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diff --git a/28501-8.txt b/28501-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9e6e705 --- /dev/null +++ b/28501-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3366 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Construction Work for Rural and Elementary +Schools, by Virginia McGaw + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Construction Work for Rural and Elementary Schools + +Author: Virginia McGaw + +Release Date: April 5, 2009 [EBook #28501] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONSTRUCTION WORK *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Diane Monico, and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Construction Work +for +Rural and Elementary +Schools + + +BY + +VIRGINIA McGAW + +Teacher in the Elementary School +of Baltimore + + +A. FLANAGAN COMPANY +CHICAGO + + + + +COPYRIGHT 1909 +BY +A. FLANAGAN COMPANY + + + + +PREFACE + + +In offering this volume to the public the author has but one +wish--namely, that it may supply a want in time of need and help some +one over a difficult place. + +Most of the subject-matter in Parts One, Two, Three, and Four was +written for and has been previously published in the _Atlantic +Educational Journal_, with a view to assisting the rural teacher. The +present volume comprises a revision of the articles published, together +with a short account of one season's work in a school garden, and has +the same object--that of aiding the rural teacher by means of a few +simple suggestions. + +The work is divided into five parts--"Cord Construction," "Paper +Construction," "Wood Construction," "Basketry," and "The School +Garden." No subject is dealt with at length. The aim has been to give +simple models that may be made without elaborate preparation or special +material. + +Believing that a child is most likely to appreciate his tools when he +realizes their value or knows their history, a brief introduction to +each part is given, and wherever possible, the place of the occupation +in race history is dealt with, and an account of the culture and +habitat of the material is given. + +As clear a statement as is possible is made of how the model is +constructed, and in most cases both a working drawing and a picture are +given. + + VIRGINIA McGAW. + +BALTIMORE, MARYLAND, + April, 1909. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENTS + + +To the _Atlantic Educational Journal_ for the privilege of revising and +relinquishing the articles on Cord, Paper, Wood, and Basketry. + +To Mr. George M. Gaither, Supervisor of Manual Training in the Public +Schools of Baltimore, for five of the woodwork patterns. + +To President Richard W. Silvester, of the Maryland Agricultural +College, for the inspiration to write the _Garden Bulletin_, his +consent to its republication, and his hearty coöperation in its +revision. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CORD CONSTRUCTION + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 9 + +KNOTS 9 + 1 Overhand Knot 10 + 2 Square Knot 10 + 3 "Granny" Knot 11 + +CHAINS 11 + 4 Loop Chain 11 + 5 Overhand Knot Chain 13 + 6 Solomon's Knot Chain 13 + +COMBINED KNOTS AND CHAINS 15 + 7 Knotted Bag 15 + 8 Miniature Hammock--Knotted 16 + 9 Miniature Portière--Knotted 17 + +WEAVING 17 + 10 Miniature Hammock--Woven 17 + + +PAPER CONSTRUCTION + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 25 + +A MODEL LESSON 27 + 1 Windmill or Pin-wheel 31 + 2 Square Tray No. I 31 + 3 Square Tray No. II 31 + 4 Square Box with Cover 32 + 5 Square or Rectangular Box 33 + 6 Pencil Box with Sliding Cover 35 + 7 Seed Box with Sections 37 + 8 Picture Frame No. I, Diagonal Folds 37 + 9 Picture Frame No. II 37 + 10 Portfolio 40 + 11 Barn--House--Furniture 41 + 12 Hexagonal Tray 42 + 13 Lamp Shade 44 + 14 Star 45 + 15 Notebook 46 + 16 Bound Book 47 + 17 Japanese Book 49 + 18 Scrap-Book 50 + + +WOOD CONSTRUCTION + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 55 + 1 Puzzle 56 + 2 Plant Label 58 + 3 Pencil Sharpener 58 + 4 Match Scratch 59 + 5 Kite-String Winder 60 + 6 Thermometer Back 61 + 7 Pocket Pin-Cushion 61 + 8 Picture Frame 63 + 9 Japanese Box 65 + 10 Grandfather's Chair 66 + + +BASKETRY + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 71 + +REED CONSTRUCTION 75 + 1 Napkin Ring No. I 75 + 2 Napkin Ring No. II 76 + 3 Mat 76 + 4 Hamper Basket 77 + 5 Basket Tray 79 + 6 Basket with Handle 81 + +RAFFIA CONSTRUCTION 83 + 7 Plaited Rope 84 + 8 Plaited Mat 85 + 9 Purse 86 + 10 Plaited Basket 86 + 11 Hat of Plaited Rope 88 + 12 Napkin Ring 89 + 13 Indian Basket 89 + 14 Grass Basket or Tray 91 + 15 Basket of Splints and Raffia 93 + +COMBINED REED AND RAFFIA 95 + 16 Umbrella 97 + 17 Miniature Chair No. I 97 + 18 Miniature Chair No. II 99 + +RULES FOR CANING CHAIRS 102 + + +THE SCHOOL GARDEN + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 107 + +A CITY SCHOOL GARDEN 108 + + + + +PART I + +CORD CONSTRUCTION + + + + +CORD CONSTRUCTION + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS + +To a child one of the most attractive of possessions is a piece of +cord. He has so many uses for it that it becomes part of the prized +contents of his pocket. Since this commodity affords so much pleasure +to the untrained child, how greatly may the pleasure be enhanced if he +is taught how to make the number of beautiful things that may be +wrought from cord or twine! Having this knowledge, he will +unconsciously employ many otherwise weary moments in fashioning some +coveted article. + +Among the things he can make are chains, reins, bags, nets, miniature +hammocks, portières, and rugs for the dollhouse. He must be guided step +by step from the simplest to the more intricate. He must be taught that +only when a thing is well done has it any use or value, therefore the +best effort is necessary to the success of his work. If he ties a knot, +it must be properly tied or it will not hold. If he makes a bag or a +hammock, the meshes must be uniform and the color blendings pleasing or +it will lack beauty, and even he, himself, will not care for it. Should +he make a chain or reins, they ought to be attractive-looking as well +as useful; hence the aim should be for artistic combination and perfect +execution. The success the child will meet with will depend greatly +upon the attitude of the teacher toward the work and the amount of +spirit she may be able to infuse into it. + + +KNOTS + + _Aim_--To teach the names of different knots, how they are + tied, and the utilitarian value of each. + +Begin by teaching how to tie a knot, and that all knots are not alike +nor tied in the same way. There are three kinds of knots--the overhand +knot, the square knot and the "Granny" knot. Each of these has its use, +its place, and a utilitarian value. + + +1 Overhand Knot + + _Material_--One 10-inch piece of heavy twine. + +Hold one end of the twine firmly in the left hand and throw the other +end over with the right hand to form a loop; then pass the end in the +right hand under the loop; and draw it through tightly, making a firm +knot. + +[Illustration: OVERHAND KNOT] + +A long piece of twine in which are tied either single knots at regular +intervals, or groups of three or five knots with spaces between, will +make a chain which will delight any small child. + + +2 Square Knot + + _Aim_--To teach how to tie a knot that will not slip. + + _Material_--One 12-inch piece of heavy twine. + +Take an end of the twine between the thumb and the forefinger of each +hand. Holding in the left hand end No. 1, pass it to the right over end +No. 2; then pass it under No. 2; finally, pass it out and over, making +the first tie. Now, holding end No. 1 firmly in the right hand and end +No. 2 in the left, pass No. 1 to the left over No. 2, then under, out +and over; draw the two ties together, and you will have a firm, square +knot. + +[Illustration: SQUARE KNOT] + + +3 "Granny" Knot + + _Aim_--To teach the name of the knot one usually ties and + how to tie it. + + _Material_--One 12-inch piece of heavy twine. + +Take an end of the twine between the thumb and the forefinger of each +hand and hold firmly. Pass end No. 1 to the right over end No. 2, under +and out. Next pass end No. 2 to the right over end No. 1, under and +out. + +We now have the knot known as the "Granny," which we ordinarily tie. + + +CHAINS + +4 Loop Chain + + _Material_--One piece, 5 yards long, of macramé cord, No. + 12, one color. (See page 12.) + +About five inches from one end of the cord make a short loop. Using +this loop as a starting-point, work up the length of the cord to within +about eighteen inches of the other end, by repeatedly drawing a new +loop through the one previously made as one does in crocheting. The +child can easily manipulate the cord with his tiny fingers. Aim to have +the loops of uniform size. Finish with a loop five inches long, leaving +an end of the same length. Now, placing together the two ends of the +chain, we have a loop and two single ends of cord. Take these single +cords together and buttonhole them over the loop for about three +inches, then twist. Tie the single ends with a square knot, and fringe +them out; leave the loop. + +[Illustration: LOOP CHAIN +Showing how stitch is made and appearance of finished chain.] + +Instead of being fringed, the ends may have a large bead attached to +each, and a whistle may be strung on the loop. This would both make +the chain attractive to the child and demonstrate a use for it. + + +5 Overhand Knot Chain + + _Material_--Macramé cord, No. 12: one piece 2 yards long, + white; one piece 2 yards long, red. + +[Illustration: OVERHAND KNOT CHAIN] + +Fasten the two pieces together in the middle. Pin them to a board or +slip them over a hook where the cord will be held firmly. Using the +overhand knot, tie each color alternately, until all except about four +inches of cord is used up. Taking four ends as one, tie a slip-knot +close up to the point where you stopped forming the chain. Next, fringe +out the four ends close up to the knot. The result is a circular cord +with stripes running diagonally around it, very pleasing to the eye of +a child. + +The lengths here given make a fob-chain about five inches long. + + +6 Solomon's Knot Chain + + _Material_--Four pieces of macramé cord, No. 12, 2-1/2 yards + long, of one color. (See page 14.) + +Double in the middle and leave two loops, each two inches long. Take +two strands as the center and foundation and attach them to a hook or a +board where they will be held firmly. Loop the two remaining threads +alternately over the two central ones, first the one on the right, then +the one on the left. For instance: Take a single cord on the left, form +a loop to the left of the double cords, draw the end over the two +foundation pieces and hold firmly. Then take a single cord on the +right, pass it over the piece of cord which forms the loop, then under +where the three pieces cross and up through the loop; draw it tight. +Then work with a single cord on the right in the same way and continue, +alternating the two single cords, until there is left about four +inches. Clip the middle cords so that the four ends may be of equal +length. Finish by tying them in a square knot and fringing the ends. +This forms a flat chain one-quarter of an inch wide and one-eighth of +an inch thick, which may be made any length desired. + +[Illustration: SOLOMON'S KNOT CHAIN +Showing how stitch is made.] + +[Illustration: KNOTTED BAG] + + +COMBINED KNOTS AND CHAINS + +7 Knotted Bag + + _Material_--Macramé cord, No. 12, one or two colors; twelve + pieces 1 yard long or six pieces 1 yard long, of each of the + two colors. + +Double each piece of cord in the middle and tie it in a loop over a +pencil or some other object that will make the loops of equal size. +Slip the loops from the pencil and string them to a cord, alternating +the colors. Join the ends of the cord so as to form a hoop. You now +have twelve loops on this hoop and one row of knots. Form a second row +of knots by tying cords of different colors together. The meshes should +be uniform and of the size of the loops. Continue knotting one row +below the other until about three inches of cord remain. Now stretch +the bag out straight and double and tie together the four cords, which +operation will form the bottom and close the bag. Fringe the ends and +trim them off evenly. + +Make a loop chain, and run it through the top loops, having removed the +working cord. Small brass rings may be used at the top instead of +loops, and the drawing string may be run through them. A larger bag may +be made by the addition of more and longer pieces of twine. + +[Illustration: MINIATURE HAMMOCK--KNOTTED] + + +8 Miniature Hammock--Knotted + + _Material_--Twelve pieces of seine cord, No. 12, each 2 + yards long. Two iron rings, 1 inch in diameter. + +String the pieces of cord through a ring, taking care that the ends are +of the same length. About three inches from the ring, knot each piece +of cord. This will make twelve knots and form the first row. For the +second row, knot alternate pieces of cord. Continue until there are +twelve rows of knots. Be careful to make the meshes the same size. +Leave about three inches unknotted and attach these ends to the second +ring. Make a twisted cord (of four thicknesses of macramé) of some +contrasting color and run through the meshes of each side, taking it +twice through each mesh and attaching it to rings at the ends of the +hammock. The meshes should be about an inch square. Make the cords a +little shorter than the sides of the hammock, in order to give it the +proper spring. Take an extra piece of cord the color of the hammock and +wrap it around the cords close up to the rings, winding it evenly and +firmly for about an inch from the ring; fasten it securely. + + +9 Miniature Portière--Knotted + + _Material_--Twelve 36-inch lengths of macramé cord, No. 12. + +Double each piece in the middle and, using the overhand knot, tie it +over a stout lead pencil or a very narrow ruler. See that each knot is +pressed close to the foundation holder, that the loops may be of equal +size. These loops and knots form the first row. Do not remove them from +the holder. Separate the cords and knot together each two adjacent +ones, alternating at every other row. Continue knotting until about +three inches of cord remain to form the fringe at the bottom. Before +tying the last row of knots, slip a colored glass bead over each set of +cords, then make the knot so as to hold the bead in place. These beads +are an ornament, apart from giving weight to the portière to make it +hang well. Trim the fringe evenly, slip the portière from the +foundation holder, and it is ready to hang. + +Use beads the color of the cord, or of some effective contrasting +shade. If a child is expert enough, a bead may be placed at every knot, +adding decidedly to the attractiveness of the little portière. (See +page 18.) + + +WEAVING + +10 Miniature Hammock--Woven + + _Material_--Tag-board loom 8×10 inches. Cord of one, two or + three colors. Two brass rings, 1/2 inch in diameter. + +[Illustration: MINIATURE PORTIERE--(For description see page 17.)] + +To make a loom, take a piece of tag-board 8×10 inches in size. Measure +off one inch from the back edge and draw a line parallel to the back +edge. Measure off one inch from the front edge and draw a line parallel +to the front edge. Measure off one inch from the right edge and draw a +line parallel to the right edge. Measure off one inch from the left +edge and draw a line parallel to the left edge. You have now a 6×8-inch +rectangle marked off, leaving a one-inch space around the edge of the +tag-board. Start at a point where a vertical and a horizontal line +intersect and mark off the six-inch ends into spaces one-fourth inch +apart. Next with a large needle pierce the board at each point of +intersection. This will make twenty-five eyelets at each end. On the +reverse side of the board draw diagonals to determine the center. Tie +together the two brass rings and fasten them firmly to the center of +the reverse side. + +[Illustration: BLANKET FOR DOLL'S BED +Showing how it is started.] + +To string the loom requires about fifteen yards of cord. Divide the +cord into two lengths. Thread a length into a needle and tie one end of +it to one of the brass rings. Next carry the cord from the ring through +the thirteenth perforation, then across the face of the loom to the +thirteenth perforation at the opposite end, through again to the +reverse side and pass through the opposite ring from which it started. +Repeat this operation by carrying the cord in a reverse direction each +time until one-half the loom is strung. Then with the other length of +cord start, by attaching it to the same ring to which the first piece +was tied, and work in the opposite direction until the second half is +strung. Should it be necessary to add to the cord, arrange that the +knot be on an end near a ring. A knot in the warp hampers the weaving. + +[Illustration: A RUG +Made of narrow strips of cotton cloth.] + +Have the warp threads and the predominant woof thread of the same +color. + +To begin weaving, cut a quantity of ten-inch lengths. Take one of these +lengths, start in the center of the loom, and weave in and out among +the warp threads, allowing it to extend two inches beyond on each side. +Have a perfectly smooth, narrow, thin ruler and weave it in across the +warp threads. As each horizontal or woof thread is added, shove it +close to the preceding one with the ruler, which acts as a pusher. +Weave first on one side of the center and then on the other, until the +entire 6×8-inch space is covered. If a border is to be put in, gauge +equal spaces from the center and work in the border of a different +shade or color. The borders must be placed equally distant from the +center and the same distance from each end. Take the overhanging cords +and knot each alternate two together along the line of the outer warp +thread. This will hold the woof threads in place, as well as finish the +edges of the hammock. Comb these ends out and trim them, to get the +fringe even. At each end where the weaving stops, take a needle +threaded with a length of cord and run in and out along the warp +threads, first to the right and then to the left of the final woof +thread. This makes a secure finish and holds the woof threads in +position. Next unfasten the rings and remove the hammock from the loom +by tearing the tag-board along the lines of perforations. Finally, +where the cords pass through the ring, hold them close to the ring and +wrap them with a piece of cord for the distance of an inch, then fasten +off by forcing the needle up through the wrapped space toward the ring; +draw the end through and clip close to the ring. The hammock is now +finished. + +The question may arise: Why begin weaving in the center of the loom? +The answer is: Because small children, and even older ones, sometimes, +are not able to keep their warp threads parallel and as they approach +the middle, where these threads give more, they naturally draw them in. +This tendency is remedied to a great extent by beginning in the middle +and weaving toward the ends, where the warp is confined in the board +and keeps its place with no effort on the part of the child. + + + + +PART II + +PAPER CONSTRUCTION + + + + +PAPER CONSTRUCTION + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS + +Whatever may have been the true origin of the art of paper-making, it +is now lost in obscurity. It is almost certain that the earliest form +of paper was the papyrus of the Egyptians and that they were the first +to use it as a writing material. They manufactured it from the stem of +the papyrus plant, from which the name _paper_ comes. + +It is also known that the Chinese were versed in this art before the +Christian Era, and that they made paper from the bark of various trees, +the soft part of bamboo stems, and cotton. In India and China the +practice of writing on dried palm and other leaves still obtains. It is +probable that the employment of these fibrous substances, together with +observation of the methods of paper-making wasps and other insects, led +to manufacturing by pulping the materials and spreading them out. + +As the Chinese seem to have been the pioneers in so many great +inventions, so also they appear to have been the inventors of this art. +From the Chinese the Arabians learned, in the seventh century, the +craft of making paper from cotton, and they established a manufactory +at Samarcand in 706 A. D. Here the Moors learned the art, and through +them it was introduced into Spain. It is thought that the Moors used +flax and hemp in addition to cotton in their manufacture of paper. The +products of their mills are known to have been of a most superior +quality, but, with the decline of the Moors, paper-making passed into +less skilled hands, and the quality of the paper became inferior. + +From Spain the art spread through the other countries of Europe, and as +factories were established further north, where cotton was not a +product nor easy to import, the necessity of substituting some other +material probably led to the introduction of linen rags; but when they +began to be used is uncertain. England was far behind the other +countries of Northern Europe in introducing the industry of +paper-making. + +[Illustration: SCREEN--SIX-BY-NINE-INCH CONSTRUCTION PAPER] + +In the United States to-day paper in all varieties is manufactured to +an enormous extent, and almost exclusively from vegetable matter. The +book and newspaper trades demand an untold quantity. + +There are three great types--writing, printing, and wrapping paper. +Writing paper is made from rags and wood pulp. The staple for wrapping +paper is old rope, and in some cases jute. The best writing and +printing papers, however, are made from rags. From these as staples, +all other varieties are developed, and we have paper for every use to +which man can apply it. + +Paper folding and modeling is not an ancient occupation, but a modern +device, yet to the child it has a utilitarian value not to be +overlooked. His nature demands that he be employed, and change of +occupation is conducive to his happiness. Nothing is quite so restful +to him as to do something with his hands; therefore, with his blocks he +builds a house, fences it around with his splints, and strews the +ground with imaginary trees and animals. He lives in this nursery play, +and in it he is happy. + +When he enters school, should he have only books? No, his hands still +demand employment. He is now led to fashion from paper what he has +already made with his blocks and toys. He is occupied, he is +interested, and he is cultivating concentration and industrious habits. +Is this worth while? + +Begin the lessons with a talk on the manufacture and uses of paper. By +a story, an association or the suggestion of a future use the child +should be made to feel that he is doing something worth while. This +will accentuate the interest and deepen the impression. + +All models given may be increased or decreased in size if the +proportions are adhered to, but the dimensions stated are those +commonly used. + + +A MODEL LESSON + + _Aim_--To construct a windmill or pin-wheel. + +Each child should have a five-inch square, a slender stick five inches +long, a pin, a ruler, a pair of scissors, and a lead pencil. + +The children are supposed to know that every piece of paper, laid in +position, has a back edge, a front edge, a right edge, a left edge, a +right-back corner, a left-back corner, a right-front corner, a +left-front corner, and that, in tracing, the forefinger of the right +hand is used. + +Three questions after each direction will be sufficient. The questions +aim to have a complete statement in answer, and to develop an +unconsciously correct use of the verb. This may appear slow at first, +but soon the replies will come quickly and the answer will be correctly +given. + +[Illustration: WINDMILL, A] + +_Teacher_: "Children, lay your papers on your desk parallel with the +front edge of the desk.--John, where are you to lay your paper?" + +_John_: "I am to lay my paper on my desk parallel with the front edge +of my desk." + +_Teacher_: "Mary, where did you lay your paper?" + +_Mary_: "I laid my paper on my desk parallel with the front edge of my +desk." + +_Teacher_: "Willie, where has Mary laid her paper?" + +_Willie_: "Mary has laid her paper on her desk, parallel with the front +edge of her desk." + +_Teacher_: "Trace the back edge of your paper.--Anna, what are you to +do to your paper?" + +_Anna_: "I am to trace the back edge of my paper." + +_Teacher_: "Harry, what did you do to your paper?" + +_Harry_: "I traced the back edge of my paper." + +_Teacher_: "Jessie, what have you done to your paper?" + +_Jessie_: "I have traced the back edge of my paper." + +_Teacher_: "Each child place the forefinger on the right-back corner of +the paper.--Charles, what are you to do?" + +_Charles_: "I am to place my forefinger on the right-back corner of my +paper." + +_Teacher_: "Anna, what did you do?" + +_Anna_: "I placed my forefinger on the right-back corner of my paper." + +_Teacher_: "Laurence, what have you done?" + +_Laurence_: "I have placed my forefinger on the right-back corner of my +paper." + +_Teacher_: "Take your ruler and lay it across your paper from the +left-back corner to the right-front corner.--Margaret, what are you to +do?" + +_Margaret_: "I am to lay my ruler on my paper from the left-back corner +to the right-front corner." + +_Teacher_: "Draw a line connecting the left-back corner of your paper +with the right-front corner.--James, what did you draw?" + +_James_: "I drew a line connecting the left-back corner of my paper +with the right-front corner." + +_Teacher_: "Alice, what have you drawn?" + +_Alice_: "I have drawn a line connecting the left-back corner of my +paper with the right-front corner." + +Now have the children draw a line connecting the reverse diagonal +corners and proceed as follows: + +_Teacher_: "Find the point where the lines cross. This is the center or +middle point of your paper.--Albert, what are you to find?" + +_Albert_: "I am to find the point where the lines cross, which is the +center of my paper." + +_Teacher_: "Measure one inch from this point on each of the four lines +and place a dot.--Sara, what did you measure?" + +_Sara_: "I measured one inch from the center of my paper on each of the +four lines and placed a dot." + +_Teacher_: "Lay your pencil and your ruler down. Place your paper on +your desk parallel with its front edge and lay your left hand on the +right-front corner. Turn the paper until this corner is directly in +front of you. Take your scissors and cut along the ruled line from the +corner to the point one inch from the center. + +[Illustration: WINDMILL, B] + +"Lay down your scissors. Turn your paper from right to left until the +next corner faces you. Cut. Move the paper from right to left again +until the third corner faces you. Cut. Bring the fourth corner to face +you. Cut. There are now eight points. Turn each alternate point to the +center, run the pin through all of them and fasten the wheel to the +stick." + +_Final questions._ + +_Teacher_: "What did you make?" + +_Pupil_: "I made a pin-wheel." + +_Teacher_: "What have you made?" + +_Pupil_: "I have made a pin-wheel." + +_Teacher_: "What has Ellen made?" + +_Pupil_: "Ellen has made a pin-wheel." + +When older pupils have completed a model it is excellent practice to +have them write a full description of how it is made and the materials +used. + + +1 Windmill, or Pin-Wheel + + _Material_--One piece of construction paper, 5×5 inches. + Stick, 5×1/4×1/4 inches. One pin. (See pages 28 and 30.) + +Fold the square on the diagonals. Cut the diagonals to within one-half +inch of the center. Bend alternate corners over until the point of each +touches the center. Fasten the four points in the center by running the +pin through them and driving it into the stick. + + +2 Square Tray No. I + + _Material_--Construction paper, 5×5 inches. (See page 32.) + +Measure off one inch on four sides, and connect the points with a line +parallel to the edge of the paper. Score lightly each line. Cut out the +four corner squares. Turn up the sides, fasten the corners together +with raffia or cord, tying a small bow. + + +3 Square Tray No. II + + _Material_--Construction paper, 5×5 inches. (See page 33.) + +Fold and crease into sixteen small squares. Score lightly the four +lines nearest the outer edge. Draw one diagonal pointing toward the +center of each corner square. Next draw half of the diagonal extending +in the opposite direction. Fold the paper on the lines scored. Crease +the diagonals 1-2, making the crease extend to the inside of the tray, +and press until lines 1-4 and 1-3 meet. Now we have a triangle on the +inside of the tray. Fold this over on half-diagonal, No. 5, and press +to the side of the tray. This will fasten together firmly the corners +of the tray. + +[Illustration: SQUARE TRAY No. I--(For description see page 31.)] + + +4 Square Box with Cover + + _Materials_--Construction paper, 6×6 inches. (See page 34.) + +Measure off from the outer edge two lines, one inch apart. Score these +lines. In each corner there are four one-inch squares. Cut off 1, 2, +and 3; then draw the diagonal of 4 pointing toward the center of the +paper. Crease and fold on these diagonals, extending the triangle +inward. Fold this triangle over to half its size; press to the inside +of the box. Edges 5-6, 5-7 will meet to form the corners of the box, +and cover flaps 8-9 will fall naturally into place. Result, box four +inches square, one inch deep, with folding cover. + + +5 Square or Rectangular Box + +[Illustration: SQUARE TRAY No. II--(For description see page 31.)] + + _Material_--Construction paper, 4×4 inches or 4×6 inches. + +Measure off a margin one inch all around, and score. Cut as indicated +on page 35. Fold over the border to half its width, as 1 over to 2. +Bend up on line 2-3. When the edge is folded over a little tongue is +formed at each end. Slip this tongue under the fold of the adjacent +side, and it will fasten the sides of the box firmly together. A lid +may be made exactly as the box is made. + +[Illustration: SQUARE BOX WITH COVER--(For description see page 32.)] + +A beautiful Christmas box may be made of red paper, or gray decorated +with holly. Made of white paper, with a chicken (in yellow) painted on +the lid, it is appropriate for Easter. + +[Illustration: SQUARE BOX--(For description see pages 33 and 34.)] + + +6 Pencil Box with Sliding Cover + + _Material_--Construction paper: one 7-inch square; one + rectangle 4×9 inches. (See page 36.) + +_Drawer._ Lay the rectangle on the desk with the nine-inch edge +parallel with the front edge of the desk. Draw a line one inch from the +back edge and parallel with it. Draw a line one inch from the front +edge and parallel with it. Draw a line one inch from the right edge and +parallel with it; and a line one inch from the left edge and parallel +with it. Score, bend and crease on these lines. Cut the lines on the +right and the left edges to where they intersect the lines on the back +and the front edges. Fold and glue. The laps are pasted on the inside +and give strength to the ends of the drawer. + +[Illustration: PENCIL BOX WITH SLIDING COVER] + +_Cover_ (seven-inch square). Measure off one and one-fourth inches, and +construct a line parallel to the back edge. Measure one inch and draw a +line parallel to this. Measure off two and one-sixteenth inches (shy) +and draw a third parallel line. Measure one inch again and draw a +fourth line parallel to the other three. Score and fold on these lines. +Lap the space at the back edge over the space at the front edge until +they form a rectangle two and one-sixteenth by seven inches in size, to +correspond with the opposite one, which is the top of the cover. Glue. +Slide in the drawer and the pencil box is completed. + + +7 Seed Box with Sections + + _Material_--Construction paper: two rectangles 8×9 inches; + one rectangle 2×5-1/2 inches; one rectangle 2×4-1/2 inches. + (See page 38.) + +Take one 8×9-inch rectangle for the body of the box and lay off a +two-inch space all around. Cut on dotted lines. Score and crease, fold +and glue. The laps are glued to the inside and each one turned to the +right. When the partitions are put in the laps mark where the ends go, +as well as brace the ends of them. Take the two rectangles, 2×4-1/2 +inches and 2×5-1/2 inches, and draw a line one-half inch from each of +the two-inch edges. Score and crease. These form the laps for pasting +the partitions in. On these partitions turn all four laps to the right, +to coincide with the laps on the box. Dovetail the partitions by +cutting a slit one inch deep in the center of each and slipping one +over the other. Next glue them to the inside of the box. + +_Cover._ Take the second 8×9-inch rectangle and mark off a two-inch +space (shy) all around. Find middle of nine-inch edges and draw lines +1-2, 2-3, and 2-4. Cut out these two triangles. Cut the corners on the +dotted lines. Score, fold, and glue. Notice that in the lids the laps +are not turned as in the body of the box. Here, as in the drawer of the +pencil-box, the laps are glued to the ends of the cover, concentrating +strength there and producing symmetry in construction. + + +8 Picture Frame No. I--Diagonal Folds + + _Material_--Construction paper, 5×5 inches. (See page 39.) + +Fold on the diagonals. Bring each corner over until it touches the +center; crease. Fold each corner back again until its point touches the +outside edge at the middle section; crease. + +[Illustration: SEED BOX WITH SECTIONS--(For description see page 37.)] + + +9 Picture Frame No. II + + _Material_--Construction paper, 4-1/2×16-1/2 inches. (See + page 40.) + +Divide the length into three equal parts, making three rectangles +4-1/2×5-1/2 inches in size. In the middle rectangle, measure off and +cut out a rectangle 2-1/4×3 inches in size. Fold rectangle No. 3 up and +back of rectangle No. 2. Holding the two firmly together, punch two +holes, one-fourth inch apart, on each side, and one-fourth inch from +the outer edges (see diagram). Draw a piece of raffia or ribbon through +these holes and tie in a bow. Fold back rectangle No. 1 for support. + +[Illustration: PICTURE FRAME No. I--(For description see page 37.)] + +[Illustration: PICTURE FRAME No. II--(For description see pages 37 and +39.)] + + +10 Portfolio + + _Material_--Heavy manila paper, 7-1/2×12 inches. (See page 41.) + +Fold edge No. 1 over and even with edge No. 2. Crease and fold. On each +side of A mark and cut off one-half inch. Clip off the corners of the +flaps on B. Fold the flaps of B over on A and paste. Find the middle of +edges 1 and 2. With a radius of one inch, describe a semicircle and cut +it out. + +[Illustration: PORTFOLIO--(For description see page 40.)] + + +11 Barn--House--Furniture + + _Material_--Construction paper, 8×8 inches or 10×10 inches. + (See page 42.) + +Fold a square into sixteen small squares of equal size; crease. With +this as a basis throw the child on his own resources, allowing him to +invent a pattern and make a chair, a sofa, or any piece of furniture +that he can devise from such a square. A corner may have to be cut out +or a slit made, but impress upon the child that, as far as possible, +the model must be gotten by folding, with very little or no cutting. + +By using a larger square and folding in the same way, a house or a +barn may be made. Add a chimney and steps from an extra piece of paper. + +[Illustration] + + +12 Hexagonal Tray + + _Material_--Construction paper, 7×7 inches. + +[Illustration: HEXAGONAL TRAY] + +Draw one diameter; find the center. With a radius of three and one-half +inches describe a circle. (The circumference of a circle is six times +the radius). Place a point of the compass at one intersection of the +circumference and the diameter, and divide the circle into six equal +parts. With a radius of two inches, describe an inner circle parallel +to the outer one. Connect opposite points of the outer circle by +drawing two more diameters. This will divide the inner circle into six +equal parts. Connect by straight lines the adjacent points of the inner +circle, as 1-2; score. At the intersections of the outer circle, mark +off one-half inch on each side and by straight lines connect both these +points with the opposite points of intersection of the inner circle, as +2-3, 2-4. This forms two equal triangles, one of which is to be cut +out, as 4-2-5, and the other, as 3-2-5, left. Having cut out the six +triangles, bend up on lines scored, bring the sides together, and use +triangle 3-2-5 as a lap for pasting. + + +13 Lamp Shade + + _Material_--Construction paper, 7×10 inches. Japanese rice + paper, 7×10 inches. + +[Illustration: LAMP SHADE, A] + +Select a pretty shade of brown, green or red construction paper. +Measure off two inches and construct a line parallel to the ten-inch +length. Bisect this line. Place the compass at this point of bisection +and with a radius of four inches describe a semicircle, 1-2; extend +this arc to 3, and draw the line 3-4. With a radius of one inch +describe an inner semicircle (5-6) parallel to the outer one. Again, +with a radius of one inch describe a third semicircle, parallel to the +other two. Set the compass at half the radius and divide each +semicircle into six equal parts. Connect these points of intersection +by straight lines (9-10). Make a stencil that will fit in one of these +sections. Using the stencil, draw the same figure in each section. +Carefully cut out the stenciled space. Next lay the construction paper +on the Japanese rice paper and trace on it the stencil design. Remove +the construction paper and, with two blending colors of crayon, color +the figure or design traced on the Japanese paper. Again, lay the +construction paper on the rice paper and glue the two together. Cut out +the shade as marked off, bring the two edges together, and glue. + +[Illustration: LAMP SHADE, B] + +If you wish the lower edge scalloped, cut it as shown in the diagram. +By folding and creasing on the lines of intersection the shade may be +made hexagonal in shape. All designs for decoration are supposed to be +original. + + +14 Star + + _Material_--Construction paper, two 8-inch squares. Raffia. + +Take an eight-inch square. Fold the front edge over to the back edge; +crease. On the left edge place a point one and one-half inches from the +left-back corner. Carry the right-front corner over to this point; fold +and crease. Turn the left triangle under; fold and crease. Next, as the +paper stands in your hand with the triangle facing you, fold the right +edge over to the left edge; crease. Where the three edges of the paper +come together, begin at the highest point and cut across the paper from +right to left to within two and one-half inches of the center. Open out +the paper and you have the star. + +A picture frame made of a five-pointed star is very pretty. Cut two +stars of the same size. From the center of one cut a star one inch +smaller for a mat. Lay this mat on the solid or foundation star and +glue four of the points together. In the fifth point pierce two holes +through both pieces, about an inch from the apex of the point. Slip in +the picture. Take a piece of raffia or cord and tie a loop with two +ends. Bring these ends through the holes from the back to the front and +tie them in a bow. By the loop at the back the frame is hung. + +[Illustration: PICTURE FRAME FROM FIVE-POINTED STAR] + + +15 Notebook + + _Material_--Construction paper, 6-1/2×7 inches, for cover. + Manila paper, four pieces 6×6-1/2 inches, for leaves. + +Fold the piece of construction paper down the middle, so as to form the +3-1/2×6-1/2-inch cover. In the same way crease the manila paper for the +leaves. Place the leaves within the cover; with heavy silk or fine +twine sew them to the back. Bring the needle through one inch from the +upper edge, one inch from the lower edge, and in the middle. The long +stitch is on the inside, the two short ones are on the outside, both +ends of the thread are brought through the center to the inside and +tied over the long stitch to hold it in place. Leave the ends an inch +long and fringe them. + +[Illustration: NOTEBOOK] + + +16 Bound Book + + _Material_--Heavy construction paper, colored, 5×6 inches, + for cover. Four pieces white paper, 11-1/2×19-1/2 inches, + for leaves. Two pieces tape, 1/4×2 inches. + +_Cover._ Mark off and rule two and seven-eighths inches from each edge +of the five-inch length; crease. This will leave in the middle a +1/4×5-inch space, in which the back of the leaves will go. Take each +sheet of white paper, fold it once lengthwise, and once crosswise; this +will make a "folio" four leaves thick, 2-3/4×5-3/4 inches in size. We +have four of these folios to be joined together and bound to the back. +Take folio No. 1 and with needle and silk sew the leaves together, +running the thread one inch from the upper edge and one inch from the +lower edge and in the center, seeing that the last stitch brings the +thread on the outside of the back of the leaves. Do not break the +thread. Take folio No. 2, hold it close to folio No. 1, carry the +thread across and take it through the middle of the back, one inch from +front or back edge, as in folio No. 1. + +[Illustration: BOUND BOOK] + +On the back edges of these folios there will be two long stitches. +Under these stitches pass the two pieces of tape. Keep one of these +tapes as near the upper and the other as near the lower edge as the +stitch will allow. As a folio is added and the leaves sewed together, +connect the exposed stitch of the one previously added to the one last +added, at the three places where the thread holds the leaves, by a +buttonhole stitch (in bookbinding known as the "kettle stitch"). When +the last folio is added, place the back of the leaves to the back of +the cover in the 1/4×5-inch space. Stretch the tapes down on the cover +and paste (1-3). Take the first and the last leaf and paste them over +the tapes, to the inside of the cover. The outside of the cover may +have some simple decoration if such is desired. + +In Book VII of the _Text Book of Art Education_, published by The Prang +Educational Company, is worked out a very interesting problem for the +making of a scrap-book, and suggestions given for decorating the cover. +The scrap or clipping books shown here were made in a similar way. The +decoration and cover are left to the taste and ingenuity of the teacher +or the child. + + +17 Japanese Book + + _Material_--Construction paper, colored, 4-1/4×12-1/4 + inches, for cover. Manila paper, six leaves, 4×6 inches, + double, with fold on outer edge. + +[Illustration: JAPANESE BOOK] + +The paper for the cover is 4-1/4×12-1/4 inches in size. Place the paper +lengthwise in front of you and bring the left edge over to the right +edge; crease, fold. Mark off a space three-fourths of an inch from the +edge of the fold, draw a line, A-L. On this line three-quarters of an +inch from the upper and the lower edges, place dots, B C, and +one-fourth inch from B C place dots D E. Hold the leaves evenly +together and press them in between the cover. With a large needle and +cord sew through C, under, up, and over A, through C again, under to +F, over through C, under and up through E, back to G, under and up +through E, down to D, through and over H, back to D, down and up +through D, then to B; down under to K, back to B, through and under and +around to L, to B, to D, to E, to C. Tie the two ends of the cord, +which come together at C, and fringe them out. + +[Illustration: SCRAP OR CLIPPING BOOK +Cover of grass cloth.] + + +18 Scrap-Book + + _Material_--Construction paper, colored: 6-1/4×8-1/4 inches, + for cover. Manila paper: three leaves 6×8 inches; three + strips 1-1/8×6 inches. Two paper clamps. + +Double the 6×8-inch leaves into six leaves 4×6 inches in size. Between +leaves 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, place the 1-1/8×6-inch guards at the +back. Have leaves and guards even and compact; then set them between +the cover. Measure from the back edge of the cover a space +three-quarters of an inch wide, and draw a pencil line. Placing the +sharp edge of a ruler on this line, bend the back edge toward the front +until it is well creased. In the center of this 3/4-inch space, one +inch from the upper edge and one inch from the lower edge of the book, +pierce a hole and insert the brass clamps. + +[Illustration: SCRAP OR CLIPPING BOOK +Cover of linen, stenciled.] + + +A PASTE + +Mix until perfectly smooth one cup of flour with one cup of cold water. + +Put two cups of water in a vessel and set it over the fire until it +heats. (Do not let it boil.) Add one teaspoonful of powdered alum, then +stir in the mixture of flour and cold water. Continue stirring until +it thickens to a good consistency. Remove it from the fire and add one +teaspoonful of oil of cloves or peppermint. Pour it into an air-tight +jar and when it is cool screw on the top. + +[Illustration: SCRAP OR CLIPPING BOOK +Cover of fancy paper--(For description see pages 51 and 52.)] + +Use the same cup all through. The oil of cloves or peppermint is simply +a flavoring, and does not add to the quality. This quantity will nearly +fill a quart jar. + + + + +PART III + +WOOD CONSTRUCTION + + + + +WOOD CONSTRUCTION + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS + +As the child develops, paper construction loses its charm, and a desire +for something utilitarian arises. We suggest that at this stage the +much-treasured pocket knife be brought into service, for from small +pieces of wood many articles may be made. The construction of these +will afford the child, especially the boy, much pleasure, and will at +once arouse a new interest. + +Only the simplest articles will be given here--articles which may be +fashioned from bits of wood commonly found around a house, such as old +cigar boxes, small starch boxes, etc. But, should the teacher be able +to obtain the proper materials, basswood a quarter or three-eighths of +an inch thick, and whittling knives are the requisites. + +The reader will notice that the wood mentioned for each model is bass. +Why? Because bass is the wood generally used for carving. The tree is +the same as the linden and the lime. It is found in northern Asia, +Europe, and North America, and grows to an immense height. The wood is +soft, light, close-veined, pliable, tough, durable, and free from +knots, and does not split easily; all of which qualities favor its +suitability for carving. + +In whittling, it is always best to lay off the pattern on both sides of +the wood. Then one can work from either side without fear of spoiling +the material. + +In cutting, work with the grain, or the wood will be apt to split. Cut +toward you, not from you. + +In grooving, use the point of the knife, and work slowly and carefully. +If the knife slips the wood is ruined. + +Insist that nothing the child does is well done unless well +sandpapered, and nothing is properly sandpapered until all roughness is +done away with, and the grain appears. + +In the making of designs, let the child first have a piece of paper the +size of the wood he is to use, and have him work out a design to be +applied to his wood. This design may be most crude, but with a +suggestion here, and a correction there, from the teacher, it can be +brought into shape. The child will be pleased, and will attack with +more assurance of success each succeeding problem that he meets. + +For coloring, use water color paints. Red, green, and yellow are most +satisfactory, as their identity is retained when staining is applied. + +Apply the stain with a brush, and with a soft cloth rub it in until it +is dry. This develops or brings out the grain. + +When sure that the stain is well rubbed in and dry, apply butcher's +wax, and polish with a soft cloth. Some articles need two coats of +stain, and an equal amount of polish. + +In all work impress upon the child the fact that what is worth doing is +worth doing well, or it should not be done at all. + +Each model given works out a problem in handling the knife and cutting +the wood, and each problem leads up to the one that follows. + +We will begin with the simplest thing one can make--a puzzle. + + +1 Puzzle + + _Problem_--To cut with the grain of the wood, and how to cut + corners. (See page 57.) + + _Material_--Basswood: one piece 7×1-1/2×3/16 inches; one + piece 3×1-1/2×3/16 inches. One yard of macramé cord. + +Shave the 7×1-1/2-inch strip of wood down with a knife until it is an +inch wide, being careful to keep the edges parallel. Measure off +three-eighths of an inch in opposite directions on each corner and on +both sides of the wood. Connect these points by a pencil line. Cut off +each corner the space indicated by the line. Be careful always to cut +with the grain of the wood; cutting against it will split the board. +Next, three-fourths of an inch from each end, and equally distant from +the sides, and in the center, bore holes. From the 3×1-1/2-inch piece +of wood, cut two blocks one and one-half inches square, and bore a hole +in the center of each. Double the string to a loop and draw this loop +through the center hole of the rectangular strip. Pull the loop to the +edge, and draw through it the two ends of the cord. String the +1-1/2-inch blocks, one on each cord, then tie the ends of cord in the +two end holes of the rectangular strip. + +The puzzle is finished. What is the aim, and how can it be solved? + +[Illustration: PUZZLE] + +_Solution._ Mark one block. Hold one in the hand and move the other +along until it passes through the loop at the center. + +Pull the cord through the middle hole until it draws with it four +thicknesses of cord. Now slide the block along until it passes through +a double loop. Next, draw this double loop back through the hole; the +string will be in position, and the block is now passed along through a +single loop and onto the string containing the other one. To replace +the block, turn the puzzle around and repeat the process. + + +2 Plant Label + + _Problem_--To cut across the grain, and, by removing two + equal triangles, to form a well-tapered point. + + _Material_--One piece of basswood, 6×1×1/4 inches. + +[Illustration: PLANT LABEL] + +Take the end A B and find the center, C. From A measure off two and a +half inches, and place point D. From B measure off two and a half +inches, and place point E. Connect points CD and CE. Place the same +measurements on the reverse side. With the knife cut off triangles +A-C-D and B-C-E. Sandpaper the wood until it is smooth and the label is +finished. + + +3 Pencil Sharpener + + _Problem_--Curve-cutting. + + _Material_--One piece of basswood, 6-1/2×1-1/4×1/4 inches. + One piece of sandpaper, 1×3-1/8 inches. Glue. Stain. + +On the wood place points three and a quarter inches from each end, at A +and B, and connect them by line A-B. Place points G and H half an inch +from C and D. Start your curve at G, pass through I, and end at H. In +the rectangle A-B-F-E draw a handle as indicated in the diagram. Shape +the other end by removing spaces G-C-I and H-D-I. Sandpaper thoroughly. +Shape one end of the 1×3-1/8-inch piece of sandpaper as curve G-I-H, +and glue it to the wood. Stain the wood and polish it by rubbing it +with a soft cloth. + +[Illustration: PENCIL SHARPENER] + + +4 Match Scratch + + _Problem_--Curve and cross-grain cutting. + + _Material_--One piece of basswood, 3-3/4×3×1/4 inches. One + piece of sandpaper, 2-1/2×3 inches. Glue. + +[Illustration: MATCH SCRATCH] + +Place a point at the center of line A-B and of line C-D. Place a point +on line A-C and line B-D, one and one-quarter inches from A and B. +Connect these points by a pencil line, and draw another line one-eighth +of an inch below. Score these two lines with the point of the knife, +making a tiny groove. Draw curves A-E and B-E, the highest point of the +curve being half an inch from the edge A-E-B. Draw curves G-F and H-F. +Remove spaces 1, 2, 3, and 4. Sandpaper thoroughly the edges and sides. +Shape the piece of sandpaper, two and a half by three inches, to fit +the space G-F-H, allowing a quarter-inch margin, and glue it on. Bore a +hole at 5. Do not stain. + +[Illustration: KITE STRING WINDER] + + +5 Kite-String Winder + + _Problem_--Cross-grain cutting. + + _Material_--One piece of basswood, 5-1/2×2-1/2×1/4 inches. + +Measure and lay off as shown in the diagram, and cut out all spaces +indicated by dotted lines. Sandpaper the wood until it is smooth. Stain +the winder or not, as is preferred. + + +6 Thermometer Back + + _Problem_--Beveling and grooving. (See page 62.) + + _Material_--One piece of basswood 6×3×1/4 inches. Stain. + +For the thermometer back the measurements need be placed on but one +side of the wood. + +Mark off a quarter-inch from the edge all around and draw a line. Place +a second line a quarter-inch within this. Using the line nearest the +edge as a guide, cut off the sharp edges on the face of the strip of +wood until the slant surface is reached between the line and the back +edge. This makes the bevel. The inner line is a guide for spacing the +design. Originate a simple design, and lay it off on the board in +pencil. Then, using the point of the knife, with the greatest care +groove out the design. Place a hole near the top of the strip by means +of which to hang it. Notice that the design fits around the hole. +Sandpaper, stain, and polish the wood. + +The design given here is the simplest that can be made. It is suggested +that until the child becomes accustomed to working with the knife, all +designs for grooving had better be confined to straight lines. Combine +in a design a vertical, a horizontal, and an oblique line, and some +beautiful patterns may be originated. + + +7 Pocket Pin-Cushion + + _Problem_--Circular cutting, grooving, stenciling, and + coloring. (See page 63.) + + _Material_--Basswood: two pieces, 3×3×1/4 inches. One piece + of heavy felt 3×3×1/4 inches. Glue. Water-color paints. + Stain. + +Find the center of each square of wood by drawing the diagonals. With +the compass at the radius of one and one-half inches, describe a circle +on each piece of wood (on one side only). Remove spaces A, B, C, and D +with the knife, and you have a circular block. Remember to cut with the +grain. Bevel the edges. Make an original design and apply it to your +wood. With the knife groove the outline of this design. There should be +a space three-eighths of an inch wide between the edge of the wood and +the outer edge of the design. When the design is grooved in, color +it. Red, green and yellow are the best colors. Their identity is not +lost in staining. Lastly, stain and polish the face of the blocks. Cut +the felt the size of the blocks, cover the back of each block with +glue, place the felt between the two, and keep the whole in press for +several hours. The model here suggests two designs. These are given +simply as illustrations. Use the same design for both backs of the +cushion. + +[Illustration: THERMOMETER BACK--(For description see page 61.)] + +[Illustration: PIN CUSHION] + +[Illustration: DESIGNS FOR PIN CUSHION] + + +8 Picture Frame + + _Material_--Basswood, sweet gum, walnut or oak. One piece, + 8×6×1/4 inches, for frame; one piece, 5-1/4×4×1/4 inches, + for back; one piece, 4-1/2×3×1/4 inches, for supports; two + pieces, 3-1/4×3/8×1/4 inches, and one piece, 5-1/4×3/8×1/4 + inches for cleats. Glue. Half-inch brads. + +Should basswood be used it must be stained. Sweet gum, walnut, or oak +may be left in its natural state, and oiled to bring out the grain and +finish. + +[Illustration: PICTURE FRAME] + +On the 8×6×1/4-inch board mark off with a pencil a center space +2-3/4×3-3/4 inches in size. With a gimlet bore holes at points A, B, C, +and D. Connect these holes with a pencil line as a guide for cutting. +Along the line make a groove which may be broadened and deepened until +the board is cut through. By working around the square in this way, the +center will soon be opened. Trim the wood as smoothly as possible with +a knife; then use sandpaper to level and finish off. Bevel the edge of +the opening if you wish. + +Cut in half the 4-1/2×3×1/4-inch piece of wood, and make two supports, +as in Figure 2. With a pencil draw the shape of these supports on the +wood; in whittling work very carefully, as they are small and will +easily split. As far as possible, hold the pieces so that the knife +will shave with the grain of the wood. In crosscut work from the +opposite side. In straight cut, keep notches at opposite ends, so that +if the knife should slip and the wood split no serious damage will be +done. + +Place the cleats on the back half an inch from the opening, the longer +fitting in between the two shorter ones. Glue them on, then nail them. +Against these cleats glue the back (1) before nailing it. Next glue and +nail on the two supports against the back and on a level with the lower +edge (Figure 4). On the fourth side, where there is no cleat, is the +opening through which the picture is slipped. When the frame is +satisfactorily sandpapered, oil and polish it. + + +9 Japanese Box + + _Problem_--To construct a box having lid and bottom extend + beyond sides. + + _Stock_--Basswood: two pieces, each 8-1/2×3-1/2×1/4 inches, + for lid and bottom; two pieces, each 8×2×1/4 inches, for + sides; two pieces, each 2-1/2×2×1/4 inches, for ends; two + pieces, each 2-1/2×1/4×1/4 inches, for cleats. Glue. + Half-inch brads. Stain. Wax. + +[Illustration: JAPANESE BOX] + +On the 8-1/2×3-1/2×1/4-inch pieces of wood, cut a bevel a quarter of an +inch wide. + +Place the two ends between the two sides; glue and nail. Set this +rectangular frame on the under side of the bottom, equally distant from +each edge, and trace the shape with a pencil. Remove the frame; the +pencil line indicates where the nails are to be driven to secure the +frame to the base. Now set the frame on the upper side of the bottom; +aim for the same spacing as on the under side, and mark off. Carefully +cover the lower edge of this frame with glue, place it on the base and +press the two until the glue is dry. Drive the brads through from the +under side of the base an eighth of an inch within the guiding line. +Having beveled and sandpapered the lid, trace a design on it, and +outline this design by grooving. + +[Illustration] + +Nail the 2-1/2×1/4×1/4-inch cleats to the under side of the lid, +five-eighths or an inch from each end and half an inch from each side. +These cleats fit into the box and hold the lid on. + +Stain, wax, and polish the box. + + +10 Grandfather's Chair + + _Material_--Basswood: three pieces 5×2×1/8 inches; one piece + 2×2×1/8 inches. Brads. Sandpaper. Glue. Stain or oil. + +[Illustration: GRANDFATHER'S CHAIR] + +Measure and lay off as you have done in making the other small pieces +of wood work. Handle the knife most cautiously, as the wood is so thin +that it is easily split. When all parts are cut out and well +sandpapered glue them together and secure them by driving in the brads +about an inch apart along the line of the seat and where the arms join +the back. Stain or oil as most convenient, or as taste dictates. + + + + +PART IV + +BASKETRY + + + + +BASKETRY + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS + +The art of basket-making is a primitive one, and so simple that it +appears to have been known among the rudest people and in very early +ages. + +When Moses was found by Pharaoh's daughter, he was lying in a basket +which had been woven by his mother. + +Later, when the Israelites were returning to the Promised Land, they +were commanded to offer unto the Lord "the first of all the fruits of +the earth" in a basket, as soon as Canaan became their possession. The +baskets of the rich, of these ancient Israelites were made of gold and +silver, and so valuable were they that when a gift was sent in one of +them the basket was always returned. + +The ancient Britons were remarkably expert in the manufacture of +baskets, which were so beautifully made that they were highly prized by +the Romans. + +Our own American Indians were, and still are, such adepts in the art of +basket-making that, for beauty and artistic effect, their baskets are +excelled by none. + +The perfection attained in this art by the uncivilized is marvelous. +Adapting the materials about them to their use, they produce +masterpieces which the civilized man beholds in wonder and amazement. + +Though handed down to us through many ages, this ancient occupation has +never lost its fascination. The adult and the child of to-day are as +eager to learn its secrets as were those dwellers on the banks of the +Nile, hundreds of years ago. + +As a plastic art it lies between paper construction and clay modeling +on one side, and wood and iron work on the other. + +A keen interest in the art may be awakened by arousing in the child a +desire for a basket for some practical purpose. In the autumn, the +collecting of seeds for next spring's planting, the gathering of nuts, +the need for something in which to take the lunch to school, or, +perhaps, a wish to make a pleasing gift for the coming Christmas, will +immediately suggest its utility. + +[Illustration: NORTH CAROLINA PINE] + +Of what shall the basket be made? Children enjoy those things most +which they feel that they have exerted themselves to obtain; and the +greater the effort involved, the greater the educational value. Every +child should be trained to keep his eyes open and to adapt to his use +the things he sees about him. Materials for baskets may be obtained in +just this way. City children may take a trip to the country and gather +the long grasses found in swamps and low places. Perhaps in the garden +at home there is a clump of yucca; when the fall comes and the bloom is +gone the leaves or blades may be cut, dried and stripped, and +transformed into an attractive basket or tray. Again, the husks which +are stripped from the corn cooked for dinner may be torn into narrow +ribbons and dried for use. Corn husks make a beautiful basket, for the +different shades of green change, after the husks have dried, to as +many shades of brown, which blend most artistically when worked up. The +little children of the South may gather the long needles that fall from +the southern pine, and combine them with raffia or twine to construct a +basket. Country children have a most adaptable and convenient commodity +in the tough, flexible willows found on the banks of almost every +stream. + +The material most commonly used and easiest to begin with, however, is +reed, which is pliable, and readily handled and moulded into simple +forms by even small children. It is available when other materials are +not to be had, for it may be purchased with the school supplies. + +Reed is the core or central part of the climbing calamus, a species of +palm found in the jungles of Borneo and adjacent South Sea islands. The +outside of the raw calamus is smooth and is made into commercial cane +used for chairs. The shavings, made by the machine which separates the +cane from the core or inner reed, are utilized for mats, polishing +material, and stuffing for mattresses and furniture. Thus every part of +the raw material is brought into use. + +Originally the calamus grew in a limited area and was difficult to +obtain. Only the natives could gather it, as the white man contracted +the jungle fever as soon as he subjected himself to the climate in +which it grew. But within the last fifty or seventy-five years +enterprising men have begun the cultivation of the rattan palm, and +have met with so much success that now there are a number of factories +in the United States making the reed and rattan of commerce, while +Germany and Belgium export to us the best reed that is used. + +[Illustration: REED BASKETS] + +The teacher should never begin the use of any new material for +construction without having made the child familiar with its history; +nor should a finished article be laid aside until the pupil has given +the teacher a description of how it is made, and of what it is made. If +this method is carried out the child will show a greater appreciation +of what he is doing, will value the finished article more highly, and +will place a premium on the raw material. + +Overlook the pupils in their work, but grant them the privilege of +adjusting size and shape, and of selecting material for the +requirements of the design they have in mind. By achieving what he can +for himself, the pupil attains a realization of his own power, and the +logic of size, shape, material, etc., is awakened. + + +REED CONSTRUCTION + +In construction, the first thing to teach a child is how to handle the +material. To do this, use small quantities and attempt only simple +articles. Reed is the simplest thing to begin with, and the easiest of +all basket-work models is the napkin ring. Soak all the reed and dry it +with a cloth before using. + + +1 Napkin Ring No. I + + _Problem_--To construct a napkin ring of reed. + + _Material_--No. 2 reed, 7 feet. + +Take one end of the reed and form a loop two inches in diameter, and +wind the reed three times to form the ring. Hold it in the left hand. +Pass the loose end over the curve and through the circle. Pull it taut +enough to make it lie in a natural curve. Repeat this movement--over +and over, round and round--allowing the strands always to follow the +valley between the two former laps. When the foundation is covered, +clip the end where it finishes up, press it into place in the groove, +drop a little glue over the point at which it is pressed in, and bind +the ring with a string to hold the end in position. When the glue has +dried, remove the string. + +[Illustration: No. I No. II +REED NAPKIN RINGS] + +When the napkin ring has been made, the child has learned the principle +involved in constructing a basket handle. + + +2 Napkin Ring No. II + + _Problem_--To construct a napkin ring of No. 5 reed. (See + page 75.) + + _Material_--No. 5 reed, 2-1/2 feet. + +In using No. 5 reed, form the loop two inches in diameter, but have the +ring of only one thickness, and proceed as in ring No. 1. This will +make a napkin ring of different appearance because the windings are +fewer and the reed thicker. + + +3 Mat + + _Problem_--To construct a simple mat of reed. + + _Material_--No. 4 reed: eight spokes, 9 inches long; one + spoke, 6 inches long. Weavers of No. 2 reed. + +[Illustration: Figure 1 Figure 2 +TO START A REED MAT OR SIMPLE BASKET] + +Place together, at right angles, two groups of four spokes of No. 4 +reed. To the under group add the six-inch spoke of No. 4 reed (Figure +1). Hold the spokes firmly in the left hand. Take the No. 2 weaver and +insert it under the thumb. Wind the weaver diagonally over the crossing +point in both directions (Figure 2). Then wind the weaver over and +under alternate groups of spokes, three times around. Hold both spokes +and weaver firmly in place with the left hand. Separate into single +spokes now and continue weaving until your mat is four inches in +diameter. Fasten the end of the weaver by tucking it down beside a +rib. The projecting ribs are trimmed to an even length and pointed. +Take any given spoke, as No. 1, bend it to the left in front of No. 2 +and insert it on the right side of No. 3. No. 2 is now taken and +carried to the left over No. 3 and inserted to the right of No. 4. +Proceed thus until all the spokes are inserted, when the mat is +finished. The scallops should form a semicircle. + +[Illustration: REED MAT] + +For a larger mat, take ten spokes, sixteen inches long, of No. 4 reed, +and one spoke nine inches long of the same. Use No. 1 reed for the +weaver and proceed as in making the smaller mat. + +To add a new weaver, place the end about two spokes back of where the +former weaver ended and parallel with it. + + +4 Hamper Basket + + _Problem_--To construct a simple reed basket. + + _Material_--No. 4 reed: eight spokes 16 inches long; one + spoke 9 inches long. Weavers of No. 1 reed. + +Begin the basket exactly as the mat was begun. Weave until the bottom +is three inches, or three and a half inches in diameter. Then bend the +spokes at right angles with the base, drawing the weaver tight so as to +hold the spokes in position and keep them separated at an equal +distance. Continue weaving until the basket is three inches high, or +until about one and a half inches of spokes is left for the border. +Finish the edge by turning down the spokes as in the edge of the mat, +or bend them down flat with the edge of the basket. Take any spoke, as +No. 1, bring from right to left over No. 2, then No. 2 over No. 3, and +so on until the ends of all the spokes are turned to the inside of the +basket. Keep both basket and weaver well dampened while weaving. After +the basket is finished press it into shape while still damp. When it is +thoroughly dry trim off the ends of the spokes which appear too long on +the inside of the basket, leaving them just long enough to be held in +place by the curved spoke under which each passes. This makes a +beautiful hamper basket. + +[Illustration: HAMPER BASKET] + +A handle may be added to this little basket, but it is not advisable to +encourage a child to add a handle until he has made his third basket or +has shown in some way proficiency in what has been taught so far. + +_To add a handle._ Take a length of reed, of the same number as the +spokes, for the handle bow. For a small-sized basket take ten inches. +Insert one end down through the weaving beside one of the spokes. Bend +the bow into the shape you wish for the handle and insert the other end +of the bow beside a spoke on the opposite side of the basket, being +careful that the two spaces between the two ends of the handle are +equal. The handle should be about as high above the border as the +border is above the bottom of the basket. The width of the handle +should be a little less than the width of the basket at the top. + +You are now ready to cover the handle. Take a long weaver; push one end +of it through the wale under the second row. Hold the end in place and +wrap the weaver about the handle bow, keeping the spaces about equal, +and drawing taut enough to be graceful, until it reaches the opposite +side. Then draw the weaver through the wale and under the second row +and up on that side; next wind about the handle bow again, back to the +starting-point. Push the weaver through the wale, under the second row +and out again, and once more wind across the handle bow. Repeat this +operation from side to side until the handle bow is covered. Keep each +row of winder close to the preceding one and parallel to it. When the +bow is covered, tuck the end of the weaver through the wale and under +the second row and clip the end, leaving it just long enough to stay in +place. The handle bow needs to be damp enough to be flexible, but +unless the winding weaver is well soaked it will crack and make +trouble. + + +5 Basket Tray + + _Problem_--To construct a reed basket or tray, having an + even number of spokes, and using same number reed for both + spokes and weaver. + + _Material_--Sixteen spokes, each 11 inches long, of No. 3 or + No. 4 reed. Weaver of reed of same number as spokes. + +Separate the spokes into groups of four. Place set No. 1 on and at +right angles to set No. 2. Sets 3 and 4 are laid diagonally across sets +1 and 2. + +[Illustration: HOW TO BEGIN THE BASKET TRAY] + +Hold the spokes firmly, attach the weaver and go in and out four times +round, over and under the same set of spokes each time. At the end of +the fourth round, pass the weaver over two sets of spokes and weave +four rows. Next separate the spokes into sets of two and weave one row; +now each time that the weaver comes to starting-point in the circle, +pass it over two sets of spokes instead of one, and then weave the next +round. When you have been around seven times using double spokes, bend +the spokes up for sides and weave two more rows over double spokes. +Then separate into single spokes and weave six rows, remembering each +time to pass the weaver at the end of a new round over two spokes +instead of one, so as to have them properly alternated. Trim the ends +of the spokes to an equal length and start the border by bending any +given spoke to the right and inside the tray, holding it in place. +Continue with each succeeding one until all the spokes have been bent +into position. These spokes being bent so closely and consecutively +over each other, form a coil resembling the handle of a basket. The +points of the spokes are pushed under the coil, through from the inside +to the outside of the basket. Keep a vessel of water at hand and wet +the material constantly as you weave. When the tray is finished, press +it into shape and set aside to dry. When it is well dried, clip off the +projecting ends. + +[Illustration: REED BASKET TRAY] + + +6 Basket with Handle + + _Problem_--To construct a basket using an uneven number of + spokes, spokes and weaver the same number reed; and to add a + handle. + + _Material_--No. 3 reed: eight stakes, each 20 inches long; + one stake 11 inches long. Weavers of No. 3 reed. + +Make two groups of four each of the twenty-inch stakes. Place one set +at right angles across the other, and beside the under set insert the +eleven-inch spoke. Hold the spokes firmly between the thumb and the +forefinger of the left hand, and with the weaver in the right hand +place the starting end under the edge of the upper set; bring it +around and over set No. 1, under No. 2, over No. 3, under No. 4, and +repeat this operation four times. Now separate the spokes into groups +of eight twos and one single, and weave four rounds. Next cut seventeen +eleven-inch stakes and push one in beside each stake already used. +Divide them into seventeen pairs. Weave round and round until you have +a base three and one-half inches in diameter. Being sure that the +weaver is damp and pliable, with fingers, or "pliers," bend up the +stakes close to the weaving, at right angles with the base, and +continue weaving until the basket is four inches deep. Then trim the +stakes, if necessary, to uniform length and bend them over to form the +border. Take any stake, as No. 1, and work from right to left. Bend +down No. 1, pass under No. 2 and over No. 3. Then take No. 2, pass +under No. 3 and over No. 4. Continue until every pair of stakes has +been turned down and worked into the border. All ends must come inside +the basket; after it is dry, trim them off. You will find that in +working with the wet reed your basket may seem not to have the proper +shape. Soak it well and you will be able to mould as you wish it. Add a +handle. + +[Illustration: REED BASKET WITH HANDLE] + +This basket is made almost exactly like the little hamper basket +previously described, except that in this one, we use double stakes, +while in that one, single stakes were used; the sides of this one are +vertical, those of that one slightly curved. + + * * * * * + +In passing from the reed basket, the next step would be the raffia and +then the combination of reed and raffia, which is worked out in all +forms of Indian basketry. The most common stitch is known as the "lazy +squaw," and is made by winding the raffia round the reed one, two, or +three times, as space is desired; and then the needle is taken through +the row below to make the stitch. Each stitch is a repetition of the +one before and the mat, tray or basket grows with the effort. There are +innumerable opportunities for design in Indian basketry, and it is here +that the work of an artist may be realized and recognized. + + +RAFFIA CONSTRUCTION + +We may correlate and combine raffia with reed in construction. The two +materials may be worked together to great advantage and interest to the +child. For instance, when a napkin ring has been made of reed let the +child next construct one of raffia, and then compare the finished +article as to the material vised, the beauty, the flexibility, the +durability, and the nativity of each. + +As in the case of reed, so with raffia before constructing with it, +pass a piece to each child and give the life history of the plant. +Madagascar may be a name only to the small child, but the very +vagueness of his knowledge concerning it may cause him to realize the +distance of the island from us and appreciate that this simple material +with which he is working has traveled thousands of miles to bring him a +story and an occupation. + +Raffia, a native of the South Sea Islands and of Madagascar, is the +inner bark of the raphia palm, pulled off, torn into narrow strips, +dried in the sun, and bound into bunches, which are plaited together +and stored ready for use or shipping. + +We receive the raffia in its natural state, but many colors may easily +be had by dyeing. In _Practical Basket Making_, by George Wharton +James, some valuable suggestions on dyeing are given; but the small +quantity of raffia a teacher will need may be dyed with very little +trouble with the "Easy Dyes" manufactured by the American Color +Company. Follow directions and the results will be most satisfactory. +Be very careful to have the dyes strong enough, as raffia absorbs an +enormous amount of coloring. All raffia should be washed before dyeing; +it should be well dried before being put into the dye pot, since it +takes the color better when dry. + +If you have pupils old enough, or a class on which you can rely, +nothing will delight them more than to do their own dyeing. A +fourth-grade class in one of the Baltimore schools has successfully +dyed all the raffia, cord, cotton, and textiles used in their +classroom. The child dearly loves color; the possibility of having +different shades to work with will arouse an intense interest in +procuring these colors. It will be unusual if the pupils do not handle +with care the materials and the dye pot. + +In adapting a commodity to circumstances in this way, the broader +knowledge of how the colors in clothing are obtained will develop and +there will be created in the child a new idea of life and of man's +work. + +The natural color of the raffia is much improved by washing; therefore, +before using it loosen it and soak it in clean water so that all dust +and dirt may be removed and the strips or strings straightened out; +then hang it in the air until thoroughly dry. + +Before offering any models of the combined reed and raffia, we shall +give a few of raffia alone, as we did of the reed. + + +7 Plaited Rope + + _Problem_--To teach different ways in which the plaited rope + of raffia may be applied. + + _Material_--Raffia. + +Begin the use of raffia by teaching the child the three-strand plait, +adding a new thread from time to time, until a long rope is made. Next +teach how to coil this rope into a mat, a purse, a basket, or a hat. + +In plaiting, keep the raffia damp and use strands of equal size. +Dampness adds gloss and smoothness to the finished article. + +[Illustration: THREE-STRAND PLAIT] + +In the construction of articles of plaited raffia an opportunity opens +up to bring the child's inventive ingenuity into play. Get him to think +of something he might make, and to construct it roughly of paper. With +his model as a guide for shape and size, he can easily reproduce it in +raffia. The first pattern may be crude, but each repetition will +produce a better one, and interest will lend enchantment, until both +pattern and reproduction will be most creditable. + + +8 Plaited Mat + + _Problem_--To construct a mat of plaited raffia rope. + + _Material_--Raffia. + +[Illustration: MAT OF PLAITED BRAID] + +The starting-point in all these designs is the little round coil, +called the button. + +To make a mat, first plait a rope several feet long. To form the button +hold the end of the rope between thumb and forefinger, and begin to +roll the rope just as a watch spring is coiled. With a needle and fine +thread of raffia, make the button firm; then keep on coiling around +the button and, as each row is added, tack it to the preceding row by +pushing the needle in and out at right angles with the braid, so that +the stitch may be invisible. When finished the mat should be about four +inches in diameter. The object of winding the plait sideways is to give +the mat firmness and thickness. + + +9 Purse + + _Problem_--To construct a purse or bag of plaited raffia + rope. (See page 87.) + + _Material_--Raffia. + +To make a purse, plait enough rope to make two mats three and a half +inches in diameter. To construct these mats first make the button. Work +this time with the braid flat. Sew by holding the inner edge of the +plait just under the outer edge of the preceding row. When both mats +are finished, place them flat against each other, and overseam or +buttonhole the edges together for about two-thirds of the +circumference. Plait a rope, seven inches long, for a handle. Tie a +knot in each end, and ravel the ends of raffia to form a tassel. Attach +this handle to the purse at each side, where the opening begins. Girls +especially delight in this little purse or bag. + + +10 Plaited Basket + + _Problem_--To sew braid together to form ONE angle. (See + page 88.) + + _Material_--Raffia. + + _Dimensions_--Bottom three inches in diameter; sides two + inches high; handle six inches long and two braids wide. + +Using three threads of raffia, plait a rope several feet long. Proceed +just as with purse, and sew until you have a mat three inches in +diameter. Now place the braid at right angles with the base, and sew +round and round to form the sides. When these are two inches high +fasten the braid; and, without cutting it, carry it to the opposite +side to form the handle. Fasten it there and bring it back again, to +make the handle two braids wide. Either overseam these together to make +a broad handle, or leave them separated to form a double handle. + +An easy way to obtain a more uniform shape in constructing this basket +is to have a smooth tumbler or a tin box, and, as you work, fit the +material to the form. When it is finished, dampen it and let it remain +on the form until it dries. + +[Illustration: PURSE OR BAG OF PLAITED RAFFIA--(For description see +page 86.)] + +[Illustration: BASKET OF PLAITED RAFFIA--(For description see page +86.)] + + +11 Hat of Plaited Rope + + _Problem_--To sew the braid together to form two angles. + + _Material_--Raffia. + +[Illustration: HAT OF PLAITED RAFFIA] + +First plait the raffia together until you have a very long braid. Take +the starting end, make the button, and sew round and round, as in +making the purse. When the top of the crown is as large as you wish it, +turn the braid at right angles and form the sides. When, in your +judgment, the crown is high enough, make a second right angle to form +the brim, which may be wide or narrow as taste dictates. Use a blunt +needle (Smith's tapestry, No. 18). + + +12 Napkin Ring + + _Problem_--To construct a raffia napkin ring. + + _Material_--Raffia. A piece of tag-board 1-1/2 or 2 inches + wide and 6 inches long. Quarter-inch ribbon or strip of + paper, or raffia of a contrasting color. + +There is mentioned a raffia napkin ring in comparison with the one of +reed. + +Take the strip of tag-board, fasten the ends together and wrap with +raffia until the board is covered. + +It may be ornamented with a narrow strip of ribbon, paper or colored +raffia woven around the center. If ribbon or raffia is used tie the +ends in a bow. If paper is used the ends must be glued. + + +13 Indian Basket + + _Problem_--To teach construction with twisted raffia rope. + (See page 91.) + + _Material_--Two contrasting colors of raffia. + +First think of what shape and size you would like a basket; then +roughly sketch a design, in order that an idea of shape, size, and +proportion may be had. Keep the design before you and work as closely +from it as possible. + +Take three thick strands of raffia and twist them into a rope. In +starting have the threads unequal in length, as it is much neater to +add one new thread at a time than two or three. Keep the rope of the +same thickness throughout, and as each thread is used up, insert +another overlapping the old one two or three inches. Around this rope, +and twisted in the same way, wrap a contrasting color of raffia, aiming +to have the spaces equal and using threads of the same size. Having +twisted and wound four or five inches start the basket by forming a +button, then, holding the button firmly with the left hand, coil the +rope round and round and sew it. Use the sharp-pointed needle and join +the coils in such a way that the threads will coincide with the twist. + +When the basket is finished, the opening at the top should be either +greater or less in diameter than the base. Make a lid exactly as the +base is made, and have it just a shade wider than the opening so that +it will be supported. The ring with which to lift the lid is made by +wrapping raffia three or four times over the finger, and then +buttonholing it over. Sew the ring to the middle of the lid and attach +the lid to the basket. + +[Illustration: INDIAN BASKETS] + +The model here given is made of white raffia twisted with red. Diameter +of base, 4 inches; height, 2-1/2 inches; opening at top, 3-1/2 inches; +diameter of lid, 3-3/4 inches. + +[Illustration: INDIAN BASKET--(For description see pages 89 and 90.)] + + +14 Grass Basket or Tray + + _Problem_--To teach how to construct a basket of grass, pine + needles, or corn husks. + + _Material_--Narrow-blade marsh or sweet grass. Raffia for + sewing. + +Make a design in pencil, ink, or colored crayon. + +Here the adaptability of material gathered about the home is +illustrated. The tall, fine marsh grasses may be collected, spread out +for three or four days where they will dry, and then utilized. You will +find that almost every blade of this grass varies in color. The root +end may be brown, while toward the tip the leaf shades into a light +green, or white, or vice versa; this blending, when the grass is +bunched, is most artistic. + +Bunch a sufficient number of blades to make a coil a half or +three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Do not twist. Never allow the +coil to lessen in size. Keep adding fresh strands by slipping the root +ends of the new blades up between those already in the coil. When we +begin to sew we do not wrap the grasses as we wrapped the strands of +raffia, but simply use as a sewing thread raffia of a contrasting or +blending color. To form the button, wrap the threads three or four +times around the root ends of the bunch, fasten tightly, then coil to +form the center. Take the needle through the center and over the coil +as many times as you think necessary to make the button firm. These +stitches are the beginning of the spiral rays which radiate to the edge +of the basket. Take the stitches at equal distances from each other. +Handle the needle so as to pass from back to front, and always have the +new stitch pass through the stitch of the coil just below it from right +to left. When the coil has been wound around four or five times, the +stitches will be seen to interlock and form a spiral. Soon the spaces +will become too wide; then take an extra stitch in the center of each +space, thus adding another set of rays. Continue adding new sets of +rays as the spaces widen, until the basket is finished. + +[Illustration: BEGINNING OF BASKET TRAY] + +When the base has grown to the required size, turn up for sides and +continue sewing in the same way until the necessary depth is obtained. +To give a finish add enough grass to make a thick coil around the edge. + +Colored hemp may be woven in with the grass either as a lining or so +inserted as to make a beautiful pattern. The value of the basket will +be enhanced by the use of sweetgrass, if this material is obtainable. + +The model given is made of marsh grass, sewed with raffia of natural +color, and the design is made in pink hemp. Its base is five inches in +diameter; its depth one and one-fourth inches. + +Corn husks may be used instead of grasses, and are unexcelled for +beauty and artistic effect. Use the inner husk from the ear when green; +though the husks will dry, the varied color will not be lost. When made +up with a contrasting color of green or golden brown raffia they are +most attractive. Grasses may be kept a long time; but before using them +soak them thoroughly, and let them dry out. This treatment will make +them so pliable that they may be handled as easily as though freshly +gathered. The long needles of the southern pine also are thus worked +up. + +[Illustration: BASKET TRAY] + + +15 Basket of Splints and Raffia + + _Problem_--To teach construction, using splints and raffia. + + _Material_--Splints of ash or flat reed: eighteen splints, + each 1/4×12 inches; 3 splints, each 1/4×18 inches, for + binding of edge. Raffia of two or three colors. + + _Dimensions_--Base, 4×4 inches. Depth, 2 inches. Sides, 2×4 + inches. + +Lay a set of nine splints flat on a surface. Take one of the remaining +nine and weave across for the first row. Add a second splint, weaving +in and out through alternate ones. Continue until all the nine splits +are woven in and the square base of the basket is formed. Have splints +sufficiently damp to be flexible; otherwise they may break. Bend up the +splints at right angles to the base for sides, thus making corners. Now +with the raffia weave in and out, interlace the thread at the corners, +and draw it tight enough to hold the splints in place. Introduce color +to suit taste. + +[Illustration: BOTTOM OF SPLINT AND RAFFIA BASKET] + +When the sides are finished, take an eighteen-inch splint and lay it +around on the inside of the basket close to the last row of raffia. +Hold it in place and turn the ends of the basket splints over it +inward. These end splints must be trimmed evenly and left just long +enough to bend over the splint running round on the inner side. Take +two more eighteen-inch splints; having placed one inside the edge and +the other outside the edge of the basket, with a needle and a long +thread of raffia whip over and over. Bring the needle through each +opening between the splints until you have gone around the four sides. +This makes a suitable border and completes the basket. + +[Illustration: BASKET OF SPLINTS AND RAFFIA] + +The model given here has ten rows of natural color, ten rows of green, +six rows of brown, ten of green and ten of natural color, which +combination makes it two inches deep. + + +COMBINED REED AND RAFFIA + + _Problem_--To teach how reed and raffia may be combined in + construction. + +The models suggested here are very simple and can be made by the +younger children of the lower grades. These have been held to +purposely, for the child needs first to learn how both to use his +fingers and to handle a needle; and afterward he must have much +practice before he can take up the more difficult stitch in the Indian +basketry. + +In beginning the combined reed and raffia work, the first thing I +should make is a miniature umbrella. + +[Illustration: UMBRELLA +(For description see opposite page.)] + + +16 Umbrella + + _Material_--One 9-inch spoke of No. 4 reed for handle. Nine + 4-inch spokes of No. 1 reed for ribs. Raffia for weaver. + +Have the spokes thoroughly soaked and keep them wet. Also, have the +raffia damp. Place the four-inch spokes around the nine-inch spoke, +hold them firmly, and wrap tightly with the damp weaver four or five +times; then tie, but do not cut the weaver. Now stand this bunch of +spokes on end on a board or desk top, press the nine spokes out so as +to form a circle parallel with the surface of the desk, and with the +weaver work in and out among the spokes. The convex top of the umbrella +will soon form. To lengthen the weaver, tie on a new piece of raffia. +Continue weaving until within an inch of the ends of the ribs, or until +the umbrella is four or four and one-half inches across; then fasten by +tying the weaver to one of the ribs. + +To form a ferrule, slide end No. 1 of the handle reed down until it +stands three-quarters of an inch above the outside of the umbrella. +Drop a little glue into the cavity to hold the reed in place. Now take +end No. 2 of the handle reed and curve it to form a ring or to appear +like the handle of a real umbrella. Tie it with raffia to keep it in +place and lay the umbrella aside to dry. When it is thoroughly dry, +clip the points of the ribs to equal lengths. + +This little toy suggests the invention of primitive life or of an +uncivilized nation of which the pupil has some previous knowledge. It +is most attractive, and to have made it greatly pleases the child. + + +17 Miniature Chair No. I + + _Material_--No. 4 reed: one piece 15 inches long; one piece + 6 inches long; four pieces 10 inches long. Several lengths + of raffia. + +Take three ten-inch lengths of reed and bend them so: [Illustration] +Fasten them together at the joints and wrap with the raffia for about +two inches to form the front legs. Next attach the fifteen-inch length +of reed, placing the ends together to form the back legs and allowing +the extra amount to extend above in a bow to form the back. + +You now have the framework of back, seat, and legs. At the back, where +the bow extends above the line of the seat, place a five-inch piece of +very wet reed to the front of the bow and at the edge of the seat; +carry it around and lap it at the back and fasten to hold the back legs +together and shape the seat. + +[Illustration: CHAIR No. I +Made of reed and raffia.] + +This chair has a woven seat of raffia. Use a very long needle and carry +the raffia from one side of the seat to the other in close lines until +the space is covered one way. Then reverse the action and work from +front to back, weaving in and out among the cross threads exactly as +you do in darning. Be careful to keep the thread even, to prevent +sagging. When the seat is woven whip the edge all around with raffia +for a finish. + +Next take the remaining ten-inch piece of reed, bend it to a four-inch +square and insert it between the legs one inch below the seat. Tie it +to each leg and wrap the intervening space with the raffia as you go +from leg to leg. This forms the brace which holds the legs in position. + +For the back take a very long thread of raffia in your needle, make +seven cross threads and weave a spider's web, having the center fill +about one-fourth the space. When the web is finished, buttonhole around +the reed to fasten the spirals in position and to give a finish to the +frame of the back. + +Lastly measure and trim off the legs to equal length. The back should +extend two and one-half inches above the seat, and the legs should be +two and one-fourth inches long. + + +18 Miniature Chair No. II + + _Material_--No. 1 reed: six spokes, 10 inches long; one + spoke, 6 inches long. No. 4 reed: two 15-inch lengths; six + 10-inch lengths and one 12-inch length. Several lengths of + raffia. + +Weave two mats two inches in diameter in the following manner: Lay +three ten-inch spokes across three ten-inch spokes at right angles. +Place beside the under set the six-inch spoke. Take a piece of raffia, +not too thick, for a weaver, and beginning as you would begin a basket +or mat with a reed weaver, weave until the mat is two inches in +diameter. Do not cut either spokes or weaver. Have the reed well +soaked, that it may be very pliable and in no danger of breaking. + +To construct the back, take a mat and a fifteen-inch length of reed, +bend the latter to a bow and place it back of the spokes at the edge of +the last row of weaving. Bend each spoke consecutively over this reed +and bring the end of the spoke through between the last row of weaving +and the reed. This forms a loop over the No. 4 reed. Thread the weaver +into a needle, and take it in and out where the No. 1 reed, or spoke, +crosses between the mat edge and the No. 4 reed in the form of a back +stitch. The first one fastened, continue in the same way until ten +spokes are bent over and tied down. Next take the twelve-inch length of +No. 4 reed, bend it to this shape: [Illustration] then fasten the three +remaining spokes to the two-inch space as you have done with the other +ten. Take the second fifteen-inch length of No. 4 reed, bend around +again and fasten by running a piece of raffia in and out and over +through each space between the loops. Lay it aside until the seat is +prepared. + +[Illustration: CHAIR No. II +Made of reed and raffia.] + +_Seat._ The mat is ready. Bend a ten-inch length of No. 4 reed into a +2-1/4-inch square. Set this around the mat, bend the spokes over it and +fasten as you did those of the back. Again take three ten-inch lengths +of No. 4 reed and bend so: [Illustration] Place these around three +sides of the prepared seat and fasten them by wrapping them over and +over with raffia, and the front and two sides of the chair are formed. +Adjust the back to the fourth side of the seat; fasten it by wrapping +it closely with raffia. Next bend to a form near the size of the seat a +piece of No. 4 reed. Place this around the legs, to form a brace, about +one inch below the seat in front and about three-fourths of an inch +below in the back. Let the joining point of the reed come at the back. +With a piece of raffia fasten this to one leg, then wrap the raffia +over and over along the brace until the next leg is reached, secure it +and pass on to the third, then to the fourth, when the entire brace +will be wrapped with raffia and the four legs held in place. + +[Illustration: BACK OF CHAIR No. II] + +Where the back is attached to the seat, you will have four No. 4 reeds +coming together to form the back legs. This would make them too thick +and clumsy and they would not be symmetrical with the front ones. To +prevent this, clip two of the reeds between the seat and the brace on +the legs. Cut out the ends of the one of the back first worked in, and +the ends of the one forming the back brace. There is left the outer +fifteen-inch spoke you put on and the one which came around from the +side of the seat. These two form the back leg on each side. Wrap +closely with raffia the intervening spaces between the seat and the +brace so as to leave no unsightly ends. + +In bending the reed to fashion the legs it is impossible to have it all +the same length; adjust this by letting the unevenness come out at the +foot of the leg and when the chair is finished measure and cut off the +legs to the same length. + + +RULES FOR CANING CHAIRS + +_First: Verticals._ + +Setting up: Begin at the center hole of the front, pass the cane up +through the hole from the underside and down through the corresponding +hole at the back, leaving about four inches to tie off; then up through +the next hole to the right, pass to the corresponding hole to the +front, continue to the right and then to the left, until all the holes +are filled except the corner ones. + +_Second: Horizontals._ + +Begin at the center hole at the left, pass the cane up through the hole +and over all the verticals and down through the corresponding hole on +the right, filling all the holes toward the front and then toward the +back until all the holes are filled except the corner ones. + +_Third: Verticals._ + +Begin at the center hole at the back, pass the cane up through the hole +at the front, then fill all the holes to the right and the left, except +the corner ones. + +_Fourth: Weaving Horizontally._ + +Begin at the right-hand side, pass the cane over the upper vertical and +under the lower vertical, pulling the upper one to the right and +keeping the weaver to the back of the first horizontal: continue this +until you have two horizontals in each hole. + +_Fifth: Diagonals Running from Left to Right._ + +Pass the cane up through the front left-hand corner, under the +verticals and over the horizontals, working toward the upper right-hand +corner; first the right, and then the left-hand side of the frame is +filled in this manner. + +_Sixth: Diagonals Running from Right to Left._ + +Pass the cane up through the front right-hand corner and work toward +the back left-hand corner, passing the cane over the vertical and under +the horizontal pairs; continue in this way until the entire frame is +filled with these diagonals. + +Tie all the ends securely on the under side of the frame. + +_Bind Off._ + +Lay a piece of cane over the holes on the upper side of the frame. Take +a second long piece of cane as a weaver, pass it from the under side of +the frame up through a hole, over the cane, and down through the same +hole to the under side again. Carry it along to the next or second next +hole, pass up, over cane, and down in the same way. Continue this until +the entire frame is bound around. + + + + +PART V + +THE SCHOOL GARDEN + + + + +[Illustration] + +THE SCHOOL GARDEN + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS + +In the spring of 1906, at the request of President R. W. Silvester of +the Maryland Agricultural College, I wrote, for publication as a +_College Bulletin_, my experience of one year's work in a city school +garden. The introduction of school gardens as a factor in the school +curriculums was then in its infancy. Three years have shown great +advancement along this line, though the main issue is the same to-day +as it was then. This paper is a revised edition of the _M. A. C. +Bulletin_. That President Silvester was a pioneer in the thought that +"agriculture should enter into education" is shown by the following +quotation from his introduction to my article of 1906:-- + + "The time must come when the child of rural environment must + find in the only school which ninety per cent will ever + attend, a training which will give it an intelligent + adjustment to its environment. With this adjustment, the + future work of the child cannot reasonably expect to escape + the state of drudgery. When a life's work degenerates into + this condition, then contentment with it, or happiness as a + result of it, becomes an idle dream. Can the accuracy of + this statement be questioned? If so, it would be a great + privilege for the writer to receive from some teacher a + letter setting forth the particulars in which he is wrong. + + "Let all who are interested in the child from the country, + and every one should be, take this as a motto in this great + work before us: 'The country is entitled from its state and + from its county, to that consideration which will give him + every opportunity to secure an education as well suited to + his conditions, as is enjoyed by his city brothers and + sisters.'" + + +A CITY SCHOOL GARDEN + +If a country boy were to hear his little city brother say, "Our class +has a garden and I have a share in the working of it," the country chap +would "non plus" him by quickly exclaiming, "What's that! I work in my +father's garden every year and know all about raising and gathering +vegetables." + +But to the city child, who sees only cobblestones beneath his feet, +whose view is contracted by rows of dingy houses, or who plays on a lot +used both as a dump-pile and as a baseball ground, the privilege of +working in a garden plat is a great one and the products of its soil a +revelation. + +[Illustration: WEEDING THE BEDS] + +The aim here is to give an account of one season's work in such a +garden--a garden treasured by children whose only knowledge of +vegetable foods was that mother got them in the market. + +Through the courtesy of the City Park Superintendent of Baltimore, +sections of ground in some of the parks are placed at the disposal of +the Board of Education for school gardens, and the privilege of +cultivating these gardens is granted to teachers in an adjacent +building. + +It is of the section in Riverside Park that I am writing, and the +accompanying illustrations are pictures of this garden, taken at +various times through the season. + +These sections are not in prominent places, but for the most part in +undesirable corners that the park gardener is willing to relinquish for +the good of the cause. In Riverside Park the plat is adjacent to the +summer playground, and the second year that I had the garden, at the +end of June when school closed, a few of the children volunteered to +attend to it during vacation. + +[Illustration: GIRL INTEREST] + +The interest of these children attracted the attention of the director +of the playground and she offered to oversee the work while the +playground was in session if some of her children might have the +privilege of working in the garden. + +This proved to be an amicable arrangement, as by it the garden was kept +in good condition all summer. When school opened in September I took +charge again, that the children might have the full experience. In my +memory lingers a most vivid picture of a cold November afternoon when +we gathered what remained of the crops, cleaned off the beds, heaped +the refuse in the center of the garden, and had a most glorious +bonfire, though it was not election day. We watched the last spark die +out, closed the gate, and with regretful steps wended our way back to +the schoolroom, to await the coming of another spring. + +Our plat measures fifty by twenty-five feet and is enclosed by a fence. +The park gardener became interested in the children's effort and added +to the success of the work by giving the necessary top soil, lending +wheelbarrows, and offering occasional suggestions. + +[Illustration: MAY I COME IN?] + +As a preparation for the outside work we made a thorough study of soil +composition and seed germination early in the winter. The children +brought pieces of rock, pebbles, shells, wood, and leaves as concrete +illustrations and with these before us the following lessons were +developed:-- + + I That soil is made from the wasting away of all kinds of rock. + II That soil is made by decaying wood. + III That soil is made by decaying leaves. + IV That the above composites combine to form productive soil. + +The object of the first lesson was to teach that soil is made from +rock. + +The pupils examined stones, pebbles, and shells. They found some +rough, some smooth. Through the teacher's questions--"Why are some +rough?" "Why are some smooth?" "If those having a smooth surface now +were once rough, what has become of the particles which must have +broken away?"--the class was led to express opinions until the final +generalization was made: Soil may be formed from the breaking up of +rocks and shells. + +Each topic was treated in a similar manner, the specific qualities of +the specimen being brought out, until we were able to make the +summary:-- + +"Soil is made from decayed rocks and shells; soil is made from decayed +leaves; the rocks make a coarse soil called sand; the wood and leaves +make finer soil called loam; the mixture of these soils makes +productive soil." + +[Illustration: WHOSE BED LOOKS THE BEST?] + +This summary led to the next lesson, "The Productive Qualities of +Soil." The question was asked, "How can we determine the productive +quality of soil?" + +"We can plant some seeds in each kind of soil," said a child. Several +pupils volunteered to bring pots of earth. + +Ready for the experiment, we proceeded to analyze as follows the soil +brought by the children:-- + +"Take some of the soil in your hands, powder it as finely as +possible.--John, what do you find in yours?" + +"I can feel grains of sand," said John. + +"Do you think there is more sand or more loam?" + +"I think there is more loam," said another child. + +"Why do you think there is more loam?" + +"Because, when I rub it between my fingers there seems to be more soft +material than grains," came the answer. + +"Can any one suggest a means of proving that there is some of each kind +of soil in what we have here?" + +Various suggestions were made, but none directly to the point. + +[Illustration: LAST DAY OF SCHOOL] + +"Mary, fill that glass jar three parts full of water. We will now drop +into the water some of this soil and mix it well. What do you think +will happen when we stop stirring?" + +"The sand will settle at the bottom of the jar," was the ready reply +from a bright child. + +"The coarse loam will settle next," was a second answer; and then came +the statement that the finest loam would remain on top. + +We waited a few days and were rewarded by seeing the soil in distinct +layers in the jar. + +"Now we will try to discover which kind will produce the best plant. +How shall we determine this?" + +"Plant some seeds," was the immediate suggestion. + +One pot was filled with the original soil, and one each with the kinds +of soil that we had gotten from our experiment. A seed bean was placed +in each pot, and all pots subjected to the same conditions and watched +by anxious eyes. + +[Illustration: STUDYING NATURE] + +"I see a bean pushing up," came the statement one morning and every +child wished for a peep at the tiny plant. + +"In which soil did the plant appear?" + +Another look was taken and answer given that the plant came from the +mixed soil. + +The second plant to appear came from the bed of coarse loam; the one +in the pot of fine loam came third; and last the one in the sand +struggled to a small shoot, then died of starvation. + +After this the life of one plant was studied. Thus slowly and +cautiously the study of seed germination was made, the teacher getting +all from the child possible, and aiming to have him cull his +information from the plant before his eyes. + +Now that we were familiar with the facts concerning soil composition +and seed germination, we felt prepared to take up the outside work. + +Between the first and the fifteenth of April our first visit to the +garden was made. The ground was so saturated with water that it was +impossible to think of working it in that condition. After taking a +view of the surroundings we discovered that the plat was on low ground +and that the water from the rising slopes at the back ran down and +settled upon it. + +The question which naturally arose was, "How may this water be gotten +rid of?" A short talk on drainage solved this problem. The children +decided that ditches, ten feet apart, should be dug crosswise in the +garden. They were dug, and, as the weather was favorable, in a week's +time the soil was in condition to be worked. + +Meanwhile interest did not flag, though it was impossible to accomplish +any outside work. Writing letters to an imaginary hardware dealer, +stating what tools we needed and inquiring the price, became an +all-absorbing exercise. Next, we turned dealers ourselves and rendered +itemized bills and receipts to purchasers of garden materials. In this +way two forms of letter-writing were taught and the children derived +both pleasure and profit from the work. + +In the construction period were made the labels they would need when +the planting-time came. These were cut from small pieces of wood with +penknives and marked ready for use. + +A plan by which to landscape this same plat had been drawn the year +before by the supervisor of our city school gardens. This plan +suggested a talk on landscape gardening and intense interest was at +once aroused. The talk developed such questions as these:-- + +"Is the plan before us a good one?" + +"Can we improve on it?" + +"Is there any waste space which we should utilize?" + +"Is the plan artistic in its arrangement?" + +"Suppose we work out some plans to see what is possible." + +A lesson such as this followed:-- + +A rectangle was drawn on the board to represent the plat. Beside it was +a statement of the number of beds to be laid off and the width of the +paths between. In the arrangement of these beds and paths there must be +artistic effect. + +[Illustration: A FLOWER FROM THE COUNTRY] + +Each child then drew a rectangle on paper and made an original plan for +landscaping. Those showing most thought were placed before the class +and their good points commended. The children decided that not one met +every requirement. The supervisor's plan was again shown, discussed, +and adopted. + +This plan called for twenty rectangular beds 3×11 feet in area, four +shorter rectangular beds with a triangular section marked off from the +end of each toward the center of the garden; and a circular bed, four +feet in diameter, in the middle of the plat. It also allowed for one +three-foot path running through the center the entire length of the +garden, and a one-foot path separating the beds. There was to be a +1-1/2-foot path around the middle circle. + +In a further study of this plan the following arithmetic problems were +developed:-- + +"What is the area of a garden plat fifty feet long and twenty-five feet +wide?" + +"What would be the cost of this plat at one dollar and twenty-five +cents a square foot?" + +"How many feet of fence will be required to enclose this plat?" + +"If the posts are set five feet apart, how many posts will be +required?" + +"There are two rows of cross beams, and each beam is ten feet long; how +many will be needed for the fence?" + +"How much will it cost to fence this garden at twelve cents a foot?" + +"What is the area of a garden bed three feet by eleven feet? the +perimeter?" + +"What is the circumference of a circular flower bed four feet in +diameter?" + +By this time the ground was in condition to be worked. Which should we +do first, spade it up, or lay it off? We decided that we would first +dig up the entire plat and level it. Now, in spacing off, should we +begin at the center or from opposite ends? The advantages of each +method were strongly advocated, and finally, the children themselves +concluded that it would be easier to measure for the center and space +off from that point. + +Stakes and cord had been brought. Children stood at the sides and ends +of the garden. The middle points of the sides were determined and +connected with a cord, and likewise the two ends. The intersection of +the cords was the center of the plat and here a stake was driven. +Attaching a cord to this stake two feet along the cord was measured and +a small stick tied there. Using the cord as a radius, a circle was made +and the middle bed staked off. Next the three-foot path to opposite +ends was marked off, then the center one-foot path to opposite sides. +This much accomplished, spacing the rest of the plat was easy. Two +small boys, with lines and stakes, marked off the remaining portion and +when the ends were reached the measurements were found to be accurate. +The paths between the beds were next made and the ground prepared for +planting. + +[Illustration: A SUGGESTION FOR RECESS HOUR] + +After spading, leveling, and thoroughly pulverizing the native soil, we +added a top layer of foreign soil as a fertilizer. The latter came from +a compost heap of street sweepings which had been standing two years +and was supposed to be nutritious. As it turned out, however, this soil +contained little nutriment and was productive of more fine weeds than +fine vegetables, and it required much labor to fight these enemies. + +Now came the seed-planting, which was intensely interesting to the +children. Rows twelve inches apart were marked off across the beds and +the seeds planted according to the relative height of the plants which +they would produce, those that would grow tallest being placed next to +the fence, and the rest graduating to the center; thus:-- + + Fence + Corn + Pole Beans + Peas + String Beans + Lettuce + Radishes + Lettuce + Parsley + Flowers + +First came corn, three grains to a hill, the hills twelve inches apart. +Then pole beans, three beans to a hill and these hills separated twelve +inches. Next we planted two peas in a hill and made the hills six +inches apart. The string beans were planted just as the peas had been. +Then came a row of lettuce, next radishes, a second row of lettuce, and +last parsley. The end of the bed was left for flowers. On Arbor Day, in +the classroom, we had sown tomato and lettuce seeds in boxes, that we +might have the plants ready for transplanting when our outside soil was +in condition. The lettuce plants turned out satisfactorily, but, for +some unaccountable reason, the tomatoes were a failure. To replace the +latter, we took a corner bed in the garden, divided it into three +sections and planted tomato, onion, and cabbage seeds. In five weeks +the tomato and cabbage plants were large enough to transplant, and, as +the radishes and lettuce matured and were used, tomato and cabbage +plants were put in the vacant places. + +Two pumpkin seeds were planted in each bed, but if they both came up, +after the plants had reached a good size, the weaker one of the two was +weeded out (as the bed was too small to support both) and the stronger +one left to bear fruit. + +Why had we planted onion seed? One of the boys had brought an onion and +asked if he might plant it in his bed, and if it would produce other +onions. I explained to him and then allowed him to plant the seeds in +the supply bed at the same time that he planted the onion in his own +bed. The onion planted produced seed, while the seeds sown yielded the +small sets for the next year's planting. Thus by the act of one child +the fact was clearly demonstrated to the class that fruit produces +seed, and seed produces fruit. + +The supervisor had given us a wren-box, made by a child in a more +advanced class as manual work. The children were delighted with the +gift; they built a framework around a stout pole in the center bed and +set the wren-box on the pole. They then suggested that a vine should +cover this framework. Consequently, Japanese morning glories were +chosen as the vine and the remaining space in the bed was filled with +marigolds, nasturtiums and coleus. + +[Illustration: A GARDEN IN THE YARD OF A CITY SCHOOL] + +The seeds being planted, the work in the garden was at a standstill +until the plants appeared, then systematic visits began. The class was +divided into three groups and two children were assigned to a plat. We +worked in the garden on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays for half an +hour each day. Thus, each group had its day once a week regularly. +Finding that it was impossible to direct satisfactorily more than +twelve children at a time, I devised the above plan, which worked +admirably. To go to and come from the garden took a half-hour, and with +half an hour's work there the child was away from the classroom one +hour a week. This allowed ample time to keep the beds in order, for two +children were apportioned to a bed, and these two went on separate +days, so that each plat was worked twice a week. + +[Illustration: GARDEN BEDS AROUND THREE SIDES OF THE PLAYGROUND] + +The first crop of peas and of beans were gathered as vegetables. When +the plants ceased to bear a second planting was made and the yield from +this was left to mature as seedlings. When ripe, the seeds were +gathered and carefully put away in the sectional seed-boxes which the +children had constructed for the purpose. + +[Illustration: ANOTHER SECTION OF THE SAME GARDEN] + +The children took care of the garden during vacation, gathered the +vegetables as they ripened, and with pardonable pride carried them home +to their parents. The parents, in turn, were gratified and as much +interested as the children. Several of the boys had individual +appliances made by their fathers for use in the garden. Often on Monday +mornings would come the account of the Sunday walk with mother and +father, the visit to the garden and how much the parents admired it. + +One instance occurred which proved the value of this garden work and +showed how devoid of a knowledge of vegetable growth many city children +are. I noticed a boy digging around the root of his tomato vine as +though he were searching for something. I asked what he was doing. + +"I want to see if there are any small tomatoes there," he replied. As +the fruit of the radish had come from under the ground he expected to +find the tomato there, too. + +The value of educating the child through his self-activity was proved +in several instances, one of which I will mention. A large boy of the +fourth grade, though a poor student, was placed on the list of garden +children and proved to be the most industrious and active child of the +group. Why? His father was a baker; the boy worked in the bakery until +eleven every night; slept until four, then arose and delivered goods +until eight, and was in the classroom at nine. Is there any wonder that +this child lacked energy as a student? When he was removed from the +confinement of the classroom the pure outside air acted as a tonic, his +interest was awakened and his work well done. + +This same child, whenever relieved of home duties out of school hours, +spent the time in the garden instead of devoting it to play. He hauled +a quantity of shells with which to pave the paths, and brought all the +sod we needed to form a firm edge around the center bed. Can there be +any doubt that this boy was benefited? + +There is a social side to this industrial outside work which is +superior to that of the classroom. + +First: The teacher has but a small number of children under her care at +one time; consequently, she is enabled to learn more of each individual +nature. + +Secondly: The child is under no apparent restraint, so expresses +himself freely and shows his natural self. + +Thirdly: The boys and girls mingle with one another with the same +freedom that they have on their own playground. + +In the two months spent in the garden not a single child took undue +advantage of the privileges allowed, and the opportunity afforded the +teacher for the study of child-nature was of great value. + +Some one might ask, "While garden work is being done, does not the work +of the classroom suffer?" No, it does not. When classes are taught in +sections, this outside work may be fitted in as a sectional part and +the routine be kept intact. + +In summarizing, the lessons developed from garden work were these: +Science (soil physics and seed germination); geography; arithmetic; +spelling; English; drawing, and construction. The greatest benefit to +the teacher was the chance to study the child under natural conditions. +The greatest benefit to the child was his awakening to a knowledge of +things by personal contact. I sincerely believe that the after-life of +each one of these children will be the richer for this experience of +outdoor study. + +[Illustration: GATHERING THE VEGETABLES] + +In some of the school yards the pavement near the fence has been +removed, and the space divided into small beds for gardening. Many of +these gardens make a fine showing and you will find here three +pictures of such a yard, illustrating what may be done within the +limits of the playground of a city school. When you consider that +between six and eight hundred children play in this yard at the same +recess time every day, you can appreciate what it means to yield a +portion of the limited space to vegetables and flowers; and, since +these plants are never molested, how much the children are pleased to +have their playground so decorated. + +Nearly all the garden products may be correlated with the classroom +work. The kindergarten children use peas in construction. The peas +raised in the garden may be applied here. The first-grade children use +lentils in construction. Why not as well use pumpkin seed and grains of +corn--the product of the garden? Every class enjoys having a +Jack-o'-lantern at Hallowe'en, so here again the pumpkin from the +garden comes into play. In the construction of miniature wagons and +wheelbarrows of paper, peas may be soaked and used as axles for the +wheels. Both peas and beans may be soaked and given to the small +children to string for chains, thus teaching number and spacing. Every +layer of husk (beneath the outside one) from the ear of corn may be +dried and made into a basket by the more advanced pupil. + +If a city teacher, with opportunities so limited and numberless +disadvantages, can accomplish even a little in this line for the +children in her charge, how much more should the teacher of the rural +school accomplish when she has space at her command, children in the +environment of country life, and seemingly all things that tend to work +together to produce good results! + +So much interest is shown in this phase of industrial work all over the +country that I doubt that there is anywhere a teacher who does not wish +to add the study of it to the curriculum, unless she is already working +along these lines. Feeling sure of the sympathy aroused in every +teacher's heart, I have included among the illustrations of this +article three scenes from rural school life. (See pages 113, 115, and +117.) + +In connection with these pictures let me say a few more words to the +rural teacher. You may think yourself much poorer than your city +co-worker, but the fact is that you are the one of affluence, she is +the struggler. You have all about you the materials that a city teacher +can secure only at second hand. All the riches of nature are at your +command--the birds that nest at your door, the fishes that swim in the +brook, the grasses that grow by the roadside, the trees of the forest, +and the flowers that spring up everywhere; the ground space for your +garden; the intelligent child of country environment who does not need +to work the garden to learn how vegetables grow, but who does need to +work it for the education, the aim and object of school gardens. If you +are not interested in such work, try doing it once because you should. +Next year there will be no should; love will lead you on. + +I have the same feeling in my heart about the school garden that the +poet who wrote "The Little Fir Trees" must have had about them. Each +stanza winds up with + + And so, + Little evergreens, grow! + Grow, grow! + Grow, little evergreens, grow! + +I would say: + + And so, + Grow, school gardens, grow! + Grow, grow! + Grow, school gardens, grow! + +The three pictures, "Studying Nature," "A Flower from the Country" and +"A Suggestion for Recess Hour," came to me from a country school. They +speak so vividly for themselves that I feel that each one carries with +it its own message and appeals so strongly in behalf of the deepest +love of nature in even the youngest child as to point to the +possibilities of what might be when this love is fed and made to grow +with the physical nature of the child. + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's Notes + + +Corrected minor punctuation typos. Moved some of the illustrations to +avoid breaking up paragraphs of text. Page references pertain to the +original book but link to the correct image/topic in the HTML version. + +Page 17: Changed Portiere to Portière for consistency. + (9 Miniature Portiere--Knotted) + +Page 55: Changed sand-papered to sandpapered for consistency: + (and nothing is properly sand-papered until all roughness) + +Page 56: Changed the page reference from 59 to 57: + (with the grain of the wood, and how to cut corners. (See page 59.)) + +Page 65: Changed exend to extend: + (To construct a box having lid and bottom exend beyond sides.) + +Page 107: Original text might be missing "child" after country: + ('The country is entitled from its state and from its county,) + +Page 109: Changed attenion to attention: + (The interest of these children attracted the attenion of the) + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Construction Work for Rural and +Elementary Schools, by Virginia McGaw + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONSTRUCTION WORK *** + +***** This file should be named 28501-8.txt or 28501-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/8/5/0/28501/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Diane Monico, and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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