ourselves, accompanied him a +long distance on his journey; and although we seemed as exposed to +danger as gladiators about to fight with wild beasts, yet considering in +our minds that evils are often the forerunners of good, we recollected +with admiration that expression of Cicero's, uttered by him in +accordance with the eternal maxims of truth, which runs in these +words:[44]--"And although it is a thing most desirable that one's +fortune should always continue in a most flourishing condition; still +that general level state of life brings not so much sensation of joy as +we feel when, after having been surrounded by disasters or by dangers, +fortune returns into a happier condition." + +24. Accordingly we hastened onwards by forced journeys, in order that +the master of the horse, who was eager to acquire the honour of +suppressing the revolt, might make his appearance in the suspected +district before any rumour of the usurpation of Silvanus had spread +among the Italians. But rapidly as we hastened, fame, like the wind, had +outstripped us, and had revealed some part of the facts; and when we +reached Agrippina we found matters quite out of the reach of our +attempts. + +25. For a vast multitude of people, assembled from all quarters, were, +with a mixture of haste and alarm, strengthening the foundations of +Silvanus's enterprise, and a numerous military force was collected; so +that it seemed more advisable, on the existing emergency, for our +unfortunate general to await the intentions and pleasure of the new +emperor, who was assuring himself by ridiculous omens and signs that he +was gaining accessions of strength. By permitting his feelings of +security to increase, by different pretences of agreement and flattery, +Silvanus, it was thought, might be relieved from all fear of hostility, +and so be the more easily deceived. + +26. But the accomplishment of such a design appeared difficult. For it +was necessary to use great care and watchfulness to make our desires +subordinate to our opportunities, and to prevent their either outrunning +them, or falling behind them; since if our wishes were allowed to become +known unseasonably, it was plain we should all be involved in one +sentence of death. + +27. However our general was kindly received, and (the very business +itself forcing us to bend our necks), having been compelled to prostrate +himself with all solemnity before the newly robed prince, still aiming +at higher power, was treated as a highly favoured and eminent friend; +having freedom of access and the honour of a seat at the royal table +granted to him in preference to every one else, in order that he might +be consulted with the more secrecy about the principal affairs of state. + +28. Silvanus expressed his indignation that, while unworthy persons had +been raised to the consulship and to other high dignities, he and +Ursicinus alone, after the frequent and great toils which they had +endured for the sake of the republic, had been so despised that he +himself had been accused of treason in consequence of the examination of +some slaves, and had been exposed to an ignoble trial; while Ursicinus +had been brought over from the East, and placed at the mercy of his +enemies; and these were the subjects of his incessant complaints both in +public and in private. + +29. While, however, he was holding this kind of language, we were +alarmed at the murmurs of our soldiers who were now suffering from want, +which surrounded us on all sides; the troops showing every eagerness to +make a rapid march, through the defiles of the Cottian Alps. + +30. In this state of anxiety and agitation, we occupied ourselves in +secretly deliberating on the means of arriving at our object; and at +length, after our plans had been repeatedly changed out of fear, it was +determined to use great industry in seeking out prudent agents, binding +them to secrecy by solemn oaths, in order to tamper with the Gallic +soldiers whom we knew to be men of doubtful fidelity, and at any time +open to change for a sufficient reward. + +31. Therefore, after we had secured our success by the address of some +agents among the common soldiers, men by their very obscurity fitted for +the accomplishment of such a task, and now excited by the expectation of +reward, at sunrise, as soon as the east began to redden, a band of armed +men suddenly sallied forth, and, as is common in critical moments, +behaving with more than usual audacity. They slew the sentinels and +penetrated into the palace, and so having dragged Silvanus out of a +little chapel in which, in his terror, he had taken refuge on his way to +a conventicle devoted to the ceremonies of the Christian worship, they +slew him with repeated strokes of their swords. + +32. In this way did a general of no slight merit perish, through fear of +false accusations heaped on him in his absence by a faction of wicked +men, and which drove him to the utmost extremities in order to preserve +his safety. + +33. For although he had acquired strong claims on the gratitude of +Constantius by his seasonable sally with his troops before the battle of +Mursa, and although he could boast the valorous exploits of his father +Bonitus, a man of Frankish extraction, but who had espoused the party of +Constantine, and often in the civil war had exhibited great prowess +against the troops of Licinius, still he always feared him as a prince +of wavering and fickle character. + +34. Now before any of these events had taken place in Gaul, it happened +that one day in the Circus Maximus at Rome, the populace cried out with +a loud voice, "Silvanus is conquered." Whether influenced by instinct or +by some prophetic spirit, cannot be decided. + +35. Silvanus having been slain, as I have narrated, at Agrippina, the +emperor was seized with inconceivable joy when he heard the news, and +gave way to exceeding insolence and arrogance, attributing this event +also to the prosperous course of his good fortune; giving the reins to +his habitual disposition which always led him to hate men of brave +conduct, as Domitian in former times had done, and desiring at all +times to destroy them by every act of opposition. + +36. And he was so far from praising even his act of diligence and +fidelity, that he recorded in writing a charge that Ursicinus had +embezzled a part of the Gallic treasures, which no one had ever touched. +And he ordered strict inquiry to be made into the fact, by an +examination of Remigius, who was at that time accountant-general to +Ursicinus in his capacity of commander of the heavy troops. And long +afterwards, in the time of Valentinian, this Remigius hung himself on +account of the trouble into which he fell in the matter of his +appointment as legate in Tripolis. + +37. And after this business was terminated, Constantius, thinking his +prosperity had now raised him to an equality with the gods, and had +bestowed on him entire sovereignty over human affairs, gave himself up +to elation at the praises of his flatterers, whom he himself encouraged, +despising and trampling under foot all who were unskilled in that kind +of court. As we read that Croesus, when he was king, drove Solon +headlong from his court because he would not fawn on him; and that +Dionysius threatened the poet Philoxenus with death because, when the +king recited his absurd and unrhythmical verses, he alone refused to +fall into an ecstasy while all the rest of the courtiers praised them. + +38. And this mischievous taste is the nurse of vices; for praise ought +only to be acceptable in high places, where blame also is permitted when +things are not sufficiently performed. + + +VI. + +§ 1. And now, after the re-establishment of security, investigations as +usual were set on foot, and many persons were put in prison as guilty. +For that infernal informer Paulus, boiling over with delight, arose to +exercise his poisonous employment with increased freedom, and while the +members of the emperor's council and the military officers were employed +in the investigation of these affairs, as they were commanded, Proculus +was put to the torture, who had been a servant of Silvanus, a man of +weak body and of ill health; so that every one was afraid lest the +exceeding violence of his torture should prove too much for his feeble +limbs, so that he would expose numbers to be implicated in the +accusations of atrocious crimes. But the result proved quite different +to what had been expected. + +2. For remembering a dream in which he had been forbidden, while asleep, +as he affirmed, to accuse any innocent person, though he should be +tortured till he was brought to the very point of death, he neither +informed against, nor even named any one; but, with reference to the +usurpation of Silvanus, he invariably asserted that he had been driven +to contemplate that act, not out of ambition, but from sheer necessity; +and he proved this assertion by evident arguments. + +3. For he adduced one important excuse, which was established by the +testimony of many persons, that, five days before he assumed the ensigns +of imperial authority, he addressed the soldiers, while distributing +their pay to them, in the name of Constantius, exhorting them to prove +always brave and loyal. From which it was plain that if he had then been +thinking of seizing on a loftier fortune, he would have given them this +money as if it had proceeded from himself. + +4. After Proculus, Poemenius was condemned and put to death: he who, +as we have mentioned before,[45] when the Treveri had shut their gates +against Cæsar Decentius, was chosen to defend that people. After him, +Asclepiodotus, and Luto, and Maudio, all Counts, were put to death, and +many others also, the obdurate cruelty of the times seeking for these +and similar punishments with avidity. + + +VII. + +§ 1. While the fatal disturbances of the state multiplied these general +slaughters, Leontius, who was the governor of Rome itself, gave many +proofs of his deserving the character of an admirable judge; being +prompt in hearing cases, rigidly just in deciding them, and merciful by +nature, although, for the sake of maintaining lawful authority, he +appeared to some people to be severe. He was also of a somewhat amorous +temperament. + +2. The first pretext for exciting any sedition against him was a most +slight and trumpery one. For when an order had been issued to arrest a +charioteer, named Philoromus, the whole populace followed him, as if +resolved to defend something of their own, and with terrible violence +assailed the prefect, presuming him to be timorous. But he remained +unmoved and upright, and sending his officers among the crowd, arrested +some and punished them, and then, without any one venturing to oppose +him, or even to murmur, condemned them to banishment. + +3. A few days later the populace again became excited to its customary +frenzy, and alleging as a grievance the scarcity of wine, assembled at +the well-known place called Septemzodium, where the Emperor Marcus built +the Nymphæum,[46] an edifice of great magnificence. To that place the +prefect went forthwith, although he was earnestly entreated by all his +household and civil officers not to trust himself among an arrogant and +threatening multitude, now in a state of fury equal to any of their +former commotions; but he, unsusceptible of fear, went right onwards, +though many of his attendants deserted him, when they saw him hastening +into imminent danger. + +4. Therefore, sitting in a carriage, with every appearance of +confidence, he looked with fierce eyes at the countenance of the +tumultuous mobs thronging towards him from all quarters, and agitating +themselves like serpents. And after suffering many bitter insults, at +last, when he had recognized one man who was conspicuous among all the +rest by his vast size and red hair, he asked him whether his name was +Petrus Valvomeres, as he had heard it was; and when the man replied in a +defiant tone that it was so, Leontius, in spite of the outcries of many +around, ordered him to be seized as one who had long since been a +notorious ringleader of the disaffected, and having his hands bound +behind him, commanded him to be suspended on a rack. + +5. And when he was seen in the air, in vain imploring the aid of his +fellow-tribesmen, the whole mob, which a little while before was so +closely packed, dispersed at once over the different quarters of the +city, so as to offer no hindrance to the punishment of this seditious +leader, who after having been thus tortured--with as little resistance +as if he been in a secret dungeon of the court--was transported to +Picenum, where, on a subsequent occasion, having offered violence to a +virgin of high rank, he was condemned to death by the judgment of +Patruinus, a noble of consular dignity. + +6. While Leontius governed the city in this manner, Liberius, a priest +of the Christian law, was ordered by Constantius to be brought before +the council, as one who had resisted the commands of the emperor, and +the decrees of many of his own colleagues, in an affair which I will +explain briefly. + +7. Athanasius was at that time bishop of Alexandria; and as he was a man +who sought to magnify himself above his profession, and to mix himself +up with affairs which did not belong to his province, as continual +reports made known, an assembly of many of his sect met together--a +synod, as they call it--and deprived him of the right of administering +the sacraments, which he previously enjoyed. + +8. For it was said that he, being very deeply skilled in the arts of +prophecy and the interpretation of auguries and omens, had very often +predicted coming events. And to these charges were added others very +inconsistent with the laws of the religion over which he presided. + +9. So Liberius, being of the same opinion with those who condemned these +practices, was ordered, by the sentence of the emperor, to expel +Athanasius from his priestly seat; but this he firmly refused to do, +reiterating the assertion that it was the extremity of wickedness to +condemn a man who had neither been brought before any court nor been +heard in his defence, in this openly resisting the commands of the +emperor. + +10. For that prince, being always unfavourable to Athanasius, although +he knew that what he ordered had in fact taken effect, yet was +exceedingly desirous that it should be confirmed by that authority which +the bishops of the Eternal City enjoy, as being of higher rank. And as +he did not succeed in this, Liberius was removed by night; a measure +which was not effected without great difficulty, through the fear which +his enemies had of the people, among whom he was exceedingly popular. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. These events, then, took place at Rome, as I have already +mentioned. But Constantius was agitated by frequent intelligence which +assured him that the Gauls were in a lamentable condition, since no +adequate resistance could be made to the barbarians who were now +carrying their devastations with fire and sword over the whole country. +And after deliberating a long time, in great anxiety, what force he +could employ to repel these dangers (himself remaining in Italy, as he +thought it very dangerous to remove into so remote a country), he at +last determined on a wise plan, which was this: to associate with +himself in the cares of the empire his cousin Julian, whom he had some +time before summoned to court, and who still retained the robe he had +worn in the Greek schools. + +2. And when, oppressed by the heavy weight of impending calamities, he +had confessed to his dearest friends that by himself he was unequal to +the burden of such weighty and numerous difficulties--a thing which he +had never felt before--they, being trained to excessive flattery, tried +to fill him with foolish ideas, affirming that there was nothing in the +world so difficult but what his pre-eminent virtue and his good fortune, +equal to that of the gods, would be able to overcome, as it always +hitherto had done. And many of them added further, being stung by their +consciousness of guilt, that henceforth he ought to beware of conferring +the title of Cæsar on any one, enumerating the deeds which had been done +in the time of Gallus. + +3. They therefore opposed his design resolutely, and it was supported by +no one but the queen, who, whether it was that she feared a journey to a +distant country, or that, from her own natural wisdom, she saw the best +course for the common good, urged him that a relation like Julian ought +to be preferred to every one else. Accordingly, after many undecided +deliberations and long discussions, his resolution was at last taken +decidedly, and having discarded all further vain debate, he resolved on +associating Julian with him in the empire. + +4. He was therefore summoned; and when he had arrived, on a fixed day, +the whole of his fellow-comrades who were in the city were ordered to +attend, and a tribunal was erected on a lofty scaffolding, surrounded by +the eagles and standards. And Augustus, mounting it, and holding Julian +by the right hand, made this conciliatory speech:-- + +5. "We stand here before you, most excellent defenders of the republic, +to avenge with one unanimous spirit the common dangers of the state. And +how I propose to provide for it I will briefly explain to you, as +impartial judges. + +6. "After the death of those rebellious tyrants whom rage and madness +prompted to engage in the enterprises which they undertook, the +barbarians, as if they meant to sacrifice unto their wicked manes with +Roman blood, having violated the peace and invaded the territories of +the Gauls, are encouraged by this consideration, that our empire, being +spread over very remote countries, causes us to be beset with great +difficulties. + +7. "If, then, your decision and mine are mutual to encounter this evil, +already progressing beyond the barriers which were opposed to it, while +there is still time to check it, the necks of these haughty nations will +learn to humble their pride, and the borders of the empire will remain +inviolate. It remains for you to give, by your strength, prosperous +effect to the hopes which I entertain. + +8. "You all know my cousin Julian, whom I here present to you; a youth +endeared to us by his modesty as well as by his relationship; a youth of +virtue already proved, and of conspicuous industry and energy. Him I +have determined to raise to the rank of Cæsar, and hope, if this seems +expedient to you, to have my decision confirmed by your consent." + +9. He was proceeding to say more, but was prevented by the whole +assembly interrupting him with friendly shouts, declaring that his +decision was the judgment of the Supreme Deity, and not of any human +mind; with such certainty that one might have thought them inspired +with the spirit of prophecy. + +10. The emperor stood without moving till they resumed silence, and then +with greater confidence proceeded to explain what he had to say further. + +"Because, therefore, your joyful acclamations show that you look +favourably on the design I have announced, let this youth, of tranquil +strength, whose temperate disposition it will be better to imitate than +merely to praise, rise up now to receive the honours prepared for him. +His excellent disposition, increased as it has been by all liberal +accomplishments, I will say no more of than is seen in the fact that I +have chosen him. Therefore, now, with the manifest consent of the Deity, +I will clothe him with the imperial robe." + +11. This was his speech. And then, having immediately clothed Julian +with the purple robe of his ancestors, and having pronounced him Cæsar, +to the great joy of the army, he thus addressed him, though Julian +himself appeared by his grave countenance to be somewhat melancholy. + +12. "Most beloved of all my brothers, you thus in early youth have +received the splendid honour belonging to your birth, not, I confess, +without some addition to my own glory; who thus show myself as just in +conferring supreme power on a noble character nearly related to me, as I +appear also sublime by virtue of my own power. Come thou, therefore, to +be a partner in my labours and dangers, and undertake the defence of the +government of the Gauls, devoting thyself with all beneficence to +alleviate the calamities of those afflicted countries. + +13. "And if it should be necessary to engage with the enemy in battle, +do thou take thy place steadily among the standard-bearers themselves, +as a prudent encourager of daring at the proper opportunity; exciting +the warriors by leading them on with caution, supporting any troops +which may be thrown into disorder by reserves, gently reproving those +who hang back, and being present as a trustworthy witness of the actions +of all, whether brave or timid. + +14. "Think that a serious crisis is upon us, and so show yourself a +great man, worthy to command brave men. We ourselves will stand by you +in the energetic constancy of affection, or will join you in the +labours of war, so that we may govern together the whole world in peace, +if only God will grant us, as we pray he may, to govern with equal +moderation and piety. You will everywhere represent me, and I also will +never desert you in whatever task you may be engaged. To sum up: Go +forth; go forth supported by the friendly prayers of men of all ranks, +to defend with watchful care the station assigned to you, it may be +said, by the republic itself." + +15. After the emperor had thus ended his speech, no one held his peace, +but all the soldiers, with a tremendous crash, rattled their shields +against their knees (which is an abundant indication of applause; while +on the other hand to strike the shield with the spear is a testimony of +anger and indignation), and it was marvellous with what excessive joy +they all, except a very few, showed their approbation of the judgment of +Augustus: and they received the Cæsar with well-deserved admiration, +brilliant as he was with the splendour of the imperial purple. + +16. And while they gazed earnestly on his eyes, terrible in their +beauty, and his countenance more attractive than ever by reason of his +present excitement, they augured from his looks what kind of ruler he +was likely to prove, as if they had been searching into those ancient +volumes which teach how to judge of a man's moral disposition by the +external signs on his person. And that he might be regarded with the +greater reverence, they neither praised him above measure, nor yet below +his desert. And so the voices raised in his favour were looked upon as +the judgment of censors, not of soldiers. + +17. After the ceremony was over, Julian was taken up into the imperial +chariot and received into the palace, and was heard to whisper to +himself this verse of Homer-- + + "Now purple death hath seized on me, + And powerful strength of destiny." + +These transactions took place on the sixth of November, in the year of +the consulship of Arbetio and Lollianus. + +18. A few days afterwards, Helen, the maiden sister of Constantius, was +also given in marriage to the Cæsar. And everything being got ready +which the journey required, he started on the first of December with a +small retinue, and having been escorted on his way by Augustus himself +as far as the spot, marked by two pillars, which lies between Laumellum +and Ticinum, he proceeded straight on to the country of the Taurini, +where he received disastrous intelligence, which had recently reached +the emperor's court, but still had been intentionally kept back, lest +all the preparations made for his journey should be wasted. + +19. And this intelligence was that Colonia Agrippina,[47] a city of +great renown in lower Germany, had been carried by a vigorous siege of +the barbarians, who appeared before it in great force, and had utterly +destroyed it. + +20. Julian being greatly distressed at this news, looking on it as a +kind of omen of misfortunes to come, was often heard to murmur in +querulous tones, "that he had gained nothing except the fate of dying +amid greater trouble and employment than before." + +21. But when he arrived at Vienne, people of every age and class went +forth to meet him on his entrance to the city, with a view to do him +honour by their reception of him as one who had been long wished for, +and was now granted to their prayers. And when he was seen in the +distance the whole population of the city and of the adjacent +neighbourhood, going before his chariot, celebrated his praises, +saluting him as Emperor, clement and prosperous, greeting with eager joy +this royal procession in honour of a lawful prince. And they placed all +their hopes of a remedy for the evils which affected the whole province +on his arrival, thinking that now, when their affairs were in a most +desperate condition, some friendly genius had come to shine upon them. + +22. And a blind old woman, when in reply to her question "Who was +entering the city?" she received for answer "Julian the Cæsar," cried +out that "He would restore the temples of the gods." + + +IX. + +§ 1. Now then, since, as the sublime poet of Mantua has sung, "A greater +series of incident rises to my view; in a more arduous task I +engage,"--I think it a proper opportunity to describe the situation and +different countries of the Gauls, lest, among the narration of fiery +preparations and the various chances of battles, I should seem, while +speaking of matters not understood by every one, to resemble those +negligent sailors, who, when tossed about by dangerous waves and storms, +begin to repair their sails and ropes which they might have attended to +in calm weather. + +2. Ancient writers, pursuing their investigations into the earliest +origin of the Gauls, left our knowledge of the truth very imperfect; but +at a later period, Timagenes, a thorough Greek both in diligence and +language, collected, from various writings facts which had been long +unknown, and guided by his faithful statements, we, dispelling all +obscurity, will now give a plain and intelligible relation of them. + +3. Some persons affirm that the first inhabitants ever seen in these +regions were called Celts, after the name of their king, who was very +popular among them, and sometimes also Galatæ, after the name of his +mother. For Galatæ is the Greek translation of the Roman term Galli. +Others affirm that they are Dorians, who, following a more ancient +Hercules, selected for their home the districts bordering on the ocean. + +4. The Druids affirm that a portion of the people was really indigenous +to the soil, but that other inhabitants poured in from the islands on +the coast, and from the districts across the Rhine, having been driven +from their former abodes by frequent wars, and sometimes by inroads of +the tempestuous sea. + +5. Some again maintain that after the destruction of Troy, a few Trojans +fleeing from the Greeks, who were then scattered over the whole world, +occupied these districts, which at that time had no inhabitants at all. + +6. But the natives of these countries affirm this more positively than +any other fact (and, indeed, we ourselves have read it engraved on their +monuments), that Hercules, the son of Amphitryon, hastening to the +destruction of those cruel tyrants, Geryon and Tauriscus, one of whom +was oppressing the Gauls, and the other Spain, after he had conquered +both of them, took to wife some women of noble birth in those countries, +and became the father of many children; and that his sons called the +districts of which they became the kings after their own names. + +7. Also an Asiatic tribe coming from Phocæa in order to escape the +cruelty of Harpalus, the lieutenant of Cyrus the king, sought to sail to +Italy.[48] And a part of them founded Velia, in Lucania, others settled +a colony at Marseilles, in the territory of Vienne; and then, in +subsequent ages, these towns increasing in strength and importance, +founded other cities. But we must avoid a variety of details which are +commonly apt to weary. + +8. Throughout these provinces, the people gradually becoming civilized, +the study of liberal accomplishments flourished, having been first +introduced by the Bards, the Eubages,[49] and the Druids. The Bards were +accustomed to employ themselves in celebrating the brave achievements of +their illustrious men, in epic verse, accompanied with sweet airs on the +lyre. The Eubages investigated the system and sublime secrets of nature, +and sought to explain them to their followers. Between these two came +the Druids, men of loftier genius, bound in brotherhoods according to +the precepts and example of Pythagoras; and their minds were elevated by +investigations into secret and sublime matters, and from the contempt +which they entertained for human affairs they pronounced the soul +immortal. + + +X. + +§ 1. This country then of the Gauls was by reason of its lofty mountain +ranges perpetually covered with terrible snows, almost unknown to the +inhabitants of the rest of the world, except where it borders on the +ocean; vast fortresses raised by nature, in the place of art, +surrounding it on all sides. + +2. On the southern side it is washed by the Etruscan and Gallic sea: +where it looks towards the north it is separated from the tribes of the +barbarians by the river Rhine; where it is placed under the western star +it is bounded by the ocean, and the lofty chain of the Pyrenees; where +it has an eastern aspect it is bounded by the Cottian[50] Alps. In these +mountains King Cottius, after the Gauls had been subdued, lying by +himself in their defiles, and relying on the rugged and pathless +character of the country, long maintained his independence; though +afterwards he abated his pride, and was admitted to the friendship of +the Emperor Octavianus. And subsequently he constructed immense works to +serve as a splendid gift to the emperor, making roads over them, short, +and convenient for travellers, between other ancient passes of the Alps; +on which subject we will presently set forth what discoveries have been +made. + +3. In these Cottian Alps, which begin at the town of Susa, one vast +ridge rises up, scarcely passable by any one without danger. + +4. For to travellers who reach it from the side of Gaul it descends with +a steepness almost precipitous, being terrible to behold, in consequence +of the bulk of its overhanging rocks. In the spring, when the ice is +melting, and the snow beginning to give way from the warm spring +breezes, if any one seeks to descend along the mountain, men and beasts +and wagons all fall together through the fissures and clefts in the +rocks, which yawn in every direction, though previously hidden by the +frost. And the only remedy ever found to ward off entire destruction is +to have many vehicles bound together with enormous ropes, with men or +oxen hanging on behind, to hold them back with great efforts; and so +with a crouching step they get down with some degree of safety. And +this, as I have said, is what happens in the spring. + +5. But in winter, the ground being covered over with a smooth crust of +ice, and therefore slippery under foot, the traveller is often plunged +headlong; and the valleys, which seem to open here and there into wide +plains, which are merely a covering of treacherous ice, sometimes +swallow up those who try to pass over them. On account of which danger +those who are acquainted with the country fix projecting wooden piles +over the safest spots, in order that a series of them may conduct the +traveller unhurt to his destination; though if these piles get covered +with snow and hidden, or thrown down by melting torrents descending from +the mountains, then it is difficult for any one to pass, even if natives +of the district lead the way. + +6. But on the summit of this Italian mountain there is a plain, seven +miles in extent, reaching as far as the station known by the name of +Mars; and after that comes another ridge, still more steep, and scarcely +possible to be climbed, which stretches on to the summit of Mons +Matrona, named so from an event which happened to a noble lady. + +7. From this point a path, steep indeed, but easily passable, leads to +the fortress of Virgantia.[51] The sepulchre of this petty prince whom +we have spoken of as the maker of these roads is at Susa, close to the +walls; and his remains are honoured with religious veneration for two +reasons: first of all, because he governed his people with equitable +moderation; and secondly, because, by becoming an ally of the Roman +republic, he procured lasting tranquillity for his subjects. + +8. And although this road which I have been speaking of runs through the +centre of the district, and is shorter and more frequented now than any +other, yet other roads also were made at much earlier periods, on +different occasions. + +9. The first of them, near the maritime alps, was made by the Theban +Hercules, when he was proceeding in a leisurely manner to destroy Geryon +and Tauriscus, as has already been mentioned; and he it was who gave to +these alps the name of the Grecian Alps.[52] In the same way he +consecrated the citadel and port of Monæcus to keep alive the +recollection of his name for ever. And this was the reason why, many +ages afterwards, those alps were called the Penine Alps.[53] + +10. Publius Cornelius Scipio, the father of the elder Africanus, when +about to go to the assistance of the citizens of Saguntum--celebrated +for the distresses which they endured, and for their loyalty to Rome, at +the time when they were besieged with great resolution by the +Carthaginians--led to the Spanish coast a fleet having on board a +numerous army. But after the city had been destroyed by the valour of +the Carthaginians, he, being unable to overtake Hannibal, who had +crossed the Rhone, and had obtained three days' start of him in the +march towards Italy, crossed the sea, which at that point was not wide, +making a rapid voyage; and taking his station near Genoa, a town of the +Ligures, awaited his descent from the mountains, so that, if chance +should afford him an opportunity, he might attack him in the plain while +still fatigued with the ruggedness of the way by which he had come. + +11. But still, having regard to the interests of the republic, he +ordered Cnæus Scipio, his brother, to go into Spain, to prevent +Hasdrubal from making a similar expedition from that country. But +Hannibal, having received information of their design by some deserters, +being also a man of great shrewdness and readiness of resources, +obtained some guides from the Taurini who inhabited those districts, and +passing through the Tricastini and through the district of the Vocontii, +he thus reached the defiles of the Tricorii.[54] Then starting from this +point, he made another march over a line previously impassable. And +having cut through a rock of immense height, which he melted by means of +mighty fires, and pouring over it a quantity of vinegar, he proceeded +along the Druentia, a river full of danger from its eddies and currents, +until he reached the district of Etruria. This is enough to say of the +Alps; now let us return to our original subject. + + +XI. + +§ 1. In former times, when these provinces were little known, as being +barbarous, they were considered to be divided into three races:[55] +namely, the Celtæ, the same who are also called Galli; the Aquitani, +and the Belgæ: all differing from each other in language, manners, and +laws. + +2. The Galli, who, as I have said, are the same as the Celtæ, are +divided from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, which rises in the +mountains of the Pyrenees; and after passing through many towns, loses +itself in the ocean. + +3. On the other side they are separated from the Belgians by the Marne +and the Seine, both rivers of considerable size, which flowing through +the tribe of the Lugdunenses, after surrounding the stronghold of the +Parisii named Lutetia, so as to make an island of it, proceed onwards +together, and fall into the sea near the camp of Constantius. + +4. Of all these people the Belgians are said by ancient writers to be +the most warlike, because, being more remote from civilization, and not +having been rendered effeminate by foreign luxuries, they have been +engaged in continual wars with the Germans on the other side of the +Rhine. + +5. For the Aquitanians, to whose shores, as being nearest and also +pacific, foreign merchandise is abundantly imported, were easily brought +under the dominion of the Romans, because their character had become +enervated. + +6. But from the time when the Gauls, after long and repeated wars, +submitted to the dictator Julius, all their provinces were governed by +Roman officers, the country being divided into four portions; one of +which was the province of Narbonne; containing the districts of Vienne +and Lyons: a second province comprehended all the tribes of the +Aquitanians; upper and lower Germany formed a third jurisdiction, and +the Belgians a fourth at that period. + +7. But now the whole extent of the country is portioned out into many +provinces. The second (or lower) Germany is the first, if you begin on +the western side, fortified by Cologne and Tongres, both cities of great +wealth and importance. + +8. Next comes the first (or high) Germany, in which, besides other +municipal towns, there is Mayence, and Worms, and Spiers, and Strasburg, +a city celebrated for the defeats sustained by the barbarians in its +neighbourhood. + +9. After these the first Belgic province stretches as far as Metz and +Treves, which city is the splendid abode of the chief governor of the +country. + +10. Next to that comes the second Belgic province, where we find Amiens, +a city of conspicuous magnificence, and Châlons,[56] and Rheims. + +11. In the province of the Sequani, the finest cities are Besançon and +Basle. The first Lyonnese province contains Lyons, Châlons,[57] Sens, +Bourges, and Autun, the walls of which are very extensive and of great +antiquity. + +12. In the second Lyonnese province are Tours, and Rouen, Evreux, and +Troyes. The Grecian and Penine Alps have, besides other towns of less +note, Avenche, a city which indeed is now deserted, but which was +formerly one of no small importance, as even now is proved by its +half-ruinous edifices. These are the most important provinces, and most +splendid cities of the Galli. + +13. In Aquitania, which looks towards the Pyrenees, and that part of the +ocean which belongs to the Spaniards, the first province is Aquitanica, +very rich in large and populous cities; passing over others, I may +mention as pre-eminent, Bordeaux, Clermont, Saintes, and Poictiers. + +14. The province called the Nine Nations is enriched by Ausch and Bazas. +In the province of Narbonne, the cities of Narbonne, Euses, and Toulouse +are the principal places of importance. The Viennese exults in the +magnificence of many cities, the chief of which are Vienne itself, and +Arles, and Valence; to which may be added Marseilles, by the alliance +with and power of which we read that Rome itself was more than once +supported in moments of danger. + +15. And near to these cities is also Aix, Nice, Antibes, and the islands +of Hieres. + +16. And since we have come in the progress of our work to this district, +it would be inconsistent and absurd to omit all mention of the Rhone, a +river of the greatest celebrity. The Rhone rises in the Penine Alps, +from sources of great abundance, and descending with headlong +impetuosity into the more champaign districts, it often overruns its +banks with its own waters, and then plunges into a lake called Lake +Leman, and though it passes through it, yet it never mingles with any +foreign waters, but, rushing over the top of those which flow with less +rapidity, in its search for an exit, it forces its own way by the +violence of its stream. + +17. And thus passing through that lake without any damage, it runs +through Savoy and the district of Franche Comté; and, after a long +course, it forms the boundary between the Viennese on its left, and the +Lyonnese on its right. Then after many windings it receives the Saône, a +river which rises in the first Germany, and this latter river here +merges its name in the Rhone. At this point is the beginning of the +Gauls. And from this spot the distances are measured not by miles but by +leagues. + +18. From this point also, the Rhone, being now enriched by other rivers, +becomes navigable for large vessels, which are often tossed about in it +by gales of wind; and at last, having finished the course which nature +has marked out for it, foaming on it joins the Gallic Sea in the wide +gulf which they call the Gulf of Lyons, about eighteen miles from Arles. +This is enough to say of the situation of the province; I will now +proceed to describe the appearance and character of the inhabitants. + + +XII. + +§ 1. Nearly all the Gauls are of a lofty stature, fair, and of ruddy +complexion; terrible from the sternness of their eyes, very quarrelsome, +and of great pride and insolence. A whole troop of foreigners would not +be able to withstand a single Gaul if he called his wife to his +assistance, who is usually very strong, and with blue eyes; especially +when, swelling her neck, gnashing her teeth, and brandishing her sallow +arms of enormous size, she begins to strike blows mingled with kicks, as +if they were so many missiles sent from the string of a catapult. + +2. The voices of the generality are formidable and threatening, whether +they are in good humour or angry: they are all exceedingly careful of +cleanliness and neatness, nor in all the country, and most especially in +Aquitania, could any man or woman, however poor, be seen either dirty or +ragged. + +3. The men of every age are equally inclined to war, and the old man and +the man in the prime of life answer with equal zeal the call to arms, +their bodies being hardened by their cold weather and by constant +exercise so that they are all inclined to despise dangers and terrors. +Nor has any one of this nation ever mutilated his thumb from fear of the +toils of war, as men have done in Italy, whom in their district are +called Murci. + +4. The nation is fond of wine, and of several kinds of liquor which +resemble wine. And many individuals of the lower orders, whose senses +have become impaired by continual intoxication, which the apophthegm of +Cato defined to be a kind of voluntary madness, run about in all +directions at random; so that there appears to be some point in that +saying which is found in Cicero's oration in defence of Fonteius, "that +henceforth the Gauls will drink their wine less strong than formerly," +because forsooth they thought there was poison in it. + +5. These countries, and especially such parts of them as border on +Italy, fell gradually under the dominion of the Romans without much +trouble to their conquerors, having been first attacked by Fulvius, +afterwards weakened in many trifling combats by Sextius, and at last +entirely subdued by Fabius Maximus; who gained an additional surname +from the complete accomplishment of this task, after he had brought into +subjection the fierce tribe of the Allobroges. + +6. Cæsar finally subdued all the Gauls, except where their country was +absolutely inaccessible from its morasses, as we learn from Sallust, +after a war of ten years, in which both nations suffered many disasters; +and at last he united them to us in eternal alliance by formal treaties. +I have digressed further than I had intended, but now I will return to +my original subject. + + +XIII. + +§ 1. After Domitianus had perished by a cruel death, Musonianus his +successor governed the East with the rank of prætorian prefect; a man +celebrated for his eloquence and thorough knowledge of both the Greek +and Latin languages; from which he reaped a loftier glory than he +expected. + +2. For when Constantine was desirous of obtaining a more accurate +knowledge of the different sects in the empire, the Manicheans and other +similar bodies, and no one could be found able sufficiently to explain +them, Musonianus was chosen for the task, having been recommended as +competent; and when he had discharged this duty with skill, the emperor +gave him the name of Musonianus, for he had been previously called +Strategius. After that he ran through many degrees of rank and honour, +and soon reached the dignity of prefect; being in other matters also a +man of wisdom, popular in the provinces, and of a mild and courteous +disposition. But at the same time, whenever he could find an +opportunity, especially in any controversies or lawsuits (which is most +shameful and wicked), he was greatly devoted to sordid gain. Not to +mention many other instances, this was especially exemplified in the +investigations which were made into the death of Theophilus, the +governor of Syria, a man of consular rank, who gave information against +the Cæsar Gallus, and who was torn to pieces in a tumult of the people; +for which several poor men were condemned, who, it was clearly proved, +were at a distance at the time of the transaction, while certain rich +men who were the real authors of the crime were spared from all +punishment, except the confiscation of their property. + +3. In this he was equalled by Prosper, at that time master of the horse +in Gaul; a man of abject spirit and great inactivity; and, as the comic +poet has it, despising the acts of secret robbing he plundered +openly.[58] + +4. And, while these two officers were conniving together, and +reciprocally helping each other to many means of acquiring riches, the +chiefs of the Persian nation who lived nearest to the river, profiting +by the fact that the king was occupied in the most distant parts of his +dominions, and that these commanders were occupied in plundering the +people placed under their authority, began to harass our territories +with predatory bands, making audacious inroads, sometimes into Armenia, +often also into Mesopotamia. + + +[32] Tlepolemus and Hiero, whom Cicero, Verres iii. 11, calls Cibyratici +canes. + +[33] Herodotus, iv. 184, records that in Africa, in the country about +Mount Atlas, dreams are unknown. + +[34] Lintz. + +[35] The district around Bellinzona. + +[36] The Bodensee, more generally known as the Lake of Constance: at its +south-eastern end is the town of Bregenz, the ancient Brigantia. + +[37] The Arethusa is in Sicily, near Syracuse. + +[38] The Comites were a picked body of troops, divided into several +regiments distinguished by separate names, such as Seniores, Juniores, +Sagittarii, &c. + +[39] The Promoti were also picked men, something like the Comites; the +French translator calls them the Veterans. + +[40] From κόπτω to cut, and ματτύα any delicate food; +meant as equivalent to our cheeseparer, or skinflint. + +[41] This was a very important post; it seems to have united the +functions of a modern chamberlain, chancellor, and secretary of state. +The master presented citizens to the emperor, received foreign +ambassadors, recommended men for civil employments, decided civil +actions of several kinds, and superintended many of the affairs of the +post. + +[42] Cologne. + +[43] The dragons were the effigies on some of the standards. + +[44] There is no such passage in any extant work of Cicero, but a +sentence in his speech ad Pontifices resembles it: "For although it be +more desirable to end one's life without pain, and without injury, still +it tends more to an immortality of glory to be regretted by one's +countrymen, than to have been always free from injury." And a still +closer likeness to the sentiment is found in his speech ad Quirites post +reditum: "Although there is nothing more to be wished for by man than +prosperous, equal, continual good-fortune in life, flowing on in a +prosperous course, without any misadventure; still, if all my life had +been tranquil and peaceful, I should have been deprived of the +incredible and almost heavenly delight and happiness which I now enjoy +through your kindness."--Orations, v. 2; Bohn, p. 491-2. + +[45] In one of the lost books of this history. + +[46] The Nymphæum was a temple sacred to the Nymphs, deriving its name +of Septemzodium, or Septizonium (which it shared with more than one +other building at Rome), from the seven rows of pillars, one above the +other, and each row lessening both in circuit and in height, with which +the exterior was embellished. Another temple of this kind was built by +Septimius Severus. + +[47] Cologne. + +[48] This story of the Phocæenses is told by Herodotus, i. 166, and +alluded to by Horace, Epod. xv. 10. + +[49] The Eubages, or Οὐατεῖς, as Strabo calls them, appear to +have been a tribe of priests. + +[50] The Cottian Alps are Mont Genevre. It is unnecessary to point out +how Ammianus mistakes the true bearing of these frontiers of Gaul. + +[51] Briançon. + +[52] The Graiæ Alps are the Little St. Bernard; and it was over them +that Hannibal really passed, as has been conclusively proved by Dr. J.A. +Cramer. + +[53] From the god Pen, or Peninus, Liv. xxi. 38. The Alpes Peninæ are +the Great St. Bernard. + +[54] Compare Livy's account of Hannibal's march, from which, wholly +erroneous as it is, this description seems to have been taken; not that +even Livy has made such a gross mistake about the Druentia, or Durance, +which falls into the Rhone. + +[55] Cæsar's account of his expedition begins with the statement that +"Gaul is divided into three provinces." + +[56] Châlons sur Marne. + +[57] Châlons sur Saône. + +[58] Ammianus refers to Plautus, Epidicus, Act. I., sc. i., line 10:-- + + _Thesprio._ I am less of a pilferer now than formerly. + + _Ep._ How so? + + _Thes._ I rob openly. + + + + +BOOK XVI. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. A panegyric of Julian the Cæsar.--II. Julian attacks and defeats + the Allemanni.--III. He recovers Cologne, which had been taken by + the Franks, and concludes a peace with the king of the Franks.--IV. + He is besieged in the city of Sens by the Allemanni.--V. His + virtues--VI. The prosecution and acquittal of Arbetio.--VII. The + Cæsar Julian is defended before the emperor by his chamberlain + Eutherius against the accusations of Marcellus.--VIII. Calumnies + are rife in the camp of the Emperor Constantius, and the courtiers + are rapacious.--IX. The question of peace with the + Persians.--X.--The triumphal entry of Constantius into Rome.--XI. + Julian attacks the Allemanni in the islands of the Rhine in which + they had taken refuge, and repairs the fort of Saverne.--XII. He + attacks the kings of the Allemanni on the borders of Gaul, and + defeats them at Strasburg. + + +I. + +A.D. 356. + +§ 1. While the chain of destiny was bringing these events to pass in the +Roman world, Julian, being at Vienne, was taken by the emperor, then in +his own eighth consulship, as a partner in that dignity; and, under the +promptings of his own innate energy, dreamt of nothing but the crash of +battles and the slaughter of the barbarians; preparing without delay to +re-establish the province, and to reunite the fragments that had been +broken from it, if only fortune should be favourable to him. + +2. And because the great achievements which by his valour and good +fortune Julian performed in the Gauls, surpass many of the most gallant +exploits of the ancients, I will relate them in order as they occurred, +employing all the resources of my talents, moderate as they are, in the +hope that they may suffice for the narrative. + +3. But what I am about to relate, though not emblazoned by craftily +devised falsehood, and being simply a plain statement of facts, +supported by evident proofs, will have all the effect of a studied +panegyric. + +4. For it would seem that some principle of a more than commonly +virtuous life guided this young prince from his very cradle to his last +breath. Increasing rapidly in every desirable quality, he soon became so +conspicuous both at home and abroad, that in respect to his prudence he +was looked upon as a second Titus: in his glorious deeds of war he was +accounted equal to Trajan; in mercy he was the prototype of Antoninus; +and in the pursuit and discovery of true and perfect wisdom, he +resembled Marcus Aurelius, in imitation of whom he formed all his +actions and character. + +5. And since, as we are taught by Cicero, that the loftiness of great +virtues delights us, as does that of high trees, while we are not +equally interested in the roots and trunks; so, also, the first +beginnings of his admirable disposition were kept concealed by many +circumstances which threw a cloud over them; though in fact they ought +to be preferred to many of his most marvellous actions of later life, in +that he, who in his early youth had been brought up like Erectheus in +the retirement sacred to Minerva, nevertheless when he was drawn forth +from the quiet shades of the academy (and not from any military tent) +into the labours of war, subdued Germany, tranquillized the districts of +the frozen Rhine, routed the barbarian kings breathing nothing but +bloodshed and slaughter, and forced them to submission. + + +II. + +§ 1. Therefore while passing a toilsome winter in the city aforesaid, he +learnt, among the numerous reports which were flying about, that the +ancient city of Autun, the walls of which, though of vast extent, were +in a state of great decay from age, was now besieged by the barbarians, +who had suddenly appeared before it in great force; and while the +garrison remained panic-stricken and inactive, the town was defended by +a body of veterans who were behaving with great courage and vigilance; +as it often happens that extreme despair repulses dangers which appear +destructive of all hope or safety. + +2. Therefore, without relaxing his anxiety about other matters, and +putting aside all the adulation of the courtiers with which they sought +to divert his mind towards voluptuousness and luxury, he hastened his +preparations, and when everything was ready he set out, and on the 24th +of June arrived at Autun; behaving like a veteran general conspicuous +alike for skill and prowess, and prepared to fall upon the barbarians, +who were straggling in every direction over the country, the moment +fortune afforded him an opportunity. + +3. Therefore having deliberated on his plans, and consulted those who +were acquainted with the country as to what would be the safest line of +march for him to adopt, after having received much information in favour +of different routes, some recommending Arbois, others insisting on it +that the best way was by Saulieu and Cure. + +4. But as some persons affirmed that Silvanus, in command of a body of +infantry, had, a short time before, made his way with 8,000 men by a +road shorter than either, but dangerous as lying through many dark woods +and defiles suitable for ambuscades, Julian became exceedingly eager to +imitate the audacity of this brave man. + +5. And to prevent any delay, taking with him only his cuirassiers and +archers, who would not have been sufficient to defend his person had he +been attacked, he took the same route as Silvanus; and so came to +Auxerre. + +6. And there, having, according to his custom, devoted a short time to +rest, for the purpose of refreshing his men, he proceeded onwards +towards Troyes; and strengthened his flanks that he might with the +greater effect watch the barbarians, who attacked him in numerous +bodies, which he avoided as well as he could, thinking them more +numerous than they really were. Presently, however, having occupied some +favourable ground, he descended upon one body of them, and routed it, +and took some prisoners whom their own fears delivered to him; and then +he allowed the rest, who now devoted all their energies to flying with +what speed they could, to escape unattacked, as his men could not pursue +them by reason of the weight of their armour. + +7. This occurrence gave him more hope of being able to resist any attack +which they might make, and marching forwards with this confidence, after +many dangers he reached Troyes so unexpectedly, that when he arrived at +the gates, the inhabitants for some time hesitated to give him entrance +into the city, so great was their fear of the straggling multitudes of +the barbarians. + +8. After a little delay, devoted to again refreshing his weary troops, +thinking that there was no time to waste, he proceeded to the city of +Rheims, where he had ordered his whole army, carrying[59] ... to +assemble, and there to await his presence. The army at Rheims was under +the command of Marcellus, the successor of Ursicinus; and Ursicinus +himself was ordered to remain there till the termination of the +expedition. + +9. Again Julian took counsel, and after many opinions of different +purport had been delivered, it was determined to attack the host of the +Allemanni in the neighbourhood of Dieuse; and to that quarter the army +now marched in dense order, and with more than usual alacrity. + +10. And because the weather, being damp and misty, prevented even what +was near from being seen, the enemy, availing themselves of their +knowledge of the country, came by an oblique road upon the Cæsar's rear, +and attacked two legions while they were piling their arms; and they +would almost have destroyed them if the uproar which suddenly arose had +not brought the auxiliary troops of the allies to their support. + +11. From this time forth Julian, thinking it impossible to find any +roads or any rivers free from ambuscades, proceeded with consummate +prudence and caution; qualities which above all others in great generals +usually bring safety and success to armies. + +12. Hearing therefore that Strasburg, Brumat, Saverne, Spiers, Worms, +and Mayence, were all in the hands of the barbarians, who were +established in their suburbs, for the barbarians shunned fixing +themselves in the towns themselves, looking upon them like graves +surrounded with nets, he first of all entered Brumat, and just as he +reached that place he was encountered by a body of Germans prepared for +battle. + +13. Having arranged his own army in the form of a crescent, the +engagement began, and the enemy were speedily surrounded and utterly +defeated. Some were taken prisoners, others were slain in the heat of +the battle, the rest sought safety by rapid flight. + + +III. + +§ 1. After this, meeting with no resistance, he determined to proceed to +recover Cologne, which had been destroyed before his arrival in Gaul. +In that district there is no city or fortress to be seen except that +near Confluentes;[60] a place so named because there the river Moselle +becomes mingled with the Rhine; there is also the village of Rheinmagen, +and likewise a single tower near Cologne. + +2. After having taken possession of Cologne he did not leave it till the +Frank kings began, through fear of him, to abate of their fury, when he +contracted a peace with them likely to be of future advantage to the +republic. In the mean time he put the whole city into a state of +complete defence. + +3. Then, auguring well from these first-fruits of victory, he departed, +passing through the district of Treves, with the intention of wintering +at Sens, which was a town very suitable for that purpose. When bearing, +so to say, the weight of a world of wars upon his shoulders, he was +occupied by perplexities of various kinds, and among them how to provide +for establishing in places most exposed to danger the soldiers who had +quitted their former posts; how to defeat the enemies who had conspired +together to injure the Roman cause; and further, how to provide supplies +for the army while employed in so many different quarters. + + +IV. + +§ 1. While he was anxiously revolving these things in his mind, he was +attacked by a numerous force of the enemy, who had conceived a hope of +being able to take the town. And they were the more confident of success +because, from the information of deserters, they had learnt that he +neither had with him his Scutarii nor his Gentiles, both of which bodies +of troops had been distributed among the different municipal towns in +order that they might be the more easily supplied with provisions. + +2. Therefore after the gates of the city had been barricaded, and the +weakest portions of the walls carefully strengthened, Julian was seen +night and day on the battlements and ramparts, attended by a band of +armed men, boiling over with anger and gnashing his teeth, because, +often as he wished to sally forth, he was prevented from taking such a +step by the scantiness of the force which he had with him. + +3. At last, after thirty days, the barbarians retired disappointed, +murmuring that they had been so vain and weak as to attempt the siege of +such a city. It deserves however to be remarked, as a most unworthy +circumstance, that when Julian was in great personal danger, Marcellus, +the master of the horse, who was posted in the immediate neighbourhood, +omitted to bring him any assistance, though the danger of the city +itself, even if the prince had not been there, ought to have excited his +endeavours to relieve it from the peril of a siege by so formidable an +enemy. + +4. Being now delivered from this fear, Julian, ever prudent and active, +directed his anxious thoughts incessantly to the care of providing that, +after their long labours, his soldiers should have rest, which, however +brief, might be sufficient to recruit their strength. In addition to the +exhaustion consequent on their toils, they were distressed by the +deficiency of crops on the land, which through the frequent devastations +to which they had been exposed afforded but little suitable for human +food. + +5. But these difficulties he likewise surmounted by his ever wakeful +diligence, and a more confident hope of future success opening itself to +his mind, he rose with higher spirits to accomplish his other designs. + + +V. + +§ 1. In the first place (and this is a most difficult task for every +one), he imposed on himself a rigid temperance, and maintained it as if +he had been living under the obligation of the sumptuary laws. These +were originally brought to Rome from the edicts of Lycurgus and the +tables of laws compiled by Solon, and were for a long time strictly +observed. When they had become somewhat obsolete, they were +re-established by Sylla, who, guided by the apophthegms of Democritus, +agreed with him that it is Fortune which spreads an ambitious table, but +that Virtue is content with a sparing one. + +2. And likewise Cato of Tusculum, who from his pure and temperate way of +life obtained the surname of the Censor, said with profound wisdom on +the same subject, "When there is great care about food, there is very +little care about virtue." + +3. Lastly, though he was continually reading the little treatise which +Constantius, when sending him as his step-son to prosecute his studies, +had written for him with his own hand, in which he made extravagant +provision for the dinner-expenses of the Cæsar, Julian now forbade +pheasants, or sausages, or even sow's udder to be served up to him, +contenting himself with the cheap and ordinary food of the common +soldiers. + +4. Hereupon arose his custom of dividing his nights into three portions, +one of which he allotted to rest, one to the affairs of the state, and +one to the study of literature; and we read that Alexander the Great had +been accustomed to do the same, though he practised the rule with less +self-reliance. For Alexander, having placed a brazen shell on the ground +beneath him, used to hold a silver ball in his hand, which he kept +stretched outside his bed, so that when sleep pervading his whole body +had relaxed the rigour of his muscles, the rattling of the ball falling +might banish slumber from his eyes. + +5. But Julian, without any instrument, awoke whenever he pleased; and +always rising when the night was but half spent, and that not from a bed +of feathers, or silken coverlets shining with varied brilliancy, but +from a rough blanket or rug, would secretly offer his supplications to +Mercury, who, as the theological lessons which he had received had +taught him, was the swift intelligence of the world, exciting the +different emotions of the mind. And thus removed from all external +circumstances calculated to distract his attention, he gave his whole +attention to the affairs of the republic. + +6. Then, after having ended this arduous and important business, he +turned and applied himself to the cultivation of his intellect. And it +was marvellous with what excessive ardour he investigated and attained +to the sublime knowledge of the loftiest matters, and how, seeking as it +were some food for his mind which might give it strength to climb up to +the sublimest truths, he ran through every branch of philosophy in +profound and subtle discussions. + +7. Nevertheless, while engaged in amassing knowledge of this kind in +all its fullness and power, he did not despise the humbler +accomplishments. He was tolerably fond of poetry and rhetoric, as is +shown by the invariable and pure elegance, mingled with dignity, of all +his speeches and letters. And he likewise studied the varied history of +our own state and of foreign countries. To all these accomplishments was +added a very tolerable degree of eloquence in the Latin language. + +8. Therefore, if it be true, as many writers affirm, that Cyrus the +king, and Simonides the lyric poet, and Hippias of Elis, the most acute +of the Sophists, excelled as they did in memory because they had +obtained that faculty through drinking a particular medicine, we must +also believe that Julian in his early manhood had drunk the whole cask +of memory, if such a thing could ever be found. And these are the +nocturnal signs of his chastity and virtue. + +9. But as for the manner in which he passed his days, whether in +conversing with eloquence and wit, or in making preparations for war, or +in actual conflict of battle, or in his administration of affairs of the +state, correcting all defects with magnanimity and liberality, these +things shall all be set forth in their proper place. + +10. When he was compelled, as being a prince, to apply himself to the +study of military discipline, having been previously confined to lessons +of philosophy, and when he was learning the art of marching in time +while the pipes were playing the Pyrrhic air, he often, calling upon the +name of Plato, ironically quoted that old proverb, "A pack-saddle is +placed on an ox; this is clearly a burden which does not belong to me." + +11. On one occasion, when some secretaries were introduced into the +council-chamber, with solemn ceremony, to receive some gold, one of +their company did not, as is the usual custom, open his robe to receive +it, but took it in the hollow of both his hands joined together; on +which Julian said, secretaries only know how to seize things, not how to +accept them. + +12. Having been approached by the parents of a virgin who had been +ravished, seeking for justice, he gave sentence that the ravisher, on +conviction, should be banished; and when the parents complained of this +sentence as unequal to the crime, because the criminal had not been +condemned to death, he replied, "Let the laws blame my clemency: but it +is fitting that an emperor of a most merciful disposition should be +superior to all other laws." + +13. Once when he was about to set forth on an expedition, he was +interrupted by several people complaining of injuries which they had +received, whom he referred for a hearing to the governors of their +respective provinces. And after he had returned, he inquired what had +been done in each case, and with genuine clemency mitigated the +punishments which had been assigned to the offences. + +14. Last of all, without here making any mention of the victories in +which he repeatedly defeated the barbarians, and the vigilance with +which he protected his army from all harm, the benefits which he +conferred on the Galli, previously exhausted by extreme want, are most +especially evident from this fact, that when he first entered the +country he found that four-and-twenty pieces of gold were exacted, under +the name of tribute, in the way of poll-tax, from each individual. But +when he quitted the country seven pieces only were required, which made +up all the payments due from them to the state. On which account they +rejoiced with festivals and dances, looking upon him as a serene sun +which had shone upon them after melancholy darkness. + +15. Moreover we know that up to the very end of his reign and of his +life, he carefully and with great benefit observed this rule, not to +remit the arrears of tribute by edicts which they call indulgences. For +he knew that by such conduct he should be giving something to the rich, +whilst it is notorious everywhere that, the moment that taxes are +imposed, the poor are compelled to pay them all at once without any +relief. + +16. But while he was thus regulating and governing the country in a +manner deserving the imitation of all virtuous princes, the rage of the +barbarians again broke out more violently than ever. + +17. And as wild beasts, which, owing to the carelessness of the +shepherds, have been wont to plunder their flocks, even when these +careless keepers are exchanged for more watchful ones, still cling to +their habit, and being furious with hunger, will, without any regard for +their own safety, again attack the flocks and herds; so also the +barbarians, having consumed all their plunder, continued, under the +pressure of hunger, repeatedly to make inroads for the sake of booty, +though sometimes they died of want before they could obtain any. + + +VI. + +§ 1. These were the events which took place in Gaul during this year; at +first of doubtful issue, but in the end successful. Meanwhile in the +emperor's court envy constantly assailed Arbetio, accusing him of having +already assumed the ensigns of imperial rank, as if designing soon to +attain the supreme dignity itself. And especially was he attacked by a +count named Verissimus, who with great vehemence brought forth terrible +charges against him, openly alleging that although he had been raised +from the rank of a common soldier to high military office, he was not +contented, thinking little of what he had obtained, and aiming at the +highest place. + +2. And he was also vigorously attacked by a man named Dorus, who had +formerly been surgeon of the Scutarii, and of whom we have spoken, when +promoted in the time of Magnentius to be inspector of the works of art +at Rome, as having brought accusations against Adelphius, the prefect of +the city, as forming ambitious designs. + +3. And when the matter was brought forward for judicial inquiry, and all +preliminary arrangements were made, proof of the accusations which had +been confidently looked for was still delayed; when suddenly, as if the +business had been meant as a satire on the administration of justice, +through the interposition of the chamberlain as rumour affirmed, the +persons who had been imprisoned as accomplices were released from their +confinement: Dorus disappeared, and Verissimus kept silence for the +future, as if the curtain had dropped and the scene had been suddenly +changed. + + +VII. + +§ 1. About the same time, Constantius having learnt, from common report, +that Marcellus had omitted to carry assistance to the Cæsar when he was +besieged at Sens, cashiered him, and ordered him to retire to his own +house. And he, as if he had received a great injury, began to plot +against Julian, relying upon the disposition of the emperor to open his +ears to every accusation. + +2. Therefore, when he departed, Eutherius, the chief chamberlain, was +immediately sent after him, that he might convict him before the emperor +if he propagated any falsehoods. But Marcellus, unaware of this, as soon +as he arrived at Milan, began talking loudly, and seeking to create +alarm, like a vain chatterer half mad as he was. And when he was +admitted into the council-chamber, he began to accuse Julian of being +insolent, and of preparing for himself stronger wings in order to soar +to a greater height. For this was his expression, agitating his body +violently as he uttered it. + +3. While he was thus uttering his imaginary charges with great freedom, +Eutherius being, at his own request, introduced into the presence, and +being commanded to say what he wished, speaking with great respect and +moderation showed the emperor that the truth was being overlaid with +falsehood. For that, while the commander of the heavy-armed troops had, +as it was believed, held back on purpose, the Cæsar having been long +besieged at Sens, had by his vigilance and energy repelled the +barbarians. And he pledged his own life that the Cæsar would, as long as +he lived, be faithful to the author of his greatness. + +4. The opportunity reminds me here to mention a few facts concerning +this same Eutherius, which perhaps will hardly be believed; because if +Numa Pompilius or Socrates were to say anything good of a eunuch, and +were to confirm what they said by an oath, they would be accused of +having departed from the truth. But roses grow up among thorns, and +among wild beasts some are of gentle disposition. And therefore I will +briefly mention a few of his most important acts which are well +ascertained. + +5. He was born in Armenia, of a respectable family, and having while a +very little child been taken prisoner by the enemies on the border, he +was castrated and sold to some Roman merchants, and by them conducted to +the palace of Constantine, where, while growing up to manhood, he began +to display good principles and good talents, becoming accomplished in +literature to a degree quite sufficient for his fortune, displaying +extraordinary acuteness in discovering matters of a doubtful and +difficult complexion; being remarkable also for a marvellous memory, +always eager to do good, and full of wise and honest counsel. A man, in +short, who, if the Emperor Constantius had listened to his advice, +which, whether he gave it in youth or manhood, was always honourable and +upright, would have been prevented from committing any errors, or at +least any that were not pardonable. + +6. When he became high chamberlain he sometimes also found fault even +with Julian, who, as being tainted with Asiatic manners, was apt to be +capricious. Finally, when he quitted office for private life, and again +when he was recalled to court, he was always sober and consistent, +cultivating those excellent virtues of good faith and constancy to such +a degree that he never betrayed any secret, except for the purpose of +securing another's safety; nor was he ever accused of covetous or +grasping conduct, as the other courtiers were. + +7. From which it arose that, when at a late period he retired to Rome, +and fixed there the abode of his old age, bearing with him the company +of a good conscience, he was loved and respected by men of all ranks, +though men of that class generally, after having amassed riches by +iniquity, love to seek secret places of retirement, just as owls or +moths, and avoid the sight of the multitude whom they have injured. + +8. Though I have often ransacked the accounts of antiquity, I do not +find any ancient eunuch to whom I can compare him. There were indeed +among the ancients some, though very few, faithful and economical, but +still they were stained by some vice or other; and among the chief +faults which they had either by nature or habit, they were apt to be +either rapacious or else boorish, and on that account contemptible; or +else ill-natured and mischievous; or fawning too much on the powerful; +or too elated with power, and therefore arrogant. But of any one so +universally accomplished and prudent, I confess I have neither ever read +nor heard, relying for the truth of this judgment on the general +testimony of the age. + +9. But if any careful reader of ancient histories should oppose to us +Menophilus, the eunuch of King Mithridates, I would warn him to +recollect that nothing is really known of him except this single fact, +that he behaved gloriously in a moment of extreme danger. + +10. When the king above mentioned, having been defeated by the Romans +under the command of Pompey, and fleeing to his kingdom of Colchis, left +a grown-up daughter, named Drypetina, who at the time was dangerously +ill, in the castle of Synhorium, under the care of this Menophilus, he +completely cured the maiden by a variety of remedies, and preserved her +in safety for her father; and when the fortress in which they were +enclosed began to be besieged by Manlius Priscus, the lieutenant of the +general, and when he became aware that the garrison were proposing to +surrender, he, fearing that, to the dishonour of her father, this noble +damsel might be made a prisoner and be ravished, slew her, and then fell +upon his sword himself. Now I will return to the point from which I +digressed. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. After Marcellus had been foiled, as I have mentioned, and had +returned to Serdica, which was his native place, many great crimes were +perpetrated in the camp of Augustus, under pretence of upholding the +majesty of the emperor. + +2. For if any one had consulted any cunning soothsayer about the squeak +of a mouse, or the appearance of a weasel, or any other similar portent, +or had used any old woman's chants to assuage any pain--a practice which +the authority of medicine does not always prohibit--such a man was at +once informed against, without being able to conceive by whom, and was +brought before a court of law, and at once condemned to death. + +3. About the same time an individual named Dames was accused by his wife +of certain trifling acts, of which, whether he was innocent or not is +uncertain; but Rufinus was his enemy, who, as we have mentioned, had +given information of some matters which had been communicated to him by +Gaudentius, the emperor's secretary, causing Africanus, then governing +Pannonia with the rank of a consul, to be put to death, with all his +friends. This Rufinus was now, for his devotion to the interests of the +emperor, the chief commander of the prætorian guard. + +4. He, being given to talking in a boastful manner, after having +seduced that easily deluded woman (the wife of Dames) into an illicit +connection with him, allured her into a perilous fraud, and persuaded +her by an accumulation of lies to accuse her innocent husband of +treason, and to invent a story that he had stolen a purple garment from +the sepulchre of Diocletian, and, by the help of some accomplices, still +kept it concealed. + +5. When this story had been thus devised in a way to cause the +destruction of many persons, Rufinus himself, full of hopes of some +advantage, hastened to the camp of the emperor, to spread his customary +calumnies. And when the transaction had been divulged, Manlius, at that +time the commander of the prætorian camp, a man of admirable integrity, +received orders to make a strict inquiry into the charge, having united +to him, as a colleague in the examination, Ursulus, the chief paymaster, +a man likewise of praiseworthy equity and strictness. + +6. There, after the matter had been rigorously investigated according to +the fashion of that period, and when, after many persons had been put to +the torture, nothing was found out, and the judges were in doubt and +perplexity; at length truth, long suppressed, found a respite, and, +under the compulsion of a rigorous examination, the woman confessed that +Rufinus was the author of the whole plot, nor did she even conceal the +fact of her adultery with him. Reference was immediately made to the +law, and as order and justice required, the judges condemned them both +to death. + +7. But as soon as this was known, Constantius became greatly enraged, +and lamenting Rufinus as if the champion of his safety had been +destroyed, he sent couriers on horseback express, with threatening +orders to Ursulus, commanding him to return to court. Ursulus, +disregarding the remonstrances of those who advised him to disobey, +hastened fearlessly to the presence; and having entered the emperor's +council-chambers, with undaunted heart and voice related the whole +transaction; and this confident behaviour of his shut the mouths of the +flatterers, and delivered both the prefect and himself from serious +danger. + +8. It was at this time also that an event took place in Aquitania which +was more extensively talked about. A certain cunning person being +invited to a splendid and sumptuous banquet, which are frequent in that +province, having seen a pair of coverlets, with two purple borders of +such width, that by the skill of those who waited they seemed to be but +one; and beholding the table also covered with a similar cloth, he took +up one in each hand, and arranged them so as to resemble the front of a +cloak, representing them as having formed the ornament of the imperial +robe; and then searching over the whole house in order to find the robe +which he affirmed must be hidden there, he thus caused the ruin of a +wealthy estate. + +9. With similar malignity, a certain secretary in Spain, who was +likewise invited to a supper, hearing the servants, while bringing in +the evening candles, cry "let us conquer," affixing a malignant +interpretation to that common exclamation, in like manner ruined a noble +family. + +10. These and other evils increasing more and more, because Constantius, +being a man of a very timorous disposition, was always thinking that +blows were being aimed at him, like the celebrated tyrant of Sicily, +Dionysius, who, because of this vice of his, taught his daughters to +shave him, in order that he might not have to put his face in a +stranger's power; and surrounded the small chamber in which he was +accustomed to sleep with a deep ditch, so placed that it could only be +entered by a drawbridge; the loose beams and axles of which when he went +to bed he removed into his own chamber, replacing them when about to go +forth at daybreak. + +11. Moreover, those who had influence in the court promoted the spread +of these evils, with the hope of joining to their own estates the +forfeited possessions of those who should be condemned; and thus +becoming rich by the ruin of their neighbours. + +12. For, as clear evidence has shown, if Constantine was the first to +excite the appetites of his followers, Constantius was the prince who +fattened them on the marrow of the provinces. + +13. For under him the principal persons of every rank burnt with an +insatiable desire of riches, without any regard for justice or right. +And among the ordinary judges, Rufinus, the chief prefect of the +prætorium, was conspicuous for this avarice. And among the military +officers Arbetio, the master of the horse, and Eusebius, the high +chamberlain, ... Ard ... anus, the quæstor, and in the city, the two +Anicii, whose posterity, treading in the steps of their fathers, could +not be satisfied even with possessions much larger than they themselves +had enjoyed. + + +IX. + +§ 1. But in the East, the Persians now practising predatory inroads and +forays, in preference to engaging in pitched battles, as they had been +wont to do before, carried off continually great numbers of men and +cattle: sometimes making great booty, owing to the unexpectedness of +their incursions, but at other times being overpowered by superior +numbers, they suffered losses. Sometimes, also, the inhabitants of the +districts which they had invaded had removed everything which could be +carried off. + +2. But Musonianus, the prefect of the prætorium, a man, as we have +already said, of many liberal accomplishments but corrupt, and a person +easily turned from the truth by a bribe, acquired, by means of some +emissaries who were skilful in deceiving and obtaining information, a +knowledge of the plans of the Persians; taking to his counsels on this +subject Cassianus, duke of Mesopotamia, a veteran who had served many +campaigns, and had become hardened by all kinds of dangers. + +3. And when, by the concurrent report of spies, these officers had +become certain that Sapor was occupied in the most remote frontier of +his kingdom in repelling the hostilities of the bordering tribes, which +he could not accomplish without great difficulty and bloodshed, they +sought to tamper with Tamsapor, the general in command in the district +nearest our border. Accordingly they sent soldiers of no renown to +confer with him secretly, to engage him, if opportunity served, to write +to the king to persuade him to make peace with the Roman emperor; +whereby he, being then secure on every side, might be the better able to +subdue the rebels who were never weary of exciting disturbances. + +4. Tamsapor coincided with these wishes, and, trusting to them, reported +to the king that Constantius, being involved in very formidable wars, +was a suppliant for peace. But it took a long time for these letters to +reach the country of the Chionites and the Euseni, on whose borders +Sapor had taken up his winter quarters. + + +X. + +§ 1. While matters were thus proceeding in the eastern regions and in +the Gauls, Constantius, as if the temple of Janus were now shut and +hostilities everywhere at an end, became desirous of visiting Rome, with +the intention of celebrating his triumph over Magnentius, to which he +could give no name, since the blood that he had spilt was that of Roman +foes. + +2. For indeed, neither by his own exertions, nor by those of his +generals did he ever conquer any nation that made war upon him; nor did +he make any additions to the empire; nor at critical moments was he ever +seen to be the foremost or even among the foremost; but still he was +eager to exhibit to the people, now in the enjoyment of peace, a vast +procession, and standards heavy with gold, and a splendid train of +guards and followers, though the citizens themselves neither expected +nor desired any such spectacle. + +3. He was ignorant, probably, that some of the ancient emperors were, in +time of peace, contented with their lictors, and that when the ardour of +war forbade all inactivity, one,[61] in a violent storm, had trusted +himself to a fisherman's boat; another,[62] following the example of the +Decii, had sacrificed his life for the safety of the republic; +another[63] had by himself, accompanied by only a few soldiers of the +lowest rank, gone as a spy into the camp of the enemy: in short, that +many of them had rendered themselves illustrious by splendid exploits, +in order to hand down to posterity a glorious memory of themselves, +earned by their achievements. + +4. Accordingly, after long and sumptuous preparation, ... in the second +prefecture of Orfitus, Constantius, elated with his great honours, and +escorted by a formidable array of troops, marching in order of battle, +passed through Ocricoli, attracting towards himself the astonished gaze +of all the citizens. + +5. And when he drew near to the city, contemplating the salutations +offered him by the senators, and the whole body of fathers venerable +from their likeness to their ancestors, he thought, not like Cineas, the +ambassador of Pyrrhus, that a multitude of kings was here assembled +together, but that the city was the asylum of the whole world. + +6. And when from them he had turned his eyes upon the citizens, he +marvelled to think with what rapidity the whole race of mankind upon +earth had come from all quarters to Rome; and, as if he would have +terrified the Euphrates or the Rhine with a show of armed men, he +himself came on, preceded by standards on both sides, sitting alone in a +golden chariot, shining with all kinds of brilliant precious stones, +which seemed to spread a flickering light all around. + +7. Numbers also of the chief officers who went before him were +surrounded by dragons embroidered on various kinds of tissue, fastened +to the golden or jewelled points of spears, the mouths of the dragons +being open so as to catch the wind, which made them hiss as though they +were inflamed with anger; while the coils of their tails were also +contrived to be agitated by the breeze. + +8. After these marched a double row of heavy-armed soldiers, with +shields and crested helmets, glittering with brilliant light, and clad +in radiant breastplates; and among these were scattered cavalry with +cuirasses, whom the Persians call Clibanarii,[64] protected by coverings +of iron breastplates, and girdled with belts of iron, so that you would +fancy them statues polished by the hand of Praxiteles, rather than men. +And the light circular plates of iron which surrounded their bodies, and +covered all their limbs, were so well fitted to all their motions, that +in whatever direction they had occasion to move, the joints of their +iron clothing adapted themselves equally to any position. + +9. The emperor as he proceeded was saluted as Augustus by voices of good +omen, the mountains and shores re-echoing the shouts of the people, amid +which he preserved the same immovable countenance which he was +accustomed to display in his provinces. + +10. For though he was very short, yet he bowed down when entering high +gates, and looking straight before him, as though he had had his neck in +a vice, he turned his eyes neither to the right nor to the left, as if +he had been a statue: nor when the carriage shook him did he nod his +head, or spit, or rub his face or his nose; nor was he ever seen even to +move a hand. + +11. And although this calmness was affectation, yet these and other +portions of his inner life were indicative of a most extraordinary +patience, as it may be thought, granted to him alone. + +12. I pass over the circumstance that during the whole of his reign he +never either took up any one to sit with him in his chariot, or admitted +any private person to be his partner in the consulship, as other +emperors had done; also many other things which he, being filled with +elation and pride, prescribed to himself as the justest of all rules of +conduct, recollecting that I mentioned those facts before, as occasion +served. + +13. As he went on, having entered Rome, that home of sovereignty and of +all virtues, when he arrived at the rostra, he gazed with amazed awe on +the Forum, the most renowned monument of ancient power; and, being +bewildered with the number of wonders on every side to which he turned +his eyes, having addressed the nobles in the senate-house, and harangued +the populace from the tribune, he retired, with the good-will of all, +into his palace, where he enjoyed the luxury he had wished for. And +often, when celebrating the equestrian games, was he delighted with the +talkativeness of the common people, who were neither proud, nor, on the +other hand, inclined to become rebellious from too much liberty, while +he himself also reverently observed a proper moderation. + +14. For he did not, as was usually done in other cities, allow the +length of the gladiatorial contests to depend on his caprice; but left +it to be decided by various occurrences. Then, traversing the summits of +the seven hills, and the different quarters of the city, whether placed +on the slopes of the hills or on the level ground, and visiting, too, +the suburban divisions, he was so delighted that whatever he saw first +he thought the most excellent of all. Admiring the temple of the +Tarpeian Jupiter, which is as much superior to other temples as divine +things are superior to those of men; and the baths of the size of +provinces; and the vast mass of the amphitheatre, so solidly erected of +Tibertine stone, to the top of which human vision can scarcely reach; +and the Pantheon with its vast extent, its imposing height, and the +solid magnificence of its arches, and the lofty niches rising one above +another like stairs, adorned with the images of former emperors; and the +temple of the city, and the forum of peace, and the theatre of Pompey, +and the odeum, and the racecourse, and the other ornaments of the +Eternal City. + +15. But when he came to the forum of Trajan, the most exquisite +structure, in my opinion, under the canopy of heaven, and admired even +by the deities themselves, he stood transfixed with wonder, casting his +mind over the gigantic proportions of the place, beyond the power of +mortal to describe, and beyond the reasonable desire of mortals to +rival. Therefore giving up all hopes of attempting anything of this +kind, he contented himself with saying that he should wish to imitate, +and could imitate the horse of Trajan, which stands by itself in the +middle of the hall, bearing the emperor himself on his back. + +16. And the royal prince Hormisdas, whose departure from Persia we have +already mentioned, standing by answered, with the refinement of his +nature, "But first, O emperor, command such a stable to be built for +him, if you can, that the horse which you purpose to make may have as +fair a domain as this which we see." And when he was asked what he +thought of Rome, he said that "he was particularly delighted with it +because he had learnt that men died also there." + +17. Now after he had beheld all these various objects with awful +admiration, the emperor complained of fame, as either deficient in +power, or else spiteful, because, though it usually exaggerates +everything, it fell very short in its praises of the things which are +at Rome; and having deliberated for some time what he should do, he +determined to add to the ornaments of the city by erecting an obelisk in +the Circus Maximus, the origin and form of which I will describe when I +come to the proper place. + +18. At this time Eusebia, the queen, who herself was barren all her +life, began to plot against Helena, the sister of Constantius, and wife +of the Cæsar Julian, whom she had induced to come to Rome under a +pretence of affection, and by wicked machinations she induced her to +drink a poison which she had procured, which should have the effect, +whenever Helena conceived, of producing abortion. + +19. For already, when in Gaul, she had borne a male child, but that also +had been dishonestly destroyed because the midwife, having been bribed, +killed it as soon as it was born, by cutting through the navel-string +too deeply; such exceeding care was taken that this most gallant man +should have no offspring. + +20. But the emperor, while wishing to remain longer in this most august +spot of the whole world, in order to enjoy a purer tranquillity and +higher degree of pleasure, was alarmed by repeated intelligence on which +he could rely, which informed him that the Suevi were invading the +Tyrol, that the Quadi were ravaging Valeria,[65] and that the +Sarmatians, a tribe most skilful in plunder, were laying waste the upper +Moesia, and the second Pannonia. And roused by these news, on the +thirtieth day after he had entered Rome, he again quitted it, leaving it +on the 29th of May, and passing through Trent he proceeded with all +haste towards Illyricum. + +21. And from that city he sent Severus to succeed Marcellus, a man of +great experience and ripe skill in war, and summoned Ursicinus to +himself. He, having gladly received the letter of summons, came to +Sirmium, with a large retinue, and after a long deliberation on the +peace which Musonianus had reported as possible to be made with the +Persians, he was sent back to the East with the authority of +commander-in-chief, and the older officers of our company having been +promoted to commands over the soldiers, we younger men were ordered to +follow him to perform whatever he commanded us for the service of the +republic. + + +XI. + +A.D. 357. + +§ 1. But Julian, having passed his winter at Sens, amid continual +disturbance, in the ninth consulship of the emperor, and his own second, +while the threats of the Germans were raging on all sides, being roused +by favourable omens, marched with speed to Rheims, with the greater +alacrity and joy because Severus was in command of the army there; a man +inclined to agree with him, void of arrogance, but of proved propriety +of conduct and experience in war, and likely to follow his lawful +authority, obeying his general like a well-disciplined soldier. + +2. In another quarter, Barbatio, who after the death of Silvanus had +been promoted to the command of the infantry, came from Italy by the +emperor's orders, to Augst, with 25,000 heavy-armed soldiers. + +3. For the plan proposed and very anxiously prepared was, that the +Allemanni, who were in a state of greater rage than ever, and were +extending their incursions more widely, should be caught between our two +armies, as if between the arms of a pair of pincers, and so driven into +a corner and destroyed. + +4. But while these well-devised plans were being pressed forward, the +barbarians, in joy at some success which they had obtained, and skilful +in seizing every opportunity for plunder, passed secretly between the +camps of the armies, and attacked Lyons unexpectedly. And having +plundered the district around, they would have stormed and burnt the +city itself, if they had not found the gates so strongly defended that +they were repulsed; so that they only destroyed all they could find +outside the city. + +5. When this disaster was known, Cæsar, with great alacrity, despatched +three squadrons of light cavalry, of approved valour, to watch three +lines of road, knowing that beyond all question the invaders must quit +the district by one of them. + +6. Nor was he mistaken; for all who came by these roads were +slaughtered by our men, and the whole of the booty which they were +carrying off was recovered unhurt. Those alone escaped in safety who +passed by the camp of Barbatio, who were suffered to escape in that +direction because Bainobaudes the tribune, and Valentinian (afterwards +emperor), who had been appointed to watch that pass with the squadrons +of cavalry under their orders, were forbidden by Cella (the tribune of +the Scutarii, who had been sent as colleague to Barbatio) to occupy that +road, though they were sure that by that the Germans would return to +their own country. + +7. The cowardly master of the horse, being also an obstinate enemy to +the glory of Julian, was not contented with this, but being conscious +that he had given orders inconsistent with the interests of Rome (for +when he was accused of it Cella confessed what he had done), he made a +false report to Constantius, and told him that these same tribunes had, +under a pretence of the business of the state, came thither for the +purpose of tampering with the soldiers whom he commanded. And owing to +this statement they were deprived of their commands, and returned home +as private individuals. + +8. In these days, also, the barbarians, alarmed at the approach of our +armies, which had established their stations on the left bank of the +Rhine, employed some part of their force in skilfully barricading the +roads, naturally difficult of access, and full of hills, by abattis +constructed of large trees cut down; others occupied the numerous +islands scattered up and down the Rhone, and with horrid howls poured +forth constant reproaches against the Romans and the Cæsar; who, being +now more than ever resolved to crush some of their armies, demanded from +Barbatio seven of those boats which he had collected, for the purpose of +constructing a bridge with them, with the intention of crossing the +river. But Barbatio, determined that no assistance should be got from +him, burnt them all. + +9. Julian, therefore, having learnt from the report of some spies whom +he had lately taken prisoners, that, when the drought of summer arrived, +the river was fordable, addressed a speech of encouragement to his +light-armed auxiliary troops, and sent them forward with Bainobaudes, +the tribune of the Cornuti, to try and perform some gallant exploit, if +they could find an opportunity. And they, entering the shallow of the +river, and sometimes, when there was occasion for swimming, putting +their shields under them like canoes, reached a neighbouring island, and +having landed, killed every one they found on it, men and women, without +distinction of age, like so many sheep. And having found some empty +boats, though they were not very safe, they crossed in them, forcing +their way into many places of the same land. When they were weary of +slaughter, and loaded with a rich booty, some of which, however, they +lost through the violence of the river, they returned back to the camp +without losing a man. + +10. And when this was known, the rest of the Germans, thinking they +could no longer trust the garrisons left in the islands, removed their +relations, and their magazines, and their barbaric treasures, into the +inland parts. + +11. After this Julian turned his attention to repair the fortress known +by the name of Saverne, which had a little time before been destroyed by +a violent attack of the enemy, but which, while it stood, manifestly +prevented the Germans from forcing their way into the interior of the +Gauls, as they had been accustomed to do; and he executed this work with +greater rapidity than he expected, and he laid up for the garrison which +he intended to post there sufficient magazines for a whole year's +consumption, which his army collected from the crops of the barbarians, +not without occasional contests with the owners. + +12. Nor indeed was he contented with this, but he also collected +provisions for himself and his army sufficient for twenty days. For the +soldiers delighted in using the food which they had won with their own +right hands, being especially indignant because, out of all the supplies +which had been recently sent them, they were not able to obtain +anything, inasmuch as Barbatio, when they were passing near his camp, +had with great insolence seized on a portion of them, and had collected +all the rest into a heap and burnt them. Whether he acted thus out of +his own vanity and insane folly, or whether others were really the +authors of this wickedness, relying on the command of the emperor +himself, has never been known. + +13. However, as far as report went, the story commonly was, that Julian +had been elected Cæsar, not for the object of relieving the distresses +of the Gauls, but rather of being himself destroyed by the formidable +wars in which he was sure to be involved; being at that time, as was +supposed, inexperienced in war, and not likely to endure even the sound +of arms. + +14. While the works of the camp were steadily rising, and while a +portion of the army was being distributed among the stations in the +country districts, Julian occupied himself in other quarters with +collecting supplies, operating with great caution, from the fear of +ambuscades. And in the mean time, a vast host of the barbarians, +outstripping all report of their approach by the celerity of their +movements, came down with a sudden attack upon Barbatio, and the army +which (as I have already mentioned) he had under his command, separated +from the Gallic army of Severus only by a rampart; and having put him to +flight, pursued him as far as Augst, and beyond that town too, as far as +they could; and, having made booty of the greater part of his baggage +and beasts of burden, and having carried off many of the sutlers as +prisoners, they returned to their main army. + +15. And Barbatio, as if he had brought his expectations to a prosperous +issue, now distributed his soldiers into winter quarters, and returned +to the emperor's court, to forge new accusations against the Cæsar, +according to his custom. + + +XII. + +§ 1. When this disgraceful disaster had become known, Chnodomarius and +Vestralpus, the kings of the Allemanni, and Urius and Ursicinus, with +Serapion, and Suomarius, and Hortarius, having collected all their +forces into one body, encamped near the city of Strasburg, thinking that +the Cæsar, from fear of imminent danger, had retreated at the very time +that he was wholly occupied with completing a fortress to enable him to +make a permanent stand. + +2. Their confidence and assurance of success was increased by one of the +Scutarii who deserted to them, who fearing punishment for some offence +which he had committed, crossed over to them after the departure of +Barbatio, and assured them that Julian had now only 13,000 men remaining +with him. For that was the number of troops that he had now with him, +while the ferocious barbarians were stirring up attacks upon him from +all sides. + +3. And as he constantly adhered to the same story, they were excited to +more haughty attempts by the confidence with which he inspired them, and +sent ambassadors in an imperious tone to Cæsar, demanding that he should +retire from the territory which they had acquired by their own valour in +arms. But he, a stranger to fear, and not liable to be swayed either by +anger or by disappointment, despised the arrogance of the barbarians, +and detaining the ambassadors till he had completed the works of his +camp, remained immovable on his ground with admirable constancy. + +4. But King Chnodomarius, moving about in every direction, and being +always the first to undertake dangerous enterprises, kept everything in +continual agitation and confusion, being full of arrogance and pride, as +one whose head was turned by repeated success. + +5. For he had defeated the Cæsar Decentius in a pitched battle, and he +had plundered and destroyed many wealthy cities, and he had long ravaged +all Gaul at his own pleasure without meeting with any resistance. And +his confidence was now increased by the recent retreat of a general +superior to him in the number and strength of his forces. + +6. For the Allemanni, beholding the emblems on their shields, saw that a +few predatory bands of their men had wrested those districts from those +soldiers whom they had formerly never engaged but with fear, and by whom +they had often been routed with much loss. And these circumstances made +Julian very anxious, because, after the defection of Barbatio, he +himself under the pressure of absolute necessity was compelled to +encounter very populous tribes, with but very few, though brave troops. + +7. And now, the sun being fully risen, the trumpets sounded, and the +infantry were led forth from the camp in slow march, and on their flanks +were arrayed the squadrons of cavalry, among which were both the +cuirassiers and the archers, troops whose equipment was very formidable. + +8. And since from the spot from which the Roman standards had first +advanced to the rampart of the barbarian camp were fourteen leagues, +that is to say one-and-twenty miles, Cæsar, carefully providing for the +advantage and safety of his army, called in the skirmishers who had gone +out in front, and having ordered silence in his usual voice, while they +all stood in battalions around him, addressed them in his natural +tranquillity of voice. + +9. "The necessity of providing for our common safety, to say the least +of it, compels me, and I am no prince of abject spirit, to exhort you, +my comrades, to rely so much on your own mature and vigorous valour, as +to follow my counsels in adopting a prudent manner of enduring or +repelling the evils which we anticipate, rather than resort to an +overhasty mode of action which must be doubtful in its issue. + +10. "For though amid dangers youth ought to be energetic and bold, so +also in cases of necessity it should show itself manageable and prudent. +Now what I think best to be done, if your opinion accords with mine, and +if your just indignation will endure it, I will briefly explain. + +11. "Already noon is approaching, we are weary with our march, and if we +advance we shall enter upon rugged paths where we can hardly see our +way. As the moon is waning the night will not be lighted up by any +stars. The earth is burnt up with the heat, and will afford us no +supplies of water. And even if by any contrivance we could get over +these difficulties comfortably, still, when the swarms of the enemy fall +upon us, refreshed as they will be with rest, meat, and drink, what will +become of us? What strength will there be in our weary limbs, exhausted +as we shall be with hunger, thirst, and toil, to encounter them? + +12. "Therefore, since the most critical difficulties are often overcome +by skilful arrangements, and since, after good counsel has been taken in +good part, divine-looking remedies have often re-established affairs +which seemed to be tottering; I entreat you to let us here, surrounded +as we are with fosse and rampart, take our repose, after first +parcelling out our regular watches, and then, having refreshed ourselves +with sleep and food as well as the time will allow, let us, under the +protection of God, with the earliest dawn move forth our conquering +eagles and standards to reap a certain triumph." + +13. The soldiers would hardly allow him to finish his speech, gnashing +their teeth, and showing their eagerness for combat by beating their +shields with their spears; and entreating at once to be led against the +enemy already in their sight, relying on the favour of the God of +heaven, and on their own valour, and on the proved courage of their +fortunate general. And, as the result proved, it was a certain kind +genius that was present with them thus prompting them to fight while +still under his inspiration. + +14. And this eagerness of theirs was further stimulated by the full +approval of the officers of high rank, and especially of Florentius the +prefect of the prætorian guard, who openly gave his opinion for fighting +at once, while the enemy were in the solid mass in which they were now +arranged; admitting the danger indeed, but still thinking it the wisest +plan, because, if the enemy once dispersed, it would be impossible to +restrain the soldiers, at all times inclined by their natural vehemence +of disposition towards sedition; and they were likely to be, as he +thought, so indignant at being denied the victory they sought, as to be +easily tempted to the most lawless violence. + +15. Two other considerations also added to the confidence of our men. +First, because they recollected that in the previous year, when the +Romans spread themselves in every direction over the countries on the +other side of the Rhine, not one of the barbarians stood to defend his +home, nor ventured to encounter them; but they contented themselves with +blockading the roads in every direction with vast abattis, throughout +the whole winter retiring into the remote districts, and willingly +endured the greatest hardships rather than fight; recollecting also +that, after the emperor actually invaded their territories, the +barbarians neither ventured to make any resistance, nor even to show +themselves at all, but implored peace in the most suppliant manner, till +they obtained it. + +16. But no one considered that the times were changed, because the +barbarians were at that time pressed with a threefold danger. The +emperor hastening against them through the Tyrol, the Cæsar who was +actually in their country cutting off all possibility of retreat, while +the neighbouring tribes, whom recent quarrels had converted into +enemies, were all but treading on their heels; and thus they were +surrounded on all sides. But since that time the emperor, having granted +them peace, had returned to Italy, and the neighbouring tribes, having +all cause of quarrel removed, were again in alliance with them; and the +disgraceful retreat of one of the Roman generals had increased their +natural confidence and boldness. + +17. Moreover there was another circumstance which at this crisis added +weight to the difficulties which pressed upon the Romans. The two royal +brothers, who had obtained peace from Constantius in the preceding year, +being bound by the obligations of that treaty, neither ventured to raise +any disturbance, nor indeed to put themselves in motion at all. But a +little after the conclusion of that peace one of them whose name was +Gundomadus, and who was the most loyal and the most faithful to his +word, was slain by treachery, and then all his tribe joined our enemies; +and on this the tribe of Vadomarius also, against his will, as he +affirmed, ranged itself on the side of the barbarians who were arming +for war. + +18. Therefore, since all the soldiers of every rank, from the highest to +the lowest, approved of engaging instantly, and would not relax the +least from the rigour of their determination, on a sudden the +standard-bearer shouted out, "Go forth, O Cæsar, most fortunate of all +princes. Go whither thy better fortune leads thee. At least we have +learnt by your example the power of valour and military skill. Go on and +lead us, as a fortunate and gallant champion. You shall see what a +soldier under the eye of a warlike general, a witness of the exploits of +each individual, can do, and how little, with the favour of the Deity, +any obstacle can avail against him." + +19. When these words were heard, without a moment's delay, the whole +army advanced and approached a hill of moderate height, covered with +ripe corn, at no great distance from the banks of the Rhine. On its +summit were posted three cavalry soldiers of the enemy as scouts, who +at once hastened back to their comrades to announce that the Roman army +was at hand; but one infantry soldier who was with them, not being able +to keep up with them, was taken prisoner by the activity of some of our +soldiers, and informed us that the Germans had been passing over the +river for three days and three nights. + +20. And when our generals beheld them now at no great distance forming +their men into solid columns, they halted, and formed all the first +ranks of their troops into a similarly solid body, and with equal +caution the enemy likewise halted. + +21. And when in consequence of this halt, the enemy saw (as the deserter +I mentioned above had informed them) that all our cavalry was ranged +against them in our right wing, then they posted all their own cavalry +in close order on their left wing. And with them they mingled every here +and there a few infantry, skirmishers and light-armed soldiers, which +indeed was a very wise manoeuvre. + +22. For they knew that a cavalry soldier, however skilful, if fighting +with one of our men in complete armour, while his hands were occupied +with shield and bridle, so that he could use no offensive weapon but the +spear which he brandished in his right hand, could never injure an enemy +wholly covered with iron mail; but that an infantry soldier, amid the +actual struggles of personal conflict, when nothing is usually guarded +against by a combatant except that which is straight before him, may +crawl unperceivedly along the ground, and piercing the side of the Roman +soldier's horse, throw the rider down headlong, rendering him thus an +easy victim. + +23. When these dispositions had been thus made, the barbarians also +protected their right flank with secret ambuscades and snares. Now the +whole of these warlike and savage tribes were on this day under the +command of Chnodomarius and Serapio, monarchs of more power than any of +their former kings. + +24. Chnodomarius was indeed the wicked instigator of the whole war, and +bearing on his head a helmet blazing like fire, he led on the left wing +with great boldness, confiding much on his vast personal strength. And +now with great eagerness for the impending battle he mounted a spirited +horse, that by the increased height he might be more conspicuous, +leaning upon a spear of most formidable size, and remarkable for the +splendour of his arms. Being indeed a prince who had on former occasions +shown himself brave as a warrior and a general, eminent for skill above +his fellows. + +25. The right wing was led by Serapio, a youth whose beard had hardly +grown, but who was beyond his years in courage and strength. He was the +son of Mederichus the brother of Chnodomarius, a man throughout his +whole life of the greatest perfidy; and he had received the name of +Serapio because his father, having been given as a hostage, had been +detained in Gaul for a long time, and had there learnt some of the +mysteries of the Greeks, in consequence of which he had changed the name +of his son, who at his birth was named Agenarichus, into that of +Serapio. + +26. These two leaders were followed by five other kings who were but +little inferior in power to themselves, by ten petty princes, a vast +number of nobles, and thirty-five thousand armed men, collected from +various nations partly by pay, and partly by a promise of requiting +their service by similar assistance on a future day. + +27. The trumpets now gave forth a terrible sound; Severus, the Roman +general in command of the left wing, when he came near the ditches +filled with armed men, from which the enemy had arranged that those who +were there concealed should suddenly rise up, and throw the Roman line +into confusion, halted boldly, and suspecting some yet hidden ambuscade, +neither attempted to retreat nor advance. + +28. Seeing this, Julian, always full of courage at the moment of the +greatest difficulty, galloped with an escort of two hundred cavalry +through the ranks of the infantry at full speed, addressing them with +words of encouragement, as the critical circumstances in which they were +placed required. + +29. And as the extent of the space over which they were spread and the +denseness of the multitude thus collected into one body, would not allow +him to address the whole army (and also because on other accounts he +wished to avoid exposing himself to malice and envy, as well as not to +affect that which Augustus thought belonged exclusively to himself), he, +while taking care of himself as he passed within reach of the darts of +the enemy, encouraged all whom his voice could reach, whether known or +unknown to him, to fight bravely, with these and similar words:-- + +30. "Now, my comrades, the fit time for fighting has arrived; the time +which I, as well as you, have long desired, and which you just now +invited when, with gestures of impatience, you demanded to be led on." +Again, when he came to those in the rear rank, who were posted in +reserve: "Behold," said he, "my comrades, the long-wished-for day is at +hand, which incites us all to wash out former stains, and to restore to +its proper brightness the Roman majesty. These men before you are +barbarians, whom their own rage and intemperate madness have urged +forward to meet with the destruction of their fortunes, defeated as they +will now be by our might." + +31. Presently, when making better dispositions for the array of some +troops who, by long experience in war, had attained to greater skill, he +aided his arrangements by these exhortations. "Let us rise up like brave +men; let us by our native valour repel the disgrace which has at one +time been brought upon our arms, from contemplating which it was that +after much delay I consented to take the name of Cæsar." + +32. But to any whom he saw inconsiderately demanding the signal to be +given for instant battle, and likely by their rash movements to be +inattentive to orders, he said, "I entreat you not to be too eager in +your pursuit of the flying enemy, so as to risk losing the glory of the +victory which awaits us, and also never to retreat, except under the +last necessity. + +33. "For I shall certainly take no care of those who flee. But among +those who press on to the slaughter of the enemy I shall be present, and +share with you indiscriminately, provided only that your charge be made +with moderation and prudence." + +34. While repeatedly addressing these and similar exhortations to the +troops, he drew up the principal part of his army opposite to the front +rank of the barbarians. And suddenly there arose from the Allemanni a +great shout, mingled with indignant cries, all exclaiming with one +voice that the princes ought to leave their horses and fight in the +ranks on equal terms with their men, lest if any mischance should occur +they should avail themselves of the facility of escaping, and leave the +mass of the army in miserable plight. + +35. When this was known, Chnodomarius immediately leapt down from his +horse, and the rest of the princes followed his example without +hesitation. For indeed none of them doubted but that their side would be +victorious. + +36. Then the signal for battle being given as usual by the sound of +trumpets, the armies rushed to the combat with all their force. First of +all javelins were hurled, and the Germans, hastening on with the utmost +impetuosity, brandishing their javelins in their right hands, dashed +among the squadrons of our cavalry, uttering fearful cries. They had +excited themselves to more than usual rage; their flowing hair bristling +with their eagerness, and fury blazing from their eyes. While in +opposition to them our soldiers, standing steadily, protecting their +heads with the bulwark of their shields, and drawing their swords or +brandishing their javelins, equally threatened death to their +assailants. + +37. And while in the very conflict of battle, the cavalry kept their +gallant squadrons in close order, and the infantry strengthened their +flanks, standing shoulder to shoulder with closely-locked shields, +clouds of thick dust arose, and the battle rocked to and fro, our men +sometimes advancing, sometimes receding. Some of the most powerful +warriors among the barbarians pressed upon their antagonists with their +knees, trying to throw them down; and in the general excitement men +fought hand to hand, shield pressing upon shield; while the heaven +resounded with the loud cries of the conquerors and of the dying. +Presently, when our left wing, advancing forward, had driven back with +superior strength the vast bands of German assailants, and was itself +advancing with loud cries against the enemy, our cavalry on the right +wing unexpectedly retreated in disorder; but when the leading fugitives +came upon those in the rear, they halted, perceiving themselves covered +by the legions, and renewed the battle. + +38. This disaster had arisen from the cuirassiers seeing their commander +slightly wounded, and one of their comrades crushed under the weight of +his own arms, and of his horse, which fell upon him while they were +changing their position, on which they all fled as each could, and would +have trampled down the infantry, and thrown everything into confusion, +if the infantry had not steadily kept their ranks and stood immovable, +supporting each other. Julian, when from a distance he saw his cavalry +thus seeking safety in flight, spurred his horse towards them, and +himself stopped them like a barrier. + +39. For as he was at once recognized by his purple standard of the +dragon, which was fixed to the top of a long spear, waving its fringe as +a real dragon sheds its skin, the tribune of one squadron halted, and +turning pale with alarm, hastened back to renew the battle. + +40. Then, as is customary in critical moments, Julian gently reproached +his men: "Whither," said he, "gallant comrades, are ye retreating? Are +ye ignorant that flight, which never insures safety, proves the folly of +having made a vain attempt? Let us return to our army, to be partakers +of their glory, and not rashly desert those who are fighting for the +republic." + +41. Saying these words in a dignified tone, he led them all back to +discharge their duties in the fight, imitating in this the ancient hero +Sylla, if we make allowances for the difference of situation. For when +Sylla, having led his army against Archelaus, the general of +Mithridates, became exhausted by the violence of the conflict, and was +deserted by all his soldiers, he ran to the foremost rank, and seizing a +standard he turned it against the enemy, exclaiming, "Go! ye once chosen +companions of my dangers; and when you are asked where I, your general, +was left, tell them this truth,--alone in Boeotia, fighting for us +all, to his own destruction." + +42. The Allemanni, when our cavalry had been thus driven back and thrown +into confusion, attacked the first line of our infantry, expecting to +find their spirit abated, and to be able to rout them without much +resistance. + +43. But when they came to close quarters with them, they found they had +met an equal match. The conflict lasted long; for the Cornuti and +Braccati,[66] veterans of great experience in war, frightening even by +their gestures, shouted their battle cry, and the uproar, through the +heat of the conflict, rising up from a gentle murmur, and becoming +gradually louder and louder, grew fierce as that of waves dashing +against the rocks; the javelins hissed as they flew hither and thither +through the air; the dust rose to the sky in one vast cloud, preventing +all possibility of seeing, and causing arms to fall upon arms, man upon +man. + +44. But the barbarians, in their undisciplined anger and fury, raged +like the flames; and with ceaseless blows of their swords sought to +pierce through the compact mass of the shields with which our soldiers +defended themselves, as with the testudo.[67] + +45. And when this was seen, the Batavi, with the royal legion, hastened +to the support of their comrades, a formidable band, well able, if +fortune aided them, to save even those who were in the extremest danger. +And amid the fierce notes of their trumpets, the battle again raged with +undiminished ferocity. + +46. But the Allemanni, still charging forward impetuously, strove more +and more vigorously, hoping to bear down all opposition by the violence +of their fury. Darts, spears, and javelins never ceased; arrows pointed +with iron were shot; while at the same time, in hand-to-hand conflict, +sword struck sword, breastplates were cloven, and even the wounded, if +not quite exhausted with loss of blood, rose up still to deeds of +greater daring. + +47. In some sense it may be said that the combatants were equal. The +Allemanni were the stronger and the taller men; our soldiers by great +practice were the more skilful. The one were fierce and savage, the +others composed and wary; the one trusted to their courage, the others +to their physical strength. + +48. Often, indeed, the Roman soldier was beaten down by the weight of +his enemy's arms, but he constantly rose again; and then, on the other +hand, the barbarian, finding his knees fail under him with fatigue, +would rest his left knee on the ground, and even in that position +attack his enemy, an act of extreme obstinacy. + +49. Presently there sprang forward with sudden vigour a fiery band of +nobles, among whom also were the princes of the petty tribes, and, as +the common soldiers followed them in great numbers, they burst through +our lines, and forced a path for themselves up to the principal legion +of the reserve, which was stationed in the centre, in a position called +the prætorian camp; and there the soldiery, being in closer array, and +in densely serried ranks, stood firm as so many towers, and renewed the +battle with increased spirit. And intent upon parrying the blows of the +enemy, and covering themselves with their shields as the Mirmillos[68] +do, with their drawn swords wounded their antagonists in the sides, +which their too vehement impetuosity left unprotected. + +50. And thus the barbarians threw away their lives in their struggles +for victory, while toiling to break the compact array of our battalions. +But still, in spite of the ceaseless slaughter made among them by the +Romans, whose courage rose with their success, fresh barbarians +succeeded those who fell; and as the frequent groans of the dying were +heard, many became panic-stricken, and lost all strength. + +51. At last, exhausted by their losses, and having no strength for +anything but flight, they sought to escape with all speed by different +roads, like as sailors and traders, when the sea rages in a storm, are +glad to flee wherever the wind carries them. But any one then present +will confess that escape was a matter rather to be wished than hoped +for. + +52. And the merciful protection of a favourable deity was present on our +side, so that our soldiers, now slashing at the backs of the fugitives, +and finding their swords so battered that they were insufficient to +wound, used the enemy's own javelins, and so slew them. Nor could any +one of the pursuers satiate himself enough with their blood, nor allow +his hand to weary with slaughter, nor did any one spare a suppliant out +of pity. + +53. Numbers, therefore, lay on the ground, mortally wounded, imploring +instant death as a relief; others, half dead with failing breath turned +their dying eyes to the last enjoyment of the light. Of some the heads +were almost cut off by the huge weapons, and merely hung by small strips +to their necks; others, again, who had fallen because the ground had +been rendered slippery by the blood of their comrades, without +themselves receiving any wound, were killed by being smothered in the +mass of those who fell over them. + +54. While these events were proceeding thus prosperously for us, the +conquerors pressed on vigorously, though the edges of their weapons were +blunted by frequent use, and shining helmets and shields were trampled +under foot. At last, in the extremity of their distress, the barbarians, +finding the heaps of corpses block up all the paths, sought the aid of +the river, which was the only hope left to them, and which they had now +reached. + +55. And because our soldiers unweariedly and with great speed pressed, +with arms in their hands, upon the fleeing bands, many, hoping to be +able to deliver themselves from danger by their skill in swimming, +trusted their lives to the waves. And Julian, with prompt apprehension, +seeing what would be the result, strictly forbade the tribunes and +captains to allow any of our men to pursue them so eagerly as to trust +themselves to the dangerous currents of the river. + +56. In consequence of which order they halted on the brink, and from it +wounded the Germans with every kind of missile; while, if any of them +escaped from death of that kind by the celerity of their movements, they +still sunk to the bottom from the weight of their own arms. + +57. And as sometimes in a theatrical spectacle the curtain exhibits +marvellous figures, so here one could see many strange things in that +danger; some unconsciously clinging to others who were good swimmers, +others who were floating were pushed off by those less encumbered as so +many logs, others again, as if the violence of the stream itself fought +against them, were swallowed up in the eddies. Some supported themselves +on their shields avoiding the heaviest attacks of the opposing waves by +crossing them in an oblique direction, and so, after many dangers, +reached the opposite brink, till at last the foaming river, discoloured +with barbarian blood, was itself amazed at the unusual increase it had +received. + +58. And while this was going on, Chnodomarius, the king, finding an +opportunity of escaping, making his way over the heaps of dead with a +small escort, hastened with exceeding speed towards the camp which he +had made near the two Roman fortresses of Alstatt and Lauterbourg, in +the country of the Tribocci, that he might embark in some boats which +had already been prepared in case of any emergency, and so escape to +some secret hiding-place in which he might conceal himself. + +59. And because it was impossible for him to reach his camp without +crossing the Rhine, he hid his face that he might not be recognized, and +after that retreated slowly. And when he got near the bank of the river, +as he was feeling his way round a marsh, partly overflowed, seeking some +path by which to cross it, his horse suddenly stumbled in some soft and +sticky place, and he was thrown down, but though he was fat and heavy, +he without delay reached the shelter of a hill in the neighbourhood; +there he was recognized (for indeed he could not conceal who he was, +being betrayed by the greatness of his former fortune): and immediately +a squadron of cavalry came up at full gallop with its tribune, and +cautiously surrounded the wooded mound; though they feared to enter the +thicket lest they should fall into any ambuscade concealed among the +trees. + +60. But when he saw them he was seized with extreme terror, and of his +own accord came forth by himself and surrendered; and his companions, +two hundred in number, and his three most intimate friends, thinking it +would be a crime in them to survive their king, or not to die for him if +occasion required, gave themselves up also as prisoners. + +61. And, as barbarians are naturally low spirited in adverse fortune, +and very much the reverse in moments of prosperity, so now that he was +in the power of another he became pale and confused, his consciousness +of guilt closing his mouth; widely different from him who lately, +insulting the ashes of the Gauls with ferocious and lamentable violence, +poured forth savage threats against the whole empire. + +62. Now after these affairs were thus by the favour of the deity brought +to an end, the victorious soldiers were recalled at the close of the +day to their camp by the signal of the trumpeter, and marched towards +the bank of the Rhine, and there erecting a rampart of shields piled +together in several rows, they refreshed themselves with food and sleep. + +63. There fell in this battle, of Romans 243, and four generals: +Bainobaudes, the tribune of the Cornuti, and with him Laipso, and +Innocentius, who commanded the cuirassiers and one tribune who had no +particular command, and whose name I forget. But of the Allemanni, there +were found 6000 corpses on the field, and incalculable numbers were +carried down by the waves of the river. + +64. Then Julian, as one who was now manifestly approved by fortune, and +was also greater in his merit than even in his authority, was by +unanimous acclamation hailed as Augustus by the soldiers; but he sharply +reproved them for so doing, affirming with an oath that he neither +wished for such an honour, nor would accept it. + +65. In order to increase the joy at his recent success, Julian ordered +Chnodomarius to be brought before him at his council; who at first +bowing, and then like a suppliant, prostrating himself on the ground, +and imploring pardon with entreaties framed after the fashion of his +nation, was bidden to take courage. + +66. A few days afterwards he was conducted to the court of the emperor, +and thence he was sent to Rome, where he died of a lethargy in the +foreign camp which is stationed on Mons Cælius. + +67. Notwithstanding that these numerous and important events were +brought to so happy an issue, some persons in the palace of Constantius, +disparaging Julian in order to give pleasure to the emperor, in a tone +of derision called him Victorinus, because he, modestly relating how +often he had been employed in leading the army, at the same time related +that the Germans had received many defeats. + +68. They at the same time, by loading the emperor with empty praises, of +which the extravagance was glaringly conspicuous, so inflated an +inherent pride, already beyond all natural bounds, that he was led to +believe that, whatever took place in the whole circumference of the +earth was owing to his fortunate auspices. + +69. So that, being inflated by the pompous language of his flatterers, +he then, and at all subsequent periods, became accustomed in all the +edicts which he published to advance many unfounded statements; +assuming, that he by himself had fought and conquered, when in fact he +had not been present at anything that had happened; often also asserting +that he had raised up the suppliant kings of conquered nations. For +instance, if while he was still in Italy any of his generals had fought +a brilliant campaign against the Persians, the emperor would write +triumphant letters to the provinces without the slightest mention of the +general throughout its whole length, relating with odious self-praise +how he himself had fought in the front ranks. + +70. Lastly, edicts of his are still extant, laid up among the public +records of the empire ... relating ...[69] and extolling himself to the +skies. A letter also is to be found, though he was forty days' journey +from Strasburg when the battle was fought, describing the engagement, +saying that he marshalled the army, stood among the standard-bearers, +and put the barbarians to the rout; and with amazing falsehood asserting +that Chnodomarius was brought before him, without (oh shameful +indignity!) saying a single word about the exploits of Julian; which he +would have utterly buried in oblivion if fame had not refused to let +great deeds die, however many people may try to keep them in the shade. + + +[59] The text is defective here, as it is wherever these marks occur. + +[60] Coblenz. + +[61] Julius Cæsar: the story of the frightened fisherman being +encouraged by the assurance that he was carrying "Cæsar and his +fortunes" is universally known. + +[62] Claudius, who devoted himself in the Gothic war. + +[63] Galerius Maximianus, who reconnoitred in person the camp of the +king of Persia. + +[64] The word is derived from κλιβανον, an oven, and seems to +mean entirely clothed in iron. + +[65] Valeria was a division of Pannonia, so called from Valeria, the +daughter of Diocletian, and the wife of Galerius. + +[66] Troops named from the fashion of their arms; the Cornuti having +projections like horns on their helmets, the Braccati wearing drawers. + +[67] The testudo was properly applied to the manner in which they locked +their shields over their heads while advancing to storm a walled town. + +[68] The Mirmillo was a gladiator opposed to a Retiarius, protecting +himself by his oblong shield against the net of the latter. + +[69] The text is mutilated here, as in many other passages similarly +marked. + + + + +BOOK XVII. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Julian crosses the Rhine and plunders and burns the towns of the + Allemanni, repairs the fortress of Trajan, and grants the + barbarians a truce for ten months.--II. He hems in six hundred + Franks who are devastating the second Germania, and starves them + into surrender.--III. He endeavours to relieve the Gauls from some + of the tribute which weighs them down.--IV. By order of the Emperor + Constantius an obelisk is erected at Rome in the Circus + Maximus;--some observations on obelisks and on hieroglyphics.--V. + Constantius and Sapor, king of the Persians, by means of + ambassadors and letters, enter into a vain negotiation for + peace.--VI. The Nethargi, an Allemanni tribe, are defeated in the + Tyrol, which they were laying waste.--VII. Nicomedia is destroyed + by an earthquake; some observations on earthquakes--VIII. Julian + receives the surrender of the Salii, a Frankish tribe. He defeats + one body of the Chamavi, takes another body prisoners, and grants + peace to the rest.--IX. He repairs three forts on the Meuse that + had been destroyed by the barbarians. His soldiers suffer from + want, and become discontented and reproachful.--X. Surmarius and + Hortarius, kings of the Allemanni, surrender their prisoners and + obtain peace from Julian.--XI. Julian, after his successes in Gaul, + is disparaged at the court of Constantius by enviers of his fame, + and is spoken of as inactive and cowardly.--XII. The Emperor + Constantius compels the Sarmatians to give hostage, and to restore + their prisoners; and imposes a king on the Sarmatian exiles, whom + he restores to their country and to freedom.--XIII. He compels the + Limigantes, after defeating them with great slaughter, to emigrate, + and harangues his own soldiers.--XIV. The Roman ambassadors, who + had been sent to treat for peace, return from Persia; and Sapor + returns into Armenia and Mesopotamia. + + +I. + +A.D. 357. + +§ 1. After the various affairs which we have described were brought to a +conclusion, the warlike young prince, now that the battle of Strasburg +had secured him the navigation of the Rhine, felt anxious that the +ill-omened birds should not feed on the corpses of the slain, and so +ordered them all to be buried without distinction. And having dismissed +the ambassadors whom we have mentioned as having come with some arrogant +messages before the battle, he returned to Saverne. + +2. From this place he ordered all the booty and the prisoners to be +brought to Metz, to be left there till his return. Then departing for +Mayence, to lay down a bridge at that city and to seek the barbarians in +their own territories, since he had left none of them in arms, he was at +first met by great opposition on the part of his army; but addressing +them with eloquence and persuasion he soon won them to his opinion. For +their affection for him, becoming strengthened by repeated experience, +induced them to follow one who shared in all their toils, and who, while +never surrendering his authority, was still accustomed, as every one +saw, to impose more labour on himself than on his men. They soon arrived +at the appointed spot, and, crossing the river by a bridge they laid +down, occupied the territory of the enemy. + +3. The barbarians, amazed at the greatness of his enterprise, inasmuch +as they had fancied they were situated in a position in which they could +hardly be disturbed, were now led by the destruction of their countrymen +to think anxiously of their own future fate, and accordingly, pretending +to implore peace that they might escape from the violence of his first +invasion, they sent ambassadors to him with a set message, offering a +lasting treaty of agreement; but (though it is not known what design or +change of circumstances altered their purpose) they immediately +afterwards sent off some others with all speed, to threaten our troops +with implacable war if they did not at once quit their territories. + +4. And when this was known, the Cæsar, as soon as all was quiet, at the +beginning of night embarked 800 men in some small swift boats, with the +intention that they should row with all their strength up stream for +some distance, and then land and destroy all they could find with fire +and sword. + +5. After he had made this arrangement, the barbarians were seen at +daybreak on the tops of the mountains, on which our soldiers were led +with speed to the higher ground; and when no enemy was found there +(since the barbarians, divining their plan, immediately retreated to a +distance), presently large volumes of smoke were seen, which indicated +that our men had broken into the enemy's territory, and were laying it +waste. + +6. This event broke the spirit of the Germans, who, deserting the +ambuscades which they had laid for our men in narrow defiles full of +lurking-places, they fled across the river Maine to carry aid to their +countrymen. + +7. For, as is often the case in times of uncertainty and difficulty, +they were panic-stricken by the incursion of our cavalry on the one +side, and the sudden attacks of our infantry, conveyed in boats, on the +other; and therefore, relying on their knowledge of the country, they +sought safety in the rapidity of their flight; and, as their retreat +left the motions of our troops free, we plundered the wealthy farms of +their crops and their cattle, sparing no one. And having carried off a +number of prisoners, we set fire to, and burnt to the ground all their +houses, which in that district were built more carefully than usual, in +the Roman fashion. + +8. And when we had penetrated a distance of ten miles, till we came near +a wood terrible from the denseness of its shade, our army halted for a +while, and stayed its advance, having learnt from information given by a +deserter that a number of enemies were concealed in some subterranean +passages and caverns with many entrances in the neighbourhood, ready to +sally forth when a favourable opportunity should appear. + +9. Nevertheless our men presently ventured to advance in full +confidence, and found the roads blockaded by oaks, ashes, and pines, of +great size, cut down and laid together. And so they retreated with +caution, perceiving that it was impossible to advance except by long and +rugged defiles; though they could hardly restrain their indignation at +being compelled to do so. + +10. The weather too became very severe, so that they were enveloped in +all kinds of toil and danger to no purpose (forasmuch as it was now past +the autumnal equinox, and the snow, which had already fallen in those +regions, covered the mountains and the plains), and so, instead of +proceeding, Julian undertook a work worthy of being related. + +11. He repaired with great expedition, while there was no one to hinder +him, the fortress which Trajan had constructed in the territory of the +Allemanni, and to which he had given his own name, and which had lately +been attacked with great violence and almost destroyed. And he placed +there a temporary garrison, and also some magazines, which he had +collected from the barbarians. + +12. But when the Allemanni saw these preparations made for their +destruction, they assembled rapidly in great consternation at what had +already been done, and sent ambassadors to implore peace, with prayers +of extreme humility. And the Cæsar, now that he had fully matured and +secured the success of all his designs, taking into consideration all +probabilities, granted them a truce for ten months. In reality he was +especially influenced by this prudent consideration, that the camp which +he had thus occupied without hindrance, in a way that could hardly have +been hoped for, required, nevertheless, to be fortified with mural +engines and other adequate equipments. + +13. Trusting to this truce, three of the most ferocious of those kings +who had sent reinforcements to their countrymen when defeated at +Strasburg, came to him, though still in some degree of alarm, and took +the oaths according to the formula in use in their country, that they +would create no further disturbance, but that they would keep the truce +faithfully up to the appointed day, because that had been the decision +of our generals; and that they would not attack the fortress; and that +they would even bring supplies to it on their shoulders if the garrison +informed them that they were in want; all which they promised, because +their fear bridled their treachery. + +14. In this memorable war, which deserves to be compared with those +against the Carthaginians or the Gauls, yet was accompanied with very +little loss to the republic, Julian triumphed as a fortunate and +successful leader. The very smallness of his losses might have given +some colour to the assertions of his detractors, who declared that he +had only fought bravely on all occasions, because he preferred dying +gloriously to being put to death like his brother Gallus, as a condemned +malefactor, as they had expected he would be, if he had not, after the +death of Constantius, continued to distinguish himself equally by +splendid exploits. + + +II. + +§ 1. Now when everything was settled in that country as fairly as the +case permitted, Julian, returning to his winter quarters, found some +trouble still left for him. Severus, the master of the horse, being on +the way to Rheims through Cologne and Juliers, fell in with some strong +battalions of Franks, consisting of six hundred light-armed soldiers, +who were laying waste those places which were not defended by garrisons. +They had been encouraged to this audacious wickedness by the opportunity +afforded them when the Cæsar was occupied in the remote districts of the +Allemanni, thinking to obtain a rich booty without any hindrance. But in +fear of the army which had now returned, they occupied two fortresses +which had been abandoned for some time, and defended themselves there as +long as they could. + +2. Julian, amazed at the novelty of such an attempt, and thinking it +impossible to say how far such a spirit would spread if he allowed it to +pass without a check, halted his soldiers, and gave orders to blockade +the forts.... The Meuse passes beneath them; and the blockade was +protracted for fifty-four days, through nearly the entire months of +December and January, the barbarians resisting with incredible obstinacy +and courage. + +3. Then the Cæsar, like an experienced general, fearing that the +barbarians might take advantage of some moonless night to cross over the +river, which was now thoroughly frozen, ordered soldiers to go up and +down the stream every day in light boats, from sunset till daybreak, so +as to break the crust of ice and prevent any one from escaping in that +manner. Owing to this manoeuvre, the barbarians were so exhausted by +hunger, watching, and the extremity of despair, that at last they +voluntarily surrendered, and were immediately sent to the court of the +emperor. + +4. And a vast multitude of Franks, who had come to their assistance, +hearing that they were taken prisoners and sent off, would not venture +on any further enterprise, but returned to their own country. And when +this affair was finished, the Cæsar retired to Paris to pass the winter +there. + + +III. + +§ 1. It was now expected that a number of tribes would unite in greater +force, and therefore the prudent Julian, bearing in mind the +uncertainties of war, became very anxious and full of care. And as he +thought that the truce lately made, though not free from trouble, and +not of long duration, still gave him opportunity to remedy some things +which were faulty, he began to remodel the arrangements about tribute. + +2. And when Florentius, the prefect of the prætorium, having taken an +estimate of everything, affirmed that whatever deficiency there might be +in the produce of a capitation tax he should be able to make good from +what he could levy by force, Julian, deprecating this practice, +determined to lose his own life rather than permit it. + +3. For he knew that the wounds inflicted by such extortions, or, as I +should rather call them, confiscations, are incurable, and have often +reduced provinces to extreme destitution. Indeed, such conduct, as will +be related hereafter, utterly lost us Illyricum. + +4. And when, owing to this resolution of his, the prætorian prefect +exclaimed that it could not be endured that he, to whom the emperor had +intrusted the chief authority in this matter, should be thus distrusted, +Julian attempted to appease him, showing by exact and accurate +calculations that the capitation tax was not only enough, but more than +enough to provide all the necessary supplies. + +5. And when some time afterwards an edict for a supplementary tax was +nevertheless presented to him by Florentius, he refused to sign or even +to read it; and threw it on the ground; and when warned by letters from +the emperor (written on receiving the prefect's report) not to act in so +embarrassing a manner, lest he should seem to be diminishing the +authority of Florentius, Julian wrote in answer, that it was a matter to +be thankful for, if a province that had been devastated in every +direction could still pay its regular taxes, without demanding from it +any extraordinary contributions, which indeed no punishments could +extort from men in a state of destitution: and then, and from that time +forward, owing to the firmness of one man, no one ever attempted to +extort anything illegal in Gaul beyond the regular taxes. + +6. The Cæsar had also in another affair set an example wholly +unprecedented, entreating the prefect to intrust to him the government +of the second Belgic province, which was oppressed by manifold evils; on +the especial and single condition that no officer, either belonging to +the prefect or to the garrison, should force any one to pay anything. +And the whole people whom he thus took under his care, comforted and +relieved by this mildness, paid all the taxes due from them before the +appointed day, without any demand being made upon them. + + +IV. + +§ 1. While Julian was thus beginning to put Gaul into a better +condition, and while Orfitus was still governor of the second province, +an obelisk was erected at Rome, in the Circus Maximus, concerning which, +as this seems a convenient opportunity, I will mention a few +particulars. + +2. The city of Thebes, in Egypt, built in remote ages, with enormous +walls, and celebrated also for entrances by a hundred gates, was from +this circumstance called by its founders ἑκατόμπυλος +(_Hecatompylos_); and from the name of this city the whole district is +known as Thebais. + +3. When Carthage began to rise in greatness, the Carthaginian generals +conquered and destroyed Thebes by a sudden attack. And after it was +rebuilt, Cambyses, the celebrated king of Persia, who throughout his +whole life was covetous and ferocious, overran Egypt, and again attacked +this city that he might plunder it of its wealth, which was enough to +excite his envy; and he spared not even the offerings which had been +made to the gods. + +4. And while he was in his savage manner moving to and fro among his +plunderers, he got entangled in his own flowing robes, and fell on his +face, and by the fall his dagger, which he wore close to his thigh, got +loose from the scabbard, and he was mortally wounded and died. + +5. And long afterwards, Cornelius Gallus, who was governor of Egypt at +the time when Octavianus was emperor of Rome, impoverished the city by +plundering it of most of its treasuries; and returning to Rome on being +accused of theft and of laying waste the province, he, from fear of the +nobles, who were bitterly indignant against him, as one to whom the +emperor had committed a most honourable task, fell on his own sword and +so died. If I mistake not, he is the same person as Gallus the poet, +whose loss Virgil deplores at the end of his Bucolics, celebrating his +memory in sweet verses. + +6. In this city of Thebes, among many works of art and different +structures recording the tales relating to the Egyptian deities, we saw +several obelisks in their places, and others which had been thrown down +and broken; which the ancient kings, when elated at some victory or at +the general prosperity of their affairs, had caused to be hewn out of +mountains in distant parts of the world, and erected in honour of the +gods, to whom they solemnly consecrated them. + +7. Now an obelisk is a rough stone, rising to a great height, shaped +like a pillar in the stadium; and it tapers upwards in imitation of a +sunbeam, keeping its quadrilateral shape, till it rises almost to a +point, being made smooth by the hand of a sculptor. + +8. On these obelisks the ancient authority of elementary wisdom has +caused innumerable marks of strange forms all over them, which are +called hieroglyphics. + +9. For the workmen, carving many kinds of birds and beasts, some even +such as must belong to another world, in order that the recollection of +the exploits which the obelisk was designed to commemorate might reach +to subsequent ages, showed by them the accomplishment of vows which the +kings had made. + +10. For it was not the case then as it is now, that the established +number of letters can distinctly express whatever the human mind +conceives; nor did the ancient Egyptians write in such a manner; but +each separate character served for a separate noun or verb, and +sometimes even for an entire sense. + +11. Of which fact the two following may for the present be sufficient +instances: by the figure of a vulture they indicate the name of nature; +because naturalists declare that no males are found in this class of +bird. And by the figure of a bee making honey they indicate a king; +showing by such a sign that stings as well as sweetness are the +characteristics of a ruler; and there are many similar emblems. + +12. And because the flatterers, who were continually whispering into the +ear of Constantius, kept always affirming that when Augustus Octavianus +had brought two obelisks from Heliopolis, a city of Egypt, one of which +was placed in the Circus Maximus, and the other in the Campus Martius, +he yet did not venture to touch or move this one which has just been +brought to Rome, being alarmed at the greatness of such a task; I would +have those, who do not know the truth, learn that the ancient emperor, +though he moved several obelisks, left this one untouched, because it +was especially dedicated to the Sun-god, and was set up within the +precincts of his magnificent temple, which it was impious to profane; +and of which it was the most conspicuous ornament. + +13. But Constantine deeming that a consideration of no importance, had +it torn up from its place, and thinking rightly that he should not be +offering any insult to religion if he removed a splendid work from some +other temple to dedicate it to the gods at Rome, which is the temple of +the whole world, let it lie on the ground for some time while +arrangements for its removal were being prepared. And when it had been +carried down the Nile, and landed at Alexandria, a ship of a burden +hitherto unexampled, requiring three hundred rowers to propel it, was +built to receive it. + +14. And when these preparations were made, and after the aforenamed +emperor had died, the enterprise began to cool. However, after a time it +was at last put on board ship, and conveyed over sea, and up the stream +of the Tiber, which seemed as it were frightened, lest its own winding +waters should hardly be equal to conveying a present from the almost +unknown Nile to the walls which itself cherished. At last the obelisk +reached the village of Alexandria, three miles from the city; and then +it was placed in a cradle, and drawn slowly on, and brought through the +Ostran gate and the public fish-market to the Circus Maximus. + +15. The only work remaining to be done was to raise it, which was +generally believed to be hardly, if at all, practicable. And vast beams +having been raised on end in a most dangerous manner, so that they +looked like a grove of machines, long ropes of huge size were fastened +to them, darkening the very sky with their density, as they formed a web +of innumerable threads; and into them the great stone itself, covered +over as it was with elements of writing, was bound, and gradually raised +into the empty air, and long suspended, many thousands of men turning it +round and round like a millstone, till it was at last placed in the +middle of the square; and on it was placed a brazen sphere, made +brighter with plates of gold: and as that was immediately afterwards +struck by lightning, and destroyed, a brazen figure like a torch was +placed on it, also plated with gold--to look as if the torch were fully +alight. + +16. Subsequent ages also removed other obelisks; one of which is in the +Vatican, a second in the garden of Sallust; and two in the monument of +Augustus. + +17. But the writing which is engraven on the old obelisk in the Circus, +we have set forth below in Greek characters, following in this the work +of Hermapion:-- + + ΑΡΧΗΝ ΑΠΟ ΤΟΝ ΝΟΤΙΟΝ ΔΙΕΡΜΗΝΕΥΜΕΝΑ + ΕΧΕΙ + ΣΤΙΧΟΕ ΠΡΩΤΟΕ ΤΑΔΕ. + +18. The first line, beginning on the south side, bears this +interpretation--"The Sun to Ramestes the king--I have given to thee to +reign with joy over the whole earth; to thee whom the Sun and Apollo +love--to thee, the mighty truth-loving son of Heron--the god-born ruler +of the habitable earth; whom the Sun has chosen above all men, the +valiant warlike King Ramestes. Under whose power, by his valour and +might, the whole world is placed. The King Ramestes, the immortal son of +the Sun." + +19. The second line is--"The mighty Apollo, who takes his stand upon +truth, the lord of the diadem, he who has honoured Egypt by becoming its +master, adorning Heliopolis, and having created the rest of the world, +and having greatly honoured the gods who have their shrines in the city +of the Sun; whom the son loves." + +20. The third line--"The mighty Apollo, the all-brilliant son of the +Sun, whom the Sun chose above all others, and to whom the valiant Mars +gave gifts. Thou whose good fortune abideth for ever. Thou whom Ammon +loves. Thou who hast filled the temple of the Phoenix with good +things. Thou to whom the gods have given long life. Apollo the mighty +son of Heron, Ramestes the king of the world. Who has defended Egypt, +having subdued the foreign enemy. Whom the Sun loves. To whom the gods +have given long life--the master of the world--the immortal Ramestes." + +21. Another second line--"The Sun, the great God, the master of heaven. +I have given unto thee a life free from satiety. Apollo, the mighty +master of the diadem; to whom nothing is comparable. To whom the lord of +Egypt has erected many statues in this kingdom. And has made the city of +Heliopolis as brilliant as the Sun himself, the master of heaven. The +son of the Sun, the king living for ever, has co-operated in the +completion of this work." + +22. A third line--"I, the Sun, the god, the master of heaven, have given +to Ramestes the king might and authority over all. Whom Apollo the +truth-lover, the master of time, and Vulcan the father of the gods hath +chosen above others by reason of his courage. The all-rejoicing king, +the son of the Sun, and beloved by the Sun." + +23. The first line, looking towards the east--"The great God of +Heliopolis, the mighty Apollo who dwelleth in Heaven, the son of Heron +whom the Sun hath guided. Whom the gods have honoured. He who ruleth +over all the earth: whom the Sun has chosen before all others. The king +valiant by the favour of Mars. Whom Ammon loveth, and the all-shining +god, who hath chosen him as a king for everlasting." And so on. + + +V. + +A.D. 358. + +§ 1. In the consulship of Datianus and Cerealis, when all arrangements +in Gaul were made with more careful zeal than before, and while the +terror caused by past events still checked the outbreaks of the +barbarians, the king of the Persians, being still on the frontiers of +those nations which border on his dominions, and having made a treaty of +alliance with the Chionitæ and the Gelani, the most warlike and +indefatigable of all tribes, being about to return to his own country, +received the letters of Tamsapor which announced to him that the Roman +emperor was a suppliant for peace. + +2. And he, suspecting that Constantius would never have done so if the +empire had not been weakened all over, raised his own pretensions, and +embracing the name indeed of peace, offered very unwelcome conditions. +And having sent a man of the name of Narses as ambassador with many +presents, he gave him letters to Constantius, in which he in no respect +abated of his natural pride. The purport of these letters we have +understood to be this:-- + +3. "I, Sapor, king of kings, partner of the stars, brother of the sun +and moon, to Constantius Cæsar my brother send much greeting. I am glad +and am well pleased that at last thou hast returned to the right way, +and hast acknowledged the incorruptible decree of equity, having gained +experience by facts, and having learnt what disasters an obstinate +covetousness of the property of others has often caused. + +4. "Because therefore the language of truth ought to be unrestrained and +free, and because men in the highest rank ought only to say what they +mean, I will reduce my propositions into a few words; remembering that I +have already often repeated what I am now about to say. + +5. "Even your own ancient records bear witness that my ancestors +possessed all the country up to the Strymon and the frontier of +Macedonia. And these lands it is fitting that I who (not to speak +arrogantly) am superior to those ancient kings in magnificence, and in +all eminent virtues, should now reclaim. But I am at all times +thoughtful to remember that, from my earliest youth, I have never done +anything to repent of. + +6. "And therefore it is a duty in me to recover Armenia and Mesopotamia, +which were wrested from my ancestor by deliberate treachery. That +principle was never admitted by us which you with exultation assert, +that all successes in war deserve praise, without considering whether +they were achieved by valour or by treachery. + +7. "Lastly, if you are willing to be guided by one who gives you good +advice, I would bid you despise a small part of your dominions which is +ever the parent of sorrow and bloodshed, in order to reign in safety +over the rest. Wisely considering that physicians also sometimes apply +cautery or amputation, and cut off portions of the body that the patient +may have good use of the rest of his limbs. Nay, that even beasts do the +same: since when they observe on what account they are most especially +hunted, they will of their own accord deprive themselves of that, in +order henceforth to be able to live in security. + +8. "This, in short, I declare, that should my present embassy return +without having succeeded in its object, after giving the winter season +to rest I will gird myself up with all my strength, and while fortune +and justice give me a well-founded hope of ultimate success, I will +hasten my march as much as Providence will permit." + +9. Having given long consideration to this letter, the emperor with +upright and wise heart, as the saying is, made answer in this manner:-- + +10. "Constantius, always august, conqueror by land and sea, to my +brother Sapor much health. I congratulate thee on thy safety, as one who +is willing to be a friend to thee if thou wilt. But I greatly blame thy +insatiable covetousness, now more grasping than ever. + +11. "Thou demandest Mesopotamia as thine own, and then Armenia. And thou +biddest me cut off some members from my sound body in order to place its +health on a sound footing: a demand which is to be rejected at once +rather than to be encouraged by any consent. Receive therefore the +truth, not covered with any pretences, but clear, and not to be shaken +by any threats. + +12. "The prefect of my prætorian guard, thinking to undertake an affair +which might be beneficial to the state, without my knowledge discoursed +about peace with thy generals, by the agency of some low persons. Peace +we should neither regret nor refuse--let it only come with credit and +honour, in such a way as to impair neither our self-respect nor our +dignity. + +13. "For it would be an unbecoming and shameful thing when all men's +ears are filled with our exploits, so as to have shut even the mouth of +envy; when after the destruction of tyrants the whole Roman world obeys +us, to give up those territories which even when limited to the narrow +boundaries of the east we preserved undiminished. + +14. "But I pray thee make an end of the threats which thou utterest +against me, in obedience to thy national habit, when it cannot be +doubted that it is not from inactivity, but from moderation, that we +have at times endured attacks instead of being the assailants ourselves: +and know that, whenever we are attacked, we defend our own with bravery +and good will: being assured both by thy reading and thy personal +experience that in battle it has been rare for Romans to meet with +disaster; and that in the final issue of a war we have never come off +the worst." + +15. The embassy was therefore dismissed without gaining any of its +objects; and indeed no other reply could be given to the unbridled +covetousness of the king. And a few days afterwards, Count Prosper +followed, and Spectatus the tribune and secretary; and also, by the +suggestion of Musonianus, Eustathius the philosopher, as one skilful in +persuading, bearing a letter from the emperor, and presents, with a view +to induce Sapor to suspend his preparations, so that all our attention +might be turned to fortifying the northern provinces in the most +effective manner. + + +VI. + +§ 1. Now while these affairs, of so doubtful a complexion, were +proceeding, that portion of the Allemanni which borders on the regions +of Italy, forgetful of the peace and of the treaties which they only +obtained by abject entreaty, laid waste the Tyrol with such fury that +they even went beyond their usual habit in undertaking the siege of some +walled towns. + +2. And when a strong force had been sent to repel them under the command +of Barbatio, who had been promoted to the command of the infantry in the +room of Silvanus, a man of not much activity, but a fluent talker, he, +as his troops were in a high state of indignation at the invaders, gave +them so terrible a defeat, that only a very few, who took to flight in +their panic, escaped to carry back their tears and lamentations to their +homes. + +3. In this battle Nevitta, who afterwards became consul, was present as +commander of a squadron of cavalry, and displayed great gallantry. + + +VII. + +§ 1. This year also some terrible earthquakes took place in Macedonia, +Asia Minor, and Pontus, and their repeated shocks overthrew many towns, +and even mountains. But the most remarkable of all the manifold +disasters which they caused was the entire ruin of Nicomedia, the +metropolis of Bithynia; which I will here relate with truth and brevity. + +2. On the 23rd of August, at daybreak, some heavy black clouds suddenly +obscured the sky, which just before was quite fair. And the sun was so +wholly concealed that it was impossible to see what was near or even +quite close, so completely did a thick lurid darkness settle on the +ground, preventing the least use of the eyes. + +3. Presently, as if the supreme deity were himself letting loose his +fatal wrath, and stirring up the winds from their hinges, a violent +raging storm descended, by the fury of which the groaning mountains were +struck, and the crash of the waves on the shore was heard to a vast +distance. And then followed typhoons and whirlwinds with a horrid +trembling of the earth, throwing down the whole city and its suburbs. + +4. And as most of the houses were built on the slopes of the hills, they +now fell down one over the other, while all around resounded with the +vast crash of their fall. In the mean time the tops of the hills +re-echoed all sorts of noises, as well as outcries of men seeking their +wives and children, and other relations. + +5. At last, after two hours, or at least within three, the air became +again clear and serene, and disclosed the destruction which till then +was unseen. Some, overwhelmed by the enormous masses of ruins which had +fallen upon them, were crushed to death. Some were buried up to the +neck, and might have been saved if there had been any timely help at +hand, but perished for want of assistance; others were transfixed by the +points of beams projecting forth, on which they hung suspended. + +6. Here was seen a crowd of persons slain by one blow; there a +promiscuous heap of corpses piled in various ways--some were buried +beneath the roofs of falling houses, which leant over so as to protect +them from any actual blows, but reserved them for an agonizing death by +starvation. Among whom was Aristænetus, who, with the authority of +deputy, governed Bithynia, which had been recently erected into a +province; and to which Constantius had given the name of Piety, in +honour of his wife Eusebia, (a Greek word, equivalent to Pietas in +Latin); and he perished thus by a lingering death. + +7. Others who were overwhelmed by the sudden fall of vast buildings, are +still lying entombed beneath the immovable masses. Some with their +skulls fractured, or their shoulders or legs cut through, lay between +life and death, imploring aid from others suffering equally with +themselves; but in spite of their entreaties they were abandoned. + +8. Not but what the greater part of the temples and buildings and of the +citizens also would have escaped unhurt, if a fire had not suddenly +broken out, which raged with great violence for fifty days and nights, +and destroyed all that remained. + +9. I think this a good opportunity to enumerate a few of the conjectures +which the ancients have formed about earthquakes. For as to any accurate +knowledge of their causes, not only has that never been attained by the +ignorance of the common people, but they have equally eluded the long +lucubrations and subtle researches of natural philosophers. + +10. And on this account in all priestly ceremonies, whether ritual or +pontifical, care is taken not at such times to name one god more than +another, for fear of impiety, since it is quite uncertain which god +causes these visitations. + +11. But as the various opinions, among which Aristotle wavers and +hesitates, suggest, earthquakes are engendered either in small caverns +under the earth, which the Greeks call σύριγγες, because of +the waters pouring through them with a more rapid motion than usual, or, +as Anaxagoras affirms, they arise from the force of the wind penetrating +the lower parts of the earth, which, when they have got down to the +encrusted solid mass, finding no vent-holes, shake those portions in +their solid state, into which they have got entrance when in a state of +solution. And this is corroborated by the observation that at such times +no breezes of wind are felt by us above ground, because the winds are +occupied in the lowest recesses of the earth. + +12. Anaximander says that the earth when burnt up by excessive heat and +drought, and also after excessive rains, opens larger fissures than +usual, which the upper air penetrates with great force and in excessive +quantities, and the earth, shaken by the furious blasts which penetrate +those fissures, is disturbed to its very foundations; for which reason +these fearful events occur either at times of great evaporation or else +at those of an extravagant fall of rain from heaven. And therefore the +ancient poets and theologians gave Neptune the name of Earthshaker,[70] +as being the power of moist substance. + +13. Now earthquakes take place in four manners: either they are +_brasmatiæ_,[71] which raise up the ground in a terrible manner, and +throw vast masses up to the surface, as in Asia, Delos arose, and Hiera; +and also Anaphe and Rhodes, which has at different times been called +Ophiusa and Pelagia, and was once watered with a shower of gold;[72] and +Eleusis in Boeotia, and the Hellenian islands in the Tyrrhenian sea, +and many other islands. Or they are _climatiæ_,[73] which, with a +slanting and oblique blow, level cities, edifices, and mountains. Or +_chasmatiæ_,[74] which suddenly, by a violent motion, open huge mouths, +and so swallow up portions of the earth, as in the Atlantic sea, on the +coast of Europe, a large island[75] was swallowed up, and in the +Crissæan Gulf, Helice and Bura,[76] and in Italy, in the Ciminian +district, the town of Saccumum[77] was swallowed up in a deep gulf and +hidden in everlasting darkness. And among these three kinds of +earthquakes, _myæmotiæ_[78] are heard with a threatening roar, when the +elements either spring apart, their joints being broken, or again +resettle in their former places, when the earth also settles back; for +then it cannot be but that crashes and roars of the earth should resound +with bull-like bellowings. Let us now return to our original subject. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. Cæsar, passing his winter among the Parisii, was eagerly preparing +to anticipate the Allemanni, who were not yet assembled in one body, but +who, since the battle of Strasburg, were working themselves up to a +pitch of insane audacity and ferocity. And he was waiting with great +impatience for the month of July, when the Gallic campaigns usually +begin. For indeed he could not march before the summer had banished the +frost and cold, and allowed him to receive supplies from Aquitania. + +2. But as diligence overcomes almost all difficulties, he, revolving +many plans of all kinds in his mind, at last conceived the idea of not +waiting till the crops were ripe, but falling on the barbarians before +they expected him. And having resolved on that plan, he caused his men +to take corn for twenty days' consumption from what they had in store, +and to make it into biscuit, so that it might keep longer; and this +enabled the soldiers to carry it, which they did willingly. And relying +on this provision, and setting out as before, with favourable auspices, +he reckoned that in the course of five or six months he might finish two +urgent and indispensable expeditions. + +3. And when all his preparations were made, he first marched against +the Franks, that is against that tribe of them usually called Salii, who +some time before had ventured with great boldness to fix their +habitations on the Roman soil near Toxandria.[79] But when he had +reached Tongres, he was met by an embassy from this tribe, who expected +still to find him in his winter quarters, offering him peace on +condition of his leaving them unattacked and unmolested, as if the +ground they had seized were rightfully their own. Julian comprehended +the whole affair, and having given the ambassadors an ambiguous reply, +and also some presents, sent them back again, leaving them to suppose he +would remain in the same place till they returned. + +4. But the moment they had departed he followed them, sending Severus +along the bank of the river, and suddenly came upon the whole settlement +like a thunderbolt; and availing himself of his victory to make a +reasonable exhibition of clemency, as indeed they met him with +entreaties rather than with resistance, he received the submission of +them and their children. + +5. He then attacked the Chamavi,[80] who had been guilty of similar +audacity, and through the same celerity of movement he slew one portion +of them, and another who made a vigorous resistance he took prisoners, +while others who fled precipitately he allowed to escape unhurt to their +own territories, to avoid exhausting his soldiers with a long campaign. +And when ambassadors were afterwards sent by them to implore his pardon, +and generally to do what they could for them, when they prostrated +themselves before him, he granted them peace on condition of retiring to +their own districts without doing any mischief. + + +IX. + +§ 1. Everything thus succeeding according to his wish, Julian, always on +the watch to establish by every means in his power the security of the +provinces on a solid foundation, determined to put in as good repair as +the time permitted those fortresses erected in a line on the banks of +the Meuse, which some time before had been destroyed by an attack of +the barbarians. And accordingly he desisted for a while from all other +operations, and restored them. + +2. And that he might by a prudent rapidity insure their safety, he took +a part of the seventeen days' provisions, which troops, when going on an +expedition, carry on their backs, and stored in those forts, hoping to +replace what he thus took from the soldiers by seizing the crops of the +Chamavi. + +3. But he was greatly disappointed. For as the crops were not yet ripe, +the soldiers when they had consumed what they had with them were unable +to find food, and began to utter violent threats against Julian, mingled +with fierce cries and reproaches, calling him Asiatic, Greek, a cheat, +and a fool pretending to be wise. And as it is commonly the case among +soldiers that some men are found of remarkable fluency of speech, they +poured forth such harangues as this:-- + +4. "Whither are we being dragged, having lost all hope of good fortune? +We formerly, indeed, suffered terrible hardships in the snow, and cruel +biting frost; but now (oh, shame!), when we have the fate of the enemy +in our hands, we are wasting away with famine, the most miserable of all +deaths. Let no one think that we are stirrers up of tumults; we declare +that we are speaking for our very lives. We do not ask for gold or +silver, which it is long since we have touched or seen, and which are as +much denied to us as if we had been convicted of having encountered all +our toils and perils in the service of the enemies of the republic." + +5. And their complaints were just. For after all his gallant exploits +and all his doubtful changes and dangers, the soldiers were exhausted by +his Gallic campaigns, without even receiving either donation or pay from +the time that Julian was sent to take the command; because he himself +had nothing to give, nor would Constantius permit anything to be drawn +for that purpose from the treasury, as had been the custom. + +6. And at a later period it was manifest that this was owing more to +ill-will than to parsimony, because when Julian had given some small +coin to one of the common soldiers, who, as was the custom, had asked +for some to get shaved with, he was attacked for it with most insulting +calumnies by Gaudentius, the secretary, who had long remained in Gaul as +a spy upon his actions, and whom he himself subsequently ordered to be +put to death, as will be related in its fitting place. + + +X. + +§ 1. When at length their discontent was appeased by various kinds of +caresses, and when the Rhine had been crossed by a bridge of boats, +which was thrown over it, Severus, the master of the horse, up to that +time a brave and energetic soldier, suddenly lost all his vigour. + +2. And he who had frequently been used to exhort the troops, both in +bodies and as individuals, to gallant acts, now seemed a base and timid +skulker from battle, as if he feared the approach of death. As we read +in the books of Tages[81] that those who are fated to be soon struck by +lightning, so lose their senses that they cannot hear thunder, or even +greater noises. And he marched on in a lazy way, not natural to him, and +even threatened with death the guides, who were leading on the army with +a brisk step, if they would not agree to say that they were wholly +ignorant of the road any further. So they, fearing his power, and being +forbidden to show the way any more, advanced no further. + +3. But amid this delay, Suomarius, king of the Allemanni, arrived +unexpectedly with his suite; and he who had formerly been fierce and +eager for any injury to the Romans, was now inclined to regard it as an +unexpected gain to be permitted to retain his former possessions. And +because his looks and his gait showed him to be a suppliant, he was +received as a friend, and desired to be of good cheer. But still he +submitted himself to Julian's discretion, and implored peace on his +bended knees. And peace was granted him, with pardon for the past, on +condition of giving up our prisoners and of supplying our soldiers with +food, whenever it was required, receiving, like any ordinary purveyor, +security for payment of what he provided. But he was at the same time +warned, that if he did not furnish the required supplies in time he +would be liable to be called in question for his former hostility. + +4. And that which had been discreetly planned was carried out without +hindrance. Julian desiring to reach a town belonging to another +chieftain, named Hortarius, towards which object nothing seemed wanting +but guides, gave orders to Nestica, a tribune of the Scutarii, and to +Chariettoa, a man of marvellous courage, to take great pains to capture +a prisoner and to bring him to him. A youth of the Allemanni was +speedily caught and brought before him, who, on condition of obtaining +his freedom, promised to show the road. The army, following him as its +guide, was soon obstructed by an abattis of lofty trees, which had been +cut down; but by taking long and circuitous paths, they at last came to +the desired spot, and the soldiers in their rage laid waste the fields +with fire, carried off the cattle and the inhabitants, and slew all who +resisted without mercy. + +5. The king, bewildered at this disaster, seeing the numerous legions, +and the remains of his burnt villages, and looking upon the last +calamities of fortune as impending over him, of his own accord implored +pardon, promising to do all that should be commanded him, and binding +himself on oath to restore all his prisoners. For that was the object +about which Julian was the most anxious. But still he restored only a +few, and detained the greater part of them. + +6. When Julian knew this, he was filled with just indignation, and when +the king came to receive the customary presents, the Cæsar refused to +release his four companions, on whose support and fidelity the king +principally relied, till all the prisoners were restored. + +7. But when the king was summoned by the Cæsar to a conference, looking +up at him with trembling eyes, he was overcome by the aspect of the +conqueror, and overwhelmed by a sense of his own embarrassing condition, +and especially by the compulsion under which he was now (since it was +reasonable that after so many successes of the Romans that the cities +which had been destroyed by the violence of the barbarians should be +rebuilt) to supply waggons and materials from his own stores and those +of his subjects. + +8. And after he had promised to do so, and had bound himself with an +oath to consent to die if he were guilty of any treachery, he was +permitted to return to his own country. For he could not be compelled to +furnish provisions like Suomarius, because his land had been so utterly +laid waste that nothing could be found on it for him to give. + +9. Thus those kings who were formerly so proud and accustomed to grow +rich by the plunder of our citizens, were now brought under the Roman +yoke; and as if they had been born and brought up among our tributaries, +they submitted to our commands, though with reluctance. And when these +events were thus brought to a conclusion, the Cæsar distributed his army +among its usual stations, and returned to his winter quarters. + + +XI. + +§ 1. When these transactions presently became known in the court of +Constantius--for the knowledge of them could not be concealed, since the +Cæsar, as if he had been merely an officer of the emperor's, referred to +him on all occasions--those who had the greatest influence in the +palace, being skilful professors of flattery, turned all Julian's +well-arranged plans and their successful accomplishment into ridicule; +continually uttering such malicious sayings as this, "We have had enough +of the goat and his victories;" sneering at Julian because of his beard, +and calling him a chattering mole, a purple-robed ape, and a Greek +pedant. And pouring forth numbers of sneers of the same kind, acceptable +to the emperor, who liked to hear them, they endeavoured with shameless +speeches to overwhelm Julian's virtues, slandering him as a lazy, timid, +carpet-knight, and one whose chief care was to set off his exploits by +fine descriptions; it not being the first time that such a thing had +been done. + +2. For the greatest glory is always exposed to envy. So we read in +respect of the illustrious generals of old, that, though no fault could +be found in them, still the malignity which found offence in their +greatest actions was constantly inventing false charges and accusations +against them. + +3. In the same manner Cimon the son of Miltiades, who destroyed a vast +host of the Persians on the Eurymedon, a river in Pamphylia, and +compelled a nation always insolent and arrogant to beg for peace most +humbly, was accused of intemperance; and again Scipio Æmilianus, by +whose indomitable vigilance two[82] most powerful cities, which had made +great efforts to injure Rome, were both destroyed, was disparaged as a +mere drone. + +4. Moreover, wicked detractors, scrutinizing the character of Pompey, +when no pretext for finding fault with him could be discovered, remarked +two qualities in which they could raise a laugh against him; one that he +had a sort of natural trick of scratching his head with one finger: +another that for the purpose of concealing an unsightly sore, he used to +bind one of his legs with a white bandage. Of which habits, the first +they said showed a dissolute man; the second, one eager for a change of +government; contending, with a somewhat meagre argument, that it did not +signify what part of his body he clothed with a badge of royal dignity; +so snarling at that man of whom the most glorious proofs show that no +braver and truer patriot ever lived. + +5. During these transactions, Artemius, the deputy governor of Rome, +succeeded Bassus in the prefecture also; for Bassus, who had lately been +promoted to be prefect of the city, had since died. His administration +had been marked by turbulent sedition, but by no other events +sufficiently memorable to deserve mention. + + +XII. + +§ 1. In the mean time, while the emperor was passing the winter quietly +at Sirmium, he received frequent and trustworthy intelligence that the +Sarmatians and the Quadi, two tribes contiguous to each other, and +similar in manners and mode of warfare, were conjointly overrunning +Pannonia and the second province of Moesia, in straggling detachments. + +2. These tribes are more suited to predatory incursions than to regular +war; they carry long spears, and wear breastplates made of horn scraped +and polished, let into linen jackets, so that the layers of horn are +like the feathers of a bird. Their horses are chiefly geldings, lest at +the sight of mares they should be excited and run away, or, when held +back in reserve, should betray their riders by their fierce neighing. + +3. They cover vast spaces in their movements, whether in pursuit or in +retreat, their horses being swift and very manageable; and they lead +with them one or sometimes two spare chargers apiece, in order that the +change may keep up the strength of their cattle, and that their vigour +may be preserved by alternations of rest. + +4. Therefore, after the vernal equinox was past, the emperor, having +collected a strong body of soldiers, marched forth under the guidance of +propitious fortune. Having arrived at a suitable place, he crossed the +Danube, which was now flooded from the melting of the snow, by a bridge +of boats, and descended on the lands of the barbarians, which he began +to lay waste. They, being taken by surprise through the rapidity of his +march, and seeing that the battalions of his warlike army were at their +throats, when they had not supposed it possible that such a force could +be collected for a year, had no courage to make a stand, but, as the +only means of escaping unexpected destruction, took to flight. + +5. When many had been slain, fear fettering their steps, those whose +speed had saved them from death hid themselves among the secret defiles +of the mountains, and from thence beheld their country destroyed by the +sword, which they might have delivered if they had resisted with as much +vigour as they fled. + +6. These events took place in that part of Sarmatia which looks towards +the second Pannonia. Another military expedition, conducted with equal +courage, routed the troops of the barbarians in Valeria, who were +plundering and destroying everything within their reach. + +7. Terrified at the greatness of this disaster, the Sarmatians, under +pretext of imploring peace, planned to divide their force into three +bodies, and to attack our army while in a state of fancied security; so +that they should neither be able to prepare their weapons, nor avoid +wounds, nor (which is the last resource in a desperate case) take to +flight. + +8. There were with the Sarmatians likewise on this occasion, as +partners in their danger, the Quadi,[83] who had often before taken part +in the injuries inflicted on us; but their prompt boldness did not help +them on this occasion, rushing as they did into open danger. + +9. For many of them were slain, and the survivors escaped among the +hills, with which they were familiar. And as this event raised the +spirits and courage of our army, they united in solid columns, and +marched with speed into the territories of the Quadi; who, having learnt +by the past to dread the evils which impended over them, came boldly +into the emperor's presence to implore peace as suppliants, since he was +inclined to be merciful in such cases. On the day appointed for settling +the conditions, one of their princes named Zizais, a young man of great +stature, marshalled the ranks of the Sarmatians to offer their +entreaties of peace in the fashion of an army; and as soon as they came +within sight, he threw away his arms, and fell like one dead, +prostrating himself on his breast before the emperor; his very voice +from fear refusing its office, when he ought to have uttered his +entreaties, he awakened the more pity, making many attempts, and being +scarcely able from the violence of his sobs to give utterance to his +wishes. + +10. At last, having recovered himself, and being bidden to rise up, he +knelt, and having regained the use of his tongue, he implored pardon for +his offences. His followers also, whose mouths had been closed by fear +while the fate of their leader was still doubtful, were admitted to +offer the same petition, and when he, being commanded to rise, gave them +the signal which they had been long expecting, to present their +petition, they all threw away their javelins and their shields, and held +out their hands in an attitude of supplication, striving to surpass +their prince in the humility of their entreaties. + +11. Among the other Sarmatians the prince had brought with him three +chiefs of tribes, Rumo, Zinafer, and Fragiledus, and many nobles who +came to offer the same petition with earnest hope of success. And they, +being elated at the promise of safety, undertook to make amends for +their former deeds of hostility by performing the conditions now imposed +on them; giving up willingly into the power of the Romans themselves, +their wives and children, and all their possessions. The kindness of the +emperor, united with justice, subdued them; and he bidding them be of +good cheer and return to their homes, they restored our prisoners. They +also brought the hostages who were demanded of them, and promised prompt +obedience to all the emperor's commands. + +12. Then, encouraged by this example of our clemency, other chieftains +came with all their tribe, by name Araharius and Usafer, men of +distinction among the nobles, and at the head of a great force of their +countrymen; one of them being chief of a portion of the Quadi who dwelt +beyond the mountains, and the other of a division of the Sarmatians: the +two being united by the proximity of their territories, and their +natural ferocity. But the emperor, fearing the number of their +followers, lest, while pretending to make a treaty, they should suddenly +rise up in arms, separated them; ordering those who were acting for the +Sarmatians to retire for a while, while he was examining into the +affairs of Araharius and the Quadi. + +13. And when they presented themselves before him, bowing according to +their national custom, as they were not able to clear themselves of +heavy charges, so, fearing extreme punishment, they gave the hostages +which were demanded, though they had never before been compelled to give +pledges for their fidelity. + +14. These matters being thus equitably and successfully settled, Usafer +was admitted to offer his petition, though Araharius loudly protested +against this, and maintained that the peace ratified with him ought to +comprehend Usafer also, as an ally of his though of inferior rank, and +subject to his command. + +15. But when the question was discussed, the Sarmatians were pronounced +independent of any other power, as having been always vassals of the +Roman empire; and they willingly embraced the proposal of giving +hostages as a pledge of the maintenance of tranquillity. + +16. After this there came a vast number of nations and princes, flocking +in crowds, when they heard that Araharius had been allowed to depart in +safety, imploring us to withdraw the sword which was at their throats; +and they also obtained the peace which they requested on similar terms, +and without any delay gave as hostages the sons of their nobles whom +they brought from the interior of the country; and they also +surrendered, as we insisted, all their prisoners, from whom they parted +as unwillingly as from their own relations. + +17. When these arrangements were completed, the emperor's anxiety was +transferred to the Sarmatians, who were objects of pity rather than of +anger. It is incredible how much prosperity our connection with their +affairs had brought them, so as to give grounds for really believing, +what some persons do imagine, that Fate may be either overcome or +created at the will of the emperor. + +18. There were formerly many natives of this kingdom, of high birth and +great power, but a secret conspiracy armed their slaves against them; +and as among barbarians all right consists in might, they, as they were +equal to their masters in ferocity, and superior in number, completely +overcame them. + +19. And these native chiefs, losing all their wisdom in their fear, fled +to the Victohali,[84] whose settlements were at a great distance, +thinking it better in the choice of evils to become subject to their +protectors than slaves to their own slaves. But afterwards, when they +had obtained pardon from us, and had been received as faithful allies, +they deplored their hard fate, and invoked our direct protection. Moved +by the undeserved hardship of their lot, the emperor, when they were +assembled before him, addressed them with kind words in the presence of +his army, and commanded them for the future to own no master but himself +and the Roman generals. + +20. And that the restoration of their liberty might carry with it +additional dignity, he made Zizais their king, a man, as the event +proved, deserving the rewards of eminent fortune, and faithful. After +these glorious transactions, none of the Sarmatians were allowed to +depart till all our prisoners had returned, as we had before insisted. + +21. When these matters had been concluded in the territories of the +barbarians, the camp was moved to Szoeni,[85] that there also the +emperor might, by subjugation or slaughter, terminate the war with the +Quadi, who were keeping that district in a state of agitation. Their +prince Vitrodorus, the son of king Viduarius, and Agilimundus, an +inferior chieftain, with the other nobles and judges who governed the +different tribes, as soon as they saw the imperial army in the bosom of +their kingdom and of their native land, threw themselves at the feet of +the soldiers, and having obtained pardon, promised obedience; and gave +their children as hostages for the performance of the conditions imposed +upon them; and drawing their swords, which they worship as deities, they +swore to remain faithful. + + +XIII. + +§ 1. These matters then, as has been related, having been thus +successfully terminated, the public interests required that the army +should at once march against the Limigantes, the revolted slaves of the +Sarmatians, who had perpetrated many atrocities with impunity. For, as +soon as the countrymen of free blood had attacked us, they also, +forgetful of their former condition, thinking to take advantage of a +favourable opportunity, burst through the Roman frontier, in this +wickedness alone agreeing with their masters and enemies. + +2. But on deliberation we determined that their offence also should be +punished with more moderation than its greatness deserved; and that +vengeance should limit itself to removing them to a distance where they +could no longer harass our territories. The consciousness of a long +series of crimes made them fearful of danger. + +3. And therefore, suspecting that the weight of war was about to fall +upon them, they were prepared, as exigency might require, to resort to +stratagem, arms, or entreaties. But at the first sight of our army they +became as it were panic-stricken; and being reduced to despair, they +begged their lives, offering a yearly tribute, and a body of their +chosen youths for our army, and promising perpetual obedience. But they +were prepared to refuse if they were ordered to emigrate (as they showed +by their gestures and countenances), trusting to the strength of the +place where, after they had expelled their masters, they had fixed their +abode. + +4. For the Parthiscus[86] waters this land, proceeding with oblique +windings till it falls into the Danube. But while it flows unmixed, it +passes through a vast extent of country, which, near its junction with +the Danube, it narrows into a very small corner, so that over on the +side of the Danube those who live in that district are protected from +the attack of the Romans, and on the side of the Parthiscus they are +secured from any irruptions of the barbarians. Since along its course +the greater part of the ground is frequently under water from the +floods, and always swampy and full of osiers, so as to be quite +impassable to strangers; and besides the mainland there is an island +close to the mouth of the river, which the stream itself seems to have +separated into its present state. + +5. Accordingly, at the desire of the emperor, they came with native +arrogance to our bank of the river, not, as the result showed, with the +intention of obeying his commands, but that they might not seem alarmed +at the presence of his soldiers. And there they stood, stubbornly +showing that they had come bent on resistance. + +6. And as the emperor had foreseen that this might happen, he secretly +divided his army into several squadrons, and by the rapidity of their +movements hemmed in the barbarians between his own lines. And then, +standing on a mound, with a few of his officers and a small body-guard, +he gently admonished them not to give way to ferocity. + +7. But they, wavering and in doubt, were agitated by various feelings, +and mingling craft with their fury, they had recourse to arms and to +prayers at the same time. And meditating to make a sudden attack on +those of our men who were nearest, they threw their shields some +distance before them, with the intent that while they made some steps +forward to recover them, they might thus steal a little ground without +giving any indication of their purpose. + +8. And as it was now nearly evening, and the departing light warned us +to avoid further delay, our soldiers raised their standards and fell +upon them with a fiery onset. And they, in close order, directed all +their force against the mound on which (as has been already said) the +emperor himself was standing, fixing their eyes on him, and uttering +fierce outcries against him. + +9. Our army was indignant at such insane audacity, and forming into a +triangle, to which military simplicity has given the name of "the boar's +head," with a violent charge they scattered the barbarians now pressing +vigorously upon the emperor; on the right our infantry slew their +infantry, and on the left our cavalry dashed among their squadrons of +light horsemen. + +10. The prætorian cohort, carefully guarding the emperor, spared neither +the breasts of those who attacked nor the backs of those who fled, and +the barbarians, yielding in their stubbornness to death alone, showed by +their horrid cries that they grieved not so much at their own death as +at the triumph of our army. And, beside the dead, many lay with their +legs cut off, and so deprived of the resource of flight, others had lost +their hands; some who had received no wound were crushed by the weight +of those who fell upon them, and bore their torments in profound +silence. + +11. Nor, amid all their sufferings, did any one of them ask for mercy, +or throw away his sword, or implore a speedy death, but clinging +resolutely to their arms, wounded as they were, they thought it a lesser +evil to be subdued by the strength of another than by their own +consciences, and at times they were heard to grumble that what had +happened was the work of fortune, not of their deserts. And so this +whole battle was brought to an end in half an hour, in which such +numbers of barbarians fell that nothing but the fact of our victory +proved that there had been any battle at all. + +12. Those in arms had scarcely been routed when the relations of the +dead, of every age and sex, were brought forward in crowds, having been +dragged from their humble dwellings. And all their former pride being +now gone, they descended to the lowest depths of servile obedience, and +after a very short time nothing but barrows of the dead and bands of +captives were beheld. + +13. So, the heat of strife and the excitement of victory stimulating our +men, they rose up to destroy all who had escaped the battle, or who were +lying hidden in their dwellings. And when, eager for the blood of the +barbarians, our soldiers had reached the spot, they tore to pieces the +slight straw-thatched huts; nor could even the strongest-built cottages, +or the stoutest beams save any one from death. + +14. At last, when everything was set on fire, and when no one could be +concealed any longer, since every protection for their lives was +destroyed, they either perished obstinately in the flames, or else, if +they avoided the fire and sallied out, they only escaped that +destruction to fall beneath the sword of their enemies. + +15. Some, however, did escape from the weapons of the enemy and from the +spreading flames, and committed themselves to the stream, trusting to +their skill in swimming to enable them to reach the further bank; but +many of them were drowned, and others were transfixed by our javelins, +so that the winding stream of the vast river was discoloured with blood, +and thus, by the agency of both elements, did the indignation and valour +of the conquerors destroy the Sarmatians. + +16. After these events it was determined to leave the barbarians no hope +nor comfort of life; and after burning their houses and carrying off +their families, an order was given to collect boats in order to hunt out +those who, being on the opposite bank of the river, had escaped the +attack of our men. + +17. And immediately, that the alacrity of our warriors might have no +time to cool, some light-armed troops were embarked in boats, and led by +secret paths to occupy the retreats of the Sarmatians. The barbarians at +first were deceived by seeing only the boats of their own country, and +crews with whom they were acquainted. + +18. But when the weapons glittered in the distance, and they perceived +that what they feared was upon them, they sought refuge in their +accustomed marshes. And our soldiers pursuing them with great animosity, +slew numbers of them, and gained a victory in a place where it had not +been supposed that any soldier could find a footing, much less do any +bold action. + +19. After the Anicenses[87] had thus been routed and almost destroyed, +we proceeded at once to attack the Picenses, who are so called from the +regions which they inhabit, which border on one another; and these +tribes had fancied themselves the more secure from the disasters of +their allies, which they had heard of by frequent rumours. To crush them +(for it was an arduous task for those who did not know the country to +follow men scattered in many directions as they were) the aid of +Taifali[88] and of the free-born Sarmatians was sought. + +20. And as the nature of the ground separated the auxiliary battalions +from each other, our own troops took the ground nearest Moesia, the +Taifali that nearest to their own settlements, while the free Sarmatians +occupied that in front of their original position. + +21. The Limigantes, alarmed at the still fresh examples of nations +subdued and crushed by us, for a long time hesitated and wavered whether +they should attack us or ask for peace, having arguments of no small +weight for either line of conduct. But at last, through the influence of +the council of the elders, the idea of surrender prevailed; and the +submission also of those who had dared to attack their free-born masters +was added to our numerous victories; and the rest of them, who had +previously despised their masters, thinking them unwarlike and easily +subdued, now finding them stronger than themselves, submitted to them. + +22. Accordingly, having received pledges of their safety, and having +quitted the defence of their mountains, the greater portion of them came +with speed to the Roman camp, and they spread over a vast extent of +ground, bringing with them their parents, their children, their wives, +and all the movable treasures which their rapid motions had allowed them +to carry off. + +23. And those who it had been supposed would rather lose their lives +than quit their country, while they mistook their mad licentiousness for +liberty, now submitted to obey our orders, and to take up another abode +in peace and good faith, so as to be undisturbed for the future by wars +or seditions. And having been thus accepted as subjects, in accordance +with their own wish as it was believed, they remained quiet for a time; +but afterwards they broke out in destructive wickedness, as shall be +related at the proper time. + +24. While our affairs were thus prospering, Illyricum was put in a +state of twofold security, since the emperor, in endeavouring by two +means to accomplish this object, succeeded in both. He brought back and +established in their ancient homes the people who had been banished, +whom, although they were objects of suspicion from their natural +fickleness, he believed would go on more moderately than of old. And to +crown this kindness, he set over them as a king, not one of low birth, +but the very man whom they themselves had formerly chosen, as eminent +for all the virtues of mind and body. + +25. After such a wise action, Constantius, being now raised above all +fear, and having received from the unanimous consent of his soldiers the +title of Sarmaticus, from the name of the nation which he had subdued; +and being now about to leave the army, summoned all his cohorts and +centuries and maniples, and mounting the tribune, surrounded by the +standards and eagles, and by a great number of soldiers of all ranks, he +addressed the troops in these words, choosing his topics as usual so as +to gain the favour of all. + +26. "The recollection of our glorious exploits, the dearest of all +feelings to brave men, encourages me to repeat, though with great +moderation, what, in our heaven-granted victories, and before battle, +and in the very heat of the strife, we, the most faithful champions of +the Roman state, have conducted to a deservedly prosperous issue. For +what can be so honourable or so justly worthy to be handed down to the +recollection of posterity as the exultation of the soldier in his brave +deeds, and of the general in his wise plans? + +27. "The rage of our enemies, in their arrogant pride thinking to profit +by our absence, while we were protecting Italy and Gaul, was overrunning +Illyricum, and with continual sallies they were ravaging even the +districts beyond our frontiers; crossing the rivers, sometimes in boats +made of hollow trees, sometimes on foot; not relying on combats, nor on +their arms and strength, but being accustomed to secret forays, and +having been from the very earliest era of their nation an object of fear +to our ancestors, from their cunning and the variety of their +manoeuvres, which we indeed, being at a great distance, bore as long +as we could, thinking that the vigour of our generals would be able to +protect us from even slight injury. + +28. "But when their licentiousness led them on to bolder attempts, and +to inflict great and frequent injury on our provinces, we, having first +fortified the passes of the Tyrol, and having secured the safety of the +Gauls by watchful care, leaving no danger behind us, have marched into +Pannonia, in order, with the favour of the everlasting deity, to +strengthen our tottering interests in that country. And after everything +was prepared, we set forth, as you know, at the end of the spring, and +undertook a great enterprise; first of all taking care that the +countless darts of the enemy should not prevent us from making a bridge. +And when, with no great trouble, this had been accomplished, after we +had set our foot upon the enemy's territories, we defeated, with very +little loss to ourselves, the Sarmatians, who with obstinate courage set +themselves to resist us to the death. And we also crushed the Quadi, who +were bringing reinforcements to the Sarmatians, and who with similar +courage attacked our noble legions. + +29. "These tribes, after heavy losses sustained in their attacks, and +their stubborn and toilsome resistance, have at length learnt the power +of our valour, and throwing away their arms, have allowed their hands, +prepared for fighting, to be bound behind their backs; and seeing that +their only hope of safety is in prayer, have fallen at the feet of your +merciful emperor, whose wars they found are usually successful. Having +got rid of these enemies, we with equal courage defeated the Limigantes, +and after we had put numbers of them to the sword, the rest found their +only means of escaping danger lay in fleeing to their hiding-places in +the marshes. + +30. "And when these things were successfully terminated, it seemed to be +a seasonable opportunity for mercy. So we compelled the Limigantes to +remove to very distant lands, that they might not be able any more to +move to our injury; and we spared the greatest part of them. And we made +Zizais king over the free-born portion of them, sure that he would be +faithful to us, and thinking it more honour to create a king for the +barbarians than to take one from them, the dignity being increased by +this honourable consideration, that the ruler whom we thus gave them had +before been elected and accepted by them. + +31. "So we and the republic have in one campaign obtained a fourfold +reward: first, vengeance on our guilty assailants; next, abundance of +captive slaves from the enemy, for valour is entitled to those rewards +which it has earned with its toil and prowess. + +32. "Thirdly, we have ample resources and great treasures of wealth; our +labour and courage having preserved the patrimony of each of us +undiminished. This, in the mind of a good sovereign, is the best fruit +of prosperity. + +33. "Lastly, I myself have the well-won spoil of a surname derived from +the enemy--the title of Sarmaticus--which you unanimously have (if I may +say so without arrogance) deservedly conferred on me." + +34. After he had made an end of speaking, the whole assembly, with more +alacrity than usual, since its hope of booty and gain was increased, +rose up with joyful voices in praise of the emperor; and, as usual, +calling God to witness that Constantius was invincible, returned with +joy to their tents. And the emperor was conducted back to his palace, +and having rested two days, re-entered Sirmium with a triumphal +procession; and the troops returned to their appointed stations. + + +XIV. + +§ 1. About this time Prosper and Spectatus and Eustathius, who, as has +been mentioned above, had been sent as ambassadors to the Persians, +found the Persian king at Ctesiphon, on his return from his campaign, +and they delivered the emperor's letters and presents, and requested +peace while affairs were still in their existing state. And mindful of +what had been enjoined them, they never forgot the interests nor the +dignity of the Roman empire, maintaining that the peace ought to be made +on the condition that no alteration should be made in the state of +Armenia or Mesopotamia. + +2. And having remained for some time, when they saw that the king was +obstinate, and resolute not to admit of peace unless the absolute +dominion of those regions was assigned to him, they returned without +having completed their business. + +3. After which, Lucillianus, a count, and Procopius, at that time +secretary, were sent to obtain the same conditions, with equal powers. +Procopius being the same man who afterwards, under the pressure of +violent necessity, committed himself to a revolutionary movement. + + +[70] Ἐνοίχθωη, Σεισίχθων, Ἐννοσίγδαιος, +from ἐνίθω and σείω, to shake, and χθὰν +and γαῖα, the earth. + +[71] From βραζω, to boil over. + +[72] Strabo gives Ophiusa as one of the names of Rhodes, and Homer +mentions the golden shower:-- + + καί σφιν Θεσπέσιον πλοῦτου κατέχευε κρονιὼν.--Il. β. vi. 70. + +As also does Pindar, Ol. vii. 63. + +[73] From κλίνω, to lay down. + +[74] From χάσμα, a chasm, derived from χαίνω, to +gape. + +[75] This is a tale told by Plato in the Timæus (which is believed to +have no foundation). + +[76] The destruction of Helice is related in Diodorus Sic. xiv. 48; cf. +Ov. Met. xv. 290. + +[77] The lake Ciminus was near Centumcellæ, cf. Virg. Æn. vii. 697. The +town of Saccumum is not mentioned by any other writer. + +[78] From μυκάω, to roar like a bull. + +[79] Toxandria was in Belgium, on the Scheldt. + +[80] The Chamavi were a tribe at the mouth of the Rhine. + +[81] Tages was an Etruscan, the son, it is said, of a genius, Jovialis, +and grandson of Jupiter, who rose out of the ground as a man named +Tarchon was ploughing near Tarquinii, and instructed the auspices in +divination. Cf. Cic. Div. ii. 23. + +[82] Carthage and Numantia. + +[83] The Quadi occupied a part of Hungary. + +[84] The Victohali were a tribe of Goths. + +[85] Szoeni, called by Ammianus Bregetio, is near Cormorn. + +[86] The Theiss. + +[87] The Anicenses and Picenses were Dacian tribes. + +[88] The Taifali were a tribe of the Western Goths. + + + + +BOOK XVIII. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. The Cæsar Julian consults the welfare of the Gauls, and provides + for the general observance of justice.--II. He repairs the walls of + the castles on the Rhine which he had recovered; crosses the Rhine, + and having conquered those of the Alemanni who remained hostile, he + compels their kings to sue for peace, and to restore their + prisoners.--III. Why Barbatio, the commander of the infantry, and + his wife, were beheaded by command of Constantius.--IV. Sapor, king + of Persia, prepares to attack the Romans with all his power.--V. + Antoninus, the protector, deserts to Sapor, with all his men; and + increases his eagerness to engage in war with the Romans.--VI. + Ursicinus, the commander of the legions, being summoned from the + East, when he had reached Thrace was sent back to Mesopotamia, and + having arrived there he hears from Marcellinus of Sapor's + approach.--VII. Sapor, with the kings of the Chionitæ and Albani, + invades Mesopotamia--The Romans of their own accord lay waste their + lands with fire; compelled the countrymen to come into the towns, + and fortify the western bank of the Euphrates with castles and + garrisons.--VIII. Seven hundred Illyrian cavalry are surprised by + the Persians, and put to flight--Ursicinus escapes in one + direction, and Marcellinus in another.--IX. A description of Amida; + and how many legions and squadrons were there in garrison.--X. + Sapor receives the surrender of two Roman fortresses. + + +I. + +A.D. 359. + +§ 1. These events took place in the different parts of the world in one +and the same year. But while the affairs in Gaul were in a better state; +and while titles of consul were ennobling the brothers Eusebius and +Hypatius, Julian, illustrious for his uninterrupted successes, now in +his winter quarters, being relieved for a while from his warlike +anxieties, was devoting equal care to many points connected with the +welfare of the provinces. Taking anxious care that no one should be +oppressed by the burden of taxation; that the power of the officers +should not be stretched into extortion; that those who increase their +property by the public distresses, should have no sanction, and that no +judge should violate justice with impunity. + +2. And he found it easy to correct what was wrong on this head, because +he himself decided all causes in which the persons concerned were of any +great importance; and showed himself a most impartial discerner of right +and wrong. + +3. And although there are many acts of his in deciding these disputes +worthy of praise, it will be sufficient to mention one, on the model of +which all his other words and actions were framed. + +4. Numerius, a native of Narbonne, had a little time before been accused +before the governor as a thief, and Julian, by an unusual exercise of +the censor's power, heard his cause in public; admitting into the court +all who sought entrance. And when Numerius denied all that was charged +against him, and could not be convicted on any point, Delphidius the +orator, who was assailing him with great bitterness, being enraged at +the failure of his charges, exclaimed, "But, great Cæsar, will any one +ever be found guilty if it be enough to deny the charge?" To whom +Julian, with seasonable wisdom, replied, "Can any one be judged innocent +if it be enough to make a charge?" And he did many similar actions in +his civil capacity. + + +II. + +§ 1. But when he was about to set out on an important expedition against +some tribes of the Allemanni whom he considered hostile, and likely to +proceed to acts of atrocious daring if they were not defeated in a way +to be an example to the rest, he hesitated in great anxiety, since a +report of his intentions had gone before him, what force he could +employ, and how he could be quick enough to take them by surprise the +first moment that circumstances should afford him an opportunity. + +2. But after he had meditated on many different plans, he decided on +trying one, which the result proved to be good without any one being +aware of it. He had sent Hariobaudes, a tribune who at that time had no +particular command, a man of honour, loyalty, and courage, under pretext +of an embassy, to Hortarius the king who was now in a state of +friendship with us; in order that from his court Hariobaudes might +easily proceed to the frontiers of the enemy whom he was proposing to +attack; and so ascertain what they were about, being thoroughly skilled +in the language of the barbarians. + +3. And when he had gone boldly on this commission, Julian himself, as it +was now a favourable time of the year, assembled his soldiers from all +quarters for the expedition, and set out; thinking it above all things +desirable, before the war had got warm, to effect his entrance into the +cities which had been destroyed some time before, and having recovered +them to put them in a state of defence; and also to establish granaries +in the place of those which had been burnt, in which to store the corn +usually imported from Britain. + +4. Both these objects were accomplished, and that more speedily than +could have been looked for. For the store-houses were rapidly built, and +abundance of provisions laid up in them; and seven cities were occupied. +The camp of Hercules, Quadriburgium,[89] Kellen, Nuys, Bonn, Andernach, +and Bingen. At which last city, by exceedingly good fortune, Florentius +the prefect also arrived unexpectedly, bringing with him a division of +soldiers, and a supply of provisions sufficient to last a long time. + +5. After this, the next measure of urgent necessity was to repair the +walls of the recovered cities, while as yet no one raised any hindrance; +and it is abundantly plain that at that time the barbarians did out of +fear what was commanded them for the public interests, while the Romans +did it for love of their ruler. + +6. According to the treaty made in the preceding year, the kings sent +their own waggons with many articles useful for building. And the +auxiliary soldiers who always hold themselves above employments of this +kind being won over by Julian's caresses to diligent obedience, now +carried beams fifty feet long and more on their shoulders, and gave the +greatest aid to the labours of the architect. + +7. And while all this was being done with diligence and speed, +Hariobaudes, having learnt all he wanted, returned and related what he +had ascertained. And after his arrival the army marched with all speed, +and soon reached Mayence, where, though Florentius and Lupicinus, who +succeeded Severus, insisted vehemently that they might cross by the +bridge laid down at that town, the Cæsar strenuously objected, +maintaining that it was not well to trample on the lands of those who +were brought into a state of tranquillity and friendship; lest the +treaty made with them should be brought to an abrupt end, as had often +happened through the discourtesy of the soldiers ravaging everything +that came in their way. + +8. But all the Allemanni who were the objects of our attack, seeing the +danger now on their borders, with many threats urged Surmarius their +king, who by a previous treaty was on friendly terms with us, to prevent +the Romans from crossing the river. For their villages were on the +eastern bank of the Rhine. But when Surmarius affirmed that he by +himself was unable to offer effectual resistance, the barbarian host +assembled in a body, and came up to Mayence, intending by main force to +prevent our army from crossing the river. + +9. So that Cæsar's advice now seemed best in two points, both not to +ravage the lands of our friends; and also, not in the teeth of the +opposition of a most warlike people, to risk the loss of many lives in +order to make a bridge, even in a spot the most favourable for such a +work. + +10. And the enemy, watching his movements with great skill, marched +slowly along the opposite bank, and when they saw our men pitching their +tents at a distance, they still watched all night, exerting the most +sleepless vigilance to prevent the passage of the river from being +attempted. + +11. But when our men reached the spot intended, they surrounded their +camp with a rampart and ditch, and took their rest; and the Cæsar, +having taken counsel with Lupicinus, ordered some of the tribunes to get +ready three hundred light-armed soldiers with stakes, without letting +them know what was to be done, or whither they were going. + +12. They being collected, when the night was well advanced, and being +all embarked on board of forty light boats, which were all that were at +hand, were ordered to go down the stream so silently as not to use even +their oars, lest the noise should rouse the barbarians, and then using +all activity both of mind and body, to force a landing on the opposite +bank, within the frontier of the enemy, while they were still watching +the camp-fires of our men. + +13. While these orders were being performed with great promptness, King +Hortarius, who had been previously bound to us by treaties, and was +without any intention of revolting, kept on friendly terms with the +bordering tribes, having invited all their kings, princes, and +chieftains to a banquet, detained them to the third watch, the banquet +being prolonged so late according to the custom of his nation. And as +they were departing, our men chanced to come upon them suddenly, but +could neither stay nor capture any of them owing to the darkness of the +night and the fleetness of their horses, on which they fled at random in +all directions. A number of sutlers and slaves, however, who were +following them on foot, our men slew; the few who escaped being likewise +protected by the darkness of the hour. + +14. When it became known that the Romans had crossed the river (and they +then as well as in all former expeditions accounted it a great relief to +their labours when they could find the enemy), the kings and their +people, who were watching zealously to prevent the bridge from being +made, were alarmed, and being panic-stricken fled in all directions, and +their violent fury being thus cooled, they hastened to remove their +relations and their treasures to a distance. And as all difficulties +were now surmounted, the bridge was at once made, and before the +barbarians could expect it, the Roman army appeared in their +territories, and passed through the dominions of Hortarius without doing +any injury. + +15. But when they reached the lands of those kings who were still +hostile, they went on invincibly through the midst of their rebellious +country, laying waste with fire and sword, and plundering everything. +And after their frail houses were destroyed by fire, and a vast number +of men had been slain, and the army, having nothing to face but corpses +and suppliants, had arrived in the region called Capellatum, or Palas, +where there are boundary stones marking the frontiers of the Allemanni +and the Burgundians; the army pitched its camp, in order that Macrianus +and Hariobaudus, brothers, and both kings, might be received by us, and +delivered from their fears. Since they, thinking their destruction +imminent, were coming with great anxiety to sue for peace. + +16. And immediately after them King Vadomarius also came, whose abode +was opposite Augst: and having produced some letters of the Emperor +Constantius, in which he was strictly recommended to the protection of +the Romans, he was courteously received, as became one who had been +admitted by the emperor as a client of the Roman empire. + +17. And Macrianus and his brother, being admitted among our eagles and +standards, marvelled at the imposing appearance of our arms, and various +resources which they had never seen before. And they offered up +petitions on behalf of their people. But Vadomarius, who had met us +before, since he was close to our frontier, admired indeed the +appointments of our daring expedition, but remembered that he had often +seen such before, ever since his childhood. + +18. At last, after long deliberation, with the unanimous consent of all, +peace was granted to Macrianus and Hariobaudus; but an answer could not +be given to Vadomarius, who had come to secure his own safety, and also +as an ambassador to intercede for the kings Urius, Ursicinus, and +Vestralpus, imploring peace for them also; lest, as the barbarians are +men of wavering faith, they might recover their spirits when our army +was withdrawn, and refuse adherence to conditions procured by the agency +of others. + +19. But when they also, after their crops and houses had been burnt, and +many of their soldiers had been slain or taken prisoners, sent +ambassadors of their own, and sued for mercy as if they had been guilty +of similar violence to our subjects, they obtained peace on similar +terms; of which that most rigorously insisted on was that they should +restore all the prisoners which they had taken in their frequent +incursions. + + +III. + +§ 1. While the god-like wisdom of the Cæsar was thus successful in Gaul, +great disturbances arose in the court of the emperor, which from slight +beginnings increased to grief and lamentations. Some bees swarmed on the +house of Barbatio, at that time the commander of the infantry. And when +he consulted the interpreters of prodigies on this event, he received +for an answer, that it was an omen of great danger; the answer being +founded on the idea that these animals, after they have fixed their +abode, and laid up their stores, are usually expelled by smoke and the +noisy din of cymbals. + +2. Barbatio's wife was a woman called Assyria, neither silent nor +prudent. And when he had gone on an expedition which caused her much +alarm, she, because of the predictions which she recollected to have +been given her, and being full of female vanity, having summoned a +handmaid who was skilful in writing, and of whom she had become +possessed by inheritance from her father Silvanus, sent an unseasonable +letter to her husband, full of lamentations, and of entreaties that +after the approaching death of Constantius, if he himself, as she hoped, +was admitted to a share in the empire, he would not despise her, and +prefer to marry Eusebia, who was Constantius's empress, and who was of a +beauty equalled by few women. + +3. She sent this letter as secretly as she could; but the maid, when the +troops had returned from their expedition at the beginning of the night, +took a copy of the letter which she had written at the dictation of her +mistress, to Arbetio, and being eagerly admitted by him, she gave him +the paper. + +4. He, relying on this evidence, being at all times a man eager to bring +forward accusations, conveyed it to the emperor. As was usual, no delay +was allowed, and Barbatio, who confessed that he had received the +letter, and his wife, who was distinctly proved to have written it, were +both beheaded. + +5. After this execution, investigations were carried further, and many +persons, innocent as well as guilty, were brought into question. Among +whom was Valentinus, who having lately been an officer of the +protectores, had been promoted to be a tribune; and he with many others +was put to the torture as having been privy to the affair, though he was +wholly ignorant of it. But he survived his sufferings; and as some +compensation for the injury done to him, and for his danger, he received +the rank of duke of Illyricum. + +6. This same Barbatio was a man of rude and arrogant manners, and very +unpopular, because while captain of the protectores of the household, in +the time of Gallus Cæsar, he was a false and treacherous man; and after +he had attained the higher rank he became so elated that he invented +calumnies against the Cæsar Julian, and, though all good men hated him, +whispered many wicked lies into the ever-ready ears of the emperor. + +7. Being forsooth ignorant of the wise old saying of Aristotle, who when +he sent Callisthenes, his pupil and relation, to the king Alexander, +warned him to say as little as he could, and that only of a pleasant +kind, before a man who carried the power of life and death on the tip of +his tongue. + +8. We should not wonder that mankind, whose minds we look upon as akin +to those of the gods, can sometimes discern what is likely to be +beneficial or hurtful to them, when even animals devoid of reason +sometimes secure their own safety by profound silence, of which the +following is a notorious instance:-- + +9. When the wild geese leave the East because of the heat, and seek a +western climate, as soon as they reach Mount Taurus, which is full of +eagles, fearing those warlike birds, they stop up their own beaks with +stones, that not even the hardest necessity may draw a cry from them; +they fly more rapidly than usual across that range, and when they have +passed it they throw away the stones, and then proceed more securely. + + +IV. + +§ 1. While these investigations were being carried on with great +diligence at Sirmium, the fortune of the East sounded the terrible +trumpet of danger. For the king of Persia, being strengthened by the aid +of the fierce nations whom he had lately subdued, and being above all +men ambitious of extending his territories, began to prepare men and +arms and supplies, mingling hellish wisdom with his human counsels, and +consulting all kinds of soothsayers about futurity. And when he had +collected everything, he proposed to invade our territories at the first +opening of the spring. + +2. And when the emperor learnt this, at first by report, but +subsequently by certain intelligence, and while all were in suspense +from dread of the impending danger, the dependents of the court, +hammering on the same anvil day and night (as the saying is), at the +prompting of the eunuchs, held up Ursicinus as a Gorgon's head before +the suspicious and timid emperor, continually repeating that, because on +the death of Silvanus, in a dearth of better men, he had been sent to +defend the eastern districts, he had become ambitious of still greater +power. + +3. And by this base compliance many tried to purchase the favour of +Eusebius, at that time the principal chamberlain, with whom (if we are +to say the real truth) Constantius had great influence, and who was now +a bitter enemy of the safety of the master of the horse, Ursicinus, on +two accounts; first, because he was the only person who did not need his +assistance, as others did; and secondly, because he would not give up +his house at Antioch, which Eusebius greatly coveted. + +4. So this latter, like a snake abounding in poison, and exciting its +offspring as soon as they can crawl to do mischief, stirred up the other +chamberlains, that they, while performing their more private duties +about the prince's person, with their thin and boyish voices, might +damage the reputation of a brave man by pouring into the too open ears +of the emperor accusations of great odium. And they soon did what they +were commanded. + +5. Disgust at this and similar events leads one to praise Domitian, who +although, by the unalterable detestation he incurred, has ever stained +the memory of his father and his brother,[90] still deserved credit for +a most excellent law, by which he forbade with severe threats any one to +castrate any boy within the limits of the Roman jurisdiction. For if +there were no such edict, who could endure the swarms of such creatures +as would exist, when it is so difficult to bear even a few of them? + +6. However, they proceeded with caution, lest, as Eusebius suggested, if +Ursicinus were again sent for, he should take alarm and throw everything +into confusion; but it was proposed that on the first casual opportunity +he should be put to death. + +7. While they were waiting for this chance, and full of doubt and +anxiety; and while we[91] were tarrying a short time at Samosata, the +greatest city of what had formerly been the kingdom of Commagene, we +suddenly received frequent and consistent reports of some new +commotions, which I will now proceed to relate. + + +V. + +§ 1. A certain man named Antoninus, who from having been a wealthy +merchant had become superintendent of the accounts of the duke of +Mesopotamia, and after that entered the corps of the protectores, a man +of experience and wisdom, and very well known in all that country. Being +through the avarice of certain persons involved in heavy losses, and +perceiving that while defending actions against men of influence he was +being sunk lower and lower through injustice, since the judges who had +to decide on his affairs sought to gratify people in power, he, not +wishing to kick against the pricks, bent himself to obsequious caresses; +and confessing that he owed what was claimed of him, the claim, by +collusion, was transferred to the treasury. He now, having resolved on a +flagitious plan, began secretly to look into the secrets of the whole +republic; and being acquainted with both languages, he devoted his +attention to the accounts; remarking the amount, quality, and situation +of the different divisions of the army, and the employment of them on +any expeditions; inquiring also with unwearied diligence into the extent +of the supplies of arms and provisions, and other things likely to be +needful in war. + +2. And when he had made himself acquainted with all the internal +circumstances of the East, and had learnt that a great portion of the +troops and of the money for their pay was distributed in Illyricum, +where the emperor himself was detained by serious business; as the day +was now approaching which had been fixed for the payment of the money +for which he had been constrained by fear to give an acknowledgment of +his bond; and as he saw that he must be overwhelmed by disasters on all +sides, since the chief treasurer was devoted to the interests of his +adversary; he conceived the audacious design of crossing over to the +Persians with his wife and children, and his whole numerous family of +relations. + +3. And to elude the observation of the soldiers at their different +stations, he bought for a small price a farm in Hiaspis, a district on +the banks of the Tigris. And, relying on this pretext, since no one +would venture to ask why a landed proprietor should go to the extreme +frontier of the Roman territory, as many others did the same, by the +agency of some trusty friends who were skilful swimmers, he carried on +frequent secret negotiations with Tamsapor, who was at that time +governing the country on the other side of the river with the rank of +duke, and with whom he was already acquainted. And at last, having +received from the Persian camp an escort of well-mounted men, he +embarked in some boats, and crossed over at night with all his family, +in the same manner as Zopyrus, the betrayer of Babylon, had formerly +done, only with an opposite object. + +4. While affairs in Mesopotamia were in this state, the hangers-on of +the palace, always singing the same song for our destruction, at last +found a handle to injure the gallant Ursicinus; the gang of eunuchs +being still the contrivers and promoters of the plot; since they are +always sour tempered and savage, and having no relations, cling to +riches as their dearest kindred. + +5. The design now adopted was to send Sabinianus, a withered old man of +great wealth, but infirm and timid, and from the lowness of his birth +far removed from any office of command, to govern the districts of the +East; while Ursicinus should be recalled to court, to command the +infantry, as successor to Barbatio. And then he, this greedy promoter of +revolution, as they called him, being within their reach, could easily +be attacked by his bitter and formidable enemies. + +6. While these things were going on in the camp of Constantius, as at a +festival or a theatre, and while the dispensers of rank which was bought +and sold were distributing the price agreed upon among the influential +houses, Antoninus, having reached Sapor's winter quarters, was received +with gladness; and being ennobled by the grant of a turban, an honour +which gives admission to the royal table, and also that of assisting at +and delivering one's opinion in the councils of the Persians, went +onwards, not with a punt pole or a tar rope, as the proverb is (that is +to say, not by any tedious or circuitous path), but with flowing sails +into the conduct of state affairs, and stirring up Sapor, as formerly +Maharbal roused the sluggish Hannibal, was always telling him that he +knew how to conquer, but not how to use a victory. + +7. For having been bred up in active life, and being a thorough man of +business, he got possession of the feelings of his hearers, who like +what tickles their ears, and who do not utter their praises aloud, but, +like the Phæacians in Homer, admire in silence,[92] while he recounted +the events of the last forty years; urging that, after all these +continual wars, and especially the battles of Hileia and Singara,[93] +where that fierce combat by night took place, in which we lost a vast +number of our men, as if some fecial had interposed to stop them, the +Persians, though victorious, had never advanced as far as Edessa or the +bridges over the Euphrates. Though with their warlike power and +splendid success, they might have pushed their advances especially at +that moment, when in consequence of the protracted troubles of their +civil wars the blood of the Romans was being poured out on all sides. + +8. By these and similar speeches the deserter, preserving his sobriety +at the banquets, where, after the fashion of the ancient Greeks, the +Persians deliberate on war and other important affairs, stimulated the +fiery monarch, and persuaded him to rely upon the greatness of his +fortune, and to take up arms the moment that the winter was over, and he +himself boldly promised his assistance in many important matters. + + +VI. + +§ 1. About this time Sabinianus, being elated at the power which he had +suddenly acquired, and having arrived in Cilicia, gave his predecessor +letters from the emperor, desiring him to hasten to court to be invested +with higher dignities. In fact the affairs of Asia were in such a state +that, even if Ursicinus had been at Ultima Thule their urgency would +have required him to be summoned thence to set them right, since he was +a man of the ancient discipline, and from long experience especially +skilful in the Persian manner of conducting war. + +2. But when the report of this reached the provinces, all ranks of the +citizens and agricultural population, by formal edicts and by unanimous +outcries, endeavoured to detain him, almost forcibly, as the public +defender of their country, remembering that though for ten years he had +been left to his own resources with a scanty and unwarlike force, he had +yet incurred no loss; and fearing for their safety if at so critical a +time he should be removed and a man of utter inactivity assume the rule +in his stead. + +3. We believe, and indeed there is no doubt of it, that fame flies on +wings through the paths of the air; and she it was who now gave +information of these events to the Persians while deliberating on the +entire aspect of affairs. At last, after many arguments pro and con, +they determined, on the advice of Antoninus, that as Ursicinus was +removed, and as the new governor was contemptible, they might venture +to neglect laying siege to cities, an operation which would cause a +mischievous loss of time, and at once cross the Euphrates, and advance +further, in order, outstripping all rumour of their march, to occupy +those provinces which, throughout all our wars, had always been safe +(except in the time of Gallienus), and which, from their long enjoyment +of peace, were very wealthy. And in this enterprise, with the favour of +God, Antoninus offered himself as a most desirable guide. + +4. His advice, therefore, being unanimously praised and adopted, and the +attention of the whole nation being directed to the speedy collection of +those things which were required, supplies, soldiers, arms, and +equipments, the preparation of everything for the coming campaign was +continued the whole winter. + +5. In the mean time, we, hastening at the emperor's command towards +Italy, after having been detained a short time on the western side of +Mount Taurus, reached the river Hebrus, which descends from the +mountains of the Odrysæ[94], and there we received letters from the +emperor, ordering us, without the least delay, to return to Mesopotamia, +without any officers, and having, indeed, no important duty to +discharge, since all the power had been transferred to another. + +6. And this had been arranged by those mischievous meddlers in the +government, in order that if the Persians failed and returned to their +own country, our success might be attributed to the valour of the new +governor; while, if our affairs turned out ill, Ursicinus might be +impeached as a traitor to the republic. + +7. Accordingly we, being tossed about without any reason, after much +time had been lost, returned, and found Sabinianus, a man full of pride, +of small stature, and of a petty and narrow mind, scarcely able without +fear to encounter the slight noise of a beast, much less to face the +crash of battle. + +8. Nevertheless, since our spies brought positive and consistent +intelligence that all kind of preparations were going on among the +enemy, and since their report was confirmed by that of the deserters, +while this manikin was in a state of perplexity, we hastened to Nisibis +to make such preparation as seemed requisite, lest the Persians, while +concealing their intention to besiege it, should come upon it by +surprise. + +9. And while all things necessary were being pressed forward within the +walls, continued fires and columns of smoke being seen on the other side +of the Tigris, near the town called the Camp of the Moors, and Sisara, +and the other districts on the Persian frontier, and spreading up to the +city itself, showed that the predatory bands of the enemy had crossed +the river, and entered our territories. + +10. And therefore we hastened forwards with a forced march, to prevent +the roads from being occupied; and when we had advanced two miles, we +saw a fine boy of about eight years old, as we guessed, wearing a +necklace, of noble appearance, standing on the top of a small hillock, +and crying out, stating himself to be the son of a man of noble birth, +whom his mother, while fleeing in her alarm at the approach of the +enemy, had left in her panic in order to be less encumbered. We pitied +him, and at the command of our general, I put him on my horse, in front +of me, and took him back to the city, while the predatory bands of the +enemy, having blockaded the city, were ravaging all around. + +11. And because I was alarmed at the difficulties in which we should be +placed by a blockade, I put the child in at a half open postern gate, +and hastened back with all speed to my troop. And I was very nearly +taken prisoner; for a tribune named Abdigidus, accompanied by a groom, +was fleeing, pursued by a squadron of cavalry, and though the master +escaped the servant was taken. And as I was passing by rapidly, they, +examining the servant, inquired of him who was the chief who had +advanced against them; and when they heard that Ursicinus had a little +while before entered the city, and was on his way to Mount Izala, they +put their informant to death, and then, forming into one body, pursued +us with ceaseless speed. + +12. But I outstripped them by the speed of my horse, and finding my +comrades reposing securely under the walls of a slight fort, called +Amudis, with their horses dispersed over the grass, I waved my hand, and +raising the hem of my cloak: by this usual signal I gave notice that +the enemy was at hand, and then joining them we retreated together, +though my horse was greatly fatigued. + +13. Our alarm was increased by the brightness of the night, as the moon +was full, and by the even level of the plain, which, if our danger +should become worse, afforded no possible hiding-place, as having +neither trees, nor bushes, nor anything but low herbage. + +14. Accordingly we adopted the following plan: we lit a lamp and +fastened it tightly on a horse, which we turned loose without a rider, +and let go where it pleased to our left, while we marched towards the +high ground on our right, in order that the Persians might fancy the +light a torch held before the general as he proceeded slowly forwards, +and so keep on in that direction. And unless we had adopted this +precaution we should have been circumvented, and have fallen as +prisoners into the power of the enemy. + +15. Being delivered from this danger, when we had come to a woody spot, +full of vines and fruit-bearing trees, called Meiacarire, a name derived +from the cool springs found there, we found that the inhabitants had all +fled, and there was only a single soldier remaining behind, concealed in +a remote corner. And when he was brought before our general, and through +fear told all kinds of different stories, and so became an object of +suspicion; at last, under the compulsion of our threats, he told the +real truth, that he was a native of Gaul, and had been born among the +Parisii, that he had served in our cavalry, but that fearing punishment +for some offence he had deserted to the Persians; that he had since +married a wife of excellent character, and had a family, and that having +been frequently sent as a spy to our camp, he had always brought the +Persians true intelligence. And now he said he had been sent by the +nobles Tamsapor and Nohodares, who were in command of the predatory +bands, to bring them such intelligence as he could collect. After +telling us this, and also that he knew of the operations of the enemy, +he was put to death. + +16. Afterwards, as our anxiety increased, we proceeded from thence with +as much speed as we could make to Amida, a city celebrated at a later +period for the disaster which befel it. And when our scouts had rejoined +us there we found in one of their scabbards a scrap of parchment +written in cipher, which they had been ordered to convey to us by +Procopius, whom I have already spoken of as ambassador to the Persians +with the Count Lucillianus; its terms were purposely obscure, lest if +the bearers should be taken prisoners, and the sense of the writing +understood, materials should be found for fatal mischief. + +17. The purport was, "The ambassadors of the Greeks, having been +rejected, and being perhaps to be put to death, the aged king, not +contented with the Hellespont, will throw bridges over the Granicus and +the Rhyndacus, and invade Asia Minor with a numerous host, being by his +own natural disposition irritable and fierce; and being now prompted and +inflamed by him who was formerly the successor of the Roman emperor +Hadrian,[95] it is all over with the Greeks if they do not take care." + +18. The meaning of this was that the Persian king, having crossed the +rivers Anzaba and Tigris, at the prompting of Antoninus was aiming at +the sovereignty of the entire East. When it had been interpreted with +difficulty, from its great obscurity, a wise plan was decided on. + +19. The satrap of Corduena, a province under the authority of the +Persians, was a man named Jovinianus, who had grown up to manhood in the +Roman territories, and was secretly friendly to us, because he had been +detained as a hostage in Syria, and being now allured by the love of +liberal studies, he was exceedingly desirous to return among us. + +20. To this man I, being sent with a faithful centurion, for the purpose +of learning with greater certainty what was being done, reached him by +travelling over pathless mountains, and dangerous defiles. And when he +saw and recognized me, he received me courteously, and I avowed to him +alone the reason of my coming; and having received from him a silent +guide, well acquainted with the country, I was sent to some lofty rocks +at a distance, from which, if one's eyes did not fail, one could see +even the most minute object fifty miles off. + +21. There we remained two whole days; and on the morning of the third +day we saw all the circuit of the earth, which we call the horizon, +filled with countless hosts of men, and the king marching before them +glittering with the brilliancy of his robes. And next to him on his left +hand marched Grumbates, king of the Chionitæ, a man of middle age, and +wrinkled limbs, but of a grand spirit, and already distinguished for +many victories. On his right hand was the king of the Albani, of equal +rank and splendour. After them came various generals, renowned for their +rank and power, who were followed by a multitude of all classes, picked +from the flower of the neighbouring nations, and trained by long +hardship to endure any toil or danger. + +22. How long, O mendacious Greece, wilt thou tell us of Doriscus,[96] +the Thracian town, and of the army counted there in battalions in a +fenced space, when we careful, or to speak more truly, cautious +historians, exaggerate nothing, and merely record what is established by +evidence neither doubtful nor uncertain! + + +VII. + +§ 1. After the kings had passed by Nineveh, an important city of the +province of Adiabene, they offered a sacrifice in the middle of the +bridge over the Anzaba, and as the omens were favourable, they advanced +with great joy; while we, calculating that the rest of their host could +hardly pass over in three days, returned with speed to the satrap, and +rested, refreshing ourselves by his hospitable kindness. + +2. And returning from thence through a deserted and solitary country, +under the pressure of great necessity, and reaching our army more +rapidly than could have been expected, we brought to those who were +hesitating the certain intelligence that the kings had crossed over the +river by a bridge of boats, and were marching straight towards us. + +3. Without delay, therefore, horsemen with horses of picked speed were +sent to Cassianus, duke of Mesopotamia, and to Euphronius, at that time +the governor of the province, to compel the residents in the country to +retire with their families and all their flocks to a safer place; and +to quit at once the town of Carræ, which was defended by very slight +walls; and further, to burn all the standing crops, that the enemy might +get no supplies from the land. + +4. And when these orders had been executed, as they were without delay, +and when the fire was kindled, the violence of the raging element so +completely destroyed all the corn,[97] which was just beginning to swell +and turn yellow, and all the young herbage, that from the Euphrates to +the Tigris nothing green was to be seen. And many wild beasts were +burnt, and especially lions, who infest these districts terribly, but +who are often destroyed or blinded in this manner. + +5. They wander in countless droves among the beds of rushes on the banks +of the rivers of Mesopotamia, and in the jungles; and lie quiet all the +winter, which is very mild in that country. But when the warm weather +returns, as these regions are exposed to great heat, they are forced out +by the vapours, and by the size of the gnats, with swarms of which every +part of that country is filled. And these winged insects attack the +eyes, as being both moist and sparkling, sitting on and biting the +eyelids; the lions, unable to bear the torture, are either drowned in +the rivers, to which they flee for refuge, or else by frequent +scratchings tear their eyes out themselves with their claws, and then +become mad. And if this did not happen the whole of the East would be +overrun with beasts of this kind. + +6. While the plains were thus being laid waste by fire, as I have +described, the tribunes, who were sent with a body of protectores, +fortified all the western bank of the Euphrates with castles and sharp +palisades and every kind of defence, fixing also large engines for +hurling missiles on those spots where the more tranquil condition of the +river made it likely that the enemy might attempt to cross. + +7. While these things were being expeditiously done, Sabinianus, chosen +in the hurried moment of general danger as the fittest conductor of an +internecine war, was living luxuriously, according to his custom, at the +tombs of Edessa,[98] as if he had established peace with the dead, and +had nothing to fear: and he took especial pleasure in breaking the +silence of the place with the sounding measures of the martial +pyathicari, instead of the usual theatrical exhibitions; a fancy, +considering the place, pregnant with omens. Since these and similar +gloomy scenes foreshow future commotions, as we learn in the progress of +time, all good men ought to avoid them. + +8. In the mean time, passing by Nisibis as of no importance, while the +conflagration increased through the dryness of the crops, the kings, +dreading a scarcity of food, marched through the grassy valleys at the +foot of the mountains. + +9. When they had arrived at a small place called Bebase (from which +place to the town of Constantina, which is one hundred miles distant, +the whole country is an arid desert, except where a little water is +found in some wells), they hesitated for some time, doubting what to do; +and at last resolving to proceed in reliance on the endurance of their +men, they learnt from a trusty spy that the Euphrates was swollen by the +melting of the snow, and was now extensively inundating the adjacent +lands, and so could not possibly be forded. + +10. Therefore they turned to see what opportunities chance might afford +them, being now cut off unexpectedly from the hope which they had +conceived. And in the present emergency a council was held, at which +Antoninus was requested to give his advice: and he counselled them to +direct their march to the right, so that by a longer circuit they might +reach the two strong forts of Barzala and Laudias, to which he could +guide them through a region fertile in everything, and still +undestroyed, since the march of the army was expected to be made in a +straight line. And the only river on their road was one small and +narrow, to be passed near its source, before it was increased by any +other streams, and easily fordable. + +11. When they had heard this, they praised their adviser, and bidding +him lead the way, the whole army turned from its previously appointed +line, and followed his guidance. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. When our generals received intelligence of this from their spies, +we settled to march in haste to Samosata, in order to cross the river at +that point, and destroying the bridges at Zeugma and Capersana, to check +the invasion of the enemy if we could find a favourable chance for +attacking them. + +2. But we met with a sad disaster, worthy to be buried in profound +silence. For two squadrons of cavalry, of about seven hundred men, who +had just been sent from Illyricum to Mesopotamia as a reinforcement, and +who were guarding the passes, becoming enervated and timid, and fearing +a surprise by night, withdrew from the public causeways in the evening, +a time above all others when they most required watching. + +3. And when it was remarked that they were all sunk in wine and sleep, +about twenty thousand Persians, under the command of Tamsapor and +Nohodares, passed without any one perceiving them, and fully armed as +they were, concealed themselves behind the high ground in the +neighbourhood of Amida. + +4. Presently, when (as has been said) we started before daybreak on our +march to Samosata, our advanced guard, on reaching a high spot which +commanded a more distant view, was suddenly alarmed by the glitter of +shining arms; and cried out in a hurried manner that the enemy were at +hand. Upon this the signal for battle was given, and we halted in a +solid column, never thinking of fleeing, since, indeed, those who would +have pursued us were in sight; nor to engage in battle with an enemy +superior to us in numbers, and especially in cavalry; but seeing the +necessity for caution in the danger of certain death which lay before +us. + +5. At last, when it seemed clear that a battle could not be avoided, and +while we were still hesitating what to do, some of our men rashly +advanced as skirmishers, and were slain. And then, as each side pressed +onwards, Antoninus, ambitiously marching in front of the enemy, was +recognized by Ursicinus, and addressed by him in a tone of reproach, and +called a traitor and a scoundrel; till at last, taking off the tiara +which he wore on his head as a badge of honour, he dismounted from his +horse, and bending down till his face nearly touched the ground, he +saluted the Roman general, calling him patron and master; and holding +his hands behind his back, which among the Assyrians is a gesture of +supplication, he said, "Pardon me, most noble count, who have been +driven to this guilt by necessity, not by my own will. My creditors, as +you know, drove me headlong into it: men whose avarice even your high +authority, which tried to support me in my distress, could not +overcome." Having said this, he withdrew without turning his back upon +him, but retiring backwards in a respectful manner, with his face +towards him. + +6. And while this was taking place, which did not occupy above half an +hour, our second rank, which occupied the higher ground, cried out that +another body of cuirassiers appeared behind, and was coming on with +great speed. + +7. And then, as is often the case at critical moments, doubting which +enemy we ought, or even could resist, and being pressed on all sides by +an overwhelming mass, we dispersed in every direction, each fleeing +where he could. And while every one was trying to extricate himself from +the danger, we were brought, without any order, face to face with the +enemy. + +8. And so struggling vigorously while giving up all desire of saving our +lives, we were driven back to the high banks of the Tigris. Some of our +men, driven into the water where it was shallow, locked their arms, and +so made a stand; others were carried off by the current and drowned; +some, still fighting with the enemy, met with various fortune, or, +panic-stricken at the numbers of the barbarians, sought the nearest +defiles of Mount Taurus. Among these was the general himself, who was +recognized and surrounded by a vast body of the enemy; but he escaped +with the tribune Aiadalthes and one groom, being saved by the swiftness +of his horse. + +9. I myself was separated from my comrades, and while looking round to +see what to do, I met with one of the protectores named Verrinianus, +whose thigh was pierced through by an arrow, and while at his entreaty I +was trying to pull it out, I found myself surrounded on all sides by +Persians, some of whom had passed beyond me. I therefore hastened back +with all speed towards the city, which, being placed on high ground, is +only accessible by one very narrow path on the side on which we were +attacked; and that path is made narrower still by escarpments of the +rocks, and barriers built on purpose to make the approach more +difficult. + +10. Here we became mingled with the Persians, who were hastening with a +run, racing with us, to make themselves masters of the higher ground: +and till the dawn of the next day we stood without moving, so closely +packed, that the bodies of those who were slain were so propped up by +the mass that they could not find room to fall to the ground; and a +soldier in front of me, whose head was cloven asunder into equal +portions by a mighty sword-blow, still stood upright like a log, being +pressed upon all sides. + +11. And although javelins were incessantly hurled from the battlements +by every kind of engine, yet we were protected from that danger by the +proximity of the walls. And at last I got in at the postern gate, which +I found thronged by a multitude of both sexes flocking in from the +neighbouring districts. For it happened by chance on these very days +that it was the time of a great annual fair which was held in the +suburbs, and which was visited by multitudes of the country people. + +12. In the mean time all was in disorder with every kind of noise; some +bewailing those whom they had lost; others being mortally wounded; and +many calling on their different relations whom the crowd prevented them +from discovering. + + +IX. + +§ 1. This city had formerly been a very small one, till Constantius +while Cæsar, at the same time that he built another town called +Antinopolis, surrounded Amida also with strong towers and stout walls, +that the people in the neighbourhood might have a safe place of refuge. +And he placed there a store of mural engines, making it formidable to +the enemy, as he wished it to be called by his own name. + +2. On the southern side it is watered by the Tigris, which passes close +to it, making a kind of elbow: on the east it looks towards the plains +of Mesopotamia, on the north it is close to the river Nymphæus, and is +overshadowed by the chain of Mount Taurus, which separates the nations +on the other side of the Tigris from Armenia. On the west it borders on +the province of Gumathena, a fertile and well-cultivated district, in +which is a village known as Abarne, celebrated for the healing +properties of its hot springs. But in the very centre of Amida, under +the citadel, there rises a rich spring of water, drinkable indeed, but +often tainted with hot vapours. + +3. In the garrison of this town, the fifth or Parthian legion was always +located with a considerable squadron of native cavalry. But at that time +six legions, by forced marches, had outstripped the Persian host in its +advance, and greatly strengthened the garrison: they were the Magnentian +and Decentian legions whom, after the end of the civil war, the emperor +had sent as mutinous and discontented to the East, since there the only +danger was from foreign wars: the tenth, and the thirteenth legion +called the Fretensian:[99] and two legions of light infantry called +præventores and superventores,[100] with Ælian, who was now a count. Of +these latter, when only new recruits, we have already[101] spoken, as +sallying out from Singara at the instigation of this same Ælian, then +only one of the guard, and slaying a great number of Persians whom they +had surprised in their sleep. + +4. There was also the greater part of the force called companion +archers, being squadrons of cavalry so named, in which all the free-born +barbarians serve, and who are conspicuous among all others for the +splendour of their arms and for their prowess. + + +X. + +§ 1. While the first onset of the Persians was by its unexpected +vehemence throwing these troops into disorder, the king, with his native +and foreign troops, having after leaving Bebase turned his march to the +right, according to the advice of Antoninus, passed by Horre and +Meiacarire and Charcha, as if he meant also to pass by Amida. And when +he had come near the Roman forts, one of which is called Reman, and the +other Busan, he learnt from some deserters that many persons had removed +their treasures there for protection, trusting to their lofty and strong +walls; and it was also added that there was there, with a great many +valuables, a woman of exquisite beauty, the wife of a citizen of Nisibis +named Craugasius, of great consideration by birth, character, and +influence; with her little daughter. + +2. Sapor, eager to seize what belonged to another, hastened on, and +attacked the castle with force; and the garrison, being seized with a +sudden panic at the variety of arms of the assailants, surrendered +themselves, and all who had fled to them for protection; and at the +first summons gave up the keys of the gates. Possession being taken, all +that was stored there was ransacked; women bewildered with fear were +dragged forth; and children clinging to their mothers were taught bitter +suffering at the very beginning of their infancy. + +3. And when Sapor, by asking each whose wife she was, had found that of +Craugasius trembling with fear of violence, he allowed her to come in +safety to him, and when he saw her, veiled as she was with a black veil +to her lips, he kindly encouraged her with a promise that she should +recover her husband, and that her honour should be preserved inviolate. +For hearing that her husband was exceedingly devoted to her, he thought +that by this bribe he might win him over to betray Nisibis. + +4. And he also extended his protection to other virgins who, according +to Christian rites, had been formally consecrated to the service of God, +ordering that they should be kept uninjured, and be allowed to perform +the offices of religion as they had been accustomed. Affecting clemency +for a time, in order that those who were alarmed at his former ferocity +and cruelty might now discard their fears, and come to him of their own +accord, learning from these recent examples that he tempered the +greatness of his success with humanity and courtesy. + + +[89] It is not known what towns are meant by Castra Herculis and +Quadriburgium. + +[90] Vespasian and Titus. + +[91] Ammianus was still in attendance on Ursicinus. + +[92] Homer, Od. xiii. I; translated by Pope-- + + "He ceased, but left, so pleasing on their ear, + His voice, that listening still they seemed to hear." + +And imitated by Milton, Paradise Lost, ix. 1-- + + "The angel ended, and in Adam's ear + So pleasing left his voice that he awhile + Thought him still speaking, still stood fixed to hear." + +[93] The battle of Hileia took place A.D. 348; that of Singara three +years earlier. + +[94] The Maritza, rising in Mount Hæmus, now the Balkan. + +[95] Antoninus is meant, as Hadrian was succeeded by Antoninus Pius. + +[96] Doriscus was the town where Xerxes reviewed and counted his army, +as is related by Herodotus, vii. 60. + +[97] "Ammianus has marked the chronology of this year by three signs +which do not perfectly coincide with each other, or with the series of +the history:--1. The corn was ripe when Sapor invaded Mesopotamia, 'cum +jura stipulâ flavente turgerent'--a circumstance which, in the latitude +of Aleppo, would naturally refer us to the month of April or May. 2. The +progress of Sapor was checked by the overflowing of the Euphrates, which +generally happens in July and August. 3. When Sapor had taken Amida, +after a siege of seventy-three days, the autumn was far advanced. +'Autumno præcipiti hædorumque improbo sidere exorto.' To reconcile these +apparent contradictions, we must allow for some delay in the Persian +king, some inaccuracy in the historian, and some disorder in the +seasons."--Gibbon, cap. xix.; ed. Bohn, vol. ii. 320. "Clinton, F.R., i. +442, sees no such difficulty as Gibbon has here supposed; he makes Sapor +to have passed the Tigris in May, reached the Euphrates July 8th, +arrived before Amida July 27th, and stormed the place October +7th."--Editor of Bohn's ed. + +[98] That is, in the suburbs of Edessa, as cemeteries in ancient times +were usually outside the walls of cities. + +[99] It is not known what this name is derived from: some read +Fortensis, instead of Fretensis, and those who prefer this reading +derive it either from Fortis, brave; or from Fortia, a small town of +Asiatic Sarmatia. + +[100] Præventores, or "going before;" superventores, "coming after," as +a reserve. + +[101] In one of the earlier books which has been lost. + + + + +BOOK XIX. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Sapor, while exhorting the citizens of Amida to surrender, is + assailed with arrows and javelins by the garrison--And when king + Grumbates makes a similar attempt, his son is slain.--II. Amida is + blockaded, and within two days is twice assaulted by the + Persians.--III. Ursicinus makes a vain proposal to sally out by + night, and surprise the besiegers, being resisted by Sabinianus, + the commander of the forces.--IV. A pestilence, which breaks out in + Amida, is checked within ten days by a little rain--A discussion of + the causes, and different kinds of pestilences.--V. Amida, betrayed + by a deserter, is assailed both by assaults on the walls and by + underground mines.--VI. A sally of the Gallic legions does great + harm to the Persians.--VII. Towers and other engines are brought + close to the walls of the city, but they are burnt by the + Romans.--VIII. Attempts are made to raise lofty mounds close to the + walls of Amida, and by these means it is entered--After the fall of + the city, Marcellinus escapes by night, and flees to Antioch.--IX. + Of the Roman generals at Amida, some are put to death, and others + are kept as prisoners--Craugasius of Nisibis deserts to the + Persians from love of his wife, who is their prisoner.--X. The + people of Rome, fearing a scarcity, become seditious.--XI. The + Limigantes of Sarmatia, under pretence of suing for peace, attack + Constantius, who is deceived by their trick; but are driven back + with heavy loss.--XII. Many are prosecuted for treason, and + condemned.--XIII. Lauricius, of the Isaurians checks the hordes of + banditti. + + +I. + +§ 1. The king, rejoicing at this our disaster and captivity, and +expecting other successes, advanced from this castle, and marching +slowly, on the third day came to Amida. + +2. And at daybreak, everything, as far as we could see, glittered with +shining arms; and an iron cavalry filled the plains and the hills. + +3. And he himself, mounted on his charger, and being taller than the +rest, led his whole army, wearing instead of a crown a golden figure of +a ram's head inlaid with jewels; being also splendid from the retinue of +men of high rank and of different nations which followed him. And it was +evident that his purpose was merely to try the garrison of the walls +with a parley, as, in following out the counsel of Antoninus, he was +hastening to another quarter. + +4. But the deity of heaven, mercifully limiting the disasters of the +empire within the compass of one region, led on this king to such an +extravagant degree of elation, that he seemed to believe that the moment +he made his appearance the besieged would be suddenly panic-stricken, +and have recourse to supplication and entreaty. + +5. He rode up to the gates, escorted by the cohort of his royal guard; +and while pushing on more boldly, so that his very features might be +plainly recognized, his ornaments made him such a mark for arrows and +other missiles, that he would have been slain, if the dust had not +hindered the sight of those who were shooting at him; so that after a +part of his robe had been cut off by a blow of a javelin, he escaped to +cause vast slaughter at a future time. + +6. After this, raging as if against sacrilegious men who had violated a +temple, he cried out that the lord of so many monarchs and nations had +been insulted, and resolved to use all his efforts to destroy the city. +But at the entreaty of his choicest generals not to break the example of +mercy which he had so gloriously set, by indulging in anger, he was +pacified, and the next day ordered the garrison to be summoned to +surrender. + +7. Therefore, at daybreak, Grumbates, king of the Chionitæ, went boldly +up to the walls to effect that object, with a brave body of guards; and +when a skilful reconnoitrer had noticed him coming within shot, he let +fly his balista, and struck down his son in the flower of his youth, who +was at his father's side, piercing through his breastplate, breast and +all; and he was a prince who in stature and beauty was superior to all +his comrades. + +8. At his death all his countrymen took to flight, but presently +returning in order to prevent his body from being carried off, and +having roused with their dissonant clamours various tribes to their aid, +a stern conflict arose, the arrows flying on both sides like hail. + +9. The deadly struggle having been continued till the close of day, it +was nightfall before the corpse of the young prince, which had been so +stubbornly defended, was extricated from the heap of dead and streams of +blood, amid the thick darkness; as formerly at Troy, the armies fought +in furious combat for the comrade of the Thessalian chieftain.[102] + +10. At his death the count was sad, and all the nobles as well as his +father were distressed at his sudden loss; and a cessation of arms +having been ordered, the youth, so noble and beloved, was mourned after +the fashion of his nation. He was carried out in the arms he was wont to +wear, and placed on a spacious and lofty pile; around him ten couches +were dressed, bearing effigies of dead men, so carefully laid out, that +they resembled corpses already buried; and for seven days all the men in +the companies and battalions celebrated a funeral feast, dancing, and +singing melancholy kinds of dirges in lamentation for the royal youth. + +11. And the women, with pitiable wailing, deplored with their customary +weepings the hope of their nation thus cut off in the early bloom of +youth; as the worshippers of Venus are often seen to do in the solemn +festival of Adonis, which the mystical doctrines of religion show to be +some sort of image of the ripened fruits of the earth. + + +II. + +§ 1. When the body was burnt and the bones collected in a silver urn, +which his father had ordered to be carried back to his native land, to +be there buried beneath the earth, Sapor, after taking counsel, +determined to propitiate the shade of the deceased prince by making the +destroyed city of Amida his monument. Nor indeed was Grumbates willing +to move onward while the shade of his only son remained unavenged. + +2. And having given two days to rest, and sent out large bodies of +troops to ravage the fertile and well-cultivated fields which were as +heavy with crops as in the time of peace, the enemy surrounded the city +with a line of heavy-armed soldiers five deep; and at the beginning of +the third day the brilliant squadrons filled every spot as far as the +eye could see in every direction, and the ranks marching slowly, took up +the positions appointed to each by lot. + +3. All the Persians were employed in surrounding the walls; that part +which looked eastward, where that youth so fatal to us was slain, fell +to the Chionitæ. The Vertæ were appointed to the south; the Albani +watched the north; while opposite to the western gate were posted the +Segestani, the fiercest warriors of all, with whom were trains of tall +elephants, horrid with their wrinkled skins, which marched on slowly, +loaded with armed men, terrible beyond the savageness of any other +frightful sight, as we have often said. + +4. When we saw these countless hosts thus deliberately collected for the +conflagration of the Roman world, and directed to our own immediate +destruction, we despaired of safety, and sought only how to end our +lives gloriously, as we all desired. + +5. From the rising of the sun to its setting, the enemy's lines stood +immovable, as if rooted to the ground, without changing a step or +uttering a sound; nor was even the neigh of a horse heard; and the men +having withdrawn in the same order as they had advanced, after +refreshing themselves with food and sleep, even before the dawn, +returned, led by the clang of brazen trumpets, to surround the city, as +if fated to fall with their terrible ring. + +6. And scarcely had Grumbates, like a Roman fecial, hurled at us a spear +stained with blood, according to his native fashion, than the whole +army, rattling their arms, mounted up to the walls, and instantly the +tumult of war grew fierce, while all the squadrons hastened with speed +and alacrity to the attack, and our men on their side opposed them with +equal fierceness and resolution. + +7. Soon many of the enemy fell with their heads crushed by vast stones +hurled from scorpions, some were pierced with arrows, others were +transfixed with javelins, and strewed the ground with their bodies; +others, wounded, fled back in haste to their comrades. + +8. Nor was there less grief or less slaughter in the city, where the +cloud of arrows obscured the air, and the vast engines, of which the +Persians had got possession when they took Singara, scattered wounds +everywhere. + +9. For the garrison, collecting all their forces, returning in constant +reliefs to the combat, in their eagerness to defend the city, fell +wounded, to the hindrance of their comrades, or, being sadly torn as +they fell, threw down those who stood near them, or if still alive, +sought the aid of those skilful in extracting darts which had become +fixed in their bodies. + +10. So slaughter was met by slaughter, and lasted till the close of day, +being scarcely stopped by the darkness of evening, so great was the +obstinacy with which both sides fought. + +11. And the watches of the night were passed under arms, and the hills +resounded with the shouts raised on both sides, while our men extolled +the valour of Constantius Cæsar as lord of the empire and of the world, +and the Persians styled Sapor Saansas and Pyroses, which appellations +mean king of kings, and conqueror in wars. + +12. The next morning, before daybreak, the trumpet gave the signal, and +countless numbers from all sides flocked like birds to a contest of +similar violence; and in every direction, as far as the eye could reach, +nothing could be seen in the plains and valleys but the glittering arms +of these savage nations. + +13. And presently a shout was raised, and as the enemy rushed forward +all at once, they were met by a dense shower of missiles from the walls; +and as may be conjectured, none were hurled in vain, falling as they did +among so dense a crowd. For while so many evils surrounded us, we fought +as I have said before, with the hope, not of procuring safety, but of +dying bravely; and from dawn to eventide the battle was evenly +balanced, both fighting with more ferocity than method, and there arose +the shouts of men striking and falling, so that from the eagerness of +both parties there was scarcely any one who did not give or receive +wounds. + +14. At last, night put an end to the slaughter, and the losses on both +sides caused a longer truce. For when the time intended for rest was +allowed to us, continual sleepless toil still exhausted our little +remaining strength, in spite of the dread caused by the bloodshed and +the pallid faces of the dying, whom the scantiness of our room did not +permit us even the last solace of burying; since within the circuit of a +moderate city there were seven legions, and a vast promiscuous multitude +of citizens and strangers of both sexes, and other soldiers, so that at +least twenty thousand men were shut up within the walls. + +15. So each attended to his own wounds as well as he could, availing +himself of whatever assistance or remedies came in his way. While some, +being severely wounded, died of loss of blood; and some, pierced through +by swords, lay on the ground, and breathed their last in the open air; +others who were pierced through and through the skilful refused to +touch, in order not to pain them further by inflicting useless +sufferings; some, seeking the doubtful remedy of extracting the arrows, +only incurred agonies worse than death. + + +III. + +§ 1. While the war was going on in this manner around Amida, Ursicinus, +vexed at being dependent on the will of another, gave continual warning +to Sabinianus, who had superior authority over the soldiers, and who +still remained in the quarter of the tombs, to collect all his +light-armed troops, and hasten by secret paths along the foot of the +mountain chain, with the idea that by the aid of this light force, if +chance should aid them, they might surprise some of the enemy's +outposts, and attack with success the night watches of the army, which, +with its vast circuit, was surrounding the walls, or else by incessant +attacks might harass those who clung resolutely to the blockade. + +2. But Sabinianus rejected this proposal as mischievous, and produced +some letters from the emperor, expressly enjoining that all that could +be done was to be done without exposing the troops to any danger; but +his own secret motive he kept in his own bosom, namely, that he had been +constantly recommended while at court to refuse his predecessor, who was +very eager for glory, every opportunity of acquiring renown, however +much it might be for the interest of the republic. + +3. Extreme pains were taken, even to the ruin of the provinces, to +prevent the gallant Ursicinus from being spoken of as the author of or +partner in any memorable exploit. Therefore, bewildered with these +misfortunes, Ursicinus, seeing that, though constantly sending spies to +us (although from the strict watch that was set it was not easy for any +one to enter the city), and proposing many advantageous plans, he did no +good, seemed like a lion, terrible for his size and fierceness, but with +his claws cut and his teeth drawn, so that he could not dare to save +from danger his cubs entangled in the nets of the hunters. + + +IV. + +§ 1. But in the city, where the number of the corpses which lay +scattered over the streets was too great for any one to perform the +funeral rites over them, a pestilence was soon added to the other +calamities of the citizens; the carcases becoming full of worms and +corruption, from the evaporation caused by the heat, and the various +diseases of the people; and here I will briefly explain whence diseases +of this kind arise. + +2. Both philosophers and skilful physicians agree that excess of cold, +or of heat, or of moisture, or of drought, all cause pestilences; on +which account those who dwell in marshy or wet districts are subject to +coughs and complaints in the eyes, and other similar maladies: on the +other hand, those who dwell in hot climates are liable to fevers and +inflammations. But since fire is the most powerful of all elements, so +drought is the quickest at killing. + +3. On this account it is that when the Greeks were toiling at the ten +years' war,[103] to prevent a foreigner from profiting by his violation +of a royal marriage, a pestilence broke out among them, and numbers died +by the darts of Apollo, who is the same as the Sun. + +4. Again, as Thucydides relates, that pestilence which at the beginning +of the Peloponnesian war harassed the Athenians with a most cruel kind +of sickness, came by slow steps from the burning plains of Ethiopia to +Attica. + +5. Others maintain that the air and the water, becoming tainted by the +smell of corpses, and similar things, takes away the healthiness of a +place, or at all events that the sudden change of temperature brings +forth slighter sicknesses. + +6. Some again affirm that the air becomes heavier by emanations from the +earth, and kills some individuals by checking the perspiration of the +body, for which reason we learn from Homer, that, besides men, the other +living creatures also died; and we know by many instances, that in such +plagues this does occur. + +7. Now the first species of pestilence is called pandemic; this causes +those who live in dry places to be attacked by frequent heats. The +second is called epidemic, which gets gradually more violent, dims the +sight of the eyes, and awakens dangerous humours. The third is called +loemodes,[104] which is also temporary, but still often kills with +great rapidity. + +8. We were attacked by this deadly pestilence from the excessive heat, +which our numbers aggravated, though but few died: and at last, on the +night after the tenth day from the first attack, the heavy and dense air +was softened by a little rain, and the health of the garrison was +restored and preserved. + + +V. + +§ 1. In the mean time the restless Persians were surrounding the city +with a fence of wicker-work, and mounds were commenced; lofty towers +also were constructed with iron fronts, in the top of each of which a +balista was placed, in order to drive down the garrison from the +battlements; but during the whole time the shower of missiles from the +archers and slingers never ceased for a moment. + +2. We had with us two of the legions which had served under Magnentius, +and which, as we have said, had lately been brought from Gaul, composed +of brave and active men well adapted for conflicts in the plain; but not +only useless for such a kind of war as that by which we were now +pressed, but actually in the way. For as they had no skill either in +working the engines, or in constructing works, but were continually +making foolish sallies, and fighting bravely, they always returned with +diminished numbers; doing just as much good, as the saying is, as a +bucket of water brought by a single hand to a general conflagration. + +3. At last, when the gates were completely blocked, and they were +utterly unable to get out, in spite of the entreaties of their tribunes, +they became furious as wild beasts. But on subsequent occasions their +services became conspicuous, as we shall show. + +4. In a remote part of the walls on the southern side, which looks down +on the Tigris, there was a high tower, below which yawned an abrupt +precipice, which it was impossible to look over without giddiness. From +this by a hollow subterranean passage along the foot of the mountain +some steps were cut with great skill, which led up to the level of the +city, by which water was secretly obtained from the river, as we have +seen to be the case in all the fortresses in that district which are +situated on any river. + +5. This passage was dark, and because of the precipitous character of +the rock was neglected by the besiegers, till, under the guidance of a +deserter who went over to them, seventy Persian archers of the royal +battalion, men of eminent skill and courage, being protected by the +remoteness of the spot which prevented their being heard, climbed up by +the steps one by one at midnight, and reached the third story of the +tower. There they concealed themselves till daybreak, when they held out +a scarlet cloak as a signal for commencing an assault, when they saw +that the city was entirely surrounded by the multitude of their +comrades; and then they emptied their quivers and threw them down at +their feet, and with loud cries shot their arrows among the citizens +with prodigious skill. + +6. And presently the whole of the mighty host of the enemy assaulted the +city with more ferocity than ever. And while we stood hesitating and +perplexed to know which danger to oppose first, whether to make head +against the foe above us, or against the multitude who were scaling the +battlements with ladders, our force was divided; and five of the lighter +balistæ were brought round and placed so as to attack our tower. They +shot out heavy wooden javelins with great rapidity, sometimes +transfixing two of our men at one blow, so that many of them fell to the +ground severely wounded, and some jumped down in haste from fear of the +creaking engines, and being terribly lacerated by the fall, died. + +7. But by measures promptly taken, the walls were again secured on that +side, and the engines replaced in their former situation. + +8. And since the crime of desertion had increased the labours of our +soldiers, they, full of indignation, moved along the battlements as if +on level ground, hurling missiles of all kinds, and exerting themselves +so strenuously that the Virtæ, who were attacking on the south side, +were repulsed covered by wounds, and retired in consternation to their +tents, having to lament the fall of many of their number. + + +VI. + +§ 1. Thus fortune showed us a ray of safety, granting us one day in +which we suffered but little, while the enemy sustained a heavy loss; +the remainder of the day was given to rest in order to recruit our +strength; and at the dawn of the next morning we saw from the citadel an +innumerable multitude, which, after the capture of the fort called +Ziata, was being led to the enemy's camp. For a promiscuous multitude +had taken refuge in Ziata on account of its size and strength; it being +a place ten furlongs in circumference. + +2. In those days many other fortresses also were stormed and burnt, and +many thousands of men and women carried off from them into slavery; +among whom were many men and women, enfeebled by age, who, fainting +from different causes, broke down under the length of the journey, gave +up all desire of life, and were hamstrung and left behind. + +3. The Gallic soldiers beholding these wretched crowds, demanded by a +natural but unseasonable impulse to be led against the forces of the +enemy, threatening their tribunes and principal centurions with death if +they refused them leave. + +4. And as wild beasts kept in cages, being rendered more savage by the +smell of blood, dash themselves against their movable bars in the hope +of escaping, so these men smote the gates, which we have already spoken +of as being blockaded, with their swords; being very anxious not to be +involved in the destruction of the city till they had done some gallant +exploit; or, if they ultimately escaped from their dangers, not to be +spoken of as having done nothing worth speaking of, or worthy of their +Gallic courage. Although when they had sallied out before, as they had +often done, and had inflicted some loss on the raisers of the mounds, +they had always experienced equal loss themselves. + +5. We, at a loss what to do, and not knowing what resistance to oppose +to these furious men, at length, having with some difficulty won their +consent thereto, decided, since the evil could be endured no longer, to +allow them to attack the Persian advanced guard, which was not much +beyond bowshot; and then, if they could force their line, they might +push their advance further. For it was plain that if they succeeded in +this, they would cause a great slaughter of the enemy. + +6. And while the preparations for this sally were being made, the walls +were still gallantly defended with unmitigated labour and watching, and +planting engines for shooting stones and darts in every direction. But +two high mounds had been raised by the Persian infantry, and the +blockade of the city was still pressed forward by gradual operations; +against which our men, exerting themselves still more vigorously, raised +also immense structures, topping the highest works of the enemy; and +sufficiently strong to support the immense weight of their defenders. + +7. In the mean time the Gallic troops, impatient of delay, armed with +their axes and swords, went forth from the open postern gate, taking +advantage of a dark and moonless night. And imploring the Deity to be +propitious, and repressing even their breath when they got near the +enemy, they advanced with quick step and in close order, slew some of +the watch at the outposts, and the outer sentinels of the camp (who were +asleep, fearing no such event), and entertained secret hopes of +penetrating even to the king's tent if fortune assisted them. + +8. But some noise, though slight, was made by them in their march, and +the groans of the slain aroused many from sleep; and while each +separately raised the cry "to arms," our soldiers halted and stood firm, +not venturing to move any further forward. For it would not have been +prudent, now that those whom they sought to surprise were awakened, to +hasten into open danger, while the bands of Persians were now heard to +be flocking to battle from all quarters. + +9. Nevertheless the Gallic troops, with undiminished strength and +boldness, continued to hew down their foes with their swords, though +some of their own men were also slain, pierced by the arrows which were +flying from all quarters; and they still stood firm, when they saw the +whole danger collected into one point, and the bands of the enemy coming +on with speed; yet no one turned his back: and they withdrew, retiring +slowly as if in time to music, and gradually fell behind the pales of +the camp, being unable to sustain the weight of the battalions pressing +close upon them, and being deafened by the clang of the Persian +trumpets. + +10. And while many trumpets in turn poured out their clang from the +city, the gates were opened to receive our men, if they should be able +to reach them: and the engines for missiles creaked, though no javelins +were shot from them, in order that the captains of the advanced guard of +the Persians, ignorant of the slaughter of their comrades, might be +terrified by the noise into falling back, and so allowing our gallant +troops to be admitted in safety. + +11. And owing to this manoeuvre, the Gauls about daybreak entered the +gate although with diminished numbers, many of them severely and others +slightly wounded. They lost four hundred men this night, when if they +had not been hindered by more formidable obstacles, they would have +slain in his very tent not Rhesus nor Thracians sleeping before the +walls of Troy, but the king of Persia, surrounded by one hundred +thousand armed men. + +12. To their leaders, as champions of valiant actions, the emperor, +after the fall of the city, ordered statues in armour to be erected at +Edessa in a frequented spot. And those statues are preserved up to the +present time unhurt. + +13. When the next day showed the slaughter which had been made, nobles +and satraps were found lying amongst the corpses, and all kinds of +dissonant cries and tears indicated the changed posture of the Persian +host: everywhere was heard wailing; and great indignation was expressed +by the princes, who thought that the Romans had forced their way through +the sentries in front of the walls. A truce was made for three days by +the common consent of both armies, and we gladly accepted a little +respite in which to take breath.[105] + + +VII. + +§ 1. Now the nations of the barbarians, being amazed at the novelty of +this attempt, and rendered by it more savage than ever, discarding all +delay, determined to proceed with their works, since open assaults +availed them but little. And with extreme warlike eagerness they all now +hastened to die gloriously, or else to propitiate the souls of the dead +by the ruin of the city. + +2. And now, the necessary preparations having been completed by the +universal alacrity, at the rising of the day-star all kinds of +structures and iron towers were brought up to the walls; on the lofty +summits of which balistæ were fitted, which beat down the garrison who +were placed on lower ground. + +3. And when day broke the iron coverings of the bodies of the foe +darkened the whole heaven, and the dense lines advanced without any +skirmishers in front, and not in an irregular manner as before, but to +the regular and soft music of trumpets; protected by the roofs of the +engines, and holding before them wicker shields. + +4. And when they came within reach of our missiles, the Persian +infantry, holding their shields in front of them, and even then having +difficulty in avoiding the arrows which were shot from the engines on +the walls, for scarcely any kind of weapon found an empty space, they +broke their line a little; and even the cuirassiers were checked and +began to retreat, which raised the spirits of our men. + +5. Still the balistæ of the enemy, placed on their iron towers, and +pouring down missiles with great power from their high ground on those +in a lower position, spread a great deal of slaughter in our ranks. At +last, when evening came on, both sides retired to rest, and the greater +part of the night was spent by us in considering what device could be +adopted to resist the formidable engines of the enemy. + +6. At length, after we had considered many plans, we determined on one +which the rapidity with which it could be executed made the safest--to +oppose four scorpions to the four balistæ; which were carefully moved (a +very difficult operation) from the place in which they were; but before +this work was finished, day arrived, bringing us a mournful sight, +inasmuch as it showed us the formidable battalions of the Persians, with +their trains of elephants, the noise and size of which animals are such +that nothing more terrible can be presented to the mind of man. + +7. And while we were pressed on all sides with the vast masses of arms, +and works, and beasts, still our scorpions were kept at work with their +iron slings, hurling huge round stones from the battlements, by which +the towers of the enemy were crushed and the balistæ and those who +worked them were dashed to the ground, so that many were desperately +injured, and many crushed by the weight of the falling structures. And +the elephants were driven back with violence, and surrounded by the +flames which we poured forth against them, the moment that they were +wounded retired, and could not be restrained by their riders. The works +were all burnt, but still there was no cessation from the conflict. + +8. For the king of the Persians himself, who is never expected to mingle +in the fight, being indignant at these disasters, adopting a new and +unprecedented mode of action, sprang forth like a common soldier among +his own dense columns; and as the very number of his guards made him the +more conspicuous to us who looked from afar on the scene, he was +assailed by numerous missiles, and was forced to retire after he had +lost many of his escort, while his troops fell back by echellons; and at +the end of the day, though frightened neither by the sad sight of the +slaughter nor of the wounds, he at length allowed a short period to be +given to rest. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. Night had put an end to the combat; and when a slight rest had been +procured from sleep, the moment that the dawn, looked for as the +harbinger of better fortune, appeared, Sapor, full of rage and +indignation, and perfectly reckless, called forth his people to attack +us. And as his works were all burnt, as we have related, and the attack +had to be conducted by means of their lofty mounds raised close to our +walls, we also from mounds within the walls, as fast as we could raise +them, struggled in spite of all our difficulties, with all our might, +and with equal courage, against our assailants. + +2. And long did the bloody conflict last, nor was any one of the +garrison driven by fear of death from his resolution to defend the city. +The conflict was prolonged, till at last, while the fortune of the two +sides was still undecided, the structure raised by our men, having been +long assailed and shaken, at last fell, as if by an earthquake. + +3. And the whole space which was between the wall and the external mound +being made level as if by a causeway or a bridge, opened a passage to +the enemy, which was no longer embarrassed by any obstacles; and numbers +of our men, being crushed or enfeebled by their wounds, gave up the +struggle. Still men flocked from all quarters to repel so imminent a +danger, but from their eager haste they got in one another's way, while +the boldness of the enemy increased with their success. + +4. By the command of the king all his troops now hastened into action, +and a hand-to-hand engagement ensued. Blood ran down from the vast +slaughter on both sides: the ditches were filled with corpses, and thus +a wider path was opened for the besiegers. And the city, being now +filled with the eager crowd which forced its way in, all hope of defence +or of escape was cut off, and armed and unarmed without any distinction +of age or sex were slaughtered like sheep. + +5. It was full evening, when, though fortune had proved adverse, the +bulk of our troops was still fighting in good order; and I, having +concealed myself with two companions in an obscure corner of the city, +now under cover of darkness, made my escape by a postern gate where +there was no guard; and aided by my own knowledge of the country and by +the speed of my companions, I at last reached the tenth milestone from +the city. + +6. Here, having lightly refreshed ourselves, I tried to proceed, but +found myself, as a noble unaccustomed to such toil, overcome by fatigue +of the march. I happened to fall in, however, with what, though a most +unsightly object, was to me, completely tired out, a most seasonable +relief. + +7. A groom riding a runaway horse, barebacked and without a bridle, in +order to prevent his falling had knotted the halter by which he was +guiding him tightly to his left hand, and presently, being thrown, and +unable to break the knot, he was torn to pieces as he was dragged over +the rough ground and through the bushes, till at last the weight of his +dead body stopped the tired beast; I caught him, and mounting him, +availed myself of his services at a most seasonable moment, and after +much suffering arrived with my companions at some sulphurous springs of +naturally hot water. + +8. On account of the heat we had suffered greatly from thirst, and had +been crawling about for some time in search of water; and now when we +came to this well it was so deep that we could not descend into it, nor +had we any ropes; but, taught by extreme necessity, we tore up the linen +clothes which we wore into long rags, which we made into one great rope, +and fastened to the end of it a cap which one of us wore beneath his +helmet; and letting that down by the rope, and drawing up water in it +like a sponge, we easily quenched our thirst. + +9. From hence we proceeded rapidly to the Euphrates, intending to cross +to the other side in the boat which long custom had stationed in that +quarter, to convey men and cattle across. + +10. When lo! we see at a distance a Roman force with cavalry standards, +scattered and pursued by a division of Persians, though we did not know +from what quarter it had come so suddenly on them in their march. + +11. This example showed us that what men call indigenous people are not +sprung from the bowels of the earth, but merely appear unexpectedly by +reason of the speed of their movements: and because they were seen +unexpectedly in various places, they got the name of Sparti,[106] and +were believed to have sprung from the ground, antiquity exaggerating +their renown in a fabulous manner, as it does that of other things. + +12. Roused by this sight, since our only hope of safety lay in our +speed, we drew off through the thickets and woods to the high mountains; +and from thence we went to Melitina, a town of the Lesser Armenia, where +we found our chief just on the point of setting off, in whose company we +went on to Antioch. + + +IX. + +§ 1. In the mean time Sapor and the Persians began to think of returning +home, because they feared to penetrate more inland with their prisoners +and booty, now that the autumn was nearly over, and the unhealthy star +of the Kids had arisen. + +2. But amid the massacres and plunder of the destroyed city, Ælian the +count, and the tribunes by whose vigour the walls of Amida had been +defended, and the losses of the Persians multiplied, were wickedly +crucified; and Jacobus and Cæsias, the treasurers of the commander of +the cavalry, and others of the band of protectores, were led as +prisoners, with their hands bound behind their backs; and the people of +the district beyond the Tigris, who were diligently sought for, were all +slain without distinction of rank or dignity. + +3. But the wife of Craugasius, who, preserving her chastity inviolate, +was treated with the respect due to a high-born matron, was mourning as +if she were to be carried to another world without her husband, +although she had indications afforded her that she might hope for a +higher future. + +4. Therefore, thinking of her own interests, and having a wise forecast +of the future, she was torn with a twofold anxiety, loathing both +widowhood and the marriage she saw before her. Accordingly, she secretly +sent off a friend of sure fidelity, and well acquainted with +Mesopotamia, to pass by Mount Izala, between the two forts called Maride +and Lorne, and so to effect his entrance into Nisibis, calling upon her +husband, with urgent entreaties and the revelation of many secrets of +her own private condition, after hearing what the messenger could tell +him, to come to Persia and live happily with her there. + +5. The messenger, travelling with great speed through jungle roads and +thickets, reached Nisibis, pretending that he had never seen his +mistress, and that, as in all likelihood she was slain, he had availed +himself of an accidental opportunity to make his escape from the enemy's +camp. And so, being neglected as one of no importance, he got access to +Craugasius, and told him what had happened. And having received from him +an assurance that, as soon as he could do so with safety, he would +gladly rejoin his wife, he departed, bearing the wished-for intelligence +to the lady. She, when she received it, addressed herself, through the +medium of Tamsapor, to the king, entreating him that, if the opportunity +offered before he quitted the Roman territories, he would order her +husband to be restored to her. + +6. But the fact of this stranger having departed thus unexpectedly, +without any one suspecting it, after his secret return, raised +suspicions in the mind of Duke Cassianus and the other nobles who had +authority in the city, who addressed severe menaces to Craugasius, +insisting that the man could neither have come nor have gone without his +privity. + +7. And he, fearing the charge of treason, and being very anxious lest +the flight of the deserter should cause a suspicion that his wife was +still alive and was well treated by the enemy, feigned to court a +marriage with another virgin of high rank. And having gone out to a +villa which he had eight miles from the city, as if with the object of +making the necessary preparations for the wedding feast, he mounted a +horse, and fled at full speed to a predatory troop of Persians which he +had learnt was in the neighbourhood, and being cordially received, when +it was seen from what he said who he was, he was delivered over to +Tamsapor on the fifth day, and by him he was introduced to the king, and +recovered not only his wife, but his family and all his treasures, +though he lost his wife only a few months afterwards. And he was +esteemed only second to Antoninus, though as a great poet has said, + + "Longo proximus intervallo."[107] + +8. For Antoninus was eminent both for genius and experience in affairs, +and had useful counsels for every enterprise that could be proposed, +while Craugasius was of a less subtle nature, though also very +celebrated. And all these events took place within a short time after +the fall of Amida. + +9. But the king, though showing no marks of anxiety on his countenance, +and though he appeared full of exultation at the fall of the city, still +in the depths of his heart was greatly perplexed, recollecting that in +the siege he had frequently sustained severe losses, and that he had +lost more men, and those too of more importance than any prisoners whom +he had taken from us, or than we had lost in all the battles that had +taken place; as indeed had also been the case at Singara, and at +Nisibis. In the seventy-three days during which he had been blockading +Amida, he had lost thirty thousand soldiers, as was reckoned a few days +later by Discenes, a tribune and secretary; the calculation being the +more easily made because the corpses of our men very soon shrink and +lose their colour, so that their faces can never be recognized after +four days; but the bodies of the Persians dry up like the trunks of +trees, so that nothing exudes from them, nor do they suffer from any +suffusion of blood, which is caused by their more sparing diet, and by +the dryness and heat of their native land. + + +X. + +§ 1. While these events and troubles were proceeding rapidly in the +remote districts of the East, the Eternal City was fearing distress +from an impending scarcity of corn; and the violence of the common +people, infuriated by the expectation of that worst of all evils, was +vented upon Tertullus, who at that time was prefect of the city. This +was unreasonable, since it did not depend upon him that the provisions +were embarked in a stormy season in ships which, through the unusually +tempestuous state of the sea, and the violence of contrary winds, were +driven into any ports they could make, and were unable to reach the port +of Augustus, from the greatness of the dangers which threatened them. + +2. Nevertheless, Tertullus was continually troubled by the seditious +movements of the people, who worked themselves up to great rage, being +excited by the imminent danger of a famine; till, having no hope of +preserving his own safety, he wisely brought his little boys out to the +people, who, though in a state of tumultuous disorder, were often +influenced by sudden accidents, and with tears addressed them thus:-- + +3. "Behold your fellow-citizens, who (may the gods avert the omen), +unless fortune should take a more favourable turn, will be exposed to +the same sufferings as yourselves. If then you think that by destroying +them you will be saved from all suffering, they are in your power." The +people, of their own nature inclined to mercy, were propitiated by this +sad address, and made no answer, but awaited their impending fate with +resignation. + +4. And soon, by the favour of the deity who has watched over the growth +of Rome from its first origin, and who promised that it should last for +ever, while Tertullus was at Ostia, sacrificing in the temple of Castor +and Pollux, the sea became calm, the wind changed to a gentle south-east +breeze, and the ships in full sail entered the port, laden with corn to +fill the granaries. + + +XI. + +§ 1. While these perplexing transactions were taking place, intelligence +full of importance and danger reached Constantius who was reposing in +winter quarters at Sirmium, informing him (as he had already greatly +feared) that the Sarmatian Limigantes, who, as we have before related, +had expelled their masters from their hereditary homes, had learnt to +despise the lands which had been generously allotted to them in the +preceding year, in order to prevent so fickle a class from undertaking +any mischievous enterprise, and had seized on the districts over the +border; that they were straggling, according to their national custom, +with great licence over the whole country, and would throw everything +into disorder if they were not put down. + +2. The emperor, judging that any delay would increase their insolence, +collected from all quarters a strong force of veteran soldiers, and +before the spring was much advanced, set forth on an expedition against +them, being urged to greater activity by two considerations; first, +because the army, having acquired great booty during the last summer, +was likely to be encouraged to successful exertion in the hope of +similar reward; and secondly, because, as Anatolius was at that time +prefect of Illyricum, everything necessary for such an expedition could +be readily provided without recourse to any stringent measures. + +3. For under no other prefect's government (as is agreed by all), up to +the present time, had the northern provinces ever been so flourishing in +every point of view; all abuses being corrected with a kind and prudent +hand, while the people were relieved from the burden of transporting the +public stores (which often caused such losses as to ruin many families), +and also from the heavy income tax. So that the natives of those +districts would have been free from all damage and cause of complaint, +if at a later period some detestable collectors had not come among them, +extorting money, and exaggerating accusations, in order to build up +wealth and influence for themselves, and to procure their own safety and +prosperity by draining the natives; carrying their severities to the +proscription and even execution of many of them. + +4. To apply a remedy to this insurrection, the emperor set out, as I +have said, with a splendid staff, and reached Valeria, which was +formerly a part of Pannonia, but which had been established as a +separate province, and received its new name in honour of Valeria, the +daughter of Diocletian. And having encamped his army on the banks of the +Danube, he watched the movements of the barbarians, who, before his +arrival, had been proposing, under friendly pretences, to enter +Pannonia, meaning to lay it waste during the severity of the winter +season, before the snow had been melted by the warmth of spring and the +river had become passable, and while our people were unable from the +cold to bear bivouacking in the open air. + +5. He at once therefore sent two tribunes, each accompanied by an +interpreter, to the Limigantes, to inquire mildly why they had quitted +the homes which at their own request had been assigned to them after the +conclusion of the treaty of peace, and why they were now straggling in +various directions, and passing their boundaries in contempt of his +prohibitions. + +6. They made vain and frivolous excuses, fear compelling them to have +recourse to lies, and implored the emperor's pardon, beseeching him to +discard his displeasure, and to allow them to cross the river and come +to him to explain the hardships under which they were labouring; +alleging their willingness, if required, to retire to remoter lands, +only within the Roman frontier, where, enjoying lasting peace and +worshipping tranquillity as their tutelary deity, they would submit to +the name and discharge the duties of tributary subjects. + +7. When the tribunes returned and related this, the emperor, exulting +that an affair which appeared full of inextricable difficulties was +likely to be brought to a conclusion without any trouble, and being +eager to add to his acquisitions, admitted them all to his presence. His +eagerness for acquiring territory was fanned by a swarm of flatterers, +who were incessantly saying that when all distant districts were at +peace, and when tranquillity was established everywhere, he would gain +many subjects, and would be able to enlist powerful bodies of recruits, +thereby relieving the provinces, which would often rather give money +than personal service (though this expectation has more than once proved +very mischievous to the state). + +8. Presently he pitched his camp near Acimincum,[108] where a lofty +mound was raised to serve for a tribune; and some boats, loaded with +soldiers of the legions, without their baggage, under command of +Innocentius, an engineer who had suggested the measure, were sent to +watch the channel of the river, keeping close under the bank; so that, +if they perceived the barbarians in disorder, they might come upon them +and surprise their rear, while their attention was directed elsewhere. + +9. The Limigantes became aware of the measures thus promptly taken, but +still employed no other means of defence than humility and entreaty; +though secretly they cherished designs very different from those +indicated by their words and gestures. + +10. But when they saw the emperor on his high mound preparing a mild +harangue, and about to address them as men who would prove obedient in +future, one of them, seized with a sudden fury, hurled his shoe at the +tribune, and cried out, "Marha, Marha!" which in their language is a +signal of war; and a disorderly mob following him, suddenly raised their +barbaric standard, and with fierce howls rushed upon the emperor +himself. + +11. And when he, looking down from his high position, saw the whole +place filled with thousands of men running to and fro, and their drawn +swords and rapiers threatening him with immediate destruction, he +descended, and mingling both with the barbarians and his own men, +without any one perceiving him or knowing whether he was an officer or a +common soldier; and since there was no time for delay or inaction, he +mounted a speedy horse, and galloped away, and so escaped. + +12. But his few guards, while endeavouring to keep back the mutineers, +who rushed on with the fierceness of fire, were all killed, either by +wounds, or by being crushed beneath the weight of others who fell upon +them; and the royal throne, with its golden cushion, was torn to pieces +without any one making an effort to save it. + +13. But presently, when it became known that the emperor, after having +been in the most imminent danger of his life, was still in peril, the +army, feeling it to be the most important of all objects to assist him, +for they did not yet think him safe, and confiding in their prowess, +though from the suddenness of the attack they were only half formed, +threw themselves, with loud and warlike cries upon the bands of the +barbarians, fearlessly braving death. + +14. And because in their fiery valour our men were resolved to wipe out +disgrace by glory, and were full of anger at the treachery of the foe, +they slew every one whom they met without mercy, trampling all under +foot, living, wounded, and dead alike; so that heaps of dead were piled +up before their hands were weary of the slaughter. For the rebels were +completely overwhelmed, some being slain, and others fleeing in fear, +many of whom implored their lives with various entreaties, but were +slaughtered with repeated wounds. And when, after they were all +destroyed, the trumpets sounded a retreat, it was found that only a very +few of our men were killed, and these had either been trampled down at +first, or had perished from the insufficiency of their armour to resist +the violence of the enemy. + +15. But the most glorious death was that of Cella, the tribune of the +Scutarii, who at the beginning of the uproar set the example of plunging +first into the middle of the Sarmatian host. + +16. After these blood-stained transactions, Constantius took what +precautions prudence suggested for the security of his frontiers, and +then returned to Sirmium, having avenged himself on the perfidity of his +enemies. And having there settled everything which the occasion +required, he quitted Sirmium and went to Constantinople, that by being +nearer to the East, he might remedy the disasters which had been +sustained at Amida, and having reinforced his army with new levies, he +might check the attempts of the king of Persia with equal vigour; as it +was clear that Sapor, if Providence and some more pressing occupation +did not prevent him, would leave Mesopotamia and bring the war over the +plains on this side of that country. + + +XII. + +§ 1. But amid these causes of anxiety, as if in accordance with +old-established custom, instead of the signal for civil war, the trumpet +sounded groundless charges of treason, and a secretary, whom we shall +often have to speak of, named Paulus, was sent to inquire into these +charges. He was a man skilful in all the contrivances of cruelty, making +gain and profit of tortures and executions, as a master of gladiators +does of his fatal games. + +2. For as he was firm and resolute in his purpose of injuring people, +he did not abstain even from theft, and invented all kinds of causes for +the destruction of innocent men, while engaged in this miserable +campaign. + +3. A slight and trivial circumstance afforded infinite material for +extending his investigations. There is a town called Abydum in the most +remote corner of the Egyptian Thebais, where an oracle of the god, known +in that region by the name of Besa, had formerly enjoyed some celebrity +for its prophecies, and had sacred rites performed at it with all the +ceremonies anciently in use in the neighbouring districts. + +4. Some used to go themselves to consult this oracle, some to send by +others documents containing their wishes, and with prayers couched in +explicit language inquired the will of the deities; and the paper or +parchment on which their wants were written, after the answer had been +given, was sometimes left in the temple. + +5. Some of these were spitefully sent to the emperor, and he, narrow +minded as he was, though often deaf to other matters of serious +consequence, had, as the proverb says, a soft place in his ear for this +kind of information; and being of a suspicious and petty temper, became +full of gall and fury; and immediately ordered Paulus to repair with all +speed to the East, giving him authority, as to a chief of great eminence +and experience, to try all the causes as he pleased. + +6. And Modestus also, at that time count of the East, a man well suited +for such a business, was joined with him in this commission. For +Hermogenes of Pontus, at that time prefect of the prætorium, was passed +over as of too gentle a disposition. + +7. Paulus proceeded, as he was ordered, full of deadly eagerness and +rage; inviting all kinds of calumnies, so that numbers from every part +of the empire were brought before him, noble and low born alike; some of +whom were condemned to imprisonment, others to instant death. + +8. The city which was chosen to witness these fatal scenes was +Scythopolis in Palestine, which for two reasons seemed the most suitable +of all places; first, because it was little frequented and secondly, +because it was half-way between Antioch and Alexandria, from which city +many of those brought before this tribunal came. + +9. One of the first persons accused was Simplicius, the son of Philip; +a man who, after having been prefect and consul, was now impeached on +the ground that he was said to have consulted the oracle how to obtain +the empire. He was sentenced to the torture by the express command of +the emperor, who in these cases never erred on the side of mercy; but by +some special fate he was saved from it, and with uninjured body was +condemned to distant banishment. + +10. The next victim was Parnasius, who had been prefect of Egypt, a man +of simple manners, but now in danger of being condemned to death, and +glad to escape with exile; because long ago he had been heard to say +that when he left Patræ in Achaia, the place of his birth, with the view +of procuring some high office, he had in a dream seen himself conducted +on his road by several figures in tragic robes. + +11. The next was Andronicus, subsequently celebrated for his liberal +accomplishments and his poetry; he was brought before the court without +having given any real ground for suspicion of any kind, and defended +himself so vigorously that he was acquitted. + +12. There was also Demetrius, surnamed Chytras, a philosopher, of great +age, but still firm in mind and body; he, when charged with having +frequently offered sacrifices in the temple of his oracle, could not +deny it; but affirmed that, for the sake of propitiating the deity, he +had constantly done so from his early youth, and not with any idea of +aiming at any higher fortune by his questions; nor had he known any one +who had aimed at such. And though he was long on the rack he supported +it with great constancy, never varying in his statement, till at length +he was acquitted and allowed to retire to Alexandria, where he was born. + +13. These and a few others, justice, coming to the aid of truth, +delivered from their imminent dangers. But as accusations extended more +widely, involving numbers without end in their snares, many perished; +some with their bodies mangled on the rack; others were condemned to +death and confiscation of their goods; while Paulus kept on inventing +groundless accusations, as if he had a store of lies on which to draw, +and suggesting various pretences for injuring people, so that on his +nod, it may be said, the safety of every one in the place depended. + +14. For if any one wore on his neck a charm against the quartan ague or +any other disease, or if by any information laid by his ill-wishers he +was accused of having passed by a sepulchre at nightfall, and therefore +of being a sorcerer, and one who dealt in the horrors of tombs and the +vain mockeries of the shades which haunt them, he was found guilty and +condemned to death. + +15. And the affairs went on as if people had been consulting Claros, or +the oaks at Dodona, or the Delphic oracles of old fame, with a view to +the destruction of the emperor. + +16. Meantime, the crowd of courtiers, inventing every kind of deceitful +flattery, affirmed that he would be free from all common misfortunes, +asserting that his fate had always shone forth with vigour and power in +destroying all who attempted anything injurious to him. + +17. That indeed strict investigation should be made into such matters, +no one in his senses will deny; nor do we question that the safety of +our lawful prince, the champion and defender of the good, and on whom +the safety of all other people depends, ought to be watched over by the +combined zeal of all men; and for the sake of insuring this more +completely, when any treasonable enterprise is discovered, the Cornelian +laws have provided that no rank shall be exempted even from torture if +necessary for the investigation. + +18. But it is not decent to exult unrestrainedly in melancholy events, +lest the subjects should seem to be governed by tyranny, not by +authority. It is better to imitate Cicero, who, when he had it in his +power either to spare or to strike, preferred, as he tells us himself, +to seek occasions for pardoning rather than for punishing, which is +characteristic of a prudent and wise judge. + +19. At that time a monster, horrible both to see and to describe, was +produced at Daphne, a beautiful and celebrated suburb of Antioch; +namely, an infant with two mouths, two sets of teeth, two heads, four +eyes, and only two very short ears. And such a mis-shapen offspring was +an omen that the republic would become deformed. + +20. Prodigies of this kind are often produced, presaging events of +various kinds; but as they are not now publicly expiated, as they were +among the ancients, they are unheard of and unknown to people in +general. + + +XIII. + +§ 1. During this period the Isaurians, who had been tranquil for some +time after the transactions already mentioned, and the attempt to take +the city of Seleucia, gradually reviving, as serpents come out of their +holes in the warmth of spring, descended from their rocky and pathless +jungles, and forming into large troops, harassed their neighbours with +predatory incursions; escaping, from their activity as mountaineers, all +attempts of the soldiers to take them, and from long use moving easily +over rocks and through thickets. + +2. So Lauricius was sent among them as governor, with the additional +title of count, to reduce them to order by fair means or foul. He was a +man of sound civil wisdom, correcting things in general by threats +rather than by severity, so that while he governed the province, which +he did for some time, nothing happened deserving of particular notice. + + +[102] Patroclus, the companion of Achilles. + +[103] The Trojan war. See the account of the pestilence, Homer Il. i. +50. + +[104] _i.e._, λοιμώδης, from λοιμὸς, pestilence. +Pandemic means "attacking the whole people." Epidemic, "spreading from +individual to individual." + +[105] Ammian alludes to the expedition of Ulysses and Diomede related by +Homer, Il. viii. + +[106] Ammianus is wrong here; it was only the Thebans who were called +Σπαρτοὶ, from σπείρω, to sow, because of the fable of +the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus; the Athenians, who claimed to be +earthborn, not called Σπαρτοὶ, but αὐτόχθονες. + +[107] A quotation from the description of the foot-race in Virgil, Æn. +v. 320. + +[108] Salankemen, in Hungary. + + + + +BOOK XX. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Lupicinus is sent as commander-in-chief into Britain with an + army to check the incursions of the Picts and Scots.--II. + Ursicinus, commander of the infantry, is attacked by calumnies, and + dismissed.--III. An eclipse of the sun--A discussion on the two + suns, and on the causes of solar and lunar eclipses, and the + various changes and shapes of the moon.--IV. The Cæsar Julian, + against his will, is saluted as emperor at Paris, where he was + wintering, by his Gallican soldiers, whom Constantius had ordered + to be taken from him, and sent to the East to act against the + Persians.--V. He harangues his soldiers.--VI. Singara is besieged + and taken by Sapor: the citizens, with the auxiliary cavalry and + two legions in garrison, are carried off to Persia--The town is + razed to the ground.--VII. Sapor storms the town of Bezabde, which + is defended by three legions; repairs it, and places in it a + garrison and magazines; he also attacks the fortress of Victa, + without success.--VIII. Julian writes to Constantius to inform him + of what had taken place at Paris.--IX. Constantius desires Julian + to be content with the title of Cæsar; but the Gallican legions + unanimously refuse to allow him to be so.--X. The Emperor Julian + unexpectedly attacks a Frank tribe, known as the Attuarii, on the + other side of the Rhine; slays some, takes others prisoners, and + grants peace to the rest, on their petition.--XI. Constantius + attacks Bezabde with his whole force, but fails--A discussion on + the rainbow. + + +I. + +A.D. 360. + +§ 1. These were the events which took place in Illyricum and in the +East. But the next year, that of Constantius's tenth and Julian's third +consulship, the affairs of Britain became troubled, in consequence of +the incursions of the savage nations of Picts and Scots, who breaking +the peace to which they had agreed, were plundering the districts on +their borders, and keeping in constant alarm the provinces exhausted by +former disasters, Cæsar, who was wintering at Paris, having his mind +divided by various cares, feared to go to the aid of his subjects across +the channel (as we have related Constans to have done), lest he should +leave the Gauls without a governor, while the Allemanni were still full +of fierce and warlike inclinations. + +2. Therefore, to tranquillize these districts by reason or by force, it +was decided to send Lupicinus, who was at that time commander of the +forces; a man of talent in war, and especially skilful in all that +related to camps, but very haughty, and smelling, as one may say, of the +tragic buskin, while parts of his conduct made it a question which +predominated--his avarice or his cruelty. + +3. Accordingly, an auxiliary force of light-armed troops, Heruli and +Batavi, with two legions from Moesia, were in the very depth of winter +put under the command of this general, with which he marched to +Boulogne, and having procured some vessels and embarked his soldiers on +them, he sailed with a fair wind, and reached Richborough on the +opposite coast, from which place he proceeded to London, that he might +there deliberate on the aspect of affairs, and take immediate measures +for his campaign. + + +II. + +§ 1. In the mean time, after the fall of Amida, and after Ursicinus had +returned as commander of the infantry to the emperor's camp (for we have +already mentioned that he had been appointed to succeed Barbatio), he +was at once attacked by slanderers, who at first tried to whisper his +character away, but presently openly brought forward false charges +against him. + +2. And the emperor, listening to them, since he commonly formed his +opinions on vain conjecture, and was always ready to yield his judgment +to crafty persons, appointed Arbetio and Florentius, the chief steward, +as judges to inquire how it was that the town was destroyed. They +rejected the plain and easily proved causes of the disaster, fearing +that Eusebius, at that time high chamberlain, would be offended if they +admitted proofs which showed undeniably that what had happened was owing +to the obstinate inactivity of Sabinianus; and so distorting the truth, +they examined only some points of no consequence, and having no bearing +on the transaction. + +3. Ursicinus felt the iniquity of this proceeding; and said, "Although +the emperor despises me, still the importance of this affair is such +that it cannot be judged of and punished by any decision lower than that +of the emperor. Nevertheless, let him know what I venture to prophesy, +that while he is concerning himself about this disaster at Amida, of +which he has received a faithful account; and while he gives himself up +to the influence of the eunuchs, he will not in the ensuing spring,[109] +even if he himself should come with the entire strength of his army, be +able to prevent the dismemberment of Mesopotamia." This speech having +been related to the emperor with many additions, and a malignant +interpretation, Constantius became enraged beyond measure; and without +allowing the affair to be discussed, or those things to be explained to +him of which he was ignorant, he believed all the calumnies against +Ursicinus, and deposing him from his office, ordered him into +retirement; promoting Agilo, by a vast leap, to take his place, he +having been before only a tribune of a native troop of Scutarii. + + +III. + +§ 1. At the same time one day the sky in the east was perceived to be +covered with a thick darkness, and from daybreak to noon the stars were +visible throughout; and, as an addition to these terrors, while the +light of heaven was thus withdrawn, and the world almost buried in +clouds, men, from the length of the eclipse, began to believe that the +sun had wholly disappeared. Presently, however, it was seen again like a +new moon, then like a half-moon, and at last it was restored entire. + +2. A thing which on other occasions did not happen so visibly except +when after several unequal revolutions, the moon returns to exactly the +same point at fixed intervals; that is to say, when the moon is found in +the same sign of the zodiac, exactly opposite to the rays of the sun, +and stops there a few minutes, which in geometry are called parts of +parts. + +3. And although the changes and motions of both sun and moon, as the +inquiries into intelligible causes have remarked, perpetually return to +the same conjunction at the end of each lunar month, still the sun is +not always eclipsed on these occasions, but only when the moon, as by a +kind of balance, is in the exact centre between the sun and our sight. + +4. In short, the sun is eclipsed, and his brilliancy removed from our +sight, when he and the moon, which of all the constellations of heaven +is the lowest, proceeding with equal pace in their orbits, are placed in +conjunction in spite of the height which separates them (as Ptolemy +learnedly explains it), and afterwards return to the dimensions which +are called ascending or descending points of the ecliptic conjunctions: +or, as the Greeks call them, defective conjunctions. And if these great +lights find themselves in the neighbourhood of these points or knots, +the eclipse is small. + +5. But if they are exactly in the knots which form the points of +intersection between the ascending and descending path of the moon, then +the sky will be covered with denser darkness, and the whole atmosphere +becomes so thick that we cannot see what is close to us. + +6. Again, the sun is conceived to appear double when a cloud is raised +higher than usual, which from its proximity to the eternal fires, shines +in such a manner that it forms the brightness of a second orb as from a +purer mirror. + +7. Now let us come to the moon. The moon sustains a clear and visible +eclipse when, being at the full, and exactly opposite to the sun, she is +distant from his orb one hundred and eighty degrees, that is, is in the +seventh sign; and although this happens at every full moon, still there +is not always one eclipse. + +8. But since she is always nearest to the earth as it revolves, and the +most distant from the rest of the other stars, and sometimes exposes +itself to the light which strikes it, and sometimes also is partially +obscured by the intervention of the shade of night, which comes over it +in the form of a cone; and then she is involved in thick darkness, when +the sun, being surrounded by the centre of the lowest sphere, cannot +illuminate her with his rays, because the mass of the earth is in the +way; for opinions agree that the moon has no light of her own. + +9. And when she returns to the same sign of the zodiac which the sun +occupies, she is obscured (as has been said), her brightness being +wholly dimmed, and this is called a conjunction of the moon. + +10. Again the moon is said to be new when she has the sun above her with +a slight variation from the perpendicular, and then she appears very +thin to mankind, even when leaving the sun she reaches the second sign. +Then, when she has advanced further, and shines brilliantly with a sort +of horned figure, she is said to be crescent shaped; but when she begins +to be a long way distant from the sun, and reaches the fourth sign, she +gets a greater light, the sun's rays being turned upon her, and then she +is of the shape of a semicircle. + +11. As she goes on still further, and reaches the fifth sign, she +assumes a convex shape, a sort of hump appearing from each side. And +when she is exactly opposite the sun, she shines with a full light, +having arrived at the seventh sign; and even while she is there, having +advanced but a very little further, she begins to diminish, which we +call waning; and as she gets older, she resumes the same shapes that she +had while increasing. But it is established by unanimous consent that +she is never seen to be eclipsed except in the middle of her course. + +12. But when we said that the sun moves sometimes in the ether, +sometimes in the lower-world, it must be understood that the starry +bodies, considered in relation to the universe, neither set nor rise; +but only appear to do so to our sight on earth, which is suspended by +the motion of some interior spirit, and compared with the immensity of +things is but a little point, which causes the stars in their eternal +order to appear sometimes fixed in heaven, and at others, from the +imperfection of human vision, moving from their places. Let us now +return to our original subject. + + +IV. + +§ 1. Even while he was hastening to lead succours to the East, which, as +the concurrent testimony of both spies and deserters assured him, was on +the point of being invaded by the Persians, Constantius was greatly +disturbed by the virtues of Julian, which were now becoming renowned +among all nations, so highly did fame extol his great labours, +achievements, and victories, in having conquered several kingdoms of the +Allemanni, and recovered several towns in Gaul which had been plundered +and destroyed by the barbarians, and having compelled the barbarians +themselves to become subjects and tributaries of the empire. + +2. Influenced by these considerations, and fearing lest Julian's +influence should become greater, at the instigation, as it is said, of +the prefect Florentius, he sent Decentius, the tribune and secretary, to +bring away at once the auxiliary troops of the Heruli and Batavi, and +the Celtæ, and the legion called Petulantes,[110] and three hundred +picked men from the other forces; enjoining him to make all speed on the +plea that their presence was required with the army which it was +intended to march at the beginning of spring against the Parthians. + +3. Also, Lupicinus was directed to come as commander of these auxiliary +troops with the three hundred picked men and to lose no time, as it was +not known that he had crossed over to Britain; and Sintula, at that time +the superintendent of Julian's stables, was ordered to select the best +men of the Scutarii and Gentiles,[111] and to bring them also to join +the emperor. + +4. Julian made no remonstrance, but obeyed these orders, yielding in all +respects to the will of the emperor. But on one point he could not +conceal his feelings nor keep silence: but entreated that those men +might be spared from this hardship who had left their homes on the other +side of the Rhine, and had joined his army on condition of never being +moved into any country beyond the Alps, urging that if this were known, +it might be feared that other volunteers of the barbarian nations, who +had often enlisted in our service on similar conditions, would be +prevented from doing so in future. But he argued in vain. + +5. For the tribune, disregarding his complaints, carried out the +commands of the emperor, and having chosen out a band suited for forced +marches, of pre-eminent vigour and activity, set out with them full of +hope of promotion. + +6. And as Julian, being in doubt what to do about the rest of the troops +whom he was ordered to send, and revolving all kinds of plans in his +mind, considered that the matter ought to be managed with great care, as +there was on one side the fierceness of the barbarians, and on the other +the authority of the orders he had received (his perplexity being +further increased by the absence of the commander of the cavalry), he +urged the prefect, who had gone some time before to Vienne under the +pretence of procuring corn, but in reality to escape from military +troubles, to return to him. + +7. For the prefect bore in mind the substance of a report which he was +suspected to have sent some time before, and which recommended the +withdrawing from the defence of Gaul those troops so renowned for their +valour, and already objects of dread to the barbarians. + +8. The prefect, as soon as he had received Julian's letters, informing +him of what had happened, and entreating him to come speedily to him to +aid the republic with his counsels, positively refused, being alarmed +because the letters expressly declared that in any crisis of danger the +prefect ought never to be absent from the general. And it was added that +if he declined to give his aid, Julian himself would, of his own accord, +renounce the emblems of authority, thinking it better to die, if so it +was fated, than to have the ruin of the provinces attributed to him. But +the obstinacy of the prefect prevailed, and he resolutely refused to +comply with the wishes thus reasonably expressed and enforced. + +9. But during the delay which arose from the absence of Lupicinus and of +any military movement on the part of the alarmed prefect, Julian, +deprived of all assistance in the way of advice, and being greatly +perplexed, thought it best to hasten the departure of all his troops +from the stations in which they were passing the winter, and to let them +begin their march. + +10. When this was known, some one privily threw down a bitter libel near +the standard of the Petulantes legion, which, among other things, +contained these words,--"We are being driven to the farthest parts of +the earth like condemned criminals, and our relations will become slaves +to the Allemanni after we have delivered them from that first captivity +by desperate battles." + +11. When this writing was taken to head-quarters and read, Julian, +considering the reasonableness of the complaint, ordered that their +families should go to the East with them, and allowed them the use of +the public wagons for the purpose of moving them. And as it was for some +time doubted which road they should take, he decided, at the suggestion +of the secretary Decentius, that they should go by Paris, where he +himself still was, not having moved. + +12. And so it was done. And when they arrived in the suburbs, the +prince, according to his custom, met them, praising those whom he +recognized, and reminding individuals of their gallant deeds, he +congratulated them with courteous words, encouraging them to go +cheerfully to join the emperor, as they would reap the most worthy +rewards of their exertions where power was the greatest and most +extensive. + +13. And to do them the more honour, as they were going to a great +distance, he invited their chiefs to a supper, when he bade them ask +whatever they desired. And they, having been treated with such +liberality, departed, anxious and sorrowful on two accounts, because +cruel fortune was separating them at once from so kind a ruler and from +their native land. And with this sorrowful feeling they retired to their +camp. + +14. But when night came on they broke out into open discontent, and +their minds being excited, as his own griefs pressed upon each +individual, they had recourse to force, and took up arms, and with a +great outcry thronged to the palace, and surrounding it so as to prevent +any one from escaping, they saluted Julian as emperor with loud +vociferations, insisting vehemently on his coming forth to them; and +though they were compelled to wait till daylight, still, as they would +not depart, at last he did come forth. And when he appeared, they +saluted him emperor with redoubled and unanimous cheers. + +15. But he steadily resisted them individually and collectively, at one +time showing himself indignant, at another holding out his hands and +entreating and beseeching them not to sully their numerous victories +with anything unbecoming, and not to let unseasonable rashness and +precipitation awaken materials for discord. At last he appeased them, +and having addressed them mildly, he added-- + +16. "I beseech you let your anger depart for a while: without any +dissension or attempt at revolution what you wish will easily be +obtained. Since you are so strongly bound by love of your country, and +fear strange lands to which you are unaccustomed, return now to your +homes, certain that you shall not cross the Alps, since you dislike it. +And I will explain the matter to the full satisfaction of the emperor, +who is a man of great wisdom, and will listen to reason." + +17. Nevertheless, after his speech was ended, the cries were repeated +with as much vigour and unanimity as ever; and so vehement was the +uproar and zeal, which did not even spare reproaches and threats, that +Julian was compelled to consent. And being lifted up on the shield of +an infantry soldier, and raised up in sight of all, he was saluted as +Augustus with one universal acclamation, and was ordered to produce a +diadem. And when he said that he had never had one, his wife's coronet +or necklace was demanded. + +18. And when he protested that it was not fitting for him at his first +accession to be adorned with female ornaments, the frontlet of a horse +was sought for, so that being crowned therewith, he might have some +badge, however obscure, of supreme power. But when he insisted that that +also would be unbecoming, a man named Maurus, afterwards a count, the +same who was defeated in the defile of the Succi, but who was then only +one of the front-rank men of the Petulantes, tore a chain off his own +neck, which he wore in his quality of standard-bearer, and placed it +boldly on Julian's head, who, being thus brought under extreme +compulsion, and seeing that he could not escape the most imminent danger +to his life if he persisted in his resistance, consented to their +wishes, and promised a largesse of five pieces of gold and a pound of +silver to every man. + +19. After this Julian felt more anxiety than ever; and, keenly alive to +the future consequences, neither wore his diadem or appeared in public, +nor would he even transact the serious business which pressed upon his +attention, but sought retirement, being full of consternation at the +strangeness of the recent events. This continued till one of the +decurions of the palace (which is an office of dignity) came in great +haste to the standards of the Petulantes and of the Celtic legion, and +in a violent manner exclaimed that it was a monstrous thing that he who +had the day before been by their will declared emperor should have been +privily assassinated. + +20. When this was heard, the soldiers, as readily excited by what they +did not know as by what they did, began to brandish their javelins, and +draw their swords, and (as is usual at times of sudden tumult) to flock +from every quarter in haste and disorder to the palace. The sentinels +were alarmed at the uproar, as were the tribunes and the captain of the +guard, and suspecting some treachery from the fickle soldiery, they +fled, fearing sudden death to themselves. + +21. When all before them seemed tranquil, the soldiers stood quietly +awhile; and on being asked what was the cause of their sudden and +precipitate movement, they at first hesitated, and then avowing their +alarm for the safety of the emperor, declared they would not retire till +they had been admitted into the council-chamber, and had seen him safe +in his imperial robes. + + +V. + +§ 1. When the news of these events reached the troops, whom we have +spoken of as having already marched under the command of Sintula, they +returned with him quietly to Paris. And an order having been issued that +the next morning they should all assemble in the open space in front of +the camp, Julian advanced among them, and ascended a tribunal more +splendid than usual, surrounded with the eagles, standards, and banners, +and guarded by a strong band of armed soldiers. + +2. And after a moment's quiet, while he looked down from his height on +the countenances of those before him, and saw them all full of joy and +alacrity, he kindled their loyalty with a few simple words, as with a +trumpet. + +3. "The difficulty of my situation, O brave and faithful champions of +myself and of the republic, who have often with me exposed your lives +for the welfare of the provinces, requires that, since you have now by +your resolute decision raised me, your Cæsar, to the highest of all +dignities, I should briefly set before you the state of affairs, in +order that safe and prudent remedies for their new condition may be +devised. + +4. "While little more than a youth, as you well know, I was for form's +sake invested with the purple, and by the decision of the emperor was +intrusted to your protection. Since that time I have never forgotten my +resolution of a virtuous life: I have been seen with you as the partner +of all your labours, when, in consequence of the diminution of the +confidence felt in us by the barbarians, terrible disasters fell upon +the empire, our cities being stormed, and countless thousands of men +being slain, and even the little that was left to us being in a very +tottering condition. I think it superfluous to recapitulate how often, +in the depth of winter, beneath a frozen sky, at a season when there is +usually a cessation from war both by land and sea, we have defeated with +heavy loss the Allemanni, previously unconquered. + +5. "One circumstance may neither be passed over nor suppressed. On that +glorious day which we saw at Strasburg, which brought perpetual liberty +to Gaul, we together, I throwing myself among the thickly falling darts, +and you being invincible by your vigour and experience, repelled the +enemy who poured upon us like a torrent; slaying them as we did with the +sword, or driving them to be drowned in the river, with very little loss +of our own men, whose funerals we celebrated with glorious panegyrics +rather than with mourning. + +6. "It is my belief that after such mighty achievements posterity will +not be silent respecting your services to the republic, in every +country, if you now, in case of any danger or misfortune, vigorously +support with your valour and resolution me whom you have raised to the +lofty dignity of emperor. + +7. "But to maintain things in their due order, so as to preserve to +brave men their well-merited rewards and prevent underhand ambition from +forestalling your honours, I make this rule in the honourable presence +of your counsel. That no civil or military officer shall be promoted +from any other consideration than that of his own merits; and he shall +be disgraced who solicits promotion for any one on any other ground." + +8. The lower class of soldiers, who had long been deprived of rank or +reward, were encouraged by this speech to entertain better hopes, and +now rising up with a great noise, and beating their shields with their +spears, they with unanimous shouts showed their approbation of his +language and purpose. + +9. And that no opportunity, however brief, might be afforded to disturb +so wise an arrangement, the Petulantes and Celtic legion immediately +besought him, on behalf of their commissaries, to give them the +government of any provinces he pleased, and when he refused them, they +retired without being either offended or out of humour. + +10. But the very night before the day on which he was thus proclaimed +emperor, Julian had mentioned to his most intimate friends that during +his slumbers some one had appeared to him in a dream, in the form and +habit of the genius of the empire, who uttered these words in a tone of +reproach: "For some time, Julian, have I been secretly watching the door +of thy palace, wishing to increase thy dignity, and I have often retired +as one rejected; but if I am not now admitted, when the opinion of the +many is unanimous, I shall retire discouraged and sorrowful. But lay +this up in the depth of thy heart, that I will dwell with thee no +longer." + + +VI. + +§ 1. While these transactions were proceeding in Gaul, to the great +anxiety of many, the fierce king of Persia (the advice of Antoninus +being now seconded by the arrival of Craugasius), burning with eagerness +to obtain Mesopotamia, while Constantius with his army was at a +distance, crossed the Tigris in due form with a vast army, and laid +siege to Singara with a thoroughly equipped force, sufficient for the +siege of a town which, in the opinion of the chief commanders of those +regions, was abundantly fortified and supplied. + +2. The garrison, as soon as they saw the enemy, while still at a +distance, at once closed their gates, and with great spirit thronged to +the towers and battlements, collecting on them stones and warlike +engines. And then, having made all their preparations, they stood +prepared to repel the advancing host if they should venture to approach +the walls. + +3. Therefore the king, when he arrived and found that, though they would +admit some of his nobles near enough to confer with them, he could not, +by any conciliatory language, bend the garrison to his wishes, he gave +one entire day to rest, and then, at daybreak, on a signal made by the +raising of a scarlet flag, the whole city was surrounded by men carrying +ladders, while others began to raise engines; all being protected by +fences and penthouses while seeking a way to assail the foundation of +the walls. + +4. Against these attempts the citizens, standing on the lofty +battlements, drove back with stones and every kind of missile the +assailants who were seeking with great ferocity to find an entrance. + +5. For many days the struggle continued without any decided result, many +being wounded and killed on both sides. At last, the struggle growing +fiercer, one day on the approach of evening a very heavy battering-ram +was brought forward among other engines, which battered a round tower +with repeated blows, at a point where we mentioned that the city had +been laid open in a former siege. + +6. The citizens at once repaired to this point, and a violent conflict +arose in this small space; torches and firebrands were brought from all +quarters to consume this formidable engine, while arrows and bullets +were showered down without cessation on the assailants. But the keenness +of the ram prevailed over every means of defence, digging through the +mortar of the recently cemented stones, which was still moist and +unsettled. + +7. And while the contest was thus proceeding with fire and sword, the +tower fell, and a path was opened into the city, the place being +stripped of its defenders, whom the magnitude of the danger had +scattered. The Persian bands raised a wild shout, and without hindrance +filled every quarter of the city. A very few of the inhabitants were +slain, and all the rest, by command of Sapor, were taken alive and +transported to the most distant regions of Persia. + +8. There had been assigned for the protection of this city two legions, +the first Flavian and the first Parthian, and a great body of native +troops, as well as a division of auxiliary cavalry which had been shut +up in it through the suddenness of the attack made upon it. All of +these, as I have said, were taken prisoners, without receiving any +assistance from our armies. + +9. For the greater part of our army was in tents taking care of Nisibis, +which was at a considerable distance. But even if it had not been so, no +one even in ancient times could easily bring aid to Singara when in +danger, since the whole country around laboured under a scarcity of +water. And although a former generation had placed this fort very +advisedly, to check sudden movements of hostility, yet it was a great +burden to the state, having been several times taken, and always +involving the loss of its garrison. + + +VII. + +§ 1. After Singara had fallen, Sapor prudently avoided Nisibis, +recollecting the losses which he had several times sustained before it, +and turned to the right by a circuitous path, hoping either to subdue by +force or to win by bribes the garrison of Bezabde, which its founders +also called Phoenice, and to make himself master of that town, which +is an exceedingly strong fortress, placed on a hill of moderate height, +and close to the banks of the Tigris, having a double wall, as many +places have which from their situation are thought to be especially +exposed. For its defence three legions had been assigned; the second +Flavian, the second Armenian, and the second Parthian, with a large body +of archers of the Zabdiceni, a tribe subject to us, in whose territory +this town was situated. + +2. At the beginning of the siege, the king, with an escort of glittering +cuirassiers, himself taller than any of them, rode entirely round the +camp, coming up boldly to the very edge of the fosse, where he was at +once a mark for the unerring bullets of the balistæ, and arrows; but he +was so completely covered with thick scale-armour that he retired +unhurt. + +3. Then laying aside his anger, he sent some heralds with all due +solemnity, courteously inviting the besieged to consult the safety of +their lives, and seeing the desperateness of their situation, to put an +end to the siege by a timely surrender; to open their gates and come +forth, presenting themselves as suppliants before the conqueror of +nations. + +4. When these messengers approached the walls, the garrison spared them +because they had with them some men of noble birth, who had been made +prisoners at Singara, and were well known to the citizens; and out of +pity to them no one shot an arrow, though they would give no reply to +the proposal of peace. + +5. Then a truce being made for a day and night, before dawn on the +second day the entire force of the Persians attacked the palisade with +ferocious threats and cries, coming up boldly to the walls, where a +fierce contest ensued, the citizens resisting with great vigour. + +6. So that many of the Parthians[112] were wounded, because some of +them carrying ladders, and others wicker screens, advanced as it were +blindfold, and were not spared by our men. For the clouds of arrows flew +thickly, piercing the enemy packed in close order. At last, after sunset +the two sides separated, having suffered about equal loss: and the next +day before dawn the combat was renewed with greater vehemence than +before, the trumpets cheering the men on both sides, and again a +terrible slaughter of each took place, both armies struggling with the +most determined obstinacy. + +7. But on the following day both armies by common consent rested from +their terrible exertions, the defenders of the walls and the Persians +being equally dismayed. When a Christian priest made sign by gestures +that he desired to go forth, and having received a promise that he +should be allowed to return in safety, he advanced to the king's tent. + +8. When he was permitted to speak, he, with gentle language, urged the +Persians to depart to their own country, affirming that after the losses +each side had sustained they had reason perhaps to fear even greater +disasters in future. But these and other similar arguments were uttered +to no purpose. The fierce madness of the king robbing them of their +effect, as Sapor swore positively that he would never retire till he had +destroyed our camp. + +9. Nevertheless a groundless suspicion was whispered against the bishop, +wholly false in my opinion, though supported by the assertions of many, +that he had secretly informed Sapor what part of the wall to attack, as +being internally slight and weak. Though the suspicion derived some +corroboration from the fact that afterwards the engines of the enemy +were carefully and with great exultation directed against the places +which were weakest, or most decayed, as if those who worked them were +acquainted with what parts were most easily penetrable. + +10. And although the narrowness of the causeway made the approach to the +walls hard, and though the battering-rams when equipped were brought +forward with great difficulty, from fear of the stones and arrows hurled +upon the assailants by the besieged, still neither the balistæ nor the +scorpions rested a moment, the first shooting javelins, and the latter +hurling showers of stones, and baskets on fire, smeared with pitch and +tar; and as these were perpetually rolled down, the engines halted as if +rooted to the ground, and fiery darts and firebrands well-aimed set them +on fire. + +11. Still while this was going on, and numbers were falling on both +sides, the besiegers were the more eager to destroy a town, strong both +by its natural situation and its powerful defences, before the arrival +of winter, thinking it impossible to appease the fury of their king if +they should fail. Therefore neither abundant bloodshed nor the sight of +numbers of their comrades pierced with deadly wounds could deter the +rest from similar audacity. + +12. But for a long time, fighting with absolute desperation, they +exposed themselves to imminent danger; while those who worked the +battering-rams were prevented from advancing by the vast weight of +millstones, and all kinds of fiery missiles hurled against them. + +13. One battering-ram was higher than the rest, and was covered with +bull's hides wetted, and being therefore safer from any accident of +fire, or from lighted javelins, it led the way in the attacks on the +wall with mighty blows, and with its terrible point it dug into the +joints of the stones till it overthrew the tower. The tower fell with a +mighty crash, and those in it were thrown down with a sudden jerk, and +breaking their limbs, or being buried beneath the ruins, perished by +various and unexpected kinds of death; then, a safer entrance having +been thus found, the multitude of the enemy poured in with their arms. + +14. While the war-cry of the Persians sounded in the trembling ears of +the defeated garrison, a fierce battle within the narrower bounds raged +within the walls, while bands of our men and of the enemy fought hand to +hand, being jammed together, with swords drawn on both sides, and no +quarter given. + +15. At last the besieged, after making head with mighty exertion against +the destruction which long seemed doubtful, were overwhelmed with the +weight of the countless host which pressed upon them. And the swords of +the furious foe cut down all they could find; children were torn from +their mother's bosom, and the mothers were slain, no one regarding what +he did. Among these mournful scenes the Persians, devoted to plunder, +loaded with every kind of booty, and driving before them a vast +multitude of prisoners, returned in triumph to their tents. + +16. But the king, elated with insolence and triumph, having long been +desirous to obtain possession of Phoenice, as a most important +fortress, did not retire till he had repaired in the strongest manner +that portion of the walls which had been shaken, and till he had stocked +it with ample magazines of provisions, and placed in it a garrison of +men noble by birth and eminent for their skill in war. For he feared +(what indeed happened) that the Romans, being indignant at the loss of +this their grand camp, would exert themselves with all their might to +recover it. + +17. Then, being full of exultation, and cherishing greater hopes than +ever of gaining whatever he desired, after taking a few forts of small +importance, he prepared to attack Victa, a very ancient fortress, +believed to have been founded by Alexander, the Macedonian, situated on +the most distant border of Mesopotamia, and surrounded with winding +walls full of projecting angles, and so well furnished at all points as +to be almost unassailable. + +18. And when he had tried every expedient against it, at one time trying +to bribe the garrison with promises, at another to terrify them with +threats of torture, and employing all kinds of engines such as are used +in sieges, after sustaining more injury than he inflicted, he at last +retired from his unsuccessful enterprise. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. These were the events of this year between the Tigris and the +Euphrates. And when frequent intelligence of them had reached +Constantius, who was in continual dread of Parthian expeditions, and was +passing the winter at Constantinople, he devoted greater care than ever +to strengthening his frontiers with every kind of warlike equipment. He +collected veterans, and enlisted recruits, and increased the legions +with reinforcements of vigorous youths, who had already repeatedly +signalized their valour in the battles of the eastern campaigns: and +beside these he collected auxiliary forces from among the Scythians by +urgent requests and promises of pay, in order to set out from Thrace in +the spring, and at once march to the disturbed provinces. + +2. During the same time Julian, who was wintering at Paris, alarmed at +the prospect of the ultimate issue of the events in that district, +became full of anxiety, feeling sure, after deep consideration, that +Constantius would never give his consent to what had been done in his +case, since he had always disdained him as a person of no importance. + +3. Therefore, after much reflection on the somewhat disturbed beginning +which the present novel state of affairs showed, he determined to send +envoys to him to relate all that had taken place; and he gave them +letters setting forth fully what had been done, and what ought to be +done next, supporting his recommendations by proofs. + +4. Although in reality he believed that the emperor was already informed +of all, from the report of Decentius, who had returned to him some time +before; and of the chamberlains who had recently gone back from Gaul, +after having brought him some formal orders. And although he was not in +reality vexed at his promotion, still he avoided all arrogant language +in his letters, that he might not appear to have suddenly shaken off his +authority. Now the following was the purport of his letters. + +5. "I have at all times been of the same mind, and have adhered to my +original intentions, not less by my conduct than by my promises, as far +as lay in my power, as has been abundantly plain from repeated actions +of mine. + +6. "And up to this time, since you created me Cæsar, and exposed me to +the din of war, contented with the power you conferred on me, as a +faithful officer I have sent you continued intelligence of all your +affairs proceeding according to your wishes; never speaking of my own +dangers; though it can easily be proved, that, while the Germans have +been routed in every direction, I have always been the first in all +toils and the last to allow myself any rest. + +7. "But allow me to say, that if any violent change has taken place, as +you think, the soldier who has been passing his life in many terrible +wars without reward, has only completed what he has long had under +consideration, being indignant and impatient at being only under a chief +of the second class, as knowing that from a Cæsar no adequate reward for +his continued exertions and frequent victories could possibly be +procured. + +8. "And while angry at the feeling that he could neither expect +promotion nor annual pay, he had this sudden aggravation to his +discontent, that he, a man used to cold climates, was ordered to march +to the most remote districts of the East, to be separated from his wife +and children, and to be dragged away in want and nakedness. This made +him fiercer than usual; and so the troops one night collected and laid +siege to the palace, saluting with loud and incessant outcries Julian as +emperor. + +9. "I shuddered at their boldness, I confess, and withdrew myself. And +retiring while I could, I sought safety in concealment and disguise--and +as they would not desist, armed, so to say, with the shield of my own +free heart, I came out before them all, thinking that the tumult might +be appeased by authority, or by conciliatory language. + +10. "They became wonderfully excited, and proceeded to such lengths +that, when I endeavoured to overcome their pertinacity with my +entreaties, they came close up to me, threatening me with instant death. +At last I was overcome, and arguing with myself that if I were murdered +by them some one else would willingly accept the dignity of emperor, I +consented, hoping thus to pacify their armed violence. + +11. "This is the plain account of what has been done; and I entreat you +to listen to it with mildness. Do not believe that anything else is the +truth; and do not listen to malignant men who deal in mischievous +whispers, always eager to seek their own gain by causing ill will +between princes. Banish flattery, which is the nurse of vice, and listen +to the voice of that most excellent of all virtues, justice. And receive +with good faith the equitable condition which I propose, considering in +your mind that such things are for the interest of the Roman state, and +of us also who are united by affection of blood, and by an equality of +superior fortune. + +12. "And pardon me. These reasonable requests of mine I am not so +anxious to see carried out, as to see them approved by you as expedient +and proper; and I shall with eagerness follow all your instructions. + +13. "What requires to be done I will briefly explain. I will provide you +some Spanish draught horses, and some youths to mingle with the Gentiles +and Scutarii of the Letian tribe, a race of barbarians on the side of +the Rhine; or else of those people which have come over to our side. And +I promise till the end of my life to do all I can to assist you, not +only with gratitude, but with eagerness. + +14. "Your clemency will appoint us prefects for our prætorium of known +equity and virtue: the appointment of the ordinary judges, and the +promotion of the military officers it is fair should be left to me; as +also the selection of my guard. For it would be unreasonable, when it is +possible to be guarded against, that those persons should be placed +about an emperor of whose manners and inclinations he is ignorant. + +15. "These things I can further assure you of positively. The Gauls will +neither of their own accord, nor by any amount of compulsion, be brought +to send recruits to foreign and distant countries, since they have been +long harassed by protracted annoyances and heavy disasters, lest the +youth of the nation should be destroyed, and the whole people, while +recollecting their past sufferings, should abandon themselves to despair +for the future. + +16. "Nor is it fit to seek from hence assistance against the Parthians, +when even now the attempts of the barbarians against this land are not +brought to an end, and while, if you will suffer me to tell the truth, +these provinces are still exposed to continual dangers on being deprived +of all foreign or adequate assistance. + +17. "In speaking thus, I do think I have written to you in a manner +suited to the interests of the state, both in my demands and my +entreaties. For I well know, not to speak in a lofty tone, though such +might not misbecome an emperor, what wretched states of affairs, even +when utterly desperate and given up, have been before now retrieved and +re-established by the agreement of princes, each yielding reciprocally +to one another. While it is also plain from the example of our +ancestors, that rulers who acknowledge and act upon such principles do +somehow ever find the means of living prosperously and happily, and +leave behind them to the latest posterity an enviable fame." + +18. To these letters he added others of a more secret purport, to be +given privily to Constantius, in which he blamed and reproached him; +though their exact tenor was not fit to be known, nor if known, fit to +be divulged to the public. + +19. For the office of delivering these letters, men of great dignity +were chosen; namely, Pentadius, the master of the ceremonies, and +Eutherius, at that time the principal chamberlain; who were charged, +after they had delivered the letters, to relate what they had seen, +without suppressing anything; and to take their own measures boldly on +all future emergencies which might arise. + +20. In the mean time the flight of Florentius, the prefect, aggravated +the envy with which these circumstances were regarded. For he, as if he +foresaw the commotion likely to arise, as might be gathered from general +conversation, from the act of sending for the troops, had departed for +Vienne (being also desirous to get out of the way of Julian, whom he had +often slandered), pretending to be compelled to this journey for the +sake of providing supplies for the army. + +21. Afterwards, when he had heard of Julian's being raised to the +dignity of emperor, being greatly alarmed, and giving up almost all hope +of saving his life, he availed himself of his distance from Julian to +escape from the evils which he suspected; and leaving behind him all his +family, he proceeded by slow journeys to Constantius; and to prove his +own innocence he brought forward many charges of rebellion against +Julian. + +22. And after his departure, Julian, adopting wise measures, and wishing +it to be known that, even if he had him in his power, he would have +spared him, allowed his relations to take with them all their property, +and even granted them the use of the public conveyances to retire with +safety to the East. + + +IX. + +§ 1. The envoys whom I have mentioned took equal care to discharge their +orders; but while eager to pursue their journey they were unjustly +detained by some of the superior magistrates on their road; and having +been long and vexatiously delayed in Italy and Illyricum, they at last +passed the Bosphorus, and advancing by slow journeys, they found +Constantius still staying at Cæsarea in Cappadocia, a town formerly +known as Mazaca, admirably situated at the foot of Mount Argæus, and of +high reputation. + +2. Being admitted to the presence, they received permission to present +their letters; but when they were read the emperor became immoderately +angry, and looking askance at them so as to make them fear for their +lives, he ordered them to be gone without asking them any questions or +permitting them to speak. + +3. But in spite of his anger he was greatly perplexed to decide whether +to move those troops whom he could trust against the Persians, or +against Julian; and while he was hesitating, and long balancing between +the two plans, he yielded to the useful advice of some of his +counsellors, and ordered the army to march to the East. + +4. Immediately also he dismissed the envoys, and ordered his quæstor +Leonas to go with all speed with letters from him to Julian; in which he +asserted that he himself would permit no innovators, and recommended +Julian, if he had any regard for his own safety or that of his +relations, to lay aside his arrogance, and resume the rank of Cæsar. + +5. And, in order to alarm him by the magnitude of his preparations, as +if he really was possessed of great power, he appointed Nebridius, who +was at that time Julian's quæstor, to succeed Florentius as prefect of +the prætorium, and made Felix the secretary, master of the ceremonies, +with several other appointments. Gumoharius, the commander of the heavy +infantry, he had already appointed to succeed Lupicinus, before any of +these events were known. + +6. Accordingly Leonas reached Paris, and was there received as an +honourable and discreet man; and the next day, when Julian had proceeded +into the plain in front of the camp with a great multitude of soldiers +and common people, which he had ordered to assemble on purpose, he +mounted a tribune, in order from that high position to be more +conspicuous, and desired Leonas to present his letters; and when he had +opened the edict which had been sent, and began to read it, as soon as +he arrived at the passage that Constantius disapproved of all that had +been done, and desired Julian to be content with the power of a Cæsar, a +terrible shout was raised on all sides, + +7. "Julian emperor, as has been decreed by the authority of the +province, of the army, and of the republic; which is indeed +re-established, but which still dreads the renewed attacks of the +barbarians." + +8. Leonas heard this, and, after receiving letters from Julian, stating +what had occurred, was dismissed in safety: the only one of the +emperor's appointments which was allowed to take effect was that of +Nebridius, which Julian in his letters had plainly said would be in +accordance with his wishes. For he himself had some time before +appointed Anatolius to be master of the ceremonies, having been formerly +his private secretary; and he had also made such other appointments as +seemed useful and safe. + +9. And since, while matters were going on in this matter, Lupicinus, as +being a proud and arrogant man, was an object of fear, though absent and +still in Britain; and since there was a suspicion that if he heard of +these occurrences while on the other side of the channel, he might cause +disorders in the island, a secretary was sent to Boulogne to take care +that no one should be allowed to cross; and as that was contrived, +Lupicinus returned without hearing of any of these matters, and so had +no opportunity of giving trouble. + + +X. + +§ 1. But Julian, being gratified at his increase of rank, and at the +confidence of the soldiers in him, not to let his good fortune cool, or +to give any colour for charging him with inactivity or indolence, after +he had sent his envoys to Constantius, marched to the frontier of the +province of lower Germany; and having with him all the force which the +business in hand demanded, he approached the town of Santon.[113] + +2. Then crossing the Rhine, he suddenly entered the district belonging +to a Frank tribe, called the Attuarii, men of a turbulent character, who +at that very moment were licentiously plundering the districts of Gaul. +He attacked them unexpectedly while they were apprehensive of no hostile +measures, but were reposing in fancied security, relying on the +ruggedness and difficulty of the roads which led into their country, and +which no prince within their recollection had ever penetrated. He, +however, easily surmounted all difficulties, and having put many to the +sword and taken many prisoners, he granted the survivors peace at their +request, thinking such a course best for their neighbours. + +3. Then with equal celerity he repassed the river, and examining +carefully the state of the garrisons on the frontier, and putting them +in a proper state, he marched towards Basle; and having recovered the +places which the barbarians had taken and still retained in their hands, +and having carefully strengthened them, he went to Vienne, passing +through Besançon, and there took up his winter quarters. + + +XI. + +§ 1. These were the events which took place in Gaul, and while they were +thus conducted with prudence and good fortune, Constantius, having +summoned Arsaces, king of Armenia, and having received him with great +courtesy, advised and exhorted him to continue friendly and faithful to +us. + +2. For he had heard that the king of Persia had often tried by deceits +and threats, and all kinds of stratagems, to induce him to forsake the +Roman alliance and join his party. + +3. But he, vowing with many oaths that he would rather lose his life +than change his opinion, received ample rewards, and returned to his +kingdom with the retinue which he brought with him; and never ventured +at any subsequent time to break any of his promises, being bound by +many ties of gratitude to Constantius. The strongest tie of all being +that the emperor had given him for a wife, Olympias, the daughter of +Abladius, formerly prefect of the prætorium, who had once been betrothed +to his own brother Constans. + +4. And when Arsaces had been dismissed, Constantius left Cappadocia, and +going by Melitina, a town of the lesser Armenia, and Lacotene, and +Samosata, he crossed the Euphrates and arrived at Edessa. Stopping some +time in each town, while waiting for divisions of soldiers who were +flocking in from all quarters, and for sufficient supplies of +provisions. And after the autumnal equinox, he proceeded onwards on his +way to Amida. + +5. When he approached the walls of that town, and saw everything buried +in ashes, he groaned and wept, recollecting what sufferings the wretched +city had suffered. And Ursulus, the treasurer, who happened to be +present, was moved with indignation, and exclaimed, "Behold the courage +with which cities are defended by our soldiers; men for whose pay the +whole wealth of the empire is exhausted." This bitter speech the crowd +of soldiers afterwards recollected at Chalcedon, when they rose up and +destroyed him. + +6. Then proceeding onward in close column, he reached Bezabde, and +having fixed his camp there, and fortified it with a rampart and a deep +fosse, as he took a long ride round the camp, he satisfied himself, by +the account which he received from several persons, that those places in +the walls which the carelessness of ancient times had allowed to become +decayed, had been repaired so as to be stronger than ever. + +7. And, not to omit anything which was necessary to do before the heat +of the contest was renewed, he sent prudent men to the garrison to offer +them two conditions; either to withdraw to their own country, giving up +what did not belong to them, without causing bloodshed by resistance, or +else to become subjects of the Romans, in which case they should receive +rank and rewards. But when they, with native obstinacy, resisted the +demands as became men of noble birth, who had been hardened by dangers +and labours, everything was prepared for the siege. + +8. Therefore the soldiers with alacrity, in dense order, and cheered by +the sound of trumpets, attacked every side of the town; and the legions, +being protected by various kinds of defences, advanced in safety, +endeavouring by slow degrees to overthrow the walls; and because all +kinds of missiles were poured down upon them, which disjoined the union +of their shields, they fell back, the signal for a retreat being given. + +9. Then a truce was agreed upon for one day; but the day after, having +protected themselves more skilfully, they again raised their war-cry, +and tried on every side to scale the walls. And although the garrison, +having stretched cloths before them not to be distinguished, lay +concealed within the walls; still, as often as necessity required, they +boldly put out their arms and hurled down stones and javelins on their +assailants below. + +10. And while the wicker penthouses were advanced boldly and brought +close to the walls, the besieged dropped upon them heavy casks and +millstones, and fragments of pillars, by the overpowering weight of +which the assailants were crushed, their defences torn to pieces, and +wide openings made in them, so that they incurred terrible dangers, and +were again forced to retreat. + +11. Therefore, on the tenth day from the beginning of the siege, when +the confidence of our men began to fill the town with alarm, we +determined on bringing up a vast battering-ram, which, after having +destroyed Antioch with it sometime before, the Persians had left at +Carrhæ; and as soon as that appeared, and was begun to be skilfully set +up, it cowed the spirits of the besieged, so that they were almost on +the point of surrendering, when they again plucked up courage and +prepared means for resisting this engine. + +12. From this time neither their courage nor their ingenuity failed; for +as the ram was old, and it had been taken to pieces for the facility of +transporting it, so while it was being put together again, it was +attacked with great exertions and vigour by the garrison, and defended +with equal valour and firmness by the besiegers; and engines hurling +showers of stones, and slings, and missiles of all sorts, slew numbers +on each side. Meantime, high mounds rose up with speedy growth; and the +siege grew fiercer and sterner daily; many of our men being slain +because, fighting as they were under the eye of the emperor, and eager +for reward, they took off their helmets in order to be the more easily +recognized, and so with bare heads, were an easy mark for the skilful +archers of the enemy. + +13. The days and nights being alike spent in watching, made each side +the more careful; and the Persians, being alarmed at the vast height to +which the mounds were now carried, and at the enormous ram, which was +accompanied by others of smaller size, made great exertions to burn +them, and kept continually shooting firebrands and incendiary missiles +at them; but their labour was vain, because the chief part of them was +covered with wet skins and cloths, and some parts also had been steeped +in alum, so that the fire might fall harmless upon them. + +14. But the Romans, driving these rams on with great courage, although +they had difficulty in defending themselves, disregarded danger, however +imminent, in the hope of making themselves masters of the town. + +15. And on the other hand, when the enormous ram was brought against the +tower to which it was applied, as if it could at once throw it down, the +garrison, by a clever contrivance, entangled its projecting iron head, +which in shape was like that of a ram, with long cords on both sides, to +prevent its being drawn back and then driven forward with great force, +and to hinder it from making any serious impression on the walls by +repeated blows; and meanwhile they poured on it burning pitch, and for a +long time these engines were fixed at the point to which they had been +advanced, and exposed to all the stones and javelins which were hurled +from the walls. + +16. By this time the mounds were raised to a considerable height, and +the garrison, thinking that unless they used extraordinary vigilance +their destruction must be at hand, resorted to extreme audacity; and +making an unexpected sally from the gates, they attacked our front rank, +and with all their might hurled firebrands and iron braziers loaded with +fire against the rams. + +17. But after a fierce but undecided conflict, the bulk of them were +driven within the walls, without having succeeded in their attempt; and +presently the battlements were attacked from the mounds which the Romans +had raised, with arrows and slings and lighted javelins, which flew +over the roofs of the towers, but did no harm, means having been +prepared to extinguish any flames. + +18. And as the ranks on both sides became thinner, and the Persians were +now reduced to extremities unless some aid could be found, they prepared +with redoubled energy a fresh sally from the camp: accordingly, they +made a sudden sally, supported by increased numbers, and among the armed +men were many bearing torches, and iron baskets full of fire, and +faggots; and all kinds of things best adapted for setting fire to the +works of the besiegers were hurled against them. + +19. And because the dense clouds of smoke obscured the sight, when the +trumpet gave the signal for battle, the legions came up with quick step; +and as the eagerness of the conflict grew hotter, after they had +engaged, suddenly all the engines, except the great ram, caught fire +from the flames which were hurled at them; but the ropes which held the +chief ram were broken asunder, and that the vigorous efforts of some +gallant men saved, when it was half burnt. + +20. When the darkness of night terminated the combat, only a short time +was allowed to the soldiers for rest; but when they had been refreshed +by a little food and sleep, they were awakened by their captains, and +ordered to remove their works away from the walls of the town, and +prepare to fight at closer quarters from the lofty mounds which were +untouched by the flames, and now commanded the walls. And to drive the +defenders from the walls, on the summit of the mounds they stationed two +balistæ, in fear of which they thought that none of the enemy would +venture even to look out. + +21. After having taken these efficacious measures, a triple line of our +men, having a more threatening aspect than usual from the nodding cones +of their helmets (many of them also bearing ladders), attempted about +twilight to scale the walls. Arms clashed and trumpets sounded, and both +sides fought with equal boldness and ardour. The Romans, extending their +lines more widely, when they saw the Persians hiding from fear of the +engines which had been stationed on the mounds, battered the wall with +their ram, and with spades, and axes, and levers, and ladders, pressed +fiercely on, while missiles from each side flew without ceasing. + +22. But the Persians were especially pressed by the various missiles +shot from the balistæ, which, from the artificial mounds, came down upon +them in torrents; and having become desperate, they rushed on, fearless +of death, and distributing their force as if at the last extremity, they +left some to guard the walls, while the rest, secretly opening a postern +gate, rushed forth valiantly with drawn swords, followed by others who +carried concealed fire. + +23. And while the Romans at one moment were pressing on those who +retreated, at another receiving the assault of those who attacked them, +those who carried the fire crept round by a circuitous path, and pushed +the burning coals in among the interstices of one of the mounds, which +was made up of branches of trees, and rushes, and bundles of reeds. This +soon caught fire and was utterly destroyed, the soldiers themselves +having great difficulty in escaping and saving their engines. + +24. But when the approach of evening broke off the conflict, and the two +sides separated to snatch a brief repose, the emperor, after due +reflection, resolved to change his plans. Although many reasons of great +urgency pressed him to force on the destruction of Phoenice, as of a +fortress which would prove an impregnable barrier to the inroads of the +enemy, yet the lateness of the season was an objection to persevering +any longer. He determined, therefore, while he preserved his position, +to carry on the siege for the future by slight skirmishes, thinking that +the Persians would be forced to surrender from want of provisions, +which, however, turned out very different. + +25. For while the conflict was proceeding sharply, the heavens became +moist, and watery clouds appeared with threatening darkness; and +presently the ground got so wet from continual rain, that the whole +country was changed into an adhesive mud (for the soil is naturally +rich), and every plan was thrown into confusion; meantime, thunder with +incessant crashes and ceaseless lightning filled men's minds with fear. + +26. To these portents were added continual rainbows. A short explanation +will serve to show how these appearances are formed. The vapours of the +earth becoming warmer, and the watery particles gathering in clouds, and +thence being dispersed in spray, and made brilliant by the fusion of +rays, turn upwards towards the fiery orb of the sun and form a rainbow, +which sweeps round with a large curve because it is spread over our +world, which physical investigations place on the moiety of a sphere. + +27. Its appearance, as far as mortal sight can discern, is, in the first +line yellow, in the second tawny, in the third scarlet, in the fourth +purple, and in the last a mixture of blue and green. + +28. And it is so tempered with this mixed beauty, as mankind believe, +because its first portion is discerned in a thin diluted state, of the +same colour as the air which surrounds it; the next line is tawny, that +is a somewhat richer colour than yellow; the third is scarlet, because +it is opposite to the bright rays of the sun, and so pumps up and +appropriates, if one may so say, the most subtle portion of its beams; +the fourth is purple, because the density of the spray by which the +splendour of the sun's rays is quenched shines between, and so it +assumes a colour near that of flame; and as that colour is the more +diffused, it shades off into blue and green. + +29. Others think that the rainbow is caused by the rays of the sun +becoming infused into some dense cloud, and pouring into it a liquid +light, which, as it can find no exit, falls back upon itself, and shines +the more brilliantly because of a kind of attrition; and receives those +hues which are most akin to white from the sun above; its green hues +from the cloud under which it lies, as often happens in the sea, where +the waters which beat upon the shore are white, and those farther from +the land, which, as being so, are more free from any admixture, are +blue. + +30. And since it is an indication of a change in the atmosphere (as we +have already said), when in a clear sky sudden masses of clouds appear, +or on the other hand, when the sky changed from a gloomy look to a +joyful serenity, therefore we often read in the poets that Iris is sent +from heaven when a change is required in the condition of any present +affairs. There are various other opinions which it would be superfluous +now to enumerate, since my narration must hasten back to the point from +which it digressed. + +31. By these and similar events the emperor was kept wavering between +hope and fear, as the severity of winter was increasing, and he +suspected ambuscades in the country, which was destitute of roads; +fearing also, among other things, the discontent of the exasperated +soldiers. And it further goaded his unquiet spirit to return balked of +his purpose, after, as it were, the door of the rich mansion was opened +to him. + +32. However, giving up his enterprise as fruitless, he returned into the +unwelcome Syria, to winter at Antioch, after having suffered a +succession of melancholy disasters. For, as if some unfriendly +constellation so governed events, Constantius himself, while warring +with the Persians, was always attended by adverse fortune; on which +account he hoped at least to gain victories by means of his generals; +and this, as we remember, usually happened. + + +[109] "The minute interval which may be interposed between the _hyeme +adultâ_ and the _primo vere_ of Ammianus, instead of allowing a +sufficient space for a march of three thousand miles, would render the +orders of Constantius as extravagant as they were unjust; the troops of +Gaul could not have reached Syria till the end of autumn. The memory of +Ammianus must have been inaccurate, and his language +incorrect."--Gibbon, c. xxii. + +[110] According to Erdfurt, this legion was so named from its +contumacious and mutinous disposition. + +[111] The Gentiles were body-guards of the emperor, or of the Cæsar, of +barbarian extraction, whether Scythians, Goths, Franks, Germans, &c. + +[112] It may be remarked that Ammianus continually uses the words +Persian and Parthian as synonymous. + +[113] Santon is near Cleves. + + + + +BOOK XXI. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. The Emperor Julian at Vienne learns that Constantius is about to + die--How he knew it--An essay on the different arts of learning the + future.--II. Julian at Vienne feigns to be a Christian in order to + conciliate the multitude, and on a day of festival worships God + among the Christians.--III. Vadomarius, king of the Allemanni, + breaking his treaty, lays waste our frontier, and slays Count + Libino, with a few of his men.--IV. Julian having intercepted + letters of Vadomarius to the Emperor Constantius, contrives to have + him seized at a banquet; and having slain some of the Allemanni, + and compelled others to surrender, grants the rest peace at their + entreaty.--Julian harangues his soldiers, and makes them all + promise obedience to him, intending to make war upon the Emperor + Constantius.--VI. Constantius marries Faustina--Increases his army + by fresh levies; gains over the kings of Armenia and Hiberia by + gifts.--VII. Constantius, at that time at Antioch, retains Africa + in his power by means of his secretary Gaudentius; crosses the + Euphrates, and moves with his army upon Edessa.--VIII. After + settling the affairs of Gaul, Julian marches to the Danube, sending + on before a part of his army through Italy and the Tyrol.--IX. + Taurus and Florentius, consuls, and prefects of the prætorium, fly + at the approach of Julian, the one through Illyricum, the other + through Italy--Lucillianus, the commander of the cavalry, who was + preparing to resist Julian, is crushed by him.--X. Julian receives + the allegiance of Sirmium, the capital of Western Illyricum, and of + its garrison--Occupies the country of the Sacci, and writes to the + senate letters of complaint against Constantius.--XI. Two of the + legions of Constantius which at Sirmium had passed over to Julian + are sent by him into Gaul, and occupy Aquileia, with the consent of + the citizens, who, however, shut their gates against the troops of + Julian.--XII. Aquileia takes the part of Constantius, and is + besieged, but presently, when news of his death arrives, surrenders + to Julian.--XIII. Sapor leads back his army home, because the + auspices forbid war--Constantius, intending to march against + Julian, harangues his soldiers.--XIV. Omens of the death of + Constantius.--XV. Constantius dies at Mopsucrenæ in Cilicia.--XVI. + His virtues and vices. + + +I. + +A.D. 360. + +§ 1. While Constantius was detained by this perplexing war beyond the +Euphrates, Julian at Vienne devoted his days and nights to forming plans +for the future, as far as his limited resources would allow; being in +great suspense, and continually doubting whether to try every expedient +to win Constantius over to friendship, or to anticipate his attack, with +the view of alarming him. + +2. And while anxiously considering these points he feared him, as likely +to be in the one case a cruel friend, while in the other case he +recollected that he had always been successful in civil disturbances. +Above all things his anxiety was increased by the example of his brother +Gallus, who had been betrayed by his own want of caution and the +perjured deceit of certain individuals. + +3. Nevertheless he often raised himself to ideas of energetic action, +thinking it safest to show himself as an avowed enemy to him whose +movements he could, as a prudent man, judge of only from his past +actions, in order not to be entrapped by secret snares founded on +pretended friendship. + +4. Therefore, paying little attention to the letters which Constantius +had sent by Leonas, and admitting none of his appointments with the +exception of that of Nebridius, he now celebrated the +Quinquennalia[114] as emperor, and wore a splendid diadem inlaid with +precious stones, though when first entering on that power he had worn +but a paltry-looking crown like that of a president of the public games. + +5. At this time also he sent the body of his wife Helen, recently +deceased, to Rome, to be buried in the suburb on the road to Nomentum, +where also Constantina, his sister-in-law, the wife of Gallus, had been +buried. + +6. His desire to march against Constantius, now that Gaul was +tranquillized, was inflamed by the belief which he had adopted from many +omens (in the interpretation of which he had great skill), and from +dreams that the emperor would soon die. + +7. And since malignant people have attributed to this prince, so erudite +and so eager to acquire all knowledge, wicked practices for the purpose +of learning future events, we may here briefly point out how this +important branch of learning may be acquired by a wise man. + +8. The spirit which directs all the elements, and which at all times and +throughout all places exercises its activity by the movement of these +eternal bodies, can communicate to us the capacity of foreseeing the +future by the sciences which we attain through various kinds of +discipline. And the ruling powers, when properly propitiated, as from +everlasting springs, supply mankind with words of prophecy, over which +the deity of Themis is said to preside, and which, because she teaches +men to know what has been settled for the future by the law of Fate, has +received that name from the Greek word τεθειμένα ("fixed"), +and has been placed by ancient theologians in the bed and on the throne +of Jupiter, who gives life to all the world. + +9. Auguries and auspices are not collected from the will of birds who +are themselves ignorant of the future (for there is no one so silly as +to say they understand it); but God directs the flight of birds, so that +the sound of their beaks, or the motion of their feathers, whether quiet +or disturbed, indicates the character of the future. For the kindness +of the deity, whether it be that men deserve it, or that he is touched +by affection for them, likes by these acts to give information of what +is impending. + +10. Again, those who attend to the prophetic entrails of cattle, which +often take all kinds of shapes, learn from them what happens. Of this +practice a man called Tages was the inventor, who, as is reported, was +certainly seen to rise up out of the earth in the district of Etruria. + +11. Men too, when their hearts are in a state of excitement, foretell +the future, but then they are speaking under divine inspiration. For the +sun, which is, as natural philosophers say, the mind of the world, and +which scatters our minds among us as sparks proceeding from itself, when +it has inflamed them with more than usual vehemence, renders them +conscious of the future. From which the Sibyls often say they are +burning and fired by a vast power of flames; and with reference to these +cases the sound of voices, various signs, thunder, lightning, +thunderbolts, and falling stars, have a great significance. + +12. But the belief in dreams would be strong and undoubted if the +interpreters of them were never deceived; and sometimes, as Aristotle +asserts, they are fixed and stable when the eye of the person, being +soundly asleep, turns neither way, but looks straight forward. + +13. And because the ignorance of the vulgar often talks loudly, though +ignorantly, against these ideas, asking why, if there were any faculty +of foreseeing the future, one man should be ignorant that he would be +killed in battle, or another that he would meet with some misfortune, +and so on; it will be enough to reply that sometimes a grammarian has +spoken incorrectly, or a musician has sung out of tune, or a physician +been ignorant of the proper remedy for a disease; but these facts do not +disprove the existence of the sciences of grammar, music, or medicine. + +14. So that Tully is right in this as well as other sayings of his, when +he says, "Signs of future events are shown by the gods; if any one +mistakes them he errs, not because of the nature of the gods, but +because of the conjectures of men." But lest this discussion, running on +this point beyond the goal, as the proverb is, should disgust the +reader, we will now return to relate what follows. + + +II. + +§ 1. While Julian, still with the rank of Cæsar only, was at Paris one +day, exercising himself in the camp-field, and moving his shield in +various directions, the joints by which it was fastened gave way, and +the handle alone remained in his hand, which he still held firmly, and +when those present were alarmed, thinking it a bad omen, he said, "Let +no one be alarmed, I still hold firmly what I had before." + +2. And again, when one day after a slight dinner, he was sleeping at +Vienne, in the middle of the darkness of the night a figure of unusual +splendour appeared to him, and when he was all but awake, repeated to +him the following heroic verses, reciting them over and over again; +which he believed, so that he felt sure that no ill fortune remained for +him:-- + + "When Jove has passed the water-carrier's sign, + And Saturn's light, for five-and-twenty days + Has lightened up the maid; the king divine + Of Asia's land shall enter on the ways + That painful lead to death and Styx's gloomy maze." + +3. Therefore in the mean time he made no change in the existing +condition of affairs, but arranged everything that occurred with a quiet +and easy mind, gradually strengthening himself, in order to make the +increase of his power correspond with the increase of his dignity. + +4. And in order, without any hindrance, to conciliate the good-will of +all men, he pretended to adhere to the Christian religion, which in fact +he had long since secretly abandoned, though very few were aware of his +private opinions, giving up his whole attention to soothsaying and +divination, and the other arts which have always been practised by the +worshippers of the gods. + +5. But to conceal this for a while, on the day of the festival at the +beginning of January, which the Christians call Epiphany, he went into +their church, and offered solemn public prayer to their God. + + +III. + +§ 1. While these events were proceeding, and spring was coming on, +Julian was suddenly smitten with grief and sorrow by unexpected +intelligence. For he learnt that the Allemanni had poured forth from +the district of Vadomarius, in which quarter, after the treaty which had +been made with him, no troubles had been anticipated, and were laying +waste the borders of the Tyrol, pouring their predatory hands over the +whole frontier, and leaving nothing unravaged. + +2. He feared that if this were passed over it might rekindle the flames +of war; and so at once sent a count named Libino, with the Celtic and +Petulantes legions, who were in winter quarters with him, to put a +decided and immediate end to this affair. + +3. Libino marched with speed, and arrived at Seckingen; but was seen +while at a distance by the barbarians, who had already hidden themselves +in the valleys with the intention of giving him battle. His soldiers +were inferior in number, but very eager for battle; and he, after +haranguing them, rashly attacked the Germans, and at the very beginning +of the fight was slain among the first. At his death the confidence of +the barbarians increased, while the Romans were excited to avenge their +general; and so the conflict proceeded with great obstinacy, but our men +were overpowered by numbers, though their loss in killed and wounded was +but small. + +4. Constantius, as has been related, had made peace with this +Vadomarius, and his brother Gundomadus, who was also a king. And when +afterwards Gundomadus died, thinking that Vadomarius would be faithful +to him, and a silent and vigorous executor of his secret orders (if one +may believe what is only report), he gave him directions by letter to +harass the countries on his borders, as if he had broken off the treaty +of peace, in order to keep Julian, through his fears of him, from ever +abandoning the protection of Gaul. + +5. In obedience to these directions, it is fair to believe that +Vadomarius committed this and other similar actions; being a man from +his earliest youth marvellously skilled in artifice and deceit, as he +afterwards showed when he enjoyed the dukedom of Phoenice.[115] + +6. But now, being discovered, he desisted from his hostilities. For one +of his secretaries, whom he had sent to Constantius, was taken prisoner +by Julian's outposts, and when he was searched to see if he was the +bearer of anything, a letter was found on him, which contained these +words among others, "Your Cæsar is not submissive." But when he wrote to +Julian he always addressed him as lord, and emperor, and god. + + +IV. + +§ 1. These affairs were full of danger and doubt; and Julian considering +them likely to lead to absolute destruction, bent all his mind to the +one object of seizing Vadomarius unawares, through the rapidity of his +movements, in order to secure his own safety and that of the provinces. +And the plan which he decided on was this. + +2. He sent to those districts Philagrius, one of his secretaries, +afterwards count of the East, in whose proved prudence and fidelity he +could thoroughly rely; and besides a general authority to act as he +could upon emergencies, he gave him also a paper signed by himself, +which he bade him not to open nor read unless Vadomarius appeared on the +western side of the Rhine. + +3. Philagrius went as he was ordered, and while he was in that district +busying himself with various arrangements, Vadomarius crossed the river, +as if he had nothing to fear, in a time of profound peace, and +pretending to know of nothing having been done contrary to treaty, when +he saw the commander of the troops who were stationed there, made him a +short customary speech, and to remove all suspicion, of his own accord +promised to come to a banquet to which Philagrius also had been invited. + +4. As soon as Philagrius arrived, when he saw the king, he recollected +Julian's words, and pretending some serious and urgent business, +returned to his lodging, where having read the paper intrusted to him, +and learnt what he was to do, he immediately returned and took his seat +among the rest. + +5. But when the banquet was over he boldly arrested Vadomarius, and gave +him to the commander of the forces, to be kept in strict custody in the +camp, reading to him the commands he had received; but as nothing was +mentioned about Vadomarius's retinue, he ordered them to return to their +own country. + +6. But the king was afterwards conducted to Julian's camp, and +despaired of pardon when he heard that his secretary had been taken, and +the letters which he had written to Constantius read; he was however not +even reproached by Julian, but merely sent off to Spain, as it was an +object of great importance that, while Julian was absent from Gaul, this +ferocious man should not be able to throw into confusion the provinces +which had been tranquillized with such great difficulty. + +7. Julian, being much elated at this occurrence, since the king, whom he +feared to leave behind him while at a distance, had been caught more +quickly than he expected, without delay prepared to attack the +barbarians who, as we have just related, had slain Count Libino and some +of his soldiers in battle. + +8. And to prevent any rumour of his approach giving them warning to +retire to remoter districts, he passed the Rhine by night with great +silence, with some of the most rapid of his auxiliary bands; and so came +upon them while fearing nothing of the sort. And he at once attacked +them the moment they were first roused by the sound of enemies, and +while still examining their swords and javelins; some he slew, some he +took prisoners, who sued for mercy and offered to surrender their booty; +to the rest who remained and implored peace, and promised to be quiet +for the future, he granted peace. + + +V. + +§ 1. While these transactions were carried on in this spirited manner, +Julian, considering to what great internal divisions his conduct had +given rise, and that nothing is so advantageous for the success of +sudden enterprise as celerity of action, saw with his usual sagacity +that if he openly avowed his revolt from the emperor, he should be +safer; and feeling uncertain of the fidelity of the soldiers, having +offered secret propitiatory sacrifices to Bellona, he summoned the army +by sound of trumpet to an assembly, and standing on a tribune built of +stone, with every appearance of confidence in his manner, he spoke thus +with a voice unusually loud:-- + +2. "I imagine that you, my gallant comrades, exalted by the greatness of +your own achievements, have long been silently expecting this meeting, +in order to form a previous judgment of, and to take wise measures +against the events which may be expected. For soldiers united by +glorious actions ought to hear rather than speak; nor ought a commander +of proved justice to think anything but what is worthy of praise and +approbation. That therefore I may explain to you what I propose, I +entreat you to listen favourably to what I will briefly set before you. + +3. "From my earliest year, by the will of God, I have been placed among +you, with whom I have crushed the incessant inroads of the Franks and +Allemanni, and checked the endless licentiousness of their ravages; by +our united vigour we have opened the Rhine to the Roman armies, whenever +they choose to cross it; standing immovable against reports, as well as +against the violent attacks of powerful nations, because I trusted to +the invincibility of your valour. + +4. "Gaul, which has beheld our labours, and which, after much slaughter +and many periods of protracted and severe disasters, is at last replaced +in a healthy state, will for ever bear witness to posterity of our +achievements. + +5. "But now since, constrained both by the authority of your judgment, +and also by the necessity of the case, I have been raised to the rank of +emperor, under the favour of God and of you, I aim at still greater +things, if fortune should smile on my undertakings. Boasting at least +that I have secured to the army, whose equity and mighty exploits are so +renowned, a moderate and merciful chief in time of peace, and in war a +prudent and wary leader against the combined forces of the barbarians. + +6. "In order therefore that by the cordial unanimity of our opinions we +may prevent ill fortune by anticipating it, I beg you to follow my +counsel, salutary, as I think it, since the state of our affairs +corresponds to the purity of my intentions and wishes. And while the +legions of Illyricum are occupied by no greater force than usual, let us +occupy the further frontier of Dacia; and then take counsel from our +success what is to be done next. + +7. "But as brave generals, I entreat you to promise with an oath that +you will adhere to me with unanimity and fidelity; while I will give my +customary careful attention to prevent anything from being done rashly +or carelessly; and if any one requires it, will pledge my own unsullied +honour that I will never attempt nor think of anything but what is for +the common good. + +8 "This especially I request and beseech you to observe, that none of +you let any impulse of sudden ardour lead you to inflict injury on any +private individual; recollecting that our greatest renown is not derived +so much from the numberless defeats of the enemy as from the safety of +the provinces, and their freedom from injury, which is celebrated as an +eminent example of our virtue." + +9. The emperor's speech was approved as though it had been the voice of +an oracle, and the whole assembly was greatly excited, and being eager +for a change, they all with one consent raised a tremendous shout, and +beat their shields with a violent crash, calling him a great and noble +general, and, as had been proved, a fortunate conqueror and king. + +10. And being all ordered solemnly to swear fidelity to him, they put +their swords to their throats with terrible curses, and took the oath in +the prescribed form, that for him they would undergo every kind of +suffering, and even death itself, if necessity should require it; and +their officers and all the friends of the prince gave a similar pledge +with the same forms. + +11. Nebridius the prefect alone, boldly and unshakenly refused, +declaring that he could not possibly bind himself by an oath hostile to +Constantius, from whom he had received many and great obligations. + +12. When these words of his were heard, the soldiers who were nearest to +him were greatly enraged, and wished to kill him; but he threw himself +at the feet of Julian, who shielded him with his cloak. Presently, when +he returned to the palace, Nebridius appeared before him, threw himself +at his feet as a suppliant, and entreated him to relieve his fears by +giving him his right hand. Julian replied, "Will there be any +conspicuous favour reserved for my own friends if you are allowed to +touch my hand? However, depart in peace as you will." On receiving this +answer, Nebridius retired in safety to his own house in Tuscany. + +13. By these preliminary measures, Julian having learnt, as the +importance of the affair required, what great influence promptness and +being beforehand has in a tumultuous state of affairs, gave the signal +to march towards Pannonia, and advancing his standard and his camp, +boldly committed himself to fickle fortune. + + +VI. + +A.D. 361. + +§ 1. It is fitting now to retrace our steps and to relate briefly what +(while these events just related were taking place in Gaul) Constantius, +who passed the winter at Antioch, did, whether in peace or war. + +2. Besides many others of high rank, some of the most distinguished +tribunes generally come to salute an emperor on his arrival from distant +lands. And accordingly, when Constantius, on his return from +Mesopotamia, received this compliment, a Paphlagonian named +Amphilochius, who had been a tribune, and whom suspicion, not very far +removed from the truth, hinted at as having, while serving formerly +under Constans, sown the seeds of discord between him and his brother, +now ventured, with no little audacity, to come forward as if he were to +be admitted to pay his duty in this way, but was recognized and refused +admittance. Many also raised an outcry against him, crying out that he, +as a stubborn rebel, ought not to be permitted to see another day. But +Constantius, on this occasion more merciful than usual, said, "Cease to +press upon a man who, indeed, as I believe, is guilty, but who has not +been convicted. And remember that if he has done anything of the kind, +he, as long as he is in my sight, will be punished by the judgment of +his own conscience, which he will not be able to escape." And so he +departed. + +3. The next day, at the Circensian games, the same man was present as a +spectator, just opposite the usual seat of the emperor, when a sudden +shout was raised at the moment of the commencement of the expected +contest; the barriers, on which he with many others was leaning, were +broken, and the whole crowd as well as he were thrown forward into the +empty space; and though a few were slightly hurt, he alone was found to +be killed, having received some internal injury. At which Constantius +rejoiced, prognosticating from this omen protection from his other +enemies. + +4. About the same time (his wife Eusebia having died some time before) +he took another wife, named Faustina. Eusebia's brothers were two men of +consular rank, Hypatius and Eusebius. She had been a woman of +pre-eminent beauty both of person and character, and for one of her high +rank most courteous and humane. And to her favour and justice it was +owing, as we have already mentioned, that Julian was saved from danger +and declared Cæsar. + +5. About the same time Florentius also was rewarded, who had quitted +Gaul from fear of a revolution. He was now appointed to succeed +Anatolius, the prefect of the prætorium in Illyricum, who had lately +died. And in conjunction with Taurus, who was appointed to the same +office in Italy, he received the ensigns of this most honourable +dignity. + +6. Nevertheless, the preparations for both foreign and civil wars went +on, the number of the squadrons of cavalry was augmented, and +reinforcements for the legions were enlisted with equal zeal, recruits +being collected all over the provinces. Also every class and profession +was exposed to annoyances, being called upon to furnish arms, clothes, +military engines, and even gold and silver and abundant stores of +provisions, and various kinds of animals. + +7. And because, as the king of Persia had been compelled unwillingly to +fall back on account of the difficulties of the winter, it was feared +that as soon as the weather became open he would return with greater +impetuosity than ever, ambassadors were sent to the kings and satraps +across the Tigris, with splendid presents, to advise and entreat them +all to join us, and abstain from all designs or plots against us. + +8. But the most important object of all was to win over Arsaces and +Meribanes, the kings of Armenia and Hiberia, who were conciliated by the +gift of magnificent and honourable robes and by presents of all kinds, +and who could have done great harm to the Roman interests if at such a +crisis they had gone over to the Persians. + +9. At this important time, Hermogenes died, and was succeeded in his +prefecture by Helpidius, a native of Paphlagonia, a man of mean +appearance and no eloquence, but of a frank and truthful disposition, +humane and merciful. So much so that once when Constantius ordered an +innocent man to be put to the torture before him, he calmly requested to +be deprived of his office, and that such commissions might be given to +others who would discharge them in a manner more in accordance with the +emperor's sentence. + + +VII. + +§ 1. Constantius was perplexed at the danger of the crisis before him, +and doubted what to do, being for some time in deep anxiety whether to +march against Julian, who was still at a distance, or to drive back the +Persians, who were already threatening to cross the Euphrates. And while +he was hesitating, and often taking counsel with his generals, he at +last decided that he would first finish, or at all events take the edge +off, the war which was nearest, so as to leave nothing formidable behind +him, and then penetrate through Illyricum and Italy, thinking to catch +Julian at the very outset of his enterprise, as he might catch a deer +with hounds. For so he used to boast, to appease the fears of those +about him. + +2. But that his purpose might not appear to cool, and that he might not +seem to have neglected any side of the war, he spread formidable rumours +of his approach in every direction. And fearing that Africa, which on +all occasions seemed to invite usurpers, might be invaded during his +absence, as if he had already quitted the eastern frontier, he sent by +sea to that country his secretary Gaudentius, whom we have already +mentioned as a spy upon the actions of Julian in Gaul. + +3. He had two reasons for thinking that this man would be able with +prompt obedience to do all that he desired, both because he feared the +other side, which he had offended, and also because he was anxious to +take this opportunity to gain the favour of Constantius, whom he +expected beyond a doubt to see victorious. Indeed no one at that time +had any other opinion. + +4. When Gaudentius arrived in Africa, recollecting the emperor's orders, +he sent letters to Count Cretio, and to the other officers, to instruct +them what his object was; and having collected a formidable force from +all quarters, and having brought over a light division of skirmishers +from the two Mauritanias, he watched the coasts opposite to Italy and +Gaul with great strictness. + +5. Nor was Constantius deceived in the wisdom of this measure. For as +long as Gaudentius lived none of the adverse party ever reached that +country, although a vast multitude in arms was watching the Sicilian +coast between Cape Boeo and Cape Passaro, and ready to cross in a moment +if they could find an opportunity. + +6. Having made these arrangements as well as the case admitted, in such +a way as he thought most for his advantage and having settled other +things also of smaller importance, Constantius was warned by messengers +and letters from his generals that the Persian army, in one solid body, +and led by its haughty king, was now marching close to the banks of the +Tigris, though it was as yet uncertain at what point they meant to cross +the frontier. + +7. And he, feeling the importance of this intelligence, in order, by +being near them, to anticipate their intended enterprises, quitted his +winter quarters in haste, having called in the infantry and cavalry on +which he could rely from all quarters, crossed the Euphrates by a bridge +of boats at Capessana, and marched towards Edessa, which was well +provisioned and strongly fortified, intending to wait there a short time +till he could receive from spies or deserters certain information of the +enemy's motions. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. In the mean time, Julian leaving the district of Basle, and having +taken all the steps which we have already mentioned, sent Sallustius, +whom he had promoted to be a prefect, into Gaul, and appointed +Germanianus to succeed Nebridius. At the same time he gave Nevitta the +command of the heavy cavalry, being afraid of the old traitor +Gumoharius, who, when he was commander of the Scutarii, he heard had +secretly betrayed his chief officer, Vetranio. The quæstorship he gave +to Jovius, of whom we have spoken when relating the acts of Magnentius, +and the treasury he allotted to Mamertinus. Dagalaiphus also was made +captain of the household guard, and many others, with whose merits and +fidelity he was acquainted, received different commands at his +discretion. + +2. Being now about to march through the Black Forest, and the country +lying on the banks of the Danube, he on a sudden conceived great doubt +and fear whether the smallness of his force might not breed contempt, +and encourage the numerous population of the district to resist his +advance. + +3. To prevent this, he took prudent precautions, and distributing his +army into divisions, he sent some under Jovenius and Jovius to advance +with all speed by the well-trodden roads of Italy; others under the +command of Nevitta, the commander of the cavalry, were to take the +inland road of the Tyrol. So that his army, by being scattered over +various countries, might cause a belief that its numbers were immense, +and might fill all nations with fear. Alexander the Great, and many +other skilful generals, had done the same thing when their affairs +required it. + +4. But he charged them, when they set forth, to march with all speed, as +if likely to meet at any moment with an enemy, and carefully to post +watches and sentries and outposts at night, so as to be free from the +danger of any sudden attack. + + +IX. + +§ 1. These things having been arranged according to the best of his +judgment, Julian adhering to the maxim by which he had often forced his +way through the countries of the barbarians, and trusting in his +continued successes, proceeded in his advance. + +2. And when he had reached the spot at which he had been informed that +the river was navigable, he embarked on board some boats which good +fortune had brought thither in numbers, and passed as secretly as he +could down the stream, escaping notice the more because his habits of +endurance and fortitude had made him indifferent to delicate food; so +that, being contented with meagre and poor fare, he did not care to +approach their towns or camps, forming his conduct in this respect +according to the celebrated saying of the ancient Cyrus, who, when he +was introduced to a host who asked him what he wished to have got ready +for supper, answered, "Nothing beyond bread, for that he hoped he should +sup by the side of a river." + +3. But Fame, which, as they say, having a thousand tongues, always +exaggerates the truth, at this time spread abroad a report among all the +tribes of Illyricum that Julian, having overthrown a number of kings and +nations in Gaul, was coming on flushed with success and with a numerous +army. + +4. Jovinus, the prefect of the prætorium, being alarmed at this rumour, +fled in haste, as if from a foreign enemy; and going by the public +conveyances with frequent relays, he crossed the Julian Alps, taking +with him also Florentius the prefect. + +5. But Count Lucillianus, who at that time had the command of the army +in these districts, being at Sirmium, and having received some slight +intelligence of Julian's movements, collected the soldiers whom the +emergency gave time for being quickly called from their several +stations, and proposed to resist his advance. + +6. Julian, however, like a firebrand or torch once kindled, hastened +quickly to his object; and when, at the waning of the moon, he had +reached Bonmunster, which is about nineteen miles from Sirmium,[116] and +when, therefore, the main part of the night was dark, he unexpectedly +quitted his boats, and at once sent forward Dagalaiphus with his light +troops to summon Lucillianus to his presence, and to drag him before him +if he resisted. + +7. He was asleep, and when he was awakened by the violence of this +uproar, and saw himself surrounded by a crowd of strangers, perceiving +the state of the case, and being filled with awe at the name of the +emperor, he obeyed his orders, though sadly against his will. And though +commander of the cavalry, a little while before proud and fierce, he now +obeyed the will of another, and mounting a horse which was brought him +on a sudden, he was led before Julian, as an ignoble prisoner, and from +fear was hardly able to collect his senses. + +8. But as soon as he saw the emperor, and was relieved by receiving +permission to offer his salutations to his purple robe, he recovered his +courage, and feeling safe said, "You have been incautious and rash, O +emperor, to trust yourself with but a few troops in the country of +another." But Julian, with a sarcastic smile, replied, "Keep these +prudent speeches for Constantius. I offered you the ensign of my royal +rank to ease you of your fears, and not to take you for my counsellor." + + +X. + +§ 1. So after he had got rid of Lucillianus, thinking no further delay +or hesitation admissible, being bold and confident in all emergencies, +and on the way, as he presumed, to a city inclined to surrender, he +marched on with great speed. When he came near the suburbs, which are +very large and much extended, a vast crowd of soldiers and of every +class of the population came forth to meet him with lights and flowers +and auspicious prayers, and after saluting him as emperor and lord, +conducted him to the palace. + +2. He, pleased at these favourable omens, and conceiving therefrom a +sanguine hope of future success, concluded that the example of so +populous and illustrious a metropolis would be followed as a +guiding-star by other cities also, and therefore on the very next day +exhibited a chariot race, to the great joy of the people. On the third +day, unable to brook any delay, he proceeded by the public roads, and +without any resistance seized upon Succi, and appointed Nevitta governor +of the place, as one whom he could trust. It is fitting that I should +now explain the situation of this place Succi. + +3. The summits of the mountain chains of Hæmus[117] and Rhodope, the +first of which rises up from the very banks of the Danube, and the other +from the southern bank of the river Axius, ending with swelling ridges +at one narrow point, separate the Illyrians and the Thracians, being on +the one side near the inland Dacians and Serdica, on the other looking +towards Thrace and the rich and noble city of Philippopolis. And, as if +Nature had provided for bringing the surrounding nations under the +dominion of the Romans, they are of such a form as to lead to this end. +Affording at first only a single exit through narrow defiles, but at a +later period they were opened out with roads of such size and beauty as +to be passable even for waggons. Though still, when the passes have been +blocked up, they have often repelled the attacks of great generals and +mighty armies. + +4. The part which looks to Illyricum is of a more gentle ascent, so as +to be climbed almost imperceptibly; but the side opposite to Thrace is +very steep and precipitous, in some places absolutely impassable, and in +others hard to climb even where no one seeks to prevent it. Beneath this +lofty chain a spacious level plain extends in every direction, the upper +portion of it reaching even to the Julian Alps, while the lower portion +of it is so open and level as to present no obstacles all the way to the +straits and sea of Marmora. + +5. Having arranged these matters as well as the occasion permitted, and +having left there the commander of the cavalry, the emperor returned to +Nissa, a considerable town, in order, without any hindrance, to settle +everything in the way most suited to his interests. + +6. While there he appointed Victor, an historical writer, whom he had +seen at Sirmium, and whom he ordered to follow him from that city, to be +consular governor of the second Pannonia; and he erected in his honour a +brazen statue, as a man to be imitated for his temperance; and some time +after he was appointed prefect of Rome. + +7. And now, giving the rein to loftier ideas, and believing it to be +impossible to bring Constantius to terms, he wrote a speech full of +bitter invectives to the senate, setting forth many charges of disgrace +and vice against him. And when this harangue, Tertullus still being +prefect of the city, was read in the senate, the gratitude of the +nobles, as well as their splendid boldness, was very conspicuous; for +they all cried out with one unanimous feeling, "We expect that you +should show reverence to the author of your own greatness." + +8. Then he assailed the memory of Constantine also as an innovator and a +disturber of established laws and of customs received from ancient +times, accusing him of having been the first to promote barbarians to +the fasces and robe of the consul. But in this respect he spoke with +folly and levity, since, in the face of what he so bitterly reproved, he +a very short time afterwards added to Mamertinus, as his colleague in +the consulship, Nevitta, a man neither in rank, experience, or +reputation at all equal to those on whom Constantine had conferred that +illustrious magistracy, but who, on the contrary, was destitute of +accomplishments and somewhat rude; and what was less easy to be endured, +made a cruel use of his high power. + + +XI. + +§ 1. While Julian was occupied with these and similar thoughts, and was +anxious about great and important affairs, a messenger came with +terrible and unexpected news of the monstrous attempts of some persons +which were likely to hinder his fiery progress, unless by prompt +vigilance he could crush them, before they came to a head. I will +briefly relate what they were. + +2. Under pretence of urgent necessity, but in reality because he still +suspected their fidelity to him, he had sent into Gaul two legions +belonging to the army of Constantius, with a troop of archers which he +had found at Sirmium. They, moving slowly, and dreading the length of +the journey and the fierce and continual attacks of the hostile Germans, +planned a mutiny, being prompted and encouraged by Nigrinus, a tribune +of a squadron of cavalry, a native of Mesopotamia. And having arranged +the matter in secret conferences, and kept it close in profound silence, +when they arrived at Aquileia, a city important from its situation and +wealth, and fortified with strong walls, they suddenly closed the gates +in a hostile manner, the native population, by whom the name of +Constantius was still beloved, increasing the confusion and the terror. +And having blockaded all the approaches, and armed the towers and +battlements, they prepared measures to encounter the impending struggle, +being in the mean time free and unrestrained. By this daring conduct +they roused the Italian natives of the district to espouse the side of +Constantius, who was still alive. + + +XII. + +§ 1. When Julian heard of this transaction, being then at Nissa, as he +feared nothing unfriendly in his rear, and had read and heard that this +city, though often besieged, had never been destroyed or taken, +hastened the more eagerly to gain it, either by stratagem, or by some +kind of flattery or other, before any more formidable event should +arise. + +2. Therefore he ordered Jovinus, the captain of his cavalry, who was +marching over the Alps, and had entered Noricum, to return with all +speed, to remedy by some means or other, the evil which had burst out. +And, that nothing might be wanting, he bade him retain all the soldiers +who were marching after his court or his standards and passing through +that town, and to avail himself of their help to the utmost. + +3. When he had made these arrangements, having soon afterwards heard of +the death of Constantius, he crossed through Thrace, and entered +Constantinople: and having been often assured that the siege would be +protracted rather than formidable, he sent Immo with some other counts +to conduct it; and removed Jovinus to employ him in other matters of +greater importance. + +4. Therefore, having surrounded Aquileia with a double line of heavy +infantry, the generals all agreed upon trying to induce the garrison to +surrender, using alternately threats and caresses; but after many +proposals and replies had been interchanged, their obstinacy only +increased, and the conferences were abandoned, having proved wholly +ineffectual. + +5. And because there was now no prospect but that of a battle, both +sides refreshed themselves with sleep and food; and at daybreak the +trumpets sounded, and the two armies, arrayed for reciprocal slaughter, +attacked one another with loud shouts, but with more ferocity than +skill. + +6. Therefore the besiegers, bearing wooden penthouses over them, and +closely woven wicker defences, marched on slowly and cautiously, and +attempted to undermine the walls with iron tools: many also bore ladders +which had been made of the height of the walls, and came up close to +them: when some were dashed down by stones hurled on their heads, others +were transfixed by whizzing javelins, and falling back, dragged with +them those who were in their rear; and others, from fear of similar +mischances, shrank from the attack. + +7. The besieged being encouraged by the issue of this first conflict, +and hoping for still better success, disregarded the rest of the attacks +made on them; and with resolute minds they stationed engines in suitable +positions, and with unwearied toil discharged the duties of watching and +of whatever else could tend to their safety. + +8. On the other hand, the besiegers, though fearing another combat, and +full of anxiety, still out of shame would not appear lazy or cowardly, +and as they could make no way by open attacks, they also applied +themselves to the various manoeuvres employed in sieges. And because +there was no ground favourable for working battering-rams or other +engines, nor for making mines, since the river Natiso passed under the +walls of the city, they contrived a plan worthy to be compared with any +effort of ancient skill. + +9. With great rapidity they built some wooden towers, higher than the +battlements of the enemy, and then fastening their boats together, they +placed these towers on them. In them they stationed soldiers, who, with +undaunted resolution, laboured to drive down the garrison from the +walls; while under them were bodies of light infantry wholly +unencumbered, who going forth from the hollow parts of the towers below, +threw drawbridges across, which they had put together beforehand, and so +tried to cross over to the bottom of the wall while the attention of the +garrison was diverted from them; so that while those above them were +attacking one another with darts and stones, those who crossed over on +the drawbridges might be able without interruption to break down a +portion of the wall and so effect an entrance. + +10. But once more a clever design failed in its result. For when the +towers came close to the walls, they were assailed with brands steeped +in pitch, and reeds, and faggots, and every kind of food for flames, all +kindled. The towers quickly caught fire, and yielding under the weight +of the men who were mounted on them, fell into the river, while some of +the soldiers on their summits, even before they fell, had been pierced +with javelins hurled from the engines on the walls, and so died. + +11. Meanwhile the soldiers at the foot of the wall, being cut off by the +destruction of their comrades in the boats, were crushed with huge +stones, with the exception of a few, who, in spite of the difficult +ground over which their flight lay, escaped by their swiftness of foot. +At last, when the contest had been protracted till evening, the usual +signal for retreat was given, and the combatants parted to pass the +night with very different feelings. + +12. The losses of the besiegers, who had suffered greatly, encouraged +the defenders of the town with hopes of victory, though they also had to +mourn the deaths of some few of their number. Nevertheless, the +preparations went on rapidly. Rest and food refreshed their bodies +during the night; and at dawn of day the conflict was renewed at the +trumpet's signal. + +13. Some, holding their shields over their heads, in order to fight with +more activity; others, in front, bore ladders on their shoulders, and +rushed on with eager vehemence, exposing their breasts to wounds from +every kind of weapon. Some endeavoured to break down the iron bars of +the gates; but were attacked with fire, or crushed under stones hurled +from the walls. Some boldly strove to cross the fosses, but fell beneath +the sudden sallies of soldiers rushing out from postern gates, or were +driven back with severe wounds. For those who sallied forth had an easy +retreat within the walls, and the rampart in front of the walls, +strengthened with turf, saved those who lay in wait behind it from all +danger. + +14. Although the garrison excelled in endurance and in the arts of war, +without any other aid than that of their walls, still our soldiers, +being attacked as they were from a more numerous force, became impatient +of the long delay, and moved round and round the suburbs, seeking +diligently to discover by what force or what engines they could make +their way out of the city. + +15. But as, through the greatness of the difficulties in their way, they +could not accomplish this, they began to slacken their exertions as to +the siege itself, and leaving a few watches and outposts, ravaged the +adjacent country, and thus obtained all kinds of supplies, dividing +their booty with their comrades. The consequence was, that excessive +eating and drinking proved injurious to their health. + +16. When, however, Immo and his colleagues reported this to Julian, who +was passing the winter at Constantinople, he applied a wise remedy to +such a disorder, and sent thither Agilo, the commander of his infantry, +an officer in great esteem, that when a man of his rank and reputation +appeared there and took the intelligence of the death of Constantius to +the army, the siege might be terminated in that way. + +17. In the mean while, not to abandon the siege of Aquileia, as all +other attempts had proved futile, the generals endeavoured to compel the +citizens to surrender by want of water. So they cut the aqueducts; but +as the garrison still resisted with undiminished courage, they, with +vast valour, diverted the stream of the river. But this again was done +in vain; for they reduced the allowance of water to each man; and +contented themselves with the scanty supply they could procure from +wells. + +18. While these affairs were proceeding thus, Agilo arrived, as he had +been commanded; and, being protected by a strong body of heavy infantry, +came up boldly close to the walls; and in a long and veracious speech, +told the citizens of the death of Constantius, and the confirmation of +Julian's power; but was reviled and treated as a liar. Nor would any one +believe his statement of what had occurred, till on promise of safety he +was admitted by himself to the edge of the defences; where, with a +solemn oath, he repeated what he had before related. + +19. When his story was heard, they all, eager to be released from their +protracted sufferings, threw open the gates and rushed out, admitting +him in the joy as a captain who brought them peace; and excusing +themselves, they gave up Nigrinus as the author of their mad resistance, +and a few others; demanding that their punishment should be taken as an +atonement for the treason and sufferings of the city. + +20. Accordingly, a few days later, the affair was rigorously +investigated; Mamertinus, the prefect of the prætorium, sitting as +judge; and Nigrinus, as the cause of the war, was burnt alive. After +him, Romulus and Sabostius, men who had held high office, being +convicted of having sown discord in the empire without any regard to the +consequences, were beheaded; and all the rest escaped unpunished, as +men who had been driven to hostilities by necessity, and not by their +own inclination; this being the decision of the merciful and clement +emperor, after a full consideration of justice. These things, however, +happened some time afterwards. + +21. But Julian, who was still at Nissa, was occupied in the graver +cases, being full of fears on both sides. For he was apprehensive lest +the defiles of the Julian Alps might be seized and barred against him by +some sudden onset of the troops who had been shut up in Aquileia; by +which he might lose the provinces beyond, and the supplies which he was +daily expecting from that quarter. + +22. And he also greatly feared the power of the East; hearing that the +soldiers who were scattered over Thrace had been suddenly collected +together to act against him, and were advancing towards the frontiers of +the Succi, under command of Count Marcianus. But, devising measures +suitable to this mass of pressing anxieties, he quickly assembled his +Illyrian army, long inured to war, and eager to renew its martial +labours under a warlike chief. + +23. Nor even at this critical moment did he forget the interests of +individuals; but devoted some time to hearing contested causes, +especially those concerning municipal bodies, in whose favour he was too +partial, so that he raised several persons who did not deserve such +honour to public offices. + +24. It was here that he found Symmachus and Maximus, two eminent +senators, who had been sent by the nobles as envoys to Constantius, and +had returned again. He promoted them with great honour; so that, +preferring them to others more deserving, he made Maximus prefect of the +eternal city, in order to gratify Rufinus Vulcatius, whose nephew he +was. Under his administration the city enjoyed great plenty, and there +was an end to the complaints of the common people, which had been so +frequent. + +25. Afterwards, in order to add security to those of his affairs which +were still unsettled, and encourage the confidence of the loyal, he +raised Mamertinus, the prefect of the prætorium in Illyricum, and +Nevitta to the consulship; though he had so lately assailed the memory +of Constantine as the person who had set the example of thus promoting +low-born barbarians. + + +XIII. + +§ 1. While Julian was thus carrying out new projects, and alternating +between hope and fear, Constantius at Edessa, being made anxious by the +various accounts brought him by his spies, was full of perplexity. At +one time collecting his army for battle; at another, wishing to lay +siege to Bezabde on two sides, if he could find an opportunity; taking +at the same time prudent precautions not to leave Mesopotamia +unprotected, while about to march into the districts of Armenia. + +2. But while still undecided, he was detained by various causes. Sapor +also remained on the other side of the Tigris till the sacrifices should +become propitious to his moving. For if after crossing the river he +found no resistance, he might without difficulty penetrate to the +Euphrates. On the other hand, if he wished to keep his soldiers for the +civil war, he feared to expose them to the dangers of a siege; having +already experienced the strength of the walls and the vigour of the +garrison. + +3. However, not to lose time, and to avoid inactivity, he sent Arbetio +and Agilo, the captains of his infantry and cavalry, with very large +forces, to march with all speed; not to provoke the Persians to battle, +but to establish forts on the nearest bank of the Tigris, which might be +able to reconnoitre, and see in what direction the furious monarch broke +forth; and with many counsels given both verbally and in writing, he +charged them to retreat with celerity the moment the enemy's army began +to cross the river. + +4. While these generals were watching the frontier as they were ordered, +and spying out the secret designs of their most crafty enemy, he +himself, with the main body of his army, made head against his most +pressing foes, as if prepared for battle; and defended the adjacent +towns by rapid movements. Meantime spies and deserters continually +coming in, related to him opposite stories; being in fact ignorant of +what was intended, because among the Persians no one knows what is +decided on except a few taciturn and trusty nobles, by whom the god +Silence is worshipped. + +5. But the emperor was continually sent for by the generals whom I have +mentioned, who implored him to send them aid. For they protested that +unless the whole strength of the army was collected together, it would +be impossible to withstand the onset of the furious Sapor. + +6. And while things in this quarter were thus full of anxiety, other +messengers arrived in numbers, by whose accurate statements he learnt +that Julian had traversed Italy and Illyricum with great rapidity, had +occupied the defiles of the Succi, and called in auxiliaries from all +quarters, and was now marching through Thrace with a very large force. + +7. Constantius, learning this, was overwhelmed with grief, but supported +by one comfort, that he had always triumphed over internal commotions. +Nevertheless, though the affair made it very difficult for him to decide +on a line of action, he chose the best; and sent a body of troops on by +public conveyances, in order as quickly as possible to make head against +the impending danger. + +8. And as that plan was universally approved, the troops went as they +were commanded, in the lightest marching order. But the next day, while +he was finally arranging these matters, he received intelligence that +Sapor, with his whole army, had returned to his own country, because the +auspices were unfavourable. So, his fears being removed, he called in +all the troops except those who as usual were assigned for the +protection of Mesopotamia, and returned to Hierapolis. + +9. And still doubting what would be the final result of all his +difficulties, when he had collected his army together he convened all +the centuries and companies and squadrons by sound of trumpet; and the +whole plain being filled with the host, he, standing on a lofty tribune, +in order to encourage them the more readily to execute what he should +direct, and being surrounded by a numerous retinue, spoke thus with +great appearance of calmness and a studied look of confidence. + +10. "Being always anxious never to do or say anything inconsistent with +incorruptible honour, like a cautious pilot, who turns his helm this way +or that way according to the movement of the waves, I am now +constrained, my most affectionate subjects, to confess my errors to you, +or rather, if I were to say the plain truth, my humanity, which I did +think would be beneficial to our common interests. So now that you may +the better understand what is the object of convoking this assembly, +listen, I pray you, with impartiality and kindness. + +11. "At the time when Magnentius, whom your bravery overcome, was +obstinately labouring to throw all things into confusion, I sent Gallus +my cousin, who had been lately raised to the rank of Cæsar, to guard the +East. But he, having by many wicked and shameful arts departed from +justice, was punished by a legal sentence. + +12. "Would that Envy had then been contented, that most bitter exciter +of troubles! And that we had nothing to grieve us but the single +recollection of past sorrows, unaccompanied by any idea of present +danger! But now a new circumstance, more grievous than any former one I +will venture to say, has taken place, which the gods who aid us will put +an end to by means of your innate valour. + +13. "Julian, whom, while you were combating the nations which threaten +Illyricum on all sides, I appointed to protect Gaul, presuming on the +issue of some trifling battles which he has fought against the +half-armed Germans, and full of silly elation, has taken a few auxiliary +battalions into his noble alliance, men from their natural ferocity and +the desperateness of their situation ready for acts of the most +mischievous audacity, and has conspired against the public safety, +trampling down justice, the parent and nurse of the Roman world. That +power I believe, both because I myself have experienced it, and because +all antiquity assures me of its might, will, as an avenger of +wickedness, soon trample down their pride like so many ashes. + +14. "What then remains, except to hasten to encounter the whirlwind thus +raised against us? so as by promptitude to crush the fury of this rising +war before it comes to maturity and strength? Nor can it be questioned +that, with the favour of the supreme deity, by whose everlasting +sentence ungrateful men are condemned, the sword which they have +wickedly drawn will be turned to their own destruction. Since never +having received any provocation, but rather after having been loaded +with benefits, they have risen up to threaten innocent men with danger. + +15. "For as my mind augurs, and as justice, which will aid upright +counsels, promises, I feel sure that when once we come to close +quarters, they will be so benumbed with fear as neither to be able to +stand the fire of your glancing eyes nor the sound of your battle cry." +This speech harmonized well with the feelings of the soldiers. In their +rage they brandished their shields, and after answering him in terms of +eager good-will, demanded to be led at once against the rebels. Their +cordiality changed the emperor's fear into joy; and having dismissed the +assembly, as he knew by past experience that Arbetio was most eminently +successful in putting an end to intestine wars, he ordered him to +advance first by the road which he himself designed to take, with the +spearmen and the legion of Mattium,[118] and several battalions of light +troops; he also ordered Gomoarius to take with him the Leti, to check +the enemy on their arrival among the defiles of the Succi; he was +selected for this service because he was unfriendly to Julian on account +of some slight he had received from him in Gaul. + + +XIV. + +§ 1. While the fortune of Constantius was now wavering and tottering in +this tumult of adverse circumstances, it showed plainly by signs which +almost spoke that a very critical moment of his life was at hand. For he +was terrified by nocturnal visions, and before he was thoroughly asleep +he had seen the shade of his father bringing him a beautiful child; and +when he received it and placed it in his bosom, it struck a globe which +he had in his right hand to a distance. Now this indicated a change of +circumstances, although those who interpreted it gave favourable answers +when consulted. + +2. After this he confessed to his most intimate friends that, as if he +were wholly forsaken, he had ceased to see a secret vision which +sometimes he had fancied appeared to him in mournful guise; and he +believed that the genius who had been appointed to watch over his safety +had abandoned him, as one who was soon to leave the world. + +3. For the opinion of theologians is, that all men when they are born +(without prejudice to the power of destiny) are connected with a +superior power of this kind, who, as it were, guides their actions; but +who is seen by very few, and only by those who are endued with great and +various virtues. + +4. This may be collected both from oracles and from eminent writers. +Among whom is the comic poet Menander, in whose works these two verses +are found:-- + + "A spirit is assigned to every man + When born to guide him in the path of life." + +5. It may also be gathered from the immortal poetry of Homer, that they +were not really the gods of heaven who conversed with his heroes, or +stood by them and aided them in their combats; but the familiar genii +who belonged to them; to whom also, as their principal support, +Pythagoras owes his eminence, and Socrates and Numa Pompilius and the +elder Scipio. And, as some fancy, Marius, and Octavianus the first, who +took the name of Augustus. And Hermes Trismegistus, and Apollonius of +Tyana, and Plotinus, who ventured upon some very mystical discussions of +this point; and endeavoured to show by profound reasoning what is the +original cause why these genii, being thus connected with the souls of +mortals, protect them as if they had been nursed in their own bosoms, as +far as they are permitted; and, if they find them pure, preserving the +body untainted by any connection with vice, and free from all taint of +sin, instruct them in loftier mysteries. + + +XV. + +§ 1. Constantius therefore, having hastened to Antioch, according to his +wont, at the first movement of a civil war which he was eager to +encounter, as soon as he had made all his preparations, was in amazing +haste to march, though many of his court were so unwilling as even to +proceed to murmurs. For no one dare openly to remonstrate or object to +his plan. + +2. He set forth towards the end of autumn; and when he reached the +suburb called Hippocephalus, which is about three miles from the town, +as soon as it was daylight he saw on his right the corpse of a man who +had been murdered, lying with his head torn off from the body, stretched +out towards the west--and though alarmed at the omen, which seemed as if +the Fates were preparing his end, he went on more resolutely, and came +to Tarsus, where he caught a slight fever; and thinking that the motion +of his journey would remove the distemper, he went on by bad roads; +directing his course by Mopsucrenæ, the farthest station in Cilicia for +those who travel from hence, at the foot of Mount Taurus. + +3. But when he attempted to proceed the next day he was prevented by the +increasing violence of his disorder, and the fever began gradually to +inflame his veins, so that his body felt like a little fire, and could +scarcely be touched; and as all remedies failed, he began in the last +extremity to bewail his death; and while his mental faculties were still +entire, he is said to have indicated Julian as the successor to his +power. Presently the last struggle of death came on, and he lost the +power of speech. And after long and painful agony he died on the fifth +of October, having lived and reigned forty years and a few months. + +4. After bewailing his death with groans, lamentations, and mourning, +those of the highest rank in the royal palace deliberated what to do or +to attempt; and having secretly consulted a few persons about the +election of an emperor, at the instigation, as it is said, of Eusebius, +who was stimulated by his consciousness of guilt (since Julian was +approaching who was prepared to oppose his attempts at innovation), they +sent Theolaiphus and Aligildus, who at that time were counts, to him, to +announce the death of his kinsman; and to entreat him to lay aside all +delay and hasten to take possession of the East, which was prepared to +obey him. + +5. But fame and an uncertain report whispered that Constantius had left +a will, in which, as we have already mentioned, he had named Julian as +his heir; and had given commissions and legacies to his friends. But he +left his wife in the family way, who subsequently had a daughter, who +received the same name, and was afterwards married to Gratianus. + + +XVI. + +§ 1. In accurately distinguishing the virtues and vices of Constantius, +it will be well to take the virtues first. Always preserving the dignity +of the imperial authority, he proudly and magnanimously disdained +popularity. In conferring the higher dignities he was very sparing, and +allowed very few changes to be made in the administration of the +finances. Nor did he ever encourage the arrogance of the soldiers. + +2. Nor under him was any general promoted to the title of most +illustrious.[119] For there was also, as we have already mentioned, the +title of most perfect.[120] Nor had the governor of a province occasion +to court a commander of cavalry; as Constantius never allowed those +officers to meddle with civil affairs. But all officers, both military +and civil, were according to the respectful usages of old, inferior to +that of the prefect of the prætorium, which was the most honourable of +all. + +3. In taking care of the soldiers he was very cautious: an examiner into +their merits, sometimes over-scrupulous, giving dignities about the +palace as if with scales. Under him no one who was not well known to +him, or who was favoured merely by some sudden impulse, ever received +any high appointment in the palace. But only such as had served ten +years in some capacity or other could look for such appointments as +master of the ceremonies or treasurer. The successful candidates could +always be known beforehand; and it very seldom happened that any +military officer was transferred to a civil office; while on the other +hand none but veteran soldiers were appointed to command troops. + +4. He was a diligent cultivator of learning, but, as his blunted talent +was not suited to rhetoric, he devoted himself to versification; in +which, however, he did nothing worth speaking of. + +5. In his way of life he was economical and temperate, and by moderation +in eating and drinking he preserved such robust health that he was +rarely ill, though when ill dangerously so. For repeated experience and +proof has shown that this is the case with persons who avoid +licentiousness and luxury. + +6. He was contented with very little sleep, which he took when time and +season allowed; and throughout his long life he was so extremely chaste +that no suspicion was ever cast on him in this respect, though it is a +charge which, even when it can find no ground, malignity is apt to +fasten on princes. + +7. In riding and throwing the javelin, in shooting with the bow, and in +all the accomplishments of military exercises, he was admirably skilful. +That he never blew his nose in public, never spat, never was seen to +change countenance, and that he never in all his life ate any fruit I +pass over, as what has been often related before. + +8. Having now briefly enumerated his good qualities with which we have +been able to become acquainted, let us now proceed to speak of his +vices. In other respects he was equal to average princes, but if he had +the slightest reason (even if founded on wholly false information) for +suspecting any one of aiming at supreme power, he would at once +institute the most rigorous inquiry, trampling down right and wrong +alike, and outdo the cruelty of Caligula, Domitian, or Commodus, whose +barbarity he rivalled at the very beginning of his reign, when he +shamefully put to death his own connections and relations. + +9. And his cruelty and morose suspicions, which were directed against +everything of the kind, were a cruel addition to the sufferings of the +unhappy persons who were accused of sedition or treason. + +10. And if anything of the kind got wind, he instituted investigations +of a more terrible nature than the law sanctioned, appointing men of +known cruelty as judges in such cases; and in punishing offenders he +endeavoured to protract their deaths as long as nature would allow, +being in such cases more savage than even Gallienus. For he, though +assailed by incessant and real plots of rebels, such as Aureolus, +Posthumus, Ingenuus, and Valens who was surnamed the Thessalonian, and +many others, often mitigated the penalty of crimes liable to sentence of +death; while Constantius caused facts which were really unquestionable +to be looked upon as doubtful by the excessive inhumanity of his +tortures. + +11. In such cases he had a mortal hatred of justice, even though his +great object was to be accounted just and merciful: and as sparks flying +from a dry wood, by a mere breath of wind are sometimes carried on with +unrestrained course to the danger of the country villages around, so he +also from the most trivial causes kindled heaps of evils, being very +unlike that wise emperor Marcus Aurelius, who, when Cassius in Syria +aspired to the supreme power, and when a bundle of letters which he had +written to his accomplices, was taken with their bearer, and brought to +him, ordered them at once to be burned, while he was still in Illyricum, +in order that he might not know who had plotted against him, and so +against his will be obliged to consider some persons as his enemies. + +12. And, as some right-thinking people are of opinion, it was rather an +indication of great virtue in Constantius to have quelled the empire +without shedding more blood, than to have revenged himself with such +cruelty. + +13. As Cicero also teaches us, when in one of his letters to Nepos he +accuses Cæsar of cruelty, "For," says he, "felicity is nothing else but +success in what is honourable;" or to define it in another way, +"Felicity is fortune assisting good counsels, and he who is not guided +by such cannot be happy. Therefore in wicked and impious designs such as +those of Cæsar there could be no felicity; and in my judgment Camillus +when in exile was happier than Manlius at the same time, even if Manlius +had been able to make himself king, as he wished." + +14. The same is the language of Heraclitus of Ephesus, when he remarks +that men of eminent capacity and virtue, through the caprice of fortune, +have often been overcome by men destitute of either talent or energy. +But that that glory is the best when power, existing with high rank, +forces, as it were, its inclinations to be angry and cruel, and +oppressive under the yoke, and so erects a glorious trophy in the +citadel of its victorious mind. + +15. But as in his foreign wars this emperor was unsuccessful and +unfortunate, on the other hand in his civil contests he was successful; +and in all those domestic calamities he covered himself with the horrid +blood of the enemies of the republic and of himself; and yielding to his +elation at these triumphs in a way neither right nor usual, he erected +at a vast expense triumphal arches in Gaul and the two Pannonias, to +record his triumphs over his own provinces; engraving on them the titles +of his exploits ... as long as they should last, to those who read the +inscriptions. + +16. He was preposterously addicted to listening to his wives, and to the +thin voices of his eunuchs, and some of his courtiers, who applauded all +his words, and watched everything he said, whether in approval or +disapproval, in order to agree with it. + +17. The misery of these times was further increased by the insatiable +covetousness of his tax-collectors, who brought him more odium than +money; and to many persons this seemed the more intolerable, because he +never listened to any excuse, never took any measures for relief of the +provinces when oppressed by the multiplicity of taxes and imposts; and +in addition to all this he was very apt to take back any exemptions +which he had granted. + +18. He confused the Christian religion, which is plain and simple, with +old women's superstitions; in investigating which he preferred +perplexing himself to settling its questions with dignity, so that he +excited much dissension; which he further encouraged by diffuse wordy +explanations: he ruined the establishment of public conveyances by +devoting them to the service of crowds of priests, who went to and fro +to different synods, as they call the meetings at which they endeavour +to settle everything according to their own fancy. + +19. As to his personal appearance and stature, he was of a dark +complexion with prominent eyes; of keen sight, soft hair, with his +cheeks carefully shaved, and bright looking. From his waist to his neck +he was rather long, his legs were very short and crooked, which made him +a good leaper and runner. + +20. When the body of the deceased emperor had been laid out, and placed +in a coffin, Jovianus, at that time the chief officer of the guard, was +ordered to attend it with royal pomp to Constantinople, to be buried +among his relations. + +21. While he was proceeding on the vehicle which bore the remains, +samples of the military provisions were brought to him as an offering, +as is usual in the case of princes; and the public animals were paraded +before him; and a concourse of people came out to meet him as was usual; +which, with other similar demonstrations, seemed to portend to Jovianus, +as the superintendent of his funeral, the attainment of the empire, but +an authority only curtailed and shadowy. + + +[114] The Quinquennalia (games under which title had been previously +instituted in honour of Julius Cæsar and Augustus) were revived by Nero, +A.D. 60, again fell into disuse, and were again revived by +Domitian.--Cf. Tacit. An. xiv. 20. + +[115] V. infra, Leo xxvi. c. 8. + +[116] Sirmium was very near the existing town of Peterwaradin. + +[117] Now the Balkan. + +[118] It is believed that Mattium is the same as Marburg; it is not +quite certain. + +[119] These and other titles, such as "respectable" (spectabiles), +"illustrious" (egregrie, illustres), were invented by the emperors of +this century. They none of them appear to have conferred any substantive +power. + +[120] This office had been first established by Augustus, who created +two prefects of the prætorian cohorts, under whose command also all the +soldiers in Italy were placed. Commodus raised the number to three, and +Constantine to four, whom (when he abolished the prætorian cohort), he +made, in fact, governors of provinces. There was one præfectus prætorio +for Gaul, one for Italy, one for Illyricum, and one for the East. + + + + +BOOK XXII. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. From fear of Constantius Julian halts in Dacia, and secretly + consults the augurs and soothsayers.--II. When he hears of + Constantius's death he passes through Thrace, and enters + Constantinople, which he finds quiet; and without a battle becomes + sole master of the Roman empire.--III. Some of the adherents of + Constantius are condemned, some deservedly, some wrongfully.--IV. + Julian expels from the palace all the eunuchs, barbers, and + cooks--A statement of the vices of the eunuchs about the palace, + and the corrupt state of military discipline.--V. Julian openly + professes his adherence to the pagan worship, which he had hitherto + concealed; and lets the Christian bishops dispute with one + another.--VI. How he compelled some Egyptian litigants, who + modestly sought his intervention, to return home.--VII. At + Constantinople he often administers justice in the senate-house; he + arranges the affairs of Thrace, and receives anxious embassies from + foreign nations.--VIII. A description of Thrace, and of the Sea of + Marmora, and of the regions and nations contiguous to the Black + Sea.--IX. Having enlarged and beautified Constantinople, Julian + goes to Antioch; on his road he joins the citizens of Nicomedia + moving to restore their city; and at Ancyra presides in the court + of justice.--X. He winters at Antioch, and presides in the court of + justice; and oppresses no one on account of his religion.--XI. + George, bishop of Alexandria, with two others, is dragged through + the streets by the Gentiles of Alexandria, and torn to pieces and + burnt, without any one being punished for this action.--XII. Julian + prepares an expedition against the Persians, and, in order to know + beforehand the result of the war, he consults the oracles; and + sacrifices innumerable victims, devoting himself wholly to + soothsaying and augury.--XIII. He unjustly attributes the burning + of the temple of Apollo at Daphne to the Christians, and orders the + great church at Antioch to be shut up.--XIV. He sacrifices to + Jupiter on Mount Casius--Why he writes the Misopogon in his anger + against the citizens of Antioch.--XV. A description of Egypt; + mention of the Nile, the crocodile, the ibis, and the + pyramids.--XVI. Description of the five provinces of Egypt, and of + their famous cities. + + +I. + +A.D. 361. + +§ 1. While the variable events of fortune were bringing to pass these +events in different parts of the world, Julian, amid the many plans +which he was revolving while in Illyricum, was continually consulting +the entrails of victims and watching the flight of birds in his +eagerness to know the result of what was about to happen. + +2. Aprunculus Gallus, an orator and a man of skill as a soothsayer, who +was afterwards promoted to be governor of Narbonne, announced these +results to him, being taught beforehand by the inspection of a liver, as +he affirmed, which he had seen covered with a double skin. And while +Julian was fearing that he was inventing stories to correspond with his +desires, and was on that account out of humour, he himself beheld a far +more favourable omen, which clearly predicted the death of Constantius. +For at the same moment that that prince died in Cilicia, the soldier +who, as he was going to mount his horse, had supported him with his +right hand, fell down, on which Julian at once exclaimed, in the hearing +of many persons, that he who had raised him to the summit had fallen. + +3. But he did not change his plans, but remained within the border of +Dacia, still being harassed with many fears. Nor did he think it prudent +to trust to conjectures, which might perhaps turn out contrary to his +expectations. + + +II. + +§ 1. But while he was thus in suspense, the ambassadors, Theolaiphus and +Aligildus, who had been despatched to him to announce the death of +Constantius, suddenly arrived, adding that that prince with his last +words had named him as his successor in his dignity. + +2. As soon as he learnt this, being delighted at his deliverance from +the turmoils of war and its consequent disorders, and fully relying on +the prophecies he had received, having besides often experienced the +advantages of celerity of action, he issued orders to march to Thrace. +Therefore speedily advancing his standards, he passed over the high +ground occupied by the Succi, and marched towards the ancient city of +Eumolpias, now called Philippopolis, all his army following him with +alacrity. + +3. For they now saw that the imperial power which they were on their way +to seize, in the face of imminent danger, was in a measure beyond their +hopes put into their hands by the course of nature. And as report is +wont marvellously to exaggerate events, a rumour got abroad that Julian, +formidable both by sea and land, had entered Heraclea, called also +Perinthus, borne over its unresisting walls on the chariot of +Triptolemus, which from its rapid movements the ancients, who loved +fables, had stated to be drawn by flying serpents and dragons. + +4. When he arrived at Constantinople, people of every age and sex poured +forth to meet him, as though he were some one dropped from heaven. On +the eleventh of December he was received with respectful duty by the +senate, and by the unanimous applause of the citizens, and was escorted +into the city by vast troops of soldiers and civilians, marshalled like +an army, while all eyes were turned on him, not only with the gaze of +curiosity, but with great admiration. + +5. For it seemed to them like a dream, that a youth in the flower of his +age, of slight body, but renowned for great exploits, after many +victories over barbarian kings and nations, having passed from city to +city with unparalleled speed, should now, by an accession of wealth and +power as rapid as the spread of fire, have become the unresisted master +of the world; and the will of God itself having given him the empire, +should thus have obtained it without any injury to the state. + + +III. + +§ 1. His first step was to give to Secundus Sallustius, whom he promoted +to be prefect of the prætorium, being well assured of his loyalty, a +commission to conduct some important investigations, joining with him as +colleagues Mamertinus, Arbetio, Agilo, and Nevitta, and also Jovinus, +whom he had recently promoted to the command of the cavalry in +Illyricum. + +2. They all went to Chalcedon, and in the presence of the chiefs and +tribunes, the Jovian and Herculian legions, they tried several causes +with too much rigour, though there were some in which it was undeniable +that the accused were really guilty. + +3. They banished Palladius, the master of the ceremonies, to Britain, +though there was but a suspicion that he had prejudiced Constantius +against Gallus, while he was master of the ceremonies under that prince +as Cæsar. + +4. They banished Taurus, who had been prefect of the prætorium, to +Vercelli, who, to all persons capable of distinguishing between right +and wrong, will appear very excusable in respect to the act for which he +was condemned. For his offence was only that, fearing a violent +disturbance which had arisen, he fled to the protection of his prince. +And the treatment inflicted on him could not be read without great +horror, when the preamble of the public accusation began thus:--"In the +consulship of Taurus and Florentius, Taurus being brought before the +criers ..." + +5. Pentadius also was destined for a similar sentence; the charge +against him being that, having been sent on a mission by Constantius, he +had made notes of the replies given by Gallus when he was examined on +several subjects before he was put to death. But as he defended himself +with justice, he was at last discharged. + +6. With similar iniquity, Florentius, at that time master of the +ceremonies, the son of Nigridianus, was banished to Boæ, an island on +the coast of Dalmatia. The other Florentius, who had been prefect of the +prætorium, and was then consul, being alarmed at the sudden change in +the aspect of affairs, in order to save himself from danger, hid +himself and his wife for some time, and never returned during Julian's +life; still he was, though absent, condemned to death. + +7. In the same way, Evagrius, the comptroller of the private demesnes of +the emperor, and Saturninus, late superintendent of the palace, and +Cyrinus, late secretary, were all banished. But Justice herself seems to +have mourned over the death of Ursulus, the treasurer, and to accuse +Julian of ingratitude to him. For when, as Cæsar, he was sent to the +west, with the intent that he was to be kept in great poverty, and +without any power of making presents to any of his soldiers, in order to +make them less inclined to favour any enterprise which he might +conceive, this same Ursulus gave him letters to the superintendent of +the Gallic treasury, desiring him to give the Cæsar whatever he might +require. + +8. After his death, Julian, feeling that he was exposed to general +reproach and execration, thinking that an unpardonable crime could be +excused, affirmed that the man had been put to death without his being +aware of it, pretending that he had been massacred by the fury of the +soldiers, who recollected what he had said (as we mentioned before) when +he saw the destruction of Amida. + +9. And therefore it seemed to be through fear, or else from a want of +understanding what was proper, that he appointed Arbetio, a man always +vacillating and arrogant, to preside over these investigations, with +others of the chief officers of the legions present for the look of the +thing, when he knew that he had been one of the chief enemies to his +safety, as was natural in one who had borne, a distinguished share in +the successes of the civil war. + +10. And though these transactions which I have mentioned vexed those who +wished him well, those which came afterwards were carried out with a +proper vigour and severity. + +11. It was only a deserved destiny which befel Apodemius, who had been +the chief steward, and whose cruel machinations with respect to the +deaths of Silvanus and Gallus we have already mentioned, and Paulus, the +secretary, surnamed "The Chain," men who are never spoken of without +general horror, and who were now sentenced to be burnt alive. + +12. They also sentenced to death Eusebius, the chief chamberlain of +Constantius, a man equally full of ambition and cruelty, who from the +lowest rank had been raised so high as even almost to lord it over the +emperor, and who had thus become wholly intolerable; and whom Nemesis, +who beholds all human affairs, having often, as the saying is, plucked +him by the ear, and warned to conduct himself with more moderation, now, +in spite of his struggles, hurled headlong from his high position. + + +IV. + +§ 1. After this Julian directed his whole favour and affection to people +of every description about the palace; not acting in this like a +philosopher anxious for the discovery of truth. + +2. For he might have been praised if he had retained a few who were +moderate in their disposition, and of proved honesty and respectability. +We must, indeed, confess that the greater part of them had nourished as +it were such a seed-bed of all vices, which they spread abroad so as to +infect the whole republic with evil desires, and did even more injury by +their example than by the impunity which they granted to crimes. + +3. Some of them had been fed on the spoils of temples, had smelt out +gain on every occasion, and having raised themselves from the lowest +poverty to vast riches, had set no bounds to their bribery, their +plunder, or their extravagance, being at all times accustomed to seize +what belonged to others. + +4. From which habit the beginnings of licentious life sprang up, with +perjuries, contempt of public opinion, and an insane arrogance, +sacrificing good faith to infamous gains. + +5. Among which vices, debauchery and unrestrained gluttony grew to a +head, and costly banquets superseded triumphs for victories. The common +use of silken robes prevailed, the textile arts were encouraged, and +above all was the anxious care about the kitchen. Vast spaces were +sought out for ostentatious houses, so vast that if the consul +Cincinnatus had possessed as much land, he would have lost the glory of +poverty after his dictatorship. + +6. To these shameful vices was added the loss of military discipline; +the soldier practised songs instead of his battle-cry, and a stone would +no longer serve him for a bed, as formerly, but he wanted feathers and +yielding mattresses, and goblets heavier than his sword, for he was now +ashamed to drink out of earthenware; and he required marble houses, +though it is recorded in ancient histories that a Spartan soldier was +severely punished for venturing to appear under a roof at all during a +campaign. + +7. But now the soldier was fierce and rapacious towards his own +countrymen, but towards the enemy he was inactive and timid, by courting +different parties, and in times of peace he had acquired riches, and was +now a judge of gold and precious stones, in a manner wholly contrary to +the recollection of very recent times. + +8. For it is well known that when, in the time of the Cæsar Maximian, +the camp of the king of Persia was plundered; a common soldier, after +finding a Persian bag full of pearls, threw the gems away in ignorance +of their value, and went away contented with the mere beauty of his bit +of dressed leather. + +9. In those days it also happened that a barber who had been sent for to +cut the emperor's hair, came handsomely dressed; and when Julian saw +him, he was amazed, and said, "I did not send for a superintendent, but +for a barber." And when he was asked what he made by his business, he +answered that he every day made enough to keep twenty persons, and as +many horses, and also a large annual income, besides many sources of +accidental gain. + +10. And Julian, angry at this, expelled all the men of this trade, and +the cooks, and all who made similar profits, as of no use to him, +telling them, however, to go where they pleased. + + +V. + +§ 1. And although from his earliest childhood he was inclined to the +worship of the gods,[121] and gradually, as he grew up, became more +attached to it, yet he was influenced by many apprehensions which made +him act in things relating to that subject as secretly as he could. + +2. But when his fears were terminated, and he found himself at liberty +to do what he pleased, he then showed his secret inclinations, and by +plain and positive decrees ordered the temples to be opened, and victims +to be brought to the altars for the worship of the gods. + +3. And in order to give more effect to his intentions, he ordered the +priests of the different Christian sects, with the adherents of each +sect, to be admitted into the palace, and in a constitutional spirit +expressed his wish that their dissensions being appeased, each without +any hindrance might fearlessly follow the religion he preferred. + +4. He did this the more resolutely because, as long licence increased +their dissensions, he thought he should never have to fear the unanimity +of the common people, having found by experience that no wild beasts are +so hostile to men as Christian sects in general are to one another. And +he often used to say, "Listen to me, to whom the Allemanni and Franks +have listened;" imitating in this an expression of the ancient emperor +Marcus Aurelius. But he omitted to notice that there was a great +difference between himself and his predecessor. + +5. For when Marcus was passing through Palestine, on his road to Egypt, +he is said, when wearied by the dirt and rebellious spirit of the Jews, +to have often exclaimed with sorrow, "O Marcomanni, O Quadi, O +Sarmatians, I have at last found others worse than you!" + + +VI. + +§ 1. About the same time many Egyptians, excited by various rumours, +arrived at Constantinople; a race given to controversy, and extremely +addicted to habits of litigation, covetous, and apt to ask payment of +debts due to them over and over again; and also, by way of escaping from +making the payments due to them, to accuse the rich of embezzlement, and +the tax-gatherers of extortion. + +2. These men, collecting into one body, came screeching like so many +jackdaws, claiming in a rude manner the attention of the emperor +himself, and of the prefects of the prætorium, and demanding the +restoration of the contributions which they had been compelled to +furnish, justly or unjustly, for the last seventy years. + +3. And as they hindered the transaction of any other business, Julian +issued an edict in which he ordered them all to go to Chalcedon, +promising that he himself also would soon come there, and settle all +their business. + +4. And when they had gone, an order was given to all the captains of +ships which go to and fro, that none of them should venture to take an +Egyptian for a passenger. And as this command was carefully observed, +their obstinacy in bringing false accusations came to an end, and they +all, being disappointed in their object, returned home. + +5. After which, as if at the dictation of justice herself, a law was +published forbidding any one to exact from any officer the restitution +of things which that officer had legally received. + + +VII. + +A.D. 362. + +§ 1. At the beginning of the new year, when the consular records had +received the names of Mamertinus and Nevitta, the prince humbled himself +by walking in their train with other men of high rank; an act which some +praised, while others blame it as full of affectation, and mean. + +2. Afterwards, when Mamertinus was celebrating the Circensian games, +Julian, following an ancient fashion, manumitted some slaves, who were +introduced by the consul's officer; but afterwards, being informed that +on that day the supreme jurisdiction belonged to another, he fined +himself ten pounds of gold as an offender. + +3. At the same time he was a continual attendant in the court of +justice, settling many actions which were brought in all kinds of cases. +One day while he was sitting as judge, the arrival of a certain +philosopher from Asia named Maximus, was announced, on which he leapt +down from the judgment seat in an unseemly manner, and forgetting +himself so far as to run at full speed from the hall, he kissed him, and +received him with great reverence, and led him into the palace, +appearing by this unseasonable ostentation a seeker of empty glory, and +forgetful of those admirable words of Cicero, which describe people like +him. + +4. "Those very philosophers inscribe their names on the identical books +which they write about the contempt of glory, in order that they may be +named and extolled in that very thing in which they proclaim their +contempt for mention and for praise."[122] + +5. Not long afterwards, two of the secretaries who had been banished +came to him, boldly promising to point out the hiding-place of +Florentius if he would restore them to their rank in the army; but he +abused them, and called them informers; adding that it did not become an +emperor to be led by underhand information to bring back a man who had +concealed himself out of fear of death, and who perhaps would not long +be left in his retreat unpardoned. + +6. On all these occasions Prætextatus was present, a senator of a noble +disposition and of old-fashioned dignity; who at that time had come to +Constantinople on his own private affairs, and whom Julian by his own +choice selected as governor of Achaia with the rank of proconsul. + +7. Still, while thus diligent in correcting civil evils, Julian did not +omit the affairs of the army: continually appointing over the soldiers +officers of long-tried worth; repairing the exterior defences of all the +cities throughout Thrace, and taking great care that the soldiers on the +banks of the Danube, who were exposed to the attacks of the barbarians, +and who, as he heard were doing their duty with vigilance and courage, +should never be in want of arms, clothes, pay, or provisions. + +8. And while superintending these matters he allowed nothing to be done +carelessly: and when those about him advised him to attack the Gauls as +neighbours who were always deceitful and perfidious, he said he wished +for more formidable foes; for that the Gallic merchants were enough for +them, who sold them at all times without any distinction of rank. + +9. While he gave his attention to these and similar matters, his fame +was spreading among foreign nations for courage, temperance, skill in +war, and eminent endowments of every kind of virtue, so that he +gradually became renowned throughout the whole world. + +10. And as the fear of his approach pervaded both neighbouring and +distant countries, embassies hastened to him with unusual speed from all +quarters at one time; the people beyond the Tigris and the Armenians +sued for peace. At another the Indian tribes vied with each other, +sending nobles loaded with gifts even from the Maldive Islands and +Ceylon; from the south the Moors offered themselves as subjects of the +Roman empire; from the north, and also from those hot climates through +which the Phasis passes on its way to the sea, and from the people of +the Bosphorus, and from other unknown tribes came ambassadors entreating +that on the payment of annual duties they might be allowed to live in +peace within their native countries. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. The time is now appropriate, in my opinion, since in treating of +this mighty prince we are come to speak of these districts, to explain +perspicuously what we have learnt by our own eyesight or by reading, +about the frontiers of Thrace and the situation of the Black Sea. + +2. The lofty mountains of Athos in Macedonia, once made passable for +ships by the Persians, and the Euboean rocky promontory of Caphareus, +where Nauplius the father of Palamedes wrecked the Grecian fleet, though +far distant from one another, separate the Ægean from the Thessalian +Sea, which, extending as it proceeds, on the right, where it is widest, +is full of the Sporades and Cyclades islands, which latter are so called +because they lie round Delos, an island celebrated as the birthplace of +the gods; on the left it washes Imbros, Tenedos, Lemnos, and Thasos; and +when agitated by any gale it beats violently on Lesbos. + +3. From thence, with a receding current, it flows past the temple of +Apollo Sminthius, and Troas, and Troy, renowned for the adventures of +heroes; and on the west it forms the Gulf of Melas, near the head of +which is seen Abdera, the abode of Protagoras and Democritus; and the +blood-stained seat of the Thracian Diomede; and the valleys through +which the Maritza flows on its way to its waves; and Maronea, and Ænus, +founded under sad auspices and soon deserted by Æneas, when under the +guidance of the gods he hastened onwards to ancient Italy. + +4. After this it narrows gradually, and, as if by a kind of natural wish +to mingle with its waters, it rushes towards the Black Sea; and taking +a portion of it forms a figure like the Greek φ. Then +separating the Hellespont from Mount Rhodope, it passes by +Cynossema,[123] where Hecuba is supposed to be buried, and Cæla, and +Sestos, and Callipolis, and passing by the tombs of Ajax and Achilles, +it touches Dardanus and Abydos (where Xerxes, throwing a bridge across, +passed over the waters on foot), and Lampsacus, given to Themistocles by +the king of Persia; and Parion, founded by Parius the son of Jason. + +5. Then curving round in a semicircle and separating the opposite lands +more widely in the round gulf of the sea of Marmora, it washes on the +east Cyzicus, and Dindyma, the holy seat of the mighty mother Cybele, +and Apamia, and Cius, and Astacus afterwards called Nicomedia from the +King Nicomedes. + +6. On the west it beats against the Chersonese, Ægospotami where +Anaxagoras predicted that stones would fall from heaven, and Lysimachia, +and the city which Hercules founded and consecrated to the memory of his +comrade Perinthus. And in order to preserve the full and complete figure +of the letter φ, in the very centre of the circular gulf lies +the oblong island of Proconnesus, and also Besbicus. + +7. Beyond the upper end of this island the sea again becomes very narrow +where it separates Bithynia from Europe, passing by Chalcedon and +Chrysopolis, and some other places of no importance. + +8. Its left shore is looked down upon by Port Athyras and Selymbria, and +Constantinople, formerly called Byzantium, a colony of the Athenians, +and Cape Ceras, having at its extremity a lofty tower to serve as a +lighthouse to ships--from which cape also a very cold wind which often +arises from that point is called Ceratas. + +9. The sea thus broken, and terminated by mingling with the seas at each +end, and now becoming very calm, spreads out into wider waters, as far +as the eye can reach both in length and breadth. Its entire circuit, if +one should measure it as one would measure an island, sailing along its +shores, is 23,000 furlongs according to Eratosthenes, Hecatæus, and +Ptolemy, and other accurate investigators of subjects of this kind, +resembling, by the consent of all geographers, a Scythian bow, held at +both ends by its string. + +10. When the sun rises from the eastern ocean, it is shut in by the +marshes of the Sea of Azov. On the west it is bounded by the Roman +provinces. On the north lie many tribes differing in language and +manners; its southern side describes a gentle curve. + +11. Over this extended space are dispersed many Greek cities, which have +for the most part been founded by the people of Miletus, an Athenian +colony, long since established in Asia among the other Ionians by +Nileus, the son of the famous Codrus, who is said to have devoted +himself to his country in the Doric war. + +12. The thin extremities of the bow at each end are commanded by the two +Bospori, the Thracian and Cimmerian, placed opposite to one another; and +they are called Bospori because through them the daughter of +Inachus,[124] who was changed (as the poets relate) into a cow, passed +into the Ionian sea. + +13. The right curve of the Thracian Bosphorus is covered by a side of +Bithynia, formerly called Mygdonia, of which province Thynia and +Mariandena are districts; as also is Bebrycia, the inhabitants of which +were delivered from the cruelty of Amycus by the valour of Pollux; and +also the remote spot in which the soothsayer Phineus was terrified by +the threatening flight of the Harpies. + +14. The shores are curved into several long bays, into which fall the +rivers Sangarius, and Phyllis, and Bizes, and Rebas; and opposite to +them at the lower end are the Symplegades, two rocks which rise into +abrupt peaks, and which in former times were accustomed to dash against +one another with a fearful crash, and then rebounding with a sharp +spring, to recoil once more against the object already struck. Even a +bird could by no speed of its wings pass between these rocks as they +pass and meet again without being crushed to death. + +15. These rocks, when the Argo, the first of all ships, hastening to +Colchis to carry off the golden fleece, had passed unhurt by them, stood +immovable for the future, the power of the whirlwind which used to +agitate them being broken; and are now so firmly united that no one who +saw them now would believe that they had ever been separated; if all the +poems of the ancients did not agree on the point. + +16. After this portion of Bithynia, the next provinces are Pontus and +Paphlagonia, in which are the noble cities of Heraclea, and Sinope, and +Polemonium, and Amisus, and Tios, and Amastris, all originally founded +by the energy of the Greeks; and Cerasus, from which Lucullus brought +the cherry, and two lofty islands which contain the famous cities of +Trapezus and Pityus. + +17. Beyond these places is the Acherusian cave, which the natives call +Μυχοπόντιον; and the harbour of Acone, and several rivers, the +Acheron, the Arcadius, the Iris, the Tibris, and near to that the +Parthenius, all of which proceed with a rapid stream into the sea. Close +to them is the Thermodon, which rises in Mount Armonius, and flows +through the forest of Themiscyra, to which necessity formerly compelled +the Amazons to migrate. + +18. The Amazons, as may be here explained, after having ravaged their +neighbours by bloody inroads, and overpowered them by repeated defeats, +began to entertain greater projects; and perceiving their own strength +to be superior to their neighbours', and being continually covetous of +their possessions, they forced their way through many nations, and +attacked the Athenians. But they were routed in a fierce battle, and +their flanks being uncovered by cavalry, they all perished. + +19. When their destruction became known, the rest, who had been left at +home as unwarlike, were reduced to the last extremities; and fearing the +attacks of their neighbours, who would now retaliate on them, they +removed to the more quiet district of the Thermodon. And after a long +time, their posterity again becoming numerous, returned in great force +to their native regions, and became in later ages formidable to the +people of many nations. + +20. Not far from hence is the gentle hill Carambis, on the north, +opposite to which, at a distance of 2,500 furlongs, is the Criu-Metopon, +a promontory of Taurica. From this spot the whole of the sea-coast, +beginning at the river Halys, is like the chord of an arc fastened at +both ends. + +21. On the frontiers of this district are the Dahæ,[125] the fiercest +of all warriors; and the Chalybes, the first people who dug up iron, and +wrought it to the use of man. Next to them lies a large plain occupied +by the Byzares, the Saqires, the Tibareni, the Mosynæci, the Macrones +and the Philyres, tribes with which we have no intercourse. + +22. And at a small distance from them are some monuments of heroes, +where Sthenelus, Idmon, and Tiphys are buried, the first being that one +of Hercules's comrades who was mortally wounded in the war with the +Amazons; the second the soothsayer of the Argonauts; the third the +skilful pilot of the crew. + +23. After passing by the aforesaid districts, we come to the cave Aulon, +and the river of Callichorus, which derives its name from the fact that +when Bacchus, having subdued the nations of India in a three years' war, +came into those countries, he chose the green and shady banks of this +river for the re-establishment of his ancient orgies and dances; and +some think that such festivals as these were those called +Trieterica.[126] + +24. Next to these frontiers come the famous cantons of the Camaritæ, and +the Phasis, which with its roaring streams reaches the Colchi, a race +descended from the Egyptians; among whom, besides other cities, is one +called Phasis from the name of the river; and Dioscurias,[127] still +famous, which is said to have been founded by the Spartans Amphitus and +Cercius, the charioteers of Castor and Pollux; from whom the nation of +Heniochi[128] derives its origin. + +25. At a little distance from these are the Achæi, who after some +earlier Trojan war, and not that which began about Helen, as some +authors have affirmed, were driven into Pontus by foul winds, and, as +all around was hostile, so that they could nowhere find a settled abode, +they always stationed themselves on the tops of snowy mountains; and, +under the pressure of an unfavourable climate they contracted a habit of +living on plunder in contempt of all danger; and thus became the most +ferocious of all nations. Of the Cercetæ, who lie next to them, nothing +is known worth speaking of. + +26. Behind them lie the inhabitants of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, living +in cities founded by the Milesiani, the chief of which is Panticapæum, +which is on the Bog a river of great size, both from its natural waters +and the streams which fall into it. + +27. Then for a great distance the Amazons stretch as far as the Caspian +sea; occupying the banks of the Don, which rises in Mount Caucasus, and +proceeds in a winding course, separating Asia from Europe, and falls +into the swampy sea of Azov. + +28. Near to this is the Rha, on the banks of which grows a vegetable of +the same name, which is useful as a remedy for many diseases. + +29. Beyond the Don, taking the plain in its width, lie the Sauromatæ, +whose land is watered by the never-failing rivers Maræcus, Rhombites, +Theophanes, and Totordanes. And there is at a vast distance another +nation also known as Sauromatæ, touching the shore at the point where +the river Corax falls into the sea. + +30. Near to this is the sea of Azov, of great extent, from the abundant +sources of which a great body of water pours through the straits of +Patares, near the Black Sea; on the right are the islands Phanagorus and +Hermonassa, which have been settled by the industry of the Greeks. + +31. Round the furthest extremity of this gulf dwell many tribes +differing from one another in language and habits; the Jaxamatæ, the +Mæotæ, the Jazyges, the Roxolani, the Alani, the Melanchlænæ, the +Geloni, and the Agathyrsi, whose land abounds in adamant. + +32. And there are others beyond, who are the most remote people of the +whole world. On the left side of this gulf lies the Crimea, full of +Greek colonies; the people of which are quiet and steady: they practise +agriculture, and live on the produce of the land. + +33. From them the Tauri, though at no great distance, are separated by +several kingdoms, among which are the Arinchi, a most savage tribe, the +Sinchi, and the Napæi, whose cruelty, being aggravated by continual +licence, is the reason why the sea is called the Inhospitable,[129] +from which by the rule of contrary it gets the name of the Euxine, just +as the Greeks call a fool εὐήθης, and night εὐθρόνη, +and the furies, the Εὐμενίδες. + +34. For they propitiated the gods with human victims, sacrificing +strangers to Diana, whom they call Oreiloche, and fix the heads of the +slain on the walls of their temples, as perpetual monuments of their +deeds. + +35. In this kingdom of the Tauri lies the uninhabited island of Leuce, +which is consecrated to Achilles; and if any ever visit it, as soon as +they have examined the traces of antiquity, and the temple and offerings +dedicated to the hero, they return the same evening to their ships, as +it is said that no one can pass the night there without danger to his +life. + +36. There is water there, and white birds like kingfishers, the origin +of which, and the battles of the Hellespont, we will discuss at a proper +time. And there are some cities in this region of which the most eminent +are Eupatoria, Dandaca, and Theodosia, and several others which are free +from the wickedness of human sacrifices. + +37. Up to this we reckon that one of the extremities of the arc extends. +We will now follow, as order suggests, the rest of the curve which +extends towards the north, along the left side of the Thracian +Bosphorus, just reminding the reader that while the bows of all other +nations bend along the whole of their material, those of the Scythians +and Parthians have a straight rounded line in the centre, from which +they curve their spreading horns so as to present the figure of the +waning moon. + +38. At the very beginning then of this district, where the Rhipæan +mountains end, lie the Arimphæi, a just people known for their quiet +character, whose land is watered by the rivers Chronius and Bisula; and +next to them are the Massagetæ, the Alani, and the Sargetæ, and several +other tribes of little note, of whom we know neither the names nor the +customs. + +39. Then, a long way off, is the bay Carcinites, and a river of the +same name, and a grove of Diana, frequented by many votaries in those +countries. + +40. After that we come to the Dnieper (Borysthenes), which rises in the +mountains of the Neuri; a river very large at its first beginning, and +which increases by the influx of many other streams, till it falls into +the sea with great violence; on its woody banks is the town of +Borysthenes, and Cephalonesus, and some altars consecrated to Alexander +the Great and Augustus Cæsar. + +41. Next, at a great distance, is an island inhabited by the Sindi, a +tribe of low-born persons, who upon the overthrow of their lords and +masters in Asia, took possession of their wives and properties. Below +them is a narrow strip of coast called by the natives the Course of +Achilles, having been made memorable in olden time by the exercises of +the Thessalian chief, and next to that is the city of Tyros, a colony of +the Phoenicians, watered by the river Dniester. + +42. But in the middle of the arc which we have described as being of an +extended roundness, and which takes an active traveller fifteen days to +traverse, are the Europæan Alani, the Costoboci, and the countless +tribes of the Scythians, who extend over territories which have no +ascertained limit; a small part of whom live on grain. But the rest +wander over vast deserts, knowing neither ploughtime nor seedtime; but +living in cold and frost, and feeding like great beasts. They place +their relations, their homes, and their wretched furniture on waggons +covered with bark, and, whenever they choose, they migrate without +hindrance, driving off these waggons wherever they like. + +43. When one arrives at another point of the circuit where there is a +harbour, which bounds the figure of the arc at that extremity, the +island Peuce is conspicuous, inhabited by the Troglodytæ, and Peuci, and +other inferior tribes, and we come also to Histros, formerly a city of +great power, and to Tomi, Apollonia, Anchialos, Odissos, and many others +on the Thracian coast. + +44. But the Danube, rising near Basle on the borders of the Tyrol, +extending over a wider space, and receiving on his way nearly sixty +navigable rivers, pours through the Scythian territory by seven mouths +into the Black Sea. + +45. The first mouth (according to the Greek interpretation of the +names) is at the island of Peuce, which we have mentioned; the second is +at Naracustoma, the third at Calonstoma, the fourth at Pseudostoma. The +Boreonstoma and the Sthenostoma, are much smaller, and the seventh is +large and black-looking like a bog. + +46. But the whole sea, all around, is full of mists and shoals, and is +sweeter than seas in general, because by the evaporation of moisture the +air is often thick and dense, and its waters are tempered by the +immensity of the rivers which fall into it; and it is full of shifting +shallows, because the number of the streams which surround it pour in +mud and lumps of soil. + +47. And it is well known that fish flock in large shoals to its most +remote extremities that they may spawn and rear their young more +healthfully, in consequence of the salubrity of the water; while the +hollow caverns, which are very numerous there, protect them from +voracious monsters. For nothing of the kind is ever seen in this sea, +except some small dolphins, and they do no harm. + +48. Now the portions of the Black Sea which are exposed to the north +wind are so thoroughly frozen that, while the rivers, as it is believed, +cannot continue their course beneath the ice, yet neither can the foot +of beast or man proceed firmly over the treacherous and shifting ground; +a fault which is never found in a pure sea, but only in one of which the +waters are mingled with those of rivers. We have digressed more than we +had intended, so now let us turn back to what remains to be told. + +49. Another circumstance came to raise Julian's present joy, one which +indeed had been long expected, but which had been deferred by all manner +of delays. For intelligence was brought by Agilo and Jovius, who was +afterwards quæstor, that the garrison of Aquileia, weary of the length +of the siege, and having heard of the death of Constantius, had opened +their gates and come forth, delivering up the authors of the revolt; and +that, after they had been burnt alive, as has been related, the rest had +obtained pardon for their offences. + + +IX. + +§ 1. But Julian, elated at his prosperity, began to aspire to greatness +beyond what is granted to man: amid continual dangers he had learnt by +experience that propitious fortune held out to him, thus peacefully +governing the Roman world, a cornucopia as it were of human blessings +and all kinds of glory and success: adding this also to his former +titles of victory, that while he alone held the reins of empire he was +neither disturbed by intestine commotions, nor did any barbarians +venture to cross his frontiers; but all nations, eager at all times to +find fault with what is past, as mischievous and unjust, were with +marvellous unanimity agreed in his praises. + +2. Having therefore arranged with profound deliberation all the matters +which were required either by the circumstances of the state or by the +time, and, having encouraged the soldiers by repeated harangues and by +adequate pay to be active in accomplishing all that was to be done, +Julian, being in great favour with all men, set out for Antioch, leaving +Constantinople, which he had greatly strengthened and enriched; for he +had been born there, and loved and protected it as his native city. + +3. Then crossing the straits, and passing by Chalcedon and Libyssa, +where Hannibal the Carthaginian is buried, he came to Nicomedia; a city +of ancient renown, and so adorned at the great expense of former +emperors, that from the multitude of its public and private buildings +good judges look on it as a quarter, as it were, of the eternal city. + +4. When Julian beheld its walls buried in miserable ashes, he showed the +anguish of his mind by silent tears, and went slowly on towards the +palace; especially lamenting its misfortunes, because the senators who +came out to meet him were in poor-looking condition, as well as the +people who had formerly been most prosperous; some of them he recognized +having been brought up there by the bishop Eusebius, of whom he was a +distant relation. + +5. Having here made many arrangements for repairing the damage done by +an earthquake, he passed through Nisæa to the frontier of Gallo-Græcia, +and then turning to the right, he went to Pessinus, to see the ancient +temple of Cybele; from which town in the second Punic war, in accordance +with the warning of the Sibylline verses, the image of the goddess was +removed to Rome by Scipio Nasica. + +6. Of its arrival in Italy, with many other matters connected with it, +we made mention in recording the acts of the emperor Commodus; but as to +what the reason was for the town receiving this name writers differ. + +7. For some have declared that the city was so called ἀπὸ τοῦ πεσῖν, +from falling; inventing a tale that the statue fell from +heaven; others affirm that Ilus, the son of Tros, king of Dardania, gave +the place this name, which Theopompus says it received not from this, +but from Midas, formerly a most powerful king of Phrygia. + +8. Accordingly, having paid his worship to the goddess, and propitiated +her with sacrifices and prayers, he returned to Ancyra; and as he was +proceeding on this way from thence he was disturbed by a multitude; some +violently demanding the restoration of what had been taken from them, +others complaining that they had been unjustly attached to different +courts; some, regardless of the risk they ran, tried to enrage him +against their adversaries, by charging them with treason. + +9. But he, a sterner judge than Cassius or Lycurgus, weighed the charges +with justice, and gave each his due; never being swayed from the truth, +but very severe to calumniators, whom he hated, because he himself, +while still a private individual and of low estate, had often +experienced the petulant frenzy of many in a way which placed him in +great danger. + +10. And though there are many other examples of his patience in such +matters, it will suffice to relate one here. A certain man laid an +information against his enemy, with whom he had a most bitter quarrel, +affirming that he had been guilty of outrage and sedition; and when the +emperor concealed his own opinion, he renewed the charge for several +days, and when at last he was asked who the man was whom he was +accusing, he replied, a rich citizen. When the emperor heard this he +smiled and said, "What proof led you to the discovery of this conduct of +his?" He replied, "The man has had made for himself a purple silk robe." + +11. And on this, being ordered to depart in silence, and though +unpunished as a low fellow who was accusing one of his own class of too +difficult an enterprise to be believed, he nevertheless insisted on the +truth of the accusation, till Julian, being wearied by his pertinacity, +said to the treasurer, whom he saw near him, "Bid them give this +dangerous chatterer some purple shoes to take to his enemy, who, as he +gives me to understood, has made himself a robe of that colour; that so +he may know how little a worthless piece of cloth can help a man, +without the greatest strength." + +12. But as such conduct as this is praiseworthy and deserving the +imitation of virtuous rulers, so it was a sad thing and deserving of +censure, that in his time it was very hard for any one who was accused +by any magistrate to obtain justice, however fortified he might be by +privileges, or the number of his campaigns, or by a host of friends. So +that many persons being alarmed bought off all such annoyances by secret +bribes. + +13. Therefore, when after a long journey he had reached Pylæ, a place on +the frontiers of Cappadocia and Cilicia, he received the ruler of the +province, Celsus, already known to him by his Attic studies, with a +kiss, and taking him up into his chariot conducted him with him into +Tarsus. + +14. From hence, desiring to see Antioch, the splendid metropolis of the +East, he went thither by the usual stages, and when he came near the +city he was received as if he had been a god, with public prayers, so +that he marvelled at the voices of the vast multitude, who cried out +that he had come to shine like a star on the Eastern regions. + +15. It happened that just at that time, the annual period for the +celebration of the festival of Adonis, according to the old fashion, +came round; the story being, as the poets relate, that Adonis had been +loved by Venus, and slain by a boar's tusk, which is an emblem of the +fruits of the earth being cut down in their prime. And it appeared a sad +thing that when the emperor was now for the first time making his +entrance into a splendid city, the abode of princes, wailing +lamentations and sounds of mourning should be heard in every direction. + +16. And here was seen a proof of his gentle disposition, shown indeed +in a trifling, but very remarkable instance. He had long hated a man +named Thalassius, an officer in one of the law courts, as having been +concerned in plots against his brother Gallus. He prohibited him from +paying his salutations to him and presenting himself among the men of +rank; which encouraged his enemies against whom he had actions in the +courts of law, the next day, when a great crowd was collected in the +presence of the emperor, to cry out, "Thalassius, the enemy of your +clemency, has violently deprived us of our rights;" and Julian, thinking +that this was an opportunity for crushing him, replied, "I acknowledge +that I am justly offended with the man whom you mention, and so you +ought to keep silence till he has made satisfaction to me who am his +principal enemy." And he commanded the prefect who was sitting by him +not to hear their business till he himself was recognized by Thalassius, +which happened soon afterwards. + + +X. + +§ 1. While wintering at Antioch, according to his wish, he yielded to +none of the allurements of pleasure in which all Syria abounds; but +under pretence of repose, he devoted himself to judicial affairs, which +are not less difficult than those of war, and in which he expended +exceeding care, showing exquisite willingness to receive information, +and carefully balancing how to assign to every one his due. And by his +just sentence the wicked were chastised with moderate punishments, and +the innocent were maintained in the undiminished possession of their +fortunes. + +2. And although in the discussion of causes he was often unreasonable, +asking at unsuitable times to what religion each of the litigants +adhered, yet none of his decisions were found inconsistent with equity, +nor could he ever be accused, either from considerations of religion or +of anything else, of having deviated from the strict path of justice. + +3. For that is a desirable and right judgment which proceeds from +repeated examinations of what is just and unjust. Julian feared anything +which might lead him away from such, as a sailor fears dangerous rocks; +and he was the better able to attain to correctness, because, knowing +the levity of his own impetuous disposition, he used to permit the +prefects and his chosen counsellors to check, by timely admonition, his +own impulses when they were inclined to stray; and he continually showed +that he was vexed if he committed errors, and was desirous of being +corrected. + +4. And when the advocates in some actions were once applauding him +greatly as one who had attained to perfect wisdom, he is said to have +exclaimed with much emotion, "I was glad and made it my pride to be +praised by those whom I knew to be competent to find fault with me, if I +had said or done anything wrong." + +5. But it will be sufficient out of the many instances of his clemency +which he afforded in judging causes to mention this one, which is not +irrelevant to our subject or insignificant. A certain woman being +brought before the court, saw that her adversary, formerly one of the +officers of the palace, but who had been displaced, was now, contrary to +her expectation, re-established and girt in his official dress, +complained in a violent manner of this circumstance; and the emperor +replied, "Proceed, O woman, if you think that you have been injured in +any respect; he is girt as you see in order to go more quickly through +the mire; your cause will not suffer from it." + +6. And these and similar actions led to the belief, as he was constantly +saying, that that ancient justice which Aratus states to have fled to +heaven in disgust at the vices of mankind, had returned to earth; only +that sometimes he acted according to his own will rather than according +to law, making mistakes which somewhat darkened the glorious course of +his renown. + +7. After many trials he corrected numerous abuses in the laws, cutting +away circuitous proceedings, and making the enactments show more plainly +what they commanded or forbade. But his forbidding masters of rhetoric +and grammar to instruct Christians was a cruel action, and one deserving +to be buried in everlasting silence. + + +XI. + +§ 1. At this time, Gaudentius the secretary, whom I have mentioned above +as having been sent by Constantius to oppose Julian in Africa, and a man +of the name of Julian, who had been a deputy governor, and who was an +intemperate partisan of the late emperor, were brought back as +prisoners, and put to death. + +2. And at the same time, Artemius, who had been Duke of Egypt, and +against whom the citizens of Alexandria brought a great mass of heavy +accusations, was also put to death, and the son of Marcellus too, who +had been commander both of the infantry and of the cavalry, was publicly +executed as one who had aspired to the empire by force of arms. Romanus, +too, and Vincentius, the tribunes of the first and second battalion of +the Scutarii, being convicted of aiming at things beyond their due, were +banished. + +3. And after a short time, when the death of Artemius was known, the +citizens of Alexandria who had feared his return, lest, as he +threatened, he should come back among them with power, and avenge +himself on many of them for the offences which he had received, now +turned all their anger against George, the bishop, by whom they had, so +to say, been often attacked with poisonous bites. + +4. George having been born in a fuller's shop, as was reported, in +Epiphania, a town of Cilicia, and having caused the ruin of many +individuals, was, contrary both to his own interest and to that of the +commonwealth, ordained bishop of Alexandria, a city which from its own +impulses, and without any special cause, is continually agitated by +seditious tumults, as the oracles also show. + +5. Men of this irritable disposition were readily incensed by George, +who accused numbers to the willing ears of Constantius, as being opposed +to his authority; and, forgetting his profession, which ought to give no +counsel but what is just and merciful, he adopted all the wicked acts of +informers. + +6. And among other things he was reported to have maliciously informed +Constantius that in that city all the edifices which had been built by +Alexander, its founder, at vast public expense, ought properly to be a +source of emolument to the treasury. + +7. To these wicked suggestions he added this also, which soon afterwards +led to his destruction. As he was returning from court, and passing by +the superb temple of the Genius, escorted by a large train, as was his +custom, he turned his eyes towards the temple, and said, "How long shall +this sepulchre stand?" And the multitude, hearing this, was +thunderstruck, and fearing that he would seek to destroy this also, +laboured to the utmost of their power to effect his ruin by secret +plots. + +8. When suddenly there came the joyful news that Artemius was dead; on +which all the populace, triumphing with unexpected joy, gnashed their +teeth, and with horrid outcries set upon George, trampling upon him and +kicking him, and tearing him to pieces with every kind of mutilation. + +9. With him also, Dracontius, the master of the mint, and a count named +Diodorus, were put to death, and dragged with ropes tied to their legs +through the street; the one because he had overthrown the altar lately +set up in the mint, of which he was governor; the other because while +superintending the building of a church, he insolently cut off the curls +of the boys, thinking thus to affect the worship of the gods. + +10. But the savage populace were not content with this; but having +mutilated their bodies, put them on camels and conveyed them to the +shore, where they burnt them and threw the ashes into the sea; fearing, +as they exclaimed, lest their remains should be collected and a temple +raised over them, as the relics of men who, being urged to forsake their +religion, had preferred to endure torturing punishments even to a +glorious death, and so, by keeping their faith inviolate, earning the +appellation of martyrs. In truth the wretched men who underwent such +cruel punishment might have been protected by the aid of the Christians, +if both parties had not been equally exasperated by hatred of George. + +11. When this event reached the emperor's ears, he roused himself to +avenge the impious deed; but when about to inflict the extremity of +punishment on the guilty, he was appeased by the intercession of those +about him, and contented himself with issuing an edict in which he +condemned the crime which had been committed in stern language, and +threatening all with the severest vengeance if anything should be +attempted for the future contrary to the principles of justice and law. + + +XII. + +§ 1. In the mean time, while preparing the expedition against the +Persians, which he had long been meditating with all the vigour of his +mind, he resolved firmly to avenge their past victories; hearing from +others, and knowing by his own experience, that for nearly sixty years +that most ferocious people had stamped upon the East bloody records of +massacre and ravage, many of our armies having often been entirely +destroyed by them. + +2. And he was inflamed with a desire for the war on two grounds: first, +because he was weary of peace, and dreaming always of trumpets and +battles; and secondly, because, having been in his youth exposed to the +attacks of savage nations, the wishes of whose kings and princes were +already turning against us, and whom, as was believed, it would be +easier to conquer than to reduce to the condition of suppliants, he was +eager to add to his other glories the surname of Parthieus. + +3. But when his inactive and malicious detractors saw that these +preparations were being pressed forward with great speed and energy, +they cried out that it was an unworthy and shameful thing for such +unseasonable troubles to be caused by the change of a single prince, and +laboured with all their zeal to postpone the campaign; and they were in +the habit of saying, in the presence of those whom they thought likely +to report their words to the emperor, that, unless he conducted himself +with moderation during his excess of prosperity, he, like an +over-luxuriant crop, would soon be destroyed by his own fertility. + +4. And they were continually propagating sayings of this kind, barking +in vain at the inflexible prince with secret attacks, as the Pygmies or +the clown Thiodamas of Lindus assailed Hercules. + +5. But he, as more magnanimous, allowed no delay to take place, nor any +diminution in the magnitude of his expedition, but devoted the most +energetic care to prepare everything suitable for such an enterprise. + +6. He offered repeated victims on the altars of the gods; sometimes +sacrificing one hundred bulls, and countless flocks of animals of all +kinds, and white birds, which he sought for everywhere by land, and sea; +so that every day individual soldiers who had stuffed themselves like +boors with too much meat, or who were senseless from the eagerness with +which they had drunk, were placed on the shoulders of passers-by, and +carried to their homes through the streets from the public temples where +they had indulged in feasts which deserved punishment rather than +indulgence. Especially the Petulantes and the Celtic legion, whose +audacity at this time had increased to a marvellous degree. + +7. And rites and ceremonies were marvellously multiplied with a vastness +of expense hitherto unprecedented; and, as it was now allowed without +hindrance, every one professed himself skilful in divination, and all, +whether illiterate or learned, without any limit or any prescribed +order, were permitted to consult the oracles, and to inspect the +entrails of victims; and omens from the voice of birds, and every kind +of sign of the future, was sought for with an ostentatious variety of +proceeding. + +8. And while this was going on, as if it were a time of profound peace, +Julian, being curious in all such branches of learning, entered on a new +path of divination. He proposed to reopen the prophetic springs of the +fountain of Castalia, which Hadrian was said to have blocked up with a +huge mass of stones, fearing lest, as he himself had attained the +sovereignty through obedience to the predictions of these waters, others +might learn a similar lesson; and Julian immediately ordered the bodies +which had been buried around it to be removed with the same ceremonies +as those with which the Athenians had purified the island of Delos. + + +XII. + +§ 1. About the same time, on the 22nd of October, the splendid temple of +Apollo, at Daphne, which that furious and cruel king Antiochus Epiphanes +had built with the statue of the god, equal in size to that of Olympian +Jupiter, was suddenly burnt down. + +2. This terrible accident inflamed the emperor with such anger, that he +instantly ordered investigations of unprecedented severity to be +instituted, and the chief church of Antioch to be shut up. For he +suspected that the Christians had done it out of envy, not being able to +bear the sight of the magnificent colonnade which surrounded the temple. + +3. But it was reported, though the rumour was most vague, that the +temple had been burnt by means of Asclepiades the philosopher, of whom +we have made mention while relating the actions of Magnentius. He is +said to have come to the suburb in which the temple stood to pay a visit +to Julian, and being accustomed to carry with him wherever he went a +small silver statue of the Heavenly Venus, he placed it at the feet of +the image of Apollo, and then, according to his custom, having lighted +wax tapers in front of it, he went away. At midnight, when no one was +there to give any assistance, some sparks flying about stuck to the aged +timbers; and from that dry fuel a fire was kindled which burnt +everything it could reach, however separated from it by the height of +the building. + +4. The same year also, just as winter was approaching, there was a +fearful scarcity of water, so that some rivers were dried up, and +fountains too, which had hitherto abounded with copious springs. But +afterwards they all were fully restored. + +5. And on the second of December, as evening was coming on, all that +remained of Nicomedia was destroyed by an earthquake, and no small +portion of Nicæa. + + +XIV. + +§ 1. These events caused great concern to the emperor; but still he did +not neglect other affairs of urgency, till the time of entering on his +intended campaign should arrive. But in the midst of his important and +serious concerns, it appeared superfluous that, without any plausible +reason, and out of a mere thirst for popularity, he took measures for +producing cheapness; a thing which often proves contrary to expectation +and produces scarcity and famine. + +2. And when the magistrates of Antioch plainly proved to him that his +orders could not be executed, he would not depart from his purpose, +being as obstinate as his brother Gallus, but not bloodthirsty. On which +account, becoming furious against them, as slanderous and obstinate, he +composed a volume of invectives which he called "The Antiochean," or +"Misopogon," enumerating in a bitter spirit all the vices of the city, +and adding others beyond the truth; and when on this he found that many +witticisms were uttered at his expense, he felt compelled to conceal his +feelings for a time; but was full of internal rage. + +3. For he was ridiculed as a Cercops;[130] again, as a dwarf spreading +out his narrow shoulders, wearing a beard like that of a goat, and +taking huge strides, as if he had been the brother of Otus and +Ephialtes,[131] whose height Horace speaks of as enormous. At another +time he was "the victim-killer," instead of the worshipper, in allusion +to the numbers of his victims; and this piece of ridicule was seasonable +and deserved, as once out of ostentation he was fond of carrying the +sacred vessels before the priests, attended by a train of girls. And +although these and similar jests made him very indignant, he +nevertheless kept silence, and concealed his emotions, and continued to +celebrate the solemn festivals. + +4. At last, on the day appointed for the holiday, he ascended Mount +Casius, a mountain covered with trees, very lofty, and of a round form; +from which at the second crowing of the cock[132] we can see the sun +rise. And while he was sacrificing to Jupiter, on a sudden he perceived +some one lying on the ground, who, with the voice of a suppliant, +implored pardon and his life; and when Julian asked him who he was, he +replied, that he was Theodotus, formerly the chief magistrate of +Hierapolis, who, when Constantius quitted that city, had escorted him +with other men of rank on his way; basely flattering him as sure to be +victorious; and he had entreated him with feigned tears and lamentations +to send them the head of Julian as that of an ungrateful rebel, in the +same way as he recollected the head of Magnentius had been exhibited. + +5. When Julian heard this, he said, "I have heard of this before, from +the relation of several persons. But go thou home in security, being +relieved of all fear by the mercy of the emperor, who, like a wise man, +has resolved to diminish the number of his enemies, and is eager to +increase that of his friends." + +6. When he departed, having fully accomplished the sacrifices, letters +were brought to him from the governor of Egypt, who informed him that +after a long time he had succeeded in finding a bull Apis, which he had +been seeking with great labour, a circumstance which, in the opinion of +the inhabitants of those regions, indicates prosperity, abundant crops, +and several other kinds of good fortune. + +7. On this subject it seems desirable to say a few words. Among the +animals which have been consecrated by the reverence of the ancients, +Mnevis and Apis are the most eminent. Mnevis, concerning whom there is +nothing remarkable related, is consecrated to the sun, Apis to the moon. +But the bull Apis is distinguished by several natural marks; and +especially by a crescent-shaped figure, like that of a new moon, on his +right side. After living his appointed time, he is drowned in the sacred +fountain (for he is not allowed to live beyond the time fixed by the +sacred authority of their mystical books; nor is a cow brought to him +more than once a year, who also must be distinguished with particular +marks); then another is sought amid great public mourning; and if one +can be found distinguished by all the required marks, he is led to +Memphis, a city of great renown, and especially celebrated for the +patronage of the god Æsculapius. + +8. And after he has been led into the city by one hundred priests, and +conducted into a chamber, he is looked upon as consecrated, and is said +to point out by evident means the signs of future events. Some also of +those who come to him he repels by unfavourable signs; as it is reported +he formally rejected Cæsar Germanicus when he offered him food; thus +portending what shortly happened. + + +XV. + +§ 1. Let us then, since the occasion seems to require it, touch briefly +on the affairs of Egypt, of which we have already made some mention in +our account of the emperors Hadrian and Severus, where we related +several things which we had seen.[133] + +2. The Egyptian is the most ancient of all nations, except indeed that +its superior antiquity is contested by the Scythians: their country is +bounded on the south[134] by the greater Syrtes, Cape Ras, and Cape +Borion, the Garamantes, and other nations; on the east, by Elephantine, +and Meroe, cities of the Ethiopians, the Catadupi, the Red Sea, and the +Scenite Arabs, whom we now call Saracens. On the north it joins a vast +track of land, where Asia and the Syrian provinces begin; on the west it +is bounded by the Sea of Issus, which some call the Parthenian Sea. + +3. We will also say a few words concerning that most useful of all +rivers, the Nile, which Homer calls the Ægyptus; and after that we will +enumerate other things worthy of admiration in these regions. + +4. The sources of the Nile, in my opinion, will be as unknown to +posterity as they are now. But since poets, who relate fully, and +geographers who differ from one another, give various accounts of this +hidden matter, I will in a few words set forth such of their opinions as +seem to me to border on the truth. + +5. Some natural philosophers affirm that in the districts beneath the +North Pole, when the severe winters bind up everything, the vast masses +of snow congeal; and afterwards, melted by the warmth of the summer, +they make the clouds heavy with liquid moisture, which, being driven to +the south by the Etesian winds, and dissolved into rain by the heat of +the sun, furnish abundant increase to the Nile. + +6. Some, again, assert that the inundations of the river at fixed times +are caused by the rains in Ethiopia, which fall in great abundance in +that country during the hot season; but both these theories seem +inconsistent with the truth--for rain never falls in Ethiopia, or at +least only at rare intervals. + +7. A more common opinion is, that during the continuance of the wind +from the north, called the Precursor, and of the Etesian gales, which +last forty-five days without interruption, they drive back the stream +and check its speed, so that it becomes swollen with its waves thus +dammed back; then, when the wind changes, the force of the breeze drives +the waters to and fro, and the river growing rapidly greater, its +perennial sources driving it forward, it rises as it advances, and +covers everything, spreading over the level plains till it resembles the +sea. + +8. But King Juba, relying on the text of the Carthaginian books, affirms +that the river rises in a mountain situated in Mauritania, which looks +on the Atlantic Ocean, and he says, too, that this is proved by the fact +that fishes, and herbs, and animals resembling those of the Nile are +found in the marshes where the river rises. + +9. But the Nile, passing through the districts of Ethiopia, and many +different countries which give it their own names, swells its +fertilizing stream till it comes to the cataracts. These are abrupt +rocks, from which in its precipitous course it falls with such a crash, +that the Ati, who used to live in that district, having lost their +hearing from the incessant roar, were compelled to migrate to a more +quiet region. + +10. Then proceeding more gently, and receiving no accession of waters in +Egypt, it falls into the sea through seven mouths, each of which is as +serviceable as, and resembles, a separate river. And besides the several +streams which are derived from its channel, and which fall with others +like themselves, there are seven navigable with large waves; named by +the ancients the Heracleotic, the Sebennitic, the Bolbitic, the +Phatnitic, the Mendesian, the Tanitic, and the Pelusian mouths. + +11. This river, rising as I have said, is driven on from the marshes to +the cataracts, and forms several islands; some of which are said to be +of such extent that the stream is three days in passing them. + +12. Among these are two of especial celebrity, Meroe and Delta. The +latter derives its name from its triangular form like the Greek letter; +but when the sun begins to pass through the sign of Cancer, the river +keeps increasing till it passes into Libra; and then, after flowing at a +great height for one hundred days, it falls again, and its waters being +diminished it exhibits, in a state fit for riding on, fields which just +before could only be passed over in boats. + +13. If the inundation be too abundant it is mischievous, just as it is +unproductive if it be too sparing; for if the flood be excessive, it +keeps the ground wet too long; and so delays cultivation; while if it be +deficient, it threatens the land with barrenness. No landowner wishes it +to rise more than sixteen cubits. If the flood be moderate, then the +seed sown in favourable ground sometimes returns seventy fold. The Nile, +too, is the only river which does not cause a breeze. + +14. Egypt also produces many animals both terrestrial and aquatic, and +some which live both on the earth and in the water, and are therefore +called amphibious. In the dry districts antelopes and buffaloes are +found, and sphinxes, animals of an absurd-looking deformity, and other +monsters which it is not worth while to enumerate. + +15. Of the terrestrial animals, the crocodile is abundant in every part +of the country. This is a most destructive quadruped, accustomed to both +elements, having no tongue, and moving only the upper jaw, with teeth +like a comb, which obstinately fasten into everything he can reach. He +propagates his species by eggs like those of a goose. + +16. And as he is armed with claws, if he had only thumbs his enormous +strength would suffice to upset large vessels, for he is sometimes ten +cubits long. At night he sleeps under water; in the day he feeds in the +fields, trusting to the stoutness of his skin, which is so thick that +missiles from military engines will scarcely pierce the mail of his +back. + +17. Savage as these monsters are at all other times, yet as if they had +concluded an armistice, they are always quiet, laying aside all their +ferocity, during the seven days of festival on which the priests at +Memphis celebrate the birthday of Apis. + +18. Besides those which die accidentally, some are killed by wounds +which they receive in their bellies from the dorsal fins of some fish +resembling dolphins, which this river also produces. + +19. Some also are killed by means of a little bird called the trochilus, +which, while seeking for some picking of small food, and flying gently +about the beast while asleep, tickles its cheeks till it comes to the +neighbourhood of its throat. And when the hydrus, which is a kind of +ichneumon, perceives this, it penetrates into its mouth, which the bird +has caused to open, and descends into its stomach, where it devours its +entrails, and then comes forth again. + +20. But the crocodile, though a bold beast towards those who flee, is +very timid when it finds a brave enemy. It has a most acute sight, and +for the four months of winter is said to do without food. + +21. The hippopotamus, also, is produced in this country; the most +sagacious of all animals destitute of reason. He is like a horse, with +cloven hoofs, and a short tail. Of his sagacity it will be sufficient to +produce two instances. + +22. The animal makes his lair among dense beds of reeds of great height, +and while keeping quiet watches vigilantly for every opportunity of +sallying out to feed on the crops. And when he has gorged himself, and +is ready to return, he walks backwards, and makes many tracks, to +prevent any enemies from following the straight road and so finding and +easily killing him. + +23. Again, when he feels lazy from having his stomach swollen by +excessive eating, it rolls its thighs and legs on freshly-cut reeds, in +order that the blood which is discharged through the wounds thus made +may relieve his fat. And then he smears his wounded flesh with clay till +the wounds get scarred over. + +24. This monster was very rare till it was first exhibited to the Roman +people in the ædileship of Scaurus, the father of that Scaurus whom +Cicero defended, when he charged the Sardinians to cherish the same +opinion as the rest of the world of the authority of that noble family. +Since that time, at different periods, many specimens have been brought +to Rome, and now they are not to be found in Egypt, having been driven, +according to the conjecture of the inhabitants, up to the Blemmyæ[135] +by being incessantly pursued by the people. + +25. Among the birds of Egypt, the variety of which is countless, is the +ibis, a sacred and amiable bird, also valuable, because by heaping up +the eggs of serpents in its nest for food it causes these fatal pests to +diminish. + +26. They also sometimes encounter flocks of winged snakes, which come +laden with poison from the marshes of Arabia. These, before they can +quit their own region, they overcome in the air, and then devour them. +This bird, we are told, produces its young through its mouth. + +27. Egypt also produces innumerable quantities of serpents, destructive +beyond all other creatures. Basilisks, amphisbænas,[136] scytalæ, +acontiæ, dipsades, vipers, and many others. The asp is the largest and +most beautiful of all; but that never, of its own accord, quits the +Nile. + +28. There are also in this country many things exceedingly worthy of +observation, of which it is a good time now to mention a few. Everywhere +there are temples of great size. There are seven marvellous pyramids, +the difficulty of building which, and the length of time consumed in the +work, are recorded by Herodotus. They exceed in height anything ever +constructed by human labour, being towers of vast width at the bottom +and ending in sharp points. + +29. And their shape received this name from the geometricians because +they rise in a cone like fire (πῦρ). And huge as they are, as +they taper off gradually, they throw no shadow, in accordance with a +principle of mechanics. + +30. There are also subterranean passages, and winding retreats, which, +it is said, men skilful in the ancient mysteries, by means of which they +divined the coming of a flood, constructed in different places lest the +memory of all their sacred ceremonies should be lost. On the walls, as +they cut them out, they have sculptured several kinds of birds and +beasts, and countless other figures of animals, which they call +hieroglyphics. + +31. There is also Syene, where at the time of the summer solstice the +rays surrounding upright objects do not allow the shadows to extend +beyond the bodies. And if any one fixes a post upright in the ground, or +sees a man or a tree standing erect, he will perceive that their shadow +is consumed at the extremities of their outlines. This also happens at +Meroe, which is the spot in Ethiopia nearest to the equinoctial circle, +and where for ninety days the shadows fall in a way just opposite to +ours, on account of which the natives of that district are called +Antiscii.[137] + +32. But as there are many other wonders which would go beyond the plan +of our little work, we must leave these to men of lofty genius, and +content ourselves with relating a few things about the provinces. + + +XVI. + +§ 1. In former times Egypt is said to have been divided into three +provinces: Egypt proper, the Thebais, and Libya, to which in later times +two more have been added, Augustamnica, which has been cut off from +Egypt proper, and Pentapolis, which has been detached from Libya. + +2. Thebais, among many other cities, can boast especially of Hermopolis, +Coptos, and Antinous, which Hadrian built in honour of his friend +Antinous. As to Thebes, with, its hundred gates, there is no one +ignorant of its renown. + +3. In Augustamnica, among others, there is the noble city of Pelusium, +which is said to have been founded by Peleus, the father of Achilles, +who by command of the gods was ordered to purify himself in the lake +adjacent to the walls of the city, when, after having slain his brother +Phocus, he was driven about by horrid images of the Furies; and Cassium, +where the tomb of the great Pompey is, and Ostracine, and Rhinocolura. + +4. In Libya Pentapolis is Cyrene, a city of great antiquity, but now +deserted, founded by Battus the Spartan, and Ptolemais, and Arsinoë, +known also as Teuchira, and Darnis, and Berenice, called also +Hesperides. + +5. And in the dry Libya, besides a few other insignificant towns, there +are Parætonium, Chærecla, and Neapolis. + +6. Egypt proper, which ever since it has been united to the Roman empire +has been under the government of a prefect, besides some other towns of +smaller importance, is distinguished by Athribis, and Oxyrynchus, and +Thmuis, and Memphis. + +7. But the greatest of all the cities is Alexandria, ennobled by many +circumstances, and especially by the grandeur of its great founder, and +the skill of its architect Dinocrates, who, when he was laying the +foundation of its extensive and beautiful walls, for want of mortar, +which could not be procured at the moment, is said to have marked out +its outline with flour; an incident which foreshowed that the city +should hereafter abound in supplies of provisions. + +8. At Inibis the air is wholesome, the sky pure and undisturbed; and, as +the experience of a long series of ages proves, there is scarcely ever a +day on which the inhabitants of this city do not see the sun. + +9. The shore is shifty and dangerous; and as in former times it exposed +sailors to many dangers, Cleopatra erected a lofty tower in the harbour, +which was named Pharos, from the spot on which it was built, and which +afforded light to vessels by night when coming from the Levant or the +Libyan sea along the plain and level coast, without any signs of +mountains or towns or eminences to direct them, they were previously +often wrecked by striking into the soft and adhesive sand. + +10. The same queen, for a well-known and necessary reason, made a +causeway seven furlongs in extent, admirable for its size and for the +almost incredible rapidity with which it was made. The island of Pharos, +where Homer in sublime language relates that Proteus used to amuse +himself with his herds of seals, is almost a thousand yards from the +shore on which the city stands, and was liable to pay tribute to the +Rhodians. + +11. And when on one occasion the farmers of this revenue came to make +exorbitant demands, she, being a wily woman, on a pretext of it being +the season of solemn holidays, led them into the suburbs, and ordered +the work to be carried on without ceasing. And so seven furlongs were +completed in seven days, being raised with the soil of the adjacent +shore. Then the queen, driving over it in her chariot, said that the +Rhodians were making a blunder in demanding port dues for what was not +an island but part of the mainland. + +12. Besides this there are many lofty temples, and especially one to +Serapis, which, although no words can adequately describe it, we may yet +say, from its splendid halls supported by pillars, and its beautiful +statues and other embellishments, is so superbly decorated, that next to +the Capitol, of which the ever-venerable Rome boasts, the whole world +has nothing worthier of admiration. + +13. In it were libraries of inestimable value; and the concurrent +testimony of ancient records affirm that 70,000 volumes, which had been +collected by the anxious care of the Ptolemies, were burnt in the +Alexandrian war when the city was sacked in the time of Cæsar the +Dictator. + +14. Twelve miles from this city is Canopus, which, according to ancient +tradition, received its name from the prophet of Menelaus, who was +buried there. It is a place exceedingly well supplied with good inns, of +a most wholesome climate, with refreshing breezes; so that any one who +resides in that district might think himself out of our world while he +hears the breezes murmuring through the sunny atmosphere. + +15. Alexandria itself was not, like other cities, gradually embellished, +but at its very outset it was adorned with spacious roads. But after +having been long torn by violent seditions, at last, when Aurelian was +emperor, and when the intestine quarrels of its citizens had proceeded +to deadly strife, its walls were destroyed, and it lost the largest half +of its territory, which was called Bruchion, and had long been the abode +of eminent men. + +16. There had lived Aristarchus, that illustrious grammarian; and +Herodianus, that accurate inquirer into the fine arts; and Saccas +Ammonius, the master of Plotinus, and many other writers in various +useful branches of literature, among whom Didymus, surnamed +Chalcenterus, a man celebrated for his writings on many subjects of +science, deserves especial mention; who, in the six books in which he, +sometimes incorrectly, attacks Cicero, imitating those malignant farce +writers, is justly blamed by the learned as a puppy barking from a +distance with puny voice against the mighty roar of the lion. + +17. And although, besides those I have mentioned, there were many other +men of eminence in ancient times, yet even now there is much learning in +the same city; for teachers of various sects flourish, and many kinds of +secret knowledge are explained by geometrical science. Nor is music dead +among them, nor harmony. And by a few, observations of the motion of the +world and of the stars are still cultivated; while of learned +arithmeticians the number is considerable; and besides them there are +many skilled in divination. + +18. Again, of medicine, the aid of which in our present extravagant and +luxurious way of life is incessantly required, the study is carried on +with daily increasing eagerness; so that while the employment be of +itself creditable, it is sufficient as a recommendation for any medical +man to be able to say that he was educated at Alexandria. And this is +enough to say on this subject. + +19. But if any one in the earnestness of his intellect wishes to apply +himself to the various branches of divine knowledge, or to the +examination of metaphysics, he will find that the whole world owes this +kind of learning to Egypt. + +20. Here first, far earlier than in any other country, men arrived at +the various cradles (if I may so say) of different religions. Here they +still carefully preserve the elements of sacred rites as handed down in +their secret volumes. + +21. It was in learning derived from Egypt that Pythagoras was educated, +which taught him to worship the gods in secret, to establish the +principle that in whatever he said or ordered his authority was final, +to exhibit his golden thigh at Olympia, and to be continually seen in +conversation with an eagle. + +22. Here it was that Anaxagoras derived the knowledge which enabled him +to predict that stones would fall from heaven, and from the feeling of +the mud in a well to foretell impending earthquakes. Solon too derived +aid from the apophthegms of the priests of Egypt in the enactment of his +just and moderate laws, by which he gave great confirmation to the Roman +jurisprudence. From this source too Plato, soaring amid sublime ideas, +rivalling Jupiter himself in the magnificence of his voice, acquired +his glorious wisdom by a visit to Egypt. + +23. The inhabitants of Egypt are generally swarthy and dark +complexioned, and of a rather melancholy cast of countenance, thin and +dry looking, quick in every motion, fond of controversy, and bitter +exactors of their rights. Among them a man is ashamed who has not +resisted the payment of tribute, and who does not carry about him wheals +which he has received before he could be compelled to pay it. Nor have +any tortures been found sufficiently powerful to make the hardened +robbers of this country disclose their names unless they do so +voluntarily. + +24. It is well known, as the ancient annals prove, that all Egypt was +formerly under kings who were friendly to us. But after Antony and +Cleopatra were defeated in the naval battle at Actium, it became a +province under the dominion of Octavianus Augustus. We became masters of +the dry Libya by the last will of king Apion. Cyrene and the other +cities of Libya Pentapolis we owe to the liberality of Ptolemy. After +this long digression, I will now return to my original subject. + + +[121] Ammianus uses the phrase "worship of _the gods_," in opposition to +Christianity. + +[122] Pro Archias Poeta, cap. xxii. + +[123] The fable was that Hecuba was turned into a bitch, from which this +place was called κονος σῆμα, a dog's tomb. + +[124] To--the name Βόσπορος is derived from βοὸς πόρος, the passage of +the Cow. + +[125] So Virgil calls them Indomitique Dahæ. In the Georgics, also, he +speaks of the Chalybes as producers of iron. At Chalybes nudi ferrum. + +[126] Or triennial, from τρεῖς, three; and ἒτος, a +year. + +[127] From Διόσκουροι, the sons of Jupiter, _i.e._, Castor and +Pollux. + +[128] From ἡνίοχος, a charioteer. + +[129] The old name was Ἂξεινος, inhospitable; turned into +εὔξεινος, friendly to strangers--εὐήθης, according to +etymology, would mean "of a good disposition:" εὐφρόνη, "the +time when people have happy thoughts;" Εὐμενίδες, "deities of +propitious might." + +[130] A people living in one of the islands near Sicily, and changed by +Jupiter as related, Ov. Met. xiv., into monkeys. + +[131] Two of the chief giants, Hom. Od. xi. + +[132] A time spoken of by Pliny as before the fourth watch. + +[133] These books are lost. + +[134] We must remark here Ammianus's complete ignorance of comparative +geography and the bearings of the different countries of which he +speaks. The Syrtes and Cape Ras are due _west_, not south of Egypt, The +Ethiopians and Catadupi are on the north; while the Arabs, whom he +places in the same line, are on the south-east. The Sea of Issus, on the +Levant, which he places on the west, is on the north. + +[135] The Blemmyæ were an Ethiopian tribe to the south of Egypt. + +[136] These names seem derived from the real or fancied shape of the +snakes mentioned: the amphisbæna, from ἀμφὶ and βαίνω, +to go both ways, as it was believed to have a head at each end. The +scytalas was like "a staff;" the acontias, like "a javelin;" the dipsas +was a thirsty snake. + +[137] From ἀντὶ, opposite; and σκιὰ, shadow. + + + + +BOOK XXIII. + + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Julian in vain attempts to restore the temple at Jerusalem, + which had been destroyed long before.--II. He orders Arsaces, king + of Armenia, to prepare for the war with Persia, and with an army + and auxiliary troops of the Scythians crosses the Euphrates.--III. + As he marches through Mesopotamia, the princes of the Saracenic + tribes of their own accord offer him a golden crown and auxiliary + troops--A Roman fleet of eleven hundred ships arrives, and bridges + over the Euphrates.--IV. A description of several engines, balistæ, + scorpions, or wild-asses, battering-rams, helepoles, and + fire-machines.--V. Julian, with all his army, crosses the river + Aboras by a bridge of boats at Circesium--He harangues his + soldiers.--VI. A description of the eighteen principal provinces of + Persia, their cities, and the customs of their inhabitants. + + +I. + +A.D. 363. + +§ 1. To pass over minute details, these were the principal events of the +year. But Julian, who in his third consulship had taken as his colleague +Sallustius, the prefect of Gaul now entered on his fourth year, and by a +novel arrangement took as his colleague a private individual; an act of +which no one recollected an instance since that of Diocletian and +Aristobulus. + +2. And although, foreseeing in his anxious mind the various accidents +that might happen, he urged on with great diligence all the endless +preparations necessary for his expedition, yet distributing his +diligence everywhere; and being eager to extend the recollection of his +reign by the greatness of his exploits, he proposed to rebuild at a vast +expense the once magnificent temple of Jerusalem, which after many +deadly contests was with difficulty taken by Vespasian and Titus, who +succeeded his father in the conduct of the siege. And he assigned the +task to Alypius of Antioch, who had formerly been proprefect of Britain. + +3. But though Alypius applied himself vigorously to the work, and though +the governor of the province co-operated with him, fearful balls of fire +burst forth with continual eruptions close to the foundations, burning +several of the workmen and making the spot altogether inaccessible. And +thus the very elements, as if by some fate, repelling the attempt, it +was laid aside. + +4. About the same time the emperor conferred various honours on the +ambassadors who were sent to him from the Eternal City, being men of +high rank and established excellence of character. He appointed +Apronianus to be prefect of Rome, Octavianus to be proconsul of Africa, +Venustus to be viceroy of Spain, and promoted Rufinus Aradius to be +count of the East in the room of his uncle Julian, lately deceased. + +5. When all this had been carried out as he arranged, he was alarmed by +an omen which, as the result showed, indicated an event immediately at +hand. Felix, the principal treasurer, having died suddenly of a +hemorrhage, and Count Julian having followed him, the populace, looking +on their public titles, hailed Julian as Felix and Augustus. + +6. Another bad omen had preceded this, for, on the very first day of the +year, as the emperor was mounting the steps of the temple of the Genius, +one of the priests, the eldest of all, fell without any one striking him +and suddenly expired; an event which the bystanders, either out of +ignorance or a desire to flatter, affirmed was an omen affecting +Sallustius, as the elder consul; but it was soon seen that the death it +portended was not to the elder man, but to the higher authority. + +7. Besides these several other lesser signs from time to time indicated +what was about to happen; for, at the very beginning of the arrangements +for the Parthian campaign, news came that there had been an earthquake +at Constantinople, which those skilful in divination declared to be an +unfavourable omen to a ruler about to invade a foreign country; and +therefore advised Julian to abandon his unreasonable enterprise, +affirming that these and similar signs can only be disregarded with +propriety when one's country is invaded by foreign armies, as then there +is one everlasting and invariable law, to defend its safety by every +possible means, allowing no relaxation nor delay. News also came by +letter that at Rome the Sibylline volumes had been consulted on the +subject of the war by Julian's order, and that they had in plain terms +warned him not to quit his own territories that year. + + +II. + +§ 1. But in the mean time embassies arrived from several nations +promising aid, and they were liberally received and dismissed; the +emperor with plausible confidence replying that it by no means became +the power of Rome to rely on foreign aid to avenge itself, as it was +rather fitting that Rome should give support to its friends and allies +if necessity drove them to ask it. + +2. He only warned Arsaces, king of Armenia, to collect a strong force, +and wait for his orders, as he should soon know which way to march, and +what to do. Then, as soon as prudence afforded him an opportunity, +hastening to anticipate every rumour of his approach by the occupation +of the enemy's country, before spring had well set in, he sent the +signal for the advance to all his troops, commanding them to cross the +Euphrates. + +3. As soon as the order reached them, they hastened to quit their winter +quarters; and having crossed the river, according to their orders, they +dispersed into their various stations, and awaited the arrival of the +emperor. But he, being about to quit Antioch, appointed a citizen of +Heliopolis, named Alexander, a man of turbulent and ferocious character, +to govern Syria, saying that he indeed had not deserved such a post, but +that the Antiochians, being covetous and insolent, required a judge of +that kind. + +4. When he was about to set forth, escorted by a promiscuous multitude +who wished him a fortunate march and a glorious return, praying that he +would be merciful and kinder than he had been, he (for the anger which +their addresses and reproaches had excited in his breast was not yet +appeased) spoke with severity to them, and declared that he would never +see them again. + +5. For he said that he had determined, after his campaign was over, to +return by a shorter road to Tarsus in Cilicia, to winter there: and that +he had written to Memorius, the governor of the city, to prepare +everything that he might require in that city. This happened not long +afterwards; for his body was brought back thither and buried in the +suburbs with a very plain funeral, as he himself had commanded. + +6. As the weather was now getting warm he set out on the fifth of March, +and by the usual stages arrived at Hieropolis; and as he entered the +gates of that large city a portico on the left suddenly fell down, and +as fifty soldiers were passing under it at that moment it wounded many, +crushing them beneath the vast weight of the beams and tiles. + +7. Having collected all his troops from thence, he marched with such +speed towards Mesopotamia, that before any intelligence of his march +could arrive (an object about which he was especially solicitous) he +came upon the Assyrians quite unexpectedly. Then having led his whole +army and the Scythian auxiliaries across the Euphrates by a bridge of +boats, he arrived at Batnæ, a town of Osdroene, and there again a sad +omen met him. + +8. For when a great crowd of grooms was standing near an enormously +high haystack, in order to receive their forage (for in this way those +supplies used to be stored in that country), the mass was shaken by the +numbers who sought to strip it, and falling down, overwhelmed fifty men. + + +III. + +§ 1. Leaving this place with a heavy heart, he marched with great speed, +and arrived at Carrhæ, an ancient town notorious for the disasters of +Crassus and the Roman army. From this town two royal roads branch off, +both leading into Persia; that on the left hand through Adiabene and +along the Tigris, that on the right through the Assyrians and along the +Euphrates. + +2. There he stayed some days, preparing necessary supplies; and +according to the custom of the district he offered sacrifices to the +moon, which is religiously worshipped in that region; and it is said +that while before the altar, no witness to the action being admitted, he +secretly gave his own purple robe to Procopius, and bade him boldly +assume the sovereignty if he should hear that he had died among the +Parthians. + +3. Here while asleep his mind was agitated with dreams, and foresaw some +sad event about to happen; on which account he and the interpreters of +dreams considering the omens which presented themselves, pronounced that +the next day, which was the nineteenth of March, ought to be solemnly +observed. But, as was ascertained subsequently, that very same night, +while Apronianus was prefect of Rome, the temple of the Palatine Apollo +was burnt in the Eternal City; and if aid from all quarters had not come +to the rescue the violence of the conflagration would have destroyed +even the prophetic volumes of the Sibyl. + +4. After these things had happened in this manner, and while Julian was +settling his line of march, and making arrangements for supplies of all +kinds, his scouts come panting in, and bring him word that some +squadrons of the enemy's cavalry have suddenly passed the frontier in +the neighbourhood of the camp, and have driven off a large booty. + +5. Indignant at such atrocity and at such an insult, he immediately (as +indeed he had previously contemplated) put thirty thousand chosen men +under the orders of Procopius, who has been already mentioned, uniting +with him in this command Count Sebastian, formerly Duke of Egypt; and he +ordered them to act on this side of the Tigris, observing everything +vigilantly, so that no danger might arise on any side where it was not +expected, for such things had frequently happened. He charged them +further, if it could be done, to join King Arsaces; and march with him +suddenly through Corduena and Moxoëne, ravaging Chiliocomus, a very +fertile district of Media, and other places; and then to rejoin him +while still in Assyria, in order to assist him as he might require. + +6. Having taken these measures, Julian himself, pretending to march by +the line of the Tigris, on which road he had purposely commanded +magazines of provisions to be prepared, turned towards the right, and +after a quiet night, asked in the morning for the horse which he was +accustomed to ride: his name was Babylonius. And when he was brought, +being suddenly griped and starting at the pain, he fell down, and +rolling about scattered the gold and jewels with which his trappings +were decked. Julian, in joy at this omen, cried out, amid the applause +of those around, that "Babylon had fallen, and was stripped of all her +ornaments." + +7. Having delayed a little that he might confirm the omen by the +sacrifice of some victims, he advanced to Davana, where he had a +garrison-fortress, and where the river Belias rises which falls into the +Euphrates. Here he refreshed his men with food and sleep, and the next +day reached Callinicus, a strong fortress, and also a great commercial +mart, where, on the 27th of March (the day on which at Rome the annual +festival in honour of Cybele is celebrated, and the car in which her +image is borne is, as it is said, washed in the waters of the Almo), he +kept the same feast according to the manner of the ancients, and then, +retiring to rest, passed a triumphant, and joyful night. + +8. The next day he proceeded along the bank of the river, which other +streams began to augment, marching with an armed escort; and at night he +rested in a tent where some princes of the Saracenic tribes came as +suppliants, bringing him a golden crown, and adoring him as the master +of the world and of their own nations: he received them graciously, as +people well adapted for surprises in war. + +9. And while addressing them a fleet arrived equal to that of the mighty +sovereign Xerxes, under the command of the tribune Constantianus, and +Count Lucillianus; they threw a bridge over the broadest part of the +Euphrates: the fleet consisted of one thousand transports, of various +sorts and sizes, bringing large supplies of provisions, and arms, and +engines for sieges, and fifty ships of war, and as many more suitable +for the construction of bridges. + + +IV. + +§ 1. I am reminded by the circumstances to explain instruments of this +kind briefly, as far as my moderate talent may enable me to do, and +first I will set forth the figure of the balista. + +2. Between two axletrees a strong large iron bar is fastened, like a +great rule, round, smooth, and polished; from its centre a square pin +projects for some distance, hollowed out into a narrow channel down its +middle. This is bound by many ligatures of twisted cords: to it two +wooden nuts are accurately fitted, by one of which stands a skilful man +who works it, and who fits neatly into the hollow of the pin or pole a +wooden arrow with a large point; and as soon as this is done, some +strong young men rapidly turn a wheel. + +3. When the tip of the arrow's point has reached the extremity of the +cords, the arrow is struck by a blow from the balista, and flies out of +sight; sometimes even giving forth sparks by its great velocity, and it +often happens that before the arrow is seen, it has given a fatal wound. + +4. The scorpion, which they now call the wild-ass, is in the following +form. Two axletrees of oak or box are cut out and slightly curved, so as +to project in small humps, and they are fastened together like a sawing +machine, being perforated with large holes on each side; and between +them, through the holes, strong ropes are fastened to hold the two parts +together, and prevent them from starting asunder. + +5. From these ropes thus placed a wooden pin rises in an oblique +direction, like the pole of a chariot, and it is so fastened by knotted +cords as to be raised or depressed at pleasure. To its top, iron hooks +are fastened, from which a sling hangs, made of either cord or iron. +Below the pin is a large sack filled with shreds of cloth, fastened by +strong ties, and resting on heaped-up turves or mounds of brick. For an +engine of this kind, if placed on a stone wall would destroy whatever +was beneath it, not by its weight, but by the violence of its +concussion. + +6. Then when a conflict begins, a round stone is placed on the sling, +and four youths on each side, loosening the bar to which the cords are +attached, bend the pin back till it points almost upright into the air; +then the worker of the engine, standing by on high ground, frees by a +blow with the heavy hammer the bolt which keeps down the whole engine; +and the pin being set free by the stroke, and striking against the mass +of cloth shreds, hurls forth the stone with such force as to crush +whatever it strikes. + +7. This engine is called a _tormentum_, because all its parts are +twisted (_torquetur_); or a scorpion, because it has an erect sting; but +modern times have given it the name of the wild-ass, because when wild +asses are hunted, they throw the stones behind them by their kicks so as +to pierce the chests of those who pursue them, or to fracture their +skulls. + +8. Now let us come to the battering ram. A lofty pine or ash is chosen, +the top of which is armed with a long and hard head of iron, resembling +a ram, which form has given the name to the engine. It is suspended from +iron beams running across on each side, like the top of a pair of +scales, and is kept in its place by ropes hanging from a third beam. A +number of men draw it back as far as there is room, and then again drive +it forward to break down whatever opposes it by mighty blows, like a ram +which rises up and butts. + +9. By the frequent blows of this rebounding thunderbolt, buildings are +torn asunder and walls are loosened and thrown down. By this kind of +engine, if worked with proper vigour, garrisons are deprived of their +defences, and the strongest cities are laid open and sieges rapidly +brought to a conclusion. + +10. Instead of these rams, which from their common use came to be +despised, a machine was framed called in Greek the helepolis, by the +frequent use of which Demetrius, the son of king Antigonus, took Rhodes +and other cities, and earned the surname of Poliorcetes. + +11. It is constructed in this manner. A vast testudo is put together, +strengthened with long beams and fastened with iron nails; it is covered +with bullocks' hides and wicker-work made of freshly cut twigs, and its +top is smeared over with clay to keep off missiles and fiery darts. + +12. Along its front very sharp spears with three points are fastened, +heavy with iron, like the thunderbolts represented by painters or +sculptors, and strong enough with the projecting points to tear to +pieces whatever it strikes. + +13. A number of soldiers within guide this vast mast with wheels and +ropes, urging with vehement impulse against the weaker parts of the +wall, so that, unless repelled by the strength of the garrison above, it +breaks down the wall and lays open a great breach. + +14. The firebolts, which are a kind of missile, are made thus. They take +an arrow of cane, joined together between the point and the reed with +jagged iron, and made in the shape of a woman's spindle, with which +linen threads are spun; this is cunningly hollowed out in the belly and +made with several openings, and in the cavity fire and fuel of some kind +is placed. + +15. Then if it be shot slowly from a slack bow (for if it be shot with +too much speed the fire is extinguished), so as to stick anywhere, it +burns obstinately, and if sprinkled with water it creates a still +fiercer fire, nor will anything but throwing dust upon it quench it. +This is enough to say of mural engines; let us now return to our +original subject. + + +V. + +§ 1. Having received the reinforcements of the Saracens which they so +cheerfully offered, the emperor advanced with speed, and at the +beginning of April entered Circesium, a very secure fortress, and +skilfully built, it is surrounded by the two rivers Aboras (or Chaboras) +and Euphrates, which make it as it were an island. + +2. It had formerly been small and insecure, till Diocletian surrounded +it with lofty towers and walls when he was strengthening his inner +frontier within the very territories of the barbarians, in order to +prevent the Persians from overrunning Syria, as had happened a few years +before to the great injury of the province. + +3. For it happened one day at Antioch, when the city was in perfect +tranquillity, a comic actor being on the stage with his wife, acting +some common play, while the people were delighted with his acting, the +wife suddenly exclaimed, "Unless I am dreaming, here are the Persians;" +and immediately the populace turning round, were put to flight, and +driven about in every direction while seeking to escape the darts which +were showered upon them; and so the city being burnt and numbers of the +citizens slain, who, as is usual in time of peace, were strolling about +carelessly, and all the places in the neighbourhood being burnt and laid +waste, the enemy loaded with booty returned in safety to their own +country after having burnt Mareades alive, who had wickedly guided them +to the destruction of his fellow-citizens. This event took place in the +time of Gallienus. + +4. But Julian, while remaining at Circesium to give time for his army +and all its followers to cross the bridge of boats over the Aboras, +received letters with bad news from Sallust, the prefect of Gaul, +entreating him to suspend his expedition against the Parthians, and +imploring him not in such an unseasonable manner to rush on irrevocable +destruction before propitiating the gods. + +5. But Julian disregarded his prudent adviser, and advanced boldly; +since no human power or virtue can ever avail to prevent events +prescribed by the order of the Fates. And immediately, having crossed +the river, he ordered the bridge to be taken to pieces, that the +soldiers might have no hope of safety by quitting their ranks and +returning. + +6. Here also a bad omen was seen; the corpse of an officer who had been +put to death by the executioner, whom Sallust, the prefect, while in +this country had condemned to death, because, after having promised to +deliver an additional supply of provisions by an appointed day, he +disappointed him through some hindrance. But after the unhappy man had +been executed, the very next day there arrived, as he had promised, +another fleet heavily laden with corn. + +7. Leaving Circesium, we came to Zaitha, the name of the place meaning +an olive-tree. Here we saw the tomb of the emperor Gordian, which is +visible a long way off, whose actions from his earliest youth, and whose +most fortunate campaigns and treacherous murder we related at the proper +time,[138] and when, in accordance with his innate piety he had offered +due honours to this deified emperor and was on his way to Dura, a town +now deserted, he stood without moving on beholding a large body of +soldiers. + +8. And as he was doubting what their object was, they brought him an +enormous lion which had attacked their ranks and had been slain by their +javelins. He, elated at this circumstance, which he looked on as an omen +of success in his enterprise, advanced with increased exultation; but so +uncertain is fortune, the event was quite contrary to his expectation. +The death of a king was certainly foreshown, but who was the king was +uncertain. + +9. For we often read of ambiguous oracles, never understood till the +results interpreted them; as, for instance, the Delphic prophecy, which +foretold that after crossing the Halys, Croesus would overthrow a +mighty kingdom; and another, which by hints pointed out the sea to the +Athenians as the field of combat against the Medes; and another; later +than these, but not less ambiguous:-- + + "O son of Æacus, + I say that you the Romans can subdue." + +10. The Etrurian soothsayers who accompanied him, being men skilful in +portents, had often warned him against this campaign, but got no credit; +so now they produced their books of such signs, and showed that this was +an omen of a forbidding character, and unfavourable to a prince who +should invade the country of another sovereign however justly. + +11. But he spurned the opposition of philosophers, whose authority he +ought to have reverenced, though at times they were mistaken, and though +they were sometimes obstinate in cases which they did not thoroughly +understand. In truth, they brought forward as a plausible argument to +secure credit to their knowledge, that in time past, when Cæsar +Maximianus was about to fight Narses, king of the Persians, a lion and a +huge boar which had been slain were at the same time brought to him, and +after subduing that nation he returned in safety; forgetting that the +destruction which was now portended was to him who invaded the dominions +of another, and that Narses had given the offence by being the first to +make an inroad into Armenia, a country under the Roman jurisdiction. + +12. On the next day, which was the 7th of April, as the sun was setting, +suddenly the air became darkened, and all light wholly disappeared, and +after repeated claps of thunder and flashes of lightning, a soldier +named Jovianus was struck by the lightning and killed, with two horses +which he was leading back from the river to which he had taken them to +drink. + +13. When this was seen, the interpreters of such things were sent for +and questioned, and they with increased boldness affirmed that this +event forbade the campaign, demonstrating it to be a monitory lightning +(for this term is applied to signs which advise or discourage any line +of action). And this, as they said, was to be the more guarded against, +because it had killed a soldier of rank, with war-horses; and the books +which explain lightnings pronounce that places struck in this manner +should not be trodden on, nor even looked upon. + +14. On the other hand, the philosophers declared that the brilliancy of +this sacred fire thus suddenly presented to the eye had no special +meaning, but was merely the course of a fiercer breath descending by +some singular power from the sky to the lower parts of the world; and +that if any foreknowledge were to be derived from such a circumstance, +it was rather an increase of renown which was portended to the emperor +now engaged in a glorious enterprise; since it is notorious that flame, +if it meet with no obstacle, does of its own nature fly upwards. + +15. The bridge then, as has been narrated, having been finished, and all +the troops having crossed it, the emperor thought it the most important +of all things to address his soldiers who were advancing resolutely, in +full reliance on their leader and on themselves. Accordingly, a signal +having been given by the trumpets, the centurions, cohorts, and maniples +assembled, and he, standing on a mound of earth, and surrounded by a +ring of officers of high rank, spoke thus with a cheerful face, being +favourably heard with the unanimous good will of all present. + +16. "Seeing, my brave soldiers, that you are full of great vigour and +alacrity, I have determined to address you, to prove to you by several +arguments that the Romans are not, as spiteful grumblers assert, now for +the first time invading the kingdom of Persia. For, to say nothing of +Lucullus or of Pompey, who, having forced his way through the Albani and +Massagetæ, whom we call Alani, penetrated through this nation also so as +to reach the Caspian lake; we know that Ventidius, the lieutenant of +Antony, gained many victories in these regions. + +17. "But to leave those ancient times, I will enumerate other exploits +of more recent memory. Trajan, and Verus, and Severus have all gained +victories and trophies in this country; and the younger Gordian, whose +monument we have just been honouring, would have reaped similar glory, +having conquered and routed the king of Persia at Resaina, if he had not +been wickedly murdered in this very place by the faction of Philip, the +prefect of the prætorium, with the assistance of a few other impious +men. + +18. "But his shade was not long left to wander unavenged, since, as if +Justice herself had laboured in the cause, all those who conspired +against him have been put to death with torture. Those men, indeed, +ambition prompted to the atrocious deed; but we are exhorted by the +miserable fate of cities recently taken, by the unavenged shades of our +slaughtered armies, by the heaviness of our losses, and the loss of many +camps and fortresses, to the enterprise which we have undertaken. All +men uniting in their wishes that we may remedy past evils, and having +secured the honour and safety of the republic on this side, may leave +posterity reason to speak nobly of us. + +19. "By the assistance of the eternal deity, I, your emperor, will be +always among you as a leader and a comrade, relying, as I well believe, +on favourable omens. But if variable fortune shall defeat me in battle, +it will still be sufficient for me to have devoted myself for the +welfare of the Roman world, like ancient Curtii and Mucii, and the +illustrious family of the Decii. We have to abolish a most pernicious +nation, on whose swords the blood of our kindred is not yet dry. + +20. "Our ancestors have before now devoted ages to cause the +destruction of enemies who harassed them. Carthage was overthrown after +a long and distressing war; and its great conqueror feared to let it +survive his victory. After a long and often disastrous siege, Scipio +utterly destroyed Numantia. Rome destroyed Fidenæ, that it might not +grow up as a rival to the empire; and so entirely laid waste Falisci and +Veii, that it is not easy to attach so much faith to ancient records as +to believe that those cities ever were powerful. + +21. "These transactions I have related to you as one acquainted with +ancient history. It follows that all should lay aside, as unworthy of +him, the love of plunder, which has often been the insidious bane of the +Roman soldier, and that every one should keep steadily to his own troop +and his own standard, when the necessity for fighting arises, knowing +that should he loiter anywhere he will be hamstrung and left to his +fate. I fear nothing of our over-crafty enemies but their tricks and +perfidy. + +22. "Finally, I promise you all, that when our affairs have met with +success, without entrenching myself behind my imperial prerogative, so +as to consider all my own decisions and opinions irrefragably just and +reasonable because of my authority, I will give, if required, a full +explanation of all that I have done, that you may be able to judge +whether it has been wise or not. + +23. "Therefore, I entreat you, now summon all your courage, in full +reliance on your good fortune, sure at all events that I will share all +dangers equally with you, and believing that victory ever accompanies +justice." + +24. When he had ended his harangue with this pleasant peroration, the +soldiers, exulting in the glory of their chief, and elated with the +hopes of success, lifted up their shields on high, and cried out that +they should think nothing dangerous nor difficult under an emperor who +imposed more toil on himself than on his common soldiers. + +25. And above all the rest his Gallic troops showed this feeling with +triumphant shouts, remembering how often while he as their leader was +marshalling their ranks, they had seen some nations defeated and others +compelled to sue for mercy and peace. + + +VI. + +§ 1. Our history here leads us to a digression explanatory of the +situation of Persia. It has been already dilated upon by those who +describe different nations, though but few of them have given a correct +account; if my story should be a little longer, it will contribute to a +better knowledge of the country. For whoever affects excessive +conciseness while speaking of things but little known, does not so much +consider how to explain matters intelligibly, as how much he may omit. + +2. This kingdom, formerly but small, and one which had been known by +several names, from causes which we have often mentioned, after the +death of Alexander at Babylon received the name of Parthia from Arsaces, +a youth of obscure birth, who in his early youth was a leader of +banditti, but who gradually improved his condition, and rose to high +renown from his illustrious actions. + +3. After many splendid and gallant exploits he defeated Nicator +Seleucus, the successor of the above-named Alexander, who had received +the surname of Nicator[139] from his repeated victories; and having +expelled the Macedonian garrisons, he lived for the remainder of his +life in peace, like a merciful ruler of willing subjects. + +4. At last, after all the neighbouring districts had been brought under +his power, either by force or by fear, or by his reputation for justice, +he died a peaceful death in middle age, after he had filled all Persia +with flourishing cities and well-fortified camps and fortresses, and had +made it an object of terror to its neighbours whom previously it used to +fear. And he was the first of these kings who had by the unanimous +consent of all his countrymen of all ranks, in accordance with the +tenets of their religion, had his memory consecrated as one now placed +among the stars. + +5. And it is from his era that the arrogant sovereigns of that nation +have allowed themselves to be entitled brothers of the sun and moon. +And, as the title of Augustus is sought for and desired by our emperors, +so now the additional dignities first earned by the fortunate auspices +of Arsaces are claimed by all the Parthian kings, who were formerly +abject and inconsiderable. + +6. So that they still worship and honour Arsaces as a god, and down to +our day have given him so much honour that, in conferring the royal +power, one of his race has been always preferred to any one else. And +also in intestine quarrels, such as are common in that nation, every one +avoids as sacrilege wounding any descendant of Arsaces, whether in arms +or living as a private individual. + +7. It is well known that this nation, after subduing many others by +force, extended its dominions as far as the Propontis and Thrace; but +that it subsequently became diminished and suffered great disasters, +owing to the arrogance of its ambitious monarchs, who carried their +licentious inroads into distant countries. First, in consequence of the +conduct of Cyrus, who crossed the Bosphorus with a fabulous host, but +was wholly destroyed by Tomyris, queen of the Scythians, who thus +terribly avenged her sons. + +8. After him, when Darius, and subsequently Xerxes, changed the use[140] +of the elements and invaded Greece, they had nearly all their forces +destroyed by land and sea, and could scarcely escape in safety +themselves. I say nothing of the wars of Alexander, and of his leaving +the sovereignty over the whole nation by will to his successor. + +9. Then, a long time after these events, while our republic was under +consuls, and was afterwards brought under the power of the Cæsars, that +nation was constantly warring with us, sometimes with equal fortune; +being at one time defeated, and at another victorious. + +10. Now I will in a few words describe the situation and position of the +country as well as I can. It is a region of great extent both in length +and breadth, entirely surrounding on all sides the famous Persian gulf +with its many islands. The mouth of this gulf is so narrow that from +Harmozon, the promontory of Carmania, the opposite headland, which the +natives call Maces, is easily seen. + +11. When the strait between these capes is passed, and the water becomes +wider, they are navigable up to the city Teredon, where, after having +suffered a great diminution of its waters, the Euphrates falls into the +sea. The entire gulf, if measured round the shore, is 20,000 furlongs, +being of a circular form as if turned in a lathe. And all round its +coasts are towns and villages in great numbers; and the vessels which +navigate its waters are likewise very numerous. + +12. Having then passed through this strait we come to the gulf of +Armenia on the east, the gulf of Cantichus on the south, and on the west +to a third, which they call Chalites.[141] These gulfs, after washing +many islands, of which but few are known, join the great Indian Ocean, +which is the first to receive the glowing rising of the sun, and is +itself of an excessive heat. + +13. As the pens of geographers delineate it, the whole of the region +which we have been speaking of is thus divided. From the north to the +Caspian gates it borders on the Cadusii, and on many Scythian tribes, +and on the Arimaspi, a fierce one-eyed people. On the west it is bounded +by the Armenians, and Mount Niphates, the Asiatic Albani, the Red Sea, +and the Scenite Arabs, whom later times have called the Saracens. To the +south it looks towards Mesopotamia, on the east it reaches to the +Ganges, which falls into the Southern Ocean after intersecting the +countries of the Indians. + +14. The principal districts of Persia, under command of the Vitaxæ, that +is to say of the generals of the cavalry, and of the king's Satraps, for +the many inferior provinces it would be difficult and superfluous to +enumerate, are Assyria, Susiana, Media, Persia, Parthia, the greater +Carmania, Hyrcania, Margiana, the Bactrians, the Sogdians, the Sacæ, +Scythia beyond Mount Emodes, Serica, Aria, the Paropanisadæ, Drangiana, +Arachosia, and Gedrosia. + +15. Superior to all the rest is that which is the nearest to us, +Assyria, both in renown, and extent, and its varied riches and +fertility. It was formerly divided among several peoples and tribes, but +is now known under one common name as Assyria. It is in that country +that amid its abundance of fruits and ordinary crops, there is a lake +named Sosingites, near which bitumen is found. In this lake the Tigris +is for a while absorbed, flowing beneath its bed, till, at a great +distance, it emerges again. + +16. Here also is produced naphtha, an article of a pitchy and glutinous +character, resembling bitumen: on which if ever so small a bird perches, +it finds its flight impeded and speedily dies. It is a species of +liquid, and when once it has taken fire, human ingenuity can find no +means of extinguishing it except that of heaping dust on it. + +17. In the same district is seen an opening in the earth from which a +deadly vapour arises, which by its foul odour destroys any animal which +comes near it. The evil arises from a deep well, and if that odour +spread beyond its wide mouth before it rose higher, it would make all +the country around uninhabitable by its fetid effect. + +18. There used, as some affirm, to be a similar chasm near Hierapolis in +Phrygia; from which a noxious vapour rose in like manner with a fetid +smell which never ceased, and destroyed everything within the reach of +its influence, except eunuchs; to what this was owing we leave natural +philosophers to determine. + +19. Also near the temple of the Asbamæan Jupiter, in Cappadocia (in +which district that eminent philosopher Apollonius is said to have been +born near the town of Tyana), a spring rises from a marsh, which, +however swollen with its rising floods, never overflows its banks. + +20. Within this circuit is Adiabene, which was formerly called Assyria, +but by long custom has received its present name from the circumstance, +that being placed between the two navigable rivers the Ona and the +Tigris, it can never be approached by fording; for in Greek we use +διαβαίνειν for to "cross:" this was the belief of the ancients. + +21. But we say that in this country there are two rivers which never +fail, which we ourselves have crossed, the Diabas, and the Adiabas: +both having bridges of boats over them; and that Adiabene has received +its name from this last, as Homer tells us Egypt received its name from +its great river, and India also, and Commagena which was formerly called +Euphratensis, as did the country now called Spain, which was formerly +called Iberia from the Iberus.[142] And the great Spanish province of +Boetica from the river Boetis.[143] + +22. In this district of Adiabene is the city of Nineveh, named after +Ninus, a most mighty sovereign of former times, and the husband of +Semiramis, who was formerly queen of Persia, and also the cities of +Ecbatana, Arbela, and Gaugamela, where Alexander, after several other +battles, gave the crowning defeat to Darius. + +23. In Assyria there are many cities, among which one of the most +eminent is Apamia, surnamed Mesene, and Teredon, and Apollonia, and +Vologesia, and many others of equal importance. But the most splendid +and celebrated are these three, Babylon, the walls of which Semiramis +cemented with pitch; for its citadel indeed was founded by that most +eminent monarch Belus. And Ctesiphon which Vardanes built long ago, and +which subsequently King Pacorus enlarged by an immigration of many +citizens, fortifying it also with walls, and giving it a name, made it +the most splendid place in Persia--next to it Seleucia, the splendid +work of Seleucus Nicator. + +24. This, however, as we have already related, was stormed by the +generals of Verus Cæsar, who carried the image of the Cumæan Apollo to +Rome, and placed it in the temple of the Palatine Apollo, where it was +formally dedicated to that god by his priests. But it is said that after +this statue was carried off, and the city was burnt, the soldiers, +searching the temple, found a narrow hole, and when this was opened in +the hope of finding something of value in it, from some deep gulf which +the secret science of the Chaldæans had closed up, issued a pestilence, +loaded with the force of incurable disease, which in the time of Verus +and Marcus Antoninus polluted the whole world from the borders of Persia +to the Rhine and Gaul with contagion and death. + +25. Near to this is the region of the Chaldæans, the nurse of the +ancient philosophy, as the Chaldæans themselves affirm; and where the +art of true divination has most especially been conspicuous. This +district is watered by the noble rivers already mentioned, by the +Marses, by the Royal river, and by that best of all, the Euphrates, +which divides into three branches, and is navigable in them all, having +many islands, and irrigating the fields around in a manner superior to +any industry of cultivators, making them fit both for the plough and for +the production of trees. + +26. Next to these come the Susians, in whose province there are not many +towns; though Susa itself is celebrated as a city which has often been +the home of kings, and Arsiana, and Sele, and Aracha. The other towns in +this district are unimportant and obscure. Many rivers flow through this +region, the chief of which are the Oroates, the Harax, and the Meseus, +passing through the narrow sandy plain which separates the Caspian from +the Red Sea, and then fall into the sea. + +27. On the left, Media is bounded by the Hyrcanian Sea;[144] a country +which, before the reign of the elder Cyrus and the rise of Persia, we +read was the supreme mistress of all Asia after the Assyrians had been +conquered; the greater part of whose cantons had their name changed into +one general appellation of Acrapatena, and fell by right of war under +the power of the Medes. + +28. They are a warlike nation, and the most formidable of all the +eastern tribes, next to the Parthians, by whom alone they are conquered. +The region which they inhabit is in the form of a square. All the +inhabitants of these districts extend over great breadth of country, +reaching to the foot of a lofty chain of mountains known by the names of +Zagrus, Orontes, and Jasonium. + +29. There is another very lofty mountain called Coronus; and those who +dwell on its western side abound in corn land and vineyards, being +blessed with a most fertile soil, and one enriched by rivers and +fountains. + +30. They have also green meadows, and breeds of noble horses, on which +(as ancient writers relate, and as we ourselves have witnessed) their +men when going to battle mount with great exultation. They call them +Nesæi.[145] + +31. They have also as many cities as Media, and villages as strongly +built as towns in other countries, inhabited by large bodies of +citizens. In short, it is the richest quarter of the kingdom. + +32. In these districts the lands of the Magi are fertile; and it may be +as well to give a short account of that sect and their studies, since we +have occasion to mention their name. Plato, that most learned deliverer +of wise opinions, teaches us that Magiæ is by a mystic name +Machagistia,[146] that is to say, the purest worship of divine beings; +of which knowledge in olden times the Bactrian Zoroaster derived much +from the secret rites of the Chaldæans; and after him Hystaspes, a very +wise monarch, the father of Darius. + +33. Who while boldly penetrating into the remoter districts of upper +India, came to a certain woody retreat, of which with its tranquil +silence the Brahmans, men of sublime genius, were the possessors. From +their teaching he learnt the principles of the motion of the world and +of the stars, and the pure rites of sacrifice, as far as he could; and +of what he learnt he infused some portion into the minds of the Magi, +which they have handed down by tradition to later ages, each instructing +his own children, and adding to it their own system of divination. + +34. From his time, through many ages to the present era, a number of +priests of one and the same race has arisen, dedicated to the worship of +the gods. And they say, if it can be believed, that they even keep alive +in everlasting fires a flame which descended from heaven among them; a +small portion of which, as a favourable omen, used to be borne before +the kings of Asia. + +35. Of this class the number among the ancients was small, and the +Persian sovereigns employed their ministry in the solemn performance of +divine sacrifices, and it was profanation to approach the altars, or to +touch a victim before a Magus with solemn prayers had poured over it a +preliminary libation. But becoming gradually more numerous they arrived +at the dignity and reputation of a substantial race; inhabiting towns +protected by no fortifications, allowed to live by their own laws, and +honoured from the regard borne to their religion. + +36. It was of this race of Magi that the ancient volumes relate that +after the death of Cambyses, seven men seized on the kingdom of Persia, +who were put down by Darius, after he obtained the kingdom through the +neighing of his horse. + +37. In this district a medical oil is prepared with which if an arrow be +smeared, and it be shot gently from a loose bow (for it loses its effect +in a rapid flight), wherever it sticks it burns steadily, and if any one +attempts to quench it with water it only burns more fiercely, nor can it +be put out by any means except by throwing dust on it. + +38. It is made in this manner. Those skilful in such arts mix common oil +with a certain herb, keep it a long time and when the mixture is +completed they thicken it with a material derived from some natural +source, like a thicker oil. The material being a liquor produced in +Persia, and called, as I have already said, naphtha in their native +language. + +39. In this district there are many cities, the most celebrated of which +are Zombis, Patigran, and Gazaca; but the richest and most strongly +fortified are Heraclia, Arsacia, Europos, Cyropolis, and Ecbatana, all +of which are situated in the Syromedian region at the foot of Mount +Jasonius. + +40. There are many rivers in this country, the principal of which are +the Choaspes, the Gyndes, the Amardus, the Charinda, the Cambyses, and +the Cyrus, to which, on account of its size and beauty, the elder Cyrus, +that amiable king, gave its present name, abolishing that which it used +to bear, when he was proceeding on his expedition against Scythia; his +reason being that it was strong, as he accounted himself to be, and that +making its way with great violence, as he proposed to do, it falls into +the Caspian Sea. + +41. Beyond this frontier ancient Persia, stretching towards the south, +extends as far as the sea, and is very thickly peopled, being also rich +in grain and date-trees, and well supplied with excellent water. Many of +its rivers fall into the gulf already mentioned, the chief of which are +the Vatrachites, the Rogomanis, the Brisoana, and the Bagrada. + +42. Its inland towns are very considerable; it is uncertain why they +built nothing remarkable on the sea-coast. Those of most note are +Persepolis, Ardea, Obroatis, and Tragonice. The only islands visible +from that coast are these:--Tabiana, Fara, and Alexandria. + +43. On the borders of this ancient Persia towards the north is Parthia, +a country subject to snow and frost; the principal river which +intersects that region is the Choatres; the chief towns are Genonia, +Moesia, Charax, Apamia, Artacana, and Hecatompylos; from its frontier +along the shores of the Caspian Sea to the Caspian gates is a distance +of 1040 furlongs. + +44. The inhabitants of all the countries in that district are fierce and +warlike, and they are so fond of war and battle that he who is slain in +battle is accounted the happiest of men, while those who die a natural +death are reproached as degenerate and cowardly. + +45. These tribes are bounded on the east and the south by Arabia Felix, +so called because it abounds equally in corn, cattle, vines, and every +kind of spice: a great portion of that country reaches on the right down +to the Red Sea, and on its left extends to the Persian Gulf; so that the +inhabitants reap the benefits of both. + +46. There are in that country many havens and secure harbours, and +well-frequented marts; many spacious and splendid abodes for their +kings, and wholesome springs of water naturally warm, and a great number +of rivers and streams; the climate is temperate and healthy, so that if +one considers the matter rightly, the natives seem to want nothing to +perfect their happiness. + +47. There are in it very many cities both on the coast and inland; many +fertile hills and valleys. The chief cities are Geapolis, Nascon, +Baraba, Nagara, Mephra, Taphra, and Dioscurias. And in both seas it +possesses several islands lying off the coast, which it is not worth +while to enumerate. But the most important of them is Turgana, in which +there is said to be a magnificent temple of Serapis. + +48. Beyond the frontier of this nation is the greater Carmania, lying on +high ground, and stretching to the Indian Sea; fertile in fruit and +timber trees, but neither so productive nor so extensive as Arabia. With +rivers it is as well supplied, and in grass and herbage scarcely +inferior. + +49. The most important rivers are the Sagareus, the Saganis, and the +Hydriacus. The cities are not numerous, but admirably supplied with all +the necessaries and luxuries of life; the most celebrated of them all +are Carmania the metropolis, Portospana, Alexandria, and Hermopolis. + +50. Proceeding inland, we next come to the Hyrcanians, who live on the +coast of the sea of that name. Here the land is so poor that it kills +the seed crops, so that agriculture is not much attended to; but they +live by hunting, taking wonderful pleasure in every kind of sport. +Thousands of tigers are found among them, and all kinds of wild beasts; +we have already mentioned the various devices by which they are caught. + +51. Not indeed that they are ignorant of the art of ploughing, and some +districts where the soil is fertile are regularly sown; nor are trees +wanting to plant in suitable spots: many of the people too support +themselves by commerce. + +52. In this province are two rivers of universal celebrity the Oxus and +the Maxera, which tigers sometimes, when urged by hunger, cross by +swimming, and unexpectedly ravage the neighbouring districts. It has +also besides other smaller towns some strong cities, two on the +sea-shore named Socunda and Saramanna; and some inland, such as Azmorna +and Sole, and Hyrcana, of higher reputation than either. + +53. Opposite to this tribe, towards the north, live the Abii, a very +devout nation, accustomed to trample under foot all worldly things, and +whom, as Homer somewhat fabulously says, Jupiter keeps in view from +Mount Ida. + +54. The regions next to the Hyrcaneans are possessed by the Margiani, +whose district is almost wholly surrounded by high hills, by which they +are separated from the sea; and although the greater part of this +province is deserted from want of water, still there are some towns in +it; the best known of which are Jasonium, Antiochia, and Nisæa. + +55. Next to them are the Bactrians, a nation formerly very warlike and +powerful, and always hostile to the Persians, till they drew all the +nations around under their dominion, and united them under their own +name; and in old time the Bactrian kings were formidable even to +Arsaces. + +56. The greater part of their country, like that of the Margiani, is +situated far from the sea-shore, but its soil is fertile, and the cattle +which feed both on the plains and on the mountains in that district are +very large and powerful; of this the camels which Mithridates brought +from thence, and which were first seen by the Romans at the siege of +Cyzicus, are a proof. + +57. Many tribes are subject to the Bactrians, the most considerable of +which are the Tochari: their country is like Italy in the number of its +rivers, some of which are the Artemis and the Zariaspes, which were +formerly joined, and the Ochus and Orchomanes, which also unite and +afterwards fall into the Oxus, and increase that large river with their +streams. + +58. There are also cities in that country, many of them on the border of +different rivers, the best of which are Chatra, Charte, Alicodra, +Astacea, Menapila, and Bactra itself, which has given its name both to +the region and to the people. + +59. At the foot of the mountains lie a people called the Sogdians, in +whose country are two rivers navigable for large vessels, the Araxates +and the Dymas, which, flowing among the hills and through the valleys +into the open plain, form the extensive Oxian marsh. In this district +the most celebrated towns are Alexandria, Cyreschata, and Drepsa the +metropolis. + +60. Bordering on these are the Sacæ, a fierce nation dwelling in a +gloomy-looking district, only fit for cattle, and on that account +destitute of cities. They are at the foot of Mount Ascanimia and Mount +Comedus, along the bottom of which, and by a town called the Stone +Tower, is the long road much frequented by merchants which leads to +China. + +61. Around the glens at the bottom of the Imanian and Tapurian +mountains, and within the Persian frontier, is a tribe of Scythians, +bordering on the Asiatic Sarmatians, and touching the furthest side of +the Allemanni, who, like dwellers in a secluded spot, and made for +solitude, are scattered over the regions at long distances from one +another, and live on hard and poor food. + +62. And various tribes inhabit these districts, which, as I am +hastening to other topics, I think superfluous to enumerate. But this is +worth knowing, that among these tribes, which are almost unapproachable +on account of their excessive ferocity, there are some races of gentle +and devout men, as the Jaxartæ and the Galactophagi, whom Homer mentions +in his verses:-- + + Γλακτοφάγων, Ἀβίωντε, δικαιοτάτων ἀνθρώπων.[147] + +63. Among the many rivers which flow through this land, either uniting +at last with larger streams, or proceeding straight to the sea, the most +celebrated are the Roemnus, the Jaxartes, and the Talicus. There are +but three cities there of any note, Aspabota, Chauriana, and Saga. + +64. Beyond the districts of the two Scythias, on the eastern side, is a +ring of mountains which surround Serica, a country considerable both for +its extent and the fertility of its soil. This tribe on their western +side border on the Scythians, on the north and the east they look +towards snowy deserts; towards the south they extend as far as India and +the Ganges. The best known of its mountains are Annib, Nazavicium, +Asmira, Emodon, and Opurocarra. + +65. The plain, which descends very suddenly from the hills, and is of +considerable extent, is watered by two famous rivers, the OEchardes +and the Bautis, which is less rapid than the other. The character too of +the different districts is very varied. One is extensive and level, the +other is on a gentle slope, and therefore very fertile in corn, and +cattle, and trees. + +66. The most fertile part of the country is inhabited by various tribes, +of which the Alitrophagi, the Annibi, the Sisyges, and the Chardi lie to +the north, exposed to the frost; towards the east are the Rabannæ, the +Asmiræ, and the Essedones, the most powerful of all, who are joined on +the west by the Athagoræ, and the Aspacaræ; and on the south by the +Betæ, who live on the highest slopes of the mountains. Though they have +not many cities they have some of great size and wealth; the most +beautiful and renowned of which are Asmira, Essedon, Asparata, and Sera. + +67. The Seres themselves live quietly, always avoiding arms and +battles; and as ease is pleasant to moderate and quiet men, they give +trouble to none of their neighbours. Their climate is agreeable and +healthy; the sky serene, the breezes gentle and delicious. They have +numbers of shining groves, the trees of which through continued watering +produce a crop like the fleece of a sheep, which the natives make into a +delicate wool, and spin into a kind of fine cloth, formerly confined to +the use of the nobles, but now procurable by the lowest of the people +without distinction. + +68. The natives themselves are the most frugal of men, cultivating a +peaceful life, and shunning the society of other men. And when strangers +cross their river to buy their cloth, or any other of their merchandise, +they interchange no conversation, but settle the price of the articles +wanted by nods and signs; and they are so moderate that, while selling +their own produce, they never buy any foreign wares. + +69. Beyond the Seres, towards the north, live the Ariani; their land is +intersected by a navigable river called the Arias, which forms a huge +lake known by the same name. This district of Asia is full of towns, the +most illustrious of which are Bitaxa, Sarmatina, Sotera, Nisibis, and +Alexandria, from which last down the river to the Caspian Sea is a +distance of fifteen hundred furlongs. + +70. Close to their border, living on the slopes of the mountains, are +the Paropanisatæ, looking on the east towards India, and on the west +towards Mount Caucasus. Their principal river is Ortogordomaris, which +rises in Bactria. They have some cities, the principal being Agazaca, +Naulibus, and Ortopana, from which if you coast along the shore to the +borders of Media which are nearest to the Caspian gates, the distance is +two thousand two hundred furlongs. + +71. Next to them, among the hills, are the Drangiani, whose chief river +is the Arabis, so called because it rises in Arabia; and their two +principal towns are Prophthasia and Aniaspe, both wealthy and well +known. + +72. Next to them is Arachosia, which on the right extends as far as +India. It is abundantly watered by a river much smaller than the Indus, +that greatest of rivers, which gives its name to the surrounding +regions; in fact their river flows out of the Indus, and passes on till +it forms the marsh known as Arachotoscrene. Its leading cities are +Alexandria, Arbaca, and Choaspa. + +73. In the most inland districts of Persia is Gedrosia; which on its +right touches the frontier of India, and is fertilized by several +rivers, of which the greatest is the Artabius. There the Barbitani +mountains end, and from their lowest parts rise several rivers which +fall into the Indus, losing their own names in the greatness of that +superior stream. They have several islands, and their principal cities +are Sedratyra and Gynæcon. + +74. We need not detail minutely every portion of the sea-coast on the +extremity of Persia, as it would lead us into too long a digression. It +will suffice to say that the sea which stretches from the Caspian +mountains along the northern side to the straits above mentioned, is +nine thousand furlongs in extent; the southern frontier, from the mouth +of the Nile to the beginning of Carmania, is fourteen thousand furlongs. + +75. In these varied districts of different languages, the races of men +are as different as the places. But to describe their persons and +customs in general terms, they are nearly all slight in figure, swarthy +or rather of a pale livid complexion; fierce-looking, with goat-like +eyes, and eyebrows arched in a semicircle and joined, with handsome +beards, and long hair. They at all times, even at banquets and +festivals, wear swords; a custom which that excellent author Thucydides +tells us the Athenians were the first of the Greeks to lay aside. + +76. They are generally amazingly addicted to amatory pleasures; each man +scarcely contenting himself with a multitude of concubines: from +unnatural vices they are free. Each man marries many or few wives, as he +can afford them, so that natural affection is lost among them because of +the numerous objects of their licence. They are frugal in their +banquets, avoiding immoderate indulgence and especially hard drinking, +as they would the plague. + +77. Nor, except at the king's table, have they any settled time for +dining, but each man's stomach serves as his sun-dial; nor does any one +eat after he is satisfied. + +78. They are marvellously temperate and cautious, so that when sometimes +marching among the gardens and vineyards of enemies, they neither +desire nor touch anything, from fear of poison or witchcraft. + +79. They perform all the secret functions of nature with the most +scrupulous secrecy and modesty. + +80. But they are so loose in their gait, and move with such correct ease +and freedom, that you would think them effeminate, though they are most +vigorous warriors; still they are rather crafty than bold, and are most +formidable at a distance. They abound in empty words, and speak wildly +and fiercely; they talk big, are proud, unmanageable, and threatening +alike in prosperity and adversity; they are cunning, arrogant, and +cruel, exercising the power of life and death over their slaves, and all +low-born plebeians. They flay men alive, both piecemeal, and by +stripping off the whole skin. No servant while waiting on them, or +standing at their table, may gape, speak, or spit, so that their mouths +are completely shut. + +81. Their laws are remarkably severe: the most stringent are against +ingratitude and against deserters; some too are abominable, inasmuch as +for the crime of one man they condemn all his relations. + +82. But as those only are appointed judges who are men of proved +experience and uprightness, and of such wisdom as to stand in no need of +advice, they laugh at our custom of sometimes appointing men of +eloquence and skill in public jurisprudence as guides to ignorant +judges. The story that one judge was compelled to sit on the skin of +another, who had been condemned for his injustice, is either an ancient +fable, or else, if ever there was such a custom, it has become obsolete. + +83. In military system and discipline, by continual exercises in the +business of the camp, and the adoption of the various manoeuvres which +they have learnt from us, they have become formidable even to the +greatest armies; they trust chiefly to the valour of their cavalry, in +which all their nobles and rich men serve. Their infantry are armed like +mirmillos,[148] and are as obedient as grooms; and they always follow +the cavalry like a band condemned to everlasting slavery, never +receiving either pay or gratuity. This nation, besides those whom it has +permanently subdued, has also compelled many others to go under the +yoke; so brave is it and so skilful in all warlike exercises, that it +would be invincible were it not continually weakened by civil and by +foreign wars. + +84. Most of them wear garments brilliant with various colours, so +completely enveloping the body that even though they leave the bosoms +and sides of their robes open so as to flutter in the wind, still from +their shoes to their head no part of their person is exposed. After +conquering Croesus and subduing Lydia, they learnt also to wear golden +armlets and necklaces, and jewels, especially pearls, of which they had +great quantities. + +85. It only remains for me to say a few words about the origin of this +stone. Among the Indians and Persians pearls are found in strong white +sea-shells, being created at a regular time by the admixture of dew. For +the shells, desiring as it were a kind of copulation, open so as to +receive moisture from the nocturnal aspersion. Then becoming big they +produce little pearls in triplets, or pairs, or unions, which are so +called because the shells when scaled often produce only single pearls, +which then are larger. + +86. And a proof that this produce arises from and is nourished by some +aërial derivation rather than by any fattening power in the sea, is that +the drops of morning dew when infused into them make the stones bright +and round; while the evening dew makes them crooked and red, and +sometimes spotted. They become either small or large in proportion to +the quality of the moisture which they imbibe, and other circumstances. +When they are shaken, as is often the case by thunder, the shells either +become empty, or produce only weak pearls, or such as never come to +maturity. + +87. Fishing for them is difficult and dangerous, and this circumstance +increases their value; because, on account of the snares of the +fishermen they are said to avoid the shores most frequented by them, and +hide around rocks which are difficult of access and the hiding places of +sharks. + +88. We are not ignorant that the same species of jewel is also produced +and collected in the remote parts of the British sea; though of an +inferior value. + + +[138] The book containing this account is lost. + +[139] From νικάω, to conquer. + +[140] As the Greek epigram has it-- + + Τὸν γαίης καὶ πόντου αμειφθείσαισι κελευθοὶς + Ναύτην ἠπείρου, πέζόπορον πελάγους. + +_Thus translated in Bohn's 'Greek Anthology,' p. 25_:-- + + Him, who reversed the laws great Nature gave, + Sail'd o'er the continent and walk'd the wave, + Three hundred spears from Sparta's iron plain + Have stopp'd. Oh blush, ye mountains and thou main! + +[141] The probability is that all these names are corrupt. Ammianus's +ignorance of the relative bearings of countries makes it difficult to +decide what they ought to be. If the proper reading of the last name be, +as Valesius thinks, Sarbaletes, that is the name given by Ptolemy to a +part of the Red Sea. A French translator of the last century considers +the Gulf of Armenia a portion of the Caspian Sea. + +[142] The Ebro. + +[143] The Guadalquivir. + +[144] Ammianus seems to distinguish between the Hyrcanian and Caspian +Sea, which are only different names for the same sea or inland lake. + +[145] A name not very unlike Nejid, to this day the most celebrated Arab +breed. + +[146] There is evidently some corruption here; there is no such Greek +word as Machagistia. + +[147] Il. xiii. 10. + +[148] A kind of gladiator. + + + + +BOOK XXIV. + + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Julian invades Assyria with his army; receives the surrender of + Anatha, a fort on the Euphrates, and burns it.--II. Having made + attempts on other fortresses and towns, he burns some which were + deserted, and receives the surrender of Pirisabora, and burns + it.--III. On account of his successes, he promises his soldiers one + hundred denarii a man; and as they disdain so small a donation, he + in a modest oration recalls them to a proper feeling.--IV. The town + of Maogamalcha is stormed by the Romans, and rased to the + ground.--V. The Romans storm a fort of great strength, both in its + situation and fortifications, and burn it.--VI. Julian defeats the + Persians, slays two thousand five hundred of them, with the loss of + hardly seventy of his own men; and in a public assembly presents + many of his soldiers with crowns.--VII. Being deterred from laying + siege to Ctesiphon, he rashly orders all his boats to be burnt, and + retreats from the river.--VIII. As he was neither able to make + bridges, nor to be joined by a portion of his forces, he determines + to return by Corduena. + + +I. + +A.D. 363. + +§ 1. After having ascertained the alacrity of his army, which with +ardour and unanimity declared with their customary shout that their +fortunate emperor was invincible, Julian thinking it well to put an +early end to his enterprise, after a quiet night ordered the trumpets to +sound a march; and everything being prepared which the arduous +difficulties of the war required, he at daybreak entered the Assyrian +territory in high spirits, riding in front of his ranks, and exciting +all to discharge the duties of brave men in emulation of his own +courage. + +2. And as a leader of experience and skill, fearing lest his ignorance +of the country might lead to his being surprised by secret ambuscades, +he began his march in line of battle. He ordered fifteen hundred +skirmishers to precede him a short distance, who were to march slowly +looking out on each side and also in front, to prevent any sudden +attack. The infantry in the centre were under his own command, they +being the flower and chief strength of the whole army, while on the +right were some legions under Nevitta, who was ordered to march along +the banks of the Euphrates. The left wing with the cavalry he gave to +Arinthæus and Hormisdas, with orders to lead them in close order through +the level and easy country of the plain. The rear was brought up by +Dagalaiphus and Victor, and the last of all was Secundinus, Duke of +Osdruena. + +3. Then in order to alarm the enemy by the idea of his superior numbers, +should they attack him anywhere, or perceive him from a distance, he +opened his ranks so as to spread both horses and men over a larger +space, in such a way that the rear was distant from the van nearly ten +miles; a manoeuvre of great skill which Pyrrhus of Epirus is said to +have often put in practice, extending his camp, or his lines, and +sometimes on the other hand compressing them all, so as to present an +appearance of greater or lesser numbers than the reality, according to +the circumstances of the moment. + +4. The baggage, the sutlers, all the camp-followers, and every kind of +equipment, he placed between the two flanks of troops as they marched, +so as not to leave them unprotected and liable to be carried off by any +sudden attack, as has often happened. The fleet, although the river was +exceedingly winding, was not allowed either to fall behind or to advance +before the army. + +5. After two days' march we came near a deserted town called Dura, on +the bank of the river, where many herds of deer were found, some of +which were slain by arrows, and others knocked down with the heavy oars, +so that soldiers and sailors all had plenty of food; though the greater +part of the animals, being used to swimming, plunged into the rapid +stream and could not be stopped till they had reached their well known +haunts. + +6. Then after an easy march of four days, as evening came on, he +embarked a thousand light-armed troops on board his boats, and sent the +Count Lucillianus to storm the fortress of Anatha, which, like many +other forts in that country, is surrounded by the waters of the +Euphrates; Lucillianus having, as he was ordered, placed his ships in +suitable places, besieged the island, a cloudy night favouring a secret +assault. + +7. But as soon as it became light, one of the garrison going out to get +water, saw the enemy, and immediately raised an outcry, which roused the +awakened garrison to arm in their defence. And presently, from a high +watch-tower, the emperor examined the situation of the fort, and came up +with all speed escorted by two vessels, and followed by a considerable +squadron laden with engines for the siege. + +8. And as he approached the walls, and considered that the contest could +not be carried on without great risk, he tried both by conciliatory and +threatening language to induce the garrison to surrender; and they, +having invited Hormisdas to a conference, were won over by his promises +and oaths to rely on the mercy of the Romans. + +9. At last, driving before them a crowned ox, which among them is a sign +of peace, they descended from the fort as suppliants; the fort was +burnt, and Pusæus, its commander, who was afterwards Duke of Egypt, was +appointed to the rank of tribune. The rest of the garrison with their +families and property were conducted with all kindness to the Syrian +city of Chalcis. + +10. Among them was found a certain soldier, who formerly, when Maximian +invaded Persia, had been left in this district as an invalid, though a +very young man, but who was now bent with age, and according to his own +account had several wives, as is the custom of that country, and a +numerous offspring. He now full of joy, professing to have been a +principal cause of the surrender, was led to our camp, calling many of +his comrades to witness that he had long foreseen and often foretold +that, though nearly a hundred years' old, he should be buried in Roman +ground. After this event, the Saracens brought in some skirmishers of +the enemy whom they had taken; these were received with joy by the +emperor, the Saracens rewarded, and sent back to achieve similar +exploits. + +11. The next day another disaster took place; a whirlwind arose, and +made havoc in many places, throwing down many buildings, tearing in +pieces the tents, and throwing the soldiers on their backs or on their +faces, the violence of the wind overpowering their steadiness of foot. +And the same day another equally perilous occurrence took place. For the +river suddenly overflowed its banks, and some of the ships laden with +provisions were wrecked, the piers and dams which had been constructed +of stone to check and repress the waters being swept away; and whether +that was done by treachery or through the weight of the waters could not +be known. + +12. After having stormed and burnt the chief city, and sent away the +prisoners, the army with increased confidence raised triumphant shouts +in honour of the emperor, thinking that the gods were evidently making +him the object of their peculiar care. + +13. And because in these unknown districts they were forced to be on +unusual guard against hidden dangers, the troops especially feared the +craft and exceeding deceitfulness of the enemy; and therefore the +emperor was everywhere, sometimes in front, sometimes with his +light-armed battalions protecting the rear, in order to see that no +concealed danger threatened it, reconnoitring the dense jungles and +valleys, and restraining the distant sallies of his soldiers, sometimes +with his natural gentleness, and sometimes with threats. + +14. But he allowed the fields of the enemy which were loaded with every +kind of produce to be burnt with their crops and cottages, after his men +had collected all that they could themselves make use of. And in this +way the enemy were terribly injured before they were aware of it; for +the soldiers freely used what they had acquired with their own hands, +thinking that they had found a fresh field for their valour; and joyful +at the abundance of their supplies, they saved what they had in their +own boats. + +15. But one rash soldier, being intoxicated, and having crossed over to +the opposite bank of the river, was taken prisoner before our eyes by +the enemy, and was put to death. + + +II. + +§ 1. After this we arrived at a fort called Thilutha, situated in the +middle of the river on a very high piece of ground, and fortified by +nature as if by the art of man. The inhabitants were invited gently, as +was best, to surrender, since the height of their fort made it +impregnable; but they refused all terms as yet, though they answered +that when the Romans had advanced further so as to occupy the interior +of the country, they also as an appendage would come over to the +conqueror. + +2. Having made this reply they quietly looked down upon our boats as +they passed under the very walls without attempting to molest them. When +that fort was passed we came to another called Achaiacala, also defended +by the river flowing round it, and difficult to scale, where we received +a similar answer, and so passed on. The next day we came to another fort +which had been deserted because its walls were weak; and we burnt it and +proceeded. + +3. In the two next days we marched two hundred furlongs, and arrived at +a place called Paraxmalcha. We then crossed the river, and seven miles +further on we entered the city of Diacira, which we found empty of +inhabitants but full of corn and excellent salt, and here we saw a +temple placed on the summit of a lofty height. We burnt the city and put +a few women to death whom we found there, and having passed a bituminous +spring; we entered the town of Ozogardana, which its inhabitants had +deserted for fear of our approaching army; in that town is shown a +tribunal of the emperor Trajan. + +4. This town also we burnt after we had rested there two days to refresh +our bodies. On the second day just at nightfall, the Surena (who is the +officer next in rank to the king among the Persians), and a man named +Malechus Podosaces, the chief of the Assanite Saracens, who had long +ravaged our frontiers with great ferocity, laid a snare for Hormisdas, +whom by some means or other they had learnt was about to go forth on a +reconnoitring expedition, and only failed because the river being very +narrow at that point, was so deep as to be unfordable. + +5. And so at daybreak, when the enemy were now in sight, the moment that +they were discovered by their glittering helmets and bristling armour, +our men sprang up vigorously to the conflict, and dashed at them with +great courage; and although the enemy wielded their huge bows with great +strength, and the glistening of their weapons increased the alarm of our +soldiers, yet their rage, and the compactness of their ranks, kept alive +and added fuel to their courage. + +6. Animated by their first success, our army advanced to the village of +Macepracta, where were seen vestiges of walls half destroyed, which had +once been of great extent, and had served to protect Assyria from +foreign invasion. + +7. At this point a portion of the river is drawn off in large canals +which convey it to the interior districts of Babylonia, for the service +of the surrounding country and cities. Another branch of the river known +as the Nahamalca, which means "the river of kings," passes by Ctesiphon; +at the beginning of this stream there is a lofty tower like a +lighthouse, by which our infantry passed on a carefully constructed +bridge. + +8. The cavalry and cattle then took the stream where it was less +violent, and swam across obliquely; another body was suddenly attacked +by the enemy with a storm of arrows and javelins, but our light-armed +auxiliaries as soon as they reached the other side, supported them, and +put the enemy to flight, cutting them to pieces as they fled. + +9. After having successfully accomplished this exploit, we arrived at +the city of Pirisabora, of great size and populousness, and also +surrounded with water. But the emperor having ridden all round the walls +and reconnoitred its position, began to lay siege to it with great +caution, as if he would make the townsmen abandon its defence from mere +terror. But after several negotiations and conferences with them, as +they would yield neither to promises nor to threats, he set about the +siege in earnest, and surrounded the walls with three lines of soldiers. +The whole of the first day the combat was carried on with missiles till +nightfall. + +10. But the garrison, full of courage and vigour, spreading cloths loose +everywhere over the battlements to weaken the attacks of our weapons, +and protected by shields strongly woven of osier, made a brave +resistance, looking like figures of iron, since they had plates of iron +closely fitting over every limb, which covered their whole person with a +safe defence. + +11. Sometimes also they earnestly invited Hormisdas as a countryman and +a prince of royal blood to a conference; but when he came they reviled +him with abuse and reproaches as a traitor and deserter; and after a +great part of the day had been consumed in this slow disputing, at the +beginning of night many kinds of engines were brought against the walls, +and we began to fill up the ditches. + +12. But before it was quite dawn, the garrison perceived what was being +done, with the addition that a violent stroke of a battering-ram had +broken down a tower at one corner; so they abandoned the double city +wall, and occupied a citadel close to the wall, erected on the level +summit of a ragged hill, of which the centre, rising up to a great +height in its round circle, resembled an Argive shield, except that in +the north it was not quite round, but at that point it was protected by +a precipice which ran sheer down into the Euphrates; the walls were +built of baked bricks and bitumen, a combination which is well known to +be the strongest of all materials. + +13. And now the savage soldiery, having traversed the city, which they +found empty, were fighting fiercely with the defenders who poured all +kinds of missiles on them from the citadel. Being hard pressed by the +catapults and balistæ of our men, they also raised on the height huge +bows of great power, the extremities of which, rising high on each side, +could only be bent slowly; but the string, when loosed by violent +exertion of the fingers, sent forth iron-tipped arrows with such force +as to inflict fatal wounds on any one whom they struck. + +14. Nevertheless, the fight was maintained on both sides with showers of +stones thrown by the hand, and as neither gained any ground a fierce +contest was protracted from daybreak to nightfall with great obstinacy; +and at last they parted without any advantage to either side. The next +day the fight was renewed with great violence, and numbers were slain on +each side, and still the result was even; when the emperor, being eager +amid this reciprocal slaughter to try every chance, being guarded by a +solid column, and defended from the arrows of the enemy by their closely +packed shields, rushed forward with a rapid charge up to the enemy's +gates, which were faced with stout iron. + +15. And although he was still in some danger, being hard pressed with +stones and bullets and other weapons, still he cheered on his men with +frequent war-cries while they were preparing to force in the gates in +order to effect an entrance, and did not retreat till he found himself +on the point of being entirely overwhelmed by the mass of missiles +which were poured down on him. + +16. However, he came off safe with only a few of his men slightly +wounded; not without feeling some modest shame at being repulsed. For he +had read that Scipio Æmilianus, with the historian Polybius, a citizen +of Megalopolis in Arcadia, and thirty thousand soldiers, had, by a +similar attack, forced the gate of Carthage. + +17. But the account given by the old writers may serve to defend this +modern attempt; for Æmilianus approached a gate protected by a +stone-covered testudo, under which he safely forced his way into the +city while the garrison was occupied in demolishing this stone roof. But +Julian attacked a place completely exposed, while the whole face of +heaven was darkened by the fragments of rock and weapons which were +showered upon him, and was even then with great difficulty repulsed and +forced to retire. + +18. After this hasty and tumultuous assault, as the vast preparations of +sheds and mounds which were carried on were attended with much +difficulty, through the hindrances offered by the garrison, Julian +ordered an engine called helepolis to be constructed with all speed; +which, as we have already mentioned, King Demetrius used, and earned the +title of Poliorcetes by the number of cities which he took. + +19. The garrison, anxiously viewing this engine, which was to exceed the +height of their lofty towers, and considering at the same time the +determination of the besiegers, suddenly betook themselves to +supplications, and spreading over the towers and walls, imploring the +pardon and protection of the Romans with outstretched hands. + +20. And when they saw that the works of the Romans were suspended, and +that those who were constructing them were doing nothing, which seemed a +sure token of peace, they requested an opportunity of conferring with +Hormisdas. + +21. And when this was granted, Mamersides, the commander of the +garrison, was let down by a rope, and conducted to the emperor as he +desired; and having received a promise of his own life, and of impunity +to all his comrades he was allowed to return to the city. And when he +related what had been done, the citizens unanimously agreed to follow +his advice and accept the terms; and peace was solemnly made with all +the sanctions of religion, the gates were thrown open, and the whole +population went forth proclaiming that a protecting genius had shone +upon them in the person of the great and merciful Cæsar. + +22. The number of those who surrendered was two thousand five hundred, +for the rest of the citizens, expecting the siege beforehand, had +crossed the river in small boats and abandoned the city. In the citadel +a great store of arms and provisions was found; and after they had taken +what they required, the conquerors burnt the rest as well as the place +itself. + + +III. + +§ 1. The day after these transactions, serious news reached the emperor +as he was quietly taking his dinner, that the Surena, the Persian +general, had surprised three squadrons of our advanced guard, and slain +a few, among whom was one tribune; and had also taken a standard. + +2. Immediately Julian became violently exasperated, and flew to the spot +with an armed band, placing much hope of success in the rapidity of his +movements: he routed the assailants disgracefully, cashiered the other +two tribunes as blunderers and cowards, and in imitation of the ancient +laws of Rome disbanded ten of the soldiers who had fled, and then +condemned them to death. + +3. Then, having burnt the city as I have already mentioned, he mounted a +tribunal which he had caused to be erected, and having convoked his +army, he thanked them, and counted upon their achieving other similar +exploits. He also promised them each a hundred pieces of silver; but +seeing that they were inclined to murmur, as being disappointed at the +smallness of the sum, he became most indignant and said:-- + +4. "Behold the Persians who abound in wealth of every kind; their riches +may enrich you if we only behave gallantly with one unanimous spirit of +resolution. But after having been very rich, I assure you that the +republic is at this moment in great want, through the conduct of those +men who, to increase their own wealth, taught former emperors to return +home after buying peace of the barbarians with gold. + +5. "The treasury is empty, the cities are exhausted, the finances are +stripped bare. I myself have neither treasures, nor, noble as I am by +birth, do I inherit anything from my family but a heart free from all +fear. Nor shall I be ashamed to place all my happiness in the +cultivation of my mind, while preferring an honourable poverty. For the +Fabricii also conducted great wars while poor in estate and rich only in +glory. + +6. "Of all these things you may have plenty, if, discarding all fear, +you act with moderation, obeying the cautious guidance of God and +myself, as far as human reason can lead you safely; but if you disobey, +and choose to return to your former shameful mutinies, proceed. + +7. "As an emperor should do, I by myself, having performed the important +duties which belong to me, will die standing, despising a life which any +fever may take from me: or else I will abdicate my power, for I have not +lived so as to be unable to descend to a private station. I rejoice in, +and feel proud of the fact that there are with me many leaders of proved +skill and courage, perfect in every kind of military knowledge." + +8. By this modest speech of their emperor, thus unmoved alike by +prosperity and adversity, the soldiers were for a time appeased, +regaining confidence with an expectation of better success; and +unanimously promised to be docile and obedient, at the same time +extolling Julian's authority and magnanimity to the skies; and, as is +their wont when their feelings are genuine and cordial, they showed them +by a gentle rattling of their arms. + +9. Then they returned to their tents, and refreshed themselves with +food, for which they had abundant means, and with sleep during the +night. But Julian encouraged his army not by the idea of their families, +but by the thoughts of the greatness of the enterprises in which they +were embarked: continually making vows--"So might he be able to make the +Persians pass under the yoke." "So might he restore the Roman power +which had been shaken in those regions,"--in imitation of Trajan, who +was accustomed frequently to confirm anything he had said by the +imprecations--"So may I see Dacia reduced to the condition of a +province; so may I bridge over the Danube and Euphrates,"--using many +similar forms of attestation. + +10. Then after proceeding fourteen miles further we came to a certain +spot where the soil is fertilized by the abundance of water. But as the +Persians had learnt that we should advance by this road, they removed +the dams and allowed the waters to flood the country. + +11. The ground being thereby, for a great distance, reduced to the state +of a marsh, the emperor gave the soldiers the next day for rest, and +advancing in front himself, constructed a number of little bridges of +bladders, and coracles[149] made of skins, and rafts of palm-tree +timber, and thus led his army across, though not without difficulty. + +12. In this region many of the fields are planted with vineyards and +various kinds of fruit trees; and palm-trees grow there over a great +extent of country, reaching as far as Mesene and the ocean, forming +great groves. And wherever any one goes he sees continual stocks and +suckers of palms, from the fruit of which abundance of honey and wine is +made, and the palms themselves are said to be divided into male and +female, and it is added that the two sexes can be easily distinguished. + +13. They say further that the female trees produce fruit when +impregnated by the seeds of the male trees, and even that they feel +delight in their mutual love: and that this is clearly shown by the fact +that they lean towards one another, and cannot be bent back even by +strong winds--and if by any unusual accident a female tree is not +impregnated by the male seed, it produces nothing but imperfect fruit, +and if they cannot find out with what male tree any female tree is in +love, they smear the trunk of some tree with the oil which proceeds from +her, and then some other tree naturally conceives a fondness for the +odour; and these proofs create some belief in the story of their +copulation. + +14. The army then, having sated itself with these fruits, passed by +several islands, and instead of the scarcity which they apprehended, the +fear arose that they would become too fat. At last, after having been +attacked by an ambuscade of the enemy's archers, but having avenged +themselves well, they came to a spot where the larger portion of the +Euphrates is divided into a number of small streams. + + +IV. + +§ 1. In this district a city, which on account of the lowness of its +walls, had been deserted by its Jewish inhabitants, was burnt by our +angry soldiers. And afterwards the emperor proceeded further on, being +elated at the manifest protection, as he deemed it, of the Deity. + +2. And when he had reached Maogamalcha, a city of great size and +surrounded with strong walls, he pitched his tent, and took anxious care +that his camp should not be surprised by any sudden attack of the +Persian cavalry; whose courage in the open plains is marvellously +dreaded by the surrounding nations. + +3. And when he had made his arrangements, he himself, with an escort of +a few light troops, went forth on foot to reconnoitre the position of a +city by a close personal examination; but he fell into a dangerous snare +from which he with difficulty escaped with his life. + +4. For ten armed Persians stole out by a gate of the town of which he +was not aware, and crawled on their hands and knees along the bottom of +the hill, till they got within reach so as to fall silently upon our +men, and two of them distinguishing the emperor by his superior +appearance, made at him with drawn swords; but he encountered them with +his shield raised, and protecting himself with that, and fighting with +great and noble courage, he ran one of them through the body, while his +guards killed the other with repeated blows. The rest, of whom some were +wounded, were put to flight, and the two who were slain were stripped of +their arms, and the emperor led back his comrades in safety, laden with +their spoils, into the camp, where he was received with universal joy. + +5. Torquatus took a golden necklace from one of the enemy whom he had +slain. Valerius by the aid of a crow defeated a haughty Gaul and earned +the surname of Corvinus, and by this glory these heroes were recommended +to posterity. We do not envy them, but let this gallant exploit be added +to those ancient memorials. + +6. The next day a bridge was laid across the river, and the army passed +over it, and pitched their camp in a fresh and more healthy place, +fortifying it with a double rampart, since, as we have said, the open +plains were regarded with apprehension. And then he undertook the siege +of the town, thinking it too dangerous to march forward while leaving +formidable enemies in his rear. + +7. While he was making great exertions to complete his preparations, the +Surena, the enemy's general, fell upon the cattle which were feeding in +the palm groves, but was repulsed by those of our squadrons who were +appointed to that service, and, having lost a few men, he retired. + +8. And the inhabitants of two cities which are made islands by the +rivers which surround them, fearing to trust in their means of defence, +fled for refuge to Ctesiphon, some fleeing through the thick woods, +others crossing the neighbouring marshes on canoes formed out of +hollowed trees, and thus made a long journey to the principal or indeed +the only shelter which existed for them, intending to proceed to still +more distant regions. + +9. Some of them were overtaken, and on their resistance were put to +death by our soldiers, who, traversing various districts in barks and +small boats, brought in from time to time many prisoners. For it had +been cleverly arranged that, while the infantry was besieging the town, +the squadrons of cavalry should scour the country in small bands in +order to bring in booty. And by this system, without doing any injury to +the inhabitants of the provinces, the soldiers fed on the bowels of the +enemy. + +10. And by this time the emperor was besieging with all his might and +with a triple line of heavily armed soldiers this town which was +fortified with a double wall; and he had great hope of succeeding in his +enterprise. But if the attempt was indispensable, the execution was very +difficult. For the approach to the town lay everywhere over rocks of +great height and abruptness; across which there was no straight road; +and dangers of two kinds seemed to render the place inaccessible. In the +first place there were towers formidable both for their height and for +the number of their garrison; equalling in height the natural mountain +on which the citadel was built; and secondly, a sloping plain reached +down to the river, which again was protected by stout ramparts. + +11. There was a third difficulty not less formidable that the numerous +garrison of picked men which defended the place could not be won over by +any caresses to surrender, but resisted the enemy as if resolved either +to conquer or to perish amid the ashes of their country. The soldiers, +who desired to attack at once, and also insisted upon a pitched battle +in a fair field, could hardly be restrained, and when the retreat was +sounded they burnt with indignation, being eager to make courageous +onsets on the enemy. + +12. But the wisdom of our leaders overcame the eagerness of mere +courage; and the work being distributed, every one set about his +allotted task with great alacrity. For on one side high mounds were +raised; on another other parties were raising the deep ditches to the +level of the ground; in other quarters hollow pitfalls were covered over +with long planks; artisans also were placing mural engines soon intended +to burst forth with fatal roars. + +13. Nevitta and Dagalaiphus superintended the miners and the erection of +the vineæ, or penthouses; but the beginning of the actual conflict, and +the defence of the machines from fire or from sallies of the garrison, +the emperor took to himself. And when all the preparations for taking +the city had been completed by this variety of labour, and the soldiers +demanded to be led to the assault, a captain named Victor returned, who +had explored all the roads as far as Ctesiphon, and now brought word +that he had met with no obstacles. + +14. At this news all the soldiers became wild with joy, and being more +elated and eager for the contest than ever, they waited under arms for +the signal. + +15. And now on both sides the trumpets sounded with martial clang, and +the Roman vanguard, with incessant attacks and threatening cries, +assailed the enemy, who were covered from head to foot with thin plates +of iron like the feathers of a bird, and who had full confidence that +any weapons that fell on this hard iron would recoil; while our +close-packed shields with which our men covered themselves as with a +testudo, opened loosely so as to adapt themselves to their continual +motion. On the other hand the Persians, obstinately clinging to their +walls, laboured with all their might to avoid and frustrate our deadly +attacks. + +16. But when the assailants, pushing the osier fences before them, +passed up to the walls, the archers, slingers and others, rolling down +huge stones, with firebrands and fire-pots, repelled them to a distance. +Then the balistæ, armed with wooden arrows, were bent and loosened with +a horrid creak, and poured forth incessant storms of darts. And the +scorpions hurled forth round stones under the guidance of the skilful +hands of their workers. + +17. The combat was repeated and redoubled in violence till the heat +increasing up to midday, and the sun burning up everything with its +evaporation, recalled from the battle the combatants on both sides, +equally intent as they were on the works and on the fray, but thoroughly +exhausted by fatigue and dripping with sweat. + +18. The same plan was followed the next day, the two parties contending +resolutely in various modes of fighting, and again they parted with +equal valour, and equal fortune. But in every danger the emperor was +foremost among the armed combatants, urging on the destruction of the +city lest, by being detained too long before its walls, he should be +forced to abandon other objects which he had at heart. + +19. But in times of emergency nothing is so unimportant as not +occasionally to influence great affairs, even contrary to all +expectation. For when, as had often happened, the two sides were +fighting slackly, and on the point of giving over, a battering-ram which +had just been brought up, being pushed forward awkwardly, struck down a +tower which was higher than any of the others, and was very strongly +built of baked brick, and its fall brought down all the adjacent portion +of the wall with a mighty crash. + +20. Then in the variety of incidents which arose, the exertions of the +besiegers and the gallantry of the besieged were equally conspicuous +with noble exploits. For to our soldiers, inflamed with anger and +indignation, nothing appeared difficult. To the garrison, fighting for +their safety, nothing seemed dangerous or formidable. At last, when the +fierce contest had raged a long time and was still undecided, great +slaughter having been made on both sides, the close of day broke it off, +and both armies yielded to fatigue. + +21. While these matters were thus going on in broad daylight, news was +brought to the emperor, who was full of watchful care, that the +legionary soldiers to whom the digging of the mines had been intrusted, +having hollowed out their subterranean paths and supported them with +stout stakes, had now reached the bottom of the foundations of the +walls, and were ready to issue forth if he thought fit. + +22. When therefore a great part of the night was passed, the brazen +trumpets sounded the signal for advancing to battle, and the troops ran +to arms; and as had been planned, the wall was attacked on both its +faces, in order that while the garrison were running to and fro to repel +the danger, and while the noise of the iron tools of the miners digging +at the foundations was overpowered by the din of battle, the miners +should come forth on a sudden without any one being at the mouth of the +mine to resist them. + +23. When these plans had all been arranged, and the garrison was fully +occupied, the mine was opened, and Exsuperius, a soldier of the +Victorian legion, sprung out, followed by a tribune named Magnus, and +Jovianus, a secretary, and an intrepid body of common soldiers, who, +after slaughtering all the men found in the temple into which the mine +opened, went cautiously forward and slew the sentinels, who were +occupying themselves after the fashion of their country in singing the +praises, the justice, and good fortune of their king. + +24. It was believed that Mars himself (if indeed the gods are permitted +to mingle with men) aided Luscinus when he forced the camp of the +Lucanians. And it was the more believed because in the height of the +conflict there was seen an armed figure of enormous size carrying +ladders, who the next day, when the roll was called over, though sought +for very carefully, could not be found anywhere; when if he had really +been a soldier he would have come forward of his own accord from a +consciousness of his gallant action. But though on that occasion it was +never known who performed that splendid achievement, yet those who now +behaved bravely were not unknown, but received obsidional crowns, and +were publicly praised according to the ancient fashion. + +25. At last the fated city, its numerous entrances being laid open, was +entered by the Romans, and the furious troops destroyed all whom they +found, without regard to age or sex. Some of the citizens, from dread of +impending destruction, threatened on one side with fire, on the other +with the sword, weeping threw themselves headlong over the walls, and +being crippled in all their limbs, led for a few hours or days a life +more miserable than any death till they were finally killed. + +26. But Nabdates, the captain of the garrison, was taken alive with +eighty of his guards; and when he was brought before the emperor, that +magnanimous and merciful prince ordered him to be kept in safety. The +booty was divided according to a fair estimate of the merits and labours +of the troops. The emperor, who was contented with very little, took for +his own share of the victory he had thus gained three pieces of gold and +a dumb child who was brought to him, and who by elegant signs and +gesticulations explained all he knew, and considered that an acceptable +and sufficient prize. + +27. But of the virgins who were taken prisoners, and who, as was likely +in Persia, where female beauty is remarkable, were exceedingly +beautiful, he would neither touch nor even see one; imitating Alexander +and Scipio, who refused similar opportunities, in order, after having +proved themselves unconquered by toil, not to show themselves the +victims of desire. + +28. While the battle was going on, an engineer on our side, whose name I +do not know, who happened to be standing just behind a scorpion, was +knocked down and killed by the recoil of a stone, which the worker of +the engine had fitted to the sling carelessly, his whole body being so +dislocated and battered that he could not even be recognized. + +29. After the town was taken intelligence was brought to the emperor +that a troop was lying in ambuscade in some concealed pits around the +walls of the town just taken (of which pits there are many in those +districts), with the intention of surprising the rear of our army by a +sudden attack. + +30. A body of picked infantry of tried courage was therefore sent to +take the troop prisoners. But as they could neither force their way +into the pits, nor induce those concealed in them to come forth to +fight, they collected some straw and faggots, and piled them up before +the mouths of the caves, and then set them on fire, from which the smoke +penetrated into the caverns through the narrow crevice, being the more +dense because of the small space through which it was forced, and so +suffocated some of them; others the fire compelled to come forth to +instant destruction; and in this manner they were destroyed by sword or +by fire, and our men returned with speed to their camp. Thus was this +large and populous city, with its powerful garrison, stormed by the +Romans, and the city itself reduced to ruins. + +31. After this glorious exploit the bridges which led over several +rivers were crossed in succession, and we reached two forts, constructed +with great strength and skill, where the son of the king endeavoured to +prevent Count Victor, who was marching in the van of the army, from +crossing the river, having advanced for that purpose from Ctesiphon with +a large body of nobles and a considerable armed force; but when he saw +the numbers which were following Victor, he retreated. + + +V. + +§ 1. So we advanced and came to some groves, and also to some fields +fertile with a great variety of crops, where we found a palace built in +the Roman fashion, which, so pleased were we with the circumstance, we +left unhurt. + +2. There was also in this same place a large round space, enclosed, +containing wild beasts, intended for the king's amusement; lions with +shaggy manes, tusked boars, and bears of amazing ferocity (as the +Persian bears are), and other chosen beasts of vast size. Our cavalry, +however, forced the gates of this enclosure, and killed all the beasts +with hunting-spears and clouds of arrows. + +3. This district is rich and well cultivated: not far off is Coche, +which is also called Seleucia; where we fortified a camp with great +celerity, and rested there two days to refresh the army with timely +supplies of water and provisions. The emperor himself in the meanwhile +proceeded with his advanced guard and reconnoitred a deserted city which +had been formerly destroyed by the Emperor Verus, where an everlasting +spring forms a large tube which communicates with the Tigris. Here we +saw, hanging on gallows, many bodies of the relations of the man whom we +have spoken of above as having betrayed Pirisabora. + +4. Here also Nabdates was burnt alive, he whom I have mentioned above as +having been taken with eighty of his garrison while hiding among the +ruins of the city which we had taken; because at the beginning of the +siege he had secretly promised to betray it, but afterwards had resisted +us vigorously, and after having been unexpectedly pardoned had risen to +such a pitch of violence as to launch all kinds of abuse against +Hormisdas. + +5. Then after advancing some distance we heard of a sad disaster: for +while three cohorts of the advanced guard, who were in light marching +order, were fighting with a Persian division which had made a sally out +of the city gates, another body of the enemy cut off and slew our +cattle, which were following us on the other side of the river, with a +few of our foragers who were straggling about in no great order. + +6. The emperor was enraged and indignant at this; he was now near the +district of Ctesiphon, and had just reached a lofty and well-fortified +castle. He went himself to reconnoitre it, being, as he fancied, +concealed, as he rode with a small escort close to the walls; but as +from too much eagerness he got within bowshot, he was soon noticed, and +was immediately assailed by every kind of missile, and would have been +killed by an arrow shot from an engine on the walls, if it had not +struck his armour-bearer, who kept close by his side, and he himself, +being protected by the closely-packed shields of his guards, fell back, +after having been exposed to great danger. + +7. At this he was greatly enraged, and determined to lay siege to the +fort; but the garrison was very resolute to defend it, believing the +place to be nearly inaccessible, and that the king, who was advancing +with great speed at the head of a large army, would soon arrive to their +assistance. + +8. And now, the vineæ and everything else required for the siege being +prepared, at the second watch, when the night, which happened to be one +of very bright moonlight, made everything visible to the defenders on +the battlements, suddenly the whole multitude of the garrison formed +into one body, threw open the gates and sallied out, and attacking a +division of our men who were not expecting them, slew numbers, among +whom one tribune was killed as he was endeavouring to repel the attack. + +9. And while this was going on, the Persians, having attacked a portion +of our men in the same manner as before from the opposite side of the +river, slew some and took others prisoners. And our men, in alarm, and +because they believed the enemy had come into the field in very superior +numbers, behaved at first with but little spirit; but presently, when +they recovered their courage, they flew again to arms, and being roused +by the sound of the trumpets, they hastened to the charge with +threatening cries, upon which the Persians retired to the garrison +without further contest. + +10. And the emperor, being terribly angry, reduced those of the cavalry +who had shown a want of courage when attacked to serve in the infantry, +which is a severer service and one of less honour. + +11. Then, being very eager to take a castle where he had incurred so +much danger, he devoted all his own labour and care to that end, never +himself retiring from the front ranks of his men, in order that by +fighting in the van he might be an example of gallantry to his soldiers, +and might be also sure to see, and therefore able to reward, every +gallant action. And when he had exposed himself a long time to imminent +danger, the castle, having been assailed by every kind of manoeuvre, +weapon, and engine, and by great valour on the part of the besiegers, +was at length taken and burnt. + +12. After this, in consideration of the great labour of the exploits +which they had performed, and which were before them, he granted rest to +his army, exhausted with its excessive toil, and distributed among them +provisions in abundance. Then a rampart was raised round the camp, with +dense rows of palisades, and a deep fosse, as sudden sallies and various +formidable manoeuvres were dreaded, since they were very near +Ctesiphon. + + +VI. + +§ 1. From this place they advanced to a canal known as Naharmalcha, a +name which means "The River of Kings." It was then dry. Long ago Trajan, +and after him Severus, had caused the soil to be dug out, and had given +great attention to constructing this as a canal of great size, so that, +being filled with water from the Euphrates, it might enable vessels to +pass into the Tigris. + +2. And for every object in view it appeared best that this should now be +cleaned out, as the Persians, fearing such an operation, had blocked it +up with a mass of stones. After it had been cleared and the dams +removed, a large body of water was let in, so that our fleet, after a +safe voyage of thirty furlongs, passed into the Tigris. There the army +at once threw bridges across the river, and passing over to the other +side, marched upon Coche. + +3. And that after our fatigue we might enjoy seasonable rest, we +encamped in an open plain, rich with trees, vines, and cypresses, in the +middle of which was a shady and delicious pavilion, having all over it, +according to the fashion of the country, pictures of the king slaying +wild beasts in the chase; for they never paint or in any way represent +anything except different kinds of slaughter and war. + +4. Having now finished everything according to his wish, the emperor, +rising higher in spirit as his difficulties increased, and building such +hopes on Fortune, which had not yet proved unfavourable to him, that he +often pushed his boldness to the verge of temerity, unloaded some of the +strongest of the vessels which were carrying provisions and warlike +engines, and put on board of them eight hundred armed men; and keeping +the main part of the fleet with him, which he divided into three +squadrons, he settled that one under the command of Count Victor should +start at nightfall, in order to cross the river with speed, and so seize +on the bank in possession of the enemy. + +5. The generals were greatly alarmed at this plan, and unanimously +entreated him to forego it; but as they could not prevail, the signal +for sailing was raised, as he commanded, and at once five ships hastened +onwards out of sight; and when they drew near to the bank they were +attacked with an incessant storm of fire-pots and every kind of +contrivance to handle flames, and they would have been burnt soldiers +and all if the emperor, being roused, had not with great energy hastened +to the spot, shouting out that our men, as they were ordered, had made +him a signal that they were now masters of the bank of the river, and +ordering the whole fleet to hasten forward with all speed. + +6. In consequence of which vigour the ships were saved, and the +soldiers, though harassed by the enemy from their commanding ground with +stones and every kind of missile, nevertheless after a fierce conflict +made good their footing on the high bank of the river, and established +themselves immovably. + +7. History marvels that Sertorius swam across the Rhone with his arms +and his breastplate; but on this occasion, some soldiers, though +disordered, fearing to remain behind after the signal for battle was +raised, clinging firmly to their shields, which are broad and concave, +and guiding them, though without much skill, kept pace with the speed of +the vessels through a river full of currents. + +8. The Persians resisted this attack with squadrons of cuirassier +cavalry in such close order that their bodies dazzled the eye, fitting +together, as it seemed, with their brilliant armour; while their horses +were all protected with a covering of stout leather. As a reserve to +support them several maniples of infantry were stationed, protected by +crooked, oblong shields, made of wicker-work and raw hides, behind which +they moved in compact order. Behind them were elephants, like so many +walking hills, which by every motion of their huge bodies threatened +destruction to all who came near them, and our men had been taught to +fear them by past experience. + +9. On this the emperor, according to the arrangement of the Greek army +as mentioned by Homer,[150] allotted the centre space between his two +lines to his weakest infantry, lest if they were placed in the front +rank, and should then misbehave, they should disorder the whole of his +line; or lest, on the other hand, if posted in the rear, behind all the +other centuries, they should flee without shame, since there would be no +one to check them: he with his light-armed auxiliaries moving as might +be required between the lines. + +10. Therefore when the two armies beheld each other, the Romans +glittering with their crested helmets, and brandishing their shields, +proceeded slowly, their bands playing an anapæstic measure; and after a +preliminary skirmish, carried on by the missiles of the front rank, they +rushed to battle with such vehemence that the earth trembled beneath +them. + +11. The battle-shout was raised on all sides, as was usual, the braying +trumpets encouraged the eagerness of the men: all fought in close combat +with spears and drawn swords, so that the soldiers were free from all +danger of arrows the more rapidly they pressed onwards. Meanwhile, +Julian, like a gallant comrade, at the same time that he was a skilful +general, hasten to support his hardly-pressed battalions with reserves, +and to cheer on the laggards. + +12. So the front line of the Persians wavered, having been never very +fierce; and at last, no longer able to support the heat of their armour, +they retreated in haste to their city, which was near: they were pursued +by our soldiers, weary as they were with having fought in those torrid +plains from daybreak to sunset; and we, pressing close on their heels, +drove them, with their choicest generals, Pigranes, the Surena, and +Narses, right up to the walls of Ctesiphon, inflicting many wounds on +their legs and backs. + +13. And we should have forced our entrance into the city if a general +named Victor had not, by lifting up his hands and his voice, checked us, +being himself pierced through the shoulder with an arrow, and fearing +lest if the soldiers allowed themselves to be hurried within the walls +without any order, and could then find no means of returning, they might +be overwhelmed by the mass of their enemies. + +14. Let the poets celebrate the ancient battles of Hector, or extol the +valour of the Thessalian Achilles; let past ages tell the praises of +Sophanes, and Aminias, and Callimachus, and Cynægirus, those +thunderbolts of war in the struggles of the Greeks against Persia; but +it is evident by the confession of all men that the gallantry displayed +by some of our troops on that day was equal to any of their exploits. + +15. After having laid aside their fears, and trampled on the carcases of +their enemies, the soldiers, still stained with the blood so justly +shed, collected round the tent of the emperor, loading him with praises +and thanks, because, while behaving with such bravery that it was hard +to say whether he had been more a general or a soldier, he had conducted +the affair with such success that not above seventy of our men had +fallen, while nearly two thousand five hundred of the Persians had been +slain. And he in his turn addressed by name most of those whose steady +courage and gallant actions he had witnessed, presenting them with +naval, civic, and military crowns. + +16. Thinking that this achievement would surely be followed by other +similar successes, he prepared a large sacrifice to Mars the Avenger. +Ten most beautiful bulls were brought for the purpose, nine of which, +even before they reached the altars, lay down of their own accord with +mournful countenances, but the tenth broke his bonds and escaped, and +was with difficulty brought back at all; and when sacrificed displayed +very unfavourable omens; but when he saw this, Julian became very +indignant, and exclaimed, calling Jupiter to witness, that henceforth he +would offer no sacrifices to Mars. Nor did he recall his vow, being cut +off by a speedy death. + + +VII. + +§ 1. Julian, having discussed with his chief officers the plan for the +siege of Ctesiphon, it appeared to some of them that it would be an act +of unseasonable temerity to attack that city, both because its situation +made it almost impregnable, and also because King Sapor was believed to +be hastening to its protection with a formidable army. + +2. The better opinion prevailed; and the sagacious emperor being +convinced of its wisdom, sent Arinthæus with a division of light +infantry, to lay waste the surrounding districts, which were rich both +in herds and in crops, with orders also to pursue the enemy with equal +energy, for many of them were wandering about, concealed amid overgrown +by-ways, and lurking-places known only to themselves. The booty was +abundant. + +3. But Julian himself, being always eager to extend his conquests, +disregarded the advice of those who remonstrated against his advance; +and reproaching his chiefs, as men who out of mere laziness and a love +of ease advised him to let go the kingdom of Persia when he had almost +made himself master of it, left the river on his left hand, and led by +unlucky guides, determined to proceed towards the inland parts of the +country by forced marches. + +4. And he ordered all his ships to be burnt, as if with the fatal torch +of Bellona herself, except twelve of the smaller vessels, which he +arranged should be carried on waggons, as likely to be of use for +building bridges. And he thought this a most excellently conceived plan, +to prevent his fleet if left behind from being of any use to the enemy, +or on the other hand to prevent what happened at the outset of the +expedition, nearly twenty thousand men being occupied in moving and +managing the vessels. + +5. Then, as the men began in their alarm to grumble to themselves (as +indeed manifest truth pointed out), that the soldiers if hindered from +advancing by the height of the mountains or the dryness of the country, +would have no means of returning to get water, and when the deserters, +on being put to the torture openly confessed that they had made a false +report, he ordered all hands to labour to extinguish the flames. But the +fire, having got to a great head, had consumed most of them, so that +only the twelve could be preserved unhurt, which were set apart to be +taken care of. + +6. In this way the fleet being unseasonably destroyed, Julian, relying +on his army which was now all united, having none of its divisions +diverted to other occupations, and so being strong in numbers, advanced +inland, the rich district through which he marched supplying him with an +abundance of provisions. + +7. When this was known, the enemy, with a view to distressing us by want +of supplies, burnt up all the grass and the nearly ripe crops; and we, +being unable to advance by reason of the conflagration, remained +stationary in our camp till the fire was exhausted. And the Persians, +insulting us from a distance, sometimes spread themselves widely on +purpose, sometimes offered us resistance in a compact body; so that to +us who beheld them from a distance it might seem that the reinforcements +of the king had come up, and we might imagine that it was on that +account that they had ventured on their audacious sallies and unwonted +enterprises. + +8. Both the emperor and the troops were greatly vexed at this, because +they had no means of constructing a bridge, since the ships had been +inconsiderately destroyed, nor could any check be offered to the +movements of the strange enemy, whom the glistening brilliancy of their +arms showed to be close at hand; this armour of theirs being singularly +adapted to all the inflections of their body. There was another evil of +no small weight, that the reinforcements which we were expecting to +arrive under the command of Arsaces and some of our own generals, did +not make their appearance, being detained by the causes already +mentioned. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. The emperor, to comfort his soldiers who were made anxious by these +events, ordered the prisoners who were of slender make, as the Persians +usually are, and who were now more than usually emaciated, to be brought +before the army; and looking at our men he said, "Behold what those +warlike spirits consider men, little ugly dirty goats; and creatures +who, as many events have shown, throw away their arms and take to flight +before they can come to blows." + +2. And when he had said this, and had ordered the prisoners to be +removed, he held a consultation on what was to be done; and after many +opinions of different kinds had been delivered, the common soldiers +inconsiderately crying out that it was best to return by the same way +they had advanced, the emperor steadily opposed this idea, and was +joined by several officers who contended that this could not be done, +since all the forage and crops had been destroyed throughout the plain, +and the remains of the villages which had been burnt were all in +complete destitution, and could afford no supplies; because also the +whole soil was soaked everywhere from the snows of winter, and the +rivers had overflowed their banks and were now formidable torrents. + +3. There was this further difficulty, that in those districts where the +heat and evaporation are great, every place is infested with swarms of +flies and gnats, and in such numbers that the light of the sun and of +the stars is completely hidden by them. + +4. And as human sagacity was of no avail in such a state of affairs, we +were long in doubt and perplexity; and raising altars and sacrificing +victims we consulted the will of the gods; inquiring whether it was +their will that we should return through Assyria, or advancing slowly +along the foot of the mountain chain, should surprise and plunder +Chiliocomum near Corduena; but neither of these plans was conformable to +the omens presented by an inspection of the sacrifices. + +5. However it was decided, that since there was no better prospect +before us, to seize on Corduena; and on the 16th June we struck our +camp, and at daybreak the emperor set forth, when suddenly was seen +either smoke or a great cloud of dust; so that many thought it was +caused by herds of wild asses, of which there are countless numbers in +those regions, and who were now moving in a troop, in order by their +compactness to ward off the ferocious attacks of lions. + +6. Some, however, fancied that it was caused by the approach of the +Saracen chieftains, our allies, who had heard that the emperor was +besieging Ctesiphon in great force: some again affirmed that the +Persians were lying in wait for us on our march. + +7. Therefore amid all these doubtful opinions, the trumpets sounded a +halt, in order to guard against any reverse, and we halted in a grassy +valley near a stream, where, packing our shields in close order and in a +circular figure, we pitched our camp and rested in safety. Nor, so dark +did it continue till evening, could we distinguish what it was that had +so long obscured the view. + + +[149] Small boats made of wicker and covered with hide; still used in +Wales, where they are also called thorricle, truckle, or cobble. + +[150] See Il. iv. 297:-- + + Ἰππῆας μὲν πρῶπα σὺν ἵπποισιν καὶ ὄχέσφιν + πεζοὺς δ’ εξόπιθεν στῆσεν πολέας τε καὶ ἐσθλούς + ἔρκος ἔμεν πολέμοιο, κακοὺς δ’ εἰς μέσσον ἔλασσεν. + +Thus translated by Pope:-- + + "The horse and chariots to the front assigned, + The foot (the strength of war) he placed behind; + The middle space suspected troops supply, + Enclosed by both, nor left the power to fly." + + + + +BOOK XXV. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. The Persians attack the Romans on their march, but are gallantly + repelled.--II. The army is distressed by want of corn and forage; + Julian is alarmed by prodigies.--III. The emperor, while, in order + to repulse the Persians, who pressed him on all quarters, he rashly + rushes into battle without his breastplate, is wounded by a spear, + and is borne back to his tent, where he addresses those around him, + and, after drinking some cold water, dies.--IV. His virtues and + vices; his personal appearance.--V. Jovian, the captain[151] of the + imperial guards, is tumultuously elected emperor.--VI. The Romans + hasten to retreat from Persia, and on their march are continually + attacked by the Persians and Saracens, whom, however, they repulse + with great loss.--VII. The emperor Jovian, being influenced by the + scarcity and distress with which his army is oppressed, makes a + necessary but disgraceful peace with Sapor; abandoning five + provinces, with the cities of Nisibis and Singara.--VIII. The + Romans having crossed the Tigris, after a very long and terrible + scarcity of provisions, which they endured with great courage, at + length reach Mesopotamia--Jovian arranges the affairs of Illyricum + and Gaul to the best of his power.--IX. Bineses, a noble Persian, + acting for Sapor, receives from Jovian the impregnable city of + Nisibis; the citizens are unwilling to quit their country, but are + compelled to migrate to Amida--Five provinces, with the city of + Singara, and sixteen fortresses, are, according to the terms of the + treaty, handed over to the Persian nobles.--X. Jovian, fearing a + revolution, marches with great speed through Syria, Cilicia, + Cappadocia, and Galatia, and at Ancyra enters on the consulship, + with his infant son Varronianus, and soon afterwards dies suddenly + at Dadastana. + + +I. + +A.D. 363. + +§ 1. The night was dark and starless, and passed by us as nights are +passed in times of difficulty and perplexity; no one out of fear daring +to sit down, or to close his eyes. But as soon as day broke, brilliant +breastplates surrounded with steel fringes, and glittering cuirasses, +were seen at a distance, and showed that the king's army was at hand. + +2. The soldiers were roused at this sight, and hastened to engage, +since only a small stream separated them from the Persians, but were +checked by the emperor; a sharp skirmish did indeed take place between +our outposts and the Persians, close to the rampart of our camp, in +which Machamæus, the captain of one of our squadrons was stricken down: +his brother Maurus, afterwards Duke of Phoenicia, flew to his support, +and slew the man who had killed Machamæus, and crushed all who came in +his way, till he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a javelin; but +he still was able by great exertions to bring off his brother, who was +now pale with approaching death. + +3. Both sides were nearly exhausted with the intolerable violence of the +heat and the repeated conflicts, but at last the hostile battalions were +driven back in great disorder. Then while we fell back to a greater +distance, the Saracens were also compelled to retreat from fear of our +infantry, but presently afterwards joining themselves to the Persian +host, they attacked us again, with more safety to themselves for the +purpose of carrying off the Roman baggage. But when they saw the emperor +they again retreated upon their reserve. + +4. After leaving this district we reached a village called Hucumbra, +where we rested two days, procuring all kinds of provisions and +abundance of corn, so that we moved on again after being refreshed +beyond our hopes; all that the time would not allow us to take away we +burnt. + +5. The next day the army was advancing more quietly, when the Persians +unexpectedly fell upon our last division, to whom that day the duty fell +of bringing up the rear, and would easily have slain all the men, had +not our cavalry, which happened to be at hand, the moment that they +heard what was going on, hastened up, though scattered over the wide +valley, and repulsed this dangerous attack, wounding all who had thus +surprised them. + +6. In this skirmish fell Adaces, a noble satrap, who had formerly been +sent as ambassador to the emperor Constantius, and had been kindly +received by him. The soldier who slew him brought his arms to Julian, +and received the reward he deserved. + +7. The same day one of our corps of cavalry, known as the third legion, +was accused of having gradually given way, so that when the legions were +on the point of breaking the enemy's line, they nearly broke the spirit +of the whole army. + +8. And Julian, being justly indignant at this, deprived them of their +standards, broke their spears, and condemned all those who were +convicted of having misbehaved of marching among the baggage and +prisoners; while their captain, the only one of their number who had +behaved well, was appointed to the command of another squadron, the +tribune of which was convicted of having shamefully left the field. + +9. And four other tribunes of companies were also cashiered for similar +misconduct; for the emperor was contented with this moderate degree of +punishment out of consideration for his impending difficulties. + +10. Accordingly, having advanced seventy furlongs with very scanty +supplies, the herbage and the corn being all burnt, each man saved for +himself just as much of the grain or forage as he could snatch from the +flames and carry. + +11. And having left this spot, when the army had arrived at the district +called Maranx, near daybreak an immense multitude of Persians appeared, +with Merenes, the captain of their cavalry, and two sons of the king, +and many nobles. + +12. All the troops were clothed in steel, in such a way that their +bodies were covered with strong plates, so that the hard joints of the +armour fitted every limb of their bodies; and on their heads were +effigies of human faces so accurately fitted, that their whole persons +being covered with metal, the only place where any missiles which fell +upon them could stick, was either where there were minute openings to +allow of the sight of the eyes penetrating, or where holes for breathing +were left at the extremities of the nostrils. + +13. Part of them who were prepared to fight with pikes stood immovable, +so that you might have fancied they were held in their places by +fastenings of brass; and next to them the archers (in which art that +nation has always been most skilful from the cradle) bent their supple +bows with widely extended arms, so that the strings touched their right +breasts, while the arrows lay just upon their left hands; and the +whistling arrows flew, let loose with great skill of finger, bearing +deadly wounds. + +14. Behind them stood the glittering elephants in formidable array, +whose grim looks our terrified men could hardly endure; while the horses +were still more alarmed at their growl, odour, and unwonted aspect. + +15. Their drivers rode on them, and bore knives with handles fastened to +their right hands, remembering the disaster which they had experienced +at Nisibis; and if the ferocious animal overpowered his overseer, they +pierced the spine where the head is joined to the neck with a vigorous +blow, that the beast might not recoil upon their own ranks, as had +happened on that occasion, and trample down their own people; for it was +found out by Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, that in this way these +animals might be very easily deprived of life. + +16. The sight of these beasts caused great alarm; and so this most +intrepid emperor, attended with a strong body of his armed cohorts and +many of his chief officers, as the crisis and the superior numbers of +the enemy required, marshalled his troops in the form of a crescent with +the wings bending inwards to encounter the enemy. + +17. And to hinder the onset of the archers from disordering our columns, +by advancing with great speed he baffled the aim of their arrows; and +after he had given the formal signal for fighting, the Roman infantry, +in close order, beat back the front of the enemy with a vigorous effort. + +18. The struggle was fierce, and the clashing of the shields, the din of +the men, and the doleful whistle of the javelins, which continued +without intermission, covered the plains with blood and corpses, the +Persians falling in every direction; and though they were often slack in +fighting, being accustomed chiefly to combat at a distance by means of +missiles, still now foot to foot they made a stout resistance; and when +they found any of their divisions giving way, they retreated like rain +before the wind, still with showers of arrows seeking to deter their +foes from pursuing them. So the Parthians were defeated by prodigious +efforts, till our soldiers, exhausted by the heat of the day, on the +signal for retreat being sounded, returned to their camp, encouraged +for the future to greater deeds of daring. + +19. In this battle, as I have said, the loss of the Persians was very +great--ours was very slight. But the most important death in our ranks +was that of Vetranio, a gallant soldier who commanded the legion of +Zianni.[152] + + +II. + +§ 1. After this there was an armistice for three days, while the men +attended to their own wounds or those of their friends, during which we +were destitute of supplies, and distressed by intolerable hunger; and +since, as all the corn and forage was burnt, both men and cattle were in +extreme danger of starvation, a portion of the food which the horses of +the tribunes and superior officers were carrying was distributed among +the lower classes of the soldiers, who were in extreme want. + +2. And the emperor, who had no royal dainties prepared for himself, but +who was intending to sup under the props of a small tent on a scanty +portion of pulse, such as would often have been despised by a prosperous +common soldier, indifferent to his own comfort, distributed what was +prepared for him among the poorest of his comrades. + +3. He gave a short time to anxious and troubled sleep; and when he +awoke, and, as was his custom, began to write something in his tent, in +imitation of Julius Cæsar, while the night was still dark, being +occupied with the consideration of the writings of some philosophers, he +saw, as he told his friends, in mournful guise, the vision of the Genius +of the Empire, whom, when he first became emperor, he had seen in Gaul, +sorrowfully departing through the curtains of his tent with the +cornucopia, which he bore in his hand veiled, as well as his head. + +4. And although for a moment he stood stupefied, yet being above all +fear, he commended the future to the will of heaven; and leaving his +bed, which was made on the ground, he rose, while it was still but +little past midnight, and supplicating the deities with sacred rites to +avert misfortune, he thought he saw a bright torch, falling, cut a +passage through the air and vanish from his sight; and then he was +horror-stricken, fearing that the star of Mars had appeared openly +threatening him. + +5. For this brightness was of the kind which we call [Greek: +diaissonta], not falling down or reaching the ground. Indeed, he who +thinks that solid substances can fall from heaven is rightly accounted +profane and mad. But these occurrences take place in many ways, of which +it will be enough to enumerate a few. + +6. Some think that sparks falling off from the ethereal fire, as they +are able to proceed but a short distance, soon become extinguished; or, +perhaps, that rays of fire coming against the dense clouds, sparkle from +the suddenness of the contact; or that some light attaches itself to a +cloud, and taking the form of a star, runs on as long as it is supported +by the power of the fire; but being presently exhausted by the magnitude +of the space which it traverses, it becomes dissolved into air, passing +into that substance from the excessive attrition of which it originally +derived its heat. + +7. Therefore, without loss of time, before daybreak, he sent for the +Etruscan soothsayers, and consulted them what this new kind of star +portended; who replied, that he must cautiously avoid attempting any new +enterprise at present, showing that it was laid down in the works of +Tarquitius,[153] "on divine affairs," that when a light of this kind is +seen in heaven, no battle ought to be engaged in, or any similar measure +be undertaken. + +8. But as he despised this and many other similar warnings, the diviners +at least entreated him to delay his march for some hours; but they could +not prevail even to this extent, as the emperor was always opposed to +the whole science of divination. So at break of day the camp was struck. + + +III. + +§ 1. When we set forward, the Persians, who had learnt by their frequent +defeats to shun pitched battles, laid secret ambuscades on our road, +and, occupying the hills on each side, continually reconnoitred our +battalions as they marched, so that our soldiers, being kept all day on +the watch, could neither find time to erect ramparts round their camp, +or to fortify themselves with palisades. + +2. And while our flanks were strongly guarded, and the army proceeded +onward in as good order as the nature of the ground would allow, being +formed in squares, though not quite closed up, suddenly news was brought +to the emperor, who had gone on unarmed to reconnoitre the ground in +front, that our rear was attacked. + +3. He, roused to anger by this mishap, without stopping to put on his +breastplate, snatched up his shield in a hurry, and while hastening to +support his rear, was recalled by fresh news that the van which he had +quitted was now exposed to a similar attack. + +4. Without a thought of personal danger, he now hastened to strengthen +this division, and then, on another side, a troop of Persian cuirassiers +attacked his centre, and pouring down with vehemence on his left wing, +which began to give way, as our men could hardly bear up against the +foul smell and horrid cries of the elephants, they pressed us hard with +spears and clouds of arrows. + +5. The emperor flew to every part of the field where the danger was +hottest; and our light-armed troops dashing out wounded the backs of the +Persians, and the hocks of the animals, which were turned the other way. + +6. Julian, disregarding all care for his own safety, made signs by +waving his hands, and shouted out that the enemy were fleeing in +consternation; and cheering on his men to the pursuit, threw himself +eagerly into the conflict. His guards called out to him from all sides +to beware of the mass of fugitives who were scattered in consternation, +as he would beware of the fall of an ill-built roof, when suddenly a +cavalry spear, grazing the skin of his arm, pierced his side, and fixed +itself in the bottom of his liver. + +7. He tried to pull it out with his right hand, and cut the sinews of +his fingers with the double-edged point of the weapon; and, falling from +his horse, he was borne with speed by the men around him to his tent; +and the physician tried to relieve him. + +8. Presently, when his pain was somewhat mitigated, so that his +apprehensions were relieved, contending against death with great +energy, he asked for arms and a horse in order that, by revisiting his +troops, who were still engaged, he might restore their confidence, and +appear so secure of his own recovery as to have room for anxiety for the +safety of others; with the same energy though with a different object, +with which the celebrated leader, Epaminondas, when he was mortally +wounded at Mantinea, and had been borne out of the battle, asked +anxiously for his shield; and when he saw it he died of his wound +cheerfully, having been in fear for the loss of his shield, while quite +fearless about the loss of his life. + +9. But as Julian's strength was inferior to his firmness, and as he was +weakened by the loss of blood, he remained without moving: and presently +he gave up all hope of life; because, on inquiry, he found that the +place where he had fallen was called Phrygia; for he had been assured by +an oracle that he was destined to die in Phrygia. + +10. When he was brought back to his tent, it was marvellous with what +eagerness the soldiers flew to avenge him, agitated with anger and +sorrow; and striking their spears against their shields, determined to +die if Fate so willed it. And although vast clouds of dust obscured +their sight, and the burning heat hindered the activity of their +movements, still, as if they were released from all military discipline +by the loss of their chief, they rushed unshrinkingly on the enemy's +swords. + +11. On the other hand the Persians, fighting with increased spirit, shot +forth such clouds of arrows, that we could hardly see the shooters +through them; while the elephants, slowly marching in front, by the vast +size of their bodies, and the formidable appearance of their crests, +terrified alike our horses and our men. + +12. And far off was heard the clashing of armed men, the groans of the +dying, the snorting of the horses, and the clang of swords, till both +sides were weary of inflicting wounds, and the darkness of night put an +end to the contest. + +13. Fifty nobles and satraps of the Persians, with a vast number of the +common soldiers, were slain; and among them, two of their principal +generals, Merena and Nohodares. Let the grandiloquence of antiquity +marvel at the twenty battles fought by Marcellus in different places; +let it add Sicinius Dentatus, adorned with his mass of military crowns; +let it further extol Sergius, who is said to have received twenty-three +wounds in his different battles, among whose posterity was that last +Catiline, who tarnished the glories of his distinguished family by +everlasting infamy. + +14. But sorrow now overpowered the joy at this success. While the +conflict was thus carried on after the withdrawal of the emperor, the +right wing of the army was exhausted by its exertions; and Anatolius, at +that time the master of the offices, was killed; Sallust the prefect was +in imminent danger, and was saved only by the exertions of his +attendant, so that at last he escaped, while Sophorius his counsellor +was killed; and certain soldiers, who, after great danger, had thrown +themselves into a neighbouring fort, were unable to rejoin the main army +till three days afterwards. + +15. And while these events were taking place, Julian, lying in his tent, +thus addressed those who stood around him sorrowing and mourning: "The +seasonable moment for my surrendering this life, O comrades, has now +arrived, and, like an honest debtor, I exult in preparing to restore +what nature reclaims; not in affliction and sorrow, since I have learnt, +from the general teaching of philosophers, how much more capable of +happiness the mind is than the body; and considering that when the +better part is separated from the worse, it is a subject of joy rather +than of mourning. Reflecting, also, that there have been instances in +which even the gods have given to some persons of extreme piety, death +as the best of all rewards. + +16. "And I well know that it is intended as a gift of kindness to me, to +save me from yielding to arduous difficulties, and from forgetting or +losing myself; knowing by experience that all sorrows, while they +triumph over the weak, flee before those who endure them manfully. + +17. "Nor have I to repent of any actions; nor am I oppressed by the +recollection of any grave crime, either when I was kept in the shade, +and, as it were, in a corner, or after I arrived at the empire, which, +as an honour conferred on me by the gods, I have preserved, as I +believe, unstained. In civil affairs I have ruled with moderation and, +whether carrying on offensive or defensive war, have always been under +the influence of deliberate reason; prosperity, however, does not always +correspond to the wisdom of man's counsels, since the powers above +reserve to themselves the regulation of results. + +18. "But always keeping in mind that the aim of a just sovereign is the +advantage and safety of his subjects, I have been always, as you know, +inclined to peace, eradicating all licentiousness--that great +corruptress of things and manners--by every part of my own conduct; and +I am glad to feel that in whatever instances the republic, like an +imperious mother, has exposed me deliberately to danger, I have stood +firm, inured to brave all fortuitous disturbing events. + +19. "Nor am I ashamed to confess that I have long known, from prophecy, +that I should fall by the sword. And therefore do I venerate the +everlasting God that I now die, not by any secret treachery, nor by a +long or severe disease, or like a condemned criminal, but I quit the +world with honour, fairly earned, in the midst of a career of nourishing +glory. For, to any impartial judge, that man is base and cowardly who +seeks to die when he ought not, or who avoids death when it is +seasonable for him. + +20. "This is enough for me to say, since my strength is failing me; but +I designedly forbear to speak of creating a new emperor, lest I should +unintentionally pass over some worthy man; or, on the other hand, if I +should name one whom I think proper, I should expose him to danger in +the event of some one else being preferred. But, as an honest child of +the republic, I hope that a good sovereign will be found to succeed me." + +21. After having spoken quietly to this effect, he, as it were with the +last effort of his pen, distributed his private property among his +dearest friends, asking for Anatolius, the master of the offices. And +when the prefect Sallust replied that he was now happy, he understood +that he was slain, and bitterly bewailed the death of his friend, though +he had so proudly disregarded his own. + +22. And as all around were weeping, he reproved them with still +undiminished authority, saying that it was a humiliating thing to mourn +for an emperor who was just united to heaven and the stars. + +23. And as they then became silent, he entered into an intricate +discussion with the philosophers Maximus and Priscus on the sublime +nature of the soul, while the wound of his pierced side was gaping wide. +At last the swelling of his veins began to choke his breath, and having +drank some cold water, which he had asked for, he expired quietly about +midnight, in the thirty-first year of his age. He was born at +Constantinople, and in his childhood lost his father, Constantius, who, +after the death of his brother Constantine, perished amid the crowd of +competitors for the vacant crown. And at the same early age he lost his +mother, Basilina, a woman descended from a long line of noble ancestors. + + +IV. + +§ 1. Julian was a man to be classed with heroic characters, and +conspicuous for the brilliancy of his exploits and his innate majesty. +For since, as wise men lay it down, there are four cardinal +virtues,--temperance, prudence, justice, and fortitude,--with +corresponding external accessaries, such as military skill, authority, +prosperity, and liberality, he eagerly cultivated them all as if they +had been but one. + +2. And in the first place, he was of a chastity so inviolate that, after +the loss of his wife he never indulged in any sexual pleasures, +recollecting what is told in Plato of Sophocles the tragedian, that +being asked when he was a very old man whether he still had any commerce +with women, he said "No," with this further addition, that "he was glad +to say that he had at all times avoided such indulgence as a tyrannous +and cruel master." + +3. And to strengthen this resolution he often called to mind the words +of the lyric poet Bacchylides, whom he used to read with pleasure, and +who said that as a fine painter makes a handsome face, so chastity +adorns a life that aims at greatness. And even when in the prime of life +he so carefully avoided this taint that there was never the least +suspicion of his becoming enamoured even of any of his household, as has +often happened. + +4. And this kind of temperance increased in him, being strengthened by a +sparing indulgence in eating and sleeping, to which he rigidly adhered +whether abroad or at home. For in time of peace his frugal allowance of +food was a marvel to all who knew him, as resembling that of a man +always wishing to resume the philosopher's cloak. And in his various +campaigns he used commonly only to take a little plain food while +standing, as is the custom of soldiers. + +5. And when after being fatigued by labour he had refreshed his body +with a short rest, as soon as he awoke he would go by himself round all +the sentries and outposts; after which he retired to his serious +studies. + +6. And if any voice could bear witness to his use of the nocturnal lamp, +by which he pursued his lucubrations, it would show that there was a +vast difference between some emperors and him, who did not even indulge +himself in those pleasures permitted by the necessities of human nature. + +7. Of his prudence there were also many proofs, of which it will be +sufficient to recount a few. He was profoundly skilled in war, and also +in the arts of peace. He was very attentive to courtesy, claiming just +so much respect as he considered sufficient to mark the difference +between contempt and insolence. He was older in virtue than in years, +being eager to acquire all kinds of knowledge. He was a most +incorruptible judge, a rigid censor of morals and manners, mild, a +despiser of riches, and indeed of all mortal things. Lastly, it was a +common saying of his, "That it was beneath a wise man, since he had a +soul, to aim at acquiring praise by his body." + +8. Of his justice there are many conspicuous proofs: first, because, +with all proper regard to circumstances and persons, he inspired awe +without being cruel; secondly, because he repressed vice by making +examples of a few, and also because he threatened severe punishment more +frequently than he employed it. + +9. Lastly, to pass over many circumstances, it is certain that he +treated with extreme moderation some who were openly convicted of +plotting against him, and mitigated the rigour of the punishment to +which they were sentenced with genuine humanity. + +10. His many battles and constant wars displayed his fortitude, as did +his endurance of extreme cold and heat. From a common soldier we +require the services of the body, from an emperor those of the mind. But +having boldly thrown himself into battle, he would slay a ferocious foe +at a single blow; and more than once he by himself checked the retreat +of our men at his own personal risk. And when he was putting down the +rule of the furious Germans, and also in the scorching sands of Persia, +he encouraged his men by fighting in the front ranks of his army. + +11. Many well-known facts attest his skill in all that concerns a camp; +his storming of cities and castles amid the most formidable dangers; the +variety of his tactics for battles, the skill he showed in choosing +healthy spots for his camps, the safe principles on which his lines of +defence and outposts were managed. + +12. So great was his authority, that while he was feared he was also +greatly loved as his men's comrade in their perils and dangers. And in +the hottest struggles he took notice of cowards for punishment. And +while he was yet only Cæsar, he kept his soldiers in order while +confronting the barbarians, and destitute of pay as I have mentioned +before. And haranguing his discontented troops, the threat which he used +was that he would retire into private life if they continued mutinous. + +13. Lastly, this single instance will do as well as many, by haranguing +the Gallic legions, who were accustomed to the frozen Rhine, in a simple +address, he persuaded them to traverse vast regions and to march through +the warm plains of Assyria to the borders of Media. + +14. His good fortune was so conspicuous that, riding as it were on the +shoulders of Fortune, who was long his faithful guide, he overcame +enormous difficulties in his victorious career. And after he quitted the +regions of the west, they all remained quiet during his life-time, as if +under the influence of a wand powerful enough to tranquillize the world. + +15. Of his liberality there are many and undoubted proofs. Among which +are his light exactions of tribute, his remission of the tribute of +crowns, and of debts long due, his putting the rights of individuals on +an equal footing with those of the treasury, his restoration of their +revenues and their lands to different cities, with the exception of such +as had been lawfully sold by former princes; and also the fact that he +was never covetous of money, which he thought was better kept by its +owners, often quoting the saying, "that Alexander the Great, when he was +asked where he kept his treasures, kindly answered 'Among my friends.'" + +16. Having discussed those of his good qualities which have come within +our knowledge, let us now proceed to unfold his faults, though they have +been already slightly noticed. He was of an unsteady disposition; but +this fault he corrected by an excellent plan, allowing people to set him +right when guilty of indiscretion. + +17. He was a frequent talker, rarely silent. Too much devoted to +divination, so much so as in this particular to equal the emperor +Adrian. He was rather a superstitious than a legitimate observer of +sacred rites, sacrificing countless numbers of victims; so that it was +reckoned that if he had returned from the Parthians there would have +been a scarcity of cattle. Like the celebrated case of Marcus +Cæsar,[154] about whom it was written, as it is said, "The white cattle +to Marcus Cæsar, greeting. If you conquer there is an end of us." + +18. He was very fond of the applause of the common people, and an +immoderate seeker after praise even in the most trifling matters; often, +from a desire of popularity, indulging in conversation with unworthy +persons. + +19. But in spite of all this he deserved, as he used to say himself, to +have it thought that that ancient Justice, whom Aratus says fled to +heaven from disgust with the vices of men, had in his reign returned +again to the earth; only that sometimes he acted arbitrarily and +inconsistently. + +20. For he made some laws which, with but few exceptions, were not +offensive, though they very positively enforced or forbade certain +actions. Among the exceptions was that cruel one which forbade Christian +masters of rhetoric and grammar to teach unless they came over to the +worship of the heathen gods. + +21. And this other ordinance was equally intolerable, namely one which +allowed some persons to be unjustly enrolled in the companies of the +municipal guilds, though they were foreigners, or by privilege or birth +wholly unconnected with such companies. + +22. As to his personal appearance it was this. He was of moderate +stature, with soft hair, as if he had carefully dressed it, with a rough +beard ending in a point, with beautiful brilliant eyes, which displayed +the subtlety of his mind, with handsome eyebrows and a straight nose, a +rather large mouth, with a drooping lower lip, a thick and stooping +neck, large and broad shoulders. From head to foot he was straight and +well proportioned, which made him strong and a good runner. + +23. And since his detractors have accused him of provoking new wars, to +the injury of the commonwealth, let them know the unquestionable truth, +that it was not Julian but Constantius who occasioned the hostility of +the Parthians by greedily acquiescing in the falsehoods of Metrodorus, +as we have already set forth. + +24. In consequence of this conduct our armies were slain, numbers of our +soldiers were taken prisoners, cities were rased, fortresses were +stormed and destroyed, provinces were exhausted by heavy expenses, and +in short the Persians, putting their threats into effect, were led to +seek to become masters of everything up to Bithynia and the shores of +the Propontis. + +25. While the Gallic wars grew more and more violent, the Germans +overrunning our territories, and being on the point of forcing the +passes of the Alps in order to invade Italy, there was nothing to be +seen but tears and consternation, the recollection of the past being +bitter, the expectation of the future still more woeful. All these +miseries, this youth, being sent into the West with the rank of Cæsar, +put an end to with marvellous celerity, treating the kings of those +countries as base-born slaves. + +26. Then in order to re-establish the prosperity of the east, with +similar energy he attacked the Persians, and would have gained in that +country both a triumph and a surname, if the will of heaven had been in +accordance with his glorious plans and actions. + +27. And as we know by experience that some men are so rash and hasty +that if conquered they return to battle, if shipwrecked, to the sea, in +short, each to the difficulties by which he has been frequently +overcome, so some find fault with this emperor for returning to similar +exploits after having been repeatedly victorious. + + +V. + +§ 1. After these events there was no time for lamentation or weeping. +For after he had been laid out as well as the circumstances and time +permitted, that he might be buried where he himself had formerly +proposed, at daybreak the next morning, which was on the 27th of June, +while the enemy surrounded us on every side, the generals of the army +assembled, and having convened the chief officers of the cavalry and of +the legions, deliberated about the election of an emperor. + +2. There were great and noisy divisions. Arinthæus and Victor, and the +rest of those who had been attached to the court of Constantius, sought +for a fit man of their own party. On the other hand, Nevitta and +Dagalaiphus, and the nobles of the Gauls, sought for a man among their +own ranks. + +3. While the matter was thus in dispute, they all unanimously agreed +upon Sallustius. And when he pleaded ill health and old age, one of the +soldiers of rank observing his real and fixed reluctance said, "And what +would you do if the emperor while absent himself, as has often happened, +had intrusted you with the conduct of this war? Would you not have +postponed all other considerations and applied yourself to extricating +the soldiers at once from the difficulties which press on them? Do so +now: and then, if we are allowed to reach Mesopotamia, it will be time +enough for the united suffrages of both armies to declare a lawful +emperor." + +4. Amid these little delays in so important a matter, before opinions +were justly weighed, a few made an uproar, as often happens in critical +circumstances, and Jovian was elected emperor, being the chief officer +of the guards, and a man of fair reputation in respect of his father's +services. For he was the son of Varronianus, a distinguished count,[155] +who had not long since retired from military service to lead a private +life. + +5. And immediately he was clothed in the imperial robes, and was +suddenly led forth out of the tent and passed at a quick pace through +the army as it was preparing to march. + +6. And as the line extended four miles, those in the van hearing some +persons salute Jovian as Augustus, raised the same cry still more +loudly, for they were caught by the relationship, so to say, of the +name, which differed only by one letter from that of Julian, and so they +thought that Julian was recovered and was being led forth with great +acclamations as had often been the case. But when the new emperor, who +was both taller and less upright, was seen, they suspected what had +happened, and gave vent to tears and lamentations. + +7. And if any lover of justice should find fault with what was done at +this extreme crisis as imprudent, he might still more justly blame +sailors who, having lost a skilful pilot when both winds and waves are +agitated by a storm, commit the helm of their vessel to some one of +their comrades. + +8. This affair having been thus settled by a blind sort of decision of +Fortune, the standard-bearer of the Jovian legion, which Varronianus had +formerly commanded, having had a quarrel with the new emperor while he +was a private individual, because he had been a violent disparager of +his father, now fearing danger at his hand, since he had risen to a +height exceeding any ordinary fortune, fled to the Persians. And having +been allowed to tell what he knew, he informed Sapor, who was at hand, +that the prince whom he dreaded was dead, and that Jovian, who had +hitherto been only an officer of the guards, a man of neither energy nor +courage, had been raised by a mob of camp drudges to a kind of shadow of +the imperial authority. + +9. Sapor hearing this news, which he had always anxiously prayed for, +and being elated by this unexpected good fortune, having reinforced the +troops who had fought against us with a strong body of the royal +cavalry, sent them forward with speed to attack the rear of our army. + + +VI. + +§ 1. And while these arrangements were being made, the victims and +entrails were inspected on behalf of Jovian, and it was pronounced that +he would ruin everything if he remained in the camp, as he proposed, +but that if he quitted it he would have the advantage. + +2. And just as we were beginning our march, the Persians attacked us, +preceded by their elephants. Both our horses and men were at first +disordered by their roaring and formidable onset; but the Jovian and +Herculean legions slew a few of the monsters, and made a gallant +resistance to the mounted cuirassiers. + +3. Then the legions of the Jovii and Victores coming up to aid their +comrades, who were in distress, also slew two elephants and a great +number of the enemy's troops. And on our left wing three most gallant +men were slain, Julian, Macrobius, and Maximus, all tribunes of the +legions which were then the chief of the whole army. + +4. When they were buried as well as circumstances permitted, as night +was drawing on, and as we were pressing forward with all speed towards a +fort called Sumere, the dead body of Anatolius was recognized and buried +with a hurried funeral. Here also we were rejoined by sixty soldiers and +a party of the guards of the palace, whom we have mentioned as having +taken refuge in a fort called Vaccatum. + +5. Then on the following day we pitched our camp in a valley in as +favourable a spot as the nature of the ground permitted, surrounding it +with a rampart like a wall, with sharp stakes fixed all round like so +many swords, with the exception of one wide entrance. + +6. And when the enemy saw this they attacked us with all kinds of +missiles from their thickets, reproaching us also as traitors and +murderers of an excellent prince. For they had heard by the vague report +of some deserters that Julian had fallen by the weapon of a Roman. + +7. And presently, while this was going on, a body of cavalry ventured to +force their way in by the Prætorian gate, and to advance almost up to +the emperor's tent. But they were vigorously repulsed with the loss of +many of their men killed and wounded. + +8. Quitting this camp, the next night we reached a place called Charcha, +where we were safe, because the artificial mounds of the river had been +broken to prevent the Saracens from overrunning Armenia, so that no one +was able to harass our lines as they had done before. + +9. Then on the 1st of July we marched thirty furlongs more, and came to +a city called Dura, where our baggage-horses were so jaded, that their +drivers, being mostly recruits, marched on foot till they were hemmed in +by a troop of Saracens; and they would all have been killed if some +squadrons of our light cavalry had not gone to their assistance in their +distress. + +10. We were exposed to the hostility of these Saracens because Julian +had forbidden that the presents and gratuities, to which they had been +accustomed, should be given to them; and when they complained to him, +they were only told that a warlike and vigilant emperor had iron, not +gold. + +11. Here, owing to the obstinate hostility of the Persians, we lost four +days. For when we advanced they followed us, compelling us to retrace +our steps by their incessant attacks. When we halted gradually to fight, +they retired, tormenting us by their long delay. And now (for when men +are in great fear even falsehoods please them) a report being spread +that we were at no great distance from our own frontier, the army raised +an impatient shout, and demanded to be at once led across the Tigris. + +12. But the emperor and his officers opposed this demand, and showed +them that the river, now just at the time of the rising of the Dogstar, +was much flooded, entreated them not to trust themselves to its +dangerous currents, reminding them that most of them could not swim, and +adding likewise that the enemy had occupied the banks of the river, +swoln as it was at many parts. + +13. But when the demand was repeated over and over again in the camp, +and the soldiers with shouts and great eagerness began to threaten +violence, the order was given very unwillingly that the Gauls, mingled +with the northern Germans, should lead the way into the river, in order +that if they were carried away by the violence of the stream the +obstinacy of the rest might be shaken; or on the other hand, if they +accomplished the passage in safety the rest might attempt it with more +confidence. + +14. And men were selected suited to such an enterprise, who from their +childhood had been accustomed in their native land to cross the greatest +rivers. And when the darkness of night presented an opportunity for +making the attempt unperceived, as if they had just escaped from a +prison, they reached the opposite bank sooner than could have been +expected; and having beaten down and slain numbers of the Persians whom, +though they had been placed there to guard the passage, their fancied +security had lulled into a gentle slumber, they held up their hands, and +shook their cloaks so as to give the concerted signal that their bold +attempt had succeeded. + +15. And when the signal was seen, the soldiers became eager to cross, +and could only be restrained by the promise of the engineers to make +them bridges by means of bladders and the hides of slaughtered animals. + + +VII. + +§ 1. While these vain attempts were going on, king Sapor, both while at +a distance, and also when he approached, received from his scouts and +from our deserters a true account of the gallant exploits of our men, of +the disgraceful slaughter of his own troops, and also of his elephants +in greater numbers than he ever remembered to have lost before. And he +heard also that the Roman army, being hardened by its continual labours +since the death of its glorious chief, did not now think so much, as +they said, of safety as of revenge; and were resolved to extricate +themselves from their difficulties either by a complete victory or by a +glorious death. + +2. He looked on this news as formidable, being aware by experience that +our troops who were scattered over these provinces could easily be +assembled, and knowing also that his own troops after their heavy losses +were in a state of the greatest alarm; he also heard that we had in +Mesopotamia an army little inferior in numbers to that before him. + +3. And besides all this, his courage was damped by the fact of five +hundred men having crossed that swollen river by swimming in perfect +safety, and having slain his guards, and so emboldening the rest of +their comrades to similar hardihood. + +4. In the mean time, as the violence of the stream prevented any bridges +from being constructed, and as everything which could be eaten was +consumed, we passed two days in great misery, and the starving soldiers +began to be furious with rage, thinking it better to perish by the sword +than by hunger, that most degrading death. + +5. But the eternal providence of God was on our side, and beyond our +hopes the Persians made the first overtures, sending the Surena and +another noble as ambassadors to treat for peace, and they themselves +being in a state of despondency, as the Romans, having proved superior +in almost every battle, weakened them daily. + +6. But the conditions which they proposed were difficult and intricate, +since they pretended that, out of regard for humanity, their merciful +monarch was willing to permit the remains of our army to return home, +provided the Cæsar, with his officers, would satisfy his demands. + +7. In reply, we sent as ambassadors on our part, Arinthæus and +Sallustius; and while the proper terms were being discussed with great +deliberation, we passed four more days in great suffering from want of +provisions, more painful than any kind of torture. + +8. And in this truce, if before the ambassadors were sent, the emperor, +being disabused, had retired slowly from the territories of the enemy, +he would have reached the forts of Corduena, a rich region belonging to +us, only one hundred miles from the spot where these transactions were +being carried on. + +9. But Sapor obstinately demanded (to use his own language) the +restoration of those territories which had been taken from him by +Maximian; but as was seen in the progress of the negotiation, he in +reality required, as the price of our redemption, five provinces on the +other side of the Tigris,--Arzanena, Moxoena, Zabdicena, Rehemena, and +Corduena, with fifteen fortresses, besides Nisibis, and Singara, and the +important fortress called the camp of the Moors. + +10. And though it would have been better to fight ten battles than to +give up one of them, still a set of flatterers harassed our +pusillanimous emperor with harping on the dreaded name of Procopius, and +affirmed that unless we quickly recrossed the river, that chieftain, as +soon as he heard of the death of Julian, would easily bring about a +revolution which no one could resist, by means of the fresh troops which +he had under his command. + +11. Jovian, being wrought upon by the constant reiteration of these +evil counsels, without further delay gave up everything that was +demanded, with this abatement, which he obtained with difficulty, that +the inhabitants of Nisibis and Singara should not be given up to the +Persians as well as the cities themselves; and that the Roman garrisons +in the forts about to be surrendered should be permitted to retire to +fortresses of our own. + +12. To which another mischievous and unfair condition was added, that +after this treaty was concluded we were not to be at liberty to assist +Arsaces against the Persians, if he implored our aid, though he had +always been our friend and trusty ally. And this was insisted on by +Sapor for two reasons, in order that the man might be punished who had +laid waste Chiliocomum at the emperor's command, and also that facility +might be given for invading Armenia without a check. In consequence of +this it fell out subsequently that Arsaces was taken prisoner, and that, +amid different dissensions and disturbances, the Parthians laid violent +hands on the greater portion of Armenia, where it borders on Media, and +on the town of Artaxata. + +13. This ignoble treaty being made, that nothing might be done during +the armistice, in contravention of its terms, some men of rank were +given as hostages on each side: on ours, Remora, Victor, and +Bellovædius, tribunes of distinguished legions: and on that of the +enemy, one of their chief nobles named Bineses, and three other satraps +of note. + +14. So peace was made for thirty years, and ratified by solemn oaths; +and we, returning by another line of march, because the parts near the +river were rugged and difficult, suffered severely for want of water and +provisions. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. The peace which had been granted on pretence of humanity was turned +to the ruin of many who were so exhausted by want of food as to be at +the last gasp, and who in consequence could only creep along, and were +either carried away by the current of the river from not being able to +swim, or if able to overcome the force of the stream so far as to reach +the bank, were either slain like sheep by the Saracens or Persians +(because, as we stated some time back, the Germans had driven them out), +or sent to a distance to be sold for slaves. + +2. But when the trumpets openly gave the signal for crossing the river, +it was dreadful to see with what ardour every individual hastened to +rush into this danger, preferring himself to all his comrades, in the +desire of avoiding the many dangers and distresses behind him. Some +tried to guide the beasts who were swimming about at random, with +hurdles hurriedly put together; others, seated on bladders, and others, +being driven by necessity to all kinds of expedients, sought to pass +through the opposing waves by crossing them obliquely. + +3. The emperor himself with a few others crossed over in the small +boats, which we said were saved when the fleet was burnt, and then sent +the same vessels backwards and forwards till our whole body was brought +across. And at length all of us, except such as were drowned, reached +the opposite bank of the river, being saved amid our difficulties by the +favour of the Supreme Deity. + +4. While we were still oppressed with the fear of impending disasters, +we learnt from information brought in by our outposts that the Persians +were throwing a bridge over the river some way off, at a point out of +our sight, in order that while all ideas of war were put an end to on +our side by the ratification of the treaty of peace, they might come +upon our invalids as they proceeded carelessly onwards, and on the +animals exhausted with fatigue. But when they found their purpose +discovered, they relinquished their base design. + +5. Being now relieved from this suspicion, we hastened on by rapid +marches, and approached Hatra, an ancient town in the middle of a +desert, which had been long since abandoned, though at different times +those warlike emperors, Trajan and Severus, had attacked it with a view +to its destruction, but had been almost destroyed with their armies, as +we have related in our history of their exploits. + +6. And as we now learnt that over the vast plain before us for seventy +miles in that arid region no water could be found but such as was +brackish and fetid, and no kind of food but southernwood, wormwood, +dracontium, and other bitter herbs, we filled the vessels which we had +with sweet water, and having slain the camels and the rest of the beasts +of burden, we thus sought to insure some kind of supplies, though not +very wholesome. + +7. For six days the army marched, till at last even grass, the last +comfort of extreme necessity, could not be found; when Cassianus, Duke +of Mesopotamia, and the tribune Mauricius, who had been sent forward +with this object, came to a fort called Ur, and brought some food from +the supplies which the army under Procopius and Sebastian, by living +sparingly, had managed to preserve. + +8. From this place another person of the name of Procopius, a secretary, +and Memoridus, a military tribune, was sent forward to Illyricum and +Gaul to announce the death of Julian, and the subsequent promotion of +Jovian to the rank of emperor. + +9. And Jovian deputed them to present his father-in-law Lucillianus +(who, after giving up military service, had retired to the tranquillity +of private life, and who was at that time dwelling at Sirmium) with a +commission as captain of the forces of cavalry and infantry, and to urge +him at the same time to hasten to Milan, to support him there in any +difficulties which might arise, or (what he feared most) to oppose any +attempts which might be made to bring about a revolution. + +10. And he also gave them still more secret letters, in which he warned +Lucillianus to bring him some picked men of tried energy and fidelity, +of whose aid he might avail himself according as affairs should turn +out. + +11. He also made a wise choice, and selected Malarichus, who was at that +time in Italy on his own private affairs, sending him the ensigns of +office that he might succeed Jovinus as commander of the forces in Gaul, +in which appointment he had an eye on two important objects; first, to +remove a general of especial merit who was an object of suspicion on +that very account, and also by the promotion to so high a position of a +man whose hopes were not set on anything so lofty to bind him to exert +all his zeal in supporting the doubtful position of the maker of his +fortunes. + +12. And the officers who went to perform these commands were also +enjoined to extol the emperor's conduct, and wherever they went to agree +in reporting that the Parthian campaign had been brought to an +honourable termination; they were also charged to prosecute their +journey with all speed by night and day, delivering as they went letters +from the new emperor to all the governors of provinces and commanders of +the forces on their road; and when they had secretly learnt the opinions +of them all, to return to him with all speed, in order that when he knew +what was being done in the distant provinces, he might be able to frame +well-digested and wise plans for strengthening himself in his +government. + +13. But Fame (being alway the most rapid bearer of bad news), +outstripping these couriers, flew through the different provinces and +nations; and above all others struck the citizens of Nisibis with bitter +sorrow when they heard that their city was surrendered to Sapor, whose +anger and enmity they dreaded, from recollecting the havoc and slaughter +which he had made in his frequent attempts to take the place. + +14. For it was clear that the whole eastern empire would have fallen +under the power of Persia long before if it had not been for the +resistance which this city, strong in its admirable position and its +mighty walls, had been able to offer. But miserable as they now were, +and although they were filled with a still greater fear of what might +befall them hereafter, they were supported by this slender hope, that, +either from his own inclination or from being won over by their prayers, +the emperor might consent to keep their city in its existing state, as +the strongest bulwark of the east. + +15. While different reports were flying about of what had taken place, +the scanty supplies which I have spoken of as having been brought, were +consumed, and necessity might have driven the men to eat one another, if +the flesh of the animals slain had not lasted them a little longer; but +the consequence of our destitute condition was, that the arms and +baggage were thrown away; for we were so worn out with this terrible +famine, that whenever a single bushel of corn was found (which seldom +happened), it was sold for ten pieces of gold at the least. + +16. Marching on from thence, we come to Thilsaphata where Sebastian and +Procopius, with the tribunes and chief officers of the legions which had +been placed under their command for the protection of Mesopotamia, came +to meet the emperor as the solemn occasion required, and being kindly +received, accompanied us on our march. + +17. After this, proceeding with all possible speed, we rejoiced when we +saw Nisibis, where the emperor pitched a standing camp outside the +walls; and being most earnestly entreated by the whole population to +come to lodge in the palace according to the custom of his predecessors, +he positively refused, being ashamed that an impregnable city should be +surrendered to an enraged enemy while he was within its walls. + +18. But as the evening was getting dark, Jovian, the chief secretary, +was seized while at supper, the man who at the siege of the city +Maogamalcha we have spoken of as escaping with others by a subterranean +passage, and being led to an out-of-the-way place, was thrown headlong +down a dry well, and overwhelmed with a heap of stones which were thrown +down upon him, because after the death of Julian he also had been named +by a few persons as fit to be made emperor; and after the election of +his namesake had not behaved with any modesty, but had been heard to +utter secret whispers concerning the business, and had from time to time +invited some of the leading soldiers to entertainments. + + +IX. + +§ 1. The next day Bineses, one of the Persians of whom we have spoken as +the most distinguished among them, hastening to execute the commission +of his king, demanded from Jovian the immediate performance of his +promise; and by his permission he entered the city of Nisibis, and +raised the standard of his nation on the citadel, announcing to the +citizens a miserable emigration from their native place. + +2. Immediately they were all commanded to expatriate themselves, in vain +stretching forth their hands in entreaty not to be compelled to depart, +affirming that they by themselves, without drawing on the public +resources for either provisions or soldiers, were sufficient to defend +their own home in full confidence that Justice would be on their side +while fighting for the place of their birth, as they had often found her +to be before. Both nobles and common people joined in this supplication; +but they spoke in vain as to the winds, the emperor fearing the crime of +perjury, as he pretended, though in reality the object of his fear was +very different. + +3. Then a man of the name of Sabinus, eminent among his fellow-citizens +both for his fortune and birth, replied with great fluency that +Constantius too was at one time defeated by the Persians in the terrible +strife of fierce war, that afterwards he fled with a small body of +comrades to the unguarded station of Hibita, where he lived on a scanty +and uncertain supply of bread which was brought him by an old woman from +the country; and yet that to the end of his life he lost no territory; +while Jovian, at the very beginning of his reign, was yielding up the +wall of his provinces, by the protection of which barrier they had +hitherto remained safe from the earliest ages. + +4. But as he could not prevail on the emperor, who persisted obstinately +in alleging the obligation of his oath, presently, when Jovian, who had +for some time refused the crown which was offered to him, accepted it +under a show of compulsion, an advocate, named Silvanus, exclaimed +boldly, "May you, O emperor, be so crowned in the rest of your cities." +But Jovian was offended at his words, and ordered the whole body of +citizens to quit the city within three days, in despair as they were at +the existing state of affairs. + +5. Accordingly, men were appointed to compel obedience to this order, +with threats of death to every one who delayed his departure; and the +whole city was a scene of mourning and lamentation, and in every quarter +nothing was heard but one universal wail, matrons tearing their hair +when about to be driven from their homes, in which they had been born +and brought up, the mother who had lost her children, or the wife her +husband, about to be torn from the place rendered sacred by their +shades, clinging to their doorposts, embracing their thresholds, and +pouring forth floods of tears. + +6. Every road was crowded, each person straggling away as he could. +Many, too, loaded themselves with as much of their property as they +thought they could carry, while leaving behind them abundant and costly +furniture, for this they could not remove for want of beasts of burden. + +7. Thou in this place, O fortune of the Roman world, art justly an +object of accusation, who, while storms were agitating the republic, +didst strike the helm from the hand of a wise sovereign, to intrust it +to an inexperienced youth, whom, as he was not previously known for any +remarkable actions in his previous life, it is not fair either to blame +or praise. + +8. But it sunk into the heart of all good citizens, that while, out of +fear of a rival claimant of his power, and constantly fancying some one +in Gaul or in Illyricum might have formed ambitious designs, he was +hastening to outstrip the intelligence of his approach, he should have +committed, under pretence of reverence for an oath, an act so unworthy +of his imperial power as to abandon Nisibis, which ever since the time +of Mithridates had been the chief hindrance to the encroachments of the +Persians in the East. + +9. For never before since the foundation of Rome, if one consults all +its annals, I believe has any portion of our territories been +surrendered by emperor or consul to an enemy. Nor is there an instance +of a triumph having been celebrated for the recovery of anything that +had been lost, but only for the increase of our dominions. + +10. On this principle, a triumph was refused to Publius Scipio for the +recovery of Spain, to Fulvius for the acquisition of Capua after a long +struggle, and to Opimius after many battles with various results, +because the people of Fregellæ, who at that time were our implacable +enemies, had been compelled to surrender. + +11. For ancient records teach us that disgraceful treaties, made under +the pressure of extreme necessity, even after the parties to them have +sworn to their observance in set terms, have nevertheless been soon +dissolved by the renewal of war; as in the olden time, after the legions +had been made to pass under the yoke at the Caudine Forks, in Samnium; +and also when an infamous peace was contemplated by Albinus in Numidia; +and when Mancinus, the author of a peace which was concluded in +disgraceful haste, was surrendered to the people of Numantia. + +12. Accordingly, when the citizens had been withdrawn, the city +surrendered, and the tribune Constantius had been sent to deliver up to +the Persian nobles the fortresses and districts agreed upon, Procopius +was sent forward with the remains of Julian, to bury them in the suburbs +of Tarsus, according to his directions while alive. He departed, I say, +to fulfil this commission, and as soon as the body was buried, he +quitted Tarsus, and though sought for with great diligence, he could not +be found anywhere, till long afterwards he was suddenly seen at +Constantinople invested with the purple. + + +X. + +§ 1. These transactions having been thus concluded, after a long march +we arrived at Antioch, where for several days in succession many +terrible omens were seen, as if the gods were offended, since those who +were skilled in the interpretation of prodigies foretold that impending +events would be melancholy. + +2. For the statue of Maximian Cæsar, which was placed in the vestibule +of the palace, suddenly lost the brazen globe, formed after the figure +of the heavens, which it bore in its hand. Also the beams in the council +chamber sounded with an ominous creak; comets were seen in the daytime, +respecting the nature of which natural philosophers differ. + +3. For some think they have received the name because they scatter fire +wreathed like hair[156] by a number of stars being collected into one +mass; others think that they derive their fire from the dry evaporation +of the earth rising gradually to a greater height; some fancy that the +sunbeams as they rapidly pass, being prevented by dense clouds from +descending lower, by infusing their brilliancy into a dense body show a +light which, as it were, seems spotted with stars to the eyes of +mortals. Some again have a fixed opinion that this kind of light is +visible when some cloud, rising to a greater height than usual, becomes +illuminated by its proximity to the eternal fires; or, that at all +events there are some stars like the rest, of which the special times of +their rising and setting are not understood by man. There are many +other suggestions about comets which have been put forth by men skilled +in mundane philosophy, but I must pass over them, as my subject calls me +in another direction. + +4. The emperor remained a short time at Antioch, distracted by many +important cares, but desirous above all things to proceed. And so, +sparing neither man nor beast, he started from that city in the depth of +winter, though, as I have stated, many omens warned him from such a +course, and made his entrance into Tarsus, a noble city of Cilicia, the +origin of which I have already related. + +5. Being in excessive haste to depart from thence, he ordered +decorations for the tomb of Julian, which was placed in the suburb, in +the road leading to the defiles of Mount Taurus. Though a sound judgment +would have decided that the ashes of such a prince ought not to lie +within sight of the Cydnus, however beautiful and clear that river is, +but, to perpetuate the glory of his achievements, ought rather to be +placed where they might be washed by the Tiber as it passes through the +Eternal City and winds round the monuments of the ancient gods. + +6. Then quitting Tarsus, he reached by forced marches Tyana, a town of +Cappadocia, where Procopius the secretary and Memoridus the tribune met +him on their return, and related to him all that occurred; beginning, as +the order of events required, at the moment when Lucillianus (who had +entered Milan with the tribunes Seniauchus and Valentinian, whom he had +brought with him, as soon as it was known that Malarichus had refused to +accept the post which was offered to him) hastened on with all speed to +Rheims. + +7. There, as if it had been a time of profound tranquillity, he went +quite beside the mark, as we say, and while things were still in a very +unsettled state, he most unseasonably devoted his attention to +scrutinizing the accounts of the commissary, who, being conscious of +fraud and guilt, fled to the standards of the soldiers, and pretended +that while Julian was still alive some one of the common people had +attempted a revolution. By this false report the army became so greatly +excited that they put Lucillianus and Seniauchus to death. For +Valentinian, who soon afterwards became emperor, had been concealed by +his host Primitivus in a safe place, overwhelmed with fear and not +knowing which way to flee. + +8. This disastrous intelligence was accompanied by one piece of +favourable news,--that the soldiers who had been sent by Jovian were +approaching (men known in the camp as the heads of the classes), who +brought word that the Gallic army had cordially embraced the cause of +Jovian. + +9. When this was known, the command of the second class of the Scutarii +was given to Valentinian, who had returned with those men; and +Vitalianus, who had been a soldier of the Heruli, was placed among the +body-guards, and afterwards, when raised to the rank of count, met with +very ill success in Illyricum. And at the same time Arinthæus was +despatched into Gaul with letters for Jovinus, with an injunction to +maintain his ground and act with resolution and constancy; and he was +further charged to make an example of the author of the disturbance +which had taken place, and to send the ringleaders of the sedition as +prisoners to the court. + +10. When these matters had been arranged as seemed most expedient, the +Gallic soldiers obtained an audience of the emperor at Aspuna, a small +town of Galatia, and having been admitted into the council chamber, +after the message which they brought had been listened to with approval, +they received rewards and were ordered to return to their standards. + +A.D. 364. + +11. When the emperor had made his entry into Ancyra, everything +necessary for his procession having been prepared as well as the time +permitted, Jovian entered on the consulship, and took as his colleague +his son Varronianus, who was as yet quite a child, and whose cries as he +obstinately resisted being borne in the curule chair, according to the +ancient fashion, was an omen of what shortly happened. + +12. Here also the appointed termination of life carried off Jovian with +rapidity. For when he had reached Dadastana, a place on the borders of +Bithynia and Galatia, he was found dead in the night; and many uncertain +reports were spread concerning his death. + +13. It was said that he had been unable to bear the unwholesome smell +of the fresh mortar with which his bedchamber had been plastered. Also +that his head had swollen in consequence of a great fire of coals, and +that this had been the cause of his death; others said that he had died +of a surfeit from over eating. He was in the thirty-third year of his +age. And though he and Scipio Æmilianus both died in the same manner, we +have not found out that any investigation into the death of either ever +took place. + +14. Jovian was slow in his movements, of a cheerful countenance, with +blue eyes; very tall, so much so that it was long before any of the +royal robes could be found to fit him. He was anxious to imitate +Constantius, often occupying himself with serious business till after +midday, and being fond of jesting with his friends in public. + +15. He was given to the study of the Christian law, sometimes doing it +marked honour; he was tolerably learned in it, very well inclined to its +professors, and disposed to promote them to be judges, as was seen in +some of his appointments. He was fond of eating, addicted to wine and +women, though he would perhaps have corrected these propensities from a +sense of what was due to the imperial dignity. + +16. It was said that his father, Varronianus, through the warning of a +dream, had long since foreseen what happened, and had foretold it to two +of his most faithful friends, with the addition that he himself also +should become consul. But though part of his prophecy became true, he +could not procure the fulfilment of the rest. For though he heard of his +son's high fortune, he died before he could see him. + +17. And because the old man had it foretold to him in his sleep that the +highest office was destined for his name, his grandson Varronianus, +while still an infant, was made consul with his father Jovian, as we +have related above. + + +[151] Primicerius: he was the third officer of the guard; the first +being the lower; the second, the tribune--answering, as one might say, +to our major. + +[152] The Zianni were an Armenian tribe. The legion belonged to the +Thracian establishment. + +[153] Tarquitius was an ancient Etruscan soothsayer, who had written on +the subject of his art. + +[154] That is Marcus Aurelius. + +[155] It must be remembered that throughout Ammianus's history a count +is always spoken of as of higher rank than a duke. + +[156] From κόμη, hair. + + + + +BOOK XXVI. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Valentinian, the tribune of the second school of the Scutarii, + by the unanimous consent of both the civil and military officers, + is elected emperor at Nicæa, in his absence--A dissertation on + leap-year.--II. Valentinian, being summoned from Ancyra, comes with + speed to Nicæa, and is again unanimously elected emperor, and + having been clothed in the purple, and saluted as Augustus, + harangues the army.--III. Concerning the prefecture of Rome, as + administered by Apronianus.--IV. Valentinian at Nicomedia makes + Valens, his brother, who was master of the horse, his colleague in + the empire, and repeats his appointment at Constantinople, with the + consent of the army.--V. The two emperors divide the counts and the + army between them, and soon afterwards enter on their first + consulship, the one at Milan, the other at Constantinople--The + Allemanni lay waste Gaul--Procopius attempts a revolt in the + East.--VI. The country, family, habits, and rank of Procopius; his + obscurity in the time of Jovian, and how he came to be saluted + emperor at Constantinople.--VII. Procopius, without bloodshed, + reduces Thrace to acknowledge his authority; and by promises + prevails on the cavalry and infantry, who were marching through + that country, to take the oath of fidelity to him; he also by a + speech wins over the Jovian and Victorian legions, which were sent + against him by Valens.--VIII. Nicæa and Chalcedon being delivered + from their blockades, Bithynia acknowledges the sovereignty of + Procopius; as presently, after Cyzicus is stormed, the Hellespont + does likewise.--IX. Procopius is deserted by his troops in + Bithynia, Lycia, and Phrygia, is delivered alive to Valens, and + beheaded.--X. Marcellus, a captain of the guard, his kinsman, and + many of his partisans are put to death. + + +I. + +A.D. 364. + +§ 1. Having narrated with exceeding care the series of transactions in +my own immediate recollection, it is necessary now to quit the track of +notorious events, in order to avoid the dangers often found in +connection with truth; and also to avoid exposing ourselves to +unreasonable critics of our work, who would make an outcry as if they +had been personally injured, if anything should be passed over which the +emperor has said at dinner, if any cause should be overlooked for which +the common soldiers were assembled round their standards, or if there +were not inserted a mention of every insignificant fort, however little +such things ought to have room in a varied description of different +districts. Or if the name of every one who filled the office of urban +prætor be not given, and many other things quite impertinent to the +proper idea of a history, which duly touches on prominent occurrences, +and does not stoop to investigate petty details or secret motives, which +any one who wishes to know may as well hope to be able to count those +little indivisible bodies flying through space, which we call atoms. + +2. Some of the ancients, fearing this kind of criticism, though they +composed accounts of various actions in a beautiful style, forbore to +publish them, as Tully, a witness of authority, mentions in a letter to +Cornelius Nepos. However, let us, despising the ignorance of people in +general, proceed with the remainder of our narrative. + +3. The course of events being terminated so mournfully, by the death of +two emperors at such brief intervals, the army, having paid the last +honours to the dead body which was sent to Constantinople to be interred +among the other emperors, advanced towards Nicæa, which is the +metropolis of Bithynia, where the chief civil and military authorities +applied themselves to an anxious consideration of the state of affairs, +and as some of them were full of vain hopes, they sought for a ruler of +dignity and proved wisdom. + +4. In reports, and the concealed whispers of a few persons, the name of +Equitius was ventilated, who was at that time tribune of the first class +of the Scutarii; but he was disapproved by the most influential leaders +as being rough and boorish; and their inclinations rather tended towards +Januarius, a kinsman of Julian, who was the chief commissary of the camp +in Illyricum. + +5. However, he also was rejected because he was at a distance; and, as a +man well qualified and at hand, Valentinian was elected by the unanimous +consent of all men, and the manifest favour of the Deity. He was the +tribune of the second class of the Scutarii, and had been left at +Ancyra, it having been arranged that he should follow afterwards. And, +because no one denied that this was for the advantage of the republic, +messengers were sent to beg him to come with all speed; and for ten +days the empire was without a ruler, which the soothsayer Marcus, by an +inspection of entrails at Rome, announced to be the case at that moment +in Asia. + +6. But in the meanwhile, to prevent any attempt to overturn what had +been thus settled, or any movement on the part of the fickle soldiers to +set aside the election in favour of some one on the spot, Equitius and +Leo, who was acting as commissary under Dagalaiphus the commander of the +cavalry, and who afterwards incurred great odium as master of the +offices,[157] strove with great prudence and vigilance to establish, to +the best of their power, what had been the decision of the whole army, +they being also natives of Pannonia, and partisans of the emperor elect. + +7. When Valentinian arrived in answer to the summons he had received, +either in obedience to omens which guided him in the prosecution of the +affair, as was generally thought, or to repeated warnings conveyed in +dreams, he would not come into public or be seen by any one for two +days, because he wished to avoid the bissextile day of February which +came at that time, and which he knew to have been often an unfortunate +day for the Roman empire: of this day I will here give a plain +explanation. + +8. The ancients who were skilled in the motions of the world and the +stars, among whom the most eminent are Meton, Euctemon, Hipparchus, and +Archimedes, define it as the period of the revolving year when the sun, +in accordance with the laws which regulate the heavens, having gone +through the zodiac, in three hundred and sixty-five days and nights, +returns to the same point: as, for instance, when, after having moved on +from the second degree of the Ram, it returns again to it after having +completed its circuit. + +9. But the exact period of a year extends over the number of days above +mentioned and six hours more. And so the correct commencement of the +next year will not begin till after midday and ends in the evening. The +third year begins at the first watch, and lasts till the sixth hour of +the night. The fourth begins at daybreak. + +10. Now as the beginning of each year varies, one commencing at the +sixth hour of the day, another at the same hour of the night, to +prevent the calculation from throwing all science into confusion by its +perplexing diversity, and the months of autumn from sometimes being +found to come in the spring, it has been settled that those six hours +which in a period of four years amount to twenty-four shall be put +together so as to make one day and night. + +11. And after much consideration it has been so arranged with the +concurrence of many learned men, that thus the revolutions of the year +may come to one regular end, removed from all vagueness and uncertainty, +so that the theory of the heavens may not be clouded by any error, and +that the months may retain their appointed position. + +12. Before their dominions had reached any wide extent, the Romans were +for a long time ignorant of this fact, and having been for many years +involved in obscure difficulties, they were in deeper darkness and error +than ever, when they gave the priests the power of intercalating, which +they, in profligate subservience to the interests of the farmers of the +revenue, or people engaged in lawsuits, effected by making additions or +subtractions at their own pleasure. + +13. And from this mode of proceeding many other expedients were adopted, +all of which were fallacious, and which I think it superfluous now to +enumerate. But when they were given up, Octavianus Augustus, in +imitation of the Greeks, corrected these disorderly arrangements and put +an end to these fluctuations, after great deliberation fixing the +duration of the year at twelve months and six hours, during which the +sun with its perpetual movement runs through the whole twelve signs, and +concludes the period of a whole year. + +14. This rule of the bissextile year, Rome, which is destined to endure +to the end of time, established with the aid of the heavenly Deity. Now +let us return to our history. + + +II. + +§ 1. When this day, so little fit in the opinion of many for beginning +any great affair, had passed, at the approach of evening, by the advice +of the prefect Sallust, an order was issued by general consent, and with +the penalty of death attached to any neglect of it, that no one of +higher authority, or suspected of aiming at any objects of ambition, +should appear in public the next morning. + +2. And when, while the numbers who allowed their own empty wishes to +torment them were weary of the slowness of time, the night ended at +last, and daylight appeared, the soldiers were all assembled in one +body, and Valentinian advanced into the open space, and mounting a +tribunal of some height which had been erected on purpose, he was +declared ruler of the empire as a man of due wisdom by this assembly, +bearing the likeness of a comitia, with the unanimous acclamations of +all present. + +3. Presently he was clothed with the imperial robe, and crowned, and +saluted as Augustus with all the delight which the pleasure of this +novelty could engender; and then he began to harangue the multitude in a +premeditated speech. But as he put forth his arm to speak more freely, a +great murmur arose, the centuries and maniples beginning to raise an +uproar, and the whole mass of the cohorts presently urging that a second +emperor should be at once elected. + +4. And though some people fancied that this cry was raised by a few +corrupt men in order to gain the favour of those who had been passed +over, it appeared that that was a mistake, for the cry that was raised +did not resemble a purchased clamour, but rather the unanimous voice of +the whole multitude all animated with the same wish, because recent +examples had taught them to fear the instability of this high fortune. +Presently the murmurs of the furious and uproarious army appeared likely +to give rise to a complete tumult, and men began to fear that the +audacity of the soldiers might break out into some atrocious act. + +5. And as Valentinian feared this above everything, he raised his hand +firmly with the vigour of an emperor full of confidence, and venturing +to rebuke some as obstinate and seditious, he delivered the speech he +had intended without interruption. + +6. "I exult, O ye gallant defenders of our provinces, and boast and +always shall boast that your valour has conferred on me, who neither +expected nor desired such an honour, the government of the Roman empire, +as the fittest man to discharge its duties. That which was in your +hands before an emperor was elected, you have completed beneficially and +gloriously, by raising to this summit of honour a man whom you know by +experience to have lived from his earliest youth to his present age with +honour and integrity. Now then I entreat you to listen with quietness to +a few plain observations which I think will be for the public advantage. + +7. "So numerous are the matters for the consideration of an emperor, +that I neither deny nor even doubt that it is a desirable thing that he +should have a colleague of equal power to deal with every contingency. +And I myself, as a man, do also fear the great accumulation of cares +which must be mine, and the various changes of events. But still we must +use every exertion to insure concord, by which even the smallest affairs +give strength. And that is easily secured if, your patience concurring +with your equity, you willingly grant me what belongs to me in this +matter. For Fortune, the ally of all good counsels, will I trust aid me, +while to the very utmost of my ability and power, I diligently search +for a wise and temperate partner. For as wise men lay it down, not only +in the case of empire where the dangers are frequent and vast, but also +in matters of private and everyday life, a man ought rather to take a +stranger into his friendship after he has had opportunities of judging +him to be wise, than to ascertain his wisdom after he has made him his +friend. + +8. "This, in hopes of a happier fortune, I promise. Do you, retaining +your steadiness of conduct and loyalty, recruit the vigour of your minds +and bodies while rest in your winter quarters allows you to do so. And +you shall soon receive what is your due on my nomination as emperor." + +9. Having finished this speech, to which his unexpected authority gave +weight, the emperor by it brought all over to his opinion. And even +those who a few minutes before with loud voices demanded something +different, now, following his advice, surrounded him with the eagles and +standards, and, forming a splendid and formidable escort of all classes +and ranks of the army, conducted him to the palace. + + +III. + +§ 1. While the decisions of Fate were rapidly bringing these events to +pass in the East, Apronianus, the governor of Rome, an upright and +severe judge, among the grave cases by which that prefecture is +continually oppressed, was labouring with most particular solicitude to +suppress the magicians, who were now getting scarce, and who, having +been taken prisoners, had been, after being put to the question, +manifestly convicted by the evidence of their accomplices of having +injured some persons. These he put to death, hoping thus, by the +punishment of a few, to drive the rest, if any were still concealed, out +of the city through fear of similar treatment. + +2. And he is said to have acted thus energetically because having been +promoted by Julian while he was still in Syria, he had lost one eye on +his journey to take possession of his office, and he suspected that this +was owing to his having been the object of some nefarious practices; +therefore with just but unusual indignation he exerted great industry in +searching out these and similar crimes. This made him appear cruel to +some persons, because the populace were continually pouring in crowds +into the amphitheatre while he was conducting the examination of some of +the greatest criminals. + +3. At last, after many punishments of this kind had been inflicted, he +condemned to death the charioteer Hilarinus, who was convicted on his +own confession of having intrusted his son, who was but a very young +boy, to a sorcerer to be taught some secret mysteries forbidden by the +laws, in order that he might avail himself of unlawful assistance +without the privity of any one. But, as the executioner held him but +loosely he suddenly escaped and fled to a Christian altar, and had to be +dragged from it, when he was immediately beheaded. + +4. But soon ample precautions were taken against the recurrence of this +and similar offences, and there were none or very few who ventured +afterwards to insult the rigour of the public law by practising these +iniquities. But at a later period long impunity nourished atrocious +crimes; and licentiousness increased to such a pitch that a certain +senator followed the example of Hilarinus, and was convicted of having +almost articled by a regular contract one of his slaves to a teacher of +the black art, to be instructed in his impious mysteries, though he +escaped punishment by an enormous bribe, as common report went. + +5. And, as it was said, having thus procured an acquittal, though he +ought to have been ashamed even to have such an accusation, he took no +pains to efface the stain, but as if, among a lot of infamous persons, +he were the only one absolutely innocent, he used to ride on a +handsomely caparisoned horse through the streets, and is still always +attended by a troop of slaves, as if by a new and curious fashion he +were desirous to attract particular observation, just as Duilius in +ancient times after his glorious naval victory became so arrogant as to +cause a flute-player to precede him with soft airs when he returned to +his house after any dinner-party. + +6. Under this same Apronianus all necessaries were so abundant in Rome +that not the slightest murmur because of any scarcity of supplies was +ever heard, which is very common at Rome. + + +IV. + +§ 1. But in Bithynia, Valentinian, as we have already mentioned, having +been declared emperor, having fixed the next day but one for beginning +his march, assembled his chief officers, and, as if the course which he +preferred was to follow their advice, inquired whom they recommended him +to take for his colleague; and when no one made him any answer, +Dagalaiphus, who at that time was commander of the cavalry, boldly +answered "If, O excellent emperor, you love your own kindred, you have a +brother; if you love the republic, then seek the fittest man to invest." + +2. Valentinian was offended with this speech, but kept silence, and +dissembled his displeasure and his intentions. And having made a rapid +journey he reached Nicomedia on the first of March, where he appointed +his brother Valens master of the horse with the rank of tribune. + +3. And after that, when he reached Constantinople, revolving many +considerations in his mind, and considering that he himself was already +overwhelmed with the magnitude of pressing business, he thought that +the emergency would admit of no delay; and on the 28th of March he led +Valens into the suburbs, where, with the consent of all men (and indeed +no one dared to object), he declared him emperor, had him clothed in the +imperial robes, and crowned with a diadem, and then brought him back in +the same carriage with himself as the legitimate partner of his power, +though in fact he was to be more like an obedient servant, as the +remainder of my narrative will show. + +4. After these matters had been thus settled without any interruption, +the two emperors suffered a long time from a violent fever; but when out +of danger (as they were more active in the investigation of evils than +in removing them) they intrusted the commission to investigate the +secret causes of this malady to Ursatius the master of the offices, a +fierce Dalmatian, and to Juventius Siscianus the quæstor, their real +motive, as was constantly reported, being to bring the memory of Julian +and that of his friends into odium, as if their illness had been owing +to their secret malpractices. But this insinuation was easily disposed +of, since not a word could be adduced to justify any imputation of such +treason. + +5. At this time the trumpet as it were gave signal for war throughout +the whole Roman world; and the barbarian tribes on our frontier were +moved to make incursion on those territories which lay nearest to them. +The Allemanni laid waste Gaul and Rhætia at the same time. The +Sarmatians and Quadi ravaged Pannonia. The Picts, Scots, Saxons, and +Atacotti harassed the Britons with incessant invasions; the Austoriani +and other Moorish tribes attacked Africa with more than usual violence. +Predatory bands of the Goths plundered Thrace. + +6. The king of the Persians poured troops into Armenia, exerting all his +power to reduce that people again into subjection to his authority; +without any just cause, arguing, that after the death of Julian, with +whom he had made a treaty of peace, there was nothing that ought to +hinder him from recovering those lands which he could prove to have +belonged in former times to his ancestors. + + +V. + +A.D. 365. + +§ 1. So after the winter had passed off quietly, the two emperors in +perfect harmony, one having been formally elected, and the other having +been admitted to share that honour, though chiefly in appearance, having +traversed Thrace, arrived at Nissa, where in the suburb which is known +as Mediana, and is three miles from the city, they divided the counts +between them as if they were going to separate. + +2. To the share of Valentinian, by whose will everything was settled, +there fell Jovinus, who had lately been promoted by Julian to be the +commander of the forces in Gaul, and Dagalaiphus, on whom Jovian had +conferred a similar rank; while Victor was appointed to follow Valens to +the east: and he also had originally been promoted by the decision of +Julian; and to him was given Ariathæus as a colleague. For Lupicinus, +who in like manner had sometime before been appointed by Jovian to +command the cavalry, was defending the eastern districts. + +3. At the same time Equitius received the command of the army of +Illyricum, with the rank not of general but of count; and Serenianus, +who sometime before had retired from the service, now, being a citizen +of Pannonia, returned to it, and joined Valens as commander of the +cohort of his guards. This was the way in which these affairs were +settled, and in which the troops were divided. + +4. After this, when the two brothers entered Sirmium, they divided their +courts also, and Valentinian as the chief took Milan, while Valens +retired to Constantinople. + +5. Sallust, with the authority of prefect, governed the East, Mamertinus +Italy with Africa and Illyricum, and Germanianus the provinces of Gaul. + +6. It was in the cities of Milan and Constantinople that the emperors +first assumed the consular robes. But the whole year was one of heavy +disaster to the Roman state. + +7. For the Allemanni burst through the limits of Germany, and the cause +of their unusual ferocity was this. They had sent ambassadors to the +court, and according to custom they were entitled to regular fixed +presents, but received gifts of inferior value; which, in great +indignation, they threw away as utterly beneath them. For this they were +roughly treated by Ursatius, a man of a passionate and cruel temper, who +at that time was master of the offices; and when they returned and +related, with considerable exaggeration, how they had been treated, they +roused the anger of their savage countrymen as if they had been despised +and insulted in their persons. + +8. About the same time, or not much later, Procopius attempted a +revolution in the east; and both these occurrences were announced to +Valentinian on the same day, the 1st of November, as he was on the point +of making his entry into Paris. + +9. He instantly sent Dagalaiphus to make head against the Allemanni, +who, when they had laid waste the land nearest to them, had departed to +a distance without bloodshed. But with respect to the measures necessary +to crush the attempt of Procopius before it gained any strength, he was +greatly perplexed, being made especially anxious by his ignorance +whether Valens were alive or dead, that Procopius thus attempted to make +himself master of the empire. + +10. For Equitius, as soon as he heard the account of the tribune +Antonius, who was in command of the army in the interior of Dacia, +before he was able to ascertain the real truth of everything, brought +the emperor a plain statement of what had taken place. + +11. On this Valentinian promoted Equitius to the command of a division, +and resolved on retiring to Illyricum to prevent a rebel who was already +formidable from overrunning Thrace and then carrying an hostile invasion +into Pannonia. For he was greatly terrified by recollecting recent +events, considering how, not long before, Julian, despising an emperor +who had been invariably successful in every civil war, before he was +expected or looked for, passed on from city to city with incredible +rapidity. + +12. But his eager desire to return was cooled by the advice of those +about him, who counselled and implored him not to expose Gaul to the +barbarians, who were threatening it; nor to abandon on such a pretence +provinces which were in need of great support. And then prayers were +seconded by embassies from several important cities which entreated him +not in a doubtful and disastrous crisis to leave them wholly undefended, +when by his presence he might at once deliver them from the greatest +dangers, by the mere terror which his mighty name would strike into the +Germans. + +13. At last, having given much deliberation to what might be most +advisable, he adopted the opinion of the majority, and replied that +Procopius was the foe only of himself and his brother, but the Allemanni +were the enemies of the whole Roman world; and so he determined in the +mean time not to move beyond the frontier of Gaul. + +14. And advancing to Rheims, being also anxious that Africa should not +be suddenly invaded, he appointed Neotherius, who at that time was only +a secretary, but who afterwards became a consul, to go to the protection +of that country; and with him Masaucio, an officer of the domestic +guard, being induced to add him by the consideration that he was well +acquainted with the disturbed parts, since he had been brought up there +under his father Cretion, who was formerly Count of Africa; he added +further, Gaudentius, a commander of the Scutarii, a man whom he had long +known, and on whose fidelity he placed entire confidence. + +15. Because therefore these sad disturbances arose on both sides at one +and the same time, we will here arrange our account of each separately +in suitable order; relating first what took place in the East, and +afterwards the war with the barbarians; since the chief events both in +the West and the East occurred in the same months; lest, by any other +plan, if we skipped over in haste from place to place, we should present +only a confused account of everything, and so involve our whole +narrative in perplexity and disorder. + + +VI. + +§ 1. Procopius was born and bred in Cilicia, of a noble family, and +occupied an advantageous position from his youth, as being a relation of +Julian who afterwards became emperor. He was very strict in his way of +life and morals, reserved and silent; but both as secretary, and +afterwards as tribune distinguishing himself by his services in war, +and rising gradually to the highest rank. After the death of +Constantius, in the changes that ensued, he, being a kinsman of the +emperor, began to entertain higher aims, especially after he was +admitted to the order of counts; and it became evident that if ever he +were sufficiently powerful, he would be a disturber of the public peace. + +2. When Julian invaded Persia he left him in Mesopotamia, in command of +a strong division of troops, giving him Sebastian for his colleague with +equal power; and he was enjoined (as an uncertain rumour whispered, for +no certain authority for the statement could be produced) to be guided +by the course of events, and if he should find the republic in a languid +state, and in need of further aid, to cause himself without delay to be +saluted as emperor. + +3. Procopius executed his commission in a courteous and prudent manner; +and soon afterwards heard of the mortal wound and death of Julian, and +of the elevation of Jovian to the supreme authority; while at the same +time an ungrounded report had got abroad that Julian with his last +breath had declared that it was his will that the helm of the state +should be intrusted to Procopius. He therefore, fearing that in +consequence of this report he might be put to death uncondemned, +withdrew from public observation; being especially alarmed after the +execution of Jovian, the principal secretary, who, as he heard, had been +cruelly put to death with torture, because after the death of Julian he +had been named by a few soldiers as one worthy to succeed to the +sovereignty, and on that account was suspected of meditating a +revolution. + +4. And because he was aware that he was sought for with great care, he +withdrew into a most remote and secret district, seeking to avoid giving +offence to any one. Then, finding that his hiding-place was still sought +out by Jovian with increased diligence, he grew weary of living like a +wild beast (since he was not only driven from high rank to a low +station, but was often in distress even for food, and deprived of all +human society); so at last, under the pressure of extreme necessity, he +returned by secret roads into the district of Chalcedon. + +5. Where, since that appeared a safer retreat, he concealed himself in +the house of a trusty friend, a man of the name of Strategius, who from +being an officer about the palace had risen to be a senator; crossing +over at times to Constantinople whenever he could do so without being +perceived; as was subsequently learnt from the evidence of this same +Strategius after repeated investigations had been made into the conduct +of all who were accomplices in his enterprise. + +6. Accordingly, like a skilful scout, since hardship and want had so +altered his countenance that no one knew him, he collected the reports +that were flying about, spread by many who, as the present is always +grievous, accused Valens of being inflamed with a passion for seizing +what belonged to others. + +7. An additional stimulus to his ferocity was the emperor's +father-in-law, Petronius, who, from the command of the Martensian +cohort, had been suddenly promoted to be a patrician. He was a man +deformed both in mind and appearance, and cruelly eager to plunder every +person without distinction; torturing all, guilty and innocent, and then +binding them with fourfold bonds; exacting debts due as far back as the +time of the emperor Aurelian, and grieving if any one escaped without +loss. + +8. And his natural cruelty was inflamed by this additional incentive, +that as he was enriched by the sufferings of others, he was inexorable, +cruel, hard hearted, and unfeeling, incapable either of doing justice or +of listening to reason. He was more hated than even Cleander, who, as we +read, while prefect in the time of Commodus, oppressed people of all +ranks with his foolish arrogance; and more tyrannical than Plautian, who +was prefect under Severus, and who with more than mortal pride would +have thrown everything into confusion, if he had not been murdered out +of revenge. + +9. The cruelties which in the time of Valens, who acted under the +influence of Petronius, closed many houses both of poor men and nobles, +and the fear of still worse impending, sank deep into the hearts of both +the provincials and soldiers, who groaned under the same burdens; and +though the prayers breathed were silent and secret, yet some change of +the existing state of things by the interposition of the supreme Deity +was unanimously prayed for. + +10. This state of affairs came home to the knowledge of Procopius, and +he, thinking that if Fate were at all propitious, he might easily rise +to the highest power, lay in wait like a wild beast which prepares to +make its spring the moment it sees anything to seize. + +11. And while he was eagerly maturing his plans, the following chance +gave him an opportunity which proved most seasonable. After the winter +was past, Valens hastened into Syria; and when he had reached the +borders of Bithynia he learnt from the accounts of the generals that the +nation of the Goths, who up to that time had never come into collision +with us, and who were therefore very fierce and untractable, were all +with one consent preparing for an invasion of our Thracian frontier. +When he heard this, in order to proceed on his own journey without +hindrance, he ordered a sufficient force of cavalry and infantry to be +sent into the districts in which the inroads of these barbarians were +apprehended. + +12. Therefore, as the emperor was now at a distance, Procopius, being +wearied by his protracted sufferings, and thinking even a cruel death +preferable to a longer endurance of them, precipitately plunged into +danger; and not fearing the last extremities, but being wrought up +almost to madness, he undertook a most audacious enterprise. His desire +was to win over the legions known as the Divitenses and the younger +Tungricani, who were under orders to march through Thrace for the coming +campaign, and, according to custom, would stop two days at +Constantinople on their way; and for this object he intended to employ +some of them whom he knew, thinking it safer to rely on the fidelity of +a few, and dangerous and difficult to harangue the whole body. + +13. Those whom he selected as emissaries, being secured by the hope of +great rewards, promised with a solemn oath to do everything he desired; +and undertook also for the good-will of their comrades, among whom they +had great influence from their long and distinguished service. + +14. As was settled between them, when day broke, Procopius, agitated by +all kinds of thoughts and plans, repaired to the Baths of Anastasia, so +called from the sister of Constantine, where he knew these legions were +stationed; and being assured by his emissaries that in an assembly which +had been held during the preceding night all the men had declared their +adherence to his party, he received from them a promise of safety, and +was gladly admitted to their assembly; where, however, though treated +with all honour by the throng of mercenary soldiers, he found himself +detained almost as a hostage; for they, like the prætorians who after +the death of Pertinax had accepted Julian as their emperor because he +bid highest, now undertook the cause of Procopius in the hope of great +gain to themselves from the unlucky reign he was planning. + +15. Procopius therefore stood among them, looking pale and ghost-like; +and as a proper royal robe could not be found, he wore a tunic spangled +with gold, like that of an officer of the palace, and the lower part of +his dress like that of a boy at school; and purple shoes; he also bore a +spear, and carried a small piece of purple cloth in his right hand, so +that one might fancy that some theatrical figure or dramatic +personification had suddenly come upon the stage. + +16. Being thus ridiculously put forward as if in mockery of all honours, +he addressed the authors of his elevation with servile flattery, +promising them vast riches and high rank as the first-fruits of his +promotion; and then he advanced into the streets, escorted by a +multitude of armed men; and with raised standards he prepared to +proceed, surrounded by a horrid din of shields clashing with a mournful +clang, as the soldiers, fearing lest they might be injured by stones or +tiles from the housetops, joined them together above their heads in +close order. + +17. As he thus advanced boldly the people showed him neither aversion +nor favour; but he was encouraged by the love of sudden novelty, which +is implanted in the minds of most of the common people, and was further +excited by the knowledge that all men unanimously detested Petronius, +who, as I have said before, was accumulating riches by all kinds of +violence, reviving actions that had long been buried, and oppressing all +ranks with the exaction of forgotten debts. + +18. Therefore when Procopius ascended the tribunal, and when, as all +seemed thunderstruck and bewildered, even the gloomy silence was +terrible, thinking (or, indeed, expecting) that he had only found a +shorter way to death, trembling so as to be unable to speak, he stood +for some time in silence. Presently when he began, with a broken and +languid voice, to say a few words, in which he spoke of his relationship +to the imperial family, he was met at first with but a faint murmur of +applause from those whom he had bribed; but presently he was hailed by +the tumultuous clamours of the populace in general as emperor, and +hurried off to the senate-house, where he found none of the nobles, but +only a small number of the rabble of the city; and so he went on with +speed, but in an ignoble style, to the palace. + +19. One might marvel that this ridiculous beginning, so improvidently +and rashly engaged in, should have led to melancholy disasters for the +republic, if one were ignorant of previous history, and imagined that +this was the first time any such thing had happened. But, in truth, it +was in a similar manner that Andriscus of Adramyttium, a man of the very +lowest class, assuming the name of Philip, added a third calamitous war +to the previous Macedonian wars. Again, while the emperor Macrinus was +at Antioch, it was then that Antoninus Heliogabalus issued forth from +Emessa. Thus also Alexander, and his mother Mamæa, were put to death by +the unexpected enterprise of Maximinus. And in Africa the elder Gordian +was raised to the imperial authority, till, being overwhelmed with agony +at the dangers which threatened him, he put an end to his life by +hanging himself. + + +VII. + +§ 1. So the dealers in cheap luxuries, and those who were about the +palace, or who had ceased to serve, and all who, having been in the +ranks of the army, had retired to a more tranquil life, now embarked in +this unusual and doubtful enterprise, some against their will, and +others willingly. Some, however, thinking anything better than the +present state of affairs, escaped secretly from the city, and hastened +with all speed to the emperor's camp. + +2. They were all outstripped by the amazing celerity of Sophronius, at +that time a secretary, afterwards prefect of Constantinople, who reached +Valens as he was just about to set out from Cæsarea in Cappadocia, in +order, now that the hot weather of Cilicia was over, to go to Antioch; +and having related to him all that had taken place, brought him, though +wholly amazed and bewildered at so doubtful and perplexing a crisis, +back into Galatia to encounter the danger before it had risen to a head. + +3. While Valens was pushing forward with all speed, Procopius was using +all his energy day and night, producing different persons who with +cunning boldness pretended that they had arrived, some from the east, +some from Gaul, and who reported that Valentinian was dead, and that +everything was easy for the new and favoured emperor. + +4. And because enterprises suddenly and wantonly attempted are often +strengthened by promptness of action, and in order to neglect nothing, +Nebridius, who had been recently promoted through the influence of +Petronius to be prefect of the prætorium in the place of Sallust, and +Cæsarius, the prefect of Constantinople, were at once thrown into +prison; and Phronemius was intrusted with the government of the city, +with the customary powers; and Euphrasius was made master of the +offices, both being Gauls, and men of known accomplishments and good +character. The government of the camp was intrusted to Gomoarius and +Agilo, who were recalled to military service with that object--a very +ill-judged appointment, as was seen by the result. + +5. Now because Count Julius, who was commanding the forces in Thrace, +was feared as likely to employ the troops at the nearest stations to +crush the rebels if he received information of what was being done, a +vigorous measure was adopted; and he was summoned to Constantinople by +letter, which Nebridius, while still in prison, was compelled to write, +as if he had been appointed by Valens to conduct some serious measures +in connection with the movements of the barbarians; and as soon as he +arrived he was seized and kept in close custody. By this cunning +artifice the warlike tribes of Thrace were brought over without +bloodshed, and proved a great assistance to this disorderly enterprise. + +6. After this success, Araxius, by a court intrigue, was made prefect of +the prætorium, as if at the recommendation of Agilo, his son-in-law. +Many others were admitted to various posts in the palace, and to the +government of provinces; some against their will, others voluntarily, +and even giving bribes for their promotion. + +7. And, as often happens in times of intestine commotion, some men, from +the very dregs of the populace, rose to a high position, led by +desperate boldness and insane expectations; while, on the contrary, +others of noble birth fell from the highest elevation down to exile and +death. + +8. When by these and similar acts the party of Procopius seemed firmly +established, the next thing was to assemble a sufficient military force; +and that was easily managed, though sometimes, in times of public +disorder, a failure here has hindered great enterprises, and even some +which had a lawful origin. + +9. The divisions of cavalry and infantry which were passing through +Thrace were easily gained over, and being kindly and liberally treated, +were collected into one body, and at once presented the appearance of an +army; and being excited by magnificent promises, they swore with solemn +oaths fidelity to Procopius, promising to defend him with unswerving +loyalty. + +10. For a most seasonable opportunity of gaining them over was found; +because he carried in his arms the little daughter of Constantius, whose +memory was still held in reverence, himself also claiming relationship +with Julian. He also availed himself of another seasonable incident, +namely, that it was while Faustina, the mother of the child, was present +that he had received the insignia of the imperial rites. + +11. He employed also another expedient (though it required great +promptitude); he chose some persons, as stupid as they were rash, whom +he sent to Illyricum, relying on no support except their own impudence; +but also well furnished with pieces of gold stamped with the head of the +new emperor, and with other means suited to win over the multitude. But +these men were arrested by Equitius, who was the commander of the forces +in that country, and were put to death by various methods. + +12. And then, fearing similar attempts by Procopius, he blocked up the +three narrowest entrances into the northern province; one through Dacia, +along the course of the different rivers; another, and that the most +frequented, through the Succi; and the third through Macedonia, which is +known as the Acontisma. And in consequence of these precautions the +usurper was deprived of all hope of becoming master of Illyricum, and +lost one great resource for carrying on the war. + +13. In the mean time Valens, overwhelmed with the strange nature of this +intelligence, and being already on his return through Gallo-Græcia, +after he had heard what had happened at Constantinople, advanced with +great diffidence and alarm; and as his sudden fears deprived him of his +usual prudence, he fell into such despondency that he thought of laying +aside his imperial robes as too heavy a burden; and in truth he would +have done so if those about him had not hindered him from adopting so +dishonourable a resolution. So, being encouraged by the opinions of +braver men, he ordered two legions, known as the Jovian and the +Victorian, to advance in front to storm the rebel camp. + +14. And when they approached, Procopius, who had returned from Nicæa, to +which city he had lately gone with the legion of Divitenses and a +promiscuous body of deserters, which he had collected in a few days, +hastened to Mygdus on the Sangarius. + +15. And when the legions, being now prepared for battle, assembled +there, and while both sides were exchanging missiles as if wishing to +provoke an attack, Procopius advanced by himself into the middle, and +under the guidance of favourable fortune, he remarked in the opposite +ranks a man named Vitalianus (it is uncertain whether he had known him +before), and having given him his hand and embraced him, he said, while +both armies were equally astonished. + +16. "And is this the end of the ancient fidelity of the Roman armies, +and of the oaths taken under the strictest obligations of religion! Have +you decided, O gallant men, to use your swords in defence of strangers, +and that a degenerate Pannonian should undermine and upset everything, +and so enjoy a sovereign power which he never even ventured to picture +to himself in his prayers, while we lament over your ill-fortune and our +own. Follow rather the race of your own noble princes which is now in +arms, not with the view of seizing what does not belong to it, but with +the hope of recovering its ancestral possessions and hereditary +dignities." + +17. All were propitiated by this conciliatory speech, and those who had +come with the intention of fighting now readily lowered their standards +and eagles, and of their own accord came over to him; instead of +uttering their fearful yells, they unanimously saluted Procopius +emperor, and escorted him to his camp, calling Jupiter to witness, after +their military fashion, that Procopius should prove invincible. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. Another fortunate circumstance occurred to swell the prosperity of +the rebels. A tribune named Rumitalca, who had joined the partisans of +Procopius, having been intrusted with the guard of the palace, digested +a plan, and after mingling with the soldiers, passed over by sea to the +town formerly known as Drepanum, but now as Helenopolis, and thence +marched upon Nicæa, and made himself master of it before any one dreamt +of such a step. + +2. Valens sent Vadomarius, who had formerly been duke and king of the +Allemanni, with a body of troops experienced in that kind of work, to +besiege Nicæa, and proceeded himself to Nicomedia; and passing on from +that city, he pressed the siege of Chalcedon with all his might; but the +citizens poured reproaches on him from the walls, calling him +Sabaiarius, or beer-drinker. Now Sabai is a drink made of barley or +other grain, and is used only by poor people in Illyricum. + +3. At last, being worn out by the scarcity of supplies and the exceeding +obstinacy of the garrison, he was preparing to raise the siege, when the +garrison who were shut up in Nicæa suddenly opened the gates and issued +forth, destroying a great portion of the works of the besiegers, and +under the command of the faithful Rumitalca hastened on eagerly in the +hope of cutting off Valens, who had not yet quitted the suburb of +Chalcedon. And they would have succeeded in their attempt if he had not +learnt the imminence of his danger from some rumour, and eluded the +enemy who were pressing on his track, by departing with all speed by a +road lying between the lake Sunon and the winding course of the river +Gallus. And through this circumstance Bithynia also fell into the hands +of Procopius. + +4. When Valens had returned by forced marches from this city to Ancyra, +and had learnt that Lupicinus was approaching with no inconsiderable +force from the East, he began to entertain better hopes, and sent +Arinthæus as his most approved general to encounter the enemy. + +5. And when Arinthæus reached Dadastana, where we have mentioned that +Jovian died, he suddenly saw in his front, Hyperechius, who had +previously been only a subaltern, but who now, as a trusty friend, had +received from Procopius the command of the auxiliary forces. And +thinking it no credit to defeat in battle a man of no renown, relying on +his authority and on his lofty personal stature, he shouted out a +command to the enemy themselves to take and bind their commander; they +obeyed, and so this mere shadow of a general was arrested by the hands +of his own men. + +6. In the interim, a man of the name of Venustus, who had been an +officer of the treasury under Valens, and who had some time before been +sent to Nicomedia, to distribute pay to the soldiers who were scattered +over the East, when he heard of this disaster, perceived that the time +was unfavourable for the execution of his commission, and repaired in +haste to Cyzicus with the money which he had with him. + +7. There, as it happened, he met Serenianus, who was at that time the +count of the guards, and who had been sent to protect the treasury, and +who now, with a garrison collected in a hurry, had undertaken the +defence of the city, which was impregnable in its walls, and celebrated +also for many ancient monuments, though Procopius, in order, now that he +had got possession of Bithynia, to make himself master of the +Hellespont, had sent a strong force to besiege it. + +8. The siege went on slowly; often numbers of the besiegers were wounded +by arrows and bullets, and other missiles; and by the skill of the +garrison a barrier of the strongest iron chain was thrown across the +mouth of the harbour, fastened strongly to the land on each side, to +prevent the ships of the enemy, which were armed with beaks, from +forcing their way in. + +9. This boom, however, after great exertions on the part of both +soldiers and generals, who were all exhausted by the fierce nature of +the struggle, a tribune of the name of Aliso, an experienced and skilful +warrior, cut through in the following manner:--He fastened together +three vessels, and placed upon them a kind of testudo, thus,--on the +benches stood a body of armed men, united together by their shields, +which joined above their heads; behind them was another row, who +stooped, so as to be lower; a third rank bent lower still, so as to form +a regular gradation; so that the last row of all, resting on their +haunches, gave the whole formation the appearance of an arch. This kind +of machine is employed in contests under the walls of towns, in order +that while the blows of missiles and stones fall on the slippery descent +they may pass off like so much rain. + +10. Aliso then, being for a while defended from the shower of missiles, +by his own vast strength held a log under this chain, while with a +mighty blow of his axe he cut it through, so that being driven asunder, +it left the broad entrance open, and thus the city was laid open +unprotected to the assault of the enemy. And on this account, when, +after the death of the originator of all this confusion, cruel vengeance +was taken on the members of his party, the same tribune, from a +recollection of his gallant action, was granted his life and allowed to +retain his commission, and a long time afterwards fell in Isauria in a +conflict with a band of ravagers. + +11. When Cyzicus was thus opened to him, Procopius hastened thither, and +pardoned all who had opposed him, except Serenianus, whom he put in +irons, and sent to Nicæa, to be kept in close confinement. + +12. And immediately he appointed the young Hormisdas (the son of the +former Prince Hormisdas) proconsul intrusting him in the ancient fashion +with the command both in civil and military affairs. He conducted +himself, as his natural disposition prompted him, with moderation, but +was almost seized by the soldiers whom Valens had sent by the difficult +passes of Phrygia; he saved himself, however, by great energy, embarking +on board a vessel which he kept in readiness for any emergency, +carrying off also his wife, who followed him, and was nearly taken +prisoner, had he not protected her under a shower of arrows. She was a +lady of high family and great wealth, whose modesty and the glorious +destiny reserved for her subsequently saved her husband from great +dangers. + +13. In consequence of this victory Procopius was elated beyond measure, +and not knowing that a man, however happy, if Fortune turns her wheel +may become most miserable before evening, he ordered the house of +Arbetio, which he had previously spared as that of one of his own +partisans, to be rifled, and it was full of furniture of countless +value. The reason of his indignation against Arbetio was, that though he +had summoned him several times to come to him, he had deferred his +audience, pleading old age and sickness. + +14. And this presumptuous man might, from the uncertainty in human +affairs, have feared some great change; but though without any +resistance he could have overrun the provinces of the East with the +willing consent of the natives themselves, who, from weariness of the +severe rule under which they then were, were eager for any change +whatever, he indolently lingered, hoping to gain over some cities of +Asia Minor, and to collect some men who were skilful in procuring gold, +and who would be of use to him in future battles, which he expected +would be both numerous and severe. + +15. Thus he was allowing himself to grow blunt, like a rusty sword; just +as formerly Pescennius Niger, when repeatedly urged by the Roman people +to come to their aid at a time of great extremity, lost a great deal of +time in Syria, and at last was defeated by Severus in the Gulf of Issus +(which is a town in Cilicia, where Alexander conquered Darius), and was +put to death by a common soldier in a suburb of Antioch. + + +IX. + +A.D. 366. + +§ 1. These events took place in the depth of winter, in the consulship +of Valentinian and Valens. But this high office of consul was +transferred to Gratian, who was as yet only a private individual, and to +Dagalaiphus. And then, having collected his forces at the approach of +spring, Valens, having united Lupicinus's troops, which were a numerous +body, to his own, marched with all speed towards Pessinus, which was +formerly reckoned a town of Phrygia, but was now considered to belong to +Galatia. + +2. Having speedily secured it with a garrison, to prevent any unforeseen +danger from arising in that district, he proceeded along the foot of +Mount Olympus by very difficult passes to Lycia, intending to attack +Gomoarius, who was loitering in that province. + +3. Many vehemently opposed this project from this consideration, that +his enemy, as has been already mentioned, always bore with him on a +litter the little daughter of Constantius, with her mother Faustina, +both when marching and when preparing for battle, thus exciting the +soldiers to fight more resolutely for the imperial family, with which, +as he told them, he himself was connected. So formerly, when the +Macedonians were on the point of engaging in battle with the Illyrians, +they placed their king, who was still an infant,[158] in his cradle +behind the line of battle, and the fear lest he should be taken prisoner +made them exert themselves the more so as to defeat their enemies. + +4. To counteract this crafty manoeuvre the emperor, in the critical +state of his affairs, devised a sagacious remedy, and summoned Arbetio, +formerly consul, but who was now living in privacy, to join him, in +order that the fierce minds of the soldiers might be awed by the +presence of a general who had served under Constantine. And it happened +as he expected. + +5. For when that officer, who was older in years than all around him, +and superior in rank, showed his venerable gray hairs to the numbers who +were inclined to violate their oaths, and accused Procopius as a public +robber, and addressing the soldiers who followed his guilty leadership +as his own sons and the partners of his former toils, entreated them +rather to follow him as a parent known to them before as a successful +leader than obey a profligate spendthrift who ought to be abandoned, and +who would soon fall. + +6. And when Gomoarius heard this, though he might have escaped from the +enemy and returned in safety to the place from whence he came, yet, +availing himself of the proximity of the emperor's camp, he passed over +under the guise of a prisoner, as if he had been surrounded by the +sudden advance of a superior force. + +7. Encouraged by this, Valens quickly moved his camp to Phrygia, and +engaged the enemy near Nacolia, and the battle was doubtful till Agilo, +the leader of Procopius's forces, betrayed his side by a sudden +desertion of his ranks; and he was followed by many who, brandishing +their javelins and their swords, crossed over to the emperor, bearing +their standards and their shields reversed, which is the most manifest +sign of defection. + +8. When this unexpected event took place, Procopius abandoning all hope +of safety, dismounted, and sought a hiding-place on foot in the groves +and hills. He was followed by Florentius and the tribune Barchalbas, who +having been known ever since the time of Constantine in all the terrible +wars which had taken place, was now driven into treason by necessity not +by inclination. + +9. So when the greater part of the night was passed, as the moon, which +had risen in the evening, by continuing her light till dawn increased +their fear, Procopius, finding it impossible to escape, and having no +resources, as is often the case in moments of extreme danger, began to +blame his mournful and disastrous fortune. And being overwhelmed with +care, he was on a sudden taken and bound by his own comrades, and, at +daybreak led to the camp, and brought, silent and downcast, before the +emperor. He was immediately beheaded; and his death put an end to the +increasing disturbances of civil war. His fate resembled that of +Perpenna of old, who, after Sertorius had been slain at a banquet, +enjoyed the power for a short time, but was dragged out of the thicket +where he was concealed, and brought to Pompey, by whose orders he was +put to death. + +10. Giving way to equal indignation against Florentius and Barchalbas, +though they delivered up Procopius, he instantly ordered them also to be +slain, without listening to reason. For if they had betrayed their +legitimate prince, Justice herself would pronounce them justly slain; +but if he whom they betrayed was a rebel and an enemy to the +tranquillity of the state, as was alleged, then they ought to have +received an ample reward for so memorable an action. + +11. Procopius perished at the age of forty years and ten months. He was +of a goodly appearance, tall, inclined to stoop, always looking on the +ground as he walked, and in his reserved and melancholy manners like +Crassus, whom Lucillius and Cicero record never to have smiled but once +in his life; and what is very remarkable, as long as he lived he never +shed blood. + + +X. + +§ 1. About the same time, his kinsman Marcellus, an officer of the +guard, who commanded the garrison of Nicæa, hearing of the treachery of +the soldiers and the death of Procopius, attacked Serenianus, who was +confined in the palace, unexpectedly at midnight, and put him to death. +And his death was the safety of many. + +2. For if he, a man of rude manners, bitter temper, and a love of +injuring people, had survived Valens's victory, having also great +influence with Valens from the similarity of his disposition and the +proximity of their birthplaces, he would have studied the secret +inclinations of a prince always inclined to cruelty, and would have shed +the blood of many innocent persons. + +3. Having killed him, Marcellus by a rapid march seized on Chalcedon, +and with the aid of a few people, whom the lowness of their condition +and despair urged to crime, obtained a shadow of authority which proved +fatal to him, being deceived by two circumstances, because he thought +that the three thousand Goths who, after their kings had been +conciliated, had been sent to aid Procopius, who had prevailed on them +to support him by pleading his relationship to Constantine, would at a +small cost be easily won over to support him, and also because he was +ignorant of what had happened in Illyricum. + +4. While these alarming events were taking place, Equitius, having +learnt by trustworthy reports from his scouts that the whole stress of +the war was now to be found in Asia, passed through the Succi, and made +a vigorous attempt to take Philippopolis, the ancient Eumolpias,[159] +which was occupied by a garrison of the enemy. It was a city in a most +favourable position, and likely to prove an obstacle to his approach if +left in his rear, and if he, while conducting reinforcements to Valens +(for he was not yet acquainted with what had happened at Nacolia), +should be compelled to hasten to the district around Mount Hæmus. + +5. But when, a few days later, he heard of the foolish usurpation of +Marcellus, he sent against him a body of bold and active troops, who +seized him as a mischievous slave, and threw him into prison. From +which, some days afterwards, he was brought forth, scourged severely +with his accomplices, and put to death, having deserved favour by no +action of his life except that he had slain Serenianus, a man as cruel +as Phalaris, and faithful only in barbarity, which he displayed on the +slightest pretext. + +6. The war being now at an end by the death of the leader, many were +treated with much greater severity than their errors or faults required, +especially the defenders of Philippopolis, who would not surrender the +city or themselves till they saw the head of Procopius, which was +conveyed to Gaul. + +7. Some, however, by the influence of intercessors, received mercy, the +most eminent of whom was Araxius, who, when the crisis was at its +height, had applied for and obtained the office of prefect. He, by the +intercession of his son-in-law Agilo, was punished only by banishment to +an island, from which he soon afterwards escaped. + +8. But Euphrasius and Phronemius were sent to the west to be at the +disposal of Valentinian. Euphrasius was acquitted, but Phronemius was +transported to the Chersonesus, being punished more severely than the +other, though their case was the same, because he had been a favourite +with the late emperor Julian, whose memorable virtues the two brothers +now on the throne joined in disparaging, though they were neither like +nor equal to him. + +9. To these severities other grievances of greater importance, and more +to be dreaded than any sufferings in battle, were added. For the +executioner, and the rack, and bloody modes of torture, now attacked men +of every rank, class, or fortune, without distinction. Peace seemed as a +pretext for establishing a detestable tribunal, while all men cursed +the ill-omened victory that had been gained as worse than the most +deadly war. + +10. For amid arms and trumpets the equality of every one's chance makes +danger seem lighter; and often the might of martial valour obtains what +it aims at; or else a sudden death, if it befalls a man, is attended by +no feeling of ignominy, but brings an end to life and to suffering at +the same time. When, however, laws and statutes are put forth as +pretexts for wicked counsels, and judges, affecting the equity of Cato +or Cassius, sit on the bench, though in fact everything is done at the +discretion of over-arrogant power, on the whim of which every man's life +or death depends, the mischief is fatal and incurable. + +11. For at this time any one might go to the palace on any pretext, and +if he were inflamed with a desire of appropriating the goods of others, +though the person he accused might be notoriously innocent, he was +received by the emperor as a friend to be trusted and deserving to be +enriched at the expense of others. + +12. For the emperor was quick to inflict injury, always ready to listen +to informers, admitting the most deadly accusations, and exulting +unrestrainedly in the diversity of punishments devised; ignorant of the +expression of Tully, which teaches us that those men are unhappy who +think themselves privileged to do everything. + +13. This implacability, unworthy of a just cause, and disgracing his +victory, exposed many innocent men to the torturers, crushing them +beneath the rack, or slaying them by the stroke of the fierce +executioner. Men who, if nature had permitted, would rather have lost +ten lives in battle than be thus tortured while guiltless of all crime, +having their estates confiscated, as if guilty of treason, and their +bodies mutilated before death, which is the most bitter kind of death. + +14. At last, when his ferocity was exhausted by his cruelties, men of +the highest rank were still exposed to proscription, banishment, and +other punishments which, though severe, appear lighter to some people. +And in order to enrich some one else, men of noble birth, and perhaps +still more richly endowed with virtues, were stripped of their patrimony +and driven into exile, where they were exhausted with misery, perhaps +being even reduced to subsist by beggary. Nor was any limit put to the +cruelties which were inflicted till both the prince and those about him +were satiated with plunder and bloodshed. + +15. While the usurper, whose various acts and death we have been +relating, was still alive, on the 21st of July, in the first consulship +of Valentinian and his brother, fearful dangers suddenly overspread the +whole world, such as are related in no ancient fables or histories. + +16. For a little before sunrise there was a terrible earthquake, +preceded by incessant and furious lightning. The sea was driven +backwards, so as to recede from the land, and the very depths were +uncovered, so that many marine animals were left sticking in the mud. +And the depths of its valleys and the recesses of the hills, which from +the very first origin of all things had been lying beneath the boundless +waters, now beheld the beams of the sun. + +17. Many ships were stranded on the dry shore, while people straggling +about the shoal water picked up fishes and things of that kind in their +hands. In another quarter the waves, as if raging against the violence +with which they had been driven back, rose, and swelling over the +boiling shallows, beat upon the islands and the extended coasts of the +mainland, levelling cities and houses wherever they encountered them. +All the elements were in furious discord, and the whole face of the +world seemed turned upside down, revealing the most extraordinary +sights. + +18. For the vast waves subsided when it was least expected, and thus +drowned many thousand men. Even ships were swallowed up in the furious +currents of the returning tide, and were seen to sink when the fury of +the sea was exhausted; and the bodies of those who perished by shipwreck +floated about on their backs or faces. + +19. Other vessels of great size were driven on shore by the violence of +the wind, and cast upon the housetops, as happened at Alexandria; and +some were even driven two miles inland, of which we ourselves saw one in +Laconia, near the town of Mothone, which was lying and rotting where it +had been driven. + + +[157] Master of the Offices--v. Bohn's 'Gibbon,' ii., 223. + +[158] The young king's name was Eropus, v. Justin, vii. 122. + +[159] Called also _Trimontium_, from standing on three hills; the modern +name is _Philippopoli_. See Smith's 'Anc. Geography,' p. 333. + + + + +BOOK XXVII. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. The Allemanni having defeated the Romans, put the counts + Charietto and Severianus to death.--II. Jovinus, the commander of + the cavalry in Gaul, surprises and routs two divisions of the + Allemanni; defeats a third army in the country of the Catalauni, + the enemy losing six thousand killed and four thousand + wounded.--III. About the three prefects of the city, Symmachus, + Lampadius, and Juventius--The quarrels of Damasus and Ursinus about + the bishopric of Rome.--IV. The people and the six provinces of + Thrace are described, and the chief cities in each province.--V. + The emperor Valens attacks the Goths, who had sent Procopius' + auxiliary troops to be employed against him, and after three years + makes peace with them.--VI. Valentinian, with the consent of the + army, makes his son Gratian emperor; and, after investing the boy + with the purple, exhorts him to behave bravely, and recommends him + to the soldiers.--VII. The passionate temper, ferocity, and cruelty + of the emperor Valentinian.--VIII. Count Theodosius defeats the + Picts, Attacotti, and Scots, who were ravaging Britain with + impunity, after having slain the duke and count of that province, + and makes them restore their plunder.--IX. The Moorish tribes + ravage Africa--Valens checks the predatory incursions of the + Isaurians--Concerning the office of city prefect.--X. The emperor + Valentinian crosses the Rhine, and in a battle, attended with heavy + loss to both sides, defeats and routs the Allemanni, who had taken + refuge in their highest mountains.--XI. On the high family, wealth, + dignity, and character of Probus.--XII. The Romans and Persians + quarrel about the possession of Armenia and Iberia. + + +I. + +A.D. 367. + +§ 1. While these events which we have related were taking place with +various consequences in the east, the Allemanni, after the many +disasters and defeats which they had received in their frequent contests +with the emperor Julian, at length, having recruited their strength, +though not to a degree equal to their former condition, for the reason +which has been already set forth, crossed the frontier of Gaul in +formidable numbers. And immediately after the beginning of the year, +while winter was still in its greatest severity in those frozen +districts, a vast multitude poured forth in a solid column, plundering +all the places around in the most licentious manner. + +2. Their first division was met by Charietto, who at that time had the +authority of count in both the German provinces, and who marched against +them with his most active troops, having with him as a colleague count +Severianus, a man of great age and feeble health, who had the legions +Divitenses and Tungricana under his command, near Cabillonum +(Châlons).[160] + +3. Then having formed the whole force into one solid body, and having +with great rapidity thrown a bridge over a small stream, the Romans +assailed the barbarians from a distance with arrows and light javelins, +which they shot back at us with great vigour. + +4. But when the battalions met and fought with drawn swords, our line +was shaken by the vehement onset of the enemy, and could neither resist +nor do any valorous deeds by way of attack, but were all put to flight +as soon as they saw Severianus struck down from his horse and severely +wounded by an arrow. + +5. Charietto, too, while labouring by the exposure of his own person, +and with bitter reproaches, to encourage his men, who were giving way, +and while by the gallantry with which he maintained his own position he +strove to efface the disgrace they were incurring, was slain by a mortal +wound from a javelin. + +6. And after his death the standard of the Eruli and of the Batavi was +lost, and the barbarians raised it on high, insulting it, dancing round +it, but after a fierce struggle it was recovered. + + +II. + +A.D. 367. + +§ 1. The news of this disaster was received with great sorrow, and +Dagalaiphus was sent from Paris to restore affairs to order. But as he +delayed some time, and made excuses, alleging that he was unable to +attack the barbarians, who were dispersed over various districts, and as +he was soon after sent for to receive the consulship with Gratian, who +was still only a private individual, Jovinus was appointed commander of +the cavalry; and he being well provided and fully prepared, attacked the +fortress of Churpeigne, protecting both his wings and flanks with great +care. And at this place he fell on the barbarians unexpectedly, before +they could arm themselves, and in a very short time utterly destroyed +them. + +2. Then leading on the soldiers while exulting in the glory of this easy +victory, to defeat the other divisions, and advancing slowly, he learnt +from the faithful report of his scouts that a band of ravagers, after +having plundered the villages around, were resting on the bank of the +river. And as he approached, while his army was concealed by the lowness +of the ground and the thickness of the trees, he saw some of them +bathing, some adorning their hair after their fashion, and some +carousing. + +3. And seizing this favourable opportunity, he suddenly bade the trumpet +give the signal, and burst into the camp of the marauders. On the other +hand, the Germans could do nothing but pour forth useless threats and +shouts, not being allowed time to collect their scattered arms, or to +form in any strength, so vigorously were they pressed by the conquerors. +Thus numbers of them fell pierced with javelins and swords, and many +took to flight, and were saved by the winding and narrow paths. + +4. After this success, which was won by valour and good fortune, Jovinus +struck his camp without delay, and led on his soldiers with increased +confidence (sending out a body of careful scouts in advance) against the +third division. And arriving at Châlons by forced marches, he there +formed the whole body ready for battle. + +5. And having constructed a rampart with seasonable haste, and refreshed +his men with food and sleep as well as the time permitted, at daybreak +he arranged his army in an open plain, extending his line with admirable +skill, in order that by occupying an extensive space of ground the +Romans might appear to be equal in number to the enemy: being in fact +inferior in that respect though equal in strength. + +6. Accordingly, when the trumpet gave the signal and the battle began to +rage at close quarters, the Germans stood amazed, alarmed at the +well-known appearance of the shining standards. But though they were +checked for a moment, they presently recovered themselves, and the +conflict was protracted till the close of the day, when our valorous +troops would have reaped the fruit of their gallantry without any loss +if it had not been for Balchobaudes, a tribune of the legions, who being +as sluggish as he was boastful, at the approach of evening retreated in +disorder to the camp. And if the rest of the cohorts had followed his +example and had also retired, the affair would have turned out so +ruinous that not one of our men would have been left alive to tell what +had happened. + +7. But our soldiers, persisting with energy and courage, showed such a +superiority in personal strength that they wounded four thousand of the +enemy and slew six thousand, while they did not themselves lose more +than twelve hundred killed and two hundred wounded. + +8. At the approach of night the battle terminated, and our weary men +having recruited their strength, a little before dawn our skilful +general led forth his army in a square, and found that the barbarians +had availed themselves of the darkness to escape. And having no fear +there of ambuscade, he pursued them over the open plain, trampling on +the dying and the dead, many of whom had perished from the effect of the +severity of the cold on their wounds. + +9. After he had advanced some way further, without finding any of the +enemy he returned, and then he learnt that the king of the hostile army +had been taken prisoner, with a few followers, by the Ascarii,[161] whom +he himself had sent by another road to plunder the tents of the +Allemanni, and they had hanged him. But the general being angry at this, +ordered the punishment of the tribune who had ventured on such an act +without consulting his superior officer, and he would have condemned him +if he had not been able to establish by manifest proof that the +atrocious act had been committed by the violent impulse of the soldiers. + +10. After this, when he returned to Paris with the glory of this +success, the emperor met him with joy, and appointed him to be consul +the next year, being additionally rejoiced because at the very same time +he received the head of Procopius, which had been sent to him by Valens. + +11. Besides these events, many other battles of inferior interest and +importance took place in Gaul, which it would be superfluous to recount, +since they brought no results worth mentioning, and it is not fit to +spin out history with petty details. + + +III. + +§ 1. At this time, or a little before, a new kind of prodigy appeared in +the corn district of Tuscany; those who were skilful in interpreting +such things being wholly ignorant of what it portended. For in the town +of Pistoja, at about the third hour of the day, in the sight of many +persons, an ass mounted the tribunal, where he was heard to bray loudly. +All the bystanders were amazed, as were all those who heard of the +occurrence from the report of others, as no one could conjecture what +was to happen. + +2. But soon afterwards the events showed what was portended, for a man +of the name of Terence, a person of low birth and a baker by trade, as a +reward for having given information against Orsitus, who had formerly +been prefect, which led to his being convicted of peculation, was +intrusted with the government of this same province. And becoming elated +and confident, he threw affairs into great disorder, till he was +convicted of fraud on transactions relating to some ship-masters, as was +reported, and was executed while Claudius was prefect of Rome. + +3. But some time before this happened Symmachus succeeded Apronianus; a +man deserving to be named among the most eminent examples of learning +and moderation; under whose government the most sacred city enjoyed +peace and plenty in an unusual degree; being also adorned with a +magnificent and solid bridge which he constructed, and opened amid the +great joy of his ungrateful fellow-citizens, as the result very plainly +showed. + +4. For they some years afterwards burnt his beautiful house on the other +side of the Tiber, being enraged because some worthless plebeian had +invented a story, which there was no evidence or witness to support, +that he had said that he would prefer putting out the limekilns with his +own wine, to selling the lime at the price expected of him. + +5. After him the prefect of the city was Lampadius, who had been +prefect of the prætorium, a man of such boundless arrogance, that he +grew very indignant if he were not praised even when he spat, as if he +did that with more grace than any one else; but still a man of justice, +virtue, and economy. + +6. When as prætor he was celebrating some splendid games, and giving +abundant largesses, being unable to bear the tumult of the populace, +which was often urgent to have gifts distributed to those who were +unworthy, in order to show his liberality and his contempt for the +multitude, he sent for a crowd of beggars from the Vatican, and enriched +them with great presents. + +7. But, not to digress too much, it will be sufficient to record one +instance of his vanity, which, though of no great importance, may serve +as a warning to judges. In every quarter of the city which had been +adorned at the expense of different emperors he inscribed his own name, +and that, not as if he were the restorer of old works, but their +founder. This same fault is said to have characterized the emperor +Trajan, from which the people in jest named him "The Pellitory of the +wall." + +8. While he was prefect he was disturbed by frequent commotions, the +most formidable being when a vast mob of the lowest of the people +collected, and with firebrands and torches would have burnt his house +near the baths of Constantine, if they had not been driven away by the +prompt assistance of his friends and neighbours, who pelted them with +stones and tiles from the tops of the houses. + +9. And he himself, being alarmed at a sedition, which on this occasion +had become so violent, retired to the Mulvian bridge (which the elder +Scaurus is said to have built), and waited there till the discontent +subsided, which indeed had been excited by a substantial grievance. + +10. For when he began to construct some new buildings, he ordered the +cost to be defrayed, not from the customary sources of revenue, but if +iron, or lead, or copper, or anything of that kind was required, he sent +officers who, pretending to try the different articles, did in fact +seize them without paying any price for them. This so enraged the poor, +since they suffered repealed losses from such a practice, that it was +all he could do to escape from them by a rapid retreat. + +11. His successor had formerly been a quæstor of the palace, his name +was Juventius, a man of integrity and prudence, a Pannonian by birth. +His administration was tranquil and undisturbed, and the people enjoyed +plenty under it. Yet he also was alarmed by fierce seditions raised by +the discontented populace, which arose from the following occurrence. + +12. Damasus and Ursinus, being both immoderately eager to obtain the +bishopric, formed parties and carried on the conflict with great +asperity, the partisans of each carrying their violence to actual +battle, in which men were wounded and killed. And as Juventius was +unable to put an end to, or even to soften these disorders, he was at +last by their violence compelled to withdraw to the suburbs. + +13. Ultimately Damasus got the best of the strife by the strenuous +efforts of his partisans. It is certain that on one day one hundred and +thirty-seven dead bodies were found in the Basilica of Sicininus, which +is a Christian church.[162] And the populace who had been thus roused to +a state of ferocity were with great difficulty restored to order. + +14. I do not deny, when I consider the ostentation that reigns at Rome, +that those who desire such rank and power may be justified in labouring +with all possible exertion and vehemence to obtain their wishes; since +after they have succeeded, they will be secure for the future, being +enriched by offerings from matrons, riding in carriages, dressing +splendidly, and feasting luxuriously, so that their entertainments +surpass even royal banquets. + +15. And they might be really happy if, despising the vastness of the +city, which they excite against themselves by their vices, they were to +live in imitation of some of the priests in the provinces, whom the most +rigid abstinence in eating and drinking, and plainness of apparel, and +eyes always cast on the ground, recommend to the everlasting Deity and +his true worshippers as pure and sober-minded men. This is a sufficient +digression on this subject: let us now return to our narrative. + + +IV. + +§1. While the events above mentioned were taking place in Gaul and +Italy, a new campaign was being prepared in Thrace. For Valens, acting +on the decision of his brother, by whose will he was entirely governed, +marched against the Goths, having a just cause of complaint against +them, because at the beginning of the late civil war they had sent +assistance to Procopius. It will here be desirable to say a few words of +the origin of this people, and the situation of their country. + +2. The description of Thrace would be easy if the pens of ancient +authors agreed on the subject; but as the obscurity and variety of their +accounts is of but little assistance to a work which professes to tell +the truth, it will be sufficient for us to record what we remember to +have seen ourselves. + +3. The undying authority of Homer informs us that these countries were +formerly extended over an immense space of tranquil plains and high +rising grounds; since that poet represents both the north and the west +wind as blowing from thence;[163] a statement which is either fabulous, +or else which shows that the extensive district inhabited by all those +savage tribes was formerly included under the single name of Thrace. + +4. Part of this region was inhabited by the Scordisci, who now live at a +great distance from these provinces; a race formerly savage and +uncivilized, as ancient history proves, sacrificing their prisoners to +Bellona and Mars, and drinking with eagerness human blood out of skulls. +Their ferocity engaged the Roman republic in many wars; and on one +occasion led to the destruction of an entire army with its general.[164] + +5. But we see that the country now, the district being in the form of a +crescent, resembles a splendid theatre; it is bounded on the west by +mountains, on the abrupt summit of which are the thickly wooded passes +of the Succi, which separate Thrace from Dacia. + +6. On the left, or northern side, the heights of the Balkan form the +boundary, as in one part does the Danube also, where it touches the +Roman territory: a river with many cities, fortresses, and castles on +its banks. + +7. On the right, or southern side, lies Mount Rhodope; on the east, the +country is bounded by a strait, which becomes more rapid from being +swollen by the waters of the Euxine sea, and proceeds onwards with its +tides towards the Ægean, separating the continents of Europe and Asia by +a narrow space. + +8. At a confined corner on the eastward it joins the frontier of +Macedonia by a strait and precipitous defile named Acontisma; near to +which are the valley and station of Arethusa, where one may see the tomb +of Euripides, illustrious for his sublime tragedies; and Stagira, where +we are told that Aristotle, who as Cicero says pours from his mouth a +golden stream, was born. + +9. In ancient times, tribes of barbarians occupied these countries, +differing from each other in customs and language. The most formidable +of which, from their exceeding ferocity, were the Odrysæans, men so +accustomed to shed human blood, that when they could not find enemies +enough, they would, at their feasts, when they had eaten and drunk to +satiety, stab their own bodies as if they belonged to others. + +10. But as the republic grew in strength while the authority of the +consular form of government prevailed, Marcus Didius, with great +perseverance, attacked these tribes which had previously been deemed +invincible, and had roved about without any regard either to divine or +human laws. Drusus compelled them to confine themselves to their own +territories; Minucius defeated them in a great battle on the river +Maritza, which flows down from the lofty mountains of the Odrysæans; and +after those exploits, the rest of the tribes were almost destroyed in a +terrible battle by Appius Claudius the proconsul. And the Roman fleets +made themselves masters of the towns on the Bosporus, and on the coast +of the Sea of Marmora. + +11. After these generals came Lucullus; who was the first of all our +commanders who fought with the warlike nation of the Bessi: and with +similar vigour he crushed the mountaineers of the district of the +Balkan, in spite of their obstinate resistance. And while he was in that +country the whole of Thrace was brought under the power of our +ancestors, and in this way, after many doubtful campaigns, six provinces +were added to the republic. + +12. Of these provinces the first one comes to, that which borders on the +Illyrians, is called by the especial name of Thrace; its chief cities +are Philippopolis, the ancient Eumolpias, and Beræa; both splendid +cities. Next to this the province of the Balkan boasts of Hadrianople, +which used to be called Uscudama, and Anchialos, both great cities. Nest +comes Mysia, in which is Marcianopolis, so named from the sister of the +emperor Trajan, also Dorostorus, and Nicopolis, Odyssus. + +13. Next comes Scythia, in which the chief towns are Dionysiopolis, +Tomis, and Calatis. The last of all is Europa; which besides many +municipal towns has two principal cities, Apri and Perinthus, which in +later times has received the name of Heraclea. Beyond this is Rhodope, +in which are the cities of Maximianopolis, Maronea, and Ænus, after +founding and leaving which, it was thought Æneas proceeded onwards to +Italy, of which, after long wanderings, he became master, expecting by +the auspices to enjoy there perpetual prosperity. + +14. But it is certain, as the invariable accounts of all writers +represent, that these tribes were nearly all agricultural, and, that +living on the high mountains in these regions above mentioned, they are +superior to us in health, vigour, and length of life; and they believe +that this superiority arises from the fact, that in their food they for +the most part abstain from all that is hot; also that the constant dews +besprinkle their persons with a cold and bracing moisture, and that +they enjoy the freshness of a purer atmosphere; and that they are the +first of all tribes to feel the rays of the morning sun, which are +instinct with life, before they become tainted with any of the foulness +arising from human things. Having discussed this matter let us now +return to our original narrative. + + +V. + +§ 1. After Procopius had been overpowered in Phrygia, and all material +for domestic discords had thus been removed, Victor, the commander of +the cavalry, was sent to the Goths to inquire, without disguise, why a +nation friendly to the Romans, and bound to it by treaties of equitable +peace, had given the support of its arms to a man who was waging war +against their lawful emperor. And they, to excuse their conduct by a +valid defence, produced the letters from the above-mentioned Procopius, +in which he alleged that he had assumed the sovereignty as his due, as +the nearest relation to Constantine's family; and they asserted that +this was a fair excuse for their error. + +2. When Victor reported this allegation of theirs, Valens disregarding +it as a frivolous excuse, marched against them, they having already got +information of his approach. And at the beginning of spring he assembled +his army in a great body, and pitched his camp near a fortress named +Daphne, where having made a bridge of boats he crossed the Danube +without meeting any resistance. + +3. And being now full of elation and confidence, as while traversing the +country in every direction he met with no enemy to be either defeated or +even alarmed by his advance; they having all been so terrified at the +approach of so formidable a host, that they had fled to the high +mountains of the Serri, which were inaccessible to all except those who +knew the country. + +4. Therefore, that he might not waste the whole summer, and return +without having effected anything, he sent forward Arinthæus, the captain +of the infantry, with some light forces, who seized on a portion of +their families, which were overtaken as they were wandering over the +plains before coming to the steep and winding defiles of the mountains. +And having obtained this advantage, which chance put in his way, he +returned with his men without having suffered any loss, and indeed +without having inflicted any. + +5. The next year he attempted with equal vigour again to invade the +country of the enemy; but being checked in his advance by the +inundations of the Danube, which covered a wide extent of country, he +remained near the town of Capri, where he pitched a camp in which he +remained till the autumn. And from thence, as he was prevented from +undertaking any operations on account of the magnitude of the floods, he +retired to Marcianopolis into winter quarters. + +6. With similar perseverance he again invaded the land of the barbarians +a third year, having crossed the river by a bridge of boats at Nivors; +and by a rapid march he attacked the Gruthungi, a warlike and very +remote tribe, and after some trivial skirmishes, he defeated Athanaric, +at that time the most powerful man of the tribe, who dared to resist him +with what he fancied an adequate force, but was compelled to flee for +his life. And then he returned himself with his army to Marcianopolis to +spend the winter there, as the cold was but slight in that district. + +7. After many various events in the campaigns of three years, there +arose at last some very strong reasons in the minds of the barbarians +for terminating the war. In the first place, because the fear of the +enemy was increased by the continued stay made by the emperor in that +country. Secondly, because as all their commerce was cut off they began +to feel great want of necessaries. So that they sent several embassies +with submissive entreaties for pardon and peace. + +8. The emperor was as yet inexperienced, but still he was a very just +observer of events, till having been captivated by the pernicious +allurements of flattery, he subsequently involved the republic in an +ever-to-be-lamented disaster; and now taking counsel for the common +good, he determined that it was right to grant them peace. + +9. And in his turn he sent to them Victor and Arinthæus, who at that +time were the commanders of his infantry and cavalry; and when they sent +him letters truly stating that the Goths were willing to agree to the +conditions which they had proposed, he appointed a suitable place for +finally settling the terms of the peace. And since Athanaric alleged +that he was bound by a most dreadful oath, and also forbidden by the +strict commands of his father ever to set foot on the Roman territory, +and as he could not be brought to do so, while, on the other hand, it +would be unbecoming and degrading for the emperor to cross over to him, +it was decided by negotiation that some boats should be rowed into the +middle of the river, on which the emperor should embark with an armed +guard, and that there also the chief of the enemy should meet him with +his people, and conclude a peace as had been arranged. + +10. When this had been arranged, and hostages had been given, Valens +returned to Constantinople, whither afterwards Athanaric fled, when he +was driven from his native land by a faction among his kinsmen; and he +died in that city, and was buried with splendid ceremony according to +the Roman fashion. + + +VI. + +§ 1. In the mean time, Valentinian being attacked with a violent +sickness and at the point of death, at a secret entertainment of the +Gauls who were present in the emperor's army, Rusticus Julianus, at that +time master of the records, was proposed as the future emperor; a man as +greedy of human blood as a wild beast, seeming to be smitten with some +frenzy, as had been shown while governing Africa as proconsul. + +2. For in his prefecture of the city, a post which he was filling when +he died, fearing a change in the tyranny through the exercise of which +he, as if in a dearth of worthy men, had been raised to that dignity, he +was compelled to appear more gentle and merciful. + +3. Against his partisans others with higher aims were exerting +themselves in favour of Severus, who at that time was captain of the +infantry, as a man very fit for such a dignity, who, although rough and +unpopular, seemed yet more tolerable than the other, and worthy of being +preferred to him by any means that could be devised. + +4. But all these plans were formed to no purpose; for in the meantime, +the emperor, through the variety of remedies applied, recovered, and +would scarcely believe that his life had been saved with difficulty. +And he proposed to invest his son Gratian, who was now on the point of +arriving at manhood, with the ensigns of the imperial authority. + +5. And when everything was prepared, and the consent of the soldiers +secured, in order that all men might willingly accept the new emperor, +immediately upon the arrival of Gratian, Valentinian advancing into the +open space, mounted the tribune, and surrounded by a splendid circle of +nobles and princes, and holding the boy by his right hand, showed him to +them all, and in the following formal harangue recommended their +intended sovereign to the army. + +6. "This imperial robe which I wear is a happy indication of your good +will towards me when you adjudged me superior to many illustrious men. +Now, with you as the partners of my counsels and the favourers of my +wishes, I will proceed to a seasonable work of affection, relying on the +protecting promises of God, to whose eternal assistance it is owing that +the Roman state stands and ever shall stand unshaken. + +7. "Listen, I beseech you, O most gallant men, with willing minds to my +desire, recollecting that these things which the laws of natural +affection sanction, we have in this instance not only wished to +accomplish with your perfect cognizance, but we have also desired to +have them confirmed by you as what is proper for us and likely to prove +beneficial. + +8. This, my grown-up son Gratian, to whom all of you bear affection as a +common pledge, who has long lived among your own children, I am, for the +sake of securing the public tranquillity on all sides, about to take as +my colleague in the imperial authority, if the propitious will of the +ruler of heaven and of your dignity, shall co-operate with a parent's +affection. He has not been trained by a rigid education from his very +cradle as we ourselves have; nor has he been equally taught to endure +hardships; nor is he as yet, as you see, able to endure the toils of +war; but in his disposition he is not unworthy of the glorious +reputation of his family, or the mighty deeds of his ancestors, and, I +venture to say, he is likely to grow up equal to still greater actions. + +9. "For as I often think when contemplating, as I am wont to do, his +manners and passions though not yet come to maturity, he is so furnished +with the liberal sciences, and in all accomplishments and graces, that +even now, while only entering on manhood, he will be able to form an +accurate judgment of virtuous and vicious actions. He will so conduct +himself that virtuous men may see that they are appreciated; he will be +eager in the performance of noble actions; he will never desert the +military standards and eagles; he will cheerfully bear heat, snow, +frost, and thirst; he will, if necessity should arise, never shrink from +fighting in defence of his country; he will expose his life to save his +comrades from danger, and (and this is the highest and greatest work of +piety) he will love the republic as his own paternal and ancestral +home." + +10. Before he had finished his speech, every soldier hastened to +anticipate his comrades as well as his position permitted him, in +showing that these words of the emperor met with their cheerful assent. +And so, as partakers in his joy, and as convinced of the advantage of +his proposal, they declared Gratian emperor, mingling the propitious +clashing of their arms with the loud roar of the trumpets. + +11. When Valentinian saw this, his confidence increased; he adorned his +son with a crown and with the robes befitting his now supreme rank, and +kissed him; and then thus addressed him, brilliant as he appeared, and +giving careful attention to all his words:-- + +12. "You wear now," said he, "my Gratian, the imperial robe, as we have +all desired, which has been conferred on you with favourable auspices by +my will and that of our comrades. Therefore now, considering the weight +of the affairs which press upon us, gird yourself up as the colleague of +your father and your uncle; and accustom yourself to pass fearlessly +with the infantry over the Danube and the Rhine, which are made passable +by the frost, to keep close to your soldiers, to devote your blood and +your very life with all skill and deliberation for the safety of those +under your command; to think nothing unworthy of your attention which +concerns any portion of the Roman empire. + +13. "This is enough by way of admonition to you at the present moment, +at other times I will not fail to give further advice. Now you who +remain, the defenders of the state, I entreat, I beseech you to preserve +with a steady affection and loyalty your youthful emperor thus intrusted +to your fidelity." + +14. These words of the emperor were accepted and ratified with all +possible solemnity; Eupraxius, a native of Mauritania Cæsariensis, at +that time master of the records, led the way by the exclamation, "The +family of Gratian deserves this." And being at once promoted to be +quæstor, he set an example of judicious confidence worthy of being +imitated by all wise men; especially as he in no wise departed from the +habits of his fearless nature, but was at all times a man of consistency +and obedient to the laws, which, as we have remarked, speak to all men +with one and the same voice under the most varied circumstances. He at +this time was the more steady in adhering to the side of justice which +he always espoused, because on one occasion when he had given good +advice, the emperor had attacked him with violence and threats. + +15. After this, the whole assembly broke out into praises of both +emperors, the elder and the new one; and especially of the boy, whose +brilliant eyes, engaging countenance and person, and apparent sweetness +of disposition, recommended him to their favour. And these qualities +would have rendered him an emperor worthy to be compared to the most +excellent princes of former times, if fate had permitted, and his +relations who even then began to overshadow his virtue, before it was +firmly rooted, with their own wicked actions. + +16. But in this affair, Valentinian went beyond the custom which had +been established for several generations, in making his brother and his +son, not Cæsar, but emperors; acting indeed in this respect with great +kindness. Nor had any one yet ever created a colleague with powers equal +to his own, except the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who made his adopted +brother Verus his colleague in the empire without any inferiority of +power. + + +VII. + +A.D. 368. + +§ 1. After these transactions had been thus settled to the delight both +of the prince and of the soldiers, but a few days intervened; and then +Avitianus, who had been deputy, accused Mamertinus, the prefect of the +prætorium, of peculation, on his return from the city whither he had +gone to correct some abuses. + +2. And in consequence of this accusation he was replaced by Rufinus, a +man accomplished in every respect, who had attained the dignity of an +honourable old age, though it is true that he never let slip any +opportunity of making money when he thought he could do so secretly. + +3. He now availed himself of his access to the emperor to obtain +permission for Orfitus, who had been prefect of the city, but who was +now banished, to receive back his property which had been confiscated, +and return home. + +4. And although Valentinian was a man of undisguised ferocity, he +nevertheless, at the beginning of his reign, in order to lessen the +opinion of his cruelty, took all possible pains to restrain the fierce +impetuosity of his disposition. But this defect increasing gradually, +from having been checked for some time, presently broke out more +unrestrained to the ruin of many persons; and his severity was increased +by the vehemence of his anger. For wise men define passion as a lasting +ulcer of the mind, and sometimes an incurable one, usually engendered +from a weakness of the intellect; and they have a plausible argument for +asserting this in the fact that people in bad health are more passionate +than those who are well; women, than men; old men, than youths; and +people in bad circumstances than the prosperous. + +5. About this time, among the deaths of many persons of low degree, that +of Diocles, who had previously been a treasurer of Illyricum, was +especially remarked; the emperor having had him burnt alive for some +very slight offence, as was also the execution of Diodorus, who had +previously had an honourable employment in the provinces, and also that +of three officers of the vicar prefect of Italy, who were all put to +death with great cruelty because the count of Italy had complained to +the emperor that Diodorus had, though in a constitutional manner, +implored the aid of the law against him; and that the officers, by +command of the judge, served a summons on him as he was setting out on a +journey, commanding him to answer to the action according to law. And +the Christians at Milan to this day cherish their memory, and call the +place where they were buried, the tomb of the innocents. + +6. Afterwards, in the affair of a certain Pannonian, named Maxentius, on +account of the execution of a sentence very properly commanded by the +judge to be carried out immediately, he ordered all the magistrates of +these towns to be put to death, when Eupraxius, who at that time was +quæstor, interposed, saying, "Be more sparing, O most pious of emperors, +for those whom you command to be put to death as criminals, the +Christian religion honours as martyrs, that is as persons acceptable to +the deity." + +7. And the prefect Florentius, imitating the salutary boldness of +Eupraxius, when he heard that the emperor was in a similar manner very +angry about some trifling and pardonable matter, and that he had ordered +the execution of three of the magistrates in each of several cities, +said to him, "And what is to be done if any town has not got so many +magistrates? It will be necessary to suspend the execution there till +there are a sufficient number for the purpose." + +8. And besides this cruel conduct there was another circumstance +horrible even to speak of, that if any one came before him protesting +against being judged by a powerful enemy, and requiring that some other +judge might hear his case, he always refused it; and however just the +arguments of the man might be, he remitted his cause to the decision of +the very judge whom he feared. And there was another very bad thing much +spoken of; namely, that when it was urged that any debtor was in such +absolute want as to be unable to pay anything, he used to pronounce +sentence of death on him. + +9. But some princes do these and other similar actions with the more +lofty arrogance, because they never allow their friends any opportunity +of setting them right in any mistake they make, either in a plan or in +its execution; while they terrify their enemies by the greatness of +their power. There can be no question of mistake or error raised before +men who consider whatever they choose to do to be in itself the greatest +of virtues. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. Valentinian having left Amiens, and being on his way to Treves in +great haste, received the disastrous intelligence that Britain was +reduced by the ravages of the united barbarians to the lowest extremity +of distress; that Nectaridus, the count of the sea-coast, had been slain +in battle, and the duke Fullofaudes had been taken prisoner by the enemy +in an ambuscade. + +2. This news struck him with great consternation, and he immediately +sent Severus, the count of the domestic guards, to put an end to all +these disasters if he could find a desirable opportunity. Severus was +soon recalled, and Jovinus, who then went to that country, sent forward +Provertuides with great expedition to ask for the aid of a powerful +army; for they both affirmed that the imminence of the danger required +such a reinforcement. + +3. Last of all, on account of the many formidable reports which a +continual stream of messengers brought from that island, Theodosius was +appointed to proceed thither, and ordered to make great haste. He was an +officer already distinguished for his prowess in war, and having +collected a numerous force of cavalry and infantry, he proceeded to +assume the command in full confidence. + +4. And since when I was compiling my account of the acts of the emperor +Constantine, I explained as well as I could the movement of the sea in +those parts at its ebb and flow, and the situation of Britain, I look +upon it as superfluous to return to what has been once described; as the +Ulysses of Homer when among the Phæacians hesitated to repeat his +adventures by reason of the sufferings they brought to mind. + +5. It will be sufficient here to mention that at that time the Picts, +who were divided into two nations, the Dicalidones and the Vecturiones, +and likewise the Attacotti, a very warlike people, and the Scots were +all roving over different parts of the country and committing great +ravages. While the Franks and the Saxons who are on the frontiers of the +Gauls were ravaging their country wherever they could effect an entrance +by sea or land, plundering and burning, and murdering all the prisoners +they could take. + +6. To put a stop to these evils, if a favourable fortune should afford +an opportunity, the new and energetic general repaired to that island +situated at the extreme corner of the earth; and when he had reached the +coast of Boulogne, which is separated from the opposite coast by a very +narrow strait of the sea, which there rises and falls in a strange +manner, being raised by violent tides, and then again sinking to a +perfect level like a plain, without doing any injury to the sailors. +From Boulogne he crossed the strait in a leisurely manner, and reached +Richborough, a very tranquil station on the opposite coast. + +7. And when the Batavi, and Heruli, and the Jovian and Victorian legions +who followed from the same place, had also arrived, he then, relying on +their number and power, landed and marched towards Londinium, an ancient +town which has since been named Augusta; and dividing his army into +several detachments, he attacked the predatory and straggling bands of +the enemy who were loaded with the weight of their plunder, and having +speedily routed them while driving prisoners in chains and cattle before +them, he deprived them of their booty which they had carried off from +these miserable tributaries of Rome. + +8. To whom he restored the whole except a small portion which he +allotted to his own weary soldiers; and then joyful and triumphant he +made his entry into the city which had just before been overwhelmed by +disasters, but was now suddenly re-established almost before it could +have hoped for deliverance. + +9. This success encouraged him to deeds of greater daring, and after +considering what counsels might be the safest, he hesitated, being full +of doubts as to the future, and convinced by the confession of his +prisoners and the information given him by deserters, that so vast a +multitude, composed of various nations, all incredibly savage, could +only be vanquished by secret stratagems and unexpected attacks. + +10. Then, by the publication of several edicts, in which he promised +them impunity, he invited deserters and others who were straggling about +the country on furlough, to repair to his camp. At this summons numbers +came in, and he, though eager to advance, being detained by anxious +cares, requested to have Civilis sent to him, to govern Britain, with +the rank of proprefect, a man of quick temper, but just and upright; and +he asked at the same time for Dulcitius, a general eminent for his +military skill. + + +IX. + +§ 1. These were the events which occurred in Britain. But in another +quarter, from the very beginning of Valentinian's reign, Africa had been +overrun by the fury of the barbarians, intent on bloodshed and rapine, +which they sought to carry on by audacious incursions. Their +licentiousness was encouraged by the indolence and general covetousness +of the soldiers, and especially by the conduct of Count Romanus. + +2. Who, foreseeing what was likely to happen, and being very skilful in +transferring to others the odium which he himself deserved, was detested +by men in general for the savageness of his temper, and also because it +seemed as if his object was to outrun even our enemies in ravaging the +provinces. He greatly relied on his relationship to Remigius, at that +time master of the offices, who sent all kinds of false and confused +statements of the condition of the country, so that the emperor, +cautious and wary as he plumed himself on being, was long kept in +ignorance of the terrible sufferings of the Africans. + +3. I will explain with great diligence the complete series of all the +transactions which took place in those regions, the death of Ruricius +the governor, and of his lieutenants, and all the other mournful events +which took place, when the proper opportunity arrives. + +4. And since we are able here to speak freely, let us openly say what we +think, that this emperor was the first of all our princes who raised the +arrogance of the soldiers to so great a height, to the great injury of +the state, by increasing their rank, dignity, and riches. And (which was +a lamentable thing, both on public and private accounts) while he +punished the errors of the common soldiers with unrelenting severity, he +spared the officers, who, as if complete licence were given to their +misconduct, proceeded to all possible lengths of rapacity and cruelty +for the acquisition of riches, and acting as if they thought that the +fortunes of all persons depended directly on their nod. + +5. The framers of our ancient laws had sought to repress their pride and +power, sometimes even condemning the innocent to death, as is often done +in cases when, from the multitude concerned in some atrocity, some +innocent men, owing to their ill luck, suffer for the whole. And this +has occasionally extended even to the case of private persons. + +6. But in Isauria the banditti formed into bodies and roamed through the +villages, laying waste and plundering the towns and wealthy country +houses; and by the magnitude of their ravages they also greatly +distressed Pamphylia and Cilicia. And when Musonius, who at that time +was the deputy of Asia Minor, having previously been a master of +rhetoric at Athens, had heard that they were spreading massacre and +rapine in every direction, being filled with grief at the evil of which +he had just heard, and perceiving that the soldiers were rusting in +luxury and inactivity, he took with him a few light-armed troops, called +Diogmitæ, and resolved to attack the first body of plunderers he could +find. His way led through a narrow and most difficult defile, and thus +he fell into an ambuscade, which he had no chance of escaping, and was +slain, with all the men under his command. + +7. The robber bands became elated at this advantage, and roamed over the +whole country with increased boldness, slaying many, till at last our +army was aroused, and drove them to take refuge amid the recesses of the +rocks and mountains they inhabit. And then, as they were not allowed to +rest, and were cut off from all means of obtaining necessary supplies, +they at last begged for a truce, as a prelude to peace, being led to +this step by the advice of the people of Germanicopolis, whose opinions +always had as much weight with them as standard-bearers have with an +army. And after giving hostages as they were desired, they remained for +a long time quiet, without venturing on any hostilities. + +8. While these events were taking place, Prætextatus was administering +the prefecture of the city in a noble manner, exhibiting numerous +instances of integrity and probity, virtues for which he had been +eminent from his earliest youth; and thus he obtained what rarely +happens to any one, that while he was feared, he did not at the same +time lose the affection of his fellow-citizens, which is seldom strongly +felt for those whom they fear as judges. + +9. By his authority, impartiality, and just decisions, a tumult was +appeased, which the quarrels of the Christians had excited, and after +Ursinus was expelled complete tranquillity was restored, which best +corresponded to the wishes of the Roman people; while the glory of their +illustrious governor, who performed so many useful actions, continually +increased. + +10. For he also removed all the balconies, which the ancient laws of +Rome had forbidden to be constructed, and separated from the sacred +temples the walls of private houses which had been improperly joined to +them; and established one uniform and proper weight in every quarter, +for by no other means could he check the covetousness of those who made +their scales after their own pleasure. And in the adjudication of +lawsuits he exceeded all men in obtaining that praise which Cicero +mentions in his panegyric of Brutus, that while he did nothing with a +view to please anybody, everything which he did pleased everybody. + + +X. + +§ 1. About the same time, when Valentinian had gone forth on an +expedition very cautiously as he fancied, a prince of the Allemanni, by +name Rando, who had been for some time preparing for the execution of a +plan which he had conceived, with a body of light-armed troops equipped +only for a predatory expedition, surprised and stormed Mayence, which +was wholly destitute of a garrison. + +2. And as he arrived at the time when a great solemnity of the Christian +religion was being celebrated, he found no obstacle whatever in +carrying off a vast multitude of both men and women as prisoners, with +no small quantity of goods as booty. + +3. After this, for a short interval a sudden hope of brighter fortune +shone upon the affairs of Rome. For as king Vithicabius, the son of +Vadomarius, a bold and warlike man, though in appearance effeminate and +diseased, was continually raising up the troubles of war against us, +great pains were taken to have him removed by some means or other. + +4. And because after many attempts it was found impossible to defeat him +or to procure his betrayal, his most confidential servant was tampered +with by one of our men, and by his hand he lost his life; and after his +death, all hostile attacks upon us were laid aside for a while. But his +murderer, fearing punishment if the truth should get abroad, without +delay took refuge in the Roman territory. + +5. After this an expedition on a larger scale than usual was projected +with great care and diligence against the Allemanni, to consist of a +great variety of troops: the public safety imperatively required such a +measure, since the treacherous movements of that easily recruited nation +were regarded with continual apprehension, while our soldiers were the +more irritated, because, on account of the constant suspicion which +their character awakened, at one time abject and suppliant, at another +arrogant and threatening, they were never allowed to rest in peace. + +6. Accordingly, a vast force was collected from all quarters, well +furnished with arms and supplies of provisions, and the count Sebastian +having been sent for with the Illyrian and Italian legions which he +commanded, as soon as the weather got warm, Valentinian, accompanied by +Gratian, crossed the Rhine without resistance. Having divided the whole +army into four divisions, he himself marched with the centre, while +Jovinus and Severus, the two captains of the camp, commanded the +divisions on each side, thus protecting the army from any sudden attack. + +7. And immediately under the guidance of men who knew the roads, all the +approaches having been reconnoitred, the army advanced slowly through a +most extensive district, the soldiers by the slowness of their march +being all the more excited to wish for battle, and gnashing their teeth +in a threatening manner, as if they had already found the barbarians. +And as, after many days had passed, no one could be found who offered +any resistance, the troops applied the devouring flame to all the houses +and all the crops which were standing, with the exception of such +supplies for their own magazines as the doubtful events of war compelled +them to collect and store up. + +8. After this the emperor advanced further, with no great speed, till he +arrived at a place called Solicinium, where he halted, as if he had +suddenly come upon some barrier, being informed by the accurate report +of his advanced guard that the barbarians were seen at a distance. + +9. They, seeing no way of preserving their safety unless they defended +themselves by a speedy battle, trusting in their acquaintance with the +country, with one consent occupied a lofty hill, abrupt and inaccessible +in its rugged heights on every side except the north, where the ascent +was gentle and easy. Our standards were fixed in the usual manner, and +the cry, "To arms!" was raised; and the soldiers, by the command of the +emperor and his generals, rested in quiet obedience, waiting for the +raising of the emperor's banner as the signal for engaging in battle. + +10. And because little or no time could be spared for deliberation, +since on one side the impatience of the soldiers was formidable, and on +the other the Allemanni were shouting out their horrid yells all around, +the necessity for rapid operations led to the plan that Sebastian with +his division should seize the northern side of the hill, where we have +said the ascent was gentle, in which position it was expected that, if +fortune favoured him, he would be able easily to destroy the flying +barbarians. And when he, as had been arranged, had moved forward first, +while Gratian was kept behind with the Jovian legion, that young prince +being as yet of an age unfit for battle or for hard toil, Valentinian, +like a deliberate and prudent general, took off his helmet, and reviewed +his centuries and maniples, and not having informed any of the nobles +of his secret intentions, and having sent back his numerous body of +guards, went forward himself with a very small escort, whose courage and +fidelity he could trust, to reconnoitre the foot of the hill, declaring +(as he was always apt to think highly of his own skill) that it must be +possible to find another path which led to the summit besides that which +the advanced guard had reported. + +11. He then, as he advanced by a devious track over ground strange to +him, and across pathless swamps, was very nearly being killed by the +sudden attack of a band placed in an ambuscade on his flank, and being +driven to extremities, only escaped by spurring his horse to a gallop in +a different direction over a deep swamp, so at last, after being in the +most imminent danger, he rejoined his legions. But so great had been his +peril that his chamberlain, who was carrying his helmet, which was +adorned with gold and precious stones, disappeared, helmet and all, +while the man's body could never be found, so that it could be known +positively whether he were alive or dead. + +12. Then, when the men had been refreshed by rest, and the signal for +battle was raised, and the clang of warlike trumpets roused their +courage, two youths of prominent valour, eager to be the first to +encounter the danger, dashed on with fearless impetuosity before the +line of their comrades. One was of the band of Scutarii, by name +Salvius, the other, Lupicinus, belonging to the Gentiles. They raised a +terrible shout, brandished their spears, and when they reached the foot +of the rocks, in spite of the efforts of the Allemanni to repel them, +pushed steadily on to the higher ground; while behind them came the main +body of the army, which following their lead over places rough with +brambles and rugged, at last, after vast exertions, reached the very +summit of the heights. + +13. Then again, with great spirit on both sides, the conflict raged with +spears and swords. On our side the soldiers were more skilful in the art +of war; on the other side the barbarians, ferocious but incautious, +closed with them in the mighty fray; while our army extending itself, +outflanked them on both sides with its overlapping wings, the enemy's +alarm being increased by our shouts, the neighing of the horses, and the +clang of trumpets. + +14. Nevertheless they resisted with indomitable courage, and the battle +was for some time undecided; both sides exerted themselves to the +utmost, and death was scattered almost equally. + +15. At last the barbarians were beaten down by the ardour of the Romans, +and being disordered and broken, were thrown into complete confusion; +and as they began to retreat they were assailed with great effect by the +spears and javelins of their enemies. Soon the retreat became a flight, +and panting and exhausted, they exposed their backs and the back sinews +of their legs and thighs to their pursuers. After many had been slain, +those who fled fell into the ambuscade laid for them by Sebastian, who +was posted with his reserve at the back of the mountain, and who now +fell unexpectedly on their flank, and slew numbers of them, while the +rest who escaped concealed themselves in the recesses of the woods. + +16. In this battle we also suffered no inconsiderable loss. Among those +who fell was Valerian, the first officer of the domestic guards, and one +of the Scutarii, named Natuspardo, a warrior of such pre-eminent courage +that he might be compared to the ancient Sicinius or Sergius. + +17. After these transactions, accompanied with this diversity of +fortune, the army went into winter quarters, and the emperor returned to +Treves. + + +XI. + +§ 1. About this time, Vulcatius Rufinus died, while filling the office +of prefect of the prætorium, and Probus was summoned from Rome to +succeed him, a man well known to the whole Roman world for the eminence +of his family, and his influence, as well as for his vast riches, for he +possessed a patrimonial inheritance which was scattered over the whole +empire; whether acquired justly or unjustly it is not for us to decide. + +2. A certain good fortune, as the poets would represent it, attended him +from his birth, and bore him on her rapid wings, exhibiting him +sometimes as a man of beneficent character, promoting the interests of +his friends, though often also a formidable intriguer, and cruel and +mischievous in the gratification of his enmities. As long as he lived he +had great power, owing to the magnificence of his gifts and to his +frequent possession of office, and yet he was at times timid towards the +bold, though domineering over the timid; so that when full of +self-confidence he appeared to be spouting in the tragic buskin, and +when he was afraid he seemed more abased than the most abject character +in comedy. + +3. And as fishes, when removed from their natural element, cannot live +long on the land, so he began to pine when not in some post of authority +which he was driven to be solicitous for by the squabbles of his troops +of clients, whose boundless cupidity prevented their ever being +innocent, and who thrust their patron forward into affairs of state in +order to be able to perpetrate all sorts of crimes with impunity. + +4. For it must be confessed that though he was a man of such magnanimity +that he never desired any dependent or servant of his to do an unlawful +thing, yet if he found that any one of them had committed a crime, he +laid aside all consideration of justice, would not allow the case to be +inquired into, but defended the man without the slightest regard for +right or wrong. Now this is a fault expressly condemned by Cicero, who +thus speaks: "For what difference is there between one who has advised +an action, and one who approves of it after it is performed? or what +difference does it make whether I wished it be done, or am glad that it +is done?" + +5. He was a man of a suspicious temper, self-relying, often wearing a +bitter smile, and sometimes caressing a man the more effectually to +injure him. + +6. This vice is a very conspicuous one in dispositions of that kind, and +mostly so when it is thought possible to conceal it. He was also so +implacable and obstinate in his enmities, that if he ever resolved to +injure any one he would never be diverted from his purpose by any +entreaties, nor be led to pardon any faults, so that his ears seemed to +be stopped not with wax but with lead. + +7. Even when at the very summit of wealth and dignity he was always +anxious and watchful, and therefore he was continually subject to +trifling illnesses. + +8. Such was the course of events which took place in the western +provinces of the empire. + + +XII. + +§ 1. The King of Persia, the aged Sapor, who from the very commencement +of his reign had been addicted to the love of plunder, after the death +of the Emperor Julian, and the disgraceful treaty of peace subsequently +made, for a short time seemed with his people to be friendly to us; but +presently he trampled under foot the agreement which he had made with +Jovian, and poured a body of troops into Armenia to annex that country +to his own dominions, as if the whole of the former arrangements had +been abolished. + +2. At first he contented himself with various tricks, intrigues, and +deceits, inflicting some trifling injuries on the nation which +unanimously resisted him, tampering with some of the nobles and satraps, +and making sudden inroads into the districts belonging to others. + +3. Afterwards by a system of artful cajolery fortified by perjury, he +got their king Arsaces into his hands, having invited him to a banquet, +when he ordered him to be seized and conducted to a secret chamber +behind, where his eyes were put out, and he was loaded with silver +chains, which in that country is looked upon as a solace under +punishment for men of rank, trifling though it be; then he removed him +from his country to a fortress called Agabana, where he applied to him +the torture, and finally put him to death. + +4. After this, in order that his perfidy might leave nothing unpolluted, +having expelled Sauromaces, whom the authority of the Romans had made +governor of Hiberia, he conferred the government of that district on a +man of the name of Aspacuras, even giving him a diadem, to mark the +insult offered to the decision of our emperors. + +5. And after these infamous actions he committed the charge of Armenia +to an eunuch named Cylaces, and to Artabannes, a couple of deserters +whom he had received some time before (one of them having been prefect +of that nation, and the other commander in-chief); and he enjoined them +to use every exertion to destroy the town of Artogerassa, a place +defended by strong walls and a sufficient garrison, in which were the +treasures, and the wife and son of Arsaces. + +6. These generals commenced the siege as they were ordered. And as it is +a fortress placed on a very rugged mountain height, it was inaccessible +at that time, while the ground was covered with snow and frost: and so +Cylaces being an eunuch, and, as such, suited to feminine manoeuvres, +taking Artabannes with him, approached the walls; after having received +a promise of safety, and he and his companion had been admitted into the +city, he sought by a mixture of advice and threats to persuade the +garrison and the queen to pacify the wrath of the implacable Sapor by a +speedy surrender. + +7. And after many arguments had been urged on both sides, the woman +bewailing the sad fortune of her husband, these men, who had been most +active in wishing to compel her to surrender, pitying her distress, +changed their views; and conceiving a hope of higher preferment, they in +secret conferences arranged that at an appointed hour of the night the +gates should be suddenly thrown open, and a strong detachment should +sally forth and fall upon the ramparts of the enemy's camp, surprising +it with sudden slaughter; the traitors promising that, to prevent any +knowledge of what was going on, they would come forward to meet them. + +8. Having ratified this agreement with an oath, they quitted the town, +and led the besiegers to acquiesce in inaction by representing that the +besieged had required two days to deliberate on what course they ought +to pursue. Then in the middle of the night, when they were all soundly +asleep in fancied security, the gates of the city were thrown open, and +a strong body of young men poured forth with great speed, creeping on +with noiseless steps and drawn swords, till they entered the camp of the +unsuspecting enemy, where they slew numbers of sleeping men, without +meeting with any resistance. + +8. This unexpected treachery of his officers, and the loss thus +inflicted on the Persians, caused a terrible quarrel between us and +Sapor; and another cause for his anger was added, as the Emperor Valens +received Para, the son of Arsaces, who at his mother's instigation had +quitted the fortress with a small escort, and had desired him to stay at +Neo-Cæsarea, a most celebrated city on the Black Sea, where he was +treated with great liberality and high respect. Cylaces and Artabannes, +being allured by this humanity of Valens, sent envoys to him to ask for +assistance, and to request that Para might be given them for their king. + +10. However, for the moment assistance was refused them; but Para was +conducted by the general Terentius back to Armenia, where he was to rule +that nation without any of the insignia of royalty; which was a very +wise regulation, in order that we might not be accused of breaking our +treaty of peace. + +11. When this arrangement became known, Sapor was enraged beyond all +bounds, and collecting a vast army, entered Armenia and ravaged it with +the most ferocious devastation. Para was terrified at his approach, as +were also Cylaces and Artabannes, and, as they saw no other resource, +fled into the recesses of the lofty mountains which separate our +frontiers from Lazica; where they hid in the depths of the woods and +among the defiles of the hills for five months, eluding the various +attempts of the king to discover them. + +12. And Sapor, when he saw that he was losing his labour in the middle +of winter, burnt all the fruit trees, and all the fortified castles and +camps, of which he had become master by force or treachery, and also +burnt Artogerassa, which had long been blockaded by his whole army, and +after many battles was taken through the exhaustion of the garrison; and +he carried off from thence the wife of Arsaces and all his treasures. + +13. For these reasons, Arinthæus was sent into these districts with the +rank of count, to aid the Armenians if the Persians should attempt to +harass them by a second campaign. + +14. At the same time, Sapor, with extraordinary cunning, being either +humble or arrogant as best suited him, under pretence of an intended +alliance, sent secret messengers to Para to reproach him as neglectful +of his own dignity, since, with the appearance of royal majesty, he was +really the slave of Cylaces and Artabannes. On which Para, with great +precipitation, cajoled them with caresses till he got them in his power, +and slew them, sending their heads to Sapor in proof of his obedience. + +15. When the death of these men became generally known, it caused such +dismay that Armenia would have been ruined without striking a blow in +its own defence, if the Persians had not been so alarmed at the approach +of Arinthæus that they forbore to invade it again, contenting themselves +with sending ambassadors to the emperor, demanding of him not to defend +that nation, according to the agreement made between them and Jovian. + +16. Their ambassadors were rejected, and Sauromaces, who, as we have +said before, had been expelled from the kingdom of Hiberia, was sent +back with twelve legions under the command of Terentius; and when he +reached the river Cyrus, Aspacuras entreated him that they might both +reign as partners, being cousins; alleging that he could not withdraw +nor cross over to the side of the Romans, because his son Ultra was as a +hostage in the hands of the Persians. + +17. The emperor learning this, in order by wisdom and prudence to put an +end to the difficulties arising out of this affair, acquiesced in the +division of Hiberia, allowing the Cyrus to be the boundary of the two +divisions: Sauromaces to have the portion next to the Armenians and +Lazians, and Aspacuras the districts which border on Albania and Persia. + +18. Sapor, indignant at this, exclaimed that he was unworthily treated, +because we had assisted Armenia contrary to our treaty, and because the +embassy had failed which he had sent to procure redress, and because the +kingdom of Hiberia was divided without his consent or privity; and so, +shutting as it were, the gates of friendship, he sought assistance among +the neighbouring nations, and prepared his own army in order, with the +return of fine weather, to overturn all the arrangements which the +Romans had made with a view to their own interests. + + +[160] Cabillonum is Châlons-sur-Soane, in Burgundy; Catalauni is +Châlons-sur-Marne, in Champagne. + +[161] These seem to have been a tribe of the _Batavi_; but some editors +give, as a various reading, _Hastarii_, which may be translated, a +detachment of lancers. + +[162] Probably the church of Santa Maria Maggiore; but see note in +Gibbon, ch. xxv. (vol. iii. p. 91, Bohn). + +[163] See Iliad, ix. 5:-- + + Βορέης καὶ ζέφυρος τώτε Θρήκηθεν ἄητον + Ἐλθοντ’ ἐξοπίνης. + +Thus translated by Pope:-- + + "As from its cloudy dungeon, issuing forth + A double tempest of the west and north + Swells o'er the sea from Thracia's frozen shore, + Heaps waves on waves, and bids th' Ægean roar." + +[164] The contents of the sixty-third book of Livy record that C. +Porcius Cato lost his whole army in a campaign against the Scordisci, +who were a Pannonian tribe; but neither Livy nor any other writer, +except Ammianus, mentions that Cato himself was killed. + + + + +BOOK XXVIII. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Many persons, even senators and women of senatorial family are + accused at Rome of poisonings, adultery, and debauchery, and are + punished.--II. The Emperor Valentinian fortifies the whole Gallic + bank of the Rhine with forts, castles, and towers; the Allemanni + slay the Romans who are constructing a fortification on the other + side of the Rhine.--The Maratocupreni, who are ravaging Syria, are, + by the command of Valens, destroyed with their children and their + town.--III. Theodosius restores the cities of Britain which had + been laid waste by the barbarians, repairs the fortresses, and + recovers the province of the island which is called Valentia.--IV. + Concerning the administration of Olybrius and Ampelius as prefects + of the city: and concerning the vices of the Roman senate and + people.--V. The Saxons, after a time, are circumvented in Gaul by + the manoeuvres of the Romans. Valentinian having promised to + unite his forces with them, sends the Burgundians to invade + Germany; but they, finding themselves tricked and deceived, put all + their prisoners to the sword, and return home.--VI. The ravages + inflicted in the province of Tripoli, and on the people of Leptis + and OEa, by the Asturians, are concealed from Valentinian by the + bad faith of the Roman count; and so are not properly avenged. + + +I. + +A.D. 368. + +§ 1. While the perfidy of the king was exciting these unexpected +troubles in Persia, as we have related above, and while war was reviving +in the east, sixteen years and rather more after the death of +Nepotianus, Bellona, raging through the eternal city, destroyed +everything, proceeding from trifling beginnings to the most lamentable +disasters. Would that they could be buried in everlasting silence, lest +perhaps similar things may some day be again attempted, which will do +more harm by the general example thus set than even by the misery they +occasion. + +2. And although after a careful consideration of different +circumstances, a reasonable fear would restrain me from giving a minute +account of the bloody deeds now perpetrated, yet, relying on the +moderation of the present age, I will briefly touch upon the things +most deserving of record, nor shall I regret giving a concise account of +the fears which the events that happened at a former period caused me. + +3. In the first Median war, when the Persians had ravaged Asia, they +laid siege to Miletus with a vast host, threatening the garrison with +torture and death, and at last reduced the citizens to such straits, +that they all, being overwhelmed with the magnitude of their distresses, +slew their nearest relations, cast all their furniture and movables into +the fire, and then threw themselves in rivalry with one another on the +common funeral pile of their perishing country. + +4. A short time afterwards, Phrynichus made this event the subject of a +tragedy which he exhibited on the stage at Athens; and after he had been +for a short time listened to with complacency, when amid all its fine +language the tragedy became more and more distressing, it was condemned +by the indignation of the people, who thought that it was insulting to +produce this as the subject of a dramatic poem, and that it had been +prompted not by a wish to console, but only to remind them to their own +disgrace of the sufferings which that beautiful city had endured without +receiving any aid from its founder and parent. For Miletus was a colony +of the Athenians, and had been established there among the other Ionian +states by Neleus, the son of that Codrus who is said to have devoted +himself for his country in the Dorian war. + +5. Let us now return to our subject. Maximinus, formerly deputy prefect +of Rome, was born in a very obscure rank of life at Sopianæ, a town of +Valeria; his father being only a clerk in the president's office, +descended from the posterity of those Carpi whom Diocletian removed from +their ancient homes and transferred to Pannonia. + +6. After a slight study of the liberal sciences, and some small practice +at the bar, he was promoted to be governor of Corsica, then of Sardinia, +and at last of Tuscany. From hence, as his successor loitered a long +while on his road, he proceeded to superintend the supplying of the +eternal city with provisions, still retaining the government of the +province; and three different considerations rendered him cautious on +his first entrance into office, namely:-- + +7. In the first place, because he bore in mind the prediction of his +father, a man pre-eminently skilful in interpreting what was portended +by birds from whom auguries were taken, or by the note of such birds as +spoke. And he had warned him that though he would rise to supreme +authority, he would perish by the axe of the executioner; secondly, +because he had fallen in with a Sardinian (whom he himself subsequently +put to death by treachery, as report generally affirmed) who was a man +skilled in raising up evil spirits, and in gathering presages from +ghosts; and as long as that Sardinian lived, he, fearing to be betrayed, +was more tractable and mild; lastly, because while he was slowly making +his way through inferior appointments, like a serpent that glides +underground, he was not yet of power sufficient to perpetrate any +extensive destruction or executions. + +8. But the origin of his arriving at more extensive power lay in the +following transaction: Chilo, who had been deputy, and his wife, named +Maxima, complained to Olybrius, at that time prefect of the city, +asserting that their lives had been attacked by poison, and with such +earnestness that the men whom they suspected were at once arrested and +thrown into prison. These were Sericus, a musician, Asbolius, a +wrestling master, and Campensis, a soothsayer. + +9. But as the affair began to cool on account of the long-continued +violence of some illness with which Olybrius was attacked, the persons +who had laid the complaint, becoming impatient of delay, presented a +petition in which they asked to have the investigation of their charge +referred to the superintendent of the corn-market; and, from a desire +for a speedy decision, this request was granted. + +10. Now, therefore, that he had an opportunity of doing injury, Maximin +displayed the innate ferocity which was implanted in his cruel heart, +just as wild beasts exhibited in the amphitheatre often do when at +length released from their cages. And, as this affair was represented +first in various ways, as if in a kind of prelude, and some persons with +their sides lacerated named certain nobles, as if by means of their +clients and other low-born persons known as criminals and informers, +they had employed various artifices for injuring them. This infernal +delegate, carrying his investigations to an extravagant length, +presented a malicious report to the emperor, in which he told him that +such atrocious crimes as many people had committed at Rome could not be +investigated nor punished without the severest penalties. + +11. When the emperor learnt this he was exasperated beyond measure, +being rather a furious than a rigorous enemy to vice; and accordingly, +by one single edict applying to causes of this kind, which in his +arrogance he treated as if they partook of treason, he commanded that +all those whom the equity of the ancient law and the judgment of the +gods had exempted from examination by torture, should, if the case +seemed to require it, be put to the rack. + +12. And in order that the authority to be established, by being doubled +and raised to greater distinction, might be able to heap up greater +calamities, he appointed Maximin proprefect at Rome, and gave him as +colleague in the prosecution of these inquiries, which were being +prepared for the ruin of many persons, a secretary named Leo, who was +afterwards master of the ceremonies. He was by birth a Pannonian, and by +occupation originally a brigand, as savage as a wild beast, and +insatiable of human blood. + +13. The accession of a colleague so much like himself, inflamed the +cruel and malignant disposition of Maximin, which was further encouraged +by the commission which conferred this dignity on them; so that, +flinging himself about in his exultation, he seemed rather to dance than +to walk, while he studied to imitate the Brachmans who, according to +some accounts, move in the air amid the altars. + +14. And now the trumpets of intestine discords sounded, while all men +stood amazed at the atrocity of the things which were done. Among which, +besides many other cruel and inhuman actions so various and so numerous +that it is impossible for me to relate them all, the death of Marinus, +the celebrated advocate, was especially remarkable. He was condemned to +death on a charge which was not even attempted to be supported by +evidence, of having endeavoured by wicked acts to compass a marriage +with Hispanilla. + +15. And since I think that perhaps some persons may read this history +who, after careful investigation, will object to it that such and such a +thing was done before another; or again that this or that circumstance +has been omitted, I consider that I have inserted enough, because it is +not every event which has been brought about by base people that is +worth recording; nor, if it were necessary to relate them all, would +there be materials for such an account, not even if the public records +themselves were examined, when so many atrocious deeds were common, and +when this new frenzy was throwing everything into confusion without the +slightest restraint; and when what was feared was evidently not a +judicial trial but a total cessation of all justice. + +16. At this time, Cethegus, a senator, who was accused of adultery, was +beheaded, and a young man of noble birth, named Alypius, who had been +banished for some trivial misconduct, with some other persons of low +descent, were all publicly executed; while every one appeared in their +sufferings to see a representation of what they themselves might expect, +and dreamt of nothing but tortures, prisons, and dark dungeons. + +17. At the same time also, the affair of Hymetius, a man of very eminent +character, took place, of which the circumstances were as follows. When +he was governing Africa as proconsul, and the Carthaginians were in +extreme distress for want of food, he supplied them with corn out of the +granaries destined for the Roman people; and shortly afterwards, when +there was a fine harvest, he without delay fully replaced what he had +thus consumed. + +18. But as at the time of the scarcity ten bushels had been sold to +those who were in want for a piece of gold, while he now bought thirty +for the same sum, he sent the profit derived from the difference in +price to the emperor's treasury. Therefore, Valentinian, suspecting that +there was not as much sent as there ought to have been as the proceeds +of this traffic, confiscated a portion of his property. + +19. And to aggravate the severity of this infliction, another +circumstance happened about the same time which equally tended to his +ruin. Amantius was a soothsayer of pre-eminent celebrity at that period, +and having been accused by some secret informer of being employed by +this same Hymetius to offer a sacrifice for some evil purpose, he was +brought before a court of justice and put to the rack; but in spite of +all his tortures, he denied the charge with steadfast resolution. + +20. And as he denied it, some secret papers were brought from his house, +among which was found a letter in the handwriting of Hymetius, in which +he asked Amantius to propitiate the gods by some solemn sacrifices to +engage them to make the disposition of the emperor favourable to him; +and at the end of the letter were found some reproachful terms applied +to the emperor as avaricious and cruel. + +21. Valentinian learnt these facts from the report of some informers, +who exaggerated the offence given, and with very unnecessary vigour +ordered an inquiry to be made into the affair; and because Frontinus, +the assessor of Hymetius, was accused of having been the instrument of +drawing up this letter, he was scourged with rods till he confessed, and +then he was condemned to exile in Britain. But Amantius was subsequently +convicted of some capital crimes and was executed. + +22. After these transactions, Hymetius was conducted to the town of +Otricoli, to be examined by Ampelius, the prefect of the city, and +deputy of Maximin; and when he was on the point of being condemned, as +was manifest to every one, he judiciously seized an opportunity that was +afforded to him of appealing to the protection of the emperor, and being +protected by his name, he came off for the time in safety. + +23. The emperor, however, when he was consulted on the matter, remitted +it to the senate, who examined into the whole affair with justice, and +banished him to Boæ, a village in Dalmatia, for which they were visited +with the wrath of the emperor, who was exceedingly enraged when he heard +that a man whom in his own mind he had condemned to death had been let +off with a milder punishment. + +24. These and similar transactions led every one to fear that the +treatment thus experienced by a few was intended for all: and that these +evils should not, by being concealed, grow greater and greater till they +reached an intolerable height, the nobles sent a deputation consisting +of Prætextatus, formerly a prefect of the city, Venustus, formerly +deputy, and Minervius, who had been a consular governor, to entreat the +emperor not to allow the punishments to exceed the offences, and not to +permit any senator to be exposed to the torture in an unprecedented and +unlawful manner. + +25. But when these envoys were admitted into the council chamber, +Valentinian denied that he had ever given such orders, and insisted that +the charges made against him were calumnies. He was, however, refuted +with great moderation by the prætor Eupraxius; and in consequence of +this freedom, the cruel injunction that had been issued, and which had +surpassed all previous examples of cruelty, was amended. + +26. About the same time, Lollianus, a youth of tender age, the son of +Lampadius, who had been prefect, being accused before Maximin, who +investigated his case with great care, and being convicted of having +copied out a book on the subject of the unlawful acts (though, as his +age made it likely, without any definite plan of using it), was, it +seemed, on the point of being sentenced to banishment, when, at the +suggestion of his father, he appealed to the emperor; and being by his +order brought to court, it appeared that he had, as the proverb has it, +gone from the frying-pan into the fire, as he was now handed over to +Phalangius, the consular governor of Bætica, and put to death by the +hand of the executioner. + +27. There were also Tarratius Bassus, who afterwards became prefect of +the city, his brother Camenius, a man of the name of Marcian, and +Eusapius, all men of great eminence, who were prosecuted on the ground +of having protected the charioteer Auchenius, and being his accomplices +in the act of poisoning. The evidence was very doubtful, and they were +acquitted by the decision of Victorinus, as general report asserted; +Victorinus being a most intimate friend of Maximin. + +28. Women too were equally exposed to similar treatment. For many of +this sex also, and of noble birth, were put to death on being convicted +of adultery or unchastity. The most notorious cases were those of +Claritas and Flaviana; the first of whom, when conducted to death, was +stripped of the clothes which she wore, not even being permitted to +retain enough to cover her with bare decency; and for this the +executioner also was convicted of having committed a great crime, and +burnt to death. + +29. Paphius and Cornelius, both senators, confessed that they had +polluted themselves by the wicked practice of poisoning, and were put to +death by the sentence of Maximin; and by a similar sentence the master +of the mint was executed. He also condemned Sericus and Asbolius, who +have been mentioned before; and because while exhorting them to name any +others who occurred to them, he had promised them with an oath that they +should not themselves be punished either by fire or sword, he had them +slain by violent blows from balls of lead. After this he also burnt +alive Campensis the soothsayer, not having in his case bound himself by +any oath or promise. + +30. Here it is in my opinion convenient to explain the cause which +brought Aginatius headlong to destruction, a man ennobled by a long race +of ancestors, as unvarying tradition affirms, though no proof of his +ancestral renown was ever substantiated. + +31. Maximin, full of pride and arrogance, and being then also prefect of +the corn-market, and having many encouragements to audacity, proceeded +so far as to show his contempt for Probus, the most illustrious of all +the nobles, and who was governing the provinces with the authority of +prefect of the prætorium. + +32. Aginatius, being indignant at this, and feeling it a hardship that +in the trial of causes Olybrius had preferred Maximin to himself, while +he was actually deputy at Rome, secretly informed Probus in private +letters that the arrogant and foolish man who had thus set himself +against his lofty merits, might easily be put down if he thought fit. + +33. These letters, as some affirm, Probus sent to Maximin, hardened as +he was in wickedness, because he feared his influence with the emperor; +letting none but the bearer know the business. And when he had read +them, the cruel Maximin became furious, and henceforth set all his +engines at work to destroy Aginatius, like a serpent that had been +bruised by some one whom it knew. + +34. There was another still more powerful cause for intriguing against +him, which ultimately became his destruction. For he charged Victorinus, +who was dead, and from whom he had received a very considerable legacy, +with having while alive made money of the decrees of Maximin; and with +similar maliciousness he had also threatened his wife Anepsia with a +lawsuit. + +35. Anepsia, alarmed at this, and to support herself by the aid of +Maximin, pretended that her husband in a will which he had recently +made, had left him three thousand pounds weight of silver. He, full of +covetousness, for this too was one of his vices, demanded half the +inheritance, and afterwards, not being contented with that, as if it +were hardly sufficient, he contrived another device which he looked upon +as both honourable and safe; and not to lose his hold of the handle thus +put in his way for obtaining a large estate, he demanded the daughter of +Anepsia, who was the stepdaughter of Victorinus, as a wife for his son; +and this marriage was quickly arranged with the consent of the woman. + +36. Through these and other atrocities equally lamentable, which threw a +gloom over the whole of the eternal city, this man, never to be named +without a groan, grew by the ruin of numerous other persons, and began +to stretch out his hands beyond the limits of lawsuits and trials: for +it is said that he had a small cord always suspended from a remote +window of the prætorium, the end of which had a loop which was easily +drawn tight, by means of which he received secret informations supported +by no evidence or testimony, but capable of being used to the ruin of +many innocent persons. And he used often to send his officers, Mucianus +and Barbarus, men fit for any deceit or treachery, secretly out of his +house. + +37. Who then, as if bewailing some hardship which as they pretended had +fallen upon them, and exaggerating the cruelty of the judge, with +constant repetition assured those who really lay under execution that +there was no remedy by which they could save themselves except that of +advancing heavy accusation against men of high rank; because if such +men were involved in such accusations, they themselves would easily +procure an acquittal. + +38. In this way, Maximin's implacable temper overwhelmed those yet in +his power; numbers were thrown into prison, and persons of the highest +rank were seen with anxious faces and in mourning attire. Nor ought any +one of them to be blamed for bowing down to the ground in saluting this +monster, when they heard him vociferating with the tone of a wild beast, +that no one could ever be acquitted unless he choose. + +39. For sayings like that, when instantly followed by their natural +result, would have terrified even men like Numa, Pompilius, or Cato. In +fact things went on in such a way that some persons never had their eyes +dried of the tears caused by the misfortunes of others, as often happens +in such unsettled and dangerous times. + +40. And the iron-hearted judge, continually disregarding all law and +justice, had but one thing about him which made him endurable; for +sometimes he was prevailed upon by entreaties to spare some one, though +this too is affirmed to be nearly a vice in the following passage of +Cicero. "If anger be implacable, it is the extreme of severity; if it +yield to entreaties, it is the extreme of levity; though in times of +misfortune even levity is to be preferred to cruelty." + +41. After these events, Leo arrived, and was received as his successor, +and Maximin was summoned to the emperor's court and promoted to the +office of prefect of the prætorium, where he was as cruel as ever, +having indeed greater power of inflicting injury, like a basilisk +serpent. + +42. Just at this time, or not long before, the brooms with which the +senate-house of the nobles was swept out were seen to flower, and this +portended that some persons of the very lowest class would be raised to +high rank and power. + +43. Though it is now time to return to the course of our regular +history, yet without neglecting the proper order of time, we must dwell +on a few incidents, which through the iniquity of the deputy prefects of +the city, were done most unjustly, being in fact done at the word and +will of Maximin by those same officers, who seemed to look on themselves +as the mere servants of his pleasure. + +44. After him came Ursicinus, a man of a more merciful disposition, +who, wishing to act cautiously and in conformity to the constitution, +confronted a man named Esaias with some others who were in prison on a +charge of adultery with Rufina; who had attempted to establish a charge +of treason against Marcellus her husband, formerly in a situation of +high trust. But this act led to his being despised as a dawdler, and a +person little fit to carry out such designs with proper resolution, and +so he was removed from his place of deputy. + +45. He was succeeded by Simplicius of Emona, who had been a +schoolmaster, but was now the assessor of Maximin. After receiving this +appointment, he did not grow more proud or arrogant, but assumed a +supercilious look, which gave a repulsive expression to his countenance. +His language was studiously moderate, while he meditated the most +rigorous proceedings against many persons. And first of all he put +Rufina to death with all the partners of her adultery, and all who were +privy to it, concerning whom Ursicinus, as we have related, had already +made a report. Then he put numbers of others to death, without any +distinction between the innocent and the guilty. + +46. Running a race of bloodshed with Maximin, as if he had, as it were, +been his leader, he sought to surpass him in destroying the noblest +families, imitating Busiris and Antæus of old, and Phalaris, so that he +seemed to want nothing but the bull of Agrigentum. + +47. After these and other similar transactions had taken place, a +certain matron named Hesychia, who was accused of having attempted some +crime, becoming greatly alarmed, and being of a fierce and resolute +disposition, killed herself in the house of the officer to whom she was +given in custody, by muffling her face in a bed of feathers, and +stopping up her nostrils and so becoming suffocated. + +48. To all these calamities another of no less severity was added. For +Eumenius and Abienus, two men of the highest class, having been accused, +during Maximin's term of office, of adultery with Fausiana, a woman of +rank, after the death of Victorinus, under whose protection they were +safe, being alarmed at the arrival of Simplicius, who was as full of +audacity and threats as Maximin, withdrew to some secret hiding place. + +49. But after Fausiana had been condemned they were recorded among the +accused, and were summoned by public edict to appear, but they only hid +themselves the more carefully. And Abrenus was for a very long time +concealed in the house of Anepsia. But as it continually happens that +unexpected accidents come to aggravate the distresses of those who are +already miserable, a slave of Anepsia named Apaudulus, being angry +because his wife had been flogged, went by night to Simplicius, and gave +information of the whole affair, and officers were sent to drag them +both from their place of concealment. + +50. The charge against Abrenus was strengthened by another charge which +was brought against him, of having seduced Anepsia, and he was condemned +to death. But Anepsia herself, to get some hope of saving her life by at +least procuring the delay of her execution, affirmed that she had been +assailed by unlawful arts, and had been ravished in the house of +Aginatius. + +51. Simplicius with loud indignation reported to the emperor all that +had taken place, and as Maximin, who was now at court, hated Aginatius +for the reason which we have already explained, and having his rage +increased against him at the same time that his power was augmented, +entreated with great urgency that he might be sentenced to death; and +such a favour was readily granted to this furious and influential +exciter of the emperor's severity. + +52. Then fearing the exceeding unpopularity which would fall upon him if +a man of patrician family should perish by the sentence of Simplicius, +who was his new assessor and friend, he kept the imperial edict for the +execution by him for a short time, wavering and doubting whom to pitch +upon as a trusty and efficient perpetrator of so atrocious a deed. + +53. At length, as like usually finds like, a certain Gaul of the name of +Doryphorianus was discovered, a man daring even to madness; and as he +promised to accomplish the matter in a short time, he obtained for him +the post of deputy, and gave him the emperor's letter with an additional +rescript; instructing the man, who though savage had no experience in +such matters, how, if he used sufficient speed, he would meet with no +obstacle to his slaying Aginatius; though, if there were any delay, he +would be very likely to escape. + +54. Doryphorianus, as he was commanded, hastened to Rome by rapid +journeys; and while beginning to discharge the duties of his new office, +he exerted great industry to discover how he could put a senator of +eminent family to death without any assistance. And when he learnt that +he had been some time before found in his own house where he was still +kept in custody, he determined to have him brought before him as the +chief of all the criminals, with Anepsia, in the middle of the night; an +hour at which men's minds are especially apt to be bewildered by terror; +as, among many other instances, the Ajax of Homer[165] shows us, when he +expresses a wish rather to die by daylight, than to suffer the +additional terrors of the night. + +55. And as the judge, I should rather call him the infamous robber, +intent only on the service he had promised to perform, carried +everything to excess, having ordered Aginatius to be brought in, he also +commanded the introduction of a troop of executioners; and while the +chains rattled with a mournful sound, he tortured the slaves who were +already exhausted by their long confinement, till they died, in order to +extract from them matter affecting the life of their master; a +proceeding which in a trial for adultery our merciful laws expressly +forbids. + +56. At last, when the tortures which were all but mortal had wrung some +hints from the maid-servant, without any careful examination of the +truth of her words, Aginatius was at once sentenced to be led to +execution, and without being allowed to say a word in his defence, +though with loud outcries he appealed to and invoked the names of the +emperors, he was carried off and put to death, and Anepsia was executed +by a similar sentence. The eternal city was filled with mourning for +these executions which were perpetrated either by Maximin himself when +he was present in the city, or by his emissaries when he was at a +distance. + +57. But the avenging Furies of those who had been murdered were +preparing retribution. For, as I will afterwards relate at the proper +season, this same Maximin giving way to his intolerable pride when +Gratian was emperor, was put to death by the sword of the executioner; +and Simplicius also was beheaded in Illyricum. Doryphorianus too was +condemned to death, and thrown into the Tullian prison, but was taken +from thence by the emperor at his mother's suggestion, and when he was +brought back to his own country was put to death with terrible torments. +Let us now return to the point at which we left our history. Such, +however, was the state of affairs in the city of Rome. + + +II. + +A.D. 369. + +§ 1. Valentinian having several great and useful projects in his head, +began to fortify the entire banks of the Rhine, from its beginning in +the Tyrol to the straits of the ocean,[166] with vast works; raising +lofty castles and fortresses, and a perfect range of towers in every +suitable place, so as to protect the whole frontier of Gaul; and +sometimes, by constructing works on the other side of the river, he +almost trenched upon the territories of the enemy. + +2. At last considering that one fortress, of which he himself had laid +the very foundations, though sufficiently high and safe, yet, being +built on the very edge of the river Neckar, was liable to be gradually +undermined by the violent beating of its waters, he formed a plan to +divert the river itself into another channel; and, having sought out +some workmen who were skilful in such works and collected a strong +military force, he began that arduous labour. + +3. Day after day large masses of oaken beams were fastened together, and +thrown into the channel, and by them huge piles were continually fixed +and unfixed, being all thrown into disorder by the rising of the stream, +and afterwards they were broken and carried away by the current. + +4. However, the resolute diligence of the emperor and the labour of the +obedient soldiery prevailed; though the troops were often up to their +chins in the water while at work; and at last, though not without +considerable risk, the fixed camp was protected against all danger from +the violence of the current, and is still safe and strong. + +5. Joyful and exulting in this success, the emperor, perceiving that the +weather and the season of the year did not allow him any other +occupation, like a good and active prince began to apply his attention +to the general affairs of the republic. And thinking the time very +proper for completing one work which he had been meditating, he began +with all speed to raise a fortification on the other side of the Rhine, +on Mount Piri, a spot which belongs to the barbarians. And as rapidity +of action was one great means of executing this design with safety, he +sent orders to the Duke Arator, through Syagrius, who was then a +secretary, but who afterwards became prefect and consul, to attempt to +make himself master of this height in the dead of the night. + +6. The duke at once crossed over with the secretary, as he was +commanded; and was beginning to employ the soldiers whom he had brought +with him to dig out the foundations, when he received a successor, +Hermogenes. At the very same moment there arrived some nobles of the +Allemanni, fathers of the hostages, whom, in accordance with our treaty, +we were detaining as important pledges for the long continuance of the +peace. + +7. And they, with bended knees entreated him not to let the Romans, with +an improvident disregard of all safety (they whose fortune their +everlasting good faith had raised to the skies), now be misled by a base +error to trample all former agreements under foot, and attempt an act +unworthy of them. + +8. But since it was to no purpose that they used these and similar +arguments, as they were not listened to, and finding that they had no +chance of a conciliatory answer, they reluctantly returned, bewailing +the loss of their sons; and when they were gone, from a secret +hiding-place in a neighbouring hill a troop of barbarians sprang forth, +waiting, as far as was understood, for the answer which was to be given +to the nobles; and attacking our half-naked soldiers, who were carrying +loads of earth, drew their swords and quickly slew them, and with them +the two generals. + +9. Nor was any one left to relate what had happened, except Syagrius, +who, after they were all destroyed returned to the court, where by the +sentence of his offended emperor he was dismissed the service; on which +he retired to his own home; being judged by the severe decision of the +prince to have deserved this sentence because he was the only one who +escaped. + +10. Meanwhile the wicked fury of bands of robbers raged through Gaul to +the injury of many persons; since they occupied the most frequented +roads, and without any hesitation seized upon everything valuable which +came in their way. Besides many other persons who were the victims of +these treacherous attacks, Constantianus, the tribune of the stable, was +attacked by a secret ambuscade and slain; he was a relation of +Valentinian, and the brother of Cerealis and Justina. + +11. In other countries, as if the Furies were stirring up similar evils +to afflict us on every side, the Maratocupreni, those most cruel +banditti, spread their ravages in every direction. They were the natives +of a town of the same name in Syria, near Apamea; very numerous, +marvellously skilful in every kind of deceit, and an object of universal +fear, because, under the character of merchants or soldiers of high +rank, they spread themselves quietly over the country, and then pillaged +all the wealthy houses, villages, and towns which came in their way. + +12. Nor could any one guard against their unexpected attacks; since they +fell not upon any previously selected victim, but in places in various +parts, and at great distances, and carried their devastations wherever +the wind led them. For which reason the Saxons were feared beyond all +other enemies, because of the suddenness of their attacks. They then, +in bands of sworn comrades, destroyed the riches of many persons; and +being under the impulse of absolute fury, they committed the most +mournful slaughters, being not less greedy of blood than of booty. +Nevertheless, that I may not, by entering into too minute details, +impede the progress of my history, it will be sufficient to relate one +destructive device of theirs. + +13. A body of these wicked men assembled in one place, pretending to be +the retinue of a receiver of the revenue, or of the governor of the +province. In the darkness of the evening they entered the city, while +the crier made a mournful proclamation, and attacked with swords the +house of one of the nobles, as if he had been proscribed and sentenced +to death. They seized all his valuable furniture, because his servants, +being utterly bewildered by the suddenness of the danger, did not defend +the house; they slew several of them, and then before the return of +daylight withdrew with great speed. + +14. But being loaded with a great quantity of plunder, since from their +love of booty they had left nothing behind, they were intercepted by a +movement of the emperor's troop, and were cut off and all slain to a +man. And their children, who were at the time very young, were also +destroyed to prevent their growing up in the likeness of their fathers; +and their houses which they had built with great splendour at the +expense of the misery of others, were all pulled down. These things +happened in the order in which they have been related. + + +III. + +§ 1. But Theodosius, a general of very famous reputation, departed in +high spirits from Augusta, which the ancients used to call Londinium, +with an army which he had collected with great energy and skill; +bringing a mighty aid to the embarrassed and disturbed fortunes of the +Britons. His plan was to seek everywhere favourable situations for +laying ambuscades for the barbarians; and to impose no duties on his +troops of the performance of which he did not himself cheerfully set the +example. + +2. And in this way, while he performed the duties of a gallant soldier, +and showed at the same time the prudence of an illustrious general, he +routed and vanquished the various tribes in whom their past security had +engendered an insolence which led them to attack the Roman territories; +and he entirely restored the cities and the fortresses which through the +manifold disasters of the time had been injured or destroyed, though +they had been originally founded to secure the tranquillity of the +country. + +3. But while he was pursuing this career, a great crime was planned +which was likely to have resulted in serious danger, if it had not been +crushed at the very beginning. + +4. A certain man named Valentine, in Valeria of Pannonia, a man of a +proud spirit, the brother-in-law of Maximin, that wicked and cruel +deputy, who afterwards became prefect, having been banished to Britain +for some grave crime, and being a restless and mischievous beast, was +eager for any kind of revolution or mischief, began to plot with great +insolence against Theodosius, whom he looked upon as the only person +with power to resist his wicked enterprise. + +5. But while both openly and privily taking many precautions, as his +pride and covetousness increased, he began to tamper with the exiles and +the soldiers, promising them rewards sufficient to tempt them as far at +least as the circumstances and his enterprise would permit. + +6. But when the time for putting his attempt into execution drew near, +the duke, who had received from some trustworthy quarter information of +what was going on, being always a man inclined to a bold line of +conduct, and resolutely bent on chastising crimes when detected, seized +Valentine with a few of his accomplices who were most deeply implicated, +and handed them over to the general Dulcitius to be put to death. But at +the same time conjecturing the future, through that knowledge of the +soldiers in which he surpassed other men, he forbade the institution of +any examination into the conspiracy generally, lest if the fear of such +an investigation should affect many, fresh troubles might revive in the +province. + +7. After this he turned his attention to make many necessary amendments, +feeling wholly free from any danger in such attempts, since it was plain +that all his enterprises were attended by a propitious fortune. So he +restored cities and fortresses, as we have already mentioned, and +established stations and outposts on our frontiers; and he so completely +recovered the province which had yielded subjection to the enemy, that +through his agency it was again brought under the authority of its +legitimate ruler, and from that time forth was called Valentia, by +desire of the emperor, as a memorial of his success. + +8. The Areans, a class of men instituted in former times, and of whom we +have already made some mention in recording the acts of Constans, had +now gradually fallen into bad practices, for which he removed them from +their stations; in fact they had been undeniably convicted of yielding +to the temptation of the great rewards which were given and promised to +them, so as to have continually betrayed to the barbarians what was done +among us. For their business was to traverse vast districts, and report +to our generals the warlike movements of the neighbouring nations. + +9. In this manner the affairs which I have already mentioned, and others +like them, having been settled, he was summoned to the court, and +leaving the provinces in a state of exultation, like another Furius +Camillus or Papirius Cursor, he was celebrated everywhere for his +numerous and important victories. He was accompanied by a large crowd of +well-wishers to the coast, and crossing over with a fair wind, arrived +at the emperor's camp, where he was received with joy and high praise, +and appointed to succeed Valens Jovinus, who was commander of the +cavalry. + + +IV. + +§ 1. I have thus made a long and extensive digression from the affairs +of the city, being constrained by the abundance of events which took +place abroad; and now I will return to give a cursory sketch of them, +beginning with the tranquil and moderate exercise of the prefect's +authority by Olybrius, who never forgot the rights of humanity, but was +continually anxious and careful that no word or deed of his should ever +be harsh or cruel. He was a merciless punisher of calumnies; he +restrained the exactions of the treasury wherever he could; he was a +careful discriminator of right and wrong; an equitable judge, and very +gentle towards those placed under his authority. + +2. But all these good qualities were clouded by one vice which, though +not injurious to the commonwealth, was very discreditable to a judge of +high rank; namely, that his private life was one of great luxury, +devoted to theatrical exhibitions, and to amours, though not such as +were either infamous or incestuous. + +3. After him Ampelius succeeded to the government of the city; he also +was a man addicted to pleasure, a native of Antioch, and one who from +having been master of the offices was twice promoted to a proconsulship, +and sometime afterwards to that supreme rank, the prefecture. In other +respects he was a cheerful man, and one admirably suited to win the +favour of the people; though sometimes over-severe, without being as +firm in his purposes as might have been wished. Had he been, he would +have corrected, though perhaps not effectually, the gluttonous and +debauched habits which prevailed; but, as it was, by his laxity of +conduct, he lost a glory which otherwise might have been enduring. + +4. For he had determined that no wine-shop should be opened before the +fourth hour of the day; and that none of the common people, before a +certain fixed hour, should either warm water or expose dressed meat for +sale; and that no one of respectable rank should be seen eating in +public. + +5. Since these unseemly practices, and others still worse, owing to long +neglect and connivance, had grown so frequent that even Epimenides of +Crete, if, according to the fabulous story, he could have risen from the +dead and returned to our times, would have been unable by himself to +purify Rome; such deep stains of incurable vices overwhelmed it. + +6. And in the first place we will speak of the faults of the nobles, as +we have already repeatedly done as far as our space permitted; and then +we will proceed to the faults of the common people, touching, however, +only briefly and rapidly on either. + +7. Some men, conspicuous for the illustriousness of their ancestry as +they think, gave themselves immoderate airs, and call themselves +Reburri, and Fabunii, and Pagonii, and Geriones, Dalii, Tarracii, or +Perrasii, and other finely-sounding appellations, indicating the +antiquity of their family. + +8. Some also are magnificent in silken robes, as if they were being led +to execution, or, to speak without words of so unfavourable an omen, as +if after the army had passed they were bringing up the rear, and are +followed by a vast troop of servants, with a din like that of a company +of soldiers. + +9. Such men when, while followed by fifty servants apiece, they have +entered the baths, cry out with threatening voice, "Where are my +people?" And if they suddenly find out that any unknown female slave has +appeared, or any worn-out courtesan who has long been subservient to the +pleasures of the townspeople, they run up, as if to win a race, and +patting and caressing her with disgusting and unseemly blandishments, +they extol her, as the Parthians might praise Semiramis, Egypt her +Cleopatra, the Carians Artemisia, or the Palmyrene citizens Zenobia. And +men do this, whose ancestor, even though a senator, would have been +branded with a mark of infamy because he dared, at an unbecoming time, +to kiss his wife in the presence of their common daughter. + +10. Some of these, when any one meets and begins to salute them, toss +their heads like bulls preparing to butt, offering their flatterers +their knees or hands to kiss, thinking that quite enough for their +perfect happiness; while they deem it sufficient attention and civility +to a stranger who may happen to have laid them under some obligation to +ask him what warm or cold bath he frequents, or what house he lives in. + +11. And while they are so solemn, looking upon themselves as especial +cultivators of virtue, if they learn that any one has brought +intelligence that any fine horses or skilful coachmen are coming from +any place, they rush with as much haste to see them, examine them, and +put questions concerning them, as their ancestors showed on beholding +the twin-brothers Tyndaridæ,[167] when they filled the whole city with +joy by the announcement of that ancient victory. + +12. A number of idle chatterers frequent their houses, and, with various +pretended modes of adulation, applaud every word uttered by men of such +high fortune; resembling the parasites in a comedy, for as they puff up +bragging soldiers, attributing to them, as rivals of the heroes of old, +sieges of cities, and battles, and the death of thousands of enemies, so +these men admire the construction of the lofty pillars, and the walls +inlaid with stones of carefully chosen colours, and extol these grandees +with superhuman praises. + +13. Sometimes scales are sent for at their entertainments to weigh the +fish, or the birds, or the dormice which are set on the table; and then +the size of them is dwelt on over and over again, to the great weariness +of those present, as something never seen before; especially when near +thirty secretaries stand by, with tablets and memorandum books, to +record all these circumstances; so that nothing seems to be wanting but +a schoolmaster. + +14. Some of them, hating learning as they hate poison, read Juvenal and +Marius Maximus[168] with tolerably careful study; though, in their +profound laziness, they never touch any other volumes; why, it does not +belong to my poor judgment to decide. + +15. For, in consideration of their great glories and long pedigrees, +they ought to read a great variety of books; in which, for instance, +they might learn that Socrates, when condemned to death and thrown into +prison, asked some one who was playing a song of the Greek poet +Stesichorus with great skill, to teach him also to do that, while it was +still in his power; and when the musician asked him of what use this +skill could be to him, as he was to die the next day, he answered, "that +I may know something more before I die." + +16. And there are among them some who are such severe judges of +offences, that if a slave is too long in bringing them hot water, they +will order him to be scourged with three hundred stripes; but should he +intentionally have killed a man, while numbers insist that he ought to +be unhesitatingly condemned as guilty, his master will exclaim, "What +can the poor wretch do? what can one expect from a good-for-nothing +fellow like that?" But should any one else venture to do anything of the +kind, he would be corrected. + +17. Their ideas of civility are such that a stranger had better kill a +man's brother than send an excuse to them if he be asked to dinner; for +a senator fancies that he has suffered a terrible grievance, equal to +the loss of his entire patrimony, if any guest be absent, whom, after +repeated deliberations, he has once invited. + +18. Some of them, if they have gone any distance to see their estates in +the country, or to hunt at a meeting collected for their amusement by +others, think they have equalled the marches of Alexander the Great, or +of Cæsar; or if they have gone in some painted boats from Lake Avernus +to Pozzuoli or Cajeta, especially if they have ventured on such an +exploit in warm weather. Where if, amid their golden fans, a fly should +perch on the silken fringes, or if a slender ray of the sun should have +pierced through a hole in their awning, they complain that they were not +born among the Cimmerians. + +19. Then, when they come from the bath of Silvanus, or the waters of +Mamæa, which are so good for the health, after they come out of the +water, and have wiped themselves with cloths of the finest linen, they +open the presses, and take out of them robes so delicate as to be +transparent, selecting them with care, till they have got enough to +clothe eleven persons; and at length, after they have picked out all +they choose, they wrap themselves up in them, and take the rings which +they had given to their attendants to hold, that they might not be +injured by the damp; and then they depart when their fingers are +properly cooled. + +20. Again, if any one having lately quitted the military service of the +emperor, has retired to his home.[169] ... + +21. Some of them, though not many, wish to avoid the name of gamblers, +and prefer to be called dice-players; the difference being much the same +as that between a thief and a robber. But this must be confessed that, +while all friendships at Rome are rather cool, those alone which are +engendered by dice are sociable and intimate, as if they had been formed +amid glorious exertions, and were firmly cemented by exceeding +affection; to which it is owing that some of this class of gamblers live +in such harmony that you might think them the brothers Quintilii.[170] +And so you may sometimes see a man of base extraction, who knows all the +secrets of the dice, as grave as Porcius Cato when he met with a repulse +which he had never expected nor dreamt of, when a candidate for the +prætorship, with affected solemnity and a serious face, because at some +grand entertainment or assembly some man of proconsular rank has been +preferred to himself. + +22. Some lay siege to wealthy men, whether old or young, childless or +unmarried, or even with wives and children (for with such an object no +distinction is ever regarded by them), seeking by most marvellous tricks +to allure them to make their wills; and then if, after observing all the +forms of law, they bequeath to these persons what they have to leave, +being won over by them to this compliance, they speedily die.[171] + +23. Another person, perhaps only in some subordinate office, struts +along with his head up, looking with so slight and passing a glance upon +those with whom he was previously acquainted, that you might fancy it +must be Marcus Marcellus just returned from the capture of Syracuse. + +24. Many among them deny the existence of a superior Power in heaven, +and yet neither appear in public, nor dine, nor think that they can +bathe with any prudence, before they have carefully consulted an +almanac, and learnt where (for example) the planet Mercury is, or in +what portion of Cancer the moon is as she passes through the heavens. + +25. Another man, if he perceives his creditor to be importunate in +demanding a debt, flies to a charioteer who is bold enough to venture on +any audacious enterprise, and takes care that he shall be harassed with +dread of persecution as a poisoner; from which he cannot be released +without giving bail and incurring a very heavy expense. One may add to +this, that he includes under this head a debtor who is only so through +the engagements into which he has entered to avoid a prosecution, as if +he were a real debtor, and that he never lets him go till he has +obtained the discharge of the debt. + +26. On the other side, a wife, who, as the old proverb has it, hammers +on the same anvil day and night, to compel her husband to make his will, +and then the husband is equally urgent that his wife shall do the same. +And men learned in the law are procured on each side, the one in the +bedchamber, and his opponent in the dining-room, to draw up +counter-documents. And under their employ are placed ambiguous +interpreters of the contracts of their victims, who, on the one side, +promise with great liberality high offices, and the funerals of wealthy +matrons; and from these they proceed to the obsequies of the husbands, +giving hints that everything necessary ought to be prepared; and[172] +... as Cicero says, "Nor in the affairs of men do they understand +anything good, except what is profitable; and they love those friends +most (as they would prefer sheep) from whom they expect to derive the +greatest advantage."[173] + +27. And when they borrow anything, they are so humble and cringing, you +would think you were at a comedy, and seeing Micon or Laches; when they +are constrained to repay what they have borrowed, they become so turgid +and bombastic that you would take them for those descendants of +Hercules, Cresphontes and Temenus. This is enough to say of the +senatorial order. + +28. And let us come to the idle and lazy common people, among whom some, +who have not even got shoes boast of high-sounding names; calling +themselves Cimessores, Statarii, Semicupæ, Serapina, or Cicimbricus, or +Gluturiorus, Trulla, Lucanicus, Pordaca, or Salsula,[174] with numbers +of other similar appellations. These men spend their whole lives in +drinking, and gambling, and brothels, and pleasures, and public +spectacles; and to them the Circus Maximus is their temple, their home, +their public assembly; in fact, their whole hope and desire.[175] + +29. And you may see in the forum, and roads, and streets, and places of +meeting, knots of people collected, quarrelling violently with one +another, and objecting to one another, and splitting themselves into +violent parties. + +30. Among whom those who have lived long, having influence by reason of +their age, their gray hairs and wrinkles, are continually crying out +that the republic cannot stand, if in the contest which is about to take +place, the skilful charioteer, whom some individual backs, is not +foremost in the race, and does not dextrously shave the turning-post +with the trace-horses. + +31. And when there is so much ruinous carelessness, when the wished-for +day of the equestrian games dawns, before the sun has visibly risen, +they all rush out with headlong haste, as if with their speed they would +outstrip the very chariots which are going to race; while as to the +event of the contest they are all torn asunder by opposite wishes, and +the greater part of them, through their anxiety, pass sleepless nights. + +32. From hence, if you go to some cheap theatre, the actors on the stage +are driven off by hisses, if they have not taken the precaution to +conciliate the lowest of the people by gifts of money. And if there +should be no noise, then, in imitation of the people in the Tauric +Chersonese, they raise an outcry that the strangers ought to be expelled +(on whose assistance they have always relied for their principal +support), using foul and ridiculous expressions; such as are greatly at +variance with the pursuits and inclinations of that populace of old, +whose many facetious and elegant expressions are recorded by tradition +and by history. + +33. For these clever gentlemen have now devised a new method of +expressing applause, which is, at every spectacle to cry out to those +who appear at the end, whether they are couriers, huntsmen, or +charioteers--in short, to the whole body of actors, and to the +magistrates, whether of great or small importance, and even to nations, +"It is to your school that he ought to go." But what he is to learn +there no one can explain. + +34. Among these men are many chiefly addicted to fattening themselves up +by gluttony, who, following the scent of any delicate food, and the +shrill voices of the women who, from cockcrow, cry out with a shrill +scream, like so many peacocks, and gliding over the ground on tiptoe, +get an entrance into the halls, biting their nails while the dishes are +getting cool. Others fix their eyes intently on the tainted meat which +is being cooked, that you might fancy Democritus, with a number of +anatomists, was gazing into the entrails of sacrificed victims, in order +to teach posterity how best to relieve internal pains. + +35. For the present this is enough to say of the affairs of the city; +now let us return to other events which various circumstances brought to +pass in the provinces. + + +V. + +§ 1. In the third consulship of the emperors a vast multitude of Saxons +burst forth, and having crossed the difficult passage of the ocean, made +towards the Roman frontier by rapid marches, having before often +battened on the slaughter of our men. The first storm of this invasion +fell upon the count Nannenus, who was in command in that district, being +a veteran general of great merit and experience. + +2. He now engaged in battle with a host which fought as if resolved on +death; but when he found that he had lost many of his men, and that he +himself, having been wounded, would be unequal to a succession of +battles, he sent word to the emperor of what was necessary, and +prevailed on him to send Severus, the commander of the infantry, to aid +him at this crisis. + +3. That general brought with him a sufficient body of troops, and when +he arrived in the country he so arrayed his men that he terrified the +barbarians, and threw them into such disorder, even before any battle +took place, that they did not venture to engage him, but, panic-stricken +at the brilliant appearance of the standards and eagles, they implored +pardon and peace. + +4. The question of granting it to them was long discussed, with variety +of opinion, between the Roman commanders; but at last, as it seemed for +the advantage of the republic, a truce was granted, and after they had +agreed to the conditions proposed, one of which was that they should +furnish a number of young men suitable for military service, the Saxons +were permitted to withdraw, but without their baggage, and to return to +their own country. + +5. But when they, being now freed from all fear, were preparing to +return, some of our infantry were sent forward, who secretly laid an +ambuscade in a certain hidden defile, from which they would easily be +able to attack them as they passed. But the matter turned out very +differently from what was expected. + +6. For some of our men being roused by the noise of the Saxons, sprang +from their ambush unseasonably; and being suddenly seen, while they were +hastening to establish themselves, the barbarians, with a terrible yell, +put them to flight. Presently, however, they halted in a solid body, and +being now driven to extremities, were compelled to fight, though their +strength was far from great. The slaughter was great, and they would +have been all cut off to a man, had not a column of cuirassier cavalry, +which had been similarly placed in ambuscade at a place where the road +divided, in order there also to attack the barbarians in their passage, +been roused by the uproar, and come up suddenly. + +7. Then the battle raged more fiercely, and with dauntless breasts the +Romans pressed forward on all sides, and with drawn swords hemmed in +their enemies, and slew them; nor did any of them ever return home, for +not one survived the slaughter. And although an impartial judge will +blame the action as treacherous and disgraceful, still if he weighs all +the circumstances, he will not regret that a mischievous band of robbers +was at length destroyed when such an opportunity presented itself. + +8. After these affairs had been consummated thus successfully, +Valentinian revolving in his mind a great variety of opinions, was +filled with anxious solicitude, considering and contemplating different +measures for breaking the pride of the Allemanni and their king +Macrianus, who were incessantly and furiously disturbing the republic +with their restless movements. + +9. For that ferocious nation, though from its earliest origin +diminished by various disasters, yet continually revives, so that it +might be considered as having been free from attacks for many ages. At +last, after the emperor had considered and approved of one plan after +another, it was finally determined to excite the Burgundians to attack +them, the Burgundians being a warlike people, with an immense population +of active youths, and therefore formidable to all their neighbours. + +10. And the emperor sent repeated letters to their chiefs by some silent +and trustworthy messengers, to urge them to attack the Allemanni at a +certain fixed time, and promising that he likewise would cross the Rhine +with the Roman legions, and attack their forces when in disorder, and +seeking to escape the unexpected attack of the Burgundians. + +11. The letters of the emperor were received with joy, for two reasons: +first, because for many ages the Burgundians had looked upon themselves +as descended from the Romans; and secondly, because they had continual +quarrels with the Allemanni about their salt-pits and their borders. So +they sent against them some picked battalions, which, before the Roman +soldiers could be collected, advanced as far as the banks of the Rhine, +and, while the emperor was engaged in the construction of some +fortresses, caused the greatest alarm to our people. + +12. Therefore, after waiting for some time, Valentinian having failed to +come on the appointed day as promised, and finding that none of his +engagements were performed, they sent ambassadors to the court, +requesting assistance to enable them to return in safety to their own +land, and to save them from exposing their rear unprotected to their +enemies. + +13. But when they perceived that their request was virtually refused by +the excuses and pleas for delay with which it was received, they +departed from the court in sorrow and indignation; and when the chiefs +of the Burgundians received their report, they were very furious, +thinking they had been mocked; and so they slew all their prisoners and +returned to their native land. + +14. Among them their king is called by one general name of "Hendinos," +and according to a very ancient custom of theirs, is deposed from his +authority if under his government the state meets with any disaster in +war; or if the earth fails to produce a good crop; in the same way as +the Egyptians are accustomed to attribute calamities of that kind to +their rulers. The chief priest among the Burgundians is called "the +Sinistus." But he is irremovable and not exposed to any such dangers as +the kings. + +15. Taking advantage of this favourable opportunity, Theodosius, the +commander of the cavalry, passed through the Tyrol and attacked the +Allemanni, who, out of fear of the Burgundians, had dispersed into their +villages. He slew a great number, and took some prisoners, whom by the +emperor's command he sent to Italy, where some fertile districts around +the Po were assigned to them, which they still inhabit as tributaries. + + +VI. + +§ 1. Let us now migrate, as it were, to another quarter of the world, +and proceed to relate the distresses of Tripoli, a province of Africa; +distresses which, in my opinion, even Justice herself must have +lamented, and which burst out rapidly like flames. I will now give an +account both of them and of their causes. + +2. The Asturians are barbarians lying on the frontier of this province, +a people always in readiness for rapid invasions, accustomed to live on +plunder and bloodshed; and who, after having been quiet for a while, now +relapsed into their natural state of disquiet, alleging the following as +the serious cause for their movements. + +3. One of their countrymen, by name Stachao, while freely traversing our +territories, as in time of peace, did some things forbidden by the laws; +the most flagrant of his illegal acts being that he endeavoured, by +every kind of deceit and intrigue, to betray the province, as was shown +by the most undeniable evidence, for which crime he was burnt to death. + +4. To avenge his death, the Asturians, claiming him as their clansman, +and affirming that he had been unjustly condemned, burst forth from +their own territory like so many mad wild beasts during the reign of +Jovian, but fearing to approach close to Leptis, which was a city with +a numerous population, and fortified by strong walls, they occupied the +district around it, which is very fertile, for three days: and having +slain the agricultural population on it, whom terror at their sudden +inroad had deprived of all spirit, or had driven to take refuge in +caves, and burnt a great quantity of furniture which could not be +carried off, they returned home, loaded with vast plunder, taking with +them as prisoner a man named Silva, the principal noble of Leptis, whom +they found with his family at his country house. + +5. The people of Leptis being terrified at this sudden disaster, not +wishing to incur the further calamities with which the arrogance of the +barbarians threatened them, implored the protection of Count Romanus, +who had recently been promoted to the government of Africa. But when he +came at the head of an army, and received their request to come to their +immediate assistance in their distress, he declared that he would not +move a step further unless abundant magazines and four thousand camels +were provided for his troops. + +6. At this answer the wretched citizens were stupefied, and declared to +him, that after the devastations and conflagrations to which they had +been exposed, it was impossible for them to make such exertions, even +for the reparation of the cruel disasters which they had suffered; and, +after waiting forty days there with vain pretences and excuses, the +count retired without attempting any enterprise. + +7. The people of Tripoli, disappointed in their hopes, and dreading the +worst extremities, at their next council day, appointed Severus and +Flaccianus ambassadors to carry to Valentinian some golden images of +victory in honour of his accession to the empire, and to state fully and +boldly to him the miserable distress of the province. + +8. When this step became known, Romanus sent a swift horseman as a +messenger to the master of the offices, Remigius, his own kinsman and +his partner in plunder, bidding him take care, that by the emperor's +decision, the investigation into this matter should be committed to the +deputy and himself. + +9. The ambassadors arrived at the court, and having obtained access to +the emperor, they, in a set speech, laid all their distresses before +him, and presented him with a decree of their council in which the whole +affair was fully set forth. When the emperor had read it, he neither +trusted the report of the master of the offices, framed to defend the +misconduct of the count, nor, on the other hand, did he place confidence +in these men who made a contrary report; but promised a full +investigation into the affair, which however was deferred in the manner +in which high authorities are wont to let such matters give place to +their more pleasant occupations and amusements. + +10. While waiting in suspense and protracted anxiety for some relief +from the emperor's camp, the citizens of Tripoli were again attacked by +troops of the same barbarians, now elated with additional confidence by +their past successes. They ravaged the whole territory of Leptis and +also that of OEa, spreading total ruin and desolation everywhere, and, +at last, retired loaded with an enormous quantity of spoil, and having +slain many of our officers, the most distinguished of whom were +Rusticianus, one of the priests, and the ædile, Nicasius. + +11. This invasion was prevented from being repelled by the fact, that at +the entreaty of the ambassadors, the conduct of the military affairs, +which had at first been intrusted to Ruricius, the president, had been +subsequently transferred to Count Romanus. + +12. So now a new messenger was sent to Gaul with an account of this +fresh disaster; and his intelligence roused the emperor to great anger. +So Palladius, his secretary, who had also the rank of tribune, was sent +at once to liquidate the pay due to the soldiers, who were dispersed +over Africa, and to examine into all that had taken place in Tripoli, he +being an officer whose report could be trusted. + +13. But while all these delays took place from the continual +deliberations held on the case, and while the people of Tripoli were +still waiting for the answer, the Asturians, now still more insolent +after their double success, like birds of prey whose ferocity has been +sharpened by the taste of blood, flew once more to attack them; and +having slain every one who did not flee from the danger, they carried +off all the spoil which they had previously left behind, cutting down +all the trees and vines. + +14. Then a certain citizen named Mychon, a man of high station and +great influence, was taken prisoner in the district outside of the city; +but before they could bind him he gave them the slip, and because an +attack of gout rendered him unable to effect his escape, he threw +himself down a dry well, from which he was drawn up by the barbarians +with his ribs broken, and was conducted near to the gates of the city, +where he was ransomed by the affection of his wife, and was drawn up to +the battlements of the wall by a rope; but two days afterwards he died. + +15. These events encouraged the pertinacity of the invaders, so that +they advanced and attacked the very walls of Leptis, which resounded +with the mournful wailings of the women, who were terrified in an +extraordinary manner and quite bewildered, because they had never before +been blockaded by an enemy. And after the city had been besieged for +eight days continuously, during which many of the besiegers were +wounded, while they made no progress, they retired much discouraged to +their own country. + +16. In consequence of these events, the citizens, being still doubtful +of their safety, and desirous of trying every possible resource, before +the ambassadors who had been first sent had returned, sent Jovinus and +Pancratius to lay before the emperor a faithful account of the +sufferings which they had endured, and which they themselves had seen: +these envoys found the former ambassadors, Severus and Flaccianus, at +Carthage; and on asking them what they had done, they learnt that they +had been referred for a hearing to the deputy and the count. And +immediately after this Severus was attacked by a dangerous illness and +died; but notwithstanding what they had heard, the new ambassadors +proceeded on their journey to the court. + +17. After this, when Palladius arrived in Africa, the count, who knew on +what account he had come, and who had been warned before to take +measures for his own safety, sent orders to the principal officers of +the army by certain persons who were in his secrets, to pay over to him, +as being a person of great influence, and being the person most nearly +connected with the principal nobles of the palace, the chief part of +the money for the soldiers' pay which he had brought over, and they +obeyed him. + +18. So he, having been thus suddenly enriched, reached Leptis; and that +he might arrive at a knowledge of the truth, he took with him to the +districts that had been laid waste, Erecthius and Aristomenes, two +citizens of great eloquence and reputation, who freely unfolded to him +the distress which their fellow-citizens and the inhabitants of the +adjacent districts had suffered. They showed him everything openly; and +so he returned after seeing the lamentable desolation of the province: +and reproaching Romanus for his inactivity, he threatened to report to +the emperor an accurate statement of everything which he had seen. + +19. He, inflamed with anger and indignation, retorted that he also +should soon make a report, that the man who had been sent as an +incorruptible secretary had converted to his own uses all the money +which had been sent out as a donation to the soldiers. + +20. The consequence was that Palladius, being hampered by the +consciousness of his flagitious conduct, proceeded from henceforth in +harmony with Romanus, and when he returned to court, he deceived +Valentinian with atrocious falsehoods, affirming that the citizens of +Tripoli complained without reason. Therefore he was sent back to Africa +a second time with Jovinus, the last of all the ambassadors (for +Pancratius had died at Treves), in order that he, in conjunction with +the deputy, might inquire into everything connected with the second +embassy. And besides this, the emperor ordered the tongues of Erecthius +and Aristomenes to be cut out, because this same Palladius had intimated +that they made some malignant and disloyal statements. + +21. The secretary, following the deputy, as had been arranged, came to +Tripoli. When his arrival was known, Romanus sent one of his servants +thither with all speed, and Cæcilius, his assessor, who was a native of +the province; and by their agency (whether they employed bribery or +deceit is doubtful) all the citizens were won over to accuse Jovinus, +vigorously asserting that he had never issued any of the commands which +he had reported to the emperor; carrying their iniquity to such a +pitch, that Jovinus himself was compelled by them to confess, to his +own great danger, that he had made a false report to the emperor. + +22. When these events were learnt from Palladius on his return, +Valentinian, being always inclined to severe measures, commanded the +execution of Jovinus as the author of such a report, and of Cælestinus, +Concordius, and Lucius, as privy to it, and partners in it. He also +commanded Ruricius, the president, to be put to death for falsehood; the +charge against him being aggravated by the circumstance that his report +contained some violent and intemperate expressions. + +23. Ruricius was executed at Sitifis; the rest were condemned at Utica +by the sentence of the deputy Crescens. But before the death of the +ambassadors, Flaccianus, while being examined by the deputy and the +count, and while resolutely defending his own safety, was assailed with +abuse, and then attacked with loud outcries and violence by the angry +soldiers, and was nearly killed; the charge which they made against him +being that the cause which had prevented the people of Tripoli from +being defended was, that they had refused to furnish necessaries for the +use of any expedition. + +24. On this account he was thrown into prison, till the emperor could be +consulted on his case, and should decide what ought to be done; but his +gaolers were tampered with, as was believed, and he escaped from prison +and fled to Rome, where he concealed himself for some time, till his +death. + +25. In consequence of this memorable catastrophe, Tripoli, which had +been often harassed by external and domestic calamities, brought forward +no further accusations against those who had left it undefended, knowing +that the eternal eye of justice was awake, as well as the avenging +furies of the ambassadors and the president. And a long time afterwards +the following event took place:--Palladius, having been dismissed from +the military service, and stript of all that nourished his pride, +retired into private life. + +26. And when Theodosius, that magnificent commander of armies, came into +Africa to put down Firmus, who was entertaining some pernicious designs, +and, as he was ordered, began to examine the movable effects of +Romanus, he found among his papers a letter of a certain person named +Meterius, containing this passage: "Meterius, to his lord and patron, +Romanus;" and at the end of the letter many expressions unconnected with +its general subject. "Palladius, who has been cashiered, salutes you. He +who says he was cashiered for no other reason than that in the case of +the people of Tripoli he made a false report to the sacred ears." + +27. When this letter was sent to the court and read, Meterius was +arrested by order of Valentinian, and confessed that the letter was his +writing. Therefore Palladius also was ordered to appear, and reflecting +on all the crimes he had committed, while at a halting place on the +road, he watched an opportunity afforded him by the absence of his +guards, as soon as it got dark (for, as it was a festival of the +Christian religion, they passed the whole night in the church), and +hanged himself. + +28. The news of this propitious event--the death of the principal cause +of their sad troubles--being known, Erecthius and Aristomenes, who when +they first heard that their tongues were ordered to be cut out for +sedition, had escaped, now issued from their hiding-places. And when the +emperor Gratian was informed of the wicked deceit that had been +practised (for by this time Valentinian was dead), their fears vanished, +and they were sent to have their cause heard before Hesperus the +proconsul and Flavian the deputy, men whose justice was supported by the +righteous authority of the emperor, and who, after putting Cæcilius to +the torture, learnt from his clear confession that he himself had +persuaded the citizens to bring false accusations against the +ambassadors. These actions were followed by a report which gave the +fullest possible account of all that had taken place, to which no answer +was given. + +29. And that the whole story might want nothing of tragic interest, the +following occurrence also took place after the curtain had fallen. +Romanus went to court, taking with him Cæcilius, with the intent to +accuse the judges as having been unduly biassed in favour of the +province; and being received graciously by Merobaudes, he demanded that +some more necessary witnesses should be summoned. And when they had +come to Milan, and had shown by proofs which seemed correct, though +these were false, that they had been falsely accused, they were +acquitted, and returned home. Valentinian was still alive, when after +these events which we have related, Remigius also retired from public +life, and afterwards hanged himself, as we shall relate in the proper +place. + + +[165] See the Iliad, XVIII. 1. 645, where Ajax prays:-- + + "Lord of earth and air, + O King! O Father, hear my humble prayer! + Dispel this cloud, the light of heaven restore; + Give me to see, and Ajax asks no more! + If Greece must perish, we thy will obey, + But let us perish in the face of day." + +POPE'S _Trans._, 1. 727, etc. + +[166] See Gibbon, vol. III. p. 97 (Bohn's edition). + +[167] This is an allusion to the story of Castor and Pollux bringing +news of the victory gained at the battle of Regillus to Domitius (B.C. +496). The legend adds that they stroked his black beard, which +immediately became red; from which he and his posterity derived the +surname of Ænobarbus.--See Dion. Hal. vi. 13. + +[168] Marius Maximus was an author who wrote an account of the lives of +the Cæsars. + +[169] § 20 is mutilated, so that no sense can be extracted from the +remainder of it. + +[170] Two brothers who had been colleagues in several important offices, +and who were at last put to death together by Commodus. + +[171] The end of § 22 is also mutilated. + +[172] This passage, again, seems hopelessly mutilated. + +[173] Cicero, de Amicitia, c. xxi. + +[174] These are not in reality noble names, but names derived from low +occupations. Trulla is a dish; Salsula, belonging to pickles, &c. + +[175] Compare Juvenal's description of the circumspect in his time:-- + + "Atque duas tantum resarexius optat + Panem et Circenses." + + + + +BOOK XXIX. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Theodorus, the secretary, aims at the imperial authority, and + being accused of treason before Valens at Antioch, and convicted, + is executed, with many of his accomplices.--II. In the East many + persons are informed against as guilty of poisoning and other + crimes; and being condemned (some rightly, some wrongfully), are + executed.--III. In the West many instances occur of the ferocity + and insane cruelty of the emperor Valentinian.--IV. Valentinian + crosses the Rhine on a bridge of boats, but, through the fault of a + soldier, fails in an attempt to surprise Macrianus, the king of the + Allemanni.--V. Theodosius, the commander of the cavalry in Gaul, in + several battles defeats Formus Maorus, the son of Nubelis Regulus, + who had revolted from Valentinian; and, after having driven him to + kill himself, restores peace to Africa.--VI. The Quadi, being + provoked by the wicked murder of their king Galerius, in + conjunction with the Sarmatians, lay waste both the Pannonias and + Valeria with fire and sword, and destroy almost the whole of two + legions--A dissertation on the city prefecture of Claudius. + + +I. + +A.D. 371. + +§ 1. At the conclusion of the winter, Sapor, king of Persia, being full +of cruelty and arrogance from the confidence engendered by his former +battles, having completed his army to its full number, and greatly +strengthened it, sent out a force of cuirassiers, archers, and mercenary +troops, to make an invasion of our territories. + +2. Against this force, Count Trajan and Vadomarius, the ex-king of the +Allemanni, advanced with a mighty army, having been enjoined by the +emperor to remember his orders to act on the defensive rather than on +the offensive against the Persians. + +3. When they arrived at Vagabanta, a place well suited for the +manoeuvres of the legions, they supported against their will a rapid +charge which was made upon them by the squadrons of the enemy, and +retreated with the design not to be the first to slay any of the hostile +soldiers, and not to be looked upon as guilty of having broken the +treaty. At last, under the pressure of extreme necessity, they came to +an engagement with the barbarians, and after having slain a great number +of them, were victorious. + +4. During the cessation of regular operations which ensued, several +slight skirmishes occurred through the impatience of both armies, which +ended with different results; and at last the summer ended, and a truce +was agreed to by common consent, and the two armies separated, though +the generals were violently inflamed against each other. The king of +Parthia, intending to pass the winter at Ctesiphon, returned to his own +home, and the Roman emperor went to Antioch; and while he tarried there, +in complete security from foreign enemies, he had very nearly perished +through domestic treachery, as shall be related in the coming narrative. + +5. A certain Procopius, a restless man, at all times covetous and fond +of disturbances, had persuaded Anatolius and Spudasius, officers about +the palace, who had been ordered to restore what they had appropriated +from the treasury, to bring a plot against the Count Fortunatianus, who +was especially obnoxious as being represented to be the principal +demander of this restitution. He, being a man of naturally harsh temper, +was thereupon inflamed almost to insanity, and exercising the authority +of the office which he filled, he delivered up to trial before the +tribunal of the prefect a person of the lowest birth, named Palladius, +for being a poisoner in the train of Anatolius and Spudasius; +Heliodorus, also an interpreter of the Fates from the events which +happened at any one's birth; with the intent that they should be +compelled by torture to relate all that they knew. + +6. And when they came with rigid scrutiny to inquire into what had been +done or attempted, Palladius boldly exclaimed, that the matters now +under investigation were trivial, and such as might well be passed over; +that he himself, if he might be allowed to speak, could bring forward +some circumstances both formidable and more important, which, having +been prepared with great exertion, would throw everything into +confusion, if they were not provided against beforehand. Being ordered +to explain without fear all he knew, he made a deposition at great +length, affirming that Fidustius the president, and Pergamius and +Irenæus, had secretly learnt, by the detestable arts of magic, the name +of the person who should become emperor after Valens. + +7. Fidustius was at once arrested (for he happened by chance be on the +spot), and being brought secretly before the emperor, when confronted +with the informer, he did not attempt by any denial to throw a doubt on +what was already revealed, but laid open the whole of this wretched +plot; confessing in plain words, that he himself, with Hilarius and +Patricius, men skilled in the art of soothsaying, of whom Hilarius had +filled high offices in the palace, had held consultations about the +future possessors of the empire; that by secret arts they had searched +into the Fates, which had revealed to them the name of an excellent +emperor, admonishing them at the same time that a miserable end awaited +the investigators of these omens.[176] + +8. And while they were hesitating, unable to decide who at that moment +was superior to all other men in vigour of mind, Theodorus appeared to +excel all the rest, a man who had already arrived at the second class of +secretaries. And in truth he deserved the opinion which they entertained +of him; for he was descended from an ancient and illustrious family in +Gaul; he had been liberally educated from his earliest childhood; he was +eminent for modesty, prudence, humanity, courtesy, and literature. He +always appeared superior to the post or place which he was filling, and +was equally popular among high and low, and he was nearly the only man +whose tongue was never unbridled, but who always reflected on what he +was going to say, yet without ever being restrained by any fear of +danger. + +9. Fidustius, who had been tortured so severely that he was at the point +of death, added further, that all that he had now stated he had +communicated to Theodorus by the intervention of Eucærius, a man of +great literary accomplishments, and of very high reputation; indeed, he +had a little time before governed Asia with the title of proprefect. + +10. Eucærius was now thrown into prison; and when a report of all that +had taken place was, as usual, laid before the emperor, his amazing +ferocity burst out more unrestrainedly than ever, like a burning +firebrand, being fed by the base adulation of many persons, and +especially of Modestus, at that time prefect of the prætorium. + +11. He, being every day alarmed at the prospect of a successor, +addressed himself to the task of conciliating Valens, who was of a +rustic and rather simple character, by tickling him with all kinds of +disguised flattery and caresses, calling his uncouth language and rude +expressions "flowers of Ciceronian eloquence." Indeed, to raise his +vanity higher, he would have promised to raise him up to the stars if he +had desired it. + +12. So Theodorus also was ordered to be arrested with all speed at +Constantinople, to which city he had repaired on some private business, +and to be brought to the court. And while he was on his way back, in +consequence of various informations and trials which were carried on day +and night, numbers of people were dragged away from the most widely +separated countries--men eminent for their birth and high authority. + +13. The public prisons, being now completely filled, could no longer +contain the crowds which were confined in them, while private houses +were equally crammed to suffocation, for nearly every one was a +prisoner, and every man shuddered to think when it might be his turn or +that of his nearest relations. + +14. At last Theodorus himself arrived, in deep mourning, and half dead +through fear. And while he was kept concealed in some obscure place in +the vicinity, and all things were being got ready for his intended +examination, the trumpet of civil discord suddenly sounded. + +15. And because that man who knowingly passes over facts appears to be +an equally unfaithful historian with him who invents circumstances which +never happened, we do not deny (what, in fact, is quite undoubted) that +the safety of Valens had often before been attacked by secret +machinations, and was now in the greatest possible danger. And that a +sword, as one may say, was presented to his throat by the officers of +the army, and only averted by Fate, which was reserving him for +lamentable misfortunes in Thrace. + +16. For one day as he was taking a gentle nap in the afternoon, in a +shady spot between Antioch and Seleucia, he was attacked by Sallust, at +that time an officer of the Scutarii; and on various other occasions he +was plotted against by many other persons, from whose treacherous +designs he only escaped because the precise moment of his death had been +determined at his birth by Destiny. + +17. As sometimes happened in the times of the emperors Commodus and +Severus, whose safety was continually assailed with extreme violence, so +that after many various dangers at the hands of their countrymen, the +one was dangerously wounded by a dagger in the amphitheatre, as he +entered it for the purpose of witnessing an entertainment, by a senator +named Quintianus, a man of wicked ambition. The other, when extremely +old, was assailed as he was lying in his bedchamber, by a centurion of +the name of Saturninus, who was instigated to the act by Plautian the +prefect, and would have been killed if his youthful son had not come to +his assistance. + +18. Valens, therefore, was to be excused for taking every precaution to +defend his life, which traitors were endeavouring to take. But it was an +unpardonable fault in him that, through tyrannical pride, he, with haste +and with inconsiderate and malicious persecution, inflicted the same +severities on the innocent as on the guilty, making no distinction +between their deserts; so that while the judges were still doubting +about their guilt, the emperor had made up his mind about their +punishment, and men learnt that they were condemned before they knew +that they were suspected. + +19. But his obstinate resolution was strengthened since it received a +spur from his own avarice, and that also of those who at that time were +about the palace, and were constantly seeking new sources of gain; while +if on any rare occasion any mention was made of humanity, they styled it +slackness; and by their bloodthirsty flatteries perverted the +resolution of a man who bore men's lives on the tip of his tongue, +guiding it in the worst direction, and assailing everything with +unseemly confusion, while seeking to accomplish the total ruin of the +most opulent houses. + +20. For Valens was a man who was especially exposed and open to the +approaches of treacherous advisers, being tainted with two vices of a +most mischievous character: one, that when he was ashamed of being +angry, that very shame only rendered him the more intolerably furious; +and secondly, that the stories which, with the easiness of access of a +private individual, he heard in secret whispers, he took at once to be +true and certain, because his haughty idea of the imperial dignity did +not permit him to examine whether they were true or not. + +21. The consequence was that, under an appearance of clemency, numbers +of innocent men were driven from their homes, and sent into exile: and +their property was confiscated to the public treasury, and then seized +by himself for his private uses; so that the owners, after their +condemnation, had no means of subsistence but such as they could beg; +and were worn out with the distresses of the most miserable poverty. For +fear of which that wise old poet Theognis advises a man to rush even +into the sea.[177] + +22. And even if any one should grant that these sentences were in some +instances right, yet it surely was an odious severity; and from this +conduct of his it was remarked that the maxim was sound which says, +"that there is no sentence more cruel than that which, while seeming to +spare, is still harsh." + +23. Therefore all the chief magistrates and the prefect of the +prætorium, to whom the conduct of these investigations was committed, +having been assembled together, the racks were got ready, and the +weights, and lead, and scourges, and other engines of torture. And all +places resounded with the horrors of the cruel voice of the +executioners, and the cries uttered amid the clanking of chains: "Hold +him!" "Shut him up!" "Squeeze him!" "Hide him!" and other yells uttered +by the ministers of those hateful duties. + +24. And since we saw numbers condemned to death after having endured +cruel torture, everything being thrown into complete confusion as if in +perfect darkness, because the complete recollection of everything which +then took place has in some degree escaped me, I will mention briefly +what I do remember. + +25. Among the first who were summoned before the bench, was Pergamius, +who, as we have already mentioned, was betrayed by Palladius, who +accused him of having arrived at a foreknowledge of certain events +through wicked incantations. As he was a man of exceeding eloquence, and +very likely to say dangerous things, and after some very trivial +interrogatories had been put to him, seeing that the judges were +hesitating what questions to put first and what last, he began himself +to harangue them boldly, and shouting out the names with a loud voice +and without any cessation, he named several thousand persons as +accomplices with himself, demanding that people should be brought +forward to be accused of great crimes from every part of the empire, up +to the very shores of the great Atlantic. The task that he thus seemed +to be putting together for them was too arduous; so they condemned him +to death; and afterwards put whole troops of others to death, till they +came to the case of Theodorus, which was regarded, after the manner of +the Olympian games, as a crowning of the whole. + +26. The same day, among other circumstances, this melancholy event took +place, that Salia, who a little while before had been the chief +treasurer in Thrace, when he was about to be brought out of his prison +to have his cause heard, and was putting on his shoes, as if suddenly +overwhelmed by the dread of his impending destruction, died in the hands +of his gaolers. + +27. So when the court was opened, and when the judges exhibited the +decrees of the law, though, in accordance with the desire of the +emperor, they moderated the severity of the charges brought before them, +one general alarm seized all people. For Valens had now so wholly +departed from justice, and had become so accomplished in the infliction +of injury, that he was like a wild beast in an amphitheatre; and if any +one who had been brought before the court escaped, he grew furious +beyond all restraint. + +28. Presently Patricius and Hilarius were brought before the court, and +were ordered to enumerate the whole series of their actions: and as they +differed a little at the beginning of their statement, they were both +put to the torture, and presently the tripod which they had used was +brought in;[178] and they, being reduced now to the greatest extremity, +gave a true account of the whole affair from the very beginning. And +first Hilarius spoke as follows:-- + +29. "We did construct, most noble judges, under most unhappy auspices, +this little unfortunate tripod which you see, in the likeness of that at +Delphi, making it of laurel twigs: and having consecrated it with +imprecations of mysterious verses, and with many decorations and +repeated ceremonies, in all proper order, we at last moved it; and the +manner in which we moved it as often as we consulted it upon any secret +affair, was as follows:-- + +30. "It was placed in the middle of a building, carefully purified on +all sides by Arabian perfumes; and a plain round dish was placed upon +it, made of different metals. On the outer side of which the +four-and-twenty letters of the alphabet were engraved with great skill, +being separated from one another by distances measured with great +precision. + +31. "Then a person clothed in linen garments, and shod with slippers of +linen, with a small linen cap on his head, bearing in his hand sprigs of +vervain as a plant of good omen, in set verses, propitiated the deity +who presides over foreknowledge, and thus took his station by this dish, +according to all the rules of the ceremony. Then over the tripod he +balanced a ring which he held suspended by a flaxen thread of extreme +fineness, and which had also been consecrated with mystic ceremonies. +And as this ring touched and bounded off from the different letters +which still preserved their distances distinct, he made with these +letters, by the order in which he touched them, verses in the heroic +metre, corresponding to the questions which we had asked; the verses +being also perfect in metre and rhythm; like the answers of the Pythia +which are so celebrated, or those given by the oracles of the Branchidæ. + +32. "Then, when we asked who should succeed the present emperor, since +it was said that it would be a person of universal accomplishments, the +ring bounded up, and touched the two syllables ΘΕΟ; and then +as it added another letter, some one of the bystanders exclaimed that +Theodorus was pointed out by the inevitable decrees of Fate. We asked no +further questions concerning the matter: for it seemed quite plain to us +that he was the man who was intended." + +33. And when he had with this exactness laid the knowledge of this +affair open to the eyes of the judges, he added with great benevolence, +that Theodorus knew nothing of the matter. When after this they were +asked whether the oracles which they had consulted had given them any +foreknowledge of their present sufferings, they repeated these +well-known verses which clearly pronounce that this employment of +investigating those high secrets would cost them their lives. +Nevertheless, they added, that the Furies equally threatened the judges +themselves, and also the emperor, breathing only slaughter and +conflagration against them. It will be enough to quote the three final +verses. + + "Οὐ μὰν νηποινίγε σὸν ἔσσεται αἷμα, καὶ αὐτοῖς + Τισφόνη βαρύμηνις ἐφοπλίζει κανιὸν οῖτον + Ἔν πεδίοισι Μίμαντος ἀλαλεμένοισιν ἄρηα." + + "Thy blood shall not fall unaveng'd on earth: + The fierce Tisiphone still keeps her eye + Fixed on thy slayers; arming evil fate + Against them when arrayed on Mima's plain + They seek to stem the tide of horrid war." + +When he had read these verses they were both tortured with great +severity, and carried away dead. + +34. Afterwards, that the whole workshop where the wickedness had been +wrought might be disclosed to the world, a great number of men of rank +were brought in, among whom were some of the original promoters of the +whole business. And when each, regarding nothing but his own personal +safety, sought to turn the destruction which menaced himself in some +other quarter, by the permission of the judges, Theodorus began to +address them. First of all, he humbled himself with entreaties for +pardon; then being compelled to answer more precisely to the charges +alleged, he proved that he, after having been informed of the whole +affair by Eucærius, was prevented by him from repeating it to the +emperor, as he had often attempted to do: since Eucærius affirmed that +what did not spring from a lawless desire of reigning, but from some +fixed law of inevitable fate, would surely come to pass. + +35. Eucærius, when cruelly tortured, confirmed this statement by his own +confession. His own letters were employed to convict Theodorus, letters +which he had written to Hilarius full of indirect hints, which showed +that he had conceived a sure hope of such events from the prophecies of +the soothsayers; and was not inclined to delay, but was looking for an +opportunity of attaining the object of his desires. + +36. After the establishment of these facts, the prisoners were removed; +and Eutropius, who at that time was governing Asia with the rank of +proconsul, having been involved in the accusation as having been a +partisan of theirs, was nevertheless acquitted; being exculpated by +Pasiphilus the philosopher, who, though cruelly tortured to make him +implicate Eutropius by a wicked lie, could not be moved from his +vigorous resolution and fortitude. + +37. To that was added the philosopher Simonides, a young man, but the +most rigidly virtuous of all men in our time. An information had been +laid against him as having been made aware of what was going on by +Fidustius, as he saw that his cause depended, not on its truth, but on +the will of one man, avowed that he had known all that was alleged, but +had forborne to mention it out of regard for his character for +constancy. + +38. When all these matters had been minutely inquired into, the emperor, +in answer to the question addressed to him by the judges, ordered them +all to be condemned and at once executed: and it was not without +shuddering that the vast populace beheld the mournful spectacle; filling +the whole air with lamentations (since they looked on the misery of each +individual as threatening the whole community with a similar fate) when +the whole number of accused persons, except Simonides, were executed in +a melancholy manner. Simonides being reserved to be burnt alive by the +express command of the savage judge, who was enraged at his dignified +constancy. + +39. And he, abandoning life as an imperious mistress, and defying the +sudden destruction thus coming on him, was burnt without giving any sign +of shrinking; imitating, in his death, the philosopher Peregrinus, +surnamed Proteus, who having determined to quit the world, at the +quinquennial games of Olympia, in the sight of all Greece, mounted a +funeral pile which he had built himself, and was there burnt alive. + +40. After his death, on the ensuing days a vast multitude of almost all +ranks, whose names it would be too arduous a task to enumerate, being +convicted by calumnious accusations, were despatched by the +executioners, after having been first exhausted by every description of +torture. Some were put to death without a moment's breathing-time or +delay, while the question was still being asked whether they deserved to +be punished at all; in fact, men were slaughtered like sheep in all +directions. + +41. After this, innumerable quantities of papers, and many heaps of +volumes were collected, and burnt under the eyes of the judges, having +been taken out of various houses as unlawful books; in order to lessen +the unpopularity arising from so many executions, though in fact, the +greater part of them were books teaching various kinds of liberal +accomplishments, or books of law. + +42. Not long afterwards, Maximus, the celebrated philosopher, a man of +vast reputation for learning, from whose eloquent discourses the emperor +Julian derived his great learning and wisdom, being accused of having +been acquainted with the verses of the oracle mentioned above, and +confessing that he had known something of them, but that he had not +divulged what he knew, as being bound to keep silence out of +consideration for his promise; but adding that he had of his own accord +predicted that those who had consulted the oracle would perish by public +execution, was conducted to Ephesus, his native place, and there +beheaded. And thus by his own forfeiture of life, he found that the +injustice of a judge is the worst of all crimes. + +43. Diogenes, too, a man of noble family, great forensic eloquence and +pre-eminent courtesy, who had some time before been governor of +Bithynia, being entangled in the toils of wicked falsehood, was put to +death in order to afford a pretext for seizing on his ample patrimony. + +44. Alypius also, who had been governor of Britain, a man of most +delightful mildness of temper, and who had lived a tranquil and retired +life (since even against such as him did Injustice stretch forth her +hands), was involved in the greatest misfortune; and was accused with +Hierocles his son, a youth of most amiable disposition of having been +guilty of poisoning, on the unsupported information of a low fellow +named Diogenes, who had been tortured with extreme severity to force him +to make confessions which might please the emperor, or rather, which +might please his accuser. When his limbs could no longer endure their +punishment, he was burnt alive; and Alypius, after having had his +property confiscated, was condemned to banishment, though by an +extraordinary piece of good fortune he received back his son after he +had been condemned, and had actually been led out to suffer a miserable +death. + + +II. + +§ 1. During all this time, Palladius, the original cause of these +miseries, whom we have already spoken of as having been arrested by +Fortunatianus, being, from the lowness of his original condition, a man +ready to fall into every kind of wickedness, by heaping one murder on +another diffused mourning and lamentation over the whole empire. + +2. For being allowed to name any persons he chose, without distinction +of rank, as men contaminated by the practice of forbidden arts, like a +huntsman who has learnt to mark the secret tracks of wild beasts, he +enclosed many victims within his wretched toils, some as being polluted +with a knowledge of poisonings, others as accomplices of those who were +guilty of treason. + +3. And that wives too might not have leisure to weep over the miseries +of their husbands, officers were sent at once to seal up the house of +any one who was condemned, and who, while examining all the furniture, +slipped in among it old women's incantations, or ridiculous love-tokens, +contrived to bring destruction on the innocent; and then, when these +things were mentioned before the bench, where neither law, nor religion, +nor equity were present to separate truth from falsehood, those whom +they thus accused, though utterly void of offence, without any +distinction, youths, and decrepit old men, without being heard in their +defence, found their property confiscated, and were hurried off to +execution in litters. + +4. One of the consequences in the eastern provinces was, that from fear +of similar treatment, people burnt all their libraries; so great was the +terror which seized upon all ranks. For, to cut my story short, at that +time all of us crawled about as if in Cimmerian darkness, in the same +kind of dread as the guest of Dionysius of Sicily; who, while feasting +at a banquet more irksome than famine itself, saw a sword suspended over +his head by a single horsehair. + +5. There was a man named Bassianus, of most noble family, a secretary, +and eminently distinguished for his military services, who, on a charge +of having entertained ambitious projects, and of having sought oracles +concerning their issue, though he declared he had only consulted the +oracles to know the sex of his next child, was saved indeed from death +by the great interest made for him by his relations who protected him; +but he was stripped of all his splendid inheritance. + +6. Amid all this destruction and ruin, Heliodorus, that hellish +colleague of Palladius in bringing about these miseries (being what the +common people call a mathematician), having been admitted into the +secret conferences of the imperial palace, and been tempted by every +kind of caress and cajolery to relate all he knew or could invent, was +putting forth his fatal stings. + +7. For he was carefully feasted on the most delicate food, and furnished +with large sums of money to give to his concubines; and he strutted +about in every direction with a pompous, haughty countenance, and was +universally dreaded. Being the more confident and arrogant, because as +he was high chamberlain, he could go constantly and openly to the +brothels, in which, as he desired, he was freely entertained, while +revealing the edicts of the "parental guardian of the state," which were +destined to be disastrous to many. + +8. And through his means, as an advocate at the bar, Valens was +instructed beforehand in what would most contribute to success--what to +place in the first part of his speech, and with what figures, and what +inventions to work up splendid passages. + +9. And as it would take a long time to enumerate all the devices of that +villain, I will mention this one only, which, in its rash boldness, +assailed the very pillars of the patrician dignity. As I have said +before, he was raised to exceeding arrogance by being admitted to the +secret conferences of the princes; and being, from the lowness of his +birth, a man ready for any wickedness, he laid an information against +that illustrious pair of consuls, the brothers Eusebius and Hypatius, +relations of the former emperor Constantius, as having conceived desires +of a higher fortune, and formed projects and entered into enterprises +for the attainment of supreme power. Adding, in order to procure +additional credit for this falsehood, that Eusebius had had a set of +imperial robes prepared for him. + +10. And when the story had been swallowed willingly, Valens raging and +threatening, a prince who never ought to have had any power at all, +because he thought that everything, even injustice, was in his power, +was incessantly active in causing the production, even from the most +distant countries, of all those whom the lawless accuser in profound +security had insisted ought to be produced; and further commanded a +prosecution to be instituted on the criminal charge. + +11. And when equity had long been tossed to and fro by knotty +difficulties, while that abandoned profligate persisted with unyielding +obstinacy in maintaining the truth of his assertions, while the severest +tortures were unable to wring any confession from the prisoners, and +when every circumstance proved that those eminent men were free from all +consciousness of anything of the kind, still the false accuser was +treated with the same respect as he had previously received. But though +the prisoners were sentenced to exile and a heavy fine, a short time +afterwards they were recalled from banishment, restored to their former +rank and dignity, and their fine repaid. + +12. Still after all these shameful transactions, the prince did not +proceed with any more moderation or decency than before; never +considering that in a wise government it is well not to be too keen in +hunting out offences, even as a means of inflicting distress upon one's +enemies; and that nothing is so unbecoming as to display a bitterness of +disposition in connection with supreme authority. + +13. But when Heliodorus died, whether of sickness or through some +deliberate violence is uncertain (I should not like to say, and I wish +that the facts themselves were equally silent), many men of rank in +mourning robes, among whom were these two brothers of consular rank, by +the express command of the emperor, attended his funeral when he was +borne to his grave by the undertakers. + +14. At that time, and in that place, the whole vileness and stupidity of +the ruler of the empire was publicly displayed. When he was entreated to +abstain from abandoning himself to inconsolable grief, he remained +obstinately inflexible, as if he had stopped his ears with wax to pass +the rocks of the Sirens. + +15. But at last, being overcome by the pertinacious entreaties of his +court, he ordered some persons to go on foot, bareheaded, and with their +hands folded, to the burial-place of this wretched gladiator to do him +honour. One shudders now to recollect the decree by which so many men of +high rank were humiliated, especially some of consular dignity, after +all their truncheons and robes of honour, and all the worldly parade of +having their names recorded in the annals of their nation. + +16. Among them all, our friend Hypatius was most conspicuous, +recommended as he was to every one by the beauty of the virtues which he +had practised from his youth; being a man of quiet and gentle wisdom, +preserving an undeviating honesty combined with the greatest courtesy of +manner, so that he conferred a fresh lustre on the glory of his +ancestors, and was an ornament to his posterity, by the memorable +actions which he performed in the office of prefect, to which he was +twice appointed. + +17. At the same time, this circumstance came to crown the other +splendid actions of Valens, that, while in the case of others he gave +way to such furious violence, that he was even vexed when the severity +of their punishment was terminated by death, yet he pardoned +Pollentianus, the tribune, a man stained with such enormous wickedness, +that at that very time he was convicted on his own confession of having +cut out the womb of a living woman and taken from it her child, in order +to summon forth spirits from the shades below, and to consult them about +a change in the empire. He looked on this wretch with the eye of +friendship, in spite of the murmurs of the whole bench of senators, and +discharged him in safety, suffering him to retain not only his life, but +his vast riches and full rank in the army. + +18. O most glorious learning, granted by the express gift of heaven to +happy mortals, thou who hast often refined even vicious natures! How +many faults in the darkness of that age wouldst thou have corrected if +Valens had ever been taught by thee that, according to the definition of +wise men, empire is nothing else but the care of the safety of others; +and that it is the duty of a good emperor to restrain power, to resist +any desire to possess all things, and all implacability of passion, and +to know, as the dictator Cæsar used to say, "That the recollection of +cruelty was an instrument to make old age miserable!" And therefore that +it behoves any one who is about to pass a sentence affecting the life +and existence of a man, who is a portion of the world, and makes up the +complement of living creatures, to hesitate long and much, and never to +give way to intemperate haste in a case in which what is done is +irrevocable. According to that example well known to all antiquity. + +19. When Dolabella was proconsul in Asia, a matron at Smyrna confessed +that she had poisoned her son and her husband, because she had +discovered that they had murdered a son whom she had had by a former +husband. Her case was adjourned--the council to whom it had been +referred being in doubt how to draw a line between just revenge and +unprovoked crime; and so she was remitted to the judgment of the +Areopagus, those severe Athenian judges, who are said to have decided +disputes even among the gods. They, when they had heard the case, +ordered the woman and her accuser to appear before them again in a +hundred years, to avoid either acquitting a poisoner, or punishing one +who had been the avenger of her kindred. So that is never to be thought +too slow which is the last of all things. + +20. After all the acts of various iniquity already mentioned, and after +even the free persons who were allowed to survive had been thus +shamefully branded, the eye of Justice which never sleeps, that +unceasing witness and avenger of events, became more attentive and +vigilant. For the avenging Furies of those who had been put to death, +working on the everlasting deity with their just complaints, kindled the +torches of war, to confirm the truth of the oracle, which had given +warning that no crime can be perpetrated with impunity. + +21. While the affairs thus narrated were taking place, Antioch was +exposed to great distress through domestic dissension, though not +molested by any attacks on the side of Parthia. But the horrid troop of +Furies, which after having caused all sorts of miseries there, had +quitted that city, now settled on the neck of the whole of Asia, as will +be seen in what follows. + +22. A certain native of Trent, by name Festus, a man of the lowest +obscurity of birth, being a relation of Maximin, and one who had assumed +the manly robe at the same time with himself, was cherished by him as a +companion, and by the will of the Fates had now crossed over to the +east, and having there become governor of Syria, and master of the +records, he set a very good and respectable example of lenity. From this +he was promoted to govern Asia with the rank of proconsul, being thus, +as the saying is, borne on with a fair wind to glory. + +23. And hearing that Maximin caused the destruction of every virtuous +man, he began from this time to denounce his actions as mischievous and +disgraceful. But when he saw that, in consequence of the removal of +those persons whom he had impiously put to death, that wicked man had +arrived at the dignity of prefect, he began to be excited to similar +conduct and similar hopes. And suddenly changing his character like an +actor, he applied himself to the study of doing injury, and went about +with fixed and severe eyes, trusting that he also should soon become a +prefect, if he only polluted himself with the blood of innocent men. + +24. And although there are many and various instances in which, to put +the best construction on them, he acted with great harshness, still it +will be sufficient to enumerate a few, which are notorious and commonly +spoken of, seeming to be done in rivalry of the deeds which were +committed at Rome; for the principle of good and bad actions is the same +everywhere, even if the importance of the circumstances be unequal. + +25. There was a philosopher named Cæranius, a man of no inconsiderable +merit, whom he put to death with the most cruel tortures, and without +any one coming forward to avenge him, because, when writing familiarly +to his wife, he had put a postscript in Greek, "σὺ δὲ νόει, καὶ στέφε τὴν +πύλην."--"Do you take care and adorn the gate," which is a common +expression to let the hearer know that something of importance is +to be done. + +26. There was a certain simple old woman who was wont to cure +intermittent fever by a gentle incantation, whom he put to death as a +witch, after she had been summoned, with his consent, to his daughter, +and had cured her. + +27. There was a certain citizen of high respectability, among whose +papers, when they were searched by the officers on some business or +other, was found the nativity of some one of the name of Valens. He, +when asked on what account he had troubled himself about the star of the +emperor, had repelled the accusation by declaring that it was his own +brother Valens whose nativity was thus found, and when he promised to +bring abundant proof that he had long been dead, the judges would not +wait for evidence of the truth of his assertion, but put him to the +torture and cruelly slew him. + +28. A young man was seen in the bath to put the fingers of each hand +alternately against the marble and against his own chest, and then to +repeat the names of the seven vowels, fancying that a remedy for a pain +in the stomach. For this he was brought before the court, put to the +torture, and then beheaded. + + +III. + +§ 1. These events, and the account of Gaul to which I am now about to +proceed, will cause some interruption to the narration of occurrences in +the metropolis. Among many terrible circumstances, I find that Maximin +was still prefect, who by the wide extent of his power was a cruel +prompter to the emperor, who combined the most unrestrained licence with +unbounded power. Whoever, therefore, considers what I have related, must +also reflect on the other facts which have been passed over, and, like a +prudent man, he will pardon me if I do not record everything which the +wickedness of certain counsels has occasioned by exaggerating every +accusation? + +2. For while severity, the foe of all right principles, increased, +Valentinian, being a man of a naturally ferocious disposition, when +Maximin arrived, having no one to give him good advice or to restrain +him, proceeded, as if hurried on by a storm of winds and waves, to all +kinds of cruel actions; so that when angry, his voice, his countenance, +his gait, and his complexion, were continually changing. And of this +passionate intemperance there are many undoubted instances, of which it +will be sufficient to recount a few. + +3. A certain grown-up youth, of those called pages, having been +appointed to take care of a Spartan hound which had been brought out for +hunting, let him loose before the appointed moment, because the animal, +in its efforts to escape, leaped upon him and bit him; and for this he +was beaten to death and buried the same day. + +4. The master of a workshop, who had brought the emperor an offering of +a breastplate most exquisitely polished, and who was therefore in +expectation of a reward, was ordered by him to be put to death because +the steel was of less weight than he considered requisite.... There was +a certain native, of Epirus, a priest of the Christian religion.[179] +... + +5. Constantianus, the master of the stables, having ventured to change +a few of the horses, to select which he had been despatched to Sardinia, +was, by his order, stoned to death. Athanasius, a very popular +character, being suspected by him of some levity in the language he held +among the common people, was sentenced to be burnt alive if he ever did +anything of the kind again; and not long afterwards, being accused of +having practised magic, he was actually burnt, no pardon being given +even to one whose devices had often afforded the emperor great +amusement. + +6. Africanus was an advocate of great diligence, residing in Rome; he +had had the government of one province, and aspired to that of another. +But when Theodosius, the commander of the cavalry, supported his +petition for such an office, the emperor answered him somewhat rudely, +"Away with you, O count, and change the head of the man who wishes to +have his province changed." And by this sentence a man of great +eloquence perished, only because, like many others, he wished for higher +preferment. + +7. Claudian and Sallust were officers of the Jovian legion, who had +gradually risen to the rank of tribunes; but they were accused by some +man of the most despicable baseness of having said something in favour +of Procopius when he aimed at the imperial power. And when a diligent +investigation into this charge had proved ineffectual, the emperor gave +orders to the captains of the cavalry who had been employed in it, to +condemn Claudian to banishment, and to pass sentence of death upon +Sallust, promising that he would reprieve him as he was being led to +execution. The sentence was passed, as he commanded; but Sallust was not +reprieved, nor was Claudian recalled from exile till after the death of +Valentinian.... After they had been exposed to frequent tortures. + +8. Nevertheless after so many persons had been put to the question, some +of whom had even expired under the severity of their tortures, still no +traces of the alleged crimes could be discovered. In this affair some of +the body-guards, who had been sent to arrest certain persons, were, in a +most unusual manner, beaten to death. + +9. The mind shudders at the idea of recapitulating all that took place, +and, indeed, dreads to do so, lest we should appear to make a business +of pointing out the vices of an emperor who, in other respects, had many +good qualities. But this one circumstance may not be passed over in +silence nor suppressed, that he kept two ferocious she-bears who were +used to eat men; and they had names, Golden Camel and Innocence, and +these beasts he took such care of that he had their dens close to his +bedchamber; and appointed over them trusty keepers who were bound to +take especial care that the odious fury of these monsters should never +be checked. At last he had Innocence set free, after he had seen the +burial of many corpses which she had torn to pieces, giving her the +range of the forests as a reward for her services.[180] + + +IV. + +§ 1. These actions are the most undeniable proof of his habits and real +character; but even the most obstinate disparager of his disposition +cannot deny him the praise of great ability, which never forgot the +interests of the state; especially when it is recollected, that perhaps +it is a greater and more beneficial, as well as difficult, task to +control the barbarians by means of an army, than to repulse them. And +when ... If any one of the enemy moved, he was seen from the +watch-towers and immediately overwhelmed. + +2. But among many other subjects of anxiety, the first and most +important thing of all which was agitated, was to seize alive, either by +force or by trickery, as Julian had formerly taken Vadomarius, +Macrianus, the king, who, through all the changes which had taken place, +had obtained a considerable increase of power, and was rising up against +our people with full-grown strength: and after all the measures had been +taken which seemed required by the affair itself and the time, and when +it had been learnt by information collected from deserters when the +aforesaid monarch could be seized before he expected anything of the +kind, the emperor threw a bridge of boats across the Rhine with as much +secrecy as was possible, lest any one should interpose any obstacle to +such a work. + +3. Severus, who was the commander of the infantry, led the van of the +army towards Wiesbaden; and then, reflecting on his scanty numbers, +halted in consternation; being afraid lest, as he should be quite +unequal to resist them, he should be overwhelmed by the mass of the +hostile army if it attacked him. + +4. And because he suspected that the dealers who brought slaves for +sale, whom he found at that place by chance, would be likely to repair +with speed to the king to tell him what they had seen, he stripped them +of all their merchandise, and then put them all to death. + +5. Our generals were now encouraged by the arrival of more troops; and +speedily contrived a temporary camp, because none of the baggage-beasts +had arrived, nor had any one a proper tent, except the emperor, for whom +one was constructed of carpets and tapestry. Then waiting a short time +on account of the darkness of the night, at daybreak the army quitted +the camp and proceeded onwards; being led by guides well acquainted with +the country. The cavalry, under Theodosius, its captain, was appointed +to lead the way ... was inconvenienced by the great noise made by his +men; whom his repeated commands could not restrain from rapine and +incendiarism. For the guards of the enemy being roused by the crackling +of the flames, and suspecting what had happened, put the king on a light +carriage and carrying him off with great speed, hid him among the +defiles of the neighbouring mountains. + +6. Valentinian being defrauded of the glory of taking him, and that +neither through any fault of his own or of his generals, but through the +insubordination of his soldiers, which was often the cause of great +misfortunes to the Roman state, laid waste all the enemy's country for +fifty miles with fire and sword; and then returned dejected to Treves. + +7. Where like a lion raging for the loss of a deer or a goat and +champing with empty jaws, while fear was breaking and dividing the +enemy, he proceeded to command the Bucenobantes, who are a tribe of the +Allemanni opposite to Mayence, to elect Fraomarius as their king in +place of Macrianus. And, shortly afterwards, when a fresh invasion had +entirely desolated that canton, he removed him to Britain, where he gave +him the authority of a tribune, and placed a number of the Allemanni +under his command, forming for him a division strong both in its +numbers and the excellence of its appointments. He also gave two other +nobles of the same nation, by name Bitheridus and Hortarius, commands in +his army; of whom Hortarius, being betrayed by the information of +Florentius, Duke of Germany, who accused him of having written letters +to Macrianus and the chieftains of the barbarians, containing language +unfavourable to the republic, was put to the torture, and having been +compelled to confess the truth, was condemned to be burnt alive. + + +V. + +§ 1. After this ... it seems best to relate these matters in one +connected narrative, lest the introduction of other affairs wholly +unconnected with them, and which took place at a distance, should lead +to confusion, and prevent the reader from acquiring a correct knowledge +of these numerous and intricate affairs. + +2. Nubel, who had been the most powerful chieftain among the Mauritanian +nations, died, and left several sons, some legitimate, others born of +concubines, of whom Zamma, a great favourite of the Count Romanus, was +slain by his brother Firmus; and this deed gave rise to civil discords, +and wars. For the count being exceedingly eager to avenge his death, +made formidable preparations for the destruction of his treacherous +enemy. And as continual reports declared, most exceeding pains were +taken in the palace, that the despatches of Romanus, which contained +many most unfavourable statements respecting Firmus, should be received +and read by the prince; while many circumstances strengthened their +credibility. And, on the other hand, that those documents which Firmus +frequently, for the sake of his own safety, endeavoured to lay before +the emperor by the agency of his friends, should be kept from his sight +as long as possible, Remigius, a friend and relation of Romanus, and who +was at that time master of the offices, availed himself of other more +important affairs which claimed the emperor's attention to declare that +Firmus's papers were all unimportant and superfluous, only to be read at +a perfectly favourable opportunity. + +3. But when Firmus perceived that these intrigues were going on to keep +his defence out of sight, trembling for fear of the worst if all his +excuses should be passed over, and he himself be condemned as +disaffected and mischievous, and so be put to death, he revolted from +the emperor's authority, and aided ... in devastation.[181] + +4. Therefore, to prevent an implacable enemy from gaining strength by +such an increase of force, Theodosius, the commander of the cavalry, was +sent with a small body of the emperor's guards to crush him at once. +Theodosius was an officer whose virtues and successes were at that time +conspicuous above those of all other men: he resembled those ancient +heroes, Domitius Corbulo, and Lusius; the first of whom was +distinguished by a great number of gallant achievements in the time of +Nero, and the latter of equal reputation under Trajan. + +5. Theodosius marched from Arles with favourable auspices, and having +crossed the sea with the fleet under his command so rapidly that no +report of his approach could arrive before himself, he reached the coast +of Mauritania Sitifensis; that portion of the coast being called, by the +natives, Igilgitanum. There, by accident, he met Romanus, and addressing +him kindly, sent him to arrange the stations of the sentries and the +outposts, without reproaching him for any of the matters for which he +was liable to blame. + +6. And when he had gone to the other province, Mauritania Cæsariensis, +he sent Gildo, the brother of Firmus and Maximus, to assist Vincentius, +who, as the deputy of Romanus, was the partner of his disloyal schemes +and thefts. + +7. Accordingly, as soon as his soldiers arrived, who had been delayed by +the length of the sea voyage, he hastened to Sitifis; and gave orders to +the body-guards to keep Romanus and his attendants under surveillance. +He himself remained in the city, full of embarrassment and anxiety, +working many plans in his mind, while devising by what means or +contrivances he could conduct his soldiers who were accustomed to a cold +climate through a country parched up with heat; or how he could catch +an enemy always on the alert and appearing when least expected, and who +relied more on surprises and ambuscades than a pitched battle. + +8. When news of these facts reached Firmus, first through vague reports, +and subsequently by precise information, he, terrified at the approach +of a general of tried valour, sent envoys and letters to him, confessing +all he had done, and imploring pardon; asserting that it was not of his +own accord that he had been driven on to an action which he knew to be +criminal, but that he had been goaded on by unjust treatment of a +flagitious character, as he undertook to show. + +9. When his letters had been read, and when peace was promised him, and +hostages received from him, Theodosius proceeded to the Pancharian +station to review the legions to which the protection of Africa was +intrusted, and who had been ordered to assemble to meet him at that +place. There he encouraged the hopes of them all by confident yet +prudent language; and then returned to Sitifis, having reinforced his +troops with some native soldiers; and, not being inclined to admit of +any delay, he hastened to regain his camp. + +10. Among many other admirable qualities which he displayed, his +popularity was immensely increased by an order which he issued, +forbidding the army to demand supplies from the inhabitants of the +province; and asserting, with a captivating confidence, that the +harvests and granaries of the enemy were the magazines of the valour of +our soldiers. + +11. Having arranged these matters in a way which caused great joy to the +landowners, he advanced to Tubusuptum, a town near Mons Ferratus, where +he rejected a second embassy of Firmus, because it had not brought with +it the hostages, as had been provided before. From this place, having +made as careful an examination of everything as the time and place +permitted, he proceeded by rapid marches to the Tyndenses and +Massisenses; tribes equipped with light arms, under the command of +Mascizel and Dius, brothers of Firmus. + +12. When the enemy, being quick and active in all their movements, came +in sight, after a fierce skirmish by a rapid interchange of missiles, +both sides engaged in a furious contest; and amid the groans of the +wounded and dying were heard also the wailing and lamentations of +barbarian prisoners. When the battle was over, the territory for a great +distance was ravaged and wasted by fire. + +13. Among the havoc thus caused, the destruction of the farm of Petra, +which was razed to the ground, and which had been originally built by +Salmaces, its owner, a brother of Firmus, in such a manner as to +resemble a town, was especially remarkable. The conqueror was elated at +this success, and with incredible speed proceeded to occupy the town of +Lamforctense, which was situated among the tribes already mentioned; +here he caused large stores of provisions to be accumulated, in order +that if, in his advance into the inland districts, he should find a +scarcity of supplies, he might order them to be brought from this town, +which would be at no great distance. + +14. In the mean time Mascizel, having recruited his forces by +auxiliaries which he had procured from the tribes on the borders, +ventured on a pitched battle with our army, in which his men were +routed, and a great portion of them slain, while he himself was with +difficulty saved from death by the speed of his horse. + +15. Firmus, being weakened by the losses he had sustained in two +battles, and in great perplexity, in order to leave no expedient +untried, sent some priests of the Christian religion with the hostages, +as ambassadors to implore peace. They were received kindly, and having +promised supplies of food for our soldiers, as they were commissioned to +do, they brought back a propitious answer. And then, sending before him +a present, Firmus himself went with confidence to meet the Roman +general, mounted on a horse fitted for any emergency. When he came near +Theodosius, he was awe-struck at the brilliancy of the standards, and +the terrible countenance of the general himself; and leapt from his +horse, and with neck bowed down almost to the ground, he, with tears, +laid all the blame on his own rashness, and entreated pardon and peace. + +16. He was received with a kiss, since such treatment of him appeared +advantageous to the republic; and being now full of joyful hope, he +supplied the army with provisions in abundance; and having left some of +his own relations as hostages, he departed in order, as he promised, to +restore those prisoners whom he had taken at the first beginning of +these disturbances. And two days afterwards, without any delay, he +restored the town of Icosium (of the founders of which we have already +spoken), also the military standards, the crown belonging to the priest, +and all the other things which he had taken, as he had been commanded to +do. + +17. Leaving this place, our general, advancing by long marches, reached +Tiposa, where, with great elation, he gave answers to the envoys of the +Mazices, who had combined with Firmus, and now in a suppliant tone +implored pardon, replying to their entreaties that he would at once +march against them as perfidious enemies. + +18. When he had thus cowed them by the fear of impending danger, and had +commanded them to return to their own country, he proceeded onwards to +Cæsarea, a city formerly of great wealth and importance, of the origin +of which we have given a full account in our description of Africa. When +he reached it, and saw that nearly the whole of it had been destroyed by +extensive conflagrations, and that the flint stones of the streets were +covered with ashes, he ordered the first and second legions to be +stationed there for a time, that they might clear away the heaps of +cinders and ashes, and keep guard there to prevent a fresh attack of the +barbarians from repeating this devastation. + +19. When accurate intelligence of these events had arrived, the +governors of the province and the tribune Vincentius issued forth from +the places of concealment in which they had been lying, and came with +speed and confidence to the general. He saw and received them with joy, +and, while still at Cæsarea, having accurately inquired into every +circumstance, he found that Firmus, while assuming the disguise of an +ally and a suppliant, was secretly planning how, like a sudden tempest, +to overwhelm his army while unprepared for any such danger. + +20. On this he quitted Cæsarea, and went to the town of Sugabarritanum, +which is on the slope of Mount Transcellensis. There he found the +cavalry of the fourth cohort of archers, who had revolted to the +rebels, and in order to show himself content with lenient punishments, +he degraded them all to the lowest class of the service, and ordered +them, and a portion of the infantry of the Constantian legion, to come +to Tigaviæ with their tribunes, one of whom was the man who, for want of +a diadem, had placed a neck-chain on the head of Firmus. + +21. While these events were proceeding, Gildo and Maximus returned, and +brought with them Bellenes, one of the princes of the Mazices, and +Fericius, prefect of that nation, both of whom had espoused the faction +of the disturber of the public peace, leading them forth in chains. + +22. When this order had been executed, Theodosius himself came forth +from his camp at daybreak, and on seeing those men surrounded by his +army, said, "What, my trusty comrades, do you think ought to be done to +these nefarious traitors?" And then, in compliance with the acclamations +of the whole army, who demanded that their treason should be expiated by +their blood, he, according to the ancient fashion, handed over those of +them who had served in the Constantian legion to the soldiers to be put +to death by them. The officers of the archers he sentenced to lose their +hands, and the rest he condemned to death, in imitation of Curio, that +most vigorous and severe general, who by this kind of punishment crushed +the ferocity of the Dardanians, when it was reviving like the Lernæan +hydra. + +23. But malignant detractors, though they praise the ancient deed, +vituperate this one as terrible and inhuman, affirming that the +Dardanians[182] were implacable enemies, and therefore justly suffered +the punishment inflicted on them; but that those soldiers, who belonged +to our own standards, ought to have been corrected with more lenity, for +falling into one single error. But we will remind these cavillers, of +what perhaps they know already, namely, that this cohort was not only an +enemy by its own conduct, but also by the example which it set to +others. + +24. He also commanded Bellenes and Fericius, who have been mentioned +above, and whom Gildo brought with him, to be put to death; and likewise +Curandius, a tribune of the archers, because he had always been +backward in engaging the enemy himself, and had never been willing to +encourage his men to fight. And he did this in recollection of the +principle laid down by Cicero, that "salutary vigour is better than an +empty appearance of clemency." + +25. Leaving Sugabarri, he came to a town called Gallonatis, surrounded +by a strong wall, and a secure place of refuge for the Moors, which, as +such, he destroyed with his battering-rams. And having slain all the +inhabitants, and levelled the walls, he advanced along the foot of Mount +Ancorarius to the fortress of Tingetanum, where the Mazices were all +collected in one solid body. He at once attacked them, and they +encountered him with arrows and missiles of all kinds as thick as hail. + +26. The battle proceeded for some time vigorously on both sides, till at +last the Mazices, though a hardy and warlike race, being unable to +withstand the fury of our men and the shock of their arms, after +sustaining heavy loss, fled in every direction in disgraceful panic; and +as they fled they were put to the sword in great numbers, with the +exception only of those who, contriving to make their escape, +afterwards, by their humble supplications, obtained the pardon which the +times permitted to be granted to them. + +27. Their leader Suggena, who succeeded Romanus, was sent into +Mauritania Sitifensis to establish other garrisons necessary to prevent +that province from being overrun; and he himself, elated by his recent +achievements, marched against the nation of the Musones, who, from a +consciousness of the ravages and murders of which they had been guilty, +had joined the party of Firmus, hoping that he would soon obtain the +chief authority. + +28. Having advanced some distance, he found, near the town of Addense, +that a number of tribes, who, though differing from each other in +manners and language, were all animated with one feeling, in fomenting +the outbreaks of terrible wars, being urged on and encouraged by the +hope of great rewards from a sister of Firmus, named Cyria; who being +very rich, and full of feminine resolution, was resolved to make a great +effort to help her brother. + +29. Therefore Theodosius, fearing to become involved in a war to which +his forces were unequal, and that if he with his small force (for he had +but three thousand five hundred men) should engage with an immense +multitude, he should lose his whole army, at first hesitating between +the shame of retreating and his wish to fight, gradually fell back a +little; but presently was compelled by the overpowering mass of the +barbarians to retire altogether. + +30. The barbarians were exceedingly elated at this event, and pursued +him with great obstinacy.... Being compelled by necessity to fight, he +would have lost all his army and his own life, had not these tumultuous +tribes, the moment they saw a troop of the Mazican auxiliaries, with a +few Roman soldiers in their front, fancied that a numerous division was +advancing to charge them, and in consequence taking to flight, opened to +our men a way of escape which was previously shut against them. + +31. Theodosius now drew off his army in safety; and when he had reached +a town called Mazucanum, he found there a number of deserters, some of +whom he burnt alive, and others he mutilated after the fashion of the +archers whose hands had been cut off. He then proceeded towards Tipata, +which he reached in the course of February. + +32. There he stayed some time deliberating, like that old delayer, +Fabius, on the circumstances around him, desiring to subdue the enemy, +who was not only warlike, but so active as usually to keep out of +bowshot, rather by manoeuvres and skill than by hazardous engagements. + +33. Still he from time to time sent out envoys, skilled in the arts of +persuasion, to the surrounding tribes, the Basuræ, the Cautauriani, the +Anastomates, the Cafaves, the Davares, and other people in their +neighbourhood, trying to bring them over to our alliance, either by +presents, threats, or by promises of pardon for past violence ... +seeking by delays and intrigues to crush an enemy who offered so stout a +resistance to his attacks, just as Pompey in times past had subdued +Mithridates. + +34. On this account Firmus, avoiding immediate destruction, although he +was strengthened by a large body of troops, abandoned the army which he +had collected by a lavish expenditure of money, and as the darkness of +night afforded a chance of concealment, he fled to the Caprarian +mountains, which were at a great distance, and from their precipitous +character inaccessible. + +35. On his clandestine departure, his army also dispersed, being broken +up into small detachments without any leader, and thus afforded our men +an opportunity of attacking their camp. That was soon plundered, and all +who resisted were put to the sword, or else taken prisoners; and then, +having devastated the greater portion of the country, our wise general +appointed prefects of tried loyalty as governors of the different tribes +through which he passed. + +36. The traitor was thrown into consternation by the unexpected boldness +of his pursuit, and with the escort of only a few servants, hoping to +secure his safety by the rapidity of his movements, in order to have +nothing to impede his flight, threw away all the valuable baggage which +he had taken with him. His wife, exhausted with continual toil.... + +37. Theodosius ... showing mercy to none of them, having refreshed his +soldiers by a supply of better food, and gratified them by a +distribution of pay, defeated the Capracienses and Abanni, who were the +next tribes to them, in some unimportant skirmishes, and then advanced +with great speed to the town of ... and having received certain +intelligence that the barbarians had already occupied the hills, and +were spread over the precipitous and broken ground to a great height, so +that they were quite inaccessible to any but natives who were intimately +acquainted with the whole country, he retired, giving the enemy an +opportunity by a truce, short as it was, to receive an important +reinforcement from the Ethiopians in the neighbourhood. + +38. Then having assembled all their united forces, they rushed on to +battle with threatening shouts, and an utter disregard of their +individual safety, compelling him to retreat, full of consternation at +the apparently countless numbers of their army. But soon the courage of +his men revived, and he returned, bringing with him vast supplies, and +with his troops in a dense column, and brandishing their shields with +formidable gestures, he again engaged the enemy in close combat. + +39. The barbarians rattled their arms in a savage manner, and our +battalions, with equal rage, pushed on, they also rattling their shields +against their knees. Still the general, like a cautious and prudent +warrior, aware of the scantiness of his numbers, advanced boldly with +his army in battle array, till he came to a point, at which he turned +off, though still preserving an undaunted front, towards the city of +Contensis, where Firmus had placed the prisoners whom he had taken from +us, as in a remote and safe fortress. He recovered them all, and +inflicted severe punishment, according to his custom, on the traitors +among the prisoners, and also on the guards of Firmus. + +40. While he was thus successful, through the protection of the Supreme +Deity, he received correct intelligence from one of his scouts that +Firmus had fled to the tribe of the Isaflenses. He at once entered their +territory to require that he should be given up, with his brother +Mazuca, and the rest of his relations: and on being refused, he declared +war against the nation. + +41. And after a fierce battle, in which the barbarians displayed +extraordinary courage and ferocity, he threw his army into a solid +circle; and then the Isaflenses were so completely overpowered by the +weight of our battalions pressing on them that numbers were slain; and +Firmus himself, gallantly as he behaved, after exposing himself to +imminent danger by the rashness of his courage, put spurs to his horse, +and fled; his horse being accustomed to make his way with great speed +over the most rocky and precipitous paths. But his brother Mazuca was +taken prisoner, mortally wounded. + +42. It was intended to send him to Cæsarea, where he had left behind him +many records of his atrocious cruelties; but his wounds reopened, and he +died. So his head was cut off, and (his body being left behind) was +conveyed to that city, where it was received with great joy by all who +saw it. + +43. After this our noble general inflicted most severe punishment, as +justice required, on the whole nation of the Isaflenses, which had +resisted till it was thus subdued in war. And he burnt alive one of the +most influential of the citizens, named Evasius, and his son Florus, and +several others, who were convicted on undeniable evidence of having +aided the great disturber of tranquillity by their secret counsels. + +44. From thence Theodosius proceeded into the interior, and with great +resolution attacked the tribe of the Jubileni, to which he heard that +Nubel, the father of Firmus, belonged; but presently he halted, being +checked by the height of the mountains, and their winding defiles. And +though he had once attacked the enemy, and opened himself a further road +by slaying a great number of them, still, fearing the high precipices as +places pre-eminently adapted for ambuscades, he withdrew, and led back +his army in safety to a fortress called Audiense, where the Jesalenses, +a warlike tribe, came over to him, voluntarily promising to furnish him +with reinforcements and provisions. + +45. Our noble general, exulting in this and similarly glorious +achievements, now made the greatest efforts to overtake the original +disturber of tranquillity himself, and therefore having halted for some +time near a fortress named Medianum, he planned various schemes through +which he hoped to procure that Firmus should be given up to him. + +46. And while he was directing anxious thoughts and deep sagacity to +this object, he heard that he had again gone back to the Isaflenses; on +which, as before, without any delay, he marched against them with all +possible speed. Their king, whose name was Igmazen, a man of great +reputation in that country, and celebrated also for his riches, advanced +with boldness to meet him, and addressed him thus, "To what country do +you belong, and with what object have you come hither? Answer me." +Theodosius, with firm mind and stern looks, replied, "I am a lieutenant +of Valentinian, the master of the whole world, sent hither to destroy a +murderous robber; and unless you at once surrender him, as the +invincible emperor has commanded, you also, and the nation of which you +are king, will be entirely destroyed." Igmazen, on receiving this +answer, heaped a number of insulting epithets on our general, and then +retired full of rage and indignation. + +47. And the next morning at daybreak the two armies, breathing terrible +threats against each other, advanced to engage in battle: nearly twenty +thousand barbarians constituted the front of their army, with very large +reserves posted behind, out of sight, with the intention that they +should steal forward gradually, and hem in our battalions with their +vast and unexpected numbers. These were also supported by a great number +of auxiliaries of the Jesalenian tribes, whom we have mentioned as +having promised reinforcements and supplies to ourselves. + +48. On the other side, the Roman army, though scanty in numbers, +nevertheless being full of natural courage, and elated by their past +victories, formed into dense columns, and joining their shields firmly +together, in the fashion of a testudo, planted their feet firmly in +steady resistance; and from sunrise to the close of day the battle was +protracted. A little before evening Firmus was seen mounted on a tall +horse, expanding his scarlet cloak in order to attract the notice of his +soldiers, whom he was exciting with a loud voice at once to deliver up +Theodosius, calling him a ferocious and cruel man--an inventor of +merciless punishments--as the only means of delivering themselves from +the miseries which he was causing them. + +49. This unexpected address only provoked some of our men to fight with +more vigour than ever, but there were others whom it seduced to desert +our ranks. Therefore when the stillness of night arrived, and the +country became enveloped in thick darkness, Theodosius returned to the +fortress of Duodiense, and, recognizing those soldiers who had been +persuaded by fear and Firmus's speech to quit the fight, he put them all +to death by different modes of execution; of some he cut off the right +hands, others he burnt alive. + +50. And conducting himself with ceaseless care and vigilance, he routed +a division of the barbarians who, though afraid to show themselves by +day, ventured, after the moon had set, to make an attempt upon his camp: +some of those who advanced further than their comrades he took +prisoners. Departing from this place, he made a forced march through +by-roads to attack the Jesalensians, who had shown themselves disloyal +and unfaithful. He could not obtain any supplies from their country, but +he ravaged it, and reduced it to complete desolation. Then he passed +through the towns of Mauritania and Cæsarensis, and returned to Sitifis, +where he put to the torture Castor and Martinianus, who had been the +accomplices of Romanus in his rapine and other crimes, and afterwards +burnt them. + +51. After this the war with the Isaflenses was renewed; and in the +first conflict, after the barbarians had been routed with heavy loss, +their king Igmazen, who had hitherto been accustomed to be victorious, +agitated by fears of the present calamity, and thinking that all his +alliances would be destroyed, and that he should have no hope left in +life if he continued to resist, with all the cunning and secrecy that he +could, fled by himself from the battle; and reaching Theodosius, +besought him in a suppliant manner to desire Masilla, the chief +magistrate of the Mazices, to come to him. + +52. When that noble had been sent to him as he requested, he employed +him as his agent to advise the general, as a man by nature constant and +resolute in his plans, that the way to accomplish his purpose would be +to press his countrymen with great vigour, and, by incessant fighting, +strike terror into them; as, though they were keen partisans of Firmus, +they were nevertheless wearied out by repeated disasters. + +53. Theodosius adopted this advice, and, by battle after battle, so +completely broke the spirits of the Isaflenses, that they fell away like +sheep, and Firmus again secretly escaped, and hiding himself for a long +time in out-of-the-way places and retreats, till at last, while +deliberating on a further flight, he was seized by Igmazen, and put in +confinement. + +54. And since he had learnt from Masilla the plans which had been +agitated in secret, he at last came to reflect that in so extreme a +necessity there was but one remedy remaining, and he determined to +trample under foot the love of life by a voluntary death; and having +designedly filled himself with wine till he became stupefied, when, in +the silence of the night, his keepers were sunk in profound slumber, he, +fully awake from dread of the misfortune impending over him, left his +bed with noiseless steps, and crawling on his hands and feet, conveyed +himself to a distance, and then, having found a rope which chance +provided for the end of his life, he fastened it to a nail which was +fixed in the wall, and hanging himself, escaped the protracted +sufferings of torture. + +55. Igmazen was vexed at this, lamenting that he was thus robbed of his +glory, because it had not been granted to him to conduct this rebel +alive to the Roman camp; and so, having received a pledge of the state +for his own safety, through the intervention of Masilla, he placed the +body of the dead man on a camel, and when he arrived at the camp of the +Roman army, which was pitched near the fortress of Subicarense, he +transferred it to a pack-horse, and offered it to Theodosius, who +received it with exultation. + +56. And Theodosius having assembled a crowd of soldiers and citizens, +and having asked them whether they recognized the face of the corpse, +learnt by their answers that there was no question at all that it was +the man; after this he stayed there a short time, and then returned to +Sitifis in great triumph, where he was received with joyful acclamations +of the people of every age and rank. + + +VI. + +§ 1. While Theodosius was thus exerting himself, and toiling in +Mauritania and Africa, the nation of the Quadi was roused to make a +sudden movement. It was a nation now not very formidable, but one which +had formerly enjoyed vast renown for its warlike genius and power, as +its achievements prove, some of which were distinguished for the +rapidity, as well as for the greatness, of their success; instances +are:--Aquileia, which was besieged by them and the Marcomanni; +Opitergium, which was destroyed by them, and many other bloody successes +which were gained in that rapid campaign when the Julian Alps were +passed, and that illustrious emperor Marcus, of whom we have already +spoken, was hardly able to offer them any resistance. And indeed they +had, for barbarians, just ground of complaint. + +2. For Valentinian, who from the beginning of his reign had been full of +a resolution to fortify his frontier, which was a glorious decision, but +one carried too far in this case, ordered a fortress capable of +containing a strong garrison to be constructed on the south side of the +river Danube, in the very territories of the Quadi, as if they were +subject to the Roman authority. The natives, being very indignant at +this, and anxious for their own rights and safety, at first contented +themselves with trying to avert the evil by an embassy and +expostulations. + +3. But Maximin, always eager for any wickedness, and unable to bridle +his natural arrogance, which was now increased by the pride which he +felt in his rank as prefect, reproached Equitius, who at that time was +the commander of the forces in Illyricum, as careless and inactive, +because the work, which it was ordered should be carried on with all +speed, was not yet finished. And he added, as a man guided only by zeal +for the common good, that if the rank of Duke of Valeria were only +conferred on his own little son, Marcellianus, the fortification would +be soon completed without any more pretexts for delay. Both his wishes +were presently granted. + +4. Marcellianus received the promotion thus suggested, and set out to +take possession of his government; and when he reached it, being full of +untimely arrogance, as might be expected from the son of such a father, +without attempting to conciliate those whom false dreams of gain had +caused to quit their native land, he applied himself to the work which +had been recently begun, and had only been suspended to afford an +opportunity for the inhabitants to present petitions against it. + +5. Lastly, when their king Gabinius requested, in a most moderate tone, +that no innovations might be made, he as if intending to assent to his +petition, with feigned courtesy invited him and some other persons to a +banquet; and then as he was departing after the entertainment, +unsuspicious of treachery, he caused him, in infamous violation of the +sacred rights of hospitality, to be murdered. + +6. The report of so atrocious an act was speedily spread abroad, and +roused the indignation of the Quadi and other surrounding tribes, who, +bewailing the death of the king, collected together and sent forth +predatory bands, which crossed the Danube; and when no hostilities were +looked for, attacked the people who were occupied in the fields about +the harvest; and having slain the greater portion of them, carried off +all the survivors to their own country with a great booty of different +kinds of cattle. + +7. And at that time an inexpiable atrocity was very near being +committed, which would have been reckoned among the most disgraceful +disasters which ever happened to the Roman state, for the daughter of +Constantius had a narrow escape of being taken prisoner as she was at +dinner in a hotel called the Pistrensian, when on her way to be married +to Gratian: and she was only saved by the promptitude of Messala the +governor of the province, who, aided by the favour of the propitious +Deity, placed her in a carriage belonging to him as governor, and +conducted her back with all possible speed to Sirmium, a distance of +about twenty-six miles. + +8. By this fortunate chance the royal virgin was delivered from the +peril of miserable slavery; and if she had been taken and her captors +had refused to ransom her, it would have been the cause of terrible +disasters to the republic. After this the Quadi in conjunction with the +Sarmatians, extended their ravages further (since both these tribes were +addicted beyond measure to plunder and robbery), carrying off, men, +women, and cattle, and exulting in the ashes of burnt villas, and in the +misery of the murdered inhabitants, whom they fell upon unexpectedly and +slaughtered without mercy. + +9. All the neighbouring districts were filled with apprehension of +similar evils, and Probus, the prefect of the prætorium, who was at that +time at Sirmium, a man wholly unexperienced in war, being panic-struck +with the calamitous appearance of these new occurrences, and scarcely +able to raise his eyes for fear, was for a long time wavering in doubt +what to do. At first he prepared some swift horses and resolved to fly +the next night; but afterwards, taking advice from some one who gave him +safer counsel, he stayed where he was, but without doing anything. + +10. For he had been assured that all those who were within the walls of +the city would immediately follow him, with the intention of concealing +themselves in suitable hiding-places; and if that had been done, the +city, left without defenders, would have fallen into the hands of the +enemy. + +11. Presently, after his terror had been a little moderated, he applied +himself with some activity to do what was most pressing; he cleared out +the fosses which were choked up with ruins; he repaired the greater +portion of the walls which, through the security engendered by a long +peace, had been neglected, and had fallen into decay, and raised them +again to the height of lofty towers, devoting himself zealously to the +work of building. In this way the work was speedily completed, because +he found that the sums which some time before had been collected for the +erection of a theatre were sufficient for the purpose he was now +pressing forward. And to this prudent measure he added another of like +precaution, in summoning a cohort of archer cavalry from the nearest +station, that it might be at hand to resist a siege should any take +place. + +12. By these barriers, as they may be called, the barbarians were forced +to abandon their design of besieging the city, since they were not +skilful in contests of this kind, and were also hampered by the burden +of their booty; accordingly they turned aside to pursue Equitius. And +when, from the information given them by their prisoners, they learnt +that he had retired to the most remote part of Valeria, they hastened +thither by forced marches, gnashing their teeth, and determined on his +death, because they believed that it was through his means their +innocent king had been circumvented. + +13. And as they were hastening onwards with impetuous and vengeful +speed, they were met by two legions, the Pannonian and the Moesian, +both of approved valour, who, if they had acted in harmony, must +unquestionably have come off victorious. But while they were hastening +onward to attack the barbarians separately, a quarrel arose between them +on the subject of their honour and dignity, which impeded all their +operations. + +14. And when intelligence of this dissension reached the Sarmatians, who +are a most sagacious people, they, without waiting for any regular +signal of battle, attacked the Moesians first; and while the soldiers, +being surprised and in disorder, were slowly making ready their arms, +many of them were killed; on which the barbarians with increased +confidence attacked the Pannonians, and broke their line also; and when +the line of battle was once disordered, they redoubled their efforts, +and would have destroyed almost all of them, if some had not saved +themselves from the danger of death by a precipitate flight. + +15. Amid these calamitous inflictions of adverse fortune, Theodosius the +younger, Duke of Moesia, then in the first bloom of youth, but +afterwards a prince of the highest reputation, in many encounters +defeated and vanquished the Free Sarmatians (so called to distinguish +them from their rebellious slaves), who had invaded our frontier on the +other side, till he exhausted them by his repeated victories; and with +such vigour did he crush the assembled crowds combined to resist his +arms, that he glutted the very birds and beasts with the blood of the +vast numbers justly slain. + +16. Those who remained having lost all their pride and spirit, fearing +lest a general of such evident promptitude and courage should rout or +destroy these invading battalions on the very edge of his frontier, or +lay ambuscades for them in the recesses of the woods, made from time to +time many vain attempts to escape, and at last, discarding all +confidence in battle, they begged indulgence and pardon for their past +hostility. And being thoroughly subdued, they did nothing for some time +contrary to the treaty of peace, being more especially terrified because +a strong force of Gallic soldiers had come to the defence of Illyricum. + +17. While these events were agitating the empire, and while Claudius was +prefect of the Eternal City, the Tiber, which intersects its walls, and +which, after receiving the waters of many drains and copious streams, +falls into the Tyrrhenian Sea, overflowed its banks, in consequence of +an abundance of rain, and extending to a size beyond that of a river, +overwhelmed almost everything with its flood. + +18. All those parts of the city which lie in the plain were under water, +and nothing reared its head above but the hills and other spots of +rising ground, which seemed like islands, out of the reach of present +danger. And, as the vastness of the inundation permitted of no departure +in any direction to save the multitude from dying of famine, great +quantities of provisions were brought in barges and boats. But when the +bad weather abated, and the river which had burst its bounds returned to +its accustomed channel, the citizens discarded all fear, and apprehended +no inconvenience for the future. + +19. Claudius, as a prefect, conducted himself very quietly, nor was any +sedition in his time provoked by any real grievance. He also repaired +many ancient buildings; and among his improvements he built a large +colonnade contiguous to the bath of Agrippa, and gave it the name of The +Colonnade of Success, because a temple bearing that title is close to +it. + + +[176] For an account of this incantation, see Gibbon, Bohn's edition +vol. iii., p. 75, note. + +[177] The lines of Theognis are-- + + "Ἄνδρ’ ὀγαθον πενίη πάντων δάμνησι μάλιστα + Καὶ γήρως πολιοῦ, Κύρνε, καὶ ἠπιάλου + Ἣν δὴ χρὴ φεύγοντα καὶ ες μεγακήτεα ποντον + Ῥίπτειν, καὶ πετρῶν Κύρνε, κατ’ ἠλιβάτων." + +Which may be thus translated:-- + + "Want crushes a brave man far worse than age, + O Cyrnus! or than fever's fiery rage; + Flee, should thy flight beneath the greedy wave, + Or from steep rocks but ope a milder grave." + +[178] For the purposes of divination. + +[179] This sentence is so mutilated as to be unintelligible, but is +filled up by conjecture, founded on a knowledge of the facts, thus: "who +was executed because he had not given up Octavian, who had been formerly +proconsul of Africa, and who had taken refuge in his house when accused +of some crime." + +[180] The end of this chapter also is lost, as are one or two passages +in the beginning of Chapter IV. + +[181] Manuscript imperfect. + +[182] The Dardanians were a Thracian tribe. + + + + +BOOK XXX. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Para, king of Armenia, being summoned by Valens to Tarsus, and + being detained there under pretence of doing him honour, escapes + with three hundred of his countrymen; and having baffled the + sentinels on the roads, he regains his kingdom on horseback; but + not long afterwards he is slain by Duke Trajan at an + entertainment.--II. The embassies of the Emperor Valens and Sapor, + king of Persia, who are at variance about the kingdoms of Armenia + and Hiberia.--III. Valentinian, after having ravaged several + districts of the Allemanni, has a conference with their king + Macrianus, and makes peace with him.--IV. Modestus, the prefect of + the prætorium, diverts Valens from his purpose of sitting as a + judge--A statement of the condition of the bar, of counsel learned + in the law, and the different classes of advocates.--V. + Valentinian, intending to wage war against the Sarmatians and the + Quadi, who had been devastating Pannonia, marches into Illyricum, + and having crossed the Danube, he ravages the territories of the + Quadi, burns their villages, and slaughters the inhabitants, + without regard to age.--VI. Valentinian, while giving answer, in a + great passion, to the ambassadors of the Quadi, who are trying to + excuse their countrymen, bursts a blood-vessel, and dies.--VII. Who + his father was, and what was his conduct as emperor.--VIII. His + cruelty, avarice, envy, and cowardice.--IX. His virtues.--X. + Valentinian the younger, the son of Valentinian, is saluted as + emperor in the camp at Bregetio. + + +I. + +A.D. 374. + +§ 1. While all these difficulties and disturbances had been caused by +the perfidy of the Duke Marcellianus, in treacherously murdering the +king of the Quadi, a terrible crime was committed in the East, where +Para, king of Armenia was also murdered by secret treachery; the +original cause of which wicked action we have ascertained to be this:-- + +2. Some men of perverse temperament, who delighted in public misfortune, +had concocted a number of accusations against this prince for acts which +they imputed to him even when scarcely grown up, and had exaggerated +them to Valens. Among these men was the Duke Terentius, a man who always +walked about with a downcast melancholy look, and throughout his life +was an unwearied sower of discord. + +3. He, having formed a combination with a few people of Para's nation, +whom a consciousness of their own crimes had filled with fear, was +continually harping in his letters to the court on the deaths of Cylax +and Artabannes; adding also that this same young king was full of +haughtiness in all his conduct, and that he behaved with excessive +cruelty to his subjects. + +4. In consequence of these letters, Para, as if it were intended that he +should become a partaker in a treaty of which existing circumstances +required ratification, was invited to court with all the ceremony to +which he was entitled as a king, and then was detained at Tarsus in +Cilicia, with a show of honour, without being able to procure permission +to approach the emperor's camp, or to learn why his arrival had been so +eagerly pressed; since on this point all around him preserved a rigid +silence. At last, however, by means of private information, he learnt +that Terentius was endeavouring by letter to persuade the Roman +sovereign to send without delay another king to Armenia; lest, out of +hatred to Para, and a knowledge of what they had to expect if he +returned among them, his nation, which at present was friendly to us, +should revolt to the Persians, who had long been eager to reduce them +under their power either by violence, fear, or flattery. + +5. Para, reflecting on this warning, foreboded grievous mischief for +himself; and being a man of forethought and contrivance, as he could not +perceive any means of safety, except by a speedy departure, by the +advice of his most trusty friends he collected a body of 300 persons who +had accompanied him from his own country, and with horses selected for +especial speed, acting as men are wont to do under the pressure of +great terror and perplexity, that is to say, with more boldness than +prudence; late one afternoon he started boldly forth at the head of his +escort, formed in one solid body. + +6. And when the governor of the province, having received information +from the officer who kept the gate, came with prompt energy and found +him in the suburb, he earnestly entreated him to remain; but finding +that he could not prevail upon him, he quitted him, for fear of his own +life. + +7. And not long afterwards Para, with his escort, turned back upon the +legion which was pursuing him and on the point of overtaking him, and +pouring arrows upon them as thick as sparks of fire, though designedly +missing them, he put them to flight, filling them, tribune and all, with +complete consternation, so that they returned to the city with greater +speed than they left it. + +8. After this, Para being released from all fear, continued his +laborious and rapid journey for two days and two nights, till he reached +the Euphrates; where, for want of boats, he was unable to pass the +river, which at that place is full of strong currents and too deep to be +forded. His men, not being skilful swimmers, were afraid to trust +themselves to the stream, and he himself showed more hesitation than any +of them; indeed he would have halted there altogether, if while every +one was suggesting one plan or another, he had not at last hit upon the +following expedient, which seemed the safest in this emergency. + +9. They took a number of little beds which they found in the +neighbouring houses, and supported them each on two bladders, of which +there were plenty at hand in the vineyards. And then he and his nobles +placed themselves each on a bed, leading their horses after them, and so +floated down and across the stream; by which contrivance, after extreme +danger, they at last reached the opposite bank. + +10. All the rest swam their horses, and though they were terribly tossed +about and often almost sunk by the eddying stream, still, though much +exhausted by their wetting, they also reached the opposite bank; when +having rested for a short time and refreshed themselves, they proceeded +on their way, travelling further than on the previous days. + +11. When this transaction became known, the emperor being greatly moved +at the king's flight, fearing he would break off his alliance, sent +Daniel and Barzimeres to bring him back; the one being a count, the +other the tribune of the Scutarii, and he placed under their command a +thousand archers prepared for a rapid march by the lightness of their +equipment. + +12. These officers, trusting to their acquaintance with the country, and +feeling sure that Para, as a stranger who was not accustomed to it, +would take a roundabout way, sought to cut him off by marking a short +cut through some valleys; and having divided their forces, they +blockaded the two nearest roads, which were three miles from one +another, in order that whichever Para took he might be caught before he +expected it. But he escaped their manoeuvre in this way:-- + +13. A traveller who happened to be hastening towards the western bank of +the river, saw that the two roads were filled with armed soldiers, and +accordingly quitted this road in order to avoid them, and made his way +by an almost invisible path, which lay between them, overgrown with +bushes and brambles, and fell in with the Armenians, who were by this +time greatly fatigued. He was brought before the king, and, being +admitted by him to a private conference, related to him secretly what he +had seen, and was detained in safety. + +14. And presently, without anything being done to give an idea that they +were alarmed, a horseman was sent secretly to the road on the right side +to prepare a resting-place and some food. And when he had been gone a +little time, another was sent to the left with directions to move with +great rapidity, and do the same thing; neither horseman being aware that +the other had been sent in a different direction. + +15. And after this arrangement had been thus cleverly made, the king +himself, with his escort, retraced his steps through the jungle by which +the traveller had come, taking him for his guide, and passing through +this overgrown path, which was almost too narrow for a loaded horse, he +left the Roman soldiers behind him and so escaped. Meanwhile our +troops, who had made prisoners of the soldiers who had been thus sent +out to impose upon them, waited a long time, while watching for the +king, and stretching out their hands, as one may say, to seize the game +which they expected would rush into them. And while they were thus +waiting for the arrival of Para, he reached his kingdom in safety, where +he was received with great joy by his countrymen, and still remained +unshaken in his fidelity to us, burying in silence the injuries which he +had received. + +16. After this, Daniel and Barzimeres, having been thus balked of their +prey, returned to Tarsus, and were loaded with bitter reproaches as +inactive and blundering officers. But like venomous serpents whose first +spring has failed, they only whetted their deadly fangs, in order at the +first opportunity to inflict all the injury in their power on the king +who had thus escaped them. + +17. And, with a view to palliate the effect of their own mistake, or +rather of the defeat their hopes, which the deeper sagacity of the king +had contrived, they began to fill the emperor's ears, which were at all +times most ready to receive all kinds of reports with false accusations +against Para; pretending that he was skilled in Circean incantations, so +as to be able to transform people, or to afflict them with sickness in a +marvellous manner, adding, moreover, that it was by means of arts of +this kind that he had rendered himself invisible, and that if allowed to +continue changing his shape, he would cause them great trouble, if +permitted to live to boast of having deceived them. + +18. In this manner the hatred which Valens had conceived against him was +increased to an incredible degree; and plan after plan was laid to take +his life, either by force or stratagem; and orders to that effect were +transmitted by secret letters to Trajan, who at that time was in +Armenia, in chief command of the forces in that kingdom. + +19. Trajan, accordingly, began to surround Para with treacherous +blandishments--at one time showing him some letters of Valens, which +appeared to indicate that he was favourably disposed towards the +king--at another, partaking cheerfully of his entertainments, he at +last, with great apparent respect (but in pursuance of a deliberate +plot), invited him to supper. Para, fearing no hostility, came, and was +placed in the seat of honour at the feast. + +20. Exquisite delicacies were set before him, and the splendid palace +resounded with the music of lyres and lutes. Presently, when the wine +had circulated freely, the master of the feast quitted it for a moment, +under pretence of some natural want, and immediately a ferocious +barbarian of the troop they call Supræ[183] was sent in, brandishing a +drawn sword, and with a terribly ferocious countenance, to murder the +youth, against whose escape ample precautions had now been taken. + +21. As soon as he saw him, the king, who as it happened was on the +further side of the couch, jumped up and drew his dagger to defend his +life by every means in his power, but was stabbed in the breast, and +fell like a miserable victim, being shamefully cut to pieces with +repeated blows. + +22. By this foul contrivance was his credulity shamefully deceived at a +feast which is respected even on the coast of the Euxine Sea, under the +eye of the Deity of Hospitality; and the blood of a stranger and a guest +was sprinkled on the splendid tablecloths, and, by its foaming gore, +filled the guests with loathing, who at once dispersed in great horror. +If the dead can feel sorrow or indignation, then let that illustrious +Fabricius Luscinus groan at the evidence of this deed, knowing with what +greatness of mind he himself repelled Demochares (or, as some call him, +Nicias), the king's servant, who in a secret conference offered to +poison Pyrrhus, at that time desolating Italy with cruel wars, and wrote +to the king, bidding him beware of his immediate attendants: such great +reverence in the first ages of antiquity was there for the rights of +hospitality even when claimed by an enemy. + +23. But this modern, strange, and shameful act was excused by the +precedent afforded by the death of Sertorius; though the emperor's +flatterers were perhaps ignorant that, as Demosthenes--the everlasting +glory of Greece--affirms, an unlawful and wicked action cannot be +defended by its resemblance to another crime, or by the fact that that +crime met with impunity. + + +II. + +§ 1. These are the transactions which especially attracted notice in +Armenia; but Sapor, after the last defeat which his troops had +experienced, having heard of the death of Para, whom he had been +earnestly labouring to win to his own alliance, was terribly grieved; +and, as the activity of our army increased his apprehensions, he began +to dread still greater disasters to himself. + +2. He therefore sent Arsaces as his ambassador to the emperor, to advise +him utterly to destroy Armenia as a perpetual cause of trouble; or, if +that plan should be decided against, asking that an end might be put to +the division of Hiberia into two provinces, that the Roman garrison +might be withdrawn, and that Aspacuras, whom he himself had made the +sovereign of the nation, might be permitted to reign with undivided +authority. + +3. To this proposal, Valens replied, that he could not change the +resolutions which had been agreed to by both of them; and, indeed, that +he should maintain them with zealous care. Towards the end of the +winter, letters were received from the king of a tenor very contrary to +this noble determination of Valens, full of vain and arrogant boasting. +For in them Sapor affirmed that it was impossible for the seeds of +discord to be radically extirpated, unless those who had been witnesses +of the peace which had been made with Julian were all collected, some of +whom he knew to be already dead. + +4. After this, the matter becoming a source of greater anxiety, the +emperor, who was more skilful in choosing between different plans than +in devising them himself, thinking that it would be beneficial to the +state in general, ordered Victor, the commander of the cavalry, and +Urbicius, the Duke of Mesopotamia, to march with all speed to Persia, +bearing a positive and plain answer to the proposals of Sapor: namely, +that he, who boasted of being a just man, and one contented with his +own, was acting wickedly in coveting Armenia, after a promise had been +made to its inhabitants, that they should be allowed to live according +to their own laws. And unless the soldiers who had been left as +auxiliaries to Sauromaces returned without hindrance at the beginning of +the ensuing year, as had been agreed, he would compel Sapor by force to +perform what he might at present do with a good grace. + +5. And this embassy would in all respects have been a just and +honourable one, if the ambassadors had not, contrary to their +instructions, accepted some small districts in this same Armenia which +were offered them. When the ambassadors returned, the Surena (the +magistrate who enjoys an authority second only to that of the king) came +with them, offering the said districts to the emperor which our +ambassadors had ventured to take. + +6. He was received with liberality and magnificence; but dismissed +without obtaining what he requested. And then, great preparations were +made for war, in order that, as soon as the severity of the winter was +over, the emperor might invade Persia with three armies; and with this +object he began with all speed to bargain for the services of some +Scythian auxiliaries. + +7. Sapor not having succeeded in obtaining what his vain hopes had led +him to reckon on, and being exasperated in an extraordinary degree, +because he had learnt that our emperor was preparing for an expedition, +nevertheless stifled his wrath, and gave the Surena a commission to +endeavour to recover by force of arms (if any one should resist him) the +territories which Count Victor and Urbicius had accepted, and to press +hostilities with the utmost rigour against those soldiers who had been +destined to aid Sauromaces. + +8. His orders were at once carried out. Nor was it found possible to +prevent or resist their execution, because a new cause of alarm suddenly +came on the republic; as the entire nation of the Goths suddenly burst +into Thrace. The calamities which we experienced from that event shall +be related succinctly in their proper places. + +9. These were the occurrences which took place in the East. And while +they were proceeding, as has been related, the unfailing arm of justice +avenged the losses we had sustained in Africa, and the slaughter of the +ambassadors of Tripoli, whose shades were still wandering about +unavenged. For Justice, though a late, is yet a scrupulous and unerring +discriminator between right and wrong. + +10. Remigius, whom we have already spoken of as favouring Count Romanus, +who had laid waste these provinces after Leo had succeeded him as master +of the offices, retired from office and from public life, and devoted +himself to rural pursuits in his own native district near Mayence. + +11. And while he was living there in security, Maximin, the prefect of +the prætorium, despising him because of his return to a tranquil life, +as he was accustomed to attack everything like a terrible pestilence, +set to work to do him injury by every means in his power. And, in order +to hunt out all his secrets, he seized Cæsarius who had formerly been a +servant of his, and afterwards had become a secretary of the emperor, +and put him to the question, torturing him with great severity to learn +from him what Remigius had done, and how much he had received to induce +him to countenance the wicked actions of Romanus. + +12. But when Remigius heard this in his retreat, to which, as has been +said, he had retired; being oppressed by the consciousness of his acts, +or perhaps letting the dread of false accusation overpower his reason, +he hanged himself. + + +III. + +§ 1. The next year Gratian took Equitius as his colleague in the +consulship; and Valentinian, after desolating some cantons of the +Allemanni, was building a fortress near Basle, which the natives of the +country call Robur, when a report was brought to him from the prefect +Probus with an account of the disasters which had taken place in +Illyricum. + +2. He read them with a very careful examination, as became a prudent +general; and then being filled with anxious thoughts, he sent his +secretary, Paternianus, to that country, to inquire minutely into the +whole details of the affair. And, as he soon received from him a true +account of all that had taken place, he prepared to repair thither +himself with all speed, in order to overwhelm with the first crash of +his arms (such was his idea) the barbarians who had dared to pollute our +frontier. + +3. But, because, as it was now the end of autumn, there were many +serious difficulties in the way, all the nobles in the palace pressed +him earnestly to allow the time between that and the beginning of spring +to be spent in embassies and conferences. Reminding him, in the first +place, that the roads were all impassable through frost--that it was +impossible to find herbage to feed the cattle, or anything else that +would be useful. In the next place, they dwelt on the ferocity of the +chieftains who lay nearest to Gaul, and especially of Macrianus whom +they greatly dreaded, as it was quite certain that he was no friend to +us, and was inclined to attack even the fortified cities. + +4. By recapitulating these arguments, and adding others of great weight, +they brought the emperor to adopt a wiser plan; and immediately (as was +best for the commonwealth) King Macrianus was invited in courteous terms +to come to Mayence; and the event proved that he also was well inclined +to make a treaty. When he arrived, however, it was marvellous how proud +and arrogant he was, as if he were to be the supreme arbiter of the +peace. And on a day appointed for a conference he came, carrying himself +very loftily, to the very brink of the Rhine, and escorted by a number +of his countrymen, who made a great clang with their shields. + +5. On the other hand, the emperor, having embarked in a boat, such as is +used on that river, and likewise escorted by a strong force, came with +great confidence up to the eastern bank, being conspicuous through the +brilliancy of his glittering standards; and when the frantic gestures +and murmurs of the barbarians had been quieted, a long discussion took +place on both sides, and at last a firm friendship was agreed on, and +ratified with an oath. + +6. When this was over, the king, who had been the cause of all these +troubles, retired, quite pacified, and destined to prove an ally to us +for the future; indeed, he afterwards, to the very end of his life, gave +proof of his constancy and resolution to preserve his agreement with +us, by many noble and gallant actions. + +7. But subsequently he died in the country of the Franks, which he had +invaded and ravaged in a most destructive manner, till at last he was +cut off by the manoeuvres of Mellobaudes, the warlike king of that +nation, and slain. After the treaty had thus been solemnly ratified, +Valentinian retired into winter quarters, at Treves. + + +IV. + +§ 1. These were the events which took place in Gaul and the northern +countries. But in the east, while all our foreign affairs were quiet, +great domestic evils were increasing in consequence of the conduct of +the friends and relations of Valens, who had more regard to expediency +than honesty; for they laboured with the utmost diligence to bring about +the recall from his post a judge of rigid probity, who was fond of +deciding lawsuits equitably, out of a fear lest, as in the times of +Julian, when Innocence was allowed a fair opportunity of defending +itself, the pride of the powerful nobles, which was accustomed to roam +at large with unrestrained licence, might again be broken down. + +2. With these and similar objects a great number of persons conspired +together, being led by Modestus, the prefect of the prætorium, who was a +complete slave to the wishes of the emperor's eunuchs, and who, under a +specious countenance, concealed a rough disposition which had never been +polished by any study of ancient virtue or literature, and who was +continually asserting that to look into the minute details of private +actions was beneath the dignity of the emperor. He thinking, as he said, +that the examination of such matters had been imposed on the nobles to +lower their dignity, abstained from all such matters himself, and opened +the doors to plunder; which doors are now daily more and more opened by +the depravity of the judges and advocates, who are all of the same mind, +and who sell the interests of the poor to the military commanders, or +the persons of influence within the palace, by which conduct they +themselves have gained riches and high rank. + +3. This profession of forensic oratory the wisdom of Plato defines to be +πολιτικῆς μορίου εἴδωλον, "the shadow of a fraction of the art +of government," or a fourth part of the art of flattery. But Epicurus +calls it κακοτεχνία, reckoning it among the wicked arts. +Tisias, who has Gorgias of Leontinum on his side, calls the orator an +artist of persuasion. + +4. And while such has been the opinion formed of this art by the +ancients, the craft of some of the Eastern people has put it forward so +as to make it an object of hatred to good men, on which account an +orator it is sometimes restricted to a limited time for speaking.[184] +Therefore, after saying a few words about its unworthy character, as I +found by experience while in those countries, I will return to my +original subject. + +5. The tribunals, in former times, when good taste prevailed, were +greatly adorned by our advocates, when orators of spirited +eloquence--laborious and accomplished scholars--shone pre-eminent in +genius, honesty, fluency, and every kind of embellishment of language. +As Demosthenes, who, as we learn from the Athenian records, whenever he +was going to speak, drew together a vast concourse of people from the +whole of Greece, who assembled for the sake of hearing him; and +Callistratus, who, when summing up his noble pleading on the subject of +Oropus in Euboea, produced such an impression that that same +Demosthenes quitted the academy, at the time when Plato was at its head, +to become his follower. And Hyperides, and Æschines, and Andocides, and +Dinarchus, and Antiphon the Rhamnusian, who is the first man spoken of +in ancient history as having received a fee for pleading a cause. + +6. And similarly among the Romans, the Rutilii, and Galbæ, and Scauri, +men of eminent reputation for purity of life and manners, and for +frugality; and in the succeeding generations, many men of censorian and +consular rank, and even many who had celebrated triumphs, such as the +Crassi, the Antonii, the Philipii, the Scævolæ, and numbers of others, +after having commanded armies with glory, gained victories, and raised +trophies, became eminent also for their civil services to the State, and +won fresh laurels by their noble contests at the bar, thus reaping the +highest honour and glory. + +7. And after them Cicero, the most excellent of them all, who repeatedly +saved many who were in distress from the scorching flames of judgment by +the stream of his imperious eloquence, used to affirm "that if men could +not be defended without their advocate incurring blame, they certainly +could not be carelessly defended without his being guilty of crime." + +8. But now throughout all the regions of the East one may see the most +violent and rapacious classes of men hovering about the courts of law, +and besieging the houses of the rich like Spartan or Cretan hounds, +cunningly pursuing different traces, in order to create the occasion of +a lawsuit. + +9. Of these the chief is that tribe of men who, sowing every variety of +strife and contest in thousands of actions, wear out the doorposts of +widows and the thresholds of orphans, and create bitter hatred among +friends, relations, or connections, who have any disagreement, if they +can only find the least pretext for a quarrel. And in these men, the +progress of age does not cool their vices as it does those of others, +but only hardens and strengthens them. And amid all their plunder they +are insatiable and yet poor, whetting the edge of their genius in order +by their crafty orations to catch the ear of the judges, though the very +title of those magistrates is derived from the name of Justice. + +10. In the pertinacity of these men rashness assumes the disguise of +freedom--headlong audacity seeks to be taken for constancy, and an empty +fluency of language usurps the name of eloquence--by which perverse +arts, as Cicero tells us, it is a shame for the holy gravity of a judge +be deceived. For he says, "And as nothing in a republic ought to be so +incorruptible as a suffrage or a sentence, I do not understand why the +man who corrupts such things with money is to be esteemed worthy of +punishment, while he who perverts them by eloquence receives +commendation. In fact, the latter appears to me to do the most harm, it +being worse to corrupt a judge by a speech than by a bribe, inasmuch as +no one can corrupt a wise man with a bribe, though it is possible that +he may with eloquence." + +11. There is a second class of those men who, professing the science of +the law, especially the interpretation of conflicting and obsolete +statutes, as if they had a bridle placed in their mouths, keep a +resolute silence, in which they rather resemble their shadows than +themselves. These, like those men who cast nativities or interpret the +oracles of the sibyl, compose their countenances to a sort of gravity, +and then make money of their supine drowsiness. + +12. And that they may appear to have a more profound knowledge of the +laws, they speak of Trebatius,[185] and Cascellius, and Alfenus, and of +the laws of the Aurunci and Sicani, which have long become obsolete, and +have been buried ages ago with the mother of Evander. And if you should +pretend to have deliberately murdered your mother, they will promise you +that there are many cases recorded in abstruse works which will secure +your acquittal, if you are rich enough to pay for it. + +13. There is a third class of these men, who, to arrive at distinction +in a turbulent profession, sharpen their mercenary mouths to mystify the +truth, and by prostituting their countenances and their vile barking, +work their way with the public. These men, whenever the judge is +embarrassed and perplexed, entangle the matter before him with further +difficulties, and take pains to prevent any arrangement, carefully +involving every suit in knotty subtleties. When these courts, however, +go on rightly, they are temples of equity; but when they are perverted +they are hidden and treacherous pitfalls, and if any person falls into +them, he will not escape till after many years have elapsed, and till he +himself has been sucked dry to his very marrow. + +14. There is a fourth and last class, impudent, saucy, and ignorant, +consisting of those men who, having left school too early, run about +the corners of cities, giving more time to farces than to the study of +actions and defences, wearing out the doors of the rich, and hunting for +the luxuries of banquets and rich food. + +15. And when they have given themselves up to gains, and to the task of +hunting for money by every means, they incite men, on any small pretence +whatever, to go to law; and if they are permitted to defend a cause, +which but seldom happens, it is not till they are before the judge, +while the pleadings are being recited, that they begin to inquire into +the cause of the client, or even into his name; and then they so +overflow with a heap of unarranged phrases and circumlocutions, that +from the noise and jabber of the vile medley you would fancy you were +listening to Thersites. + +16. But when it happens that they have no single allegation they can +establish, they then resort to an unbridled licence of abuse; for which +conduct they are continually brought to trial themselves, and convicted, +when they have poured ceaseless abuse upon people of honour; and some of +these men are so ignorant that they do not appear ever to have read any +books. + +17. And if in a company of learned men the name of any ancient author is +ever mentioned, they fancy it to be some foreign name of a fish or other +eatable. And if any stranger asks (we will say) for Marcianus, as one +with whom he is as yet unacquainted, they all at once pretend that their +name is Marcianus. + +18. Nor do they pay the slightest attention to what is right; but as if +they had been sold to and become the property of Avarice, they know +nothing but a boundless licence in asking. And if they catch any one in +their toils, they entangle him in a thousand meshes, pretending sickness +by way of protracting the consultations. And to produce an useless +recital of some well-known law, they prepare seven costly methods of +introducing it, thus weaving infinite complications and delays. + +19. And when at last days and months and years have been passed in these +proceedings, and the parties to the suit are exhausted, and the whole +matter in dispute is worn out with age, then these men, as if they were +the very heads of their profession, often introduce sham advocates +along with themselves. And when they have arrived within the bar, and +the fortune or safety of some one is at stake, and they ought to labour +to ward off the sword of the executioner from some innocent man, or +calamity and ruin, then, with wrinkled brows, and arms thrown about with +actor-like gestures, so that they want nothing but the flute of Gracchus +at their back,[186] then they keep silence for some time on both sides; +and at last, after a scene of premeditated collusion, some plausible +preamble is pronounced by that one of them who is most confident in his +power of speaking, and who promises an oration which shall rival the +beauties of the oration for Cluentius[187] or for Ctesiphon.[188] And +then, when all are eager for him to make an end, he concludes his +preamble with a statement that the chief advocates have as yet only had +three years since the commencement of the suit to prepare themselves to +conduct it; and so obtains an adjournment, as if they had to wrestle +with the ancient Antæus, while still they resolutely demand the pay due +for their arduous labours. + +20. And yet, in spite of all these things, advocates are not without +some inconveniences, which are hard to be endured by one who would live +uprightly. For being allured by small gains, they quarrel bitterly among +themselves, and offend numbers by the insane ferocity of their evil +speaking, which they pour forth when they are unable to maintain the +weakness of the case intrusted to them by any sound reasoning. + +21. And sometimes the judges prefer persons who have been instructed in +the quibbles of Philistion or Æsop, to those who come from the school of +Aristides the Just, or of Cato--men who, having bought public offices +for large sums of money, proceed like troublesome creditors to hunt out +every one's fortune, and so shake booty for themselves out of the laps +of others. + +22. Finally, the profession of a lawyer, besides other things, has in it +this, which is most especially formidable and serious (and this quality +is almost innate in all litigants), namely that when, through one or +other out of a thousand accidents, they have lost their action, they +fancy that everything which turned out wrong was owing to the conduct of +their counsel, and they usually attribute the loss of every suit to him, +and are angry, not with the weakness of their case or (as they often +might be) with the partiality of the judge, but only with their +advocate. Let us now return to the affairs from which we have thus +digressed. + + +V. + +A.D. 375. + +§ 1. At the beginning of the spring Valentinian quitted Treves, and +proceeded by rapid marches along the usual high roads. And as he +approached the districts to which he was hastening, he was met by +ambassadors from the Sarmatians, who threw themselves at his feet, and, +with prayers, breathing no wish but for peace, entreated him to be +favourable and merciful to them, assuring him that he would not find any +of their countrymen implicated in or privy to any evil action. + +2. And when they had frequently repeated this assertion, he, after +careful deliberation, made answer to them, that these matters must be +diligently inquired into by an accurate investigation in the district +where they were said to have happened, and if they had happened, then +they must be punished. After this, when he had reached Carnuntum, a city +of the Illyrians, now indeed in a desolate and ruinous state, but still +very convenient for the general of an army, he from thence sallied out +whenever either chance or skill afforded him an opportunity; and by the +possession of this post in their neighbourhood, he checked the inroads +of the barbarians. + +3. And although he alarmed all people in that district, since it was +expected that, as a man of active and impetuous feelings, he would +speedily command the judges to be condemned through whose perfidy or +desertion the empire had been left undefended on the side of the +Pannonians, yet when he did arrive he was so lukewarm in the business +that he neither inquired into the death of the king Gabricius, nor did +he make any accurate investigation into the calamities which the +republic had sustained, with a view to learning through whose misconduct +or negligence these events had taken place; so that in fact, in +proportion as he was severe in punishing his common soldiers, he was +remiss in correcting (even by harsh words) those of higher rank. + +4. The only person whom he pursued with any especial hatred was Probus; +whom from the first moment that he saw him he never ceased to threaten, +and to whom he never softened; and the causes of this animosity against +him were not obscure nor trivial. When Probus first obtained the rank of +prefect of the prætorium, the power of which he was continually +labouring to extend by all kinds of means (I wish I could say by all +lawful means), he forgot the lessons which he might have learnt from his +illustrious descent, and devoted himself more to flattery than to +modesty. + +5. For reflecting on the resolution of the emperor, who considered +nothing but how he might amass money from all quarters, without any +distinction between just and unjust actions; he never attempted to lead +back the misguided prince into the path of equity, as mild and wise +rulers often have done; but rather followed his lead through all his +winding and tortuous paths. + +6. And to this conduct were owing the heavy distresses which afflicted +the emperor's subjects; the ruinous titles, privileges, and exemptions, +which alike ate up the fortunes of poor and rich; under different +pretexts which were produced, each more powerful than the other, as the +fruit of a long experience in injuring. Lastly, the burdens of all +tributes and taxes were augmented in a manifold degree; and drove some +of the highest nobles from fear of the worst to emigrate from their +homes; some also after being drained to the utmost by the cruelty of the +revenue officers, as they really had nothing more to give, were thrown +into prison, of which they became permanent inmates. And some, becoming +weary of life and light, sought a release from their miseries by hanging +themselves. + +7. Unvarying report made known the treacherous and inhuman character of +these transactions; but Valentinian, as if his ears had been stopped +with wax, was ignorant of the report, being eager to acquire money +indiscriminately, even from the most trivial sources, and thinking only +of what was presented to him; though he would perhaps have spared the +Pannonian provinces, if he had earlier known of these melancholy sources +of gain with which he became acquainted when it was too late, owing to +the following occurrence:-- + +8. Following the example of the inhabitants of other provinces, the +people of Epirus were compelled by the prefect to send envoys to thank +him, and a certain philosopher named Iphicles, a man of tried courage +and magnanimity (who was very unwilling to undertake the commission), +was elected to discharge that duty. + +9. And when he saw the emperor, having been recognized by him and +questioned as to the cause of his arrival, he answered in Greek; and, +like a philosopher who professed himself a votary of truth, when the +prince inquired more precisely, if those who had sent him did really +think well of the prefect, he replied, that they had sent him against +their will, and with bitter groans. + +10. The emperor, stricken by this speech as by an arrow, now +investigated his actions like a sagacious beast, inquiring of him, in +his own language, about different persons whom he knew: for instance, +where was this man or that man (mentioning some one of high reputation +and honour, or some very rich man, or some other person well known as +having filled some high office). And when he learnt that this man had +been hanged, that that one had been banished beyond the seas, and that a +third had killed himself or had expired under torture, he became +furiously angry, while Leo, who was at that time master of the offices, +added fuel to his passion--O shameful villany! Leo, it should be borne +in mind, was at this very time secretly aiming at the prefecture; and +had he obtained that office and authority, he would undoubtedly have +governed with such audacity, that the administration of Probus would in +comparison have been extolled as a model of justice and humanity. + +11. So the emperor remained at Carnuntum; and during the three summer +months he occupied himself uninterruptedly in preparing arms and +magazines, in the hope that chance might afford him a good opportunity +of making use of them; intending to take a favourable season for +attacking the Quadi, who had lately caused an atrocious disturbance; +since in their chief town, Faustinus, the nephew of Juventius, the +prefect of the prætorium, who had attained the rank of military +secretary, was tortured and then put to death by the executioners, under +the very eyes of Probus; having been accused of slaying an ass in some +magical operation, as his enemies asserted; but he himself said it was +to use for strengthening his hair, which was beginning to fall off. + +12. Another charge was also maliciously brought against him, namely, +that when a person of the name of Nigrinus had in jest asked him to make +him a secretary, he replied in ridicule of the man and his petition, +"Make me emperor if you wish to obtain that." And because some gave an +unfair interpretation to this jest, Faustinus himself, and Nigrinus, and +several other persons were put to death. + +13. Accordingly, having sent forward Merobaudes with a strong force of +infantry under his command, and Sebastian for his colleague, to ravage +the districts of the barbarians with fire and sword, Valentinian +speedily moved his camp to Buda; and having with great rapidity made a +bridge of boats in order to guard against any sudden mishap, he crossed +the river in another place and entered the territories of the Quadi, who +from their precipitous mountains were watching for his approach; the +main body of their nation, in their perplexity and uncertainty of what +might happen, had taken refuge with their families in those hills; but +were overwhelmed with consternation when they unexpectedly saw the +imperial standards in their country. + +14. Valentinian advanced with as much rapidity as he could, slaughtering +every one of whatever age whom his sudden inroad surprised straggling +about the country, and after burning all their dwellings, he returned +safe without having experienced the slightest loss. And then, as autumn +was now on the wane, he stopped awhile at Buda, seeking where best to +fix his winter quarters in a region subject to very rigorous frost. And +he could not find any suitable place except Sabaria, though that town +was at the time in a very bad state of defence, having been ruined by +frequent sieges. + +15. Accordingly when he reached this place, though it was one of great +consequence to him, he remained there but a very short time; and having +left it, he marched along the bank of the river, which he strengthened +with several forts and castles, and manned them with adequate garrisons. +He then proceeded to Bregitio; and in that town, after settling down +there in quiet, his Destiny, by numerous prodigies, portended to him his +approaching fate. + +16. For a very few days before some of those comets, which ever give +token of the ruins of lofty fortunes, and of which we have already +explained the origin, appeared in the heavens. Also, a short time +before, a thunderbolt fell at Sirmium, accompanied with a terrific clap +of thunder, and set fire to a portion of the palace and senate-house: +and much about the same time an owl settled on the top of the royal +baths at Sabaria, and pouring forth a funeral strain, withstood all the +attempts to slay it with arrows or stones, however truly aimed, and +though numbers of people shot at it in diligent rivalry. + +17. And again, when the emperor was quitting the city to return to the +camp, he set out to leave it by the same gate by which he had entered +it, with the object of obtaining an augury that he should speedily +return to Gaul. But the spot through neglect had become choked up with +ruins; and when they were cleaning it out they found that the door, +which had originally closed the entrance, had fallen down: and a great +multitude of people, though labouring with all their might, were unable +to remove it; so that after waiting the greater part of the day there, +he was obliged at last to go out by another gate. + +18. And on the night preceding the day on which he died, he saw in a +dream, such as often visits a man in his sleep, his absent wife sitting +by, with dishevelled hair, and clad in a mourning robe; which some +people fancied was Fortune, who was about in this sad apparel to take +her leave of him. + +19. After this, when he came forth in the morning, his brow was +contracted, and his countenance somewhat melancholy; and when his horse +was brought to him, it would not let him mount, but reared up its +forefeet over the shoulders of the equerry who was holding it. +Valentinian, according to the usual bent of his savage temper, grew +immoderately furious, and ordered the equerry's hand to be cut off, +which had, he said, pushed him aside when mounting a horse he was used +to: and the innocent youth would have perished under torture if +Cerealis, the principal master of the horse, had not delayed the +barbarous infliction at his own risk. + + +VI. + +§ 1. After this event ambassadors arrived from the Quadi, with humble +supplications, entreating peace, and oblivion of the past: and that +there might be no obstacle to their obtaining this, they promised to +furnish a body of recruits, and some other things which would be of use +to the Roman state. + +2. And after they had been received, and had obtained permission to +return with the grant of an armistice which they had solicited (but in +truth, our want of supplies and the unfavourable season of the year +prevented us from harassing them any longer), they were, by the +influence of Equitius, who became security for their good behaviour, +admitted into the council-chamber. When introduced they seemed quite +overcome by fear, bowing down to the ground; and on being ordered to +unfold their message, they urged all the customary pretences and +excuses, confirming them by an oath; assuring the council that whatever +offence had been committed against any of our people, had not been done +by the consent of the nobles of the nation, but only by some foreign +banditti who dwelt on the borders of the river; they added further, as a +fact quite sufficient to establish the truth of their allegations, that +the fortress which had been begun to be built both unjustly and +unreasonably, had inflamed the savage temper of those rude men to a +great pitch of ferocity. + +3. By this speech the emperor was excited to most vehement wrath; and as +he began to reply to it he grew more indignant, reproaching the whole +nation in bitter language, as unmindful of kindness, and ungrateful. But +after a time he became pacified, and inclined to a milder view of the +case, when suddenly, as if he had been stricken from heaven, his +breathing and his voice ceased, and his countenance appeared bloodshot, +and in a moment the blood burst forth, and a deadly sweat broke forth +over his whole body; and to save him from falling down in the sight of a +number of low-born persons, he was led by his servants into one of the +private chambers in the interior of the palace. + +4. When he was placed on his bed, breathing with difficulty, though the +vigour of his intellect was not as yet at all diminished, he recognized +those who stood around, having been collected by the chamberlains with +great promptitude, to prevent any of them being suspected of having +murdered him. And as on account of the fever which was racking his +bowels it was necessary to open a vein, yet no surgeon could be found, +because he had dispersed them all over different districts to cure the +soldiers among whom a dangerous pestilence was raging. + +5. At last, however, one was procured; but though he punctured a vein +over and over again, he could not produce a single drop of blood, while +all the time his bowels were burning with the intensity of his fever; or +(as some fancied) because his limbs were wholly dried up in consequence +of some of the passages, which we now call hæmorrhoidal, were closed up +and crusted over through the severity of the cold. + +6. The emperor, from the exceeding violence of his agony, felt that the +moment of his death was at hand; and attempted to say something, and to +give some orders, as was indicated by a sobbing, which shook his whole +frame, a gnashing of the teeth, and a series of violent gestures with +his arms, resembling those of boxers with the cæstus: at last he became +exhausted, and covered all over with livid spots, and after a severe +struggle he expired, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, having reigned +twelve years all but a hundred days. + + +VII. + +§ 1. This is a seasonable opportunity to do as we have often done +before, namely, to retrace from the original appearance of the father +of this emperor down to the time of his own death, all his actions, just +touching on them cursorily with a brief mention, not omitting to +distinguish between his vices and his virtues, both of which his lofty +position held up to the world; being a condition which naturally reveals +the inward disposition of every man. + +2. The elder Gratian was born at Cibalæ, a town of Pannonia, of a mean +family; and from his childhood he received the surname of Funarius, +because, while still very young, while he was carrying about a rope +(funem) for sale, he resisted the attempt of five soldiers who laboured +with all their might to take it from him: thus rivalling Milo of +Crotona, from whom no amount of strength could ever wrest an apple, +whether he held it in his right or his left hand. + +3. Therefore, on account of his exceeding personal strength, and his +skill in wrestling after the military fashion, he became well known to +many persons, was promoted to the rank of an officer of the guard, then +to the post of tribune: after this he was made count, and sent to +command the forces in Africa: but there he was suspected of theft; and +having quitted that province, he was some time afterwards sent to +command the army in Britain, with the same authority which he had +enjoyed in Africa. At length he received an honourable discharge from +military service, and returned home; and while living there in quiet, he +suddenly had all his property confiscated by Constantius, on the ground +that, when the civil discord was at its height, he was said to have +received Magnentius as a guest when passing through his land to carry +his designs into execution. + +4. The merits of Gratian brought Valentinian into notice from his early +youth; and, indeed, he was further aided by his own eminent qualities; +so that he received the ornaments of the imperial majesty at Nicæa; when +he also made his brother Valens his colleague, as one bound to him not +only by his relationship as a brother, but also by the most perfect +agreement--Valens, as we shall show at a suitable time, being made up +almost equally of vices and of virtues. + +5. Therefore Valentinian, after having experienced many dangers and much +distress as a private individual, as soon as he began to reign went to +visit the towns and cities which were situated on the rivers; and +repaired to Gaul, which was exposed to the inroads of the Allemanni, who +had begun to recover their courage and to reassume an imposing attitude +since they had heard of the death of the Emperor Julian--the only prince +whom they had feared since the time of Constans. + +6. And Valentinian was deservedly dreaded by them because he took care +to keep up the numbers of his army by strong reinforcements, and because +also he fortified both banks of the Rhine with lofty fortresses and +castles, to prevent the enemy from ever passing over into our territory +without being perceived. + +7. We may pass over many circumstances, and many acts which he performed +with the authority of an emperor whose power was fully established, and +many of the reforms which he either effected himself, or caused to be +carried out by his vigorous lieutenants. But we must record how, after +he had raised his son Gratian to a partnership in the imperial +authority, he contrived the secret murder of Vithigabius, the king of +the Allemanni, and the son of Vadomarius, a young man in the flower of +youth, who was actively stirring up the surrounding nations to tumults +and wars; doing this because he found it impossible to procure his death +openly. How also he fought a battle against the Allemanni near +Solicinium, where he was nearly circumvented and slain by the +manoeuvres of the enemy; but where at last he utterly destroyed their +whole army with the exception of a few who saved themselves by the aid +of the darkness which assisted the rapidity of their flight. + +8. Amid all these prudent actions he also turned his attention to the +Saxons who had lately broken out with extreme ferocity, making attacks +in every direction where they were least expected, and had now +penetrated into the inland districts, from which they were returning +enriched by a vast booty. He destroyed them utterly by a device which +was indeed treacherous, but most advantageous; and he recovered by force +all the booty which the defeated robbers were carrying off. + +9. Nor did he disregard the condition of the Britons, who were unable to +make head against the vast hosts of their enemies, who were overrunning +their country; he revived their hopes of better fortune, and +re-established liberty and steady tranquillity among them; routing their +invaders so completely that scarcely any of them returned to their own +country. + +10. With similar vigour he crushed Valentinus the Pannonian exile (who +was labouring to disturb the general tranquillity in that province), +before his enterprise could become dangerous. He also delivered Africa +from great dangers at a time when it was thrown into confusion by an +unexpected disaster: when Firmus, unable to bear the greediness and +arrogance of the soldiers, was exciting the people of Mauritania to +every kind of discord and disturbance. With similar resolution would he +have avenged the disasters sustained in Illyricum, had he not left that +important duty uncompleted, in consequence of being thus cut off by a +premature death. + +11. And although these various achievements, which we have here +recorded, were consummated by the assistance of his admirable generals, +yet it is very notorious that he himself also performed many +considerable exploits; being a man fertile in resources, and of long +experience and great skill in military affairs: and certainly it would +have been an admirable crown to his great actions if he had been able to +take King Macrianus alive, who at that time was a very formidable +sovereign; nevertheless he exerted great energy in attempting to do so, +after he heard that he had escaped from the Burgundians, whom he himself +had led against the Allemanni; and the certainty of his escape was to +him a cause of great sorrow and indignation. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. Thus have I rapidly run over the different actions of this prince. +Now, relying on the certainty that posterity, inasmuch as it is free +both from fear and from base flattery, is usually an honest judge of all +past transactions, I will rapidly run over his vices, intending +afterwards to relate his good qualities. + +2. Sometimes he put on an affectation of clemency, though the bent of +his natural disposition inclined him more to cruelty: forgetful +forsooth, that by a man who governs a vast empire extremes of every +kind are to be avoided as rocks by a mariner. + +3. Nor indeed was he ever found to be contented with moderate +punishments, but was continually commanding cruel tortures to be +multiplied; so that many, after undergoing this murderous kind of +examination, were brought to death's door. And he was so eager to +inflict injury, that he never once saved any one who had been condemned +to death, by a milder sentence, though even the most inhuman of emperors +have sometimes done so. + +4. And yet he might have reflected on many examples in former ages; and +he might have imitated the many models of humanity and of piety which he +could have found both among natives of the empire and among those of +foreign extraction (and humanity and piety are defined by philosophers +to be qualities nearly akin). Of such instances it will suffice to +enumerate these which follow:--Artaxerxes, that very powerful king of +Persia, to whom the great length of one of his limbs caused the name of +Longhand to be given, wishing, through the natural lenity of his +disposition, to reprove the varieties of punishment in which his nation, +always cruel, had hitherto delighted, punished some criminals by taking +off their turbans instead of their heads: and instead of the old royal +fashion of cutting off people's ears for their offences, he used to cut +the tassels which hang from their caps. And this moderation and lenity +made him so popular and respected that all the Grecian writers vie with +each other in celebrating his many admirable actions. + +5. Again, when Prænestinus was prætor, and was brought before the court +of justice, because, in the Samnite war, when ordered to march with all +speed to reinforce the army, he had been very dilatory in his movements, +Papirius Cursor, who at that time was dictator, ordered the lictor to +get ready his axe; and when the prætor, having discarded all hope of +being able to clear himself, seemed utterly stupefied at the order, he +commanded the lictor to cut down a shrub close by; and having in this +jocular manner reproved him, he let him go: without himself incurring +any disrespect by so doing, since all knew him for a man who, by his own +unassisted vigour, had brought long and dangerous wars to a happy +termination; and had been the only man reckoned able to resist +Alexander the Great if that prince had invaded Italy. + +6. Valentinian, perhaps, was ignorant of these models; and as he never +considered that the mercy of the emperor is always the best comfort of +persons in distress, he increased all punishments by his free use of +both fire and sword: punishments which the merciful disposition of our +ancestors looked upon as the very last resource in the most imminent +dangers--as we may learn from the beautiful sentiment of Isocrates, who +continually insists that we ought rather to pardon a king who is +sometimes defeated in war, than one who is ignorant of justice. + +7. And it was under the influence of this saying of his that I imagine +Cicero uttered that admirable sentence, in his defence of Oppius: "That +indeed to have greatly contributed to the safety of one other person was +an honour to many; but that to have had no share in injuring others had +never been thought discreditable to any one." + +8. A desire of increasing his riches without any regard to right and +wrong, and of hunting out every kind of source of gain, even at the cost +of other people's lives, raged in this emperor to a most excessive +degree, and never flagged. Some, indeed, attempted to excuse it by +pleading the example of the Emperor Aurelian; affirming that as he, +after the death of Gallienus and the lamentable disasters which the +republic suffered at that time, finding his treasury totally exhausted, +fell upon the rich like a torrent, so Valentinian also, after the losses +which he sustained in his Parthian campaign, being reduced to want by +the greatness of his expenses, in order to procure reinforcements for +his army and pay for his troops, mingled with his severity a desire of +collecting excessive wealth. Pretending not to know that there are some +things which, although strictly speaking lawful, still ought not to be +done. In this he was very unlike the celebrated Themistocles of old +times, who, when strolling carelessly about after he had destroyed the +Persian host in the battle of Salamis, and seeing a number of golden +armlets and chains lying on the ground, said to one of his companions +who was by--"You may take up these things because you are not +Themistocles," thinking it became a magnanimous general to spurn any +idea of personal gain. + +9. Many examples of similar moderation abound in the Roman generals; +and without stopping to enumerate them, since such acts are not +indications of perfect virtue (for indeed it is no great glory to +abstain from carrying off other persons' property), I will just mention +one single instance of the forbearance of people in general in this +respect in ancient times:--When Marius and Cinna had given the Roman +populace leave to plunder the wealthy houses of certain persons whom +they had proscribed, the minds of the mob, who, however uncivilized they +might be, were accustomed to respect the rights of men, refused to touch +the produce of other men's labours; so that in fact no one could be +found so needy or so base as to be willing to profit by the miseries of +the state. + +10. Besides these things the aforesaid emperor was a prey in his inmost +heart to a devouring envy; and as he knew that most vices put on a +semblance of virtue, he used to be fond of repeating, that severity is +the inseparable companion of lawful power. And as magistrates of the +highest rank are in the habit of thinking everything permitted to them, +and are always inclined to depress those who oppose them, and to +humiliate those who are above them, so he hated all who were well +dressed, or learned, or opulent, or high born; and he was always +disparaging the brave, that he might appear to be the only person +eminent for virtue. And this is a vice which, as we read, was very +flagrant in the Emperor Hadrian. + +11. This same emperor used to be continually abusing the timid, calling +them sordid and base, and people who deserved to be depressed below the +very lowest of the low; and yet he himself often grew pale, in the most +abject manner, with groundless fears, and often from the bottom of his +soul was terrified at things which had no existence at all. + +12. Remigius, the master of the ceremonies, knowing this, and also that +Valentinian was used to get into furious passions at every trifling +incident, spread a report, among other things, that some of the +barbarians were in motion; and the emperor, when he heard this, became +at once so broken-spirited through fear that he became as gentle and +merciful as Antoninus Pius. + +13. He never intentionally appointed unjust judges but if he learned +that those whom he had once promoted were acting cruelly, he boasted +that he had discovered new Lycurguses and Cassiuses, those ancient +pillars of justice; and he used to be continually exhorting them by his +letters severely to chastise even the slightest errors. + +14. Nor had those who were under accusations, if any misfortune fell +upon them, any refuge in the kindness of the prince; which ought to be, +as it were, a desirable haven to those tossed about in a stormy sea. +For, as wise men teach us, "The advantage and safety of the subject is +the true end of just government." + + +IX. + +§ 1. It is natural for us, after discussing these topics, if we would +act fairly, now to come to his virtuous and laudable actions; since if +he had tempered his vices fairly with them he would have been a second +Trajan or Marcus Aurelius. Towards the people of the provinces he was +very considerate, lightening the burden of their tributes throughout the +empire. He also exerted himself in a very beneficial manner in building +towns and strengthening the frontiers. He was a strict observer of +military discipline, erring only in this respect, that while he punished +even slight misconduct on the part of the common soldiers, he allowed +the crimes of the officers of rank and of the generals to proceed to +greater and greater lengths, and shut his ears against every complaint +that was uttered against them. And this partiality of his was the cause +of the murmurs in Britain, and the disasters in Africa, and the +devastation of Illyricum. + +2. He was, both at home and abroad, a strict observer of modesty and +chastity, keeping his conscience wholly free from all taint of impurity +or obscenity, and in consequence he bridled the wantonness of the +imperial court as with a strong rein; and he was the more easily able to +do this because he had never shown any indulgence to his own relations, +whom he either kept in obscurity, or (if he promoted them at all) raised +to a very moderate rank, with the exception of his brother, whom, in +deference to the necessities of the times, he made his partner in the +imperial dignity. + +3. He was very scrupulous in giving high rank to any one; nor, as long +as he was emperor, did any one of the moneyed interest become ruler of +a province, nor was any government sold, unless it was at the beginning +of his reign, when wicked actions were sometimes committed in the hope +that the new prince would be too much occupied to punish them. + +4. In waging war, and in defending himself from attacks, he was prudent +and very skilful, like a veteran of great experience in military +affairs. He was a very wise admirer of all that was good, and dissuader +from all that was bad; and a very accurate observer of all the details +of military service. He wrote with elegance, and described everything +with great neatness and skill in composition. He was an inventor of new +arms. He had an excellent memory, and a fluent, easy style of speaking, +which at times bordered closely upon eloquence. He was a lover of +elegant simplicity, and was fond, not so much of profuse banquets, as of +entertainments directed by good taste. + +5. Lastly, he was especially remarkable during his reign for his +moderation in this particular, that he kept a middle course between the +different sects of religion; and never troubled any one, nor issued any +orders in favour of one kind of worship or another; nor did he +promulgate any threatening edicts to bow down the necks of his subjects +to the form of worship to which he himself was inclined; but he left +these parties just as he found them, without making any alterations. + +6. His body was muscular and strong: the brightness of his hair--the +brilliancy of his complexion, with his blue eyes, which always looked +askance with a stern aspect--the beauty of his figure--his lofty +stature, and the admirable harmony of all his features--filled up the +dignity and beauty of an appearance which bespoke a monarch. + + +X. + +§ 1. After the last honours had been paid to the emperor, and his body +had been prepared for burial, in order to be sent to Constantinople to +be there entombed among the remains of former emperors, the campaign +which was in preparation was suspended, and people began to be anxious +as to what part would be taken by the Gallic cohorts, who were not +always steady in loyalty to the lawful emperor, but looked upon +themselves as the disposers of power, and were regarded by others as +very likely to venture on some new enterprise at so favourable a moment. +This circumstance also was likely to aid any attempt that might be made +at a revolution, that Gratian, who knew nothing of what had taken place, +was still at Treves, where his father, when about to set out on his own +expedition, had desired him to wait. + +2. While affairs were in this state of uncertainty, and when every one +shared the same fears, looking on themselves as all in the same boat, +and sure to be partners in danger, if danger should arise, at last it +was decided by the advice of the principal nobles to take up the bridge +which had been necessarily made when they meditated invading the +territories of the enemy, in order that, in compliance with the commands +given by Valentinian while alive, Merobaudes might be at once summoned +to the camp. + +3. He, being a man of great cunning and penetration, divined what had +happened (perhaps indeed he had been informed of it by the messenger who +brought him his summons), and suspecting that the Gallic troops were +likely to break the existing concord, he pretended that a token which +had been agreed upon had been sent to him that he was to return with the +messenger to watch the banks of the Rhine; since the fury of the +barbarians was again menacing hostilities, and (in compliance with a +secret injunction which he received, at the same time) he removed to a +distance. Sebastian also as yet was ignorant of the death of the +emperor; and he being an orderly and quietly disposed man, but very +popular among the soldiers, required on that account to be strictly +watched. + +4. Accordingly when Merobaudes had returned, the chief men took careful +counsel as to what was to be done; and at last it was arranged that the +child Valentinian, the son of the deceased emperor, at that time a boy +of four years old, should be associated in the imperial power. He was at +present a hundred miles off, living with his mother, Justina, in a small +town called Murocincta. + +5. This decision was ratified by the unanimous consent of all parties; +and Cerealis, his uncle, was sent with speed to Murocincta, where he +placed the royal child on a litter, and so conducted him to the camp. +On the sixth day after his father's death, he was declared lawful +emperor, and saluted as Augustus with the usual solemnities. + +6. And although at the time many persons thought that Gratian would be +indignant that any one else had been appointed emperor without his +permission, yet afterwards, when all fear and anxiety was removed, they +lived in greater security, because he, wise and kindhearted man as he +was, loved his young relative with exceeding affection, and brought him +up with great care. + + +[183] No one has succeeded in explaining this word. Some editors wish to +read Suræ, explaining that as "men picked out for their great strength," +by a reference to Juvenal, xvi. 14--Grandes magna adsubsellia Suræ. +Wagner proposes to read Scurræ, a name sometimes given to the guards in +this age. + +[184] As at Athens, where the orators were only allowed to speak as long +as an hour-glass, filled with water, was running down. + +[185] All these men are spoken of by Horace as distinguished lawyers in +his time. + +[186] See Cicero, de Oratore iii. 60. + +[187] The Speech of Cicero pro Coelio Cluentio. + +[188] The celebrated speech of Demosthenes, more usually known as that +of De Coronâ. + + + + +BOOK XXXI. + +ARGUMENT. + + I. Omens announcing the death of the Emperor Valens, and a disaster + to be inflicted by the Gauls.--II. A description of the abodes and + customs of the Huns, the Alani, and other tribes, natives of + Asiatic Scythia.--III. The Huns, either by arms or by treaties, + unite the Alani on the Don to themselves; invade the Goths, and + drive them from their country.--IV. The chief division of the + Goths, surnamed the Thuringians, having been expelled from their + homes, by permission of Valens are conducted by the Romans into + Thrace, on condition of promising obedience and a supply of + auxiliary troops. The Gruthungi also, who form the other division + of the Goths, secretly cross the Danube by a bridge of boats.--V. + The Thuringians being in great distress from hunger and the want of + supplies, under the command of their generals Alavivus and + Fritigern, revolt from Valens, and defeat Lupicinus and his + army.--VI. Why Sueridus and Colias, nobles of the Gothic nation, + after having been received in a friendly manner, revolted; and + after slaying the people of Hadrianopolis, united themselves to + Fritigern, and then turned to ravage Thrace.--VII. Profuturus, + Trajan, and Richomeres fought a drawn battle against the + Goths.--VIII. The Goths being hemmed in among the defiles at the + bottom of the Balkan, after the Romans by returning had let them + escape, invaded Thrace, plundering, massacring, ravishing, and + burning, and slay Barzimeres, the tribune of the Scutarii.--IX. + Frigeridus, Gratian's general, routs Farnobius at the head of a + large body of Goths and Taifalæ; sparing the rest, and giving them + some lands around the Po.--X. The Lentiensian Alemanni are + defeated in battle by the generals of the emperor Gratian, and + their king Priamis is slain. Afterwards, having yielded and + furnished Gratian with a body of recruits, they are allowed to + return to their own country.--XI. Sebastian surprises the Goths at + Beræa as they are returning home loaded with plunder, and defeats + them with great slaughter; a few saved themselves by flight. + Gratian hastens to his uncle Valens, to carry him aid against the + Goths.--XII. Valens, before the arrival of Gratian resolves to + fight the Goths.--XIII. All the Goths unite together, that is to + say, the Thuringians, under their king Fritigern. The Gruthungi, + under their dukes Alatheus and Salaces, encounter the Romans in a + pitched battle, rout their cavalry, and then falling on the + infantry when deprived of the support of their horse, and huddled + together in a dense body, they defeat them with enormous loss, and + put them to flight. Valens is slain, but his body cannot be + found.--XIV. The virtues and vices of Valens.--XV. The victorious + Goths besiege Hadrianopolis, where Valens had left his treasures + and his insignia of imperial rank, with the prefect and the members + of his council; but after trying every means to take the city, + without success, they at last retire.--XVI. The Goths, having by + bribes won over the forces of the Huns and of the Alani to join + them, make an attack upon Constantinople without success. The + device by which Julius, the commander of the forces beyond Mount + Taurus, delivered the eastern provinces from the Goths. + + +I. + +A.D. 375. + +§ 1. In the mean time the swift wheel of Fortune, which continually +alternates adversity with prosperity, was giving Bellona the Furies for +her allies, and arming her for war; and now transferred our disasters to +the East, as many presages and portents foreshowed by undoubted signs. + +2. For after many true prophecies uttered by diviners and augurs, dogs +were seen to recoil from howling wolves, and the birds of night +constantly uttered querulous and mournful cries; and lurid sunrises made +the mornings dark. Also, at Antioch, among the tumults and squabbles of +the populace, it had come to be a custom for any one who fancied himself +ill treated to cry out in a licentious manner, "May Valens be burnt +alive!" And the voices of the criers were constantly heard ordering wood +to be carried to warm the baths of Valens, which had been built under +the supertendence of the emperor himself. + +3. All which circumstances all but pointed out in express words that the +end of the emperor's life was at hand. Besides all these things, the +ghost of the king of Armenia, and the miserable shades of those who had +lately been put to death in the affair of Theodorus, agitated numbers of +people with terrible alarms, appearing to them in their sleep, and +shrieking out verses of horrible import.[189] + +4. ... and its death indicated an extensive and general calamity arising +from public losses and deaths. Last of all, when the ancient walls of +Chalcedon were thrown down in order to build a bath at Constantinople, +and the stones were torn asunder, on one squared stone which was hidden +in the very centre of the walls these Greek verses were found engraved, +which gave a full revelation of what was to happen:-- + + "Ἀλλ’ ὅποταν νύμφαι δροσερῇ κατὰ ἄστυ χορείῃ + Τεπόμεναι στρέψωνται εΰστεέφας κατ’ ἀγυιὰς + Καὶ τεῖχος λούτροιο πολύστονον ἔσσεται ἄλκαὶ + Δὴ τότε μύρια φῦλα πολυσπερέων ἀνθρώπων + Ἴστρου καλλιρόοιο πόρον περάοντα σὺν αἰχμῇ + Καὶ Σκυθικὴν ὀλέσει χώῃην καὶ Μυσίδα γαῖαν + Παιονίης δ’ ἐπιβάντα σὺν σὺν ἐλπίσι μαινομένῃσιν + Αὐτὁου καὶ βιότο ο τέλος καὶ δῆρις εφεξει." + + TRANSLATION. + + "But when young wives and damsels blithe, in dances that delight, + Shall glide along the city streets, with garlands gaily bright; + And when these walls, with sad regrets, shall fall to raise a bath, + Then shall the Huns in multitude break forth with might and wrath. + By force of arms the barrier-stream of Ister they shall cross, + O'er Scythic ground and Moesian lands spreading dismay and loss: + They shall Pannonian horsemen brave, and Gallic soldiers slay, + And nought but loss of life and breath their course shall ever stay." + + +II. + +§ 1. The following circumstances were the original cause of all the +destruction and various calamities which the fury of Mars roused up, +throwing everything into confusion by his usual ruinous violence: the +people called Huns, slightly mentioned in the ancient records, live +beyond the Sea of Azov, on the border of the Frozen Ocean, and are a +race savage beyond all parallel. + +2. At the very moment of their birth the cheeks of their infant children +are deeply marked by an iron, in order that the usual vigour of their +hair, instead of growing at the proper season, may be withered by the +wrinkled scars; and accordingly they grow up without beards, and +consequently without any beauty, like eunuchs, though they all have +closely-knit and strong limbs, and plump necks; they are of great size, +and low legged, so that you might fancy them two-legged beasts, or the +stout figures which are hewn out in a rude manner with an axe on the +posts at the end of bridges. + +3. They are certainly in the shape of men, however uncouth, but are so +hardy that they neither require fire nor well-flavoured food, but live +on the roots of such herbs as they get in the fields, or on the half-raw +flesh of any animal, which they merely warm rapidly by placing it +between their own thighs and the backs of their horses. + +4. They never shelter themselves under roofed houses, but avoid them as +people ordinarily avoid sepulchres as things not fitted for common use. +Nor is there even to be found among them a cabin thatched with reed; but +they wander about, roaming over the mountains and the woods and accustom +themselves to bear frost and hunger and thirst from their very cradles. +And even when abroad they never enter a house unless under the +compulsion of some extreme necessity; nor, indeed, do they think people +under roofs as safe as others. + +5. They wear linen clothes, or else garments made of the skins of +field-mice: nor do they wear a different dress out of doors from that +which they wear at home; but after a tunic is once put round their +necks, however it becomes worn, it is never taken off or changed till, +from long decay, it becomes actually so ragged as to fall to pieces. + +6. They cover their heads with round caps, and their shaggy legs with +the skins of kids; their shoes are not made on any lasts, but are so +unshapely as to hinder them from walking with a free gait. And for this +reason they are not well suited to infantry battles, but are nearly +always on horseback, their horses being ill-shaped, but hardy; and +sometimes they even sit upon them like women if they want to do anything +more conveniently. There is not a person in the whole nation who cannot +remain on his horse day and night. On horseback they buy and sell, they +take their meat and drink, and there they recline on the narrow neck of +their steed, and yield to sleep so deep as to indulge in every variety +of dream. + +7. And when any deliberation is to take place on any weighty matter, +they all hold their common council on horseback. They are not under the +authority of a king, but are contented with the irregular government of +their nobles, and under their lead they force their way through all +obstacles. + +8. Sometimes when provoked, they fight; and when they go into battle, +they form in a solid body, and utter all kinds of terrific yells. They +are very quick in their operations, of exceeding speed, and fond of +surprising their enemies. With a view to this, they suddenly disperse, +then reunite, and again, after having inflicted vast loss upon the +enemy, scatter themselves over the whole plain in irregular formations: +always avoiding a fort or an entrenchment. + +9. And in one respect you may pronounce them the most formidable of all +warriors, for when at a distance they use missiles of various kinds +tipped with sharpened bones instead of the usual points of javelins, and +these bones are admirably fastened into the shaft of the javelin or +arrow; but when they are at close quarters they fight with the sword, +without any regard for their own safety; and often while their +antagonists are warding off their blows they entangle them with twisted +cords, so that, their hands being fettered, they lose all power of +either riding or walking. + +10. None of them plough, or even touch a plough-handle: for they have no +settled abode, but are homeless and lawless, perpetually wandering with +their waggons, which they make their homes; in fact they seem to be +people always in flight. Their wives live in these waggons, and there +weave their miserable garments; and here too they sleep with their +husbands, and bring up their children till they reach the age of +puberty; nor, if asked, can any one of them tell you where he was born, +as he was conceived in one place, born in another at a great distance, +and brought up in another still more remote. + +11. In truces they are treacherous and inconstant, being liable to +change their minds at every breeze of every fresh hope which presents +itself, giving themselves up wholly to the impulse and inclination of +the moment; and, like brute beasts, they are utterly ignorant of the +distinction between right and wrong. They express themselves with great +ambiguity and obscurity; have no respect for any religion or +superstition whatever; are immoderately covetous of gold; and are so +fickle and irascible, that they very often on the same day that they +quarrel with their companions without any provocation, again become +reconciled to them without any mediator. + +12. This active and indomitable race, being excited by an unrestrainable +desire of plundering the possessions of others, went on ravaging and +slaughtering all the nations in their neighbourhood till they reached +the Alani, who were formerly called the Massagetæ; and from what country +these Alani come, or what territories they inhabit (since my subject has +led me thus far), it is expedient now to explain: after showing the +confusion existing in the accounts of the geographers, who ... at last +have found out ... of truth. + +13. The Danube, which is greatly increased by other rivers falling into +it, passes through the territory of the Sauromatæ, which extends as far +as the river Don, the boundary between Asia and Europe. On the other +side of this river the Alani inhabit the enormous deserts of Scythia, +deriving their own name from the mountains around; and they, like the +Persians, having gradually subdued all the bordering nations by repeated +victories, have united them to themselves, and comprehended them under +their own name. Of these other tribes the Neuri inhabit the inland +districts, being near the highest mountain chains, which are both +precipitous and covered with the everlasting frost of the north. Next to +them are the Budini and the Geloni, a race of exceeding ferocity, who +flay the enemies they have slain in battle, and make of their skins +clothes for themselves and trappings for their horses. Next to the +Geloni are the Agathyrsi, who dye both their bodies and their hair of a +blue colour, the lower classes using spots few in number and small--the +nobles broad spots, close and thick, and of a deeper hue. + +15. Next to these are the Melanchænæ and the Anthropophagi, who roam +about upon different tracts of land and live on human flesh. And these +men are so avoided on account of their horrid food, that all the tribes +which were their neighbours have removed to a distance from them. And in +this way the whole of that region to the north-east, till you come to +the Chinese, is uninhabited. + +16. On the other side the Alani again extend to the east, near the +territories of the Amazons, and are scattered among many populous and +wealthy nations, stretching to the parts of Asia which, as I am told, +extend up to the Ganges, a river which passes through the country of the +Indians, and falls into the Southern Ocean. + +17. Then the Alani, being thus divided among the two quarters of the +globe (the various tribes which make up the whole nation it is not worth +while to enumerate), although widely separated, wander, like the +Nomades, over enormous districts. But in the progress of time all these +tribes came to be united under one generic appellation, and are called +Alani.... + +18. They have no cottages, and never use the plough, but live solely on +meat and plenty of milk, mounted on their waggons, which they cover with +a curved awning made of the bark of trees, and then drive them through +their boundless deserts. And when they come to any pasture-land, they +pitch their waggons in a circle, and live like a herd of beasts, eating +up all the forage--carrying, as it were, their cities with them in their +waggons. In them the husbands sleep with their wives--in them their +children are born and brought up; these waggons, in short, are their +perpetual habitation, and wherever they fix them, that place they look +upon as their home. + +19. They drive before them their flocks and herds to their pasturage; +and, above all other cattle, they are especially careful of their +horses. The fields in that country are always green, and are +interspersed with patches of fruit trees, so that, wherever they go, +there is no dearth either of food for themselves or fodder for their +cattle. And this is caused by the moisture of the soil, and the number +of the rivers which flow through these districts. + +20. All their old people, and especially all the weaker sex, keep close +to the waggons, and occupy themselves in the lighter employments. But +the young men, who from their earliest childhood are trained to the use +of horses, think it beneath them to walk. They are also all trained by +careful discipline of various sorts to become skilful warriors. And this +is the reason why the Persians, who are originally of Scythian +extraction, are very skilful in war. + +21. Nearly all the Alani are men of great stature and beauty; their hair +is somewhat yellow, their eyes are terribly fierce; the lightness of +their armour renders them rapid in their movements; and they are in +every respect equal to the Huns, only more civilized in their food and +their manner of life. They plunder and hunt as far as the Sea of Azov +and the Cimmerian Bosphorus, ravaging also Armenia and Media. + +22. And as ease is a delightful thing to men of a quiet and placid +disposition, so danger and war are a pleasure to the Alani, and among +them that man is called happy who has lost his life in battle. For those +who grow old, or who go out of the world from accidental sicknesses, +they pursue with bitter reproaches as degenerate and cowardly. Nor is +there anything of which they boast with more pride than of having killed +a man: and the most glorious spoils they esteem the scalps which they +have torn from the heads of those whom they have slain, which they put +as trappings and ornaments on their war horses. + +23. Not is there any temple or shrine seen in their country, nor even +any cabin thatched with straw, their only idea of religion being to +plunge a naked sword into the ground with barbaric ceremonies, and then +they worship that with great respect, as Mars, the presiding deity of +the regions over which they wander. + +24. They presage the future in a most remarkable manner; for they +collect a number of straight twigs of osier, then with certain secret +incantations they separate them from one another on particular days; and +from them they learn clearly what is about to happen. + +25. They have no idea of slavery, inasmuch as they themselves are all +born of noble families; and those whom even now they appoint to be +judges are always men of proved experience and skill in war. But now let +us return to the subject which we proposed to ourselves. + + +III. + +§ 1. Therefore the Huns, after having traversed the territories of the +Alani, and especially of that tribe of them who border on the Gruthungi, +and who are called Tanaitæ, and having slain many of them and acquired +much plunder, they made a treaty of friendship and alliance with those +who remained. And when they had united them to themselves, with +increased boldness they made a sudden incursion into the extensive and +fertile districts of Ermenrichus, a very warlike prince, and one whom +his numerous gallant actions of every kind had rendered formidable to +all the neighbouring nations. + +2. He was astonished at the violence of this sudden tempest, and +although, like a prince whose power was well established he long +attempted to hold his ground, he was at last overpowered by a dread of +the evils impending over his country, which were exaggerated by common +report, till he terminated his fear of great danger by a voluntary +death. + +3. After his death Vithimiris was made king. He for some time maintained +a resistance to the Alani, relying on the aid of other tribes of the +Huns, whom by large promises of pay he had won over to his party; but, +after having suffered many losses, he was defeated by superior numbers +and slain in battle. He left an infant son named Viderichus, of whom +Alatheus and Saphrax undertook the guardianship, both generals of great +experience and proved courage. And when they, yielding to the +difficulties of the crisis, had given up all hope of being able to make +an effectual resistance, they retired with caution till they came to the +river Dniester, which lies between the Danube and the Dnieper, and flows +through a vast extent of country. + +4. When Athanaric, the chief magistrate of the Thuringians (against +whom, as I have already mentioned, Valens had begun to wage war, to +punish him for having sent assistance to Procopius), had become informed +of these unexpected occurrences, he prepared to maintain his ground, +with a resolution to rise up in strength should he be assailed as the +others had been. + +5. At last he pitched his camp at a distance in a very favourable spot +near the banks of the Dniester and the valleys of the Gruthungi, and +sent Muderic, who afterwards became Duke of the Arabian frontier, with +Lagarimanus and others of the nobles, with orders to advance for twenty +miles, to reconnoitre the approach of the enemy while in the mean time +he himself, without delay, marshalled his troops in line of battle. + +6. However, things turned out in a manner very contrary to his +expectations. For the Huns (being very sagacious in conjectures) +suspecting that there must be a considerable multitude further off, +contrived to pass beyond those they had seen, and arranged themselves to +take their rest where there was nothing at hand to disturb them; and +then, when the moon dispelled the darkness of night, they forded the +river, which was the best plan that presented itself, and fearing lest +the piquets at the outposts might give the alarm to the distant camp, +they made all possible speed and advanced with the hope of surprising +Athanaric himself. + +7. He was stupefied at the suddenness of their onset, and after losing +many of his men, was compelled to flee for refuge to the precipitous +mountains in the neighbourhood, where, being wholly bewildered with the +strangeness of this occurrence, and the fear of greater evils to come, +he began to fortify with lofty walls all the territory between the banks +of the river Pruth and the Danube, where it passes through the lands of +the Taifali, and he completed this line of fortification with great +diligence, thinking that by this step he should secure his own personal +safety. + +8. While this important work was going on, the Huns kept pressing on his +traces with great speed, and they would have overtaken and destroyed him +if they had not been forced to abandon the pursuit from being impeded by +the great quantity of their booty. In the mean time a report spread +extensively through the other nations of the Goths, that a race of men, +hitherto unknown, had suddenly descended like a whirlwind from the lofty +mountains, as if they had risen from some secret recess of the earth, +and were ravaging and destroying everything which came in their way. And +then the greater part of the population which, because of their want of +necessaries had deserted Athanaric, resolved to flee and to seek a home +remote from all knowledge of the barbarians; and after a long +deliberation where to fix their abode, they resolved that a retreat into +Thrace was the most suitable for these two reasons: first of all, +because it is a district most fertile in grass; and also because, by the +great breadth of the Danube, it is wholly separated from the barbarians, +who were already exposed to the thunderbolts of foreign warfare. And the +whole population of the tribe adopted this resolution unanimously. + + +IV. + +A.D. 376. + +§ 1. Accordingly, under the command of their leader Alavivus, they +occupied the banks of the Danube; and having sent ambassadors to Valens, +they humbly entreated to be received by him as his subjects, promising +to live quietly, and to furnish a body of auxiliary troops if any +necessity for such a force should arise. + +2. While these events were passing in foreign countries, a terrible +rumour arose that the tribes of the north were planning new and +unprecedented attacks upon us: and that over the whole region which +extends from the country of the Marcomanni and Quadi to Pontus, a +barbarian host composed of different distant nations, which had suddenly +been driven by force from their own country, was now, with all their +families, wandering about in different directions on the banks of the +river Danube. + +3. At first this intelligence was lightly treated by our people, because +they were not in the habit of hearing of any wars in those remote +districts till they were terminated either by victory or by treaty. + +4. But presently, as the belief in these occurrences grew stronger, +being confirmed, too, by the arrival of the foreign ambassadors, who, +with prayers and earnest entreaties, begged that the people thus driven +from their homes and now encamped on the other side of the river, might +be kindly received by us, the affair seemed a cause of joy rather than +of fear, according to the skilful flatterers who were always extolling +and exaggerating the good fortune of the emperor; congratulating him +that an embassy had come from the furthest corners of the earth +unexpectedly, offering him a large body of recruits; and that, by +combining the strength of his own nation with these foreign forces, he +would have an army absolutely invincible; observing further that, by the +yearly payment for military reinforcements which came in every year from +the provinces, a vast treasure of gold might be accumulated in his +coffers. + +5. Full of this hope he sent forth several officers to bring this +ferocious people and their waggons into our territory. And such great +pains were taken to gratify this nation which was destined to overthrow +the empire of Rome, that not one was left behind, not even of those who +were stricken with mortal disease. Moreover, having obtained permission +of the emperor to cross the Danube and to cultivate some districts in +Thrace, they crossed the stream day and night, without ceasing, +embarking in troops on board ships and rafts, and canoes made of the +hollow trunks of trees, in which enterprise, as the Danube is the most +difficult of all rivers to navigate, and was at that time swollen with +continual rains, a great many were drowned, who, because they were too +numerous for the vessels, tried to swim across, and in spite of all +their exertions were swept away by the stream. + +6. In this way, through the turbulent zeal of violent people, the ruin +of the Roman empire was brought on. This, at all events, is neither +obscure nor uncertain, that the unhappy officers who were intrusted with +the charge of conducting the multitude of the barbarians across the +river, though they repeatedly endeavoured to calculate their numbers, at +last abandoned the attempt as hopeless: and the man who would wish to +ascertain the number might as well (as the most illustrious of +poets[190] says) attempt to count the waves in the African sea, or the +grains of sand tossed about by the zephyr. + +7. Let, however, the ancient annals be accredited which record that the +Persian host which was led into Greece, was, while encamped on the +shores of the Hellespont, and making a new and artificial sea,[191] +numbered in battalions at Doriscus; a computation which has been +unanimously regarded by all posterity as fabulous. + +8. But after the innumerable multitudes of different nations, diffused +over all our provinces, and spreading themselves over the vast expanse +of our plains, who filled all the champaign country and all the mountain +ranges, are considered, the credibility of the ancient accounts is +confirmed by this modern instance. And first of all Fritigern was +received with Alavivus; and the emperor assigned them a temporary +provision for their immediate support, and ordered lands to be assigned +them to cultivate. + +9. At that time the defences of our provinces were much exposed, and the +armies of barbarians spread over them like the lava of Mount Etna. The +imminence of our danger manifestly called for generals already +illustrious for their past achievements in war: but nevertheless, as if +some unpropitious deity had made the selection, the men who were sought +out for the chief military appointments were of tainted character. The +chief among them were Lupicinus and Maximus, the one being Count of +Thrace, the other a leader notoriously wicked--and both men of great +ignorance and rashness. + +10. And their treacherous covetousness was the cause of all our +disasters. For (to pass over other matters in which the officers +aforesaid, or others with their unblushing connivance, displayed the +greatest profligacy in their injurious treatment of the foreigners +dwelling in our territory, against whom no crime could be alleged) this +one melancholy and unprecedented piece of conduct (which, even if they +were to choose their own judges, must appear wholly unpardonable) must +be mentioned. + +11. When the barbarians who had been conducted across the river were in +great distress from want of provisions, those detested generals +conceived the idea of a most disgraceful traffic: and having collected +hounds from all quarters with the most insatiable rapacity, they +exchanged them for an equal number of slaves, among whom were several +sons of men of noble birth. + +12. About this time also, Vitheric, the king of the Gruthungi, with +Alatheus and Saphrax, by whose influence he was mainly guided, and also +with Farnobius, approached the bank of the Danube, and sent envoys to +the emperor to entreat that he also might be received with the same +kindness that Alavivus and Fritigern had experienced. + +13. But when, as seemed best for the interests of the state, these +ambassadors had been rejected, and were in great anxiety as to what they +should do, Athanaric, fearing similar treatment, departed; recollecting +that long ago when he was discussing a treaty of alliance with Valens, +he had treated that emperor with contempt, in affirming that he was +bound by a religious obligation never to set his foot on the Roman +territory; and that by this excuse he had compelled the emperor to +conclude a peace in the middle of the war. And he, fearing that the +grudge which Valens bore him for this conduct was still lasting, +withdrew with all his forces to Caucalandes, a place which, from the +height of its mountains and the thickness of its woods, is completely +inaccessible; and from which he had lately driven out the Sarmatians. + + +V. + +§ 1. But the Thuringians, though they had some time since received +permission to cross the river, were still wandering up and down the +banks, being hindered by a twofold obstacle; first, that in consequence +of the mischievous dissimulation of the said generals they were not +supplied with the necessary provisions; and also because they were +designedly detained that they might the more easily be plundered under +the wicked semblance of traffic. + +2. And when they ascertained these facts, they began to grumble, and +proposed to resist the evils which they apprehended from the treachery +of these men by open force; and Lupicinus, who feared that they would +resist, brought up his troops close to them, in order to compel them to +be gone with all possible rapidity. + +3. The Gruthungi seized this as a favourable opportunity, and seeing +that the Roman soldiers were occupied in another quarter, and that the +vessels which used to go up and down, to prevent them from crossing, +were now stationary, crossed the river on roughly-made rafts, and +pitched their camp at a great distance from Fritigern. + +4. But he, by his innate foresight, provided against everything that +could happen, and marching on slowly as well in obedience to the +commands he had received as to allow time for other powerful kings to +join him, came by slow marches to Marcianopolis, arriving later than he +was expected. And here another atrocious occurrence took place, which +kindled the torches of the Furies for general calamity. + +5. Alavivus and Fritigern were invited to a banquet; while Lupicinus +drew up his soldiers against the chief host of the barbarians, and so +kept them at a distance from the walls of the town; though they with +humble perseverance implored admission in order so to procure necessary +provisions, professing themselves loyal and obedient subjects. At last a +serious strife arose between the citizens and the strangers who were +thus refused admittance, which gradually led to a regular battle. And +the barbarians, being excited to an unusual pitch of ferocity when they +saw their relations treated as enemies, began to plunder the soldiers +whom they had slain. + +6. But when Lupicinus, of whom we have already spoken, learnt by secret +intelligence that this was taking place, while he was engaged in an +extravagant entertainment, surrounded by buffoons, and almost overcome +by wine and sleep, he, fearing the issue, put to death all the guards +who, partly as a compliment and partly as a guard to the chiefs, were on +duty before the general's tent. + +7. The people who were still around the walls heard of this with great +indignation, and rising up by degrees into a resolution to avenge their +kings, who, as they fancied, were being detained as prisoners, broke out +with furious threats. And Fritigern, being a man of great readiness of +resource, and fearing that perhaps he might be detained with the rest as +a hostage, exclaimed that there would be a terrible and destructive +conflict if he were not allowed to go forth with his companions in order +to pacify the multitude, who he said had broken out in this tumult from +believing that their leaders had been trepanned and murdered under show +of courtesy. Having obtained permission, they all went forth, and were +received with cheers and great delight; they then mounted their horses +and fled, in order to kindle wars in many quarters. + +8. When Fame, ever the malignant nurse of bad news, bruited this +abroad, the whole nation of the Thuringians became suddenly inflamed +with a desire for war; and among many preparations which seemed to +betoken danger, the standards of war were raised according to custom, +and the trumpets poured forth sounds of evil omen; while the predatory +bands collected in troops plundering and burning villages, and throwing +everything that came in their way into alarm by their fearful +devastations. + +9. Against these hosts, Lupicinus, having collected his forces with the +greatest possible rapidity, advanced with more rashness than prudence, +and halted in battle array nine miles from the city. The barbarians, +perceiving this, charged our battalions before we expected them, and +dashing upon the shields with which they covered their bodies, they cut +down all who fell in their way with their swords and spears; and urged +on by their bloodthirsty fury, they continued the slaughter, till they +had taken our standards, and the tribunes and the greater part of the +soldiers had fallen, with the exception of the unhappy general, who +could find nothing to do but, while all the rest were fighting, to +betake himself to flight, and return full gallop to the city. And then +the enemies, clothing themselves in the arms of the Romans whom they had +slain, pushed on their devastating march without hindrance. + +10. And since, after recounting various other exploits, we have now come +to this portion of our subject, we call upon our readers (if we shall +ever have any) not to expect a minute detail of everything that took +place, or of the number of the slain, which indeed it would be utterly +impossible to give. It will be sufficient to abstain from concealing any +part of the truth by a lie, and to give the general outline of what took +place: since a faithful honesty of narration is always proper if one +would hand events down to the recollection of posterity. + +11. Those who are ignorant of antiquity declare that the republic was +never so overwhelmed with the darkness of adverse fortune; but they are +deceived in consequence of the stupor into which they are thrown by +these calamities, which are still fresh in their memory. For if the +events of former ages, or even of those immediately preceding our own +times are considered, it will be plain that such melancholy events have +often happened, of which I will bring to mind several instances. + +12. The Teutones and the Cimbri came suddenly from the remote shores of +the ocean, and overran Italy; but, after having inflicted enormous +disasters on the Roman republic, they were at last overcome by our +illustrious generals, and being wholly vanquished, learnt by their +ultimate destruction what martial valour, combined with skill, can +effect. + +13. Again, in the reign of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, the insane fury +of a number of different nations combined together, after fearful wars +... would have left but a small part of them. + +14. But, soon after these calamitous losses, the state was +re-established in all its former strength and prosperity; because the +soberness of our ancestry had not yet become infected with the luxury +and softness of a more effeminate way of life, and had not learnt to +indulge in splendid banquets, or the criminal acquisition of riches. But +both the highest classes and the lowest living in harmony, and imbued +with one unanimous spirit, eagerly embraced a glorious death in the +cause of the republic as a tranquil and quiet haven. + +15. The great multitudes of the Scythian nations, having burst through +the Bosphorus, and made their way to the shores of the Sea of Azov with +2000 ships, inflicted fearful losses on us by land and sea; but also +lost a great portion of their own men, and so at last returned to their +own country. + +16. Those great generals, the Decii, father and son, fell fighting +against the barbarians. The cities of Pamphylia were besieged, many +islands were laid waste; Macedon was ravaged with fire and sword. An +enormous host for a long time blockaded Thessalonica and Cyzicus. Arabia +also was taken; and so at the same time was Nicopolis, which had been +built by the Emperor Trajan as a monument of his victory over the +Dacians. + +17. After many fearful losses had been both sustained and inflicted +Philippopolis was destroyed, and, unless our annals speak falsely, +100,000 men were slaughtered within its walls. Foreign enemies roved +unrestrained over Epirus, and Thessaly, and the whole of Greece; but +after that glorious general Claudius had been taken as a colleague in +the empire (though again lost to us by an honourable death), the enemy +was routed by Aurelian, an untiring leader, and a severe avenger of +injuries; and after that they remained quiet for a long time without +attempting anything, except that some bands of robbers now and then +ranged the districts in their own neighbourhood, always, however, to +their own injury. And now I will return to the main history from which I +have digressed. + + +VI. + +§ 1. When this series of occurrences had been made generally known by +frequent messengers, Sueridus and Colias, two nobles of the Goths, who +had some time before been friendly received with their people, and had +been sent to Hadrianople to pass the winter in that city, thinking their +own safety the most important of all objects, looked on all the events +which were taking place with great indifference. + +2. But, on a sudden, letters having arrived from the emperor, in which +they were ordered to cross over to the province of the Hellespont, they +asked, in a very modest manner, to be provided with money to defray the +expenses of their march, as well as provisions, and to be allowed a +respite of two days. But the chief magistrate of the city was indignant +at this request, being also out of humour with them on account of some +injury which had been done to property of his own in the suburbs, and +collected a great mob of the lowest of the people, with a body of +armourers, of whom there is a great number in that place, and led them +forth armed to hasten the departure of the Goths. And ordering the +trumpeters to sound an alarm, he menaced them with destruction unless +they at once departed with all speed, as they had been ordered. + +3. The Goths, bewildered by this unexpected calamity, and alarmed at +this outbreak of the citizens, which looked more as if caused by a +sudden impulse than by any deliberate purpose, stood without moving. And +being assailed beyond all endurance by reproaches and manifestations of +ill will, and also by occasional missiles, they at last broke out into +open revolt; having slain several of those who had at first attacked +them with too much petulance, and having put the rest to flight, and +wounded many with all kinds of weapons, they stripped their corpses and +armed themselves with the spoils in the Roman fashion; and then, seeing +Fritigern near them, they united themselves to him as obedient allies, +and blockaded the city. They remained some time, maintaining this +difficult position and making promiscuous attacks, during which they +lost some of their number by their own audacity, without being able to +avenge them; while many were slain by arrows and large stones hurled +from slings. + +4. Then Fritigern, perceiving that his men, who were unaccustomed to +sieges, were struggling in vain, and sustaining heavy losses, advised +his army to leave a force sufficient to maintain the blockade, and to +depart with the rest, acknowledging their failure, and saying that "He +did not war with stone walls." Advising them also to lay waste all the +fertile regions around without any distinction, and to plunder those +places which were not defended by any garrisons. + +5. His counsel was approved, as his troops knew that he was always a +very able commander in bringing their plans to success; and then they +dispersed over the whole district of Thrace, advancing cautiously; while +those who came of their own accord to surrender, or those whom they had +taken prisoners, pointed out to them the richest towns, and especially +those where it was said that supplies of provisions could be found. And +in addition to their natural confidence they were greatly encouraged by +this circumstance, that a multitude of that nation came in daily to join +them who had formerly been sold as slaves by the merchants, with many +others whom, when at their first passage of the river they were +suffering from severe want, they had bartered for a little bad wine or +morsels of bread. + +6. To these were added no inconsiderable number of men skilled in +tracing out veins of gold, but who were unable to endure the heavy +burden of their taxes; and who, having been received with the cheerful +consent of all, they were of great use to them while traversing strange +districts--showing them the secret stores of grain, the retreats of men, +and other hiding-places of divers kinds. + +7. Nor while these men led them on as their guides did anything remain +untouched by them, except what was inaccessible or wholly out of the +way; for without any distinction of age or sex they went forward +destroying everything in one vast slaughter and conflagration: tearing +infants even from their mother's breast and slaying them; ravishing +their mothers; slaughtering women's husbands before the eyes of those +whom they thus made widows; while boys of tender and of adult age were +dragged over the corpses of their parents. + +8. Lastly, numbers of old men, crying out that they had lived long +enough, having lost all their wealth, together with beautiful women, had +their hands bound behind their back, and were driven into banishment, +bewailing the ashes of their native homes. + + +VII. + +A.D. 377. + +§ 1. This news from Thrace was received with great sorrow, and caused +the Emperor Valens much anxiety.[192] He instantly sent Victor, the +commander of the cavalry, into Persia, to make such arrangements in +Armenia as were required by the impending danger. While he himself +prepared at once to quit Antioch and go to Constantinople, sending +before him Profuturus and Trajan, both officers of rank and ambition, +but of no great skill in war. + +2. When they arrived at the place where it seemed most expedient to +combat this hostile multitude in detail and by ambuscades and surprises, +they very injudiciously adopted the ill-considered plan of opposing the +legions which had arrived from Armenia to barbarians who were still +raging like madmen. Though the legions had repeatedly proved equal to +the dangers of a pitched battle and regular warfare, they were not +suited to encounter an innumerable host which occupied all the chains of +the lofty hills, and also all the plains. + +3. Our men had never yet experienced what can be effected by +indomitable rage united with despair, and so having driven back the +enemy beyond the abrupt precipices of the Balkan, they seized upon the +rugged defiles in order to hem in the barbarians on ground from which +they would be unable to find any exit, and where it seemed they might be +overcome by famine. They themselves intended to await the arrival of +Frigeridus, the duke, who was hastening towards them with the +auxiliaries from Pannonia and other countries, and whom, at the request +of Valens, Gratian had commanded to march to the camp to aid those who +were menaced with total destruction. + +4. After him, Richomeres, at that time count of the domestics, who also, +by the command of Gratian, had moved forwards from Gaul, hastened +towards Thrace,[193] bringing with him some cohorts, which were cohorts +in name, though the greater portion of them had already deserted (if we +would believe some people), by the persuasion of Merobaudes, fearing +lest Gaul, now divested of all the troops, would be ravaged without +check after the barbarians had forced the passage of the Rhine. + +5. But Frigeridus was prevented from moving by the gout, or at all +events (as some of his malicious detractors represented it), he pleaded +sickness as an excuse for not being present in the struggles which were +expected, and so Richomeres, being unanimously called to the chief +command, with Profuturus and Trajan for his colleagues, advanced towards +the town of Salices--at no great distance from which was a countless +host of barbarians, arranged in a circle, with a great multitude of +waggons for a rampart around them, behind which, as if protected by a +spacious wall, they enjoyed ease and an abundance of booty. + +6. Filled with hopes of success, the Roman generals--resolved on some +gallant enterprise should fortune afford them an opportunity--were +carefully watching the movements of the Goths! having formed the +design--if they moved their camp in any other direction, which they were +very much in the habit of doing--to fall upon their rear, making no +doubt that they should slay many of them, and recover a great portion of +their spoil. + +7. When the barbarians learnt this, probably through the information of +some deserter, from whom they obtained a knowledge of our operations, +they remained for some time in the same place; but at last, being +influenced by fear of the opposing army, and of the reinforcements which +might be expected to throng to them, they assembled, by a preconcerted +signal, the predatory bands dispersed in different districts, and which, +the moment they received the orders of their leaders, returned like +firebrands, with the swiftness of birds, to their "encampment of +chariots" (as they call it), and thus gave their countrymen confidence +to attempt greater enterprises. + +8. After this there was no cessation of hostilities between the two +parties except what was afforded by a few short truces; for after those +men had returned to the camp whom necessity had forced to quit it, the +whole body which was crowded within the circuit of the encampment, being +full of fierce discontent, excitement, and a most ferocious spirit, and +now reduced to the greatest extremities, were eager for bloodshed: nor +did their chiefs, who were present with them, resist their desire; and +as the resolution to give battle was taken when the sun was sinking, and +when the approach of night invited the sullen and discontented troops to +rest, they took some food quietly, but remained all night sleepless. + +9. On the other hand the Romans, knowing what was going on, kept +themselves also awake, fearing the enemy and their insane leaders as so +many furious wild beasts: nevertheless, with fearless minds they awaited +the result, which, though they acknowledged it to be doubtful in respect +of their inferiority in number, they still trusted would be propitious +because of the superior justice of their cause. + +10. Therefore the next day, as soon as it was light, the signal for +taking arms having been given by the trumpets on both sides, the +barbarians, after having, in accordance with their usual custom, taken +an oath to remain faithful to their standards, attempted to gain the +higher ground, in order that from it they might descend down the steep +like wheels, overwhelming their enemy by the vigour of their attack. +When this was seen, our soldiers all flocked to their proper regiments, +and then stood firm, neither turning aside nor in any instance even +leaving their ranks to rush forward. + +11. Therefore when the armies on both sides, advancing more cautiously, +at last halted and stood immovable, the warriors, with mutual sternness, +surveying each other with fierce looks. The Romans in every part of +their line sang warlike songs, with a voice rising from a lower to a +higher key, which they call barritus,[194] and so encouraged themselves +to gallant exertions. But the barbarians, with dissonant clamour, +shouted out the praises of their ancestors, and amid their various +discordant cries, tried occasional light skirmishes. + +12. And now each army began to assail the other with javelins and other +similar missiles; and then with threatening shouts rushed on to close +combat, and packing their shields together like a testudo, they came +foot to foot with their foes. The barbarians, active, and easily +rallied, hurled huge bludgeons, burnt at one end, against our men, and +vigorously thrust their swords against the opposing breasts of the +Romans, till they broke our left wing; but as it recoiled, it fell back +on a strong body of reserve which was vigorously brought up on their +flank, and supported them just as they were on the very point of +destruction. + +13. Therefore, while the battle raged with vast slaughter, each +individual soldier rushing fiercely on the dense ranks of the enemy, the +arrows and javelins flew like hail; the blows of swords were equally +rapid; while the cavalry, too, pressed on, cutting down all who fled +with terrible and mighty wounds on their backs; as also on both sides +did the infantry, slaughtering and hamstringing those who had fallen +down, and through fear were unable to fly. + +14. And when the whole place was filled with corpses, some also lay +among them still half alive, vainly cherishing a hope of life, some of +them having been pierced with bullets hurled from slings, others with +arrows barbed with iron. Some again had their heads cloven in half with +blows of swords, so that one side of their heads hung down on each +shoulder in a most horrible manner. + +15. Meanwhile, stubborn as the conflict was, neither party was wearied, +but they still fought on with equal valour and equal fortune, nor did +any one relax in his sternness as long as his courage could give him +strength for exertion. But at last the day yielded to the evening, and +put an end to the deadly contest: the barbarians all withdrew, in no +order, each taking his own path, and our men returned sorrowfully to +their tents. + +16. Then having paid the honours of burial to some among the dead, as +well as the time and place permitted, the rest of the corpses were left +as a banquet to the ill-omened birds, which at that time were accustomed +to feed on carcases--as is even now shown by the places which are still +white with bones. It is quite certain that the Romans, who were +comparatively few, and contending with vastly superior numbers, suffered +serious losses, while at the same time the barbarians did not escape +without much lamentable slaughter. + + +VIII. + +§ 1. Upon the melancholy termination of this battle, our men sought a +retreat in the neighbouring city of Marcianopolis. The Goths, of their +own accord, fell back behind the ramparts formed by their waggons, and +for seven days they never once ventured to come forth or show +themselves. So our soldiers, seizing the opportunity, raised a barrier, +and shut in some other vast multitudes of the barbarians among the +defiles of the Balkan, in hope, forsooth, that this destructive host +being thus hemmed in between the Danube and the desert, and having no +road by which to escape, must perish by famine, since everything which +could serve to sustain life had been conveyed into the fortified cities, +and these cities were safe from any attempt of the barbarians to besiege +them, since they were wholly ignorant of the use of warlike engines. + +2. After this Richomeres returned to Gaul, to convey reinforcements to +that country, where a fresh war of greater importance than ever, was +anticipated. These events took place in the fourth consulship of +Gratian, and the first of Merobaudes, towards the autumn of the year. + +3. In the mean time Valens, having heard of the miserable result of +these wars and devastations, gave Saturninus the command of the +cavalry, and sent him to carry aid to Trajan and Profuturus. + +4. At that time, throughout the whole countries of Scythia and Moesia, +everything which could be eaten had been consumed; and so, urged equally +by their natural ferocity and by hunger, the barbarians made desperate +efforts to force their way out of the position in which they were +enclosed but though they made frequent attempts, they were constantly +overwhelmed by the vigour of our men, who made an effectual resistance +by the aid of the rugged ground which they occupied; and at last, being +reduced to the extremity of distress, they allured some of the Huns and +Alani to their alliance by the hope of extensive plunder. + +5. When this was known, Saturninus (for by this time he had arrived and +was busy in arranging the outposts and military stations in the country) +gradually collected his men, and was preparing to retreat, in pursuance +of a sufficiently well-devised plan, lest the multitude of barbarians by +some sudden movement (like a river which had burst its barriers by the +violence of a flood) should easily overthrow his whole force, which had +now been for some time watching the place from which danger was +suspected. + +6. The moment that, by the seasonable retreat of our men, the passage of +these defiles was opened, the barbarians, in no regular order, but +wherever each individual could find a passage, rushed forth without +hindrance to spread confusion among us; and raging with a desire for +devastation and plunder, spread themselves with impunity over the whole +region of Thrace, from the districts watered by the Danube, to Mount +Rhodope and the strait which separates the Ægean from the Black Sea, +spreading ravage, slaughter, bloodshed, and conflagration, and throwing +everything into the foulest disorder by all sorts of acts of violence +committed even on the free-born. + +7. Then one might see, with grief, actions equally horrible to behold +and to speak of: women panic-stricken, beaten with cracking scourges; +some even in pregnancy, whose very offspring, before they were born, had +to endure countless horrors: here were seen children twining round their +mothers; there one might hear the lamentations of noble youths and +maidens all seized and doomed to captivity. + +8. Again, grown-up virgins and chaste matrons were dragged along with +countenances disfigured by bitter weeping, wishing to avoid the +violation of their modesty by any death however agonizing. Here some +wealthy nobleman was dragged along like a wild beast, complaining, of +fortune as merciless and blind, who in a brief moment had stripped him +of his riches, of his beloved relations, and his home; had made him see +his house reduced to ashes, and had reduced him to expect either to be +torn limb from limb himself, or else to be exposed to scourging and +torture, as the slave of a ferocious conqueror. + +9. But the barbarians, like beasts who had broken loose from their +cages, pouring unrestrainedly over the vast extent of country, marched +upon a town called Dibaltum, where they found Barzimeres, a tribune of +the Scutarii, with his battalion, and some of the Cornuti legion, and +several other bodies of infantry pitching a camp, like a veteran general +of great experience as he was. + +10. Instantly (as the only means of avoiding immediate destruction) he +ordered the trumpet to give the signal for battle; and strengthening his +flanks, rushed forward with his little army in perfect order. And he +made so gallant a struggle, that the barbarians would have obtained no +advantage over him, if a strong body of cavalry had not come round upon +him from behind, while his men were panting and weary with their +exertions: so at last he fell, but not without having inflicted great +slaughter on the barbarians, though the vastness of their numbers made +their losses less observed. + + +IX. + +§ 1. After this affair had terminated, the Goths, being uncertain what +next to do, went in quest of Frigeridus, with the resolution to destroy +him wherever they could find him, as a formidable obstacle to their +success; and having rested for a while to refresh themselves with sleep +and better food than usual, they then pursued him like so many wild +beasts, having learnt that by Gratian's order he had returned into +Thrace, and had pitched his camp near Beræa, intending to wait there to +see how affairs would turn out. + +2. They hastened accordingly, that by a rapid march they might carry +out their proposed plan; but Frigeridus, who knew as well how to command +as to preserve his troops, either suspected their plans, or else +obtained accurate information respecting them from the scouts whom he +had sent out; and therefore returned over the mountains and through the +thick forests into Illyricum; being full of joy at the success which an +unexpected chance threw in his way. + +3. For as he was retreating, and moving on steadily with his force in a +solid column, he came upon Farnobius, one of the chieftains of the +Goths, who was roaming about at random with a large predatory band, and +a body of the Taifali, with whom he had lately made an alliance, and who +(if it is worth mentioning), when our soldiers were all dispersed for +fear of the strange nations which were threatening them, had taken +advantage of their dispersion to cross the river, in order to plunder +the country thus left without defenders. + +4. When their troops thus suddenly came in sight, our general with great +prudence prepared to bring on a battle at close quarters, and, in spite +of their ferocious threats, at once attacked the combined leaders of the +two nations; and would have slain them all, not leaving a single one of +them to convey news of their disaster, if, after Farnobius, hitherto the +much-dreaded cause of all these troubles, had been slain, with a great +number of his men, he had not voluntarily spared the rest on their own +earnest supplication; and then he distributed those to whom he had thus +granted their lives in the districts around the Italian towns of Modena, +Reggio, and Parma, which he allotted to them to cultivate. + +5. It is said that this nation of the Taifali was so profligate, and so +immersed in the foulest obscenities of life, that they indulged in all +kinds of unnatural lusts, exhausting the vigour both of youth and +manhood in the most polluted defilements of debauchery. But if any adult +caught a boar or slew a bear single-handed, he was then exempted from +all compulsion of submitting to such ignominious pollution. + + +X. + +§ 1. It was when autumn was passing into winter that terrible whirlwinds +swept over Thrace; and as if the Furies were throwing everything into +confusion, awful storms extended even into distant regions. + +2. And now the people of the Allemanni, belonging to the district of +Lintz, who border on the Tyrol, having by treacherous incursions +violated the treaty which had been made with them some time before, +began to make attempts upon our frontier; and this calamity had the +following lamentable beginning. + +3. One of this nation who was serving among the guards of the emperor, +returned home at the call of some private business of his own; and being +a very talkative person, when he was continually asked what was doing in +the palace, he told them that Valens, his uncle, had sent for Gratian to +conduct the campaign in the East, in order that by their combined forces +they might drive back the inhabitants of the countries on our eastern +frontier, who had all conspired for the overthrow of the Roman state. + +4. The people of Lintz greedily swallowed this intelligence, looking on +it as if it concerned themselves also as neighbours, being so rapid and +active in their movements; and so they assembled, in predatory bands, +and when the Rhine was sufficiently frozen over to be passable, in the +month of February.... The Celtæ, with the Petulantes legion, repulsed +them, but not without considerable loss. + +5. These Germans, though thus compelled to retreat, being aware that the +greater part of our army had been despatched into Illyricum, where the +emperor was about to follow to assume the command, became more bold than +ever, and conceived the idea of greater enterprises. Having collected +the inhabitants of all the adjacent countries into one body, and with +40,000 armed men, or 70,000, as some, who seek to enhance the renown of +the emperor, have boasted, they with great arrogance and confidence +burst into our territories. + +6. Gratian, when he heard of this event, was greatly alarmed, and +recalling the cohorts which he had sent on before into Pannonia, and +collecting others whom he had prudently retained in Gaul, he committed +the affair to the conduct of Nannienus, a leader of great prudence and +skill, joining with him as his colleague with equal power, Mellobaudes, +the count-commander of the domestics and king of the Franks, a man of +great courage and renown in war.[195] + +7. Nannienus took into his consideration the variable chances of +fortune, and therefore voted for acting slowly and with caution, while +Mellobaudes, hurried away by a fierce desire for fighting, according to +his usual custom, was eager at once to march against the enemy; and +would not brook delay. + +8. Presently a horrid shout was raised by the enemy, and the trumpeters +on our side also gave the signal for battle, upon which a fierce +engagement began near Colmar. On both sides numbers fell beneath the +blows of arrows and hurled javelins. + +9. But while the battle was raging, the multitude of the enemy appeared +so countless, that our soldiers, avoiding a conflict with them on the +open field, dispersed as best they could among the different narrow +paths overgrown with trees; but they afterwards stood their ground +firmly, and by the boldness of their carriage and the dazzling splendour +of their arms, when seen from a distance, made the barbarians fear that +the emperor himself was at hand. + +10. And they suddenly turned their backs, still offering occasional +resistance, to leave no chance for safety untried; but at last they were +routed with such slaughter that of their whole number not above 9,000, +as was reckoned, escaped, and these owed their safety to the thickness +of the woods. Among the many bold and gallant men who perished was their +king, Priarius, who had been the principal cause of this ruinous war. + +11. Gratian was greatly delighted and encouraged by this success; and +intending now to proceed to the East, he secretly crossed the Rhine, and +turned his march to the left, being full of sanguine hopes, and +resolving, if fortune should only favour his enterprise, to destroy the +whole of this treacherous and turbulent nation. + +12. And as intelligence of this design was conveyed to the people of +Lintz by repeated messengers, they, who had already been reduced to +great weakness by the almost entire destruction of their forces, and +were now greatly alarmed at the expected approach of the emperor, +hesitated what to do, and as neither by resistance, nor by anything +which they could do or devise, did they perceive any possibility of +obtaining ever so brief a respite, they withdrew with speed to their +hills, which were almost inaccessible from the steepness of their +precipices, and reaching the most inaccessible rocks by a winding path, +they conveyed thither their riches and their families, and prepared to +defend them with all their might. + +13. Having deliberated on this difficulty, our general selected 500 men +of proved experience in war out of each legion, to station opposite to +the entrances to this wall of rock. And they, being further encouraged +by the fact that the emperor himself was continually seen actively +employed among the front rank, endeavoured to scale the precipices, not +doubting but that if they could once set foot upon the rocks they should +instantly catch the barbarians, like so much game, without any conflict; +and so an engagement was commenced towards the approach of noon, and +lasted even to the darkness of night. + +14. Both sides experienced heavy losses. Our men slew numbers, and fell +in numbers; and the armour of the emperor's body-guard, glittering with +gold and brilliant colours, was crushed beneath the weight of the heavy +missiles hurled upon them. + +15. Gratian held a long deliberation with his chief officers; and it +seemed to them fruitless and mischievous to contend with unreasonable +obstinacy against these rugged and overhanging rocks; at last (as is +usual in such affairs), after various opinions had been delivered, it +was determined, without making any more active efforts, to blockade the +barbarians and reduce them by famine; since against all active +enterprises the character of the ground which they occupied was a +sufficient defence. + +16. But the Germans still held out with unflinching obstinacy, and being +thoroughly acquainted with the country, retreated to other mountains +still more lofty than those which they occupied at first. Thither also +the emperor turned with his army, with the same energy as before, +seeking for a path which might lead him to the heights. + +17. And when the barbarians saw him thus with unwearied perseverance +intent upon their destruction, they surrendered; and having by humble +supplication obtained mercy, they furnished a reinforcement of the +flower of their youth to be mingled with our recruits, and were +permitted to retire in safety to their native land. + +18. It is beyond all belief how much vigour and rapidity of action +Gratian, by the favour of the eternal Deity, displayed in gaining this +seasonable and beneficial victory, which broke the power of the Western +tribes at a time when he was preparing to hasten in another direction. +He was indeed a young prince of admirable disposition, eloquent, +moderate, warlike, and merciful, rivalling the most admirable of his +predecessors, even while the down of youth was still upon his cheeks; +the only drawback to his character being that he was sometimes drawn +into ridiculous actions, when, in consequence of temptations held out by +his minions and favourites, he imitated the vain pursuits of Cæsar +Commodus; but he was never bloodthirsty. + +19. For as that prince, because he had been accustomed to slay numbers +of wild beasts with his javelins in the sight of the people, and prided +himself beyond measure on the skill with which he slew a hundred lions +let loose at the same time in the amphitheatre with different missiles, +and without ever having to repeat his shot; so Gratian, in the +enclosures called preserves, slew wild beasts with his arrows, +neglecting much serious business for this amusement, and this at a time +when if Marcus Antoninus had resumed the empire he would have found it +hard, without colleagues of equal genius to his own, and without the +most serious deliberation of counsel, to remedy the grievous disasters +of the republic. + +20. Therefore having made all the arrangements which the time would +permit for the affairs of Gaul, and having punished the traitor of the +Scutarii who had betrayed to the barbarians the intelligence that the +emperor was about to depart with all speed for Illyricum, Gratianus +quitted the army, and passing through the fortress known as that of +Arbor Felix, he proceeded by forced marches to carry his assistance to +those who needed it. + +21. About this time, while Frigeridus was with great wisdom devising +many schemes likely to prove of advantage to the general safety, and was +preparing to fortify the defiles of the Succi, to prevent the enemy +(who, by the rapidity of their movements and their fondness for sallies, +were always threatening the northern provinces like a torrent) from +extending their inroads any further he was superseded by a count named +Maurus, a man cruel, ferocious, fickle, and untrustworthy. This man, as +we have related in our account of preceding transactions being one of +Julian's body-guard to whom the defence of the palace was expressly +committed, while that prince was doubting about accepting the imperial +authority, took the chain from his own neck and offered it to him for a +diadem. + +22. Thus, in the most critical aspect of our difficulties, a cautious +and energetic general was removed, when, even if he had previously +retired into private life, he ought, from the greatness of the affairs +which required his superintendence, to have been brought back again to +the camp. + + +XI. + +A.D. 378. + +§ 1. About the same time Valens quitted Antioch, and, after a long +journey, came to Constantinople, where he stayed a few days, being made +anxious by a trifling sedition among the citizens. He intrusted the +command of the infantry, which had previously been committed to Trajan, +to Sebastian, who at his request had been lately sent to him from Italy, +being a general of well-known vigilance; and he himself went to +Melanthias, a country palace belonging to the emperors, where he +conciliated the soldiers by giving them their pay, furnishing them with +provisions, and frequently addressing them in courteous speeches. + +2. Having left this place, he proceeded according to the stages he had +marked out, and came to a station named Nice, where he learnt from +intelligence brought by his scouts, that the barbarians, who had +collected a rich booty, were returning loaded with it from the districts +about Mount Rhodope, and were now near Hadrianople. They, hearing of +the approach of the emperor with a numerous force, were hastening to +join their countrymen, who were in strong positions around Beræa and +Nicopolis; and immediately (as the ripeness of the opportunity thus +thrown in his way required) the emperor ordered Sebastian to hasten on +with three hundred picked soldiers of each legion, to do something (as +he promised) of signal advantage to the commonweal. + +3. Sebastian pushed on by forced marches, and came in sight of the enemy +near Hadrianople; but as the gates were barred against him, he was +unable to approach nearer, since the garrison feared that he had been +taken prisoner by the enemy, and won over by them: so that something to +the injury of the city might happen, like what had formerly taken place +in the case of Count Actus, who had been cunningly taken prisoner by the +soldiers of Magnentius, and who thus caused the opening of the passes of +the Julian Alps. + +4. At last, though late, they recognized Sebastian, and allowed him to +enter the city. He, then, as well as he could, refreshed the troops +under his command with food and rest, and next morning secretly issued +forth, and towards evening, being partially concealed by the rising +ground and some trees, he suddenly caught sight of the predatory bands +of the Goths near the river Maritza, where, favoured by the darkness of +night, he charged them while in disorder and unprepared, routing them so +completely that, with the exception of a few whom swiftness of foot +saved from death, the whole body were slain, and he recovered such an +enormous quantity of booty, that neither the city, nor the extensive +plains around could contain it. + +5. Fritigern was greatly alarmed; and fearing lest this general, who as +we have often heard succeeded in all his undertakings, should surprise +and utterly destroy his different detachments, which were scattered at +random over the country, intent only on plunder, he called in all his +men near the town of Cabyle, and at once made off, in order to gain the +open country, where he would not be liable to be straitened for want of +provisions, or harassed by secret ambuscades. + +6. While these events were proceeding in Thrace, Gratian having sent +letters to inform his uncle of the energy with which he had overcome the +Allemanni, and forwarded his baggage by land, himself, with a picked +band of his quickest troops, crossed the Danube, reached Bononia, and +afterwards Sirmium, where he halted four days. He then descended the +river to the Camp of Mars, where he was laid up by an intermittent +fever, and, being suddenly assailed by the Alani, lost a few of his +followers. + + +XII. + +§ 1. At this time Valens was disturbed by a twofold anxiety, having +learned that the people of Lintz had been defeated, and also because +Sebastian, in the letters which he sent from time to time, exaggerated +what had taken place by his pompous language. Therefore he advanced from +Melanthias, being eager by some glorious exploit to equal his youthful +nephew, by whose virtue he was greatly excited. He was at the head of a +numerous force, neither unwarlike nor contemptible, and had united with +them many veteran bands, among whom were several officers of high rank, +especially Trajan, who a little while before had been commander of the +forces. + +2. And as by means of spies and observation it was ascertained that the +enemy were intending to blockade the different roads by which the +necessary supplies must come, with strong divisions, he sent a +sufficient force to prevent this, despatching a body of the archers of +the infantry and a squadron of cavalry, with all speed, to occupy the +narrow passes in the neighbourhood. + +3. Three days afterwards, when the barbarians, who were advancing +slowly, because they feared an attack in the unfavourable ground which +they were traversing, arrived within fifteen miles from the station of +Nice, which was the aim of their march, the emperor, with wanton +impetuosity, resolved on attacking them instantly, because those who had +been sent forward to reconnoitre (what led to such a mistake is unknown) +affirmed that their entire body did not exceed ten thousand men. + +4. Marching on with his army in battle array, he came near the suburb +of Hadrianople, where he pitched his camp, strengthening it with a +rampart of palisades, and then impatiently waited for Gratian. While +here, Richomeres, Count of the Domestici, arrived, who had been sent on +by that emperor with letters announcing his immediate approach. + +5. And imploring Valens to wait a little while for him that he might +share his danger, and not rashly face the danger before him single +handed, he took counsel with his officers as to what was best to be +done. + +6. Some, following the advice of Sebastian, recommended with urgency +that he should at once go forth to battle; while Victor, master-general +of the cavalry, a Sarmatian by birth, but a man of slow and cautious +temper, recommended him to wait for his imperial colleague, and this +advice was supported by several other officers, who suggested that the +reinforcement of the Gallic army would be likely to awe the fiery +arrogance of the barbarians. + +7. However, the fatal obstinacy of the emperor prevailed, fortified by +the flattery of some of the princes, who advised him to hasten with all +speed, so that Gratian might have no share in a victory which, as they +fancied, was already almost gained. + +8. And while all necessary preparations were being made for the battle, +a presbyter of the Christian religion (as he called himself), having +been sent by Fritigern as his ambassador, came, with some colleagues of +low rank, to the emperor's camp; and having been received with courtesy, +he presented a letter from that chieftain, openly requesting that the +emperor would grant to him and to his followers, who were now exiles +from their native homes, from which they had been driven by the rapid +invasions of savage nations, Thrace, with all its flocks and all its +crops, for a habitation. And if Valens would consent to this, Fritigern +would agree to a perpetual peace. + +9. In addition to this message, the same Christian, as one acquainted +with his commander's secrets, and well trusted, produced other secret +letters from his chieftain who, being full of craft and every resource +of deceit, informed Valens, as one who was hereafter to be his friend +and ally, that he had no other means to appease the ferocity of his +countrymen, or to induce them to accept conditions advantageous to the +Roman state, unless from time to time he showed them an army under arms +close at hand, and by frightening them with the name of the emperor, +recalled them from their mischievous eagerness for fighting. The +ambassadors retired unsuccessful, having been looked on as suspicious +characters by the emperor. + +10. When the day broke which the annals mark as the fifth of the Ides of +August, the Roman standards were advanced with haste, the baggage having +been placed close to the walls of Hadrianople, under a sufficient guard +of soldiers of the legions; the treasures and the chief insignia of the +emperor's rank were within the walls, with the prefect and the principal +members of the council. + +11. Then, having traversed the broken ground which divided the two +armies, as the burning day was progressing towards noon, at last, after +marching eight miles, our men came in sight of the waggons of the enemy, +which had been stated by the scouts to be all arranged in a circle. +According to their custom, the barbarian host raised a fierce and +hideous yell, while the Roman generals marshalled their line of battle. +The right wing of the cavalry was placed in front; the chief portion of +the infantry was kept in reserve. + +12. But the left wing of the cavalry, of which a considerable number +were still straggling on the road, were advancing with speed, though +with great difficulty; and while this wing was deploying, not as yet +meeting with any obstacle, the barbarians being alarmed at the terrible +clang of their arms and the threatening crash of their shields (since a +large portion of their own army was still at a distance, under Alatheus +and Saphrax, and, though sent for, had not yet arrived), again sent +ambassadors to ask for peace. + +13. The emperor was offended at the lowness of their rank, and replied, +that if they wished to make a lasting treaty, they must send him nobles +of sufficient dignity. They designedly delayed, in order by the +fallacious truce which subsisted during the negotiation to give time for +their cavalry to return, whom they looked upon as close at hand; and for +our soldiers, already suffering from the summer heat, to become parched +and exhausted by the conflagration of the vast plain; as the enemy had, +with this object, set fire to the crops by means of burning faggots and +fuel. To this evil another was added, that both men and cattle were +suffering from extreme hunger. + +14. In the meantime Fritigern, being skilful in divining the future, and +fearing a doubtful struggle, of his own head sent one of his men as a +herald, requesting that some nobles and picked men should at once be +sent to him as hostages for his safety, when he himself would fearlessly +bring us both military aid and supplies. + +15. The proposition of this formidable chief was received with praise +and approbation, and the tribune Equitius, a relation of Valens, who was +at that time high steward of the palace, was appointed, with general +consent, to go with all speed to the barbarians as a hostage. But he +refused, because he had once been taken prisoner by the enemy, and had +escaped from Dibaltum, so that he feared their vengeful anger; upon this +Richomeres voluntarily offered himself, and willingly undertook to go, +thinking it a bold action, and one becoming a brave man; and so he set +out, bearing vouchers of his rank and high birth. + +16. And as he was on his way towards the enemy's camp, the accompanying +archers and Scutarii, who on that occasion were under the command of +Bacurius, a native of Iberia, and of Cassio, yielded, while on their +march, to an indiscreet impetuosity, and on approaching the enemy, first +attacked them rashly, and then by a cowardly flight disgraced the +beginning of the campaign. + +17. This ill-timed attack frustrated the willing services of Richomeres, +as he was not permitted to proceed; in the mean time the cavalry of the +Goths had returned with Alatheus and Saphrax, and with them a battalion +of Alani; these descending from the mountains like a thunderbolt, spread +confusion and slaughter among all whom in their rapid charge they came +across. + + +XIII. + +§ 1. And while arms and missiles of all kinds were meeting in fierce +conflict, and Bellona, blowing her mournful trumpet, was raging more +fiercely than usual, to inflict disaster on the Romans, our men began to +retreat; but presently, roused by the reproaches of their officers, they +made a fresh stand, and the battle increased like a conflagration, +terrifying our soldiers, numbers of whom were pierced by strokes from +the javelins hurled at them, and from arrows. + +2. Then the two lines of battle dashed against each other, like the +beaks (or rams) of ships, and thrusting with all their might, were +tossed to and fro, like the waves of the sea. Our left wing had advanced +actually up to the waggons, with the intent to push on still further if +they were properly supported; but they were deserted by the rest of the +cavalry, and so pressed upon by the superior numbers of the enemy, that +they were overwhelmed and beaten down, like the ruin of a vast rampart. +Presently our infantry also was left unsupported, while the different +companies became so huddled together that a soldier could hardly draw +his sword, or withdraw his hand after he had once stretched it out. And +by this time such clouds of dust arose that it was scarcely possible to +see the sky, which resounded with horrible cries; and in consequence, +the darts, which were bearing death on every side, reached their mark, +and fell with deadly effect, because no one could see them beforehand so +as to guard against them. + +3. But when the barbarians, rushing on with their enormous host, beat +down our horses and men, and left no spot to which our ranks could fall +back to deploy, while they were so closely packed that it was impossible +to escape by forcing a way through them, our men at last began to +despise death, and again took to their swords and slew all they +encountered, while with mutual blows of battle-axes, helmets and +breastplates were dashed in pieces. + +4. Then you might see the barbarian towering in his fierceness, hissing +or shouting, fall with his legs pierced through, or his right hand cut +off, sword and all, or his side transfixed, and still, in the last gasp +of life, casting round him defiant glances. The plain was covered with +carcases, strewing the mutual ruin of the combatants; while the groans +of the dying, or of men fearfully wounded, were intense, and caused +great dismay all around. + +5. Amidst all this great tumult and confusion, our infantry were +exhausted by toil and danger, till at last they had neither strength +left to fight, nor spirits to plan anything; their spears were broken by +the frequent collisions, so that they were forced to content themselves +with their drawn swords, which they thrust into the dense battalions of +the enemy, disregarding their own safety, and seeing that every +possibility of escape was cut off from them. + +6. The ground, covered with streams of blood, made their feet slip, so +that all that they endeavoured to do was to sell their lives as dearly +as possible; and with such vehemence did they resist their enemies who +pressed on them, that some were even killed by their own weapons. At +last one black pool of blood disfigured everything, and wherever the eye +turned, it could see nothing but piled-up heaps of dead, and lifeless +corpses trampled on without mercy. + +7. The sun being now high in the heavens, having traversed the sign of +Leo, and reached the abode of the heavenly Virgo, scorched the Romans, +who were emaciated by hunger, worn out with toil, and scarcely able to +support even the weight of their armour. At last our columns were +entirely beaten back by the overpowering weight of the barbarians, and +so they took to disorderly flight, which is the only resource in +extremity, each man trying to save himself as well as he could. + +8. While they were all flying and scattering themselves over roads with +which they were unacquainted, the emperor, bewildered with terrible +fear, made his way over heaps of dead, and fled to the battalions of the +Lancearii and the Mattiarii, who, till the superior numbers of the enemy +became wholly irresistible, stood firm and immovable. As soon as he saw +him. Trajan exclaimed that all hope was lost, unless the emperor, thus +deserted by his guards, could be protected by the aid of his foreign +allies. + +9. When this exclamation was heard, a count named Victor hastened to +bring up with all speed the Batavians, who were placed in the reserve, +and who ought to have been near at hand, to the emperor's assistance; +but as none of them could be found, he too retreated, and in a similar +manner Richomeres and Saturninus saved themselves from danger. + +10. So now, with rage flashing in their eyes, the barbarians pursued our +men, who were in a state of torpor, the warmth of their veins having +deserted them. Many were slain without knowing who smote them; some were +overwhelmed by the mere weight of the crowd which pressed upon them; and +some were slain by wounds inflicted by their own comrades. The +barbarians spared neither those who yielded nor those who resisted. + +11. Besides these, many half slain lay blocking up the roads, unable to +endure the torture of their wounds; and heaps of dead horses were piled +up and filled the plain with their carcases. At last a dark moonless +night put an end to the irremediable disaster which cost the Roman state +so dear. + +12. Just when it first became dark, the emperor being among a crowd of +common soldiers, as it was believed--for no one said either that he had +seen him, or been near him--was mortally wounded with an arrow, and, +very shortly after, died, though his body was never found. For as some +of the enemy loitered for a long time about the field in order to +plunder the dead, none of the defeated army or of the inhabitants +ventured to go to them. + +13. A similar fate befell the Cæsar Decius, when fighting vigorously +against the barbarians; for he was thrown by his horse falling, which he +had been unable to hold, and was plunged into a swamp, out of which he +could never emerge, nor could his body be found. + +14. Others report that Valens did not die immediately, but that he was +borne by a small body of picked soldiers and eunuchs to a cabin in the +neighbourhood, which was strongly built, with two stories; and that +while these unskilful hands were tending his wounds, the cottage was +surrounded by the enemy, though they did not know who was in it; still, +however, he was saved from the disgrace of being made a prisoner. + +15. For when his pursuers, while vainly attempting to force the barred +doors, were assailed with arrows from the roof, they, not to lose by so +inconvenient a delay the opportunity of collecting plunder, gathered +some faggots and stubble, and setting fire to them, burnt down the +building, with those who were in it. + +16. But one of the soldiers dropped from the windows, and, being taken +prisoner by the barbarians, revealed to them what had taken place, which +caused them great concern, because they looked upon themselves as +defrauded of great glory in not having taken the ruler of the Roman +state alive. This same young man afterwards secretly returned to our +people, and gave this account of the affair. + +17. When Spain had been recovered after a similar disaster, we are told +that one of the Scipios was lost in a fire, the tower in which he had +taken refuge having been burnt. At all events it is certain that neither +Scipio nor Valens enjoyed that last honour of the dead--a regular +funeral. + +18. Many illustrious men fell in this disastrous defeat, and among them +one of the most remarkable was Trajan, and another was Sebastian; there +perished also thirty-five tribunes who had no particular command, many +captains of battalions, and Valerianus and Equitius, one of whom was +master of the horse and the other high steward. Potentius, too, tribune +of the promoted officers, fell in the flower of his age, a man respected +by all persons of virtue, and recommended by the merits of his father, +Ursicinus, who had formerly been commander of the forces, as well as by +his own. Scarcely one-third of the whole army escaped. + +19. Nor, except the battle of Cannæ, is so destructive a slaughter +recorded in our annals; though, even in the times of their prosperity, +the Romans have more than once had to deplore the uncertainty of war, +and have for a time succumbed to evil Fortune; while the well-known +dirges of the Greeks have bewailed many disastrous battles. + + +XIV. + +§ 1. Such was the death of Valens, when he was about fifty years old, +and had reigned rather less than fourteen years. We will now describe +his virtues, which were known to many, and his vices. + +2. He was a faithful and steady friend--a severe chastiser of +ambition--a rigid upholder of both military and civil discipline--always +careful that no one should assume importance on account of any +relationship to himself; slow both in conferring office, and in taking +it away; a very just ruler of the provinces, all of which he protected +from injury, as if each had been his own house; devoting singular care +to the lessening the burdens of the state, and never permitting any +increase of taxation. He was very moderate in the exaction of debts due +to the state, but a vehement and implacable foe to all thieves, and to +every one convicted of peculations; nor in affairs of this kind was the +East, by its own confession, ever better treated under any other +emperor. + +3. Besides all this, he was liberal with due regard to moderation, of +which quality there are many examples, one of which it will be +sufficient to mention here:--As in palaces there are always some persons +covetous of the possessions of others, if any one petitioned for lapsed +property, or anything else which it was usual to apply for, he made a +proper distinction between just and unjust claims, and when he gave it +to the petitioner, while reserving full liberty to any one to raise +objections, he often associated the successful candidate with three or +four partners, in order that those covetous suitors might conduct +themselves with more moderation, when they saw the profits for which +they were so eager diminished by this device. + +4. Of the edifices, which in the different cities and towns he either +repaired or built from their foundations, I will say nothing (to avoid +prolixity), allowing those things to speak for themselves. These +qualities, in my opinion, deserve the imitation of all good men. Now let +us enumerate his vices. + +5. He was an immoderate coveter of great wealth; impatient of labour, he +affected an extreme severity, and was too much inclined to cruelty; his +behaviour was rude and rough; and he was little imbued with skill either +in war or in the liberal arts. He willingly sought profit and advantage +in the miseries of others, and was more than ever intolerable in +straining ordinary offences into sedition or treason; he cruelly +encompassed the death or ruin of wealthy nobles. + +6. This also was unendurable, that while he wished to have it appear +that all actions and suits were decided according to the law, and while +the investigation of such affairs was delegated to judges especially +selected as the most proper to decide them, he still would not allow any +decision to be given which was contrary to his own pleasure. He was also +insulting, passionate, and always willing to listen to all informers, +without the least distinction as to whether the charges which they +advanced were true or false. And this vice is one very much to be +dreaded, even in private affairs of everyday occurrence. + +7. He was dilatory and sluggish; of a swarthy complexion; had a cast in +one eye, a blemish, however, which was not visible at a distance; his +limbs were well set; his figure was neither tall nor short; he was +knock-kneed, and rather pot-bellied. + +8. This is enough to say about Valens: and the recollection of his +contemporaries will fully testify that this account is a true one. But +we must not omit to mention that when he had learnt that the oracle of +the tripod, which we have related to have been moved by Patricius and +Hilanus, contained those three prophetic lines, the last of which is,-- + + "Ἐν πεδίοισι Μίμαντος ἀλαλκομένοισιν ἄρηα." + + "Repelling murd'rous war in Mimas' plain;" + +--he, being void of accomplishments and illiterate, despised them at +first; but as his calamities increased, he became filled with abject +fear, and, from a recollection of this same prophecy, began to dread the +very name of Asia, where he had been informed by learned men that both +Homer and Cicero had spoken of the Mountain of Mimas over the town of +Erythræ. + +9. Lastly,--after his death, and the departure of the enemy, it is said +that a monument was found near the spot where he is believed to have +died, with a stone fixed into it inscribed with Greek characters, +indicating that some ancient noble of the name of Mimas was buried +there. + + +XV. + +§ 1. After this disastrous battle, when night had veiled the earth in +darkness, those who survived fled, some to the right, some to the left, +or wherever fear guided them, each man seeking refuge among his +relations, as no one could think of anything but himself, while all +fancied the lances of the enemy sticking in their backs. And far off +were heard the miserable wailings of those who were left behind--the +sobs of the dying, and the agonizing groans of the wounded. + +2. But when daylight returned, the conquerors, like wild beasts rendered +still more savage by the blood they had tasted, and allured by the +temptations of groundless hope, marched in a dense column upon +Hadrianople, resolved to run any risk in order to take it, having been +informed by traitors and deserters that the principal officers of State, +the insignia of the imperial authority, and the treasures of Valens had +all been placed there for safety, as in an impregnable fortress. + +3. And to prevent the ardour of the soldiers from being cooled by delay, +the whole city was blockaded by the fourth hour; and the siege from that +time was carried on with great vigour, the besiegers, from their innate +ferocity, pressing in to complete its destruction, while, on the other +hand, the garrison was stimulated to great exertions by their natural +courage. + +4. And while the vast number of soldiers and grooms, who were prohibited +from entering the city with their beasts, kept close to the walls and to +the houses which joined them, and fought gallantly, considering the +disadvantages under which they laboured from the lowness of the ground +which they occupied, and baffled the rage of their assailants till the +ninth hour of the day, on a sudden three hundred of our infantry, of +those who were nearest the battlements, formed themselves into a solid +body, and deserted to the barbarians, who seized upon them with avidity, +and (it is not known on what account) at once slaughtered them all. And +from that time forth it was remarked that no one, even in the extremity +of despair, adopted any similar conduct. + +5. Now while all these misfortunes were at their height, suddenly there +came a violent thunderstorm, and rain pouring down from the black clouds +dispersed the bands of soldiers who were raging around; and they +returned to their camp, which was measured out in a circle by their +waggons; and being more elated and haughty than ever, they sent +threatening letters to our men ... and an ambassador ... on condition of +safety to him. + +6. But as the messenger did not dare to enter the city, the letters were +at last brought in by a certain Christian; and when they had been read +and considered with all proper attention, the rest of the day and the +whole of the night was devoted to preparing for defence. For inside the +city the gates were blocked up with huge stones; the weak parts of the +walls were strengthened, and engines to hurl javelins or stones were +fixed on all convenient places, and a sufficient supply of water was +also provided; for the day before some of the combatants had been +distressed almost to death by thirst. + +7. On the other hand the Goths, considering the difficulty and +uncertainty of all warlike transactions, and becoming anxious at seeing +their bravest warriors wounded and slain, and their strength gradually +diminished, devised and adopted a crafty counsel, which, however, was +revealed to us by Justice herself. + +8. They seduced some picked soldiers of our army, who had revolted to +them the day before, to pretend to escape back to their former comrades, +and thus gain admittance within the walls; and after they had effected +their entrance, they were secretly to set fire to some part of the city, +so that the conflagration might serve as a secret signal, and while the +garrison and citizens were occupied in extinguishing it, the walls might +be left undefended, and so be easily stormed. + +9. The traitors did as they were commanded; and when they came near the +ditch they stretched out their hands, and with entreaties requested to +be admitted into the city as Romans. When they were admitted, however +(since no suspicion existed to hinder their admission), and were +questioned as to the plans of the enemy, they varied in their tale: and +in consequence they were put to the torture, and having formally +confessed what they had undertaken to do, they were all beheaded. + +10. Accordingly, every resource of war having been prepared, the +barbarians, at the third watch discarding all fear from past failures, +rushed in enormous numbers against the blocked-up entrances of the city, +their officers urging them with great obstinacy. But the provincials and +imperial guards, with the rest of the garrison, rose with fearless +courage to repel them, and their missiles of every kind, even when shot +at random among so vast a crowd, could not fall harmless. Our men +perceived that the barbarians were using the same weapons which we +ourselves had shot at them: and accordingly an order was given that the +strings which fastened the iron points to the javelins and arrows should +be cut before they were hurled or shot; so that while flying they should +preserve their efficacy, but when they pierced a body or fell on the +ground they should come asunder. + +11. While affairs were in this critical state an unexpected accident had +a considerable influence on the result. A scorpion, a military engine +which in ordinary language is also known as the wild-ass, being +stationed opposite the dense array of the enemy, hurled forth a huge +stone, which, although it fell harmless on the ground, yet by the mere +sight of it terrified them so greatly, that in alarm at the strange +spectacle they all fell back and endeavoured to retreat. + +12. But their officers ordering the trumpets to sound a charge, the +battle was renewed; and the Romans, as before, got the advantage, not a +single javelin or bullet hurled by a slinger failing of its effect. For +the troops of the generals who led the vanguard, and who were inflamed +by the desire of possessing themselves of the treasures which Valens had +so wickedly acquired, were followed closely by others who were vain of +exposing themselves to as much danger as those of greater renown. And +some were wounded almost to death: others were struck down, crushed by +huge weights, or pierced through their breasts with javelins; some who +carried ladders and attempted to scale the walls on different sides were +buried under their own burthens, being beaten down by stones which were +hurled upon them, and by fragments of pillars and cylinders. + +13. And yet, horrible as the sight of this bloodshed was, so great was +their ardour that no one relaxed in his gallant exertions till the +evening, being encouraged by seeing many of the garrison also fall by +various wounds. So, without rest or relaxation, both the besiegers and +the besieged fought with unwearied courage. + +14. And now no kind of order was observed by the enemy, but they fought +in detached bands and in skirmishes (which is the sign of the extremity +of despair); and at last, when evening came on, they all returned to +their tents, sorrowfully, each man accusing his neighbour of +inconsiderate rashness, because they had not taken the advice of +Fritigern, and avoided the labours and dangers of a siege. + + +XVI. + +§ 1. After the battle, the soldiers devoted the whole night (which, as +it was summer, was not long) to tending the wounded with all the +remedies known to their nations, and when daylight returned they began +to discuss various plans, doubting what to do. And after many plans had +been proposed and objected to, they at last decided to occupy Perinthus, +and then, every place where they could hear that any treasures were +stored up, the deserters and fugitives having given them all the +information they required, so that they learnt what was in every house, +to say nothing of what was in every city. Adopting this resolution +unanimously, which they thought the best, they advanced by slow marches, +ravaging and burning everything as they passed. + +2. But those who had been besieged in Hadrianople, after the barbarians +had departed, as soon as scouts of approved fidelity had reported that +the whole place was free from enemies, issued forth at midnight, and +avoiding the public causeways, took out-of-way roads through the woods, +and withdrew, some to Philippopolis, and from thence to Serdica, others +to Macedonia; with all the wealth which they had saved undiminished, and +pressing on with the greatest exertion and celerity, as if they were +likely to find Valens in those regions, since they were wholly ignorant +that he had perished in battle, or else certainly (as is rather +believed) burnt to death in the cottage. + +3. Meanwhile the Goths, combining with the Huns and Alani, both brave +and warlike tribes, and inured to toil and hardship, whom Fritigern had +with great ability won over to his side by the temptation of great +rewards--fixed their camp near Perinthus; but recollecting their +previous losses, they did not venture to come close to the city, or make +any attempt to take it; they, however, devastated and entirely stripped +the fertile territory surrounding it, slaying or making prisoners of the +inhabitants. + +4. From hence they marched with speed to Constantinople in battle array, +from fear of ambuscades; being eager to make themselves masters of its +ample riches, and resolved to try every means to take that illustrious +city. But while giving way to extravagant pride, and beating almost +against the barriers of the gates, they were repulsed in this instance +by the Deity. + +5. A body of Saracens (a nation of whose origin and manners we have +already given a full account in several places), being more suited for +sallies and skirmishes than for pitched battles, had been lately +introduced into the city; and, as soon as they saw the barbarian host, +they sallied out boldly from the city to attack it. There was a stubborn +fight for some time; and at last both armies parted on equal terms. + +6. But a strange and unprecedented incident gave the final advantage to +the eastern warriors; for one of them with long hair, naked--with the +exception of a covering round his waist--shouting a hoarse and +melancholy cry, drew his dagger and plunged into the middle of the +Gothic host, and after he had slain an enemy, put his lips to his +throat, and sucked his blood. The barbarians were terrified at this +marvellous prodigy, and from that time forth, when they proceeded on any +enterprise, displayed none of their former and usual ferocity, but +advanced with hesitating steps. + +7. As time went on their ardour damped, and they began to take into +consideration the vast circuit of the walls (which was the greater on +account of the large space occupied by mansions with gardens within it), +the inaccessible beauties of the city, and the immensity of its +population; also the vicinity of the strait which divides the Black Sea +from the Ægean. Then after destroying the works which they had +constructed, having sustained greater losses than they had inflicted, +they raised the siege, and roamed at random over the northern provinces, +which they traversed without restraint as far as the Julian Alps, which +the ancients used to call the Venetian Alps. + +8. At this time the energy and promptitude of Julius, the commander of +the forces on the other side of Mount Taurus, was particularly +distinguished; for when he learnt what had happened in Thrace, he sent +secret letters to all the governors of the different cities and forts, +who were all Romans (which at this time is not very common), requesting +them, on one and the same day, as at a concerted signal, to put to death +all the Goths who had previously been admitted into the places under +their charge; first luring them into the suburbs, in expectation of +receiving the pay which had been promised to them. This wise plan was +carried out without any disturbance or any delay; and thus the Eastern +provinces were delivered from great dangers. + +9. Thus have I, a Greek by birth, and formerly a soldier, related all +the events from the accession of Nerva to the death of Valens, to the +best of my abilities; professing above all things to tell the truth, +which, as I believe, I have never knowingly perverted, either by silence +or by falsehood. Let better men in the flower of their age, and of +eminent accomplishments, relate the subsequent events. But if it should +please them to undertake the task, I warn them to sharpen their tongues +to a loftier style. + + +[189] The text is unusually mutilated here. It has been proposed to +insert: "A little goat with its throat cut was found dead in the +street." + +[190] Virg. Georg., II. 106. + +[191] Ammianus here alludes to the canal out through Mount Athos. + +[192] See Gibbon, vol. ii., p. 215 (Bohn's edition). + +[193] See Gibbon, vol. iii., p. 229 (Bohn). + +[194] Barritus is the word used for the trumpeting of an elephant. + +[195] See Gibbon, vol. iii., p. 181 (Bohn). + + + + +INDEX. + + +A. + +Abanni, a people of Africa, 533 + +Abarne, a town in Mesopotamia, noted for its hot springs, 182 + +Abdera, the birthplace of Protagoras and Democritus, 286 + +Abdigidus, a tribune, 173 + +Abienus, a senator, 477, 478 + +Abii, a people of Persia, 339 + +Abladius, prefect of the prætorium, 236 + +Abora, or Chaboras, a river in Mesopotamia, 111 + +Abydos, 287 + +Abydum, a town in Thebais, 208 + +Achæi, a Caspian tribe, 290 + +Achaiacala, a fort on an island in the Euphrates, 350 + +Acheron, the river, 289 + +Acherusian, the cave, 289 + +Acilius Glabrio, the first Roman to whom a statue was erected, 16 + +Acimincum, a town in Hungary, 205 + +Acone, a port on the Euxine Sea, 289 + +Acontiæ, a species of serpent in Egypt, 311 + +Acontisma, a narrow defile between Thrace and Macedonia, 443 + +Acrapatena, a province of Media, 335 + +Adaces, a Persian Satrap, killed, 374 + +Addense, 531 + +Adelphius, prefect of Rome, 92 + +Adiabas, a river in Assyria, 334 + +Adiabene, a province of Assyria, 176, 320, 333 + +Adonis, 186 + +Adrastea, the goddess of retribution, called also Nemesis, 42, 281 + +Adrastus, king of the Argives, 41 + +Ædesius, keeper of the records, 56, 58 + +Ægean Sea, 286 + +Ælian, Count, 182, 183; + crucified by the Persians, 200 + +Ænus, a city of Thrace, 286, 444 + +Africanus, Governor of the second Pannonia, 50, 95 + +Agabana, a fortress in Persia, 463 + +Agathocles, king of Sicily, 44 + +Agathyrsi, a tribe near the Palus Mæotis, 291 + +Agazaca, a city of the Paropanisatæ, 342 + +Agenarichus, king of the Allemanni, 113 + +Agilimundus, a chieftain of the Quadi, 151 + +Agilo, an equerry, 34, 266; + promoted to the prefecture by Julian, 279; + recalled to military service by Procopius, 422; + intercedes for his father-in-law Araxius, 432 + +Aginatius put to death by Maximin, 474 + +Aiadalthes, a tribune, 181 + +Alani, a Scythian tribe, 291, 328, 580, 581, 599, 611 + +Alatheus, 583, 587, 611 + +Alavivus, a general of the Goths, 585, 587 + +Albani, allies of the Persians, 176, 187, 332 + +Albinus of Etruria, 56 + +Alexander the Great, 41, 46, 89 + +Alexander of Heliopolis, 319 + +Alexandria, a village near Rome, 131 + +---- in Egypt, 300; + described, 313; + its temples and library, 314; + its schools, 315 + +---- a city in Arachosia, 343 + +---- in Ariana, 342 + +---- in Carmania, 339 + +---- an island in Persia, 338 + +---- a town in Sogdiana, 340 + +Alfenus, a distinguished lawyer, 556 + +Alicodra, a city in Bactria, 340 + +Aligildus, a count, 271, 277 + +Aliso, a tribune, 427 + +Alitrophagi, a Scythian tribe, 341 + +Allemanni, or Germans--these names are used promiscuously by + Ammianus--defeated at the battle of Strasburg, 118, 247; + lay waste Gaul and Rhætia, 413, 414; + defeated by Jovinus, 438, 567; + make incursions into the Roman territory, 602; + are defeated, 604 + +Allobroges, a nation of Gaul, 81 + +Alpheus, a river rising in Arcadia, 53 + +Alps, the Cottian, 75; + the Julian, 259; + the Grecian, 76; + the Penine, 76; + Hannibal's passage of the, 77 + +Alypius of Antioch, 317, 514 + +---- a Roman noble, 471 + +Amantius, a soothsayer, 472 + +Amanus, a mountain range in Cilicia, 27 + +Amardus, a river in Media, 337 + +Amastris, a city in Paphlagonia, 289 + +Amazons, one of the Caspian tribes, 291; + defeated by the Athenians, 289 + +Amida, a city of Mesopotamia, 174; + besieged by Sapor, 185; + betrayed by a deserter, 192; + courage of the garrison, 195; + a sortie of the Gallic troops, from, 195, 236 + +Amiens (Ambians), a city in Belgium, 79, 453 + +Aminias, a Persian general, 369 + +Amisus, a city in Pontus, 289 + +Ammianus, his noble birth, 199; + placed under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis, by the Emperor + Constantius, 30; + returns to Italy, 37; + his industry, 45; + sent into Gaul, 60; + sent back to the East, 103; + visits Thebes, 130; + recalled, 171; + escapes from Nisibis, 173; + sent to Jovinianus, satrap of Corduena, 175; + narrow escape of, 181; + arrives at Antioch, 200; + accompanies Julian in his expedition against the Persians, 326; + returns with Jovian, 402; + his advice to future historians, 623 + +Ampelius, prefect of Otricoli, 472 + +Amphiaraus, an ancient seer, 4 + +Amphilochius, a Paphlagonian, 252 + +Amphisbæna, a serpent, 311 + +Amphitheatre at Rome, 102, 411 + +Amphitus, a Spartan, the charioteer of Castor and Pollux, 290 + +Amudis, a fort in Mesopotamia, 173 + +Amycus, king of the Bebrycii, 288 + +Anaphe, an island in the Ægean Sea, 139 + +Anatha, a fortress in Mesopotamia, 347 + +Anatolius, prefect of Illyricum, 204; + master of the offices, 234; + his death, 253; + an officer of the palace, 504 + +Anaxagoras the philosopher, 287; + predicted the fall of stones and earthquakes, 315 + +Anaximander, a Milesian philosopher, 139 + +Anazarbus, a city of Cilicia, 27 + +Anchialos, a city of Thrace, 293, 444 + +Ancorarius, a mountain of Mauritania, 531 + +Ancyra, a city of Galatia, 296, 403, 426 + +Andernach (Antumacum), 161 + +Andocides, a Grecian orator, 554 + +Andriscus of Adramyttium, 44, 421 + +Andronicus, a poet, 209 + +Anepsia, wife of Victorinus, 475, 478 + +Anicenses, a Sarmatian tribe, 154 + +Anicii, the, a noble family at Rome, 98 + +Annib, a mountain in Scythia, 341 + +Anthemusia, a province of Mesopotamia, 10 + +Anthropophagi, a Scythian tribe, 580 + +Antibes (Antipolis), a town in Gaul, 79 + +Antinopolis, a town in Mesopotamia, built by Constantius, 182 + +Antinous, a city in Egypt, 312 + +Antioch in Syria, 28; + visited by the Emperor Julian, 297; + by Jovian, 401 + +Antiochia, in Persia, 339 + +Antiphon, a Greek orator, 554 + +Antoninus, a wealthy merchant, afterwards one of the protectors, 168; + his treachery, 169 + +Antonius, a tribune, 415 + +Anzaba, a river in Mesopotamia, 175 + +Apamia, a city in Assyria, 334, 338 + +---- a city in Thrace, 287 + +Apamia, a city in Syria, 28 + +Apis, the sacred Egyptian bull, 306 + +Apodemius, the secretary for the provinces, 41, 46; + sentenced to be burnt alive, 280 + +Apollinarii, father and son, the former governor of Phoenicia, the + latter steward of the palace, 26 + +Apollo, the Cumæan, 334; + of Daphne, 303; + the Palatine, 320; + the Sminthius, 286 + +Apollonia, a city of Thrace, 293 + +---- in Assyria, 334 + +Apollonius of Tyana, 270 + +Apronianus, prefect of Rome, 317; + suppresses the magicians, 411 + +Aprunculus Gallus, an orator and soothsayer, afterwards governor of + Narbonne, 277 + +Aquileia, the capital of Venetia, 261; + besieged by Julian, 261; + surrenders, 264 + +Aquitani, a nation of Gaul, 78 + +Arabia reduced to a Roman province by the Emperor Trajan, 29; + Arabia Felix, 338 + +Arabis, a river in the country of the Drangiani, 342 + +Aracha, a town in Susiana, 335, 337 + +Arachosia, a Persian province, 342 + +Arachotoscrene, a marsh in Arachosia, 343 + +Aradius, count of the east, 317 + +Araharius, a Sarmatian chief, 149 + +Arar, a river in Gaul (the Saône), 80 + +Arator, duke, 481 + +Aratus the poet, 299, 386 + +Araxates, a river in Sogdiana, 340 + +Araxius, prefect of the prætorium, 422 + +Arbaca, a city in Arachosia, 343 + +Arbela, a city in Adiabene, 334 + +Arbetio, 36, 47, 92; + made consul, 71, 213 + +Arboreus, high chamberlain, 49 + +Arbor Felix, fortress of, 605 + +Arcadius, a river of the Euxine, 289 + +Archelaus, a general of King Mithridates, 116 + +Archimedes the mathematician, 407 + +Ardea, a town in Persia, 338 + +Areans, a sect, 485 + +Areopagus, 518 + +Arethusa, a town in Thrace, the burial-place of Euripides, 443 + +Argæus, a mountain in Cappadocia, 233 + +Argonauts, the, 27 + +Ariana, a province of Persia, 342 + +Arias, a river in Arcana, 342 + +Ariaspe, a town in the province of Drangiana, 342 + +Arimaspi, a fierce one-eyed nation bordering on Persia, 332 + +Arimphæi, a nation bordering on the Euxine, 292 + +Arinchi, a savage tribe near the Euxine, 291 + +Arintheus, a tribune, 54; + commands the left wing of the army under Julian, 347; + ambassador to the Persians, 393, 446 + +Aristænetus, prefect of Bithynia, lost his life in an earthquake, 138 + +Aristarchus the grammarian, 314 + +Aristides, 558 + +Aristobulus consul with Diocletian, 317 + +Arles (Arelate), a town on the Rhone, 79 + +Armenia conquered by Galerius, 134; + its restoration to the Persians demanded by Sapor, 135; + abandoned by Jovian in the treaty of Dura, 394, 549 + +Armonius, a mountain in Asia Minor, 289 + +Arsaces, the first king of the Parthians, 330 + +---- king of Armenia, + an ally of Constantius, 235; + of Julian, 318; + taken prisoner by the Persians, 394; + put to death, 463 + +Arsacia, a city of Media, 337 + +Arsiana, a city of Susiana, 335 + +Arsinoë, a city of Cyrene, anciently called Tauchira, and now Tochira, 312 + +Artabannes, a Persian satrap, 463 + +Artabius, a river in Gedrosia, a district of Persia, 343 + +Artacana, a city of Parthia, 338 + +Artemis, a river in Bactria, 340 + +Artemisia, queen of Caria, 487 + +Artemius, deputy-governor of Rome, 146 + +---- duke of Egypt, 300 + +Artogerassa, a city of Armenia, 464 + +Arzanena, a province of Mesopotamia, 393 + +Ascalon, a city of Palestine, 29 + +Ascanimia, a mountain in Scythia, 340 + +Asclepiades the philosopher, 304 + +Asclepiodotus, count, 65 + +Asia Minor, description of, 289 + +Asmira, a mountain in Serica, 341 + +Asp, the largest species of serpent in Egypt, 311 + +Aspabota, a city of Scythia, 341 + +Aspacaræ, a tribe of the Seres, 341 + +Aspacuras, a Persian satrap, 466 + +Asparata, a city of the Betæ, 341 + +Assanite Saracens, 350 + +Assyria, the wife of Barbatio, 165 + +---- a province of Persia, in the time of Ammianus called Adiabene, 333 + +Astacea, a city of Bactria, 340 + +Astacus, a city in Bithynia, also called Nicomedia, 287 + +Atacotti harass the Britons, 413 + +Athagoræ, a Scythian tribe, 341 + +Athanaric, a Gothic chief, 447, 583 + +Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, his character, 67 + +Athos, a mountain in Macedonia, 286 + +Athribis, a city of Egypt, 313 + +Athyras, a port in the Propontis, 287 + +Ati, a people near the cataracts of the Nile, 308 + +Atlas, a mountain in Africa, 50 + +Attuarii, a tribe of Franks, 235 + +Auch (Ausci), a town in Aquitania, 79 + +Augury, modes of, 245 + +Augusta (Londinium), the capital of Roman Britain, 483 + +Augustamnica, a province of Egypt, 312 + +Augustus, Emperor, his correction of the calendar, 408 + +Aulon, a cave near the Euxine, 290 + +Aurelian, the Emperor, 570 + +Aureolus, a conspirator against Constantius, 274 + +Austoriani, a people of Mauritania, 413 + +Autun (Augustodunum), the chief town of the Ædui, 79 + +Auxerre (Autosidorum), a city in Gaul, 85 + +Avenche (Aventicum), the capital of the Helvetii, 79 + +Avernus, a lake in Campania, 489 + +Avitianus, deputy-governor of Africa, 451 + +Axius, a river of Macedonia, 258 + +Azmorna, a city of Hyrcania, 339 + +Azov, sea of (Palus Mæotis), 288, 577, 582 + + +B. + +Babylon, 334 + +Bacchus, 290 + +Bacchylides, the lyric poet, 383 + +Bactra, a river in Bactria, 340 + +Bactrians, 339 + +Bætica, a consular province of Spain, 473 + +Bagrada, a river in Persia, 337 + +Bainobaudes, a tribune of the Scutarii, 39, 105; + (2) a tribune of the Cornuti, 106; + killed in the battle of Strasburg, 121 + +Balista, a military engine for discharging stones, described, 322 + +Bappo, a tribune, commander of the Promoti, 54 + +Baraba, a town in Arabia Felix, 338 + +Barbatio, count of the domestics, 40; + promoted to the command of the infantry, 104, 136; + a swarm of bees on his house regarded as a bad omen, 165; + an arrogant and treacherous man, 166; + beheaded, 166 + +Barbitani, mountains in Persia lying towards India, 343 + +Barchalbas, a tribune, 430 + +Bards, the poets of Gaul, 74 + +Barzala, a fort in Mesopotamia, 179 + +Barzimeres, tribune of the Scutarii, 546 + +Basilica of Sicininus in Rome, probably the church of Santa Maria + Maggiore, 441 + +Basilina, mother of the Emperor Julian, 383 + +Basilisk, a kind of Egyptian serpent, 311 + +Bassianus, a Roman of noble family, 515 + +Bassus, prefect of Rome, 146 + +Batne, a town near the Euphrates, where an annual fair was held, 10 + +Battus, a Spartan, the founder of Cyrene, 312 + +Bautis, a river in Serica, 341 + +Bazas (Vasatæ), a town in Gaul, 79 + +Bebase, a town in Mesopotamia, 178 + +Bebrycia, a district in Bithynia, 288 + +Belgæ, the most warlike people of Gaul, 78 + +Belias, a river of Mesopotamia which falls into the Euphrates, 321 + +Bellovædius, a tribune given as a hostage to the Persians, 394 + +Beræa, a city of Thrace, 444 + +Berenice, also called Hesperides, a town in Libya, 312 + +Berytus, a city of Phoenicia (the modern Beirut), 28 + +Besa, the name of an Egyptian deity, 208 + +Besançon, a city of the Sequani, 79, 253 + +Besbicus, an island in the Propontis, 287 + +Bessi, a Thracian tribe, 444 + +Betæ, a people in Serica, 341 + +Bezabde, a town on the Tigris formerly called Phoenice, 225, 266; + captured by Sapor, 227; + unsuccessfully besieged by Constantius, 237-239 + +Bineses, a Persian satrap, 394 + +Bingen (Bingium), a town in Germany, 161 + +Bisula, a river (the Weichsel), 292 + +Bitaxa, a town of the Ariani, 342 + +Bitheridus, a German noble, 525 + +Bithynia, 288 + +Bizes, a river of the Euxine, 288 + +Blemmyæ, a people near the cataracts of the Nile, 11 + +Boæ, an island on the coast of Dalmatia, 279 + +Bonitus, a Frank, the father of Silvanus, 63 + +Bonmunster (Bononia), a town in Pannonia, 257 + +Bonn (Bonna), a town in Germany, 161 + +Bordeaux (Burdegala), a city in Aquitania, 79 + +Borion, a promontory in Egypt, 307 + +Bosporus, the Thracian (the Straits of Constantinople), 288 + +---- the Cimmerian (Straits of Yene-Kali), 70 + +Bostra, a city of Arabia, 29 + +Boulogne (Bononia), a town in Gaul, 212 + +Brahmans, 336, 470 + +Branchidæ, an oracle in the Milesian territory, 511 + +Briançon (Virgantia), 76 + +Brigantia (the lake of Constance), 52 + +Brisoana, a Persian river, 337 + +Britain, corn exported to Rome, 161; + pearls found in the British sea, 345; + suffers from the incursions of the Picts and Sects, 212, 453; + invaded by the Saxons, 413; + distress of, 453; + Theodosius goes to assist, 483 + +Bruchion, a quarter in Alexandria, inhabited by opulent persons, 314 + +Brumat (Brocomagus), a city of Germany, 86 + +Bucenobantes, a tribe of the Allemanni, 524 + +Buffaloes in Egypt, 309 + +Bura, a town destroyed by an earthquake, 140 + +Burgundians, 495; + their kings called Hendinos, 495; + their chief priest called the Sinistus, 496 + +Busan, a fort in Mesopotamia, 183 + +Byzantium (Constantinople), 287 + +Byzares, a people near the Euxine, 290 + + +C. + +Cabillonum (Châlons sur Marne), 98, 436 + +Cabyle, a town in Thrace, 607 + +Cadusii, a tribe on the Caspian Sea, 332 + +Cæni Gallici, a station in Bithynia, 38 + +Cæla, a town near the Hellespont, 287 + +Cæranius, a philosopher, 520 + +Cæsarea, formerly Mazaca, a town in Cappadocia, 233 + +---- a town in Mauritania, 534 + +---- a town in Palestine, 29 + +Cæsariensis, a province of Mauritania, 526 + +Cæsarius, prefect of Constantinople, 422 + +---- secretary of the Emperor, 551 + +Cæsias, treasurer of the commander of the cavalry, 200 + +Cafaves, a people of Africa, 532 + +Calatis, a town in European Scythia, 444 + +Calicadnus, a river in Isauria, 9 + +Callichorus, a river near the Euxine Sea, 290 + +Callimachus, an ancient Grecian general, 369 + +Callipolis, a city at the head of the Hellespont, 287 + +Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, 166 + +Callistratus, an ancient orator, 554 + +Camaritæ, a tribe near the Euxine Sea, 290 + +Cambyses, king of Persia, 129 + +---- a river in Media, 337 + +Camels first seen by the Romans at the siege of Cyzicus, 340 + +Camenius, a Roman senator, 473 + +Camp of Hercules (Castra Herculis), a town in Germany, 161 + +Camp of Mars, a town in Dacia, 608 + +Camp of the Moors, a town or fortress in Mesopotamia, 173, 393 + +Canini, a people on the borders of Rhætia, 52 + +Canopus, a city of Egypt, 314 + +Cantichus, a gulf in Armenia, 332 + +Capellatum, a district on the borders of the Burgundians, 164 + +Capersana, a town in Syria, 179; + called also Capessana, 255 + +Caphareus, a promontory of Euboea, 286 + +Carambis, a promontory in Paphlagonia (now Cape Kerempe), 289 + +Carcinites, a river and bay on the Euxine Sea, 292 + +Carmania, a province of Persia, 338 + +Carnuntum, a city of Illyria, 559 + +Carpi, a people on the Danube, 446, 468 + +Carræ, a town of Mesopotamia, 177, 237, 320 + +Cascellius, a Roman lawyer, 556 + +Caspian, tribes of the, 291 + +Cassianus, Duke of Mesopotamia, 98, 176, 201, 396 + +Cassium, a town in Egypt, 312 + +Cassius, a mountain in Syria, 28; + Julian sacrifices to Jupiter upon it, 305 + +Castalia, a fountain in Phocis, at the base of Mount Parnassus, 303 + +Castucius, Count of Isauria, 8 + +Catadupi, the cataracts of the Nile, or the people who live near them, 307 + +Catalauni (Châlons sur Marne), 436 + +Cato, the censor, 16, 81, 88 + +Catulus, the ædile, 20 + +Caucalandes, a town in Sarmatia, 588 + +Cella, a tribune of the Scutarii, 105 + +Celse, a town in Phoenicia, 23 + +Cephalonesus, a town on the Borysthenes, 293 + +Ceras, a cape on the Propontis, 287 + +Cerasus, a town in Pontus, 289 + +Cercetæ, a tribe near the Euxine Sea, 291 + +Cercius, the charioteer of Castor and Pollux, 290 + +Cerealis, uncle of Gallus, 43; + (2) a master of the horse, 482, 564 + +Cethegus, a senator, beheaded, 471 + +Chærecla, a town in Libya, 313 + +Chalcedon, a town in Bithynia, 287; + inscription found on a stone in the walls of, 577 + +Chalcenterus, an author, 314 + +Chaldæa, 335 + +Chalites, a gulf in Armenia, 332 + +Chalybes, a tribe near the Caspian Sea, 290 + +Chamavi, a German tribe, 141 + +Charax, a town in Parthia, 338 + +Charcha, a town on the Tigris, 183 + +Chardi, a Scythian tribe, 341 + +Charietto, count of Germany, 144, 436 + +Charinda, a river in Media, 337 + +Charte and Chartra, towns in Bactria, 340 + +Chasmatiæ, a kind of earthquake, 139 + +Chauriana, a town in Scythia, 341 + +Chiliocomus, a district of Media, 321 + +Chilo, a Roman deputy, 469 + +Chionitæ, a tribe bordering on Persia, 99, 134, 176 + +Chnodomarius, a king of the Allemanni, 107, 112, 120; + taken prisoner and sent to Rome, 121; + his death, 121 + +Choaspa, a town in Arachosia, 343 + +Choaspes, a river in Media, 337 + +Choatres, a river in Parthia, 338 + +Chronius, a river of the Euxine Sea, 292 + +Chrysopolis, a city on the Propontis, 287 + +Cibalæ, a town in Pannonia, 566 + +Cicero, 5, 49, 61, 81, 84, 210, 245, 274, 284, 310, 406, 433, 443, 457, + 462, 476, 491, 531, 555, 570, 617 + +Cilicia, description of, 27 + +Ciminian, a district in Italy, 140 + +Cimon, son of Miltiades, 145 + +Cineas, the ambassador of Pyrrhus, 100 + +Circesium, a town of Mesopotamia, described, 324, 325 + +Cius, a town on the Propontis, 287 + +Civilis, prefect of Britain, 455 + +Claritas, a Roman matron, 474 + +Claros, in Lydia, seat of a temple and oracle of Apollo, 210 + +Claudiopolis, a city in Isauria, 27 + +Claudius, prefect of Rome, 439, 542 + +Cleander, a prefect under the Emperor Commodus, 418 + +Clematius, a citizen of Alexandria, 2 + +Cleopatra, 313 + +Coche, a town in Persia, 363 + +Colchi, a tribe of Egyptian origin, 290 + +Colias, a Gothic noble, revolts, 592 + +Cologne (Colonia Agrippina), 86 + +Comedus, a mountain in the country of the Sacæ, 340 + +Comets, their nature, 401 + +Commagena, a province of Syria, 334 + +Commodus, the Roman Emperor, 507, 605 + +Como (Comum), a town in Italy, 48 + +Constans, son of Constantine, 2, 94 + +Constantia, daughter of Constantius, 423, 539 + +Constantianus, a tribune, 322, 482, 522 + +Constantina, daughter of Constantine the Great, 2, 37, 244, 245 + +---- a town in Mesopotamia, 178 + +Constantine the Great, 60, 81, 93, 97, 131, 419 + +Constantinople, 287; + threatened siege of, by the Goths, 622 + +Constantius the Emperor, his cruelty, 13; + summons Gallus to Italy, 23; + makes war on the Allemanni, 32; + his speech, 34-36; + retires to Milan, 36; + his jealousy, 37; + his severe treatment of Gallus's friend, 51; + invests Julian with the title of Cæsar, 70; + his weakness, 99; + his triumphal procession to Rome, 100; + his arrogance, 101; + erects an obelisk, 130; + reply to Sapor, 135; + receives the title of Sarmaticus, 156; + marches against the Limigantes, 204; + jealousy of Julian, 216; + besieges Bezabde, 237; + marries Faustina after the death of Eusebia, 253; + crosses the Euphrates, 255; + his speech to his army, 267; + unfavourable dreams and omens, 269; + his death, 271; + virtues and vices, 272; + buried at Constantinople, 276 + +Contensis, a town in Africa, 534 + +Coptos, a town in the Thebais, 312; + story of his wife, 291 + +Corax, a river flowing into the Euxine, 291 + +Corduena, a province belonging to the Persians, 175, 321, 393 + +Cornelius Gallus, procurator of Egypt, 129 + +Cornelius, a senator, 474 + +Coronus, a mountain in Media, 335 + +Costoboci, a Scythian tribe, 293 + +Cottius, a king on the Alps, 75 + +Craugasius, a noble of Nisibis, 200; + story of his wife, 201 + +Crescens, deputy-governor of Africa, 501 + +Cretio, count of Africa, 254 + +Crispus, son of Constantine the Great, 41 + +Crissæan Gulf in Western Locris, 140 + +Criu-Metopon, a promontory of Thrace, 289 + +Crocodiles in Egypt, 309 + +Croesus, 64 + +Ctesiphon, the winter residence of the Parthian kings, 334 + +Curandius, a tribune of the archers, 530 + +Curio, a Roman general, 530 + +Cybele, festival in honour of, 321 + +Cyclades, 286 + +Cydnus, a river in Cilicia, 27 + +Cylaces, a Persian eunuch, 463 + +Cynægirus, a Grecian general, 369 + +Cynossema, a promontory in Caria, now Cape Volpo, 287 + +Cyprus, 29 + +Cyrene, a city in Libya, 312 + +Cyreschata, a town in Sogdiana, 340 + +Cyria, a Mauritanian princess, 531 + +Cyrinus, 280 + +Cyropolis, a town in Media, 337 + +Cyrus, 90, 331 + +Cyzicus, 287; + besieged and taken by Procopius, 426; + taken by the Scythians, 591 + + +D. + +Dacia, 423 + +Dadastana, a town on the borders of Bithynia, 403 + +Dagalaiphus, captain of the domestics, 255, 347, 359, 388, 407; + sent by Valentinian to oppose the Allemanni, 415; + made consul, 428 + +Dahæ, a Scythian tribe, 290 + +Damascus, 28 + +Damasus, bishop of Rome, 441 + +Dames, 95 + +Dandaca, a town in the Tauric Chersonese, 292 + +Daniel, a Roman count, 546 + +Danube, description of the, 293 + +Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, 210; + (2) a town in Moesia, 445 + +Dardanus, a town in the Hellespont, 287 + +Darius, 331, 428 + +Darnis, a town in Libya, 312 + +Datianus, a Roman consul, 133 + +Davana, a town in Mesopotamia, 321 + +Davares, a people of Africa, 532 + +Decem Pagi (Dieuse), 86 + +Decentius, a tribune, 216 + +Decius (the Cæsar), 614 + +Delos, 139, 303 + +Delphidius, an orator, 160 + +Delta in Egypt, 309 + +Demetrius Chytras, a philosopher of Alexandria, 209 + +Democritus, 46, 88, 286 + +Demosthenes, 549, 554 + +Diabas, a river of Assyria, 334 + +Dibaltum, a city of Thrace, 600 + +Dicalidones, a tribe of Picts, 453 + +Didius, a Roman general, 443 + +Didymus, surnamed Chalcenterus, 314 + +Dieuse (Decem Pagi), 86 + +Dinarchus, a Grecian orator, 554 + +Dindyma, a mountain of Mysia, 287 + +Dinocrates, an architect, 313 + +Diocles, treasurer of Illyricum, 451 + +Diocletian, 59, 317 + +Diodorus, a count, 301 + +Diogenes, governor of Bithynia, 514 + +Diogmitæ, a kind of light-armed troops, 456 + +Dionysiopolis, 444 + +Dionysius, king of Sicily, 44, 64, 97 + +Dioscurias, a city on the Euxine, 290 + +Dipsades, a species of Egyptian serpent, 311 + +Discenes, a tribune, 202 + +Dius, a Mauritanian chief, 527 + +Divitenses, a German tribe, 424, 436 + +Domitian, the emperor, 168 + +Domitianus, prefect of the East, 23, 49 + +Domitius Corbulo, 48 + +Dorians, 73 + +Doriscus, a town in Thrace, 176 + +Dorostorus, a city of Thrace, 444 + +Dorus, a surgeon of the Scutari, 92 + +Dracontius, master of the mint, 301 + +Drangiana, a province of Persia, 342 + +Drepanum, a town in Bithynia, 425 + +Drepsa, a town in Sogdiana, 340 + +Druentia (the Durance), a river in Gaul, 77 + +Druids, 73, 74 + +Drusus, a Roman general, 443 + +Drypetina, daughter of King Mithridates, 95 + +Dulcitius, a Roman general, 455 + +Duodiense, a fort in Mauritania, 536 + +Dura, a town beyond the Tigris, in Mesopotamia, 326, 347, 391 + +Dymas, a river in Sogdiana, 340 + +Dynamius, 55 + + +E. + +Earthquakes in Africa, 137; + the supposed causes, 138 + +Ecbatana, an Assyrian town, 334 + +Eclipses, causes of, 214 + +Edessa, 236, 255 + +Elephantine, a city of Ethiopia, 307 + +Elephants, 376 + +Eleusis, 139 + +Eleutheropolis, a town in Palestine, 29 + +Emissa, a town of Syria, 23 + +Emodon, a mountain in Scythia, 341 + +Emona, 477 + +Engines, warlike, 323 + +Epicurus, 554 + +Epigonius, a philosopher, 25, 31 + +Epimenides, 486 + +Epiphania, a town in Cilicia, 300 + +Equitius, tribune of the Scutarii, 406; + made general and count, 414, 539; + his son Equitius a tribune, 611 + +Eratosthenes, 287 + +Erectheus, 84 + +Ermenrichus, king of the Ostrogoths, 583 + +Erythræ, a city in Ionia, 617 + +Esaias, a Roman noble, 477 + +Essedones and Essedon, a people and town of the Seres, 341 + +Eubulus, a citizen of Antioch, 22 + +Eucærius, proprefect of Asia, 506 + +Euctemon, an ancient astronomer, 407 + +Eumenius, 477 + +Eumolpias (Philippopolis), 278 + +Eupatoria, a city of the Tauri, 292 + +Euphrasius, master of the offices, 422 + +Euphrates, 199, 335 + +Euphronius, governor of Mesopotamia, 176 + +Eupraxius, master of the records, 450 + +Euripides, his tomb at Arethusa, 443 + +Europos, a city of Persia, 337 + +Eusebia, wife of the Emperor Constantius, 48; + her plots against Helena, 103, 253 + +Eusebius, an orator, surnamed Pittacos, 23, 31; + (ii.) High Chamberlain, 33, 36, 167, 281; + (iii.) surnamed Mattyocopa, 55; + (iv.) brother of Eusebia and Hypatius, 160, 253, 516; + (v.) Bishop of Nicomedia, 295 + +Euseni, an eastern people, near Persia, 29 + +Euses, a town in Gaul, 79 + +Eustathius, a philosopher, 136 + +Eutherius, prefect of the bedchamber, 93, 232 + +Eutropius, proconsul of Asia, 512 + +Evagrius, one of the emperor's household, 280 + +Exsuperius, one of the Victorian Legion, 361 + + +F. + +Fabius Maximus, 81 + +Fabricius Luscinus, 548 + +Fara, an island on the coast of Persia, 338 + +Farnobius, 587, 601 + +Faustina, the second wife of the Emperor Constantius, 253, 271, 423 + +Faustinus, a military secretary, 562 + +Felix, master of the offices, 233, 317 + +Fericius, a Mauritanian chief, 530 + +Ferratus, a mountain in Mauritania, 527 + +Festus, governor of Syria, 519; + his cruelties, 528 + +Fidustius, accused of magic, 505 + +Firmus, a Mauritanian chief, 525; + his flight, 533; + commits suicide, 537 + +Flavian, a Roman citizen, 502 + +Florentius, (i.) prefect of the Prætorian Guard, 110, 128, 216, 232, + 253, 270; + (ii.) the son of Nigridianus, 58, 213, 279; + (iii.) the prefect of Gaul under Valentinian, 452; + (iv.) a tribune, 430; + (v.) Duke of Germany, 525 + +Fortunatianus, a count, 504 + +Forum of Trajan, 102 + +Fragiledus, a Sarmatian chief, 148 + +Franks, 58, 141, 235 + +Fraomarius, king of the Bucenobantes, a German tribe, 524 + +Frigeridus, a Roman general, 595, 600 + +Fritigern, general of the Goths, 587, 593, 607, 609 + +Frontinus, 472 + +Fullofaudes, military duke in Britain, 453 + +Fulvius, a Roman general, 81 + + +G. + +Gabinius, king of the Quadi, 539, 559 + +Galactophagi, a Scythian tribe, 341 + +Galatæ, the Gauls, 73 + +Galerius, 38 + +Galla, the mother of Gallus, 43 + +Gallienus, 4 + +Gallonatis, a fort in Mauritania, 531 + +Gallus, nephew of Constantine the Great, 1; + his atrocities, 2; + puts the principal persons at Antioch to death, 21; + summoned by the emperor, 37; + leaves Antioch and arrives at Constantinople, 39; + is sent to Istria, 41; + put to death, 42; + his personal appearance and character, 43 + +Gallus, a river in Bithynia, 426 + +Garamantes, an African tribe, 307 + +Garumna (the Garonne), 78 + +Gaudentius, 51, 95, 143, 254, 300 + +Gaugamela, a city in Adiabene, 334 + +Gaul, description of, 73; + its provinces, 79; + its inhabitants, 80; + produce, 81 + +Gaza (now Ghuzzeh), a city of Palestine, 29 + +Gazaca, a town in Media, 337 + +Geapolis, a town in Arabia, 338 + +Gedrosia, a province of Persia, 343 + +Gelani, a people of the East, near Persia, 134 + +Geloni, a tribe near the Caspian, 291 + +Genonia, a town in Parthia, 338 + +Genua (Genoa), chief town of the Ligures, 77 + +George, bishop of Alexandria, 300, 301 + +Gerasa, a town in Arabia, 29 + +Gerasus (the Pruth), 584 + +Germanianus, 255 + +Germanicopolis, in Bithynia, 456 + +Germanicus, 306 + +Germany, 78 + +Gerontius, tortured by Constantius, 12 + +Gildo, a Mauritanian chief, 526 + +Glabrio, Acilius, 17 + +Gomoarius, or Gumoharius, 233, 255, 269, 422, 429 + +Gordian, the elder, 421; + (ii.) the younger, 326 + +Gorgias of Leontinum, 554 + +Gorgonius, Cæsar's chamberlain, 48 + +Goths, 442, 445, 585; + invade Thrace, 599; + defeated by Frigeridus, 601; + massacre of the, 623 + +Gratian, the elder, 566; + (ii.) son of Valentinian, 448; + takes Equitius as his colleague, 551, 602, 605; + surprised by Sebastian, 607 + +Grumbates, king of the Chionitæ, 176, 185 + +Gruthungi, a tribe of Ostrogoths, 446, 583 + +Gundomadus, king of the Allemanni, 32, 111 + +Gynæcon, a town in the Persian province of Gedrosia, 343 + +Gyndes, a Persian river, 337 + + +H. + +Hadrian, 386, 571 + +Hadrianople, battle of, 610-615; + siege of by the Goths, 619; + raised, 620 + +Hadrianopolis, 39, 444, 607 + +Hannibal, 77; + buried at Libyssa, 295 + +Harax, a river in Susiana, 335 + +Hariobaudes, a tribune, 161, 162 + +Hariobaudus, a king of the Allemanni, 164 + +Harmozon, a promontory in Carmania, 332 + +Harpalus, one of Cyrus's lieutenants, 74 + +Hasdrubal, a Carthaginian general, 77 + +Hatra, an ancient town in Mesopotamia, 395 + +Hebrus (Maritza), a river in Thrace, 172 + +Hecatæus, an ancient geographer, 287 + +Hecatompylos, a town in Parthia, 338 + +Helen, wife of Julian, 71; + her death and burial, 244 + +Helenopolis (Frankfort-on-the-Maine), 425 + +Helepolis, a military engine used in sieges, 324 + +Helice, a town in Achaia, destroyed by an earthquake, 140 + +Heliodorus, a seer, 504; + his atrocities, 515; + death of, 517 + +Heliogabalus, 421 + +Heliopolis, a town of Syria, 131 + +Helpidius, prefect of the East, 253 + +Hendinos, a title given to the Burgundian kings, 495 + +Heniochi, a tribe near the Euxine, 290 + +Heraclea, a city of Thrace, called also Perinthus, 278 + +Heraclitus, the philosopher of Ephesus, 274 + +Herculanus, officer of the guard, 33 + +Hercules, 73 + +Hermapion, 132 + +Hermes Trismegistus, 270 + +Hermogenes, master of the horse, 33, + (ii.) of Pontus, prefect of the prætorium, 208, 253; + (iii.) a Roman general in Germany, 481 + +Hermonassa, an island in the Palus Mæotis, 291 + +Hermopolis, a city in the Thebais, 312 + +Herod, 29 + +Herodianus, 314 + +Herodotus, 311 + +Hesiod, 16 + +Hesperus, proconsul of Africa, 502 + +Hesychia, a Roman matron, 477 + +Hiaspis, a district on the Tigris, 169 + +Hiberia, a country in Asia, near Colchis, 463; + is divided between the Persians and Romans, 466, 549 + +Hibita, a station in Mesopotamia, 399 + +Hiera, an island on the coast of Sicily, one of the Ægates, 139 + +Hierapolis, a city in Commagena, 28, 267, 319; + (ii.) a city in Phrygia, 333 + +Hierocles, son of Alypius, governor of Britain, 514 + +Hieroglyphics of the Egyptians, 130 + +Hilarinus, a charioteer, 411 + +Hilarius, 505 + +Hileia, a town in Mesopotamia, 170 + +Hipparchus, the philosopher, 407 + +Hippias of Elis, 90 + +Hippocephalus, a suburb of Antioch, 270 + +Hippopotamus of Egypt, 310 + +Histros, a city of Thrace, 293 + +Homer, 20, 71, 170, 191, 270, 341, 442, 453, 479, 617 + +Honoratus, Count of the East, 3, 21 + +Hormisdas, a Persian prince, 102; + (ii.) a general of the emperor Julian, 347; + (iii.) son of the preceding, 427 + +Horre, a town in Mesopotamia, 183 + +Hortarius, king of the Allemanni, 107, 144, 161; + (ii.) a German noble, 525 + +Hucumbra, 374 + +Huns, 577-582 + +Hydriacus, a river in Carmania, 339 + +Hydrus, the, 310 + +Hymetius, proconsul of Africa, 471; + banished to Boæ, a town in Dalmatia, 472 + +Hypanis (the Bog), a river of Sarmatia, 291 + +Hypatius, a consul, brother of Eusebius, 160, 253, 516 + +Hyperechius, 426 + +Hyperides, a Grecian orator, 554 + +Hyrcania, a northern province of Persia, 339 + +Hystaspes, father of Darius, 336 + + +I. + +Ibis, the sacred bird of the Egyptians, 311 + +Ichneumon, an Egyptian reptile, 310 + +Iconium, a town in Pisidia, 5 + +Icosium, a town in Mauritania, 529 + +Idmon, an augur, 290 + +Igilgitanum, part of the coast of Mauritania, so called from the town + Igilgili (Iijeli), 526 + +Igmazen, king of Mauritania, 535 + +Ilus, son of Troas, 296 + +Imbros, an island off the coast of Thrace, 286 + +Immo, a Roman count, 261 + +Ingenuus, a rebel, 274 + +Innocentius, 121 + +Iphicles, a philosopher, envoy from Epirus, 561 + +Iris, a river flowing into the Euxine, 289 + +Isaflenses, a people of Africa, 534 + +Isauria, a province of Asia Minor, 6 + +Isaurians, rebellion of the, 5; + they besiege Seleucia, 8; + compelled by Nebridius to disperse, 10 + +Isocrates, 570 + +Izala, a mountain in Mesopotamia, 173 + + +J. + +Jacobus, treasurer of the commander of the cavalry, 200 + +Januarius, a relation of the Emperor Julian, 406 + +Jasonium, a mountain in Media, 339 + +Jaxamatæ, a Scythian tribe, 291 + +Jaxartæ and Jaxartes, a people and river of Scythia, 341 + +Jazyges, a people on the Palus Mæotis, 291 + +Jerusalem, the temple of, 317 + +Jews, 283 + +Jovian, chief officer of the guard, 276; + son of Varronianus, 388; + elected emperor after Julian, 388; + his treaty with Sapor, 393; + advances to Hatra, 395; + his severity, 399; + visits Tarsus, 402; + dies suddenly at Dadastana, 403; + his character, 405; + his body brought to Constantinople, 406 + +Jovianus, a secretary, 361, 398, 417 + +Jovinianus, a Persian satrap, 175 + +Jovinus, master of the horse, 256, 261, 279, 396; + commander of the forces in Gaul, 414; + his vigour, 436; + defeats the Germans, 458; + his execution, 501 + +Jovius, a quæstor, 256, 294 + +Juba, king of Mauritania, 308 + +Jubileni, an African tribe, 535 + +Julian, son of Constantius and Basilina, 383; + born at Constantinople, 295; + educated by Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, 295; + protected by Queen Eusebia, 48; + is invested with the title of Cæsar, 69; + married to Helena, 71; + made consul, 83; + marches against the Allemanni, 85; + temperate habits, 89; + his moderation, 91; + plots against, 93; + second consulship, 104; + his first campaign, 105; + his prudence, 107; + his speech to his soldiers, 109; + the Allemanni sue for peace, 126; + fixes his winter residence at Paris, 128; + attacks the Chamavi, 141; + military sedition, 142; + he crosses the Rhine, 163; + Constantius grows jealous of him, 216; + saluted as emperor, 219; + his dream, 223; + his letters to Constantius, 229; + elected emperor by the army, 234; + crosses the Rhine, and attacks the Attuarii, 235; + death of his wife Helena, 244; + pretended adherence to Christianity, 246; + defeats the Allemanni, 249; + speech to his soldiers, 250; + enters Sirmium, 257; + his letter to the senate, 259; + besieges Aquileia, 261; + his march through France, 267; + hears of the death of Constantius, and enters Constantinople, 278; + his severities, 279; + reforms the imperial palace, 281; + openly professes paganism, 283; + sets out for Antioch, 295; + visits the ancient temple of Cybele at Pessinus, and offers + sacrifices, 296; + winters at Antioch, 298; + forbids the masters of rhetoric to instruct Christians, 299; + prepares for an expedition against the Persians, 302; + orders the church at Antioch to be closed, 304; + writes his 'Misopogon,' 305; + marches into Mesopotamia, and arrives at Carrhæ, 320; + addresses his army, 328; + invades Assyria, 347; + captures and burns Pirisabora, 353; + addresses the army, 354; + his continence, 368; + his sacrifice to Mars, 369; + storms Maogamalcha, 357-362; + burns all his ships except twelve, 370; + his self-denial, 377; + alarmed by prodigies, 377; + wounded in fighting with the Persians, 379; + his dying speech, 381; + death, 383; + his character, 383-386; + his personal appearance, 387 + +Julian, uncle of the emperor, 317 + +Juliers (Juliacum Francorum), 127 + +Julius, a count commanding the army in Thrace, 422, 623 + +Justina, wife of Valentinian, 575; + sister of Cerealis, 482 + +Juvenal, 488 + +Juventius Siscianus, the quæstor, 413; + made prefect of the city, 441 + + +K. + +Kellen (Triæsinæ), a town in Germany, 161 + + +L. + +Lacotene, a town in Armenia, 236 + +Lagarimanus, a general of the Goths, 584 + +Laipso, a tribune, 121 + +Lamforctense, a town in Mauritania, 528 + +Lampadius, prefect of the prætorian guard, 55; + made prefect of the city, 440 + +Lampsacus, a city of Mysia, 287 + +Laniogaisus, a Frank and tribune, 59 + +Laodicea, a town of Syria, 28 + +Laranda, a town in Isauria, 8 + +Latinus, count of the domestics, 34 + +Laudias, a fort in Mesopotamia, 179 + +Laumellum, a town in Italy, 72 + +Lauricius, sent as governor to Isauria, 211 + +Lawyers, Roman, described, 555 + +Lazica, a province of Scythia, 465 + +Leap-year explained, 407 + +Leman (the Lake Leman), 79 + +Lemnos, an island off the coast of Thrace, 286 + +Lentia (Lintz), 52, 602 + +Lentienses, incursions of the, 53 + +Leo, a Pannonian, 407, 470, 551, 561 + +Leonas, quæstor of Constantius, 233 + +Leontius, prefect of Rome, 65 + +Leptis, a town in Africa, distress of, 497; + implores the emperor's aid, 499 + +Lesbos, an island on the Ægean Sea, 286 + +Letian, a German tribe, 231 + +Leuce, an island in the Black Sea, 292 + +Liberius, bishop of Rome, banished by Constantius for refusing to concur + in the deposition of Athanasius, 67 + +Libino, a count, sent by Julian against the Allemanni and slain, 247 + +Libya, 312 + +Libyssa, a town in Bithynia, 295 + +Limigantes, slaves of the Sarmatians, 151, 203; + their treachery, 151, 203, 205; + defeated, 207 + +Lions in Mesopotamia, 177 + +Londinium (London), 212, 454, 483 + +Lorne, a fort in Mesopotamia, 201 + +Lotophagi, mentioned by Homer, 20 + +Lucillianus, count of the domestics, and father-in-law of Jovian, 39, 159, + 175, 257, 322, 396, 402 + +Lucullus, a Roman general who defeated the Thracians, 444 + +Lugdunum (Lyons), 79 + +Lupicinus, master of the horse, 163; + sent against the Picts, 212, 233; + (ii.) count of Thrace, 587, 589; + (iii.) one of the Gentiles, 460 + +Luscinus, 361, 548 + +Luscus, governor of Antioch, burnt to death, 25 + +Lusius, an officer under Trajan, 526 + +Lutetia (Paris), the capital of the Parisii, 78 + +Luto, count, 65 + +Lycaonia, part of Asia Minor, 7 + +Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, 88, 296, 572 + +Lyons (Lugdunum), 79 + +---- gulf of (Adgradus), 80 + +Lysimachia, 287 + + +M. + +Macellum, in Cappadocia, 48 + +Macepracta, a town in Assyria, 351 + +Maces, a promontory in the Persian Gulf, 332 + +Machamæus, a Roman general, killed, 374 + +Macrianus, a king of the Allemanni, 164, 494, 523, 552 + +Macrones, a people near the Euxine, 290 + +Mæotis Palus (the Sea of Azov), 291 + +Magi, 336 + +Maharbal, 170 + +Malarichus, commander of the Gentiles, 56, 57; + appointed by Jovian commander of the forces in Gaul, 396 + +Malechus Podosaces, 350 + +Mallobaudes, or Mellobaudes, 41, 56, 553, 603 + +Mamersides, 353, 363 + +Mamertinus, 255, 259, 279; + made prefect of Italy, with Africa and Illyricum, 414; + accused of peculation, 451 + +Mancinus, C. Hostilius, a Roman consul, 44 + +Manlius Priscus, a lieutenant of Pompey, 95 + +Maogamalcha, a city in Persia, 357 + +Maræccus, a river near the Caspian Sea, 291 + +Maranx, a district in Persia, 375 + +Maras, a Christian deacon, put to the torture, 32 + +Maratocupreni, a people in Syria, who lived by plunder, 48 + +Marcellianus, duke of Valeria, 539 + +Marcellus, 86; + master of the horse, 88; + cashiered, 92, 95; + (ii.) a kinsman of Procopius, kills Serenianus, 431; + seizes Chalcedon, 431; + taken and put to death, 432 + +Marcianopolis, a city of Thrace, 444, 589 + +Marcianus, 265; + (ii.) a rhetorician, 557 + +Marcius, an ancient seer, 4 + +Marcomanni, 538 + +Marcus Aurelius, 274, 538, 591 + +Mareades, 325 + +Margiani, a Persian tribe, 339 + +Mariandena, a district in Bithynia, 288 + +Maride, a fort in Mesopotamia, 201 + +Marius Maximus, 488 + +Marinus, a tribune, 51 + +Maronea, a town in Thrace, 286 + +Marseilles (Massilia), 79 + +Marses, a river in Assyria, 335 + +Martinus, a deputy-governor of Britain, 13; + commits suicide, 14 + +Masaucio, 416 + +Mascizel, a Mauritanian chief, 527 + +Masilla, 537 + +Massagetæ, 292, 328, 580 + +Massilia (Marseilles), 74, 79 + +Massisenses, a people of Mauritania, 527 + +Matrona, an Alpine mountain (Mont Genevre), 76; + (ii.) the Marne, a river in Gaul, 78 + +Maudio, count, 65 + +Mauritania, 526 + +Maurus, a Roman count, 220 + +Maxentius, a Pannonian, 452 + +Maxera, a river in Hyrcania, 339 + +Maximianopolis, a city in Thrace, 444 + +Maximinus, the Roman emperor, 4 + +---- prefect of Rome, 468; + his ferocity, 469, 470, 473-476 + +Maximus, prefect of Rome, 265 + +---- a celebrated philosopher, beheaded at Ephesus, 513 + +Mayence (Moguntiacus), stormed by Rando, a chief of the Allemanni, 457 + +Mazaca, a city in Cappadocia, 233 + +Mazices, a people in Mauritania, 529 + +Mazuca, a Mauritanian chief, 534 + +Mederichus, a king of the Allemanni, 113 + +Medianum, a fortress in Mauritania, 535 + +Media, 335 + +Mediolanum (Evreux), 79 + +Meiacarire, a small town in Mesopotamia, noted for its cool springs, 174 + +Melanchlænæ, a tribe near the Palus Mæotis, 291 + +Melanthias, a country palace of the Roman emperors, 606 + +Melas, a river in Pamphylia, 7 + +---- a bay (Gulf of Saros) on the coast of Thrace, 286 + +Melitina, a town in Lesser Armenia, 200, 236 + +Memoridus, tribune, 396 + +Memorius, prefect of Cilicia, 319 + +Memphis, a town of Egypt, 313 + +Menander, a poet, 270 + +Menapila, a town in Bactria, 340 + +Menophilus, the eunuch of king Mithridates, 95 + +Mephra, a town in Arabia, 338 + +Mercurius, a notary, nicknamed the Count of Dreams, 50 + +Merenes, a Persian general, 375 + +Meribanes, king of Hiberia, 253 + +Merobaudes, 574, 598 + +Meroe, a town in Ethiopia, 307, 312 + +Mesene, a town in Assyria, 334 + +Meseus, a river in Persia, 335 + +Mesopotamia, 134 + +Messala, prefect of Pannonia, 540 + +Meton, an ancient astronomer, 407 + +Metrodorus, 387 + +Metz (Mediomatricum), 79, 99 + +Midas, king of Phrygia, 296 + +Milan, 49 + +Milesiani, Athenian colonists, 291 + +Miletus, 468 + +Mimas, mount, 617 + +Minervius, consular governor, 473 + +Misopogon, the, 305 + +Mithridates, 94 + +Mnevis, 306 + +Modestus, count of the East, 208; + prefect of the prætorium, 506, 553 + +Moesia, one of the Danubian provinces, 146; + (ii.) a town in Parthia, 333 + +Moguntiacus (Mayence), 78 + +Monæcus (Monaco), 76 + +Montius, a quæstor, 24, 31; + his violent death, 25, 40, 49 + +Mopsucrenæ, a town in Cilicia, 271 + +Mopsuestia, 27 + +Mopsus, a celebrated seer, 27 + +Mosa (the Meuse), 127 + +Mosynæci, a tribe near the Euxine Sea, 290 + +Mothone, a town of Laconia, 434 + +Moxoëne, a province beyond the Tigris, 321, 393 + +Muderic, a Thuringian noble, 584 + +Murci, persons exempt from military service, 81 + +Murocincta, 575 + +Mursa, battle of, 63 + +Musones, a people in Mauritania, 531 + +Musonianus, prefect of the East, 81, 98, 136 + +Musonius, a rhetorician, afterwards deputy governor of Asia Minor, 456 + +Mygdonia, part of Bithynia, 288 + +Mygdus, a town in Phrygia, 424 + + +N. + +Nabathæi, a people of Arabia, 29 + +Nabdates, 362; + burnt alive, 364 + +Nacolia, a town in Phrygia, 430 + +Næssus, or Næsus, a town in Illyricum, 259, 414 + +Nagara, a town in Arabia, 338 + +Naharmalcha, a canal joining the Euphrates to the Tigris, 366 + +Nannenus, or Nannienus, Count of Britain, 493; + defeats the Allemanni, 603 + +Napæi, a tribe of the Caspian, 291 + +Naphtha, 333, 337 + +Narbona (Narbonne), capital of the following, 79 + +Narbonne, a province of Gaul, 78 + +Narses, king of the Persians, 327; + (ii.) a Persian nobleman, 134, 368 + +Nascon, a town in Arabia, 338 + +Natiso, a river near Aquileia, 262 + +Natuspardo, chief of the domestici, 461 + +Naulibus, 342 + +Nauplius, 286 + +Nazavicium, mountain of Scythia, 341 + +Neapolis (formerly Shechem, now Nablous), a town in Palestine, 29; + (ii.) a town in Africa, 313 + +Nebridius, count of the East, 10; + made quæstor by Julian, 233; + refuses to take the oath of allegiance, and retires from public + life, 251; + made prefect of the prætorium, 422 + +Nectaridus, prefect of Britain, 453 + +Nemesis, or Adrastea, 42 + +Nemetæ (Spiers) a city in Germany, 78 + +Neo-Cæsarea, a city in Pontus, 465 + +Neotherius, 416 + +Nepotianus, 467 + +Nestica, tribune of the Scutarii, 144 + +Neuri, a tribe of the Massagetæ, 580 + +Nevitta, master of the horse, 256, 258, 259, 265, 284, 347, 359 + +Nicæa in Bithynia, 295 + +---- in Gaul (Nice), 79 + +Nice, a town in Thrace, 606 + +Nicer (the Neckar), 480 + +Nicomedia, 137, 287, 295, 304 + +Nicopolis, 444, 591 + +Nigrinus, 260; + burnt alive, 264 + +Nile, 307; + its islands, 309 + +Nileus, son of Codrus, 288, 468 + +Nineveh, 176 (Ninus), 28, 334 + +Ninus, or Nineveh, 28 + +Niphates, 332 + +Nisæa, 339 + +Nisibis, a town in Mesopotamia, 30, 172, 178, 393; + its importance, 397 + +Nobles, Roman, vices of the, 487-491 + +Nohodares, a Persian noble, 10, 174; + killed, 380 + +Novesium (Nuys), 161 + +Novidunum (Nivors), 446 + +Nubel, a Mauritanian chief, 525 + +Numerius, prefect of Gaul, 160 + +Nymphæum, a temple in Rome sacred to the nymphs, 66 + +Nymphæus, a river in Mesopotamia, 183 + + +O. + +Obelisk, Egyptian, inscription upon an, 132 + +Obroatis, a town in Persia, 338 + +Ochus, a river in Bactria, 340 + +Ocricoli (Ocriculum), 100, 472 + +Octavianus, proconsul of Africa, 317 + +Odissos, 293, 444 + +Odrysæans, a people of Thrace, 443 + +OEa, a Roman colony in the province of Tripoli, 498 + +OEchardes, a people of Scythia, 341 + +Olybrius, prefect of the city, 469 + +Olympias, daughter of Abladius, 236 + +Ona, a river in Persia, 333 + +Ophiusa, a name of the Island of Rhodes, 139 + +Opitergium, a town in Pannonia, 538 + +Opurocarra, a mountain in Serica, 341 + +Orchomanes, a river in Bactria, 340 + +Orfitus, prefect of Rome, 14, 100, 439, 451 + +Oroates, a river in Persia, 335 + +Orontes, a river in Syria, 28 + +---- a mountain in Media, 335 + +Oropus, a town in Euboea, 554 + +Ortogordomaris, a river rising in Bactria, 342 + +Ortopana, a city of the Paropanisatæ, 342 + +Osdroene, or Osdruena, a province of Mesopotamia, 10, 28, 319, 347 + +Ostracine, a town in Egypt, 312 + +Oxian Marsh in Sogdiana, 340 + +Oxus, a river in Hyrcania, 339 + +Oxyrynchus, a town in Egypt, 313 + +Ozogardana, a city in Assyria, 350 + + +P. + +Pacorus, king of Persia, 334 + +Palea, town in Pamphylia, 8 + +Palestine, 29 + +Palladius, master of the offices, 279; + (ii.) a tribune and secretary, 498-502 + +Palm-tree, 356 + +Pannonia, 103, 146 + +Pantheon of Rome, 102 + +Panticapæum, 291 + +Paphius, a senator, 474 + +Paphos, its temple of Venus, 29 + +Papirius Cursor, 569 + +Para, son of Arsaces, king of Armenia, 465, 543-549 + +Parætonium, a town in Libya, 313 + +Paraxmalcha, a town on the Euphrates, 350 + +Parion, a town on the Hellespont, 287 + +Parnasius, prefect of Egypt, 209 + +Paropanisatæ, a tribe of Persians, 342 + +Parthenius, a river in Bithynia, 289 + +Parthia, 338 + +Parthiscus, a river in Sarmatia, 152 + +Pasiphilus, a philosopher, 512 + +Patares, straits between the Palus Mæotis and the Euxine, 291 + +Paternianus, 551 + +Patigran, a town in Media, 337 + +Patræ, a town in Achaia, 209 + +Patricius, 505, 510 + +Patruinus, a Roman noble, 67 + +Paulus, surnamed "The Chain," 13, 14; + his character, 207; + despatched as a judge with Modestus to the East, 208; + his cruelties, 209, 210, 280 + +Pelagia, a name given to the Island of Rhodes, 139 + +Pelusium, a city in Egypt, 312 + +Pentadius, a notary, 41; + made master of the offices, 232, 279 + +Pentapolis, a province of North Africa, 312 + +Peregrinus, a philosopher, 513 + +Pergamius, accused of magical practices, 505 + +Persepolis, a town of Persia, 338 + +Persia, described, 331-337; + its rivers, 337 + +Persians, also called Parthians, 216; + their sovereigns called brothers of the sun and moon, 330; + description of their country, 331-337; + deliberate on public affairs at their banquets, 171 + +Pescennius Niger, 428 + +Pessinus, a town in Phrygia, 429; + its temple of Cybele, 296 + +Petobio (Pettau), a town in Noricum, 40 + +Petronius, his influence over Valens, 418 + +Petrus Valvomeres, 66 + +Peuce, an island in the Euxine Sea, 293 + +Phæacians, 170, 453 + +Phalangius, governor of Boetica, 473 + +Phanagorus, an island in the Palus Mæotis, 291 + +Pharos, an island and lighthouse near Alexandria, 313 + +Phasis, a river and city in Colchis, 290 + +Philadelphia, a town in Arabia, 29 + +Philagrius, 248 + +Philippopolis, a town in Thrace, formerly Eumolpias, now Philippopoli, + 258, 278, 431, 444; + destroyed by the barbarians, 591 + +Philistion, 558 + +Philoromus, a charioteer, 66 + +Philoxenus, a poet, 64 + +Philyres, a tribe near the Euxine, 290 + +Phineus, a soothsayer, 288 + +Phocæans, 74 + +Phocus, 312 + +Phoenicia, 28 + +---- a town on the Tigris, called also Bezabde, 225 + +Phronemius, 422; + exiled to the Chersonesus, 432 + +Phrygia, 380 + +Phrynichus, an Athenian dramatist, 468 + +Phyllis, a river flowing into the Euxine, 288 + +Picenses, a Sarmatian tribe, 155 + +Pictavi (Poictiers), 79 + +Picts and Scots, 212, 453; + harass the Britons, 413 + +Pigranes, a Persian general, 368 + +Piri, a mountain in Germany, 481 + +Pirisabora, a town in Persia, 351; + captured and burnt by Julian, 353 + +Pistoja, a town of Tuscany, ominous occurrence at, 439 + +Pityus, an island in the Euxine, 289 + +Plato, 90, 315, 383, 554 + +Plautian, 418, 507 + +Plotinus, 270, 314 + +Podosaces, chief of the Assanite Saracens, 350 + +Pola, a town in Istria, 41 + +Polemonium, a town of Pontus, 289 + +Pollentianus, a tribune, 518 + +Polybius, the historian, 353 + +Pompey, 146 + +Portospana, a town in Carmania, 339 + +Posthumus, 274 + +Potentius, a tribune, 615 + +Prætextatus, 285, 457, 473 + +Priarius, king of the Allemanni, killed, 603 + +Priscus, a philosopher, 383 + +Probus, 461; + his cowardice, 540, 551, 560 + +Proconnesus, an island in the Propontis, 287 + +Procopius, 159; + message from, 175, 320, 401; + attempts a revolution in the East, 415; + his former career, 417; + saluted as emperor, 421; + his successes, 424, 425; + his death, 431 + +Profuturus, 594, 599 + +Prophthasia, capital of Drangiana, 342 + +Prosper, count, 37, 82, 136 + +Protagoras, 286 + +Provertuides, 453 + +Ptolemais, 312 + +Ptolemy the geographer, 287 + +Pylæ, a town on the borders of Cilicia and Cappadocia, 297 + +Pyramids of Egypt, 311 + +Pythagoras, 315 + + +Q. + +Quadi, neighbours of the Sarmatians, 103, 146, 148; + ravage Pannonia, 413, 538 + +Quadriburgium, 161 + +Quintianus, a senator, 507 + +Quintilii, two Roman brothers, 490 + + +R. + +Rabannæ, a Scythian tribe, 341 + +Rainbows, causes of, 241 + +Ramestes, an Egyptian king, 132 + +Rando, a chief of the Allemanni, 457 + +Rauracum, a town on the Rhine (Basle) 34, 79, 255 + +Rebas, a river flowing into the Euxine, 288 + +Regulus, 17 + +Rehemena, a province beyond the Tigris, 393 + +Reman, a Roman fortress in Mesopotamia, 183 + +Remi (Rheims), 79, 86 + +Remigius, 64, 455, 497, 525; + commits suicide, 551 + +Remora, a tribune given as a hostage to the Persians, 394 + +Resaina, battle of, 328 + +Rha (the Volga), 291 + +Rhine, its course described, 52 + +Rhinocolura, a city of Egypt, 312 + +Rhone, its course described, 79, 80 + +Rhodes, 139 + +Rhodope, 258, 287, 443 + +Rhombites, a river of the Sauromatæ, 291 + +Richborough (Rutupiæ), 212, 254 + +Richomeres, count of the domestics, 595, 598 + +Rigomagum (Rheinmagen), 87 + +Robur, a Roman fortress near Basle, 551 + +Roemnus, a river in Persia, 341 + +Rogomanis, a river in Persia, 337 + +Romanus, count, 455, 497, 525 + +Rome, its state of morals described, 15; + its buildings, 101, 102; + danger of a famine at, 203 + +Romulus, a senator, 264 + +Rothomagi (Rouen), 79 + +Roxolani, a Sarmatian race, 291 + +Rufina, put to death for adultery, 477 + +Rufinus, commander of the prætorian guard, 51, 96 + +---- prefect of the prætorium, 451, 461; + his character, 451, 461 + +---- Aradius, 317 + +Rumitalca, a tribune, 425 + +Rumo, a Sarmatian chief, 148 + +Ruricius, 455, 498, 501 + +Rusticianus, a priest, 498 + +Rusticus Julianus, 447 + +Rutupiæ (Richborough), 212, 454 + + +S. + +Sabaiarius, or beer-drinker; a name given by the inhabitants of + Chalcedon to the emperor Valens, 425 + +Sabaria, a town in Pannonia, 563 + +Sabastios, 264 + +Sabinianus, 169, 171, 189 + +Sacæ, the, 340 + +Saccumum, a town in Italy, 140 + +Saga, a town in Scythia, 341 + +Saganis and Sagareus, rivers in Carmania, 339 + +Salamis, celebrated for its temple of Jupiter, 29 + +Salia, his sudden death, 509 + +Salices, a town in Thrace, 595 + +Salii, a tribe of Franks, 141 + +Saliso (Spiers), 86 + +Sallust, the historian, 81 + +Sallustius (i.), prefect of Gaul, 255; + consul with Julian, 317; + opposes the Persian war, 325; + (ii.) prefect of the East, 381; + refuses the imperial dignity after Julian's death, 388; + ambassador to the Persians, 393; + succeeded in the prefecture by Nebridius, 422 + +Salmaces, a Mauritanian chief, 528 + +Samosata, a town of Syria, 28, 168, 236 + +Sanctio (Seckingen), 247 + +Sangarius, a river flowing into the Euxine, 288 + +Santones (Saintes), 79 + +Sapaudia (Savoy), 80 + +Saphrax, a general of the Goths, 583, 610 + +Sapor, king of Persia, 98; + letter to Constantius, 134; + his designs, 167; + wounded at Amida, 185; + invades Mesopotamia, and lays siege to Singara, 223; + captures it, 224; + takes Bezabde, 228; + makes peace with the Romans, 393; + his treachery, 463; + renews the war, 463; + invades Armenia, 465; + his aggression, 503; + his proposals to Valentinian, 549 + +Saqires, a tribe near the Euxine, 290 + +Saracens, 11, 307, 322, 332, 350, 391, 622 + +Saramanna, a town of Hyrcania, 339 + +Sargetæ, a nation near the Euxine, 292 + +Sarmatians, 103, 146, 154; + ravage Pannonia, 413, 540 + +Saturninus (i.), superintendent of the palace, 280; + (ii.) a general against the Goths, 598 + +Saulieu (Sedelaucum), 85 + +Sauromaces, 468 + +Sauromatæ, 291, 580 + +Saxons, 413, 454; + make incursions into the Roman territory, 493, 567 + +Scævolæ, the, 555 + +Scipio, P.C., 17, 77 + +Sciron, a pirate, 6 + +Scordisci, formerly inhabitants of Thrace, 442 + +Scorpion, a military engine, 197; + its structure, 322 + +Scots and Picts, 212, 413, 453 + +Scudilo, commander of the Scutarii, 34, 42 + +Scytalæ, a species of Egyptian serpent, 311 + +Scythia, described, 341 + +Scythians, 229, 550 + +Scythopolis (Bethshean), in Palestine, 208 + +Sebastian, duke of Egypt, 321, 396, 458; + surprises the Goths, 607, 615 + +Seckingen (Sanctio), 247 + +Secundinus, 347 + +Sedratyra, a town in Gedrosia, 343 + +Segestani, a warlike tribe, 187 + +Seine (Sequana), 78 + +Sele, a Persian town, 335 + +Seleucia (Selefkieh), a city in Syria, 28; + (ii.) a town in Persia, also called Coche, 363 + +Seleucus Nicator, 28 + +Selymbria, a Megarian colony, 287 + +Semiramis, 19 + +Sens (Senones), 79 + +Sera, capital of Serica, 341 + +Serapion, king of the Allemanni, 107 + +Serapis, his temple at Alexandria, 314; + also at Turgana, 338 + +Serdica, a town in Bulgaria, 95 + +Serenianus, duke of Phoenicia, 22, 41, 414; + defends Cyzicus, 427; + his death, 431 + +Sergius, 381, 461 + +Serica, a country bordering on Scythia, 341 + +Servilius, the conqueror of Cilicia, 27 + +Severus (i.), the Emperor, 395, 507; + (ii.) master of the horse, 103; + at the battle of Strasburg, 113, 141, 143; + master of the infantry under Valentinian, 447, 493 + +Sextius Calvinus, 81 + +Sicani, ancient occupants of Sicily, 556 + +Sicinius Dentatus, 381, 461 + +Sidon, a city of Phoenicia, 28 + +Silvanus, 55; + attempts to assume the imperial dignity, 59; + is killed in a Christian church, 63 + +Simonides (i.), the lyric poet, 16, 90; + (ii.) a philosopher, 512; + burnt alive, 513 + +Simplicius, 209; + cruelty of, 477 + +Sindi, a tribe near the Euxine, 293 + +Singara, a town in Mesopotamia, 170; + besieged and taken by Sapor, 223, 224; + given up to the Persians, 393 + +Sinope, in Paphlagonia, 289 + +Sintula, tribune of the stable, 217, 221 + +Sirmium, 257 + +Sisara, a fort in Mesopotamia, 173 + +Sitifis, a town in Mauritania, 501, 502 + +Sizyges, a Scythian tribe, 341 + +Socrates, 488 + +Socunda, a town in Hyrcania, 339 + +Sogdiana, a province of Persia, 340 + +Sole, a town of Hyrcania, 339 + +Solicinium, 459 + +Solon, 64, 88, 315 + +Sophanes, a general under Xerxes, 369 + +Sophocles, 383 + +Sophronius, prefect of Constantinople, 421 + +Sopianæ, a town in Valeria, a province of Pannonia, 468 + +Sosingites, a lake in Assyria, 333 + +Sotera, a town in Persia, 342 + +Sparti, a Persian regiment, 200 + +Spectatus, a Roman tribune, 136 + +Sphinx, 309 + +Sporades, islands in the Ægean sea, 286 + +Stagira, the birthplace of Aristotle, 443 + +Stesichorus, a Greek lyric poet, 488 + +Sthenelus, his monument, 290 + +Strasburg, battle of, 113-118 + +Subicarense, a fortress in Mauritania, 538 + +Succi, a narrow pass in Mount Hemus, 258, 265, 267, 443 + +Sueridus, a Gothic chief, revolts, 592 + +Sugarbarritanum, a town in Mauritania, 529 + +Suggena, a Mauritanian general, 531 + +Sumere, a fort on the Tigris, 390 + +Sunon, a lake in Bithynia, 426 + +Suomarius, king of the Allemanni, 107; + his submission, 143 + +Supræ, a barbarian troop, 548 + +Surena, the title of the Persian commander-in-chief, 354, 358; + ambassador from Sapor, 393 + +Susa (Shushan), a city of Persia, 335 + +Syagrius, 481 + +Syene, a town of Egypt, 312 + +Sylla, 88, 116 + +Symmachus, a senator, 265; + prefect of Rome, his character, 439 + +Symplegades, islands in the Bosporus, 288 + +Synhorium, a fortress in Armenia, 95 + +Syria, 28 + + +T. + +Tabiana, an island in the Persian gulf, 338 + +Tages, a soothsayer, 143, 245 + +Taifali, a Gothic tribe, 155 + +Talicus, a Persian river, 341 + +Tamsapor, a Persian general, 98, 134, 169, 201 + +Tanais (the Don), 291 + +Tanaitæ, a tribe of the Alani, 583 + +Taphra, a town in Arabia, 338 + +Tapurian mountains in Persia, 340 + +Tarquitius, a soothsayer, 378 + +Tarratius Bassus, 473 + +Tarsus, a town in Cilicia, 27; + Julian buried at, 404 + +Tauri, a tribe near the Euxine, 291 + +Taurini (Turin), 72 + +Tauriscus, a conqueror of Spain, 73 + +Taurus, a quæstor, 39; + prefect in Italy, 253 + +Tenedos, an island in the Ægean sea, 286 + +Teredon, a city at the mouth of the Euphrates, 332 + +Terence, 439 + +Terentius, a Roman general, 465, 544 + +Tertullus, prefect of Rome, 203, 259 + +Teuchira, a town in Cyrene, 312 + +Teutomeres, chief of the Protectores, 51 + +Teutones, incursions of the, 591 + +Thalassius (i.), prefect of the East, 4, 23; + (ii.) an officer in one of the law courts at Rome, 298 + +Thasos, now Thaso, 286 + +Thebes, a city in Egypt, 129, 312 + +Themiscyra forest, inhabited by Amazons, 289 + +Themistocles, 571 + +Theodorus, 505, 506, 511 + +Theodosius (i.), 453; + assists the Britons, 483; + his success, 485, 526, 527, 538; + (ii.) the younger, 541 + +Theodotus, 305 + +Theognis, a poet, 508 + +Theolaiphus, count, 271 + +Theophanes, a river of the Sauromatæ, 291 + +Theophilus, governor of Syria, 22, 82 + +Theopompus, 296 + +Thermodon, a river of Pontus, 289 + +Thilsaphata, a town in Mesopotamia, 397 + +Thilutha, a fort on the Euphrates, 349 + +Thiodamas, 302 + +Thmuis, a town in Egypt, 313 + +Thrace, 442; + description of the country and the people, 287, 443, 444 + +Thucydides, 191, 343 + +Thule, 171 + +Thuringians, 583; + revolt, 588; + defeat an army under Lupicinus, 590 + +Thynia, a district of Bithynia, 288 + +Tibareni, a people of Pontus, 290 + +Tiber, 542 + +Tibris, 289 + +Ticinum (now Pavia), 72 + +Tigaviæ, a town of Mauritania, 530 + +Tigris, 333 + +Timagenes, a Greek writer, 73 + +Tingetanum, a fort in Mauritania, 531 + +Tios, a town of the Euxine, 289 + +Tipata, a town in Mauritania, 532 + +Tiphys, the pilot of the Argonauts, 290 + +Tiposa, a town in Mauritania, 529 + +Tisias, an ancient Greek orator, 554 + +Tochari, a Bactrian tribe, 340 + +Tolosa (Toulouse), 79 + +Tomi, a city of Thrace, 293 + +Tomyris, a queen of Scythia, 331 + +Totordanes, a river of the Sauromatæ, 291 + +Toxandria, a town built by the Franks, 141 + +Tragonice, a town of Persia, 338 + +Trajan (i.), the Emperor, 29, 102, 395, 440; + (ii.) count of Armenia, 503, 547; + his battle with the Goths, 595, 608, 615 + +Transcellensis, a mountain in Mauritania, 529 + +Trapezus, a Sinopean colony in Pontus, 289 + +Trebatius, a lawyer, 556 + +Treves (Treviri), 79 + +Tribocci, a tribe on the Upper Rhine, 120 + +Tricapæ (Troyes), 79 + +Tricesimæ (Kellen), 161 + +Tricorii, a people of the Alps, 77 + +Tripoli, 496, 551 + +Troglodytæ, a tribe near the Red Sea, 293 + +Tubusuptum, a town in Mauritania, 527 + +Tungri (Tongres), 78, 141 + +Turgana, an Arabian island, 338 + +Tyana, a town in Cappadocia, 333, 402 + +Tyndenses, a people of Mauritania, 527 + +Tyras (the Dniester), 293 + +Tyre, 28 + +Tyros, a town on the Euxine, 293 + + +U. + +Ultra, the son of Aspacuras, 466 + +Ur, a fort in Persia, 396 + +Urbicius, duke of Mesopotamia, 549 + +Urius, king of the Allemanni, 107, 164 + +Ursatius, 413, 415 + +Ursicinus, king of the Allemanni, 107, 164 + +---- master of the horse in the East, 30, 36; + recalled, 37; + danger of, 47; + goes to Cologne, 61, 86, 180, 189, 190; + charges against, 213 + +Ursinus, contest with Damasus for the bishopric of Rome, 441 + +Ursulus, 96, 280 + +Usafer, a Sarmatian noble, 149 + +Uscudama, a town in Thrace, 39, 444 + + +V. + +Vadomarius, king of the Allemanni, 32, 247, 248, 425, 503 + +Vagabanta, a town of Mesopotamia, 504 + +Valens of Thessalonica, 274 + +Valens chosen emperor of the East by his brother Valentinian, 413; + his alarm at the successes of Procopius, 424; + sends Vadomarius to besiege Nicæa, and proceeds himself to + Nicomedia, 425; + his cruelty, 433; + marches against the Goths, 445; + attacks the Gruthungi, 446; + returns to Constantinople, 447; + his suspicious character, 507; + reply to Sapor, 549; + omens of his death, 576; + receives an embassy from the Goths, 585; + sends Victor into Persia, 594; + leaves Antioch for Constantinople, 606; + marches to Hadrianople, 609; + his death, 614; + his vices, 616 + +Valentia (Valence), 32, 79 + +---- a province of Britain, 485 + +Valentine, a Pannonian, 484, 568 + +Valentinian, chosen emperor, 406; + his conduct, 407; + saluted as Augustus, 409; + his speech, 409; + creates his brother Valens tribune and master of the horse, 412; + arrives at Constantinople, 412; + takes as his colleague in the imperial dignity his brother Valens, 413; + his cruelty, 433; + invests his son Gratian with the imperial dignity, 448; + sends Theodosius to Britain, 453; + marches against the Allemanni and gains a victory, 458; + defeats the Goths at Solicinium, and returns to Treves, 461; + fortifies the banks of the Rhine, 480; + makes overtures of peace to the Burgundians, 495; + his cruelties, 521; + makes peace with Macrianus, 552; + marches against the Quadi, 562; + his dream, 563; + his death, 564; + review of his reign, 567; + his character, 569-573 + +Valentinian II. chosen emperor, 575 + +Valentinus, a tribune, 166 + +Valeria, a province of Pannonia, so named after the daughter of + Diocletian, 204, 468 + +Valerian, officer of the domestics, 461 + +Valerianus, master of the horse, 615 + +Valerius Publicola, 17 + +Vangiones (Worms), 78 + +Vardanes, the founder of Ctesiphon, 334 + +Varronianus, the father of Jovian, 388 + +---- the son of Jovian, 403 + +Vasatæ (Bazas), 79 + +Vatrachites, a river of Persia, 337 + +Vecturiones, a nation of the Picts, 453 + +Velia, a town in Lucania, 74 + +Ventidius, lieutenant of Antony, 328 + +Venustus, 317, 473 + +Verissimus, count, 92 + +Verrinianus, 60, 181 + +Vertæ, allies of the Persians at the siege of Amida, 187, 193 + +Vestralpus, a king of the Allemanni, 107, 164 + +Veteranio, 46 + +Vetranio, captain of the Zianni, 377 + +Victa, a town in Mesopotamia, 228 + +Victohali, a Gothic tribe, 150 + +Victor Aurelius, the historian, 259 + +Victor, a Sarmatian, 347, 356, 366, 445, 609 + +---- a tribune given as a hostage to the Persians, 394 + +Victorinus, 473 + +Viderichus, son of Vithimiris, 583 + +Viduarius, king of the Quadi, 151 + +Vienna (Vienne), 79 + +Vincentius, tribune of the Scutarii, 300 + +Virgantia (Briançon), 76 + +Virgil, 72, 202, 586 + +Vitalianus, count, 403 + +Vithicabius, king of the Allemanni, 458 + +Vithimiris, king of the Eastern Goths, 583 + +Vitrodorus, son of Viduarius, 151 + +Vocontii, a people of Gaul, 67 + + +Z. + +Zabdiceni, a people of Mesopotamia, 225, 393 + +Zagrus, montes, 335 + +Zamma, son of a Mauritanian chief, 525 + +Zariaspes, a river in Bactria, 340 + +Zeno, a celebrated Stoic, 31 + +Zeugma, a town on the Euphrates, 179 + +Zianni, an Armenian tribe, 377 + +Ziata, a fortress in Mesopotamia, 193 + +Zinafer, a Sarmatian chief, 148 + +Zizais, son of a king of the Sarmatians, 148 + +Zombis, a town in Media, 337 + +Zopyrus, 169 + +Zoroaster, 336 + + THE END. + + + LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, + DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Roman History of Ammianus +Marcellinus, by Ammianus Marcellinus + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROMAN HISTORY *** + +***** This file should be named 28587-0.txt or 28587-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/5/8/28587/ + +Produced by Greg Bergquist and The Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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