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Ukers + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: All About Coffee + +Author: William H. Ukers + +Release Date: April 4, 2009 [EBook #28500] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALL ABOUT COFFEE *** + + + + +Produced by K.D. Thornton, Suzanne Lybarger, Greg Bergquist +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="tn"> + +<p class="center"><big><b>Transcriber’s Note</b></big></p> + +<p class="noin">The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully preserved. Only obvious +typographical errors have been corrected.</p> + +</div> +<hr /> +<p class="center"><i><small>All About</small><br /> +<big><span class="gesp">Coffee</span></big></i></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + + +<hr /> +<p class="center"><span class="gesp"><b>ALL ABOUT COFFEE</b></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="COFFEE_BRANCHES_FLOWERS_AND_FRUIT" id="COFFEE_BRANCHES_FLOWERS_AND_FRUIT"> +<img src="images/plate1.jpg" width="600" height="828" alt="COFFEE BRANCHES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">COFFEE BRANCHES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT</span> +<p class="center"><small><span class="smcap">Showing the Berry in its Various Ripening Stages from Flower to Cherry</span><br /> + +(Inset: 1, green bean; 2, silver skin; 3, parchment; 4, fruit pulp.)<br /> + +Painted from life by Blendon Campbell</small></p> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<div class="bbox"> +<h1><i>ALL ABOUT</i></h1> +<h1 class="big"><i>COFFEE</i><br /><br /><br /></h1> + +<p class="center"><big><i>By</i><br /> +<i>WILLIAM H. UKERS, M.A.</i></big><br /><br /> +<i>Editor</i><br /> +THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL<br /><br /><br /></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> +<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />NEW YORK<br /> +THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY<br /> +1922</p> +</div> +<hr /> + + + +<p class="center"><br /><br /><br /><br /> +<span class="smcap">Copyright 1922</span><br /><br /> + +<small>BY</small> +<br /> +THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY<br /> + +<span class="smcap">New York</span><br /><br /> + +<i>International Copyright Secured<br /> + +All Rights Reserved in U.S.A. and<br /> +Foreign Countries</i><br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +PRINTED IN U.S.A.<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr /> +<p class="center"><i>To My Wife<br /><br /> + +HELEN DE GRAFF UKERS</i></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">S</span><span class="caps">eventeen</span> years ago the author of this work made his first trip abroad +to gather material for a book on coffee. Subsequently he spent a year in +travel among the coffee-producing countries. After the initial surveys, +correspondents were appointed to make researches in the principal +European libraries and museums; and this phase of the work continued +until April, 1922. Simultaneous researches were conducted in American +libraries and historical museums up to the time of the return of the +final proofs to the printer in June, 1922.</p> + +<p>Ten years ago the sorting and classification of the material was begun. +The actual writing of the manuscript has extended over four years.</p> + +<p>Among the unique features of the book are the Coffee Thesaurus; the +Coffee Chronology, containing 492 dates of historical importance; the +Complete Reference Table of the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the +World; and the Coffee Bibliography, containing 1,380 references.</p> + +<p>The most authoritative works on this subject have been Robinson's <i>The +Early History of Coffee Houses in England</i>, published in London in 1893; +and Jardin's <i>Le Café</i>, published in Paris in 1895. The author wishes to +acknowledge his indebtedness to both for inspiration and guidance. Other +works, Arabian, French, English, German, and Italian, dealing with +particular phases of the subject, have been laid under contribution; and +where this has been done, credit is given by footnote reference. In all +cases where it has been possible to do so, however, statements of +historical facts have been verified by independent research. Not a few +items have required months of tracing to confirm or to disprove.</p> + +<p>There has been no serious American work on coffee since Hewitt's +<i>Coffee: Its History, Cultivation and Uses</i>, published in 1872; and +Thurber's <i>Coffee from Plantation to Cup</i>, published in 1881. Both of +these are now out of print, as is also Walsh's <i>Coffee: Its History, +Classification and Description</i>, published in 1893.</p> + +<p>The chapters on The Chemistry of Coffee and The Pharmacology of Coffee +have been prepared under the author's direction by Charles W. Trigg, +industrial fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research.</p> + +<p>The author wishes to acknowledge, with thanks, valuable assistance and +numerous courtesies by the officials of the following institutions:</p> + +<p>British Museum, and Guildhall Museum, London; Bibliothéque Nationale, +Paris; Congressional Library, Washington; New York Public Library, +Metropolitan Museum of Art, and New York Historical Society, New York; +Boston Public Library, and Boston Museum of Fine Arts; Smithsonian +Institution, Washington; State Historical Museum, Madison, Wis.; Maine +Historical Society, Portland; Chicago Historical Society; New Jersey +Historical Society, Newark; Harvard University Library; Essex Institute, +Salem, Mass.; Peabody Institute, Baltimore.</p> + +<p>Thanks and appreciation are due also to:</p> + +<p>Charles James Jackson, London, for permission to quote from his +<i>Illustrated History of English Plate</i>;</p> + +<p>Francis Hill Bigelow, author; and The Macmillan Company, publishers, for +permission to reproduce illustrations from <i>Historic Silver of the +Colonies</i>;</p> + +<p>H.G. Dwight, author; and Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers, for +permission to quote from <i>Constantinople, Old and New</i>, and from the +article on "Turkish Coffee Houses" in <i>Scribner's Magazine</i>;</p> + +<p>Walter G. Peter, Washington, D.C., for permission to photograph and +reproduce pictures of articles in the Peter collection at the United +States National Museum;</p> + +<p>Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, authors, and George C. Tyler, +producer, for permission to reproduce the Exchange coffee-house setting +of the first act of <i>Hamilton</i>;</p> + +<p>Judge A.T. Clearwater, Kingston N.Y.; R.T. Haines Halsey, and Francis P. +Garvan, New York, for permission to publish pictures of historic silver +coffee pots in their several collections;</p> + +<p>The secretaries of the American Chambers of Commerce in London, Paris, +and Berlin;</p> + +<p>Charles Cooper, London, for his splendid co-operation and for his +special contribution to chapter XXXV;</p> + +<p>Alonzo H. De Graff, London, for his invaluable aid and unflagging zeal +in directing the London researches;</p> + +<p>To the Coffee Trade Association, London, for assistance rendered;</p> + +<p>To G.J. Lethem, London, for his translations from the Arabic;</p> + +<p>Geoffrey Sephton, Vienna, for his nice co-operation;</p> + +<p>L.P. de Bussy of the Koloniaal Institute, Amsterdam, Holland, for +assistance rendered;</p> + +<p>Burton Holmes and Blendon R. Campbell, New York, for courtesies;</p> + +<p>John Cotton Dana, Newark, N.J., for assistance rendered;</p> + +<p>Charles H. Barnes, Medford, Mass., for permission to publish the +photograph of Peregrine White's Mayflower mortar and pestle;</p> + +<p>Andrew L. Winton, Ph.D., Wilton, Conn., for permission to quote from his +<i>The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods</i> in the chapter on The Microscopy of +Coffee and to reprint Prof. J. Moeller's and Tschirch and Oesterle's +drawings;</p> + +<p>F. Hulton Frankel, Ph.D., Edward M. Frankel, Ph.D., and Arno Viehoever, +for their assistance in preparing the chapters on The Botany of Coffee +and The Microscopy of Coffee;</p> + +<p>A.L. Burns, New York, for his assistance in the correction and revision +of chapters XXV, XXVI, XXVII, and XXXIV, and for much historical +information supplied in connection with chapters XXX and XXXI;</p> + +<p>Edward Aborn, New York, for his help in the revision of chapter XXXVI;</p> + +<p>George W. Lawrence, former president, and T.S.B. Nielsen, president, of +the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, for their assistance in the +revision of chapter XXXI;</p> + +<p>Helio Lobo, Brazilian consul general, New York; Sebastião Sampaio, +commercial attaché of the Brazilian Embassy, Washington; and Th. +Langgaard de Menezes, American representative of the Sociedade Promotora +da Defeza do Café;</p> + +<p>Felix Coste, secretary and manager, the National Coffee Roasters +Association; and C.B. Stroud, superintendent, the New York Coffee and +Sugar Exchange, for information supplied and assistance rendered in the +revision of several chapters;</p> + +<p>F.T. Holmes, New York, for his help in the compilation of chronological +and descriptive data on coffee-roasting machinery;</p> + +<p>Walter Chester, New York, for critical comments on chapter XXVIII.</p> + +<p>The author is especially indebted to the following, who in many ways +have contributed to the successful compilation of the Complete Reference +Table in chapter XXIV, and of those chapters having to do with the early +history and development of the green coffee and the wholesale +coffee-roasting trades in the United States:</p> + +<p>George S. Wright, Boston; A.E. Forbes, William Fisher, Gwynne Evans, +Jerome J. Schotten, and the late Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis; James H. +Taylor, William Bayne, Jr., A.J. Dannemiller, B.A. Livierato, S.A. +Schonbrunn, Herbert Wilde, A.C. Fitzpatrick, Charles Meehan, Clarence +Creighton, Abram Wakeman, A.H. Davies, Joshua Walker, Fred P. Gordon, +Alex. H. Purcell, George W. Vanderhoef, Col. William P. Roome, W. Lee +Simmonds, Herman Simmonds, W.H. Aborn, B. Lahey, John C. Loudon, J.R. +Westfal, Abraham Reamer, R.C. Wilhelm, C.H. Stewart, and the late August +Haeussler, New York; John D. Warfield, Ezra J. Warner, S.O. Blair, and +George D. McLaughlin, Chicago; W.H. Harrison, James Heekin, and Charles +Lewis, Cincinnati; Albro Blodgett and A.M. Woolson, Toledo; R.V. +Engelhard and Lee G. Zinsmeister, Louisville; E.A. Kahl, San Francisco; +S. Jackson, New Orleans; Lewis Sherman, Milwaukee; Howard F. Boardman, +Hartford; A.H. Devers, Portland, Ore.; W. James Mahood, Pittsburgh; +William B. Harris, East Orange, N.J.</p> + +<p class="noin">New York, June 17, 1922.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="FOREWORD" id="FOREWORD"></a>FOREWORD</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Some introductory remarks on the lure of coffee, its place in a +rational dietary, its universal psychological appeal, its use and +abuse</i></p></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">C</span><span class="caps">ivilization</span> in its onward march has produced only three important +non-alcoholic beverages—the extract of the tea plant, the extract of +the cocoa bean, and the extract of the coffee bean.</p> + +<p>Leaves and beans—these are the vegetable sources of the world's +favorite non-alcoholic table-beverages. Of the two, the tea leaves lead +in total amount consumed; the coffee beans are second; and the cocoa +beans are a distant third, although advancing steadily. But in +international commerce the coffee beans occupy a far more important +position than either of the others, being imported into non-producing +countries to twice the extent of the tea leaves. All three enjoy a +world-wide consumption, although not to the same extent in every nation; +but where either the coffee bean or the tea leaf has established itself +in a given country, the other gets comparatively little attention, and +usually has great difficulty in making any advance. The cocoa bean, on +the other hand, has not risen to the position of popular favorite in any +important consuming country, and so has not aroused the serious +opposition of its two rivals.</p> + +<p>Coffee is universal in its appeal. All nations do it homage. It has +become recognized as a human necessity. It is no longer a luxury or an +indulgence; it is a corollary of human energy and human efficiency. +People love coffee because of its two-fold effect—the pleasurable +sensation and the increased efficiency it produces.</p> + +<p>Coffee has an important place in the rational dietary of all the +civilized peoples of earth. It is a democratic beverage. Not only is it +the drink of fashionable society, but it is also a favorite beverage of +the men and women who do the world's work, whether they toil with brain +or brawn. It has been acclaimed "the most grateful lubricant known to +the human machine," and "the most delightful taste in all nature."</p> + +<p>No "food drink" has ever encountered so much opposition as coffee. Given +to the world by the church and dignified by the medical profession, +nevertheless it has had to suffer from religious superstition and +medical prejudice. During the thousand years of its development it has +experienced fierce political opposition, stupid fiscal restrictions, +unjust taxes, irksome duties; but, surviving all of these, it has +triumphantly moved on to a foremost place in the catalog of popular +beverages.</p> + +<p>But coffee is something more than a beverage. It is one of the world's +greatest adjuvant foods. There are other auxiliary foods, but none that +excels it for palatability and comforting effects, the psychology of +which is to be found in its unique flavor and aroma.</p> + +<p>Men and women drink coffee because it adds to their sense of well-being. +It not only smells good and tastes good to all mankind, heathen or +civilized, but all respond to its wonderful stimulating properties. The +chief factors in coffee goodness are the caffein content and the +caffeol. Caffein supplies the principal stimulant. It increases the +capacity for muscular and mental work without harmful reaction. The +caffeol supplies the flavor and the aroma—that indescribable Oriental +fragrance that wooes us through the nostrils, forming one of the +principal elements that make up the lure of coffee. There are several +other constituents, including certain innocuous so-called caffetannic +acids, that, in combination with the caffeol, give the beverage its rare +gustatory appeal.</p> + +<p>The year 1919 awarded coffee one of its brightest honors. An American +general said that coffee shared with bread and bacon the distinction of +being one of the three nutritive essentials that helped win the World +War for the Allies. So this symbol of human brotherhood has played a not +inconspicuous part in "making the world safe for democracy." The new +age, ushered in by the Peace of Versailles and the Washington +Conference, has for its hand-maidens temperance and self-control. It is +to be a world democracy of right-living and clear thinking; and among +its most precious adjuncts are coffee, tea, and cocoa—because these +beverages must always be associated with rational living, with greater +comfort, and with better cheer.</p> + +<p>Like all good things in life, the drinking of coffee may be abused. +Indeed, those having an idiosyncratic susceptibility to alkaloids should +be temperate in the use of tea, coffee, or cocoa. In every +high-tensioned country there is likely to be a small number of people +who, because of certain individual characteristics, can not drink coffee +at all. These belong to the abnormal minority of the human family. Some +people can not eat strawberries; but that would not be a valid reason +for a general condemnation of strawberries. One may be poisoned, says +Thomas A. Edison, from too much food. Horace Fletcher was certain that +over-feeding causes all our ills. Over-indulgence in meat is likely to +spell trouble for the strongest of us. Coffee is, perhaps, less often +abused than wrongly accused. It all depends. A little more tolerance!</p> + +<p>Trading upon the credulity of the hypochondriac and the +caffein-sensitive, in recent years there has appeared in America and +abroad a curious collection of so-called coffee substitutes. They are +"neither fish nor flesh, nor good red herring." Most of them have been +shown by official government analyses to be sadly deficient in food +value—their only alleged virtue. One of our contemporary attackers of +the national beverage bewails the fact that no palatable hot drink has +been found to take the place of coffee. The reason is not hard to find. +There can be no substitute for coffee. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley has ably +summed up the matter by saying, "A substitute should be able to perform +the functions of its principal. A substitute to a war must be able to +fight. A bounty-jumper is not a substitute."</p> + +<p>It has been the aim of the author to tell the whole coffee story for the +general reader, yet with the technical accuracy that will make it +valuable to the trade. The book is designed to be a work of useful +reference covering all the salient points of coffee's origin, +cultivation, preparation, and development, its place in the world's +commerce and in a rational dietary.</p> + +<p>Good coffee, carefully roasted and properly brewed, produces a natural +beverage that, for tonic effect, can not be surpassed, even by its +rivals, tea and cocoa. Here is a drink that ninety-seven percent of +individuals find harmless and wholesome, and without which life would be +drab indeed—a pure, safe, and helpful stimulant compounded in nature's +own laboratory, and one of the chief joys of life!</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#A_COFFEE_THESAURUS">A COFFEE THESAURUS</a></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, and the beverage <span class="right2">Page <span class="ampm">XXVII</span></span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#EVOLUTION_OF_A_CUP_OF_COFFEE">THE EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE</a></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Showing the various steps through which the bean passes from plantation to cup <span class="right2">Page <span class="ampm">XXIX</span></span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_I">CHAPTER I</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dealling with the Etymology of Coffee</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various languages—Views of many +writers <span class="right2">Page 1</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_II">CHAPTER II</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">History of Coffee Propagation</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World, and of its introduction into the +New—A romantic coffee adventure <span class="right2">Page 5</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_III">CHAPTER III</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Early History of Coffee Drinking</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries—Stories of its origin—Discovery by physicians +and adoption by the Church—Its spread through Arabia, Persia, and Turkey—Persecutions +and Intolerances—Early coffee manners and customs <span class="right2">Page 11</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Introduction of Coffee into Western Europe</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, came to Europe—Coffee first +mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582—Early days of coffee in Italy—How Pope Clement VIII +baptized it and made it a truly Christian beverage—The first European coffee house, in +Venice, 1645—The famous Caffè Florian—Other celebrated Venetian coffee houses of the +eighteenth century—The romantic story of Pedrocchi, the poor lemonade-vender, who built +the most beautiful coffee house in the world <span class="right2">Page 25</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_V">CHAPTER V</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Beginnings of Coffee in France</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +What French travelers did for coffee—the introduction of coffee by P. de la Roque into Marseilles +in 1644—The first commercial importation of coffee from Egypt—The first French coffee +house—Failure of the attempt by physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee—Soliman +Aga introduces coffee into Paris—Cabarets à caffè—Celebrated works on coffee by +French writers <span class="right2">Page 31</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Introduction of Coffee into England</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The first printed reference to coffee in English—Early mention of coffee by noted English travelers +and writers—The Lacedæmonian "black broth" controversy—How Conopios introduced +coffee drinking at Oxford—The first English coffee house in Oxford—Two English botanists +on coffee <span class="right2">Page 35</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Introduction of Coffee into Holland</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's market for coffee—Activities of +the Netherlands East India Company—The first coffee house at the Hague—The first public +auction at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a pound, green +<span class="right2">Page 43</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Introduction of Coffee into Germany</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the literature of the early history +of coffee—The first coffee house in Hamburg opened by an English merchant—Famous +coffee houses of old Berlin—The first coffee periodical and the first kaffee-klatsch—Frederick +the Great's coffee roasting monopoly—Coffee persecutions—"Coffee-smellers"—The +first coffee king <span class="right2">Page 45</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Telling How Coffee Came to Vienna</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitzky, who carried "a message to Garcia" through +the enemy's lines and won for himself the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese +the art of making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the green beans +left behind by the Turks; also the gift of a house from a grateful municipality, and a +statue after death—Affectionate regard in which "Brother-heart" Kolschitzky is held as +the patron saint of the Vienna <i>Kaffee-sieder</i>—Life in the early Vienna café's <span class="right2">Page 49</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_X">CHAPTER X</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Coffee Houses of Old London</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee—The first coffee house in London—The +first coffee handbill, and the first newspaper advertisement for coffee—Strange coffee +mixtures—Fantastic coffee claims—Coffee prices and coffee licenses—Coffee club of the +Rota—Early coffee-house manners and customs—Coffee-house keepers' tokens—Opposition +to the coffee house—"Penny universities"—Weird coffee substitutes—The proposed coffee-house +newspaper monopoly—Evolution of the club—Decline and fall of the coffee house—Pen +pictures of coffee-house life—Famous coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries—Some Old World pleasure gardens—Locating the notable coffee houses <span class="right2">Page 53</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XI">CHAPTER XI</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">History of the Early Parisian Coffee Houses</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thévenot in 1657—How Soliman Aga established the +custom of coffee drinking at the court of Louis XIV—Opening of the first coffee houses—How +the French adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real French +café of François Procope—Important part played by the coffee houses in the development +of French literature and the stage—Their association with the Revolution and the founding +of the Republic—Quaint customs and patrons—Historic Parisian café's <span class="right2">Page 91</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XII">CHAPTER XII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Introduction of Coffee into North America</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the first to bring to North America a +knowledge of coffee in 1607—The coffee grinder on the Mayflower—Coffee drinking in 1668—William +Penn's coffee purchase in 1683—Coffee in colonial New England—The psychology +of the Boston "tea party," and why the United States became a nation of coffee drinkers instead +of tea drinkers, like England—The first coffee license to Dorothy Jones in 1670—The +first coffee house in New England—Notable coffee houses of old Boston—A skyscraper +coffee-house <span class="right2">Page 105</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">History of Coffee in Old New York</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for "must," or beer, for breakfast in +1668—William Penn makes his first purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York +merchants in 1683—The King's Arms, the first coffee house—The historic Merchants, +sometimes called the "Birthplace of our Union"—The coffee house as a civic forum—The +Exchange, Whitehall, Burns, Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses—The Vauxhall and +Ranelagh pleasure gardens <span class="right2">Page 115</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Coffee Houses of Old Philadelphia</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about 1700—The two London coffee +houses—The City tavern, or Merchants coffee house—How these, and other celebrated +resorts, dominated the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City in the eighteenth +century <span class="right2">Page 125</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XV">CHAPTER XV</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Botany of the Coffee Plant</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, genus, and species—How the Coffea +arabica grows, flowers, and bears—Other species and hybrids described—Natural caffein-free +coffee—Fungoid diseases of coffee <span class="right2">Page 131</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Microscopy of the Coffee Fruit</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is revealed—Structure of the +berry, the green, and the roasted beans—The coffee-leaf disease under the microscope—Value +of microscopic analysis in detecting adulteration <span class="right2">Page 149</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Chemistry of the Coffee Bean</span></big><br /> + +<small><i>By Charles W. Trigg.</i></small></p> +<p class="hang"> +Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green bean—Artificial aging—Renovating +damaged coffees—Extracts—"Caffetannic acid"—Caffein, caffein-free coffee—Caffeol—Fats +and oils—Carbohydrates—Roasting—Scientific aspects of grinding and packaging—The +coffee brew—Soluble coffee—Adulterants and substitutes—Official methods of analysis <span class="right2">Page 155</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pharmacology of the Coffee Drink</span></big><br /> + +<small><i>By Charles W. Trigg</i></small></p> +<p class="hang"> +General physiological action—Effect on children—Effect on longevity—Behavior in the alimentary +régime—Place in dietary—Action on bacteria—Use in medicine—Physiological +action of "caffetannic acid"—Of caffeol—Of caffein—Effect of caffein on mental and motor +efficiency—Conclusions <span class="right2">Page 174</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Commercial Coffees of the World</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America, Central America, South +America, the West India Islands, Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies—A +statistical study of the distribution of the principal kinds—A commercial coffee chart +of the world's leading growths, with market names and general trade characteristics <span class="right2">Page 189</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XX">CHAPTER XX</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cultivation of the Coffee Plant</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia—Coffee cultivation in general—Soil, +climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation, preparing the plantation, shade, wind breaks, +fertilizing, pruning, catch crops, pests, and diseases—How coffee is grown around the +world—Cultivation in all the principal producing countries <span class="right2">Page 197</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Preparing Green Coffee for Market</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Early Arabian methods of preparation—How primitive devices were replaced by modern methods—A +chronological story of the development of scientific plantation machinery, and the +part played by English and American inventors—The marvelous coffee package, one +of the most ingenious in all nature—How coffee is harvested—Picking—Preparation by +the dry and the wet methods—Pulping—Fermentation and washing—Drying—Hulling, +or peeling, and polishing—Sizing, or grading—Preparation methods of different countries <span class="right2">Page 245</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Production and Consumption of Coffee</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries—Per capita figures of the leading +consuming countries—Coffee-consumption figures compared with tea-consumption figures in +the United States and the United Kingdom—Three centuries of coffee trading—Coffee +drinking in the United States, past and present—Reviewing the 1921 trade in the United +States <span class="right2">Page 273</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">How Green Coffees Are Bought and Sold</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Buying coffee in the producing countries—Transporting coffee to the consuming markets—Some +record coffee cargoes shipped to the United States—Transport over seas—Java coffee +"ex-sailing vessels"—Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco—The +coffee exchanges of Europe and the United States—Commission men and brokers—Trade +and exchange contracts for delivery—Important rulings affecting coffee trading—Some +well-known green coffee marks <span class="right2">Page 303</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Green and Roasted Coffee Characteristics</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the leading coffees of commerce, with a +"Complete Reference Table of the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World"—Appearance, +aroma, and flavor in cup-testing—How experts test coffee—A typical sample-roasting +and cup-testing outfit <span class="right2">Page 341</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXV">CHAPTER XXV</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Factory Preparation of Roasted Coffee</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Coffee roasting as a business—Wholesale coffee-roasting machinery—Separating, milling, and +mixing or blending green coffee, and roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity—Facts +about coffee roasting—Cost of roasting—Green-coffee shrinkage table—"Dry" and "wet" +roasts—On roasting coffee efficiently—A typical coal roaster—Cooling and stoning—Finishing +or glazing—Blending roasted coffees—Blends for restaurants—Grinding and +packaging—Coffee additions and fillers—Treated coffees, and dry extracts <span class="right2">Page 379</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Wholesale Merchandising of Coffee</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +How coffees are sold at wholesale—The wholesale salesman's place in merchandising—Some +coffee costs analyzed—Handy coffee-selling chart—Terms and credits—About package +coffees—Various types of coffee containers—Coffee package labels—Coffee package +economies—Practical grocer helps—Coffee sampling—Premium method of sales promotion <span class="right2">Page 407</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Retail Merchandising of Roasted Coffee</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +How coffees are sold at retail—The place of the grocer, the tea and coffee dealer, the chain +store, and the wagon-route distributer in the scheme of distribution—Starting in the retail +coffee business—Small roasters for retail dealers—Model coffee departments—Creating +a coffee trade—Meeting competition—Splitting nickels—Figuring costs and profits—A +credit policy for retailers—Premiums <span class="right2">Page 415</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">A Short History of Coffee Advertising</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Early coffee advertising—The first coffee advertisement in 1587 was frank propaganda for the +legitimate use of coffee—The first printed advertisement in English—The first newspaper +advertisement—Early advertisements in colonial America—Evolution of advertising—Package +coffee advertising—Advertising to the trade—Advertising by means of newspapers, +magazines, billboards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and by samples—Advertising +for retailers—Advertising by government propaganda—The Joint Coffee +Trade publicity campaign in the United States—Coffee advertising efficiency <span class="right2">Page 431</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Coffee Trade in the United States</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston—Some early sales—Taxes imposed by +Congress in war and peace—The first coffee-plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-grinder, +and coffee-pot patents—Early trade marks for coffee—Beginnings of the coffee +urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee business—Chronological record of the most +important events in the history of the trade from the eighteenth century to the twentieth <span class="right2">Page 467</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXX">CHAPTER XXX</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Development of the Green and Roasted Coffee +Business in the United States</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +A brief history of the growth of coffee trading—Notable firms and personalities that have played +important parts in green coffee in the principal coffee centers—Green coffee trade organizations—Growth +of the wholesale coffee-roasting trade, and names of those who have +made history in it—The National Coffee Roasters Association—Statistics of distribution of +coffee-roasting establishments in the United States <span class="right2">Page 475</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Some Big Men and Notable Achievements</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +B.G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the American "coffee kings"—John +Arbuckle, the original package-coffee man—Jabez Burns, the man who revolutionized the +roasted-coffee business by his contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and writer—Coffee +trade booms and panics—Brazil's first valorization enterprise—War-time government +control of coffee—The story of soluble coffee <span class="right2">Page 517</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXXII">CHAPTER XXXII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">A History of Coffee in Literature</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, history, drama, philosophic +writing, and fiction of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and on the writers of today—Coffee +quips and anecdotes <span class="right2">Page 541</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXXIII">CHAPTER XXXIII</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Coffee in Relation to the Fine Arts</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, engraving, sculpture, caricature, +lithography, and music—Epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee—Beautiful +specimens of the art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee service of +various periods in the world's history—Some historical relics <span class="right2">Page 587</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXXIV">CHAPTER XXXIV</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Evolution of Coffee Apparatus</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, coffee-making, and coffee-serving devices +from the earliest time to the present day—The original coffee grinder, the first coffee +roaster, and the first coffee pot—The original French drip pot, the De Belloy percolator—Count +Rumford's improvement—How the commercial coffee roaster was developed—The +evolution of filtration devices—The old Carter "pull-out" roaster—Trade customs in +New York and St. Louis in the sixties and seventies—The story of the evolution of the +Burns roaster—How the gas roaster was developed in France, Great Britain, and the +United States <span class="right2">Page 615</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXXV">CHAPTER XXXV</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">World's Coffee Manners and Customs</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading civilized countries—The Arabian +coffee ceremony—The present-day coffee houses of Turkey—Twentieth century improvements +in Europe and the United States <span class="right2">Page 655</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#Chapter_XXXVI">CHAPTER XXXVI</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Preparation of the Universal Beverage</span></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +The evolution of grinding and brewing methods—Coffee was first a food, then a wine, a medicine, +a devotional refreshment, a confection, and finally a beverage—Brewing by boiling, infusion, +percolation, and filtration—Coffee making in Europe in the nineteenth century—Early +coffee making in the United States—Latest developments in better coffee making—Various +aspects of scientific coffee brewing—Advice to coffee lovers on how to buy coffee, and how +to make it in perfection <span class="right2">Page 693</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#A_COFFEE_CHRONOLOGY">A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY</a></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, literature, cultivation, plantation +treatment, trading, and in the preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the +present <span class="right2">Page 725</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#A_COFFEE_BIBLIOGRAPHY">A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></big></p> +<p class="hang"> +A list of references gathered from the principal general and scientific libraries—Arranged in +alphabetic order of topics <span class="right2">Page 738</span></p> + +<p class="center"><br /> +<big><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></big><br /> +Page 769 +</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + +<div class='table1'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Color Plates"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Color Plates</i><br /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right' colspan='2'><small><i>Facing page</i></small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_BRANCHES_FLOWERS_AND_FRUIT">Coffee branches, flowers, and fruit (painted by Blendon Campbell) <i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> + <td align='right'>v</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_ARABICA_LEAVES_FLOWERS_AND_FRUIT"><i>Coffea arabica</i>; leaves, flowers, and fruit (painted by M.E. Eaton)</a></td> + <td align='right'>1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_COFFEE_TREE_BEARS_FRUIT_LEAF_AND_BLOSSOM_AT_THE_SAME_TIME">The coffee tree bears fruit, leaf, and blossom at the same time</a></td> + <td align='right'>16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_CLOSE-UP_OF_RIPE_COFFEE_BERRIES">A close-up of ripe coffee berries</a></td> + <td align='right'>32</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_UNDER_THE_STARS_AND_STRIPES">Coffee under the Stars and Stripes</a></td> + <td align='right'>144</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_SCENES_IN_BRITISH_INDIA">Coffee scenes in British India</a></td> + <td align='right'>160</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PICKING_AND_SACKING_COFFEE_IN_BRAZIL">Picking and sacking coffee in Brazil</a></td> + <td align='right'>176</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#MILD-COFFEE_CULTURE_AND_PREPARATION">Mild-coffee culture and preparation</a></td> + <td align='right'>192</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_SCENES_IN_JAVA_NETHERLANDS_EAST_INDIES">Coffee scenes in Java</a></td> + <td align='right'>200</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_SCENES_IN_SUMATRA">Coffee scenes in Sumatra</a></td> + <td align='right'>216</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_PREPARATION_IN_CENTRAL_AND_SOUTH_AMERICA">Coffee preparation in Central and South America</a></td> + <td align='right'>248</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#TYPICAL_COFFEE_SCENES_IN_COSTA_RICA">Typical coffee scenes in Costa Rica</a></td> + <td align='right'>336</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PRINCIPAL_VARIETIES_OF_GREEN_COFFEE_BEANS_NATURAL_SIZE_AND_COLOR">Principal varieties of green-coffee beans, natural size and color</a></td> + <td align='right'>352</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COAL_ROASTING_PLANT_NEW_YORK">Coal-roasting plant, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>408</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_SCENES_IN_THE_NEAR_AND_FAR_EAST">Coffee scenes in the Near and Far East</a></td> + <td align='right'>544</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PRIMITIVE_TRANSPORTATION_METHODS_ARABIA">Primitive transportation methods, Arabia</a></td> + <td align='right'>640</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#HULLING_COFFEE_IN_ADEN_ARABIA">Hulling coffee in Aden, Arabia</a></td> + <td align='right'>656</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='table1'><br /><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Black and White Illustrations"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Black and White Illustrations</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right' colspan='2'><small><i>Page</i></small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_FAIRY_BEAUTY_OF_A_COFFEE_TREE_IN_FLOWER">Coffee tree in flower</a></td> + <td align='right'>4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Captain_de_Clieu_Shares_His_Drinking_Water_With_the_Coffee_Plant_He_Is_Carrying_to_Martinique">De Clieu and his coffee plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_LEGENDARY_DISCOVERY_OF_THE_COFFEE_DRINK">Legendary discovery of coffee drink</a></td> + <td align='right'>10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Title_Page_of_Dufour39s_Book_Edition_of_1693">Title page of Dufour's book</a></td> + <td align='right'>13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Frontispiece_from_Dufours_work">Frontispiece from Dufour's book</a></td> + <td align='right'>15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Turkish_Coffee_House_of_the_Seventeenth_Century">Turkish coffee house, 17th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>21</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Serving_Coffee_to_a_Guest">Serving coffee to a guest, Arabia</a></td> + <td align='right'>23</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_COFFEE">First printed reference to coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>24</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#An_Eighteenth_Century_Italian_Coffee_House">An 18th-century Italian coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>26</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Nobility_in_an_Early_Venetian_Caffegrave">Nobility in an early Venetian café</a></td> + <td align='right'>27</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Goldoni_in_a_Venetian_Caffegrave">Goldoni in a Venetian coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>28</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Florian39s_Famous_Caffegrave">Florian's famous coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>29</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Title_Page_of_La_Roque39s_Work_1716">Title page of La Roque's work</a></td> + <td align='right'>32</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Coffee_Tree_as_Pictured_by_La_Roque">Coffee tree as pictured by La Roque</a></td> + <td align='right'>32</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Coffee_Branch_With_Flowers_and_Fruit_as_Illustrated_in_La_Roque39s">Coffee branch in La Roque's work</a></td> + <td align='right'>33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_COFFEE_IN_ENGLISH_1598">First printed reference in English</a></td> + <td align='right'>37</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_quotCOFFEEquot_IN_ENGLISH_IN_ITS_MODERN_FORM_1601">Reference in Sherley's travels</a></td> + <td align='right'>39</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#References_to_Coffee_as_Found_in_Biddulph39s_Travels_1609">References in Biddulph's travels</a></td> + <td align='right'>40</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mol39s_Coffee_House_Exeter_England_Now_Worth39s_Art_Rooms">Mol's coffee house at Exeter</a></td> + <td align='right'>41</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_English_Reference_to_Coffee_by_Sir_George_Sandys">Reference in Sandys' travels</a></td> + <td align='right'>42</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Richter39s_Coffee_House_in_Leipsic">Richter's coffee house, Leipsic</a></td> + <td align='right'>46</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_House_in_Germany_Middle_of_the_Seventeenth_Century">Coffee house, Germany, 17th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>47</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#KOLSCHITZKY_THE_GREAT_BROTHER-HEART_IN_HIS_BLUE_BOTTLE_CAFEacute">Kolschitzky in his Blue Bottle coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>48</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_First_Coffee_House_in_the_Leopoldstadt">First coffee house in Leopoldstadt</a></td> + <td align='right'>50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Statue_of_Kolschitzky">Statue of Kolschitzky</a></td> + <td align='right'>51</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FIRST_ADVERTISEMENT_FOR_COFFEE_1652">First advertisement for coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>55</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_FIRST_NEWSPAPER_ADVERTISEMENT_FOR_COFFEE_1657">First newspaper advertisement</a></td> + <td align='right'>57</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Coffee_House_in_the_Time_of_Charles_II">Coffee house, time of Charles II</a></td> + <td align='right'>60</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_London_Coffee_House_of_the_Seventeenth_Century">London coffee house, 17th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>61</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_House_Queen_Anne39s_Time_1702ndash14">Coffee house, Queen Anne's time</a></td> + <td align='right'>62</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PLATE_1_COFFEE-HOUSE_KEEPERS39_TOKENS_OF_THE_17TH_CENTURY">Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 1)</a></td> + <td align='right'>63</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Broad-side_of_1663">A broadside of 1663</a></td> + <td align='right'>64</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PLATE_2_COFFEE-HOUSE_KEEPERS39_TOKENS_OF_THE_17TH_CENTURY">Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 2)</a></td> + <td align='right'>65</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Broad-side_of_1667">A broadside of 1667</a></td> + <td align='right'>68</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Broad-side_of_1670">A broadside of 1670</a></td> + <td align='right'>70</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Broad-side_of_1672">A broadside of 1672</a></td> + <td align='right'>70</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Broad-side_of_1674">A broadside of 1674</a></td> + <td align='right'>71</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#White39s_and_Brookes39_St_James39s_Street">White's and Brooke's coffee houses</a></td> + <td align='right'>78</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_House_Politicians_of_the_Seventeenth_Century">London coffee-house politicians</a></td> + <td align='right'>78</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Great_Fair_on_the_Frozen_Thames_1683">Great Fair on the frozen Thames</a></td> + <td align='right'>79</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Lion39s_Head_at_Button39s_Coffee_House">Lion's head at Button's</a></td> + <td align='right'>80</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Trio_of_Notables_at_Button39s_in_1730">Trio of notables at Button's</a></td> + <td align='right'>81</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Vauxhall_Gardens_on_a_Gala_Night">Vauxhall Gardens on a gala night</a></td> + <td align='right'>82</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Rotunda_in_Ranelagh_Gardens_With_the_Company_at_Breakfast_1751">Rotunda in Ranelagh Gardens</a></td> + <td align='right'>83</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Garraway39s_Coffee_House_in_39Change_Alley">Garraway's coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>84</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Button39s_Coffee_House_Great_Russell_Street">Button's coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>84</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Slaughter39s_Coffee_House_St_Martin39s_Lane">Slaughter's coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>85</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tom39s_Coffee_House_17_Great_Russell_Street">Tom's coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>85</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Lloyd39s_Coffee_House_in_the_Royal_Exchange_Showing_the_Subscription_Room">Lloyd's coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>86</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Interior_of_Dick39s_Coffee_House">Dick's coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>87</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Grecian_Coffee_House_Devereux_Court">Grecian coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>87</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Don_Saltero39s_Coffee_House_Cheyne_Walk">Don Saltero's coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>88</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_British_Coffee_House">British coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>88</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_French_Coffee_House_in_London_Second_Half_of_the_Eighteenth_Century">French coffee house in London</a></td> + <td align='right'>89</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#RAMPONAUX39_ROYAL_DRUMMER_ONE_OF_THE_MOST_POPULAR_OF_THE_EARLY_PARISIAN_CAFEacuteS">Ramponaux' Royal Drummer café</a></td> + <td align='right'>90</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Was_First_Sold_and_Served_Publicly_in_the_Fair_of_St-Germain">La Foire St.-Germain</a></td> + <td align='right'>92</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Street_Coffee_Vender_of_Paris_Period_1672_to_1689mdashTwo_Sous_per_Dish_Sugar_Included">Street coffee vender of Paris</a></td> + <td align='right'>92</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Many_of_the_Early_Parisian_Coffee_Houses_Followed_Pascal39s_Lead_and_Affected_Armenian_Decorations">Armenian decorations in Paris café</a></td> + <td align='right'>93</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Corner_of_the_Historic_Cafeacute_de_Procope">Corner of historic Café de Procope</a></td> + <td align='right'>93</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_CAFEacute_DE_PROCOPE_IN_1743">Café de Procope, Paris</a></td> + <td align='right'>95</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Cashier39s_Counter_in_a_Paris_Coffee_House_of_1782">Cashier's desk in coffee house, Paris</a></td> + <td align='right'>96</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_CAFEacute_FOY_IN_THE_PALAIS_ROYAL_1789">Café Foy</a></td> + <td align='right'>97</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_CAFEacute_DES_MILLE_COLONNES_IN_1811">Café des Mille Colonnes</a></td> + <td align='right'>99</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_CAFEacute_DE_PARIS_IN_1843">Café de Paris</a></td> + <td align='right'>101</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Interior_of_a_Typical_Parisian_Cafeacute">Interior of a typical Parisian café</a></td> + <td align='right'>103</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Chess_Has_Been_a_Favorite_Pastime_at_the_Cafeacute_de_la_Reacutegence">Chess at the Café de la Régence</a></td> + <td align='right'>104</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Types_of_Colonial_Coffee_Roasters">Types of colonial coffee roasters</a></td> + <td align='right'>106</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#An_Early_Family_Coffee_Roaster">Early family coffee roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>106</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Historical_Relics_Associated_With_the_Early_Days_of_Coffee_in_New_England">Historic relics, early New England</a></td> + <td align='right'>107</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Mayflower_quotCoffee_Grinderquot">Mayflower "coffee grinder"</a></td> + <td align='right'>108</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Crown_Coffee_House_Boston">Crown coffee house, Boston</a></td> + <td align='right'>108</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Making_and_Serving_Devices_Used_in_the_Massachusetts_Colony">Coffee devices, Massachusetts colony</a></td> + <td align='right'>109</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Devices_that_Figured_in_the_Pioneering_of_the_Great_West">Coffee devices of western pioneers</a></td> + <td align='right'>110</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Metal_and_China_Coffee_Pots_Used_in_New_England39s_Colonial_Days">Coffee pots of colonial days</a></td> + <td align='right'>110</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Green_Dragon_the_Center_of_Social_and_Political_Life_in_Boston_for_135_Years">Green Dragon tavern, Boston</a></td> + <td align='right'>111</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Metal_Coffee_Pots_Used_in_the_New_York_Colony">Metal coffee pots, New York colony</a></td> + <td align='right'>112</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Exchange_Coffee_House_Boston_1808_Probably_the_Largest_and_Most_Costly_in_the_World">Exchange coffee house, Boston</a></td> + <td align='right'>113</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PRESIDENT-ELECT_WASHINGTON_WELCOMED_AT_THE_MERCHANTS_COFFEE_HOUSE_NEW_YORK">President-elect Washington's official welcome at Merchants Coffee House</a></td> + <td align='right'>114</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#New_York39s_Pioneer_Coffee_House_The_King39s_Arms_Opened_in_1696">King's Arms coffee house, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>116</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_Coffee_House_as_It_Appeared_About_the_Middle_of_the_Nineteenth_Century">Burns coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>117</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Merchants_Coffee_House">Merchants coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>119</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Tontine_Coffee_House">Tontine coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>121</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Tontine_Building_of_1850">Tontine building of 1850</a></td> + <td align='right'>122</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Niblo39s_Garden_Broadway_and_Prince_Street_1828">Niblo's Garden</a></td> + <td align='right'>122</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Relics_of_Dutch_New_York">Coffee relics, Dutch New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>122</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#New_York39s_Vauxhall_Garden_of_1803">New York's Vauxhall Garden of 1803</a></td> + <td align='right'>123</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tavern_and_Grocers39_Signs_Used_in_Old_New_York">Tavern and grocers' signs, old New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>124</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Second_London_Coffee_House">Second London coffee house, Philadelphia</a></td> + <td align='right'>127</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Selling_Slaves_at_the_Old_London_Coffee_House">Selling slaves, old London coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>128</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_City_Tavern_Built_in_1773_and_Known_as_the_Merchants_Coffee_House">City tavern, Philadelphia</a></td> + <td align='right'>129</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Exchange_Coffee_House_Scene_in_quotHamiltonquot">Coffee-house scene in "Hamilton"</a></td> + <td align='right'>130</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Coffee_Tree_Showing_Details_of_Flowers_and_Fruit">Coffee tree, flowers and fruit</a></td> + <td align='right'>132</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Details_of_the_Germination_of_the_Coffee_Plant">Germination of the coffee plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>133</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#BRAZIL_COFFEE_PLANTATION_IN_FLOWER">Brazil coffee plantation in flower</a></td> + <td align='right'>134</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffea_Arabica_Porto_Rico"><i>Coffea arabica</i>, Porto Rico</a></td> + <td align='right'>135</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffea_Arabica_Flower_and_Fruit_Costa_Rica"><i>Coffea arabica</i>, flower and fruit, Costa Rica</a></td> + <td align='right'>135</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Young_Coffea_Arabica_Tree_at_Kona_Hawaii">Young <i>Coffea arabica</i>, Kona, Hawaii</a></td> + <td align='right'>136</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Survivors_of_the_First_Liberian_Coffee_Trees_Introduced_into_Java_in_1876">Survivors of first Liberian trees in Java</a></td> + <td align='right'>136</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEA_ARABICA_IN_FLOWER_ON_A_JAVA_ESTATE"><i>Coffea arabica</i> in flower, Java</a></td> + <td align='right'>137</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Liberian_Coffee_Tree_at_Lamoa_PI">Liberian coffee tree, Lamoa, P.I.</a></td> + <td align='right'>138</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Two-and-One-Half-Year-Old_C_Congensis"><i>Coffea congensis</i>, 2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> years old</a></td> + <td align='right'>138</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_HEAVY_FLOWERING_OF_FIVE-YEAR-OLD_COFFEA_EXCELSA">Flowering of 5-year-old <i>Coffea excelsa</i></a></td> + <td align='right'>139</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Branches_of_Coffea_Excelsa_Grown_at_the_Lamao_Experiment_Station_PI">Branches of <i>Coffea excelsa</i></a></td> + <td align='right'>140</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#C_Stenophylla_From_Which_Is_Obtained_the_Highland_Coffee_of_Sierra_Leone"><i>Coffea stenophylla</i></a></td> + <td align='right'>140</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#NEAR_VIEW_OF_COFFEE_BERRIES_OF_COFFEA_ARABICA">Near view of <i>Coffea arabica</i> berries</a></td> + <td align='right'>141</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Wild_quotCaffein-Freequot_Coffee_Tree">Wild caffein-free coffee tree</a></td> + <td align='right'>142</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Differentiating_Characteristics_of_Coffee_Beans_in_Cross-section">Coffee bean characteristics</a></td> + <td align='right'>142</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEA_ARABICA_BERRIES_GROWN_IN_THE_HAWAIIAN_ISLANDS"><i>Coffea arabica</i> berries</a></td> + <td align='right'>143</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Robusta_Coffee_in_Flower_Preanger_Java"><i>Robusta</i> coffee in flower</a></td> + <td align='right'>144</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#One-Year-Old_Robusta_Estate_on_Sumatra39s_West_Coast">One-year-old <i>robusta</i> estate</a></td> + <td align='right'>145</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffea_Quillou_Flowers_in_Full_Bloom"><i>Coffea Quillou</i> flowers</a></td> + <td align='right'>146</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#An_Eighteen-Months39-Old_Coffea_Quillou_Tree_in_Blossom"><i>Quillou</i> coffee tree in blossom</a></td> + <td align='right'>147</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffea_Ugandaelig_Bent_Over_by_a_Heavy_Crop"><i>Coffea Ugandæ</i></a></td> + <td align='right'>148</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fig_331_Coffee_Coffea_arabica"><i>Coffea arabica</i> under the microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>149</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fig_332_Coffee_Cross_section_of_bean">Cross-section of coffee bean</a></td> + <td align='right'>150</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fig_333_Coffee_Cross_section_of_hull_and_bean">Cross-section of hull and bean</a></td> + <td align='right'>150</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fig_334_Coffee_Surface_view_of_ep_epicarp">Epicarp and pericarp under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>151</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fig_336_Coffee_Sclerenchyma_fibers_of_endocarp">Endocarp and endosperm under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>152</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fig_337_Coffee_Spermoderm_in_surface_view">Spermoderm under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>152</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fig_338_Coffee_Cross-section_of_outer_layers_of_endosperm">Tissues of embryo under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>152</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Leaf_Disease_Hemileia_vastatrix">Coffee-leaf disease under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>153</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Green_and_Roasted_Coffee_Under_the_Microscope">Green and roasted coffee under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>153</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#GREEN_AND_ROASTED_BOGOTA_COFFEE_UNDER_THE_MICROSCOPE">Green and roasted Bogota under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>154</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cross-Section_of_the_Endosperm_or_Hard_Structure_of_the_Green_Bean">Cross-section of endosperm</a></td> + <td align='right'>156</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Portion_of_the_Investing_Membrane_Showing_Its_Structure">Portion of the investing membrane</a></td> + <td align='right'>157</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Structure_of_the_Green_Bean">Structure of the green bean</a></td> + <td align='right'>157</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Ground_Coffee_Under_the_Microscope">Ground coffee under microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>167</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_TREE_IN_BEARING_AT_THE_GOVERNMENTAL_EXPERIMENT_STATION_AT_LAMOA">Coffee tree in bearing, Lamoa, P.I.</a></td> + <td align='right'>196</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Implements_Used_in_Early_Arabian_Coffee_Culture">Early coffee implements</a></td> + <td align='right'>198</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cross_Section_of_Mountain_Slope_in_Yemen_Arabia_Showing_Coffee_Terraces">Cross-section of mountain slope, Yemen</a></td> + <td align='right'>198</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#THE_FIRST_STEPS_IN_COFFEE_GROWING">First steps in coffee-growing</a></td> + <td align='right'>199</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Tree_Nursery_Panajabal_Pochuta_Guatemala">Coffee nursery, Guatemala</a></td> + <td align='right'>200</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Growing_Under_Shade_Porto_Rico">Coffee under shade, Porto Rico</a></td> + <td align='right'>201</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Famous_Boekit_Gompong_Estate">Boekit Gompong estate, Sumatra</a></td> + <td align='right'>202</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Estate_in_Antioquia_Colombia">Estate in Antioquia, Colombia</a></td> + <td align='right'>203</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Weeding_and_Harrowing_Satildeo_Paulo">Weeding and harrowing, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>204</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fazenda_Dumont_Ribeirao_Preto_Satildeo_Paulo">Fazenda Dumont, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>205</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FAZENDA_GUATAPARA_SAtildeO_PAULO">Fazenda Guatapara, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>206</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Picking_Coffee_in_Satildeo_Paulo">Picking coffee, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>207</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Intensive_Cultivation_Methods_Satildeo_Paulo">Intensive cultivation, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>207</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Private_Railroad_on_a_Satildeo_Paulo">Private railroad, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>208</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_CULTURE_IN_SAtildeO_PAULO">Coffee culture in São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>209</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#HEAVILY_LADEN_COFFEE_TREE_ON_A_BOGOTA">Heavily laden coffee tree, Bogota</a></td> + <td align='right'>210</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Picking_Coffee_on_a_Bogota_Plantation">Picking coffee, Bogota</a></td> + <td align='right'>211</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Altamira_Hacienda_Venezuela">Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela</a></td> + <td align='right'>212</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Carmen_Hacienda_Venezuela">Carmen Hacienda, Venezuela</a></td> + <td align='right'>213</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Heavy_Fruiting_of_Coffea_Robusta_in_Java">Heavy fruiting, <i>Coffea robusta</i>, Java</a></td> + <td align='right'>214</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Road_Through_a_Coffee_Estate_in_East_Java">Road through coffee estate, Java</a></td> + <td align='right'>215</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Native_Picking_Coffee_Sumatra">Native picking coffee, Sumatra</a></td> + <td align='right'>216</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Bungalow_of_Administrator_Java">Administrator's bungalow, Java</a></td> + <td align='right'>216</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Administrators_Bungalow_Sumatra">Administrator's bungalow, Sumatra</a></td> + <td align='right'>217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_CULTURE_IN_GUATEMALA">Coffee culture in Guatemala</a></td> + <td align='right'>218</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Indians_Picking_Coffee_Guatemala">Indians picking coffee, Guatemala</a></td> + <td align='right'>219</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Bungalow_coffee_estate_Guatemala">Bungalow, coffee estate, Guatemala</a></td> + <td align='right'>220</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Thirty-Year-Old_Coffee_Trees_Mexico">Thirty-year-old coffee trees, Mexico</a></td> + <td align='right'>221</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mexican_Coffee_Picker">Mexican coffee picker</a></td> + <td align='right'>222</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Receiving_coffee_Mexico">Receiving coffee, Mexico</a></td> + <td align='right'>223</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#HEAVILY_LADEN_COFFEE_TREE_PORTO_RICO">Heavily laden coffee tree, Porto Rico</a></td> + <td align='right'>224</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Cultivation_Costa_Rica">Coffee cultivation, Costa Rica</a></td> + <td align='right'>225</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Picking_Costa_Rica_Coffee">Picking Costa Rica coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>226</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mountain_Coffee_Estate_Costa_Rica">Mountain coffee estate, Costa Rica</a></td> + <td align='right'>226</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mysore_Coffee_Estate">Mysore coffee estate</a></td> + <td align='right'>227</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Growing_Under_India">Coffee growing under shade, India</a></td> + <td align='right'>228</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Estate_at_Harar">Coffee estate at Harar</a></td> + <td align='right'>229</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Wild_Coffee_Near_Adis_Abeba">Wild coffee near Adis Abeba</a></td> + <td align='right'>231</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#MOCHA_COFFEE_GROWING_ON_TERRACES">Mocha coffee growing on terraces</a></td> + <td align='right'>232</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Picking_Blue_Mountain_Berries_Jamaica">Picking Blue Mountain berries, Jamaica</a></td> + <td align='right'>233</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Pickers_Guadeloupe">Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe</a></td> + <td align='right'>234</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_in_Blossom_Panama">Coffee in blossom, Panama</a></td> + <td align='right'>235</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Robusta_Coffee_Cochin-China"><i>Robusta</i> coffee, Cochin-China</a></td> + <td align='right'>237</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Bourbon_Trees_French_Indo-China">Bourbon trees, French Indo-China</a></td> + <td align='right'>238</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Picking_Coffee_in_Queensland">Picking coffee in Queensland</a></td> + <td align='right'>239</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_IN_BLOOM_KONA_HAWAII">Coffee in bloom, Kona, Hawaii</a></td> + <td align='right'>240</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_At_Hamakua_Hawaii">Coffee at Hamakua, Hawaii</a></td> + <td align='right'>241</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Trees_South_Kona_Hawaii">Coffee trees, South Kona, Hawaii</a></td> + <td align='right'>242</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Plantation_Near_Sagada_PI">Plantation near Sagada, P.I.</a></td> + <td align='right'>243</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_PREPARATION_SAO_PAULO">Coffee preparation, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>244</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Walkers_Original_Disk_Pulper">Walker's original disk pulper</a></td> + <td align='right'>246</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_English_Coffee_Peeler">Early English coffee peeler</a></td> + <td align='right'>246</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Group_of_English_Cylinder_Pulpers">Group of English cylinder pulper</a>s</td> + <td align='right'>247</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Copper_Covers_for_Pulper_Cylinders">Copper covers for pulper cylinders</a></td> + <td align='right'>248</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Granada_Unpulped_Coffee_Separator">Granada unpulped coffee separator</a></td> + <td align='right'>249</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Hand-Power_Double-Disk_Pulper">Hand-power double-disk pulper</a></td> + <td align='right'>249</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tandem_Coffee_Pulper">Tandem coffee pulper</a></td> + <td align='right'>250</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Horizontal_Coffee_Washer">Horizontal coffee washer</a></td> + <td align='right'>251</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Vertical_Coffee_Washer">Vertical coffee washer</a></td> + <td align='right'>251</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coban_Pulper_Venezuela">Cobán pulper, Venezuela</a></td> + <td align='right'>252</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Niagara_Power_Coffee_Huller">Niagara power coffee huller</a></td> + <td align='right'>252</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#BRITISH_AND_AMERICAN_COFFEE_DRIERS">British and American coffee driers</a></td> + <td align='right'>253</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#American_Guardiola_Drier">American Guardiola drier</a></td> + <td align='right'>254</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Smout_Peeler_and_Polisher">Smout peeler and polisher</a></td> + <td align='right'>254</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Smout_Peeler_and_Polisher_Exposed">Smout peeler and polisher, exposed</a></td> + <td align='right'>255</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#OKrassas_Coffee_Drier">O'Krassa's coffee drier</a></td> + <td align='right'>255</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Six_Well_Known_Hullers_and_Separators">Six well-known hullers and separators</a></td> + <td align='right'>256</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#El_Monarca_Coffee_Classifier">El Monarca coffee classifier</a></td> + <td align='right'>257</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Hydro-Electric_Installation_Guatemala">Hydro-electric installation, Guatemala</a></td> + <td align='right'>258</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PREPARING_BRAZIL_COFFEE_FOR_MARKET">Preparing Brazil coffee for market</a></td> + <td align='right'>259</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Working_Coffee_on_Drying_Flats">Working coffee on the drying flats</a></td> + <td align='right'>260</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fermenting_and_Washing_Tanks_on_a_Sao_Paulo">Fermenting and washing tanks, São Paulo</a></td> + <td align='right'>260</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Drying_Grounds_Fazenda_Schmidt">Drying grounds, Fazenda Schmidt</a></td> + <td align='right'>261</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PREPARING_COLOMBIAN_COFFEE_FOR_THE_MARKET">Preparing Colombian coffee for market</a></td> + <td align='right'>262</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Old-Fashioned_Ox-Power_Huller">Old-fashioned ox-power huller</a></td> + <td align='right'>263</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Street_Car_Coffee_Transport_Orizaba">Street-car coffee transport, Orizaba</a></td> + <td align='right'>264</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_on_Drying_Floors_Porto_Rico">Coffee on drying floors, Porto Rico</a></td> + <td align='right'>264</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#SUN-DRYING_COFFEE">Sun-drying coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>265</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Drying_Patio_Costa_Rica">Drying patio, Costa Rica</a></td> + <td align='right'>266</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_Guardiola_Steam_Drier">Early Guardiola steam drier</a></td> + <td align='right'>266</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#INDIAN_WOMEN_CLEANING_MOCHA_COFFEE">Indian women cleaning Mocha coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>267</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cleaning_and_Grading_Machinery_Aden">Cleaning-and-grading machinery, Aden</a></td> + <td align='right'>268</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Drying_Coffee_at_Harar">Drying coffee at Harar</a></td> + <td align='right'>269</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PREPARING_JAVA_COFFEE_FOR_MARKET">Preparing Java coffee for market</a></td> + <td align='right'>270</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Transport_in_Java">Coffee transport in Java</a></td> + <td align='right'>271</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Meeting_of_Amsterdam_Coffee_Brokers_1820">Meeting of Amsterdam coffee brokers, 1820</a></td> + <td align='right'>291</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#BILL_OF_PUBLIC_SALE_OF_COFFEE_1790">Bill of public sale of coffee, 1790</a></td> + <td align='right'>292</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Last_Sample_Before_Export_Santos">Last sample before export, Santos</a></td> + <td align='right'>304</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Stamping_Bags_for_Export">Stamping bags for export</a></td> + <td align='right'>304</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PREPARING_BRAZIL_COFFEE_FOR_EXPORT">Preparing Brazil coffee for export</a></td> + <td align='right'>305</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Grading_Coffee_at_Santos">Grading coffee at Santos</a></td> + <td align='right'>306</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_Test_by_The_Cups_Santos">The test by the cups, Santos</a></td> + <td align='right'>306</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#NEW_YORK_COFFEE_IMPORTERS_WAREHOUSE_SANTOS">New York importers' warehouse, Santos</a></td> + <td align='right'>307</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pack-Mule_Transport_in_Venezuela">Pack-mule transport in Venezuela</a></td> + <td align='right'>308</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee-Carrying_Cart_Guatemala">Coffee-carrying cart, Guatemala</a></td> + <td align='right'>308</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pack_Oxen_Fording_Stream_Colombia">Pack-oxen fording stream, Colombia</a></td> + <td align='right'>308</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_TRANSPORT_MEXICO_AND_SOUTH_AMERICA">Coffee transport, Mexico and South America</a></td> + <td align='right'>309</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Donkey_Coffee_Transport_at_Harar">Donkey coffee-transport at Harar</a></td> + <td align='right'>310</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Camels_at_Harar">Coffee camels at Harar</a></td> + <td align='right'>310</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Selling_Coffee_by_Tapping_Hands">Selling coffee by tapping hands, Aden</a></td> + <td align='right'>310</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PACKING_AND_TRANSPORTING_COFFEE_ADEN">Packing and transporting coffee, Aden</a></td> + <td align='right'>311</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Camel_Train_at_Hodeida">Coffee camel train at Hodeida</a></td> + <td align='right'>312</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#METHODS_OF_LOADING_COFFEE_SANTOS">Methods of loading coffee, Santos</a></td> + <td align='right'>313</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Freighter_Cauca_River_Colombia">Coffee freighter, Cauca River, Colombia</a></td> + <td align='right'>314</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Steamers_on_the_Magdalena">Coffee steamers on the Magdalena</a></td> + <td align='right'>314</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Loading_Heavy_Cargo_on_Santa_Cecilia">Loading heavy cargo on Santa Cecilia</a></td> + <td align='right'>315</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Unloading_Java_Coffee_from_Sailing_Vessel">Unloading Java coffee from sailing vessel</a></td> + <td align='right'>317</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#RECEIVING_PIERS_FOR_COFFEE_NEW_YORK">Receiving piers for coffee, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>318</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Unloading_Coffee_Covered_Pier_New_York">Unloading coffee, covered pier, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>319</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#RECEIVING_AND_STORING_COFFEE_NEW_YORK">Receiving and storing coffee, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>320</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tester_at_Work_Bush_Terminal_New_York">Tester at work, Bush Terminal, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>321</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Loading_Lighters_Bush_Docks_New_York">Loading lighters, Bush Docks, Brooklyn</a></td> + <td align='right'>321</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#The_New_Terminal_System_on_Staten_Island">New Terminal system on Staten Island</a></td> + <td align='right'>322</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Motor_Tractor_Bush_Piers">Motor tractor, Bush piers</a></td> + <td align='right'>322</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Unloading_Coffee_with_Modern_Conveyor">Unloading with modern conveyor</a></td> + <td align='right'>323</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE-HANDLING_NEW_ORLEANS_PIERS">Coffee handling, New Orleans piers</a></td> + <td align='right'>324</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_In_Steel-Covered_Sheds_New_Orleans">Coffee in steel-covered sheds, New Orleans</a></td> + <td align='right'>325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#UNLOADING_AND_STORING_COFFEE_SAN_FRANCISCO">Unloading and storing coffee, San Francisco</a></td> + <td align='right'>326</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Modern_Device_for_Handling_Green_Coffee">Modern device for handling green coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>327</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#HANDLING_GREEN_COFFEE_AT_EUROPEAN_PORTS">Handling green coffee at European ports</a></td> + <td align='right'>328</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#New_York_Coffee_and_Sugar_Exchange">New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange</a></td> + <td align='right'>329</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Section_Coffee_and_Sugar_Exchange">Coffee section, Coffee and Sugar Exchange</a></td> + <td align='right'>330</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#BLACKBOARDS_COFFEE_EXCHANGE">Blackboards, Coffee Exchange</a></td> + <td align='right'>331</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Afloat_Blackboard">"Coffee afloat" blackboard</a></td> + <td align='right'>332</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#WELL_KNOWN_GREEN-COFFEE_MARKS">Well known green-coffee marks</a></td> + <td align='right'>339</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Bourbon_Santos_Beans_Roasted">Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>343</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Flat_and_Bourbon_Santos_Beans_Roasted">Flat and Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>343</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Rio_Beans_Roasted">Rio beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>343</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mexican_Beans_Roasted">Mexican beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>347</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Guatemala_Beans_Roasted">Guatemala beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>347</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Bogota_Colombia_Beans_Roasted">Bogota (Colombia) beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>348</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Maracaibo_Beans_Roasted">Maracaibo beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>349</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mocha_Beans_Roasted">Mocha beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>351</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Washed_Java_Beans_Roasted">Washed Java beans, roasted</a></td> + <td align='right'>353</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Sample-Roasting_and_Cup-Testing_Outfit">Sample-roasting and cup-testing outfit</a></td> + <td align='right'>357</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#MODERN_GAS_COFFEE-ROASTING_PLANT">Modern gas coffee-roasting plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>380</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#SIXTEEN-CYLINDER_COAL_ROASTING_PLANT">Sixteen-cylinder coal roasting plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>382</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#GREEN-COFFEE_SEPARATING_AND_MILLING_MACHINES">Green-coffee separating and milling machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>384</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#English_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant">English gas coffee-roasting plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>385</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#German_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant">German gas coffee-roasting plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>386</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#French_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant">French gas coffee-roasting plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>387</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Jumbo_Coffee_Roaster_Arbuckle_Plant">Jumbo coffee roaster, Arbuckle plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>388</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Roasting_Plant_of_Reid_Murdoch_Co">Roasting plant of Reid, Murdoch & Co.</a></td> + <td align='right'>389</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COMPLETE_GAS_COFFEE-PLANT_INSTALLATION">Complete gas coffee-plant installation</a></td> + <td align='right'>390</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_Jubilee_Gas_Roaster">Burns Jubilee gas roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>391</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_Coal_Roaster">Burns coal roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>392</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Open_Perforated_Cylinder_with_Flexible_Back_Head">Open perforated cylinder with flexible back head</a></td> + <td align='right'>392</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Trying_the_Roast">Trying the roast</a></td> + <td align='right'>394</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Monitor_Gas_Roaster">Monitor gas roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>394</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Group_of_Roasting-Room_Accessories">A group of roasting-room accessories</a></td> + <td align='right'>394</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Dumping_the_Roast">Dumping the roast</a></td> + <td align='right'>395</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Four-Bag_Coffee_Finisher">A four-bag coffee finisher</a></td> + <td align='right'>396</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_Sample-Coffee_Roaster">Burns sample-coffee roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>396</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Lambert_Coal_Coffee-Roasting_Outfit">Lambert coal coffee-roasting outfit</a></td> + <td align='right'>397</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coles_No_22_Grinding_Mill">Coles No. 22 grinding mill</a></td> + <td align='right'>398</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Monitor_Coffee-Granulating_Machine">Monitor coffee-granulating machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>398</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Challenge_Pulverizer">Challenge pulverizer</a></td> + <td align='right'>398</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_No_12_Grinding_Mill">Burns No. 12 grinding mill</a></td> + <td align='right'>399</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Monitor_Steel-Cut_Grinder_Separator_Etc">Monitor steel-cut grinder, separator, etc</a></td> + <td align='right'>399</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Johnson_Carton-Filling_Weighing_and_Sealing_Machine">Johnson carton-filling, weighing, and sealing machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>400</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Ideal_Steel-Cut_Mill">Ideal steel-cut mill</a></td> + <td align='right'>400</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Smyser_Package-Making-and-Filling_Machine">Smyser package-making and filling machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>401</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Automatic_Coffee-packing_Machine">Automatic coffee-packing machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>402</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Complete_Coffee-Cartoning_Outfit">Complete coffee-cartoning outfit</a></td> + <td align='right'>403</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Automatic_Coffee-Weighing_Machines">Automatic coffee-weighing machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>404</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#UNITS_IN_MANUFACTURE_OF_SOLUBLE_COFFEE">Units in manufacture of soluble coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>405</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#TYPES_OF_COFFEE_CONTAINERS">Types of coffee containers</a></td> + <td align='right'>411</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FRESH_ROASTED-COFFEE_IDEA_IN_RETAILING">Fresh-roasted-coffee idea in retailing</a></td> + <td align='right'>414</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Premium_Tea_and_Coffee_Dealers_Display">Premium tea and coffee dealer's display</a></td> + <td align='right'>416</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Chain-Store_Interior">Chain-store interior</a></td> + <td align='right'>417</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Familiar_A_P_Store_Front">Familiar A & P store front</a></td> + <td align='right'>418</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#SPECIALIST_IDEA_IN_COFFEE_MERCHANDISING">Specialist idea in coffee merchandising</a></td> + <td align='right'>419</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Monitor_Gas_Roaster_Cooler_and_Stoner">Monitor gas roaster, cooler, and stoner</a></td> + <td align='right'>420</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Royal_Gas_Coffee_Roaster_for_Retail_Stores">Royal gas coffee roaster for retailers</a></td> + <td align='right'>420</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_Half-Bag_Gas_Roasting_Cooling_and_Stoner">Burns half-bag roaster, cooler, and stoner</a></td> + <td align='right'>421</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Lambert_Jr_Gas_Roasting_Outfit_for_Retailers">Lambert Jr. roasting outfit for retailers</a></td> + <td align='right'>421</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Faulder_and_Simplex_Gas_Roasters">Faulder and Simplex gas roasters</a></td> + <td align='right'>422</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Roasters_Used_in_Paris_Shops">Coffee roasters used in Paris shops</a></td> + <td align='right'>423</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Small_German_Roasters">Small German roasters</a></td> + <td align='right'>424</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Popular_French_Retail_Roaster">Popular French retail roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>424</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Uno_Cabinet_Gas_Roaster_and_Cooler">Uno cabinet gas roaster and cooler</a></td> + <td align='right'>424</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Educational_Window_Exhibit">Educational window exhibit</a></td> + <td align='right'>425</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Better-Class_American_Grocery_Interior">Better-class American grocery, interior</a></td> + <td align='right'>426</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Prize-Winning_Window_Display">Prize-winning window display</a></td> + <td align='right'>427</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Americanized_English_Grocers_Shop">Americanized English grocer's shop</a></td> + <td align='right'>429</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FAMOUS_COFFEE_PACKAGES">Famous package coffees</a></td> + <td align='right'>430</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#First_Coffee_Advertisement_in_US">First coffee advertisement in U.S.</a></td> + <td align='right'>433</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Advertisement_in_1790">Coffee advertisement of 1790</a></td> + <td align='right'>434</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#First_Colored_Handbill_For_Package_Coffee">First colored handbill for package coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>435</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Reverse_Side_Of_Colored_Handbill">Reverse side of colored handbill</a></td> + <td align='right'>435</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#ST_LOUIS_HANDBILL_OF_1854">St. Louis handbill of 1854</a></td> + <td align='right'>436</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Advertising-Card_Copy_1873">Advertising-card copy, 1873</a></td> + <td align='right'>437</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Handbill_Copy_of_the_Seventies">Handbill copy of the seventies</a></td> + <td align='right'>437</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Box-End_Sticker_1833">Box-end sticker, 1833</a></td> + <td align='right'>438</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Chase_Sanborn_Advertisement">Chase & Sanborn advertisement, 1888</a></td> + <td align='right'>438</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Goldberg_Cartoon_1910">A Goldberg cartoon, 1910</a></td> + <td align='right'>439</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Copy_Used_by_Chase_and_Sanborn_1900">Copy used by Chase & Sanborn, 1900</a></td> + <td align='right'>439</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#An_Effective_Cut-Out">An effective cut-out</a></td> + <td align='right'>442</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#How_Coffee_is_Advertised_to_the_Trade">How coffee is advertised to the trade</a></td> + <td align='right'>443</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#portrait3">Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee</a></td> + <td align='right'>447</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#MAGAZINE_AND_NEWSPAPER_COPY_1919">Magazine and newspaper copy, 1919</a></td> + <td align='right'>449</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COPY_THAT_STRESSED_HEALTHFULNESS_OF_COFFEE_1919_1920">Copy that stressed helpfulness of coffee, 1919–20</a></td> + <td align='right'>450</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Joint_Committees_House_Organ">Joint Committee's house organ</a></td> + <td align='right'>451</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Introductory_Medical-Journal_Copy">Introductory medical-journal copy</a></td> + <td align='right'>451</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#TELLING_THE_DOCTORS_THE_TRUTH_1920">Telling the doctors the truth, 1920</a></td> + <td align='right'>452</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Joint_Committees_Attractive_Booklets">Joint Committee's attractive booklets</a></td> + <td align='right'>453</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#MORE_MEDICAL_JOURNAL_COPY_1920">More medical journal copy, 1920</a></td> + <td align='right'>454</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Magazine_and_Newspaper_Copy_1921">Magazine and newspaper copy, 1921</a></td> + <td align='right'>455</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#EDUCATING_THE_DOCTOR_1922">Educating the doctor, 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>456</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Magazine_and_Newspaper_Copy_1922">Magazine and newspaper copy, 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>457</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Specimen_of_Early_Yuban_Copy">Specimen of early Yuban copy</a></td> + <td align='right'>459</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Historical_Association_in_Advertising">Historical association in advertising</a></td> + <td align='right'>459</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PACKAGE-COFFEE_ADVERTISING_IN_1922">Package coffee advertising in 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>460</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#the_Social-Distinction_Argument">The social distinction argument</a></td> + <td align='right'>461</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Drawing_Upon_History_for_Atmosphere">Drawing upon history for atmosphere</a></td> + <td align='right'>461</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#An_impressive_electric_sign_Chicago">An impressive electric sign, Chicago</a></td> + <td align='right'>462</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#HOW_COFFEE_IS_ADVERTISED_OUTDOORS">How coffee is advertised outdoors</a></td> + <td align='right'>463</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#ATTRACTIVE_CAR_CARDS_SPRING_OF_1922">Attractive car cards, spring of 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>464</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Effective_Iced-Coffee_Copy">Effective iced-coffee copy</a></td> + <td align='right'>465</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#European_Advertising_Novelty_New_York">European advertising novelty, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>465</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COENTIES_SLIP_IN_THE_DAYS_OF_SAILING_VESSELS">Coenties Slip, in days of sailing vessels</a></td> + <td align='right'>466</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#First_US_Coffee-Grinder_Patent">First U.S. coffee-grinder patent</a></td> + <td align='right'>469</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Carters_Pull-Out_Roaster_Patent">Carter's Pull-out roaster patent</a></td> + <td align='right'>469</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#First_Registered_Trade_Mark_for_Coffee">First registered trade mark for coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>470</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Original_Arbuckle_Coffee_Packages">Original Arbuckle coffee packages</a></td> + <td align='right'>471</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Merchants_Coffee_House_Tablet">Merchants coffee house tablet</a></td> + <td align='right'>473</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FB_Arnold">Departed dominant figures in New York green coffee trade</a></td> + <td align='right'>476</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#H_Simmonds">"Their association with New York green coffee trade dates back nearly fifty years"</a></td> + <td align='right'>477</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#CE_Bickford">Green coffee trade-builders who have passed on</a></td> + <td align='right'>478</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Wm_H_Bennett">"Their race is run, their course is done"</a></td> + <td align='right'>479</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Front_Street_112_New_York_1879">112 Front Street, New York, 1879</a></td> + <td align='right'>480</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#At_87_Wall_Street_NY_Years_Ago">At 87 Wall Street, New York, years ago</a></td> + <td align='right'>480</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#WALL_AND_FRONT_STREETS_NEW_YORK_1922">Wall and Front Streets, New York, 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>481</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FRONT_STREET_NEW_YORKS_GREEN_COFFEE_DISTRICT_IN_1922">Front Street, New York, 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>483</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#In_the_New_Orleans_Coffee_District">In the New Orleans coffee district</a></td> + <td align='right'>486</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Green_Coffee_District_New_Orleans">Green coffee district, New Orleans</a></td> + <td align='right'>487</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#California_Street_San_Francisco">California Street, San Francisco</a></td> + <td align='right'>488</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#San_Francisco_Coffee_District">San Francisco's coffee district</a></td> + <td align='right'>489</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">Pioneer coffee roasters, New York City</a></td> + <td align='right'>493</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">Oldtime New York coffee roasters</a></td> + <td align='right'>495</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">Pioneer coffee roasters of the North and East, U.S.</a></td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">Pioneer coffee roasters of the South and West, U.S.</a></td> + <td align='right'>504</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Ground_Coffee_Price_list_of_1862">Ground coffee price list of 1862</a></td> + <td align='right'>507</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Organization_Convention_N_C_R_A_1911">Organization convention, N.C.R.A., 1911</a></td> + <td align='right'>510</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FORMER_PRESIDENTS_NCRA">Former presidents, N.C.R.A.</a></td> + <td align='right'>512</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#EARLIEST_COFFEE_MANUSCRIPT">Earliest coffee manuscript</a></td> + <td align='right'>540</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Song_from_The_Coffee_House">Song from "The Coffee House"</a></td> + <td align='right'>555</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Dr_Johnsons_Seat_the_Cheshire_Cheese">Dr. Johnson's seat, the Cheshire Cheese</a></td> + <td align='right'>567</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Original_Coffee_Room_Old_Cock_Tavern">Original coffee room, old Cock Tavern</a></td> + <td align='right'>568</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Morning_Gossip_in_the_Coffee_Room">Morning gossip in the coffee room</a></td> + <td align='right'>569</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#His_Warmest_Welcome_at_an_Inn">"His Warmest Welcome at an Inn"</a></td> + <td align='right'>571</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Alexander_Pope_at_Buttons_1730">Alexander Pope at Button's, 1730</a></td> + <td align='right'>577</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#DUTCH_COFFEE_HOUSE_1650">Dutch coffee house, 1650 (by Van Ostade)</a></td> + <td align='right'>586</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Whites_Coffee_House_1733">White's coffee house, 1733 (by Hogarth)</a></td> + <td align='right'>588</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tom_Kings_1738">Tom King's, 1738 (by Hogarth)</a></td> + <td align='right'>589</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Petit_Dejeuner_by_Boucher">Petit Déjeuner (by Boucher)</a></td> + <td align='right'>590</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Service_in_the_Home_of_Madame_de_Pompadour_Painting_by_Van_Loo">Coffee service in the home of Madame de Pompadour (by Van Loo)</a></td> + <td align='right'>590</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Madame_Du_Barry_by_Decreuse">Madame Du Barry (by Decreuse)</a></td> + <td align='right'>591</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_HOUSE_AT_CAIRO_BY_GEROME">Coffee house at Cairo (by Gérôme)</a></td> + <td align='right'>592</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Kaffeebesuch_by_Philippi">Kaffeebesuch (by Philippi)</a></td> + <td align='right'>593</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Comes_to_the_Aid_of_the_Muse_by_Ruffio">Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse (by Ruffio)</a></td> + <td align='right'>593</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mad_Dog_in_a_Coffee_House_by_Rowlandson">Mad dog in a coffee house (by Rowlandson)</a></td> + <td align='right'>594</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Napoleon_and_the_Cure_by_Charlet">Napoleon and the Curé (by Charlet)</a></td> + <td align='right'>595</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_A_CHANSON_MUSIC_BY_COLET">Coffee, a chanson (music by Colet)</a></td> + <td align='right'>596</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Statue_of_Kolschitzky">Statue of Kolschitzky</a></td> + <td align='right'>597</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Bettys_aria_Bachs_Coffee_Cantata">Betty's Aria, Bach's coffee cantata</a></td> + <td align='right'>598</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Caffe_Pedrocchi_in_Padua">Café Pedrocchi, Padua</a></td> + <td align='right'>599</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Grinder_Set_with_Jewels">Coffee grinder set with jewels</a></td> + <td align='right'>600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Italian_Wrought-Iron_Coffee_Roaster">Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Seventeenth-Century_Tea_Pots_and_Coffee_Pots">Seventeenth-century tea and coffee pots</a></td> + <td align='right'>601</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Lantern_Coffee_Pot_1692">Lantern coffee pot, 1692</a></td> + <td align='right'>602</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Folkingham_Pot_1715_16">Folkingham pot, 1715–16</a></td> + <td align='right'>602</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Wastell_Pot_1720_21">Wastell pot, 1720–21</a></td> + <td align='right'>603</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Dish_of_Coffee_Boy_Design_1692">Dish of coffee-boy design, 1692</a></td> + <td align='right'>603</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Chinese_Porcelain_Coffee_Pot">Chinese porcelain coffee pot</a></td> + <td align='right'>604</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Silver_Coffee_Pots_Early_18th_Century">Silver coffee pots, early 18th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>604</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#SILVER_COFFEE_POTS_18TH_CENTURY">Silver coffee pots, 18th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>605</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#POTTERY_AND_PORCELAIN_POTS">Pottery and porcelain pots</a></td> + <td align='right'>606</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Silver_Coffee_Pots_Late_18th_Century">Silver coffee pots, late 18th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>607</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#PORCELAIN_POTS_METROPOLITAN_MUSEUM">Porcelain pots, Metropolitan Museum</a></td> + <td align='right'>608</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Vienna_Coffee_Pot_1830">Vienna coffee pot, 1830</a></td> + <td align='right'>609</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Spanish_Coffee_Pot_18th_Century">Spanish coffee pot, 18th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>609</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#SILVER_COFFEE_POTS_IN_AMERICAN_COLLECTIONS">Silver coffee pots in American collections</a></td> + <td align='right'>610</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Pot_by_Wm_Shaw_and_Wm_Priest">Coffee pot by Win. Shaw and Wm. Priest</a></td> + <td align='right'>611</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pot_of_Sheffield_Plate_18th_Century">Pot of Sheffield plate, 18th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>611</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pot_by_Ephraim_Brasher">Pot by Ephraim Brasher</a></td> + <td align='right'>611</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#French_Silver_Coffee_Pot">French silver coffee pot</a></td> + <td align='right'>612</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Green_Dragon_Tavern_Coffee_Urn">Green Dragon tavern coffee urn</a></td> + <td align='right'>612</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Pots_by_American_Silversmiths">Coffee pots by American silversmiths</a></td> + <td align='right'>613</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Twentieth-Century_American_Coffee_Service">Twentieth-century American coffee service</a></td> + <td align='right'>613</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Turkish_Coffee_Set_Peter_Collection">Turkish coffee set, Peter collection</a></td> + <td align='right'>614</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Oldest_Coffee_Grinder">Oldest coffee grinder</a></td> + <td align='right'>616</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Grain_Mill_Used_by_Greeks_and_Romans">Grain mill used by Greeks and Romans</a></td> + <td align='right'>616</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#First_Coffee_Roaster">First coffee roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>616</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#First_Cylinder_Roaster_1650">First cylinder roaster, 1650</a></td> + <td align='right'>616</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Historical_Relics_US_National_Museum">Historical relics, U.S. National Museum</a></td> + <td align='right'>617</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Turkish_Coffee_Mill">Turkish coffee mill</a></td> + <td align='right'>618</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_French_Wall_and_Table_Grinders">Early French wall and table grinders</a></td> + <td align='right'>618</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Bronze_and_Brass_Mortars_17th_Century">Bronze and brass mortars, 17th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>619</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_American_Coffee_Roasters">Early American coffee roasters</a></td> + <td align='right'>619</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Roaster_with_Three-Sided_Hood">Roaster with three-sided hood</a></td> + <td align='right'>620</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Roasting_Making_and_Serving_Devices_17th_Century">Roasting, making, and serving devices, 17th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>620</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#English_and_French_Coffee_Grinders">English and French coffee grinders</a></td> + <td align='right'>621</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Eighteenth-Century_Roaster">Eighteenth-century roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>621</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Original_French_Drip_Pot">Original French drip pot</a></td> + <td align='right'>621</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Belgian_Russian_and_French_Pewter_Pots">Belgian, Russian, and French pewter pots</a></td> + <td align='right'>622</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#One_17th_and_18th_Pewter_Pots">17th and 18th century pewter pots</a></td> + <td align='right'>623</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Count_Rumfords_Percolator">Count Rumford's percolator</a></td> + <td align='right'>623</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Drawings_of_Early_French_Coffee_Makers">Drawings of early French coffee makers</a></td> + <td align='right'>624</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_French_Filtration_Devices">Early French filtration devices</a></td> + <td align='right'>624</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_American_Coffee-Maker_Patents">Early American coffee-maker patents</a></td> + <td align='right'>625</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#French_Coffee_Makers_19th_Century">French coffee makers, 19th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>625</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#FIRST_ENGLISH_COMMERCIAL_ROASTER_PATENT">First English commercial roaster patent</a></td> + <td align='right'>626</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_French_Coffee-Roasting_Machines">Early French coffee-roasting machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>627</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#BATTERY_OF_CARTER_PULL-OUT_MACHINES">Battery of Carter pull-out machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>628</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#EARLY_ENGLISH_AND_AMERICAN_ROASTERS">Early English and American roasters</a></td> + <td align='right'>630</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#EARLY_FOREIGN_AND_AMERICAN_COFFEE-MAKING_DEVICES">Early Foreign and American coffee-making devices</a></td> + <td align='right'>632</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Dakin_Roasting_Machine_of_1848">Dakin roasting machine of 1848</a></td> + <td align='right'>633</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Globe_Stove_Roaster_of_1860">Globe stove roaster of 1860</a></td> + <td align='right'>634</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Hydes_Combined_Roaster_and_Stove">Hyde's combined roaster and stove</a></td> + <td align='right'>634</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Original_Burns_Roaster_1864">Original Burns roaster, 1864</a></td> + <td align='right'>635</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_Granulating_Mill_1872-74">Burns granulating mill, 1872–74</a></td> + <td align='right'>636</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Napiers_Vacuum_Machine">Napier's vacuum machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>637</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#German_Gas_and_Coal_Roasting_Machines">German gas and coal roasting machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>638</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Other_German_Coffee_Roasters">Other German coffee roasters</a></td> + <td align='right'>639</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Original_Enterprise_Mill">Original Enterprise mill</a></td> + <td align='right'>640</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Max_Thurmers_Quick_Gas_Roaster">Max Thurmer's quick gas roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>640</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#An_English_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant">An English gas coffee-roasting plant</a></td> + <td align='right'>641</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#French_Globular_Roaster">French globular roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>642</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Sirocco_Machine_French">Sirocco machine (French)</a></td> + <td align='right'>642</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#English_Roasting_and_Grinding_Equipment">English roasting and grinding equipment</a></td> + <td align='right'>643</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Magic_Gas_Machine_French">Magic gas machine (French)</a></td> + <td align='right'>644</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Burns_Jubilee_Gas_Machine">Burns Jubilee gas machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>644</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Double_Gas_Roasting_Outfit_French">Double gas roasting outfit (French)</a></td> + <td align='right'>645</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Lamberts_Victory_Gas_Machine">Lambert's Victory gas machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>646</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#One_of_the_First_Electric_Coffee_Mills">One of the first electric mills</a></td> + <td align='right'>647</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#English_Electric-Fuel_Roaster">English electric-fuel roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>648</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Ben_Franklin_Electric_Coffee_Roaster">Ben Franklin electric coffee roaster</a></td> + <td align='right'>648</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Enterprise_Hand_Store_Mill">Enterprise hand store mill</a></td> + <td align='right'>649</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#LATEST_TYPES_OF_ELECTRIC_STORE_MILLS">Latest types electric store mills</a></td> + <td align='right'>650</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Italian_Rapid_Coffee-Making_Machines">Italian rapid coffee-making machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>651</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Working_of_Italian_Rapid_Machines">Working of Italian rapid machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>652</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#La_Victoria_Arduino_Mignonne">La Victoria Arduino Mignonne</a></td> + <td align='right'>652</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#NCRA_Home_Coffee_Mill">N.C.R.A. Home coffee mill</a></td> + <td align='right'>653</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Manthey-Zorn_Rapid_Infuser_and_Dispenser">Manthey-Zorn rapid infuser and dispenser</a></td> + <td align='right'>653</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tricolette_Single_Cup_Filter_Device">Tricolette, single-cup filter device</a></td> + <td align='right'>654</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Moorish_Coffee_House_in_Algiers">Moorish coffee house in Algiers</a></td> + <td align='right'>656</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_House_in_Cairo">Coffee house in Cairo</a></td> + <td align='right'>656</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Service_in_Cairo_Barber_Shop">Coffee service in Cairo barber shop</a></td> + <td align='right'>657</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Laden_Camels_Arabia">Coffee-laden camels, Arabia</a></td> + <td align='right'>658</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Arabian_Coffee_House">Arabian coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>658</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mohammedan_Brewing_Coffee_for_Guest">Mahommedan brewing coffee for guest</a></td> + <td align='right'>659</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Native_Cafe_Harar">Native café, Harar</a></td> + <td align='right'>661</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_Coffee_Tea_and_Chocolate_Service">Early coffee, tea, and chocolate service</a></td> + <td align='right'>661</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Nubian_Slave_Girl_with_Coffee_Service">Nubian slave girl with coffee service</a></td> + <td align='right'>662</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Persian_Coffee_Service_1737">Persian coffee service, 1737</a></td> + <td align='right'>663</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#In_a_Turkish_Coffee_House">In a Turkish coffee house</a></td> + <td align='right'>664</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Roasting_Coffee_Outside_a_Turkish_Cafe">Roasting coffee outside a Turkish café</a></td> + <td align='right'>664</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Turkish_Caffinet_Early_19th_Century">Turkish caffinet, early 19th century</a></td> + <td align='right'>665</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Making_in_Turkey">Coffee-making in Turkey</a></td> + <td align='right'>666</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Street_Coffee_Vender_in_the_Levant">Street coffee vender in the Levant</a></td> + <td align='right'>666</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Coffee_House_in_Syria">A coffee house in Syria</a></td> + <td align='right'>667</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafetan_Garb_of_oriental_cafe_keeper">Cafetan—garb of oriental café-keeper</a></td> + <td align='right'>668</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Street_Coffee_Service_in_Constantinople">Street coffee service in Constantinople</a></td> + <td align='right'>668</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Riverside_Cafe_in_Damascus">Riverside café in Damascus</a></td> + <td align='right'>669</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_al_Fresco_in_Jerusalem">Coffee <i>al fresco</i> in Jerusalem</a></td> + <td align='right'>671</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafe_Schrangl_Vienna">Café Schrangl, Vienna</a></td> + <td align='right'>672</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Favorite_English_Way_of_Making_Coffee">Favorite English way of making coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>673</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#A_Cafe_of_Ye_Mecca_Company_London">A café of Ye Mecca Company, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>673</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Grooms_Coffee_House_London">Groom's coffee house, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>674</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafe_Monico_Piccadilly_Circus_London">Café Monico, Piccadilly Circus, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>674</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Gattis_The_Strand_London">Gatti's, The Strand, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>675</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tea_Lounge_Hotel_Savoy_London">Tea lounge, Hotel Savoy, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>675</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#TWO_POPULAR_PLACES_FOR_COFFEE_IN_LONDON">Two popular places for coffee in London</a></td> + <td align='right'>676</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Temple_Bar_Restaurant_London">Temple Bar restaurant, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>677</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tea_Balcony_Hotel_Cecil_London">Tea balcony, Hotel Cecil, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>677</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#One_of_Slaters_Chain_Shops_London">One of Slater's chain-shops, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>677</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#St_James_Restaurant_Piccadilly_London">St. James's restaurant, Picadilly, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>678</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#An_ABC_Shop_London">An A.B.C. shop, London</a></td> + <td align='right'>678</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Halt_of_Caravaners_at_a_Serai_Bulgaria">Halt of caravaners at a serai, Bulgaria</a></td> + <td align='right'>678</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafe_de_la_Paix_Paris">Café de la Paix, Paris</a></td> + <td align='right'>679</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Sidewalk_Annex_Cafe_de_la_Paix">Sidewalk annex, Café de la Paix</a></td> + <td align='right'>680</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafe_de_la_Regence_Paris">Café de la Régence, Paris</a></td> + <td align='right'>681</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafe_de_la_Regence_in_1922">Café de la Régence in 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>682</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#One_of_the_Biard_Cafes_Paris">One of the Biard cafés, Paris</a></td> + <td align='right'>683</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Restaurant_Procope_1922">Restaurant Procope, 1922</a></td> + <td align='right'>683</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Morning_Coffee_at_a_Boulevard_Cafe">Morning coffee at a Boulevard café</a></td> + <td align='right'>684</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafe_Bauer_Unter_den_Linden_Berlin">Café Bauer, Unter den Linden, Berlin</a></td> + <td align='right'>684</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cafe_Bauer_Exterior">Café Bauer, exterior</a></td> + <td align='right'>685</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Kranzlers_Unter_den_Linden_Berlin">Kranzler's Unter den Linden, Berlin</a></td> + <td align='right'>685</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Swedish_Coffee_Boilers">Swedish coffee boilers</a></td> + <td align='right'>687</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Sidewalk_Cafe_Lisbon">Sidewalk café, Lisbon</a></td> + <td align='right'>687</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE_ROOMS_REPLACING_HOTEL_BARS_US">Coffee rooms replacing hotel bars, U.S.</a></td> + <td align='right'>688</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Britannia_Coffee_Pot_a_Lincoln_Relic">Britannia coffee pot—a Lincoln relic</a></td> + <td align='right'>690</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Service_Hotel_Astor_New_York">Coffee service, Hotel Astor, New York</a></td> + <td align='right'>691</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Early_Coffee_Making_in_Persia">Early coffee-making in Persia</a></td> + <td align='right'>694</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Napier_Vacuum_Coffee_Maker">Napier vacuum coffee maker</a></td> + <td align='right'>700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Napier-List_Steam_Coffee_Machine">Napier-List steam coffee machine</a></td> + <td align='right'>700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Finley_Ackers_Filter-Paper_Coffee_Pot">Finley Acker's filter-paper coffee pot</a></td> + <td align='right'>700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Kin-Hee_Pot_in_Operation">Kin-Hee pot in operation</a></td> + <td align='right'>701</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Tricolator_in_Operation">Tricolator in operation</a></td> + <td align='right'>701</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#King_Percolator">King percolator</a></td> + <td align='right'>701</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Three_American_Coffee_Making_Machines_in_Operation">Three American coffee-making machines in operation</a></td> + <td align='right'>702</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#How_the_Tru-Bru_Pot_Operates">How the Tru-Bru pot operates</a></td> + <td align='right'>702</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COFFEE-MAKING_DEVICES_USED_IN_THE_US">Coffee-making devices used in U.S.</a></td> + <td align='right'>703</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#ENGLISH_HOTEL_COFFEE-MAKING_MACHINES">English hotel coffee-making machines</a></td> + <td align='right'>706</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Well_Known_Makes_of_Large_Coffee_Urns">Well-known makes of large coffee urns</a></td> + <td align='right'>707</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Popular_German_Drip_Pot">Popular German drip pot</a></td> + <td align='right'>708</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Section_of_Roasted_Bean_Magnified">Section of roasted bean, magnified</a></td> + <td align='right'>719</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Cross-section_of_Roasted_Bean_Magnified">Cross-section of roasted bean, magnified</a></td> + <td align='right'>720</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coarse_Grind_Under_the_Microscope">Coarse grind under the microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>720</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Medium_Grind_Under_the_Microscope">Medium grind under the microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>721</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Fine-Meal_Grind_Under_the_Microscope">Fine-meal grind under the microscope</a></td> + <td align='right'>721</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='table1'><br /><br /> +<table border="0" width="50%" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Portraits"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Portraits</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='right' colspan='2'><small><i>Page</i></small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ach, F.J.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#portrait3">447</a>, <a href="#FJ_Ach">512</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Akers, Fred</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ames, Allan P.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#portrait3">447</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Arbuckle, John</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#John_Arbuckle">523</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Arnold, Benjamin Greene</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#BG_Arnold">476</a>, <a href="#Benjamin_Green_Arnold">517</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Arnold, F.B.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#FB_Arnold">476</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bayne, William</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#William_Bayne">479</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bayne, William, Jr.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#portrait3">447</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Beard, Eli</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Beard, Samuel</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bennett, William H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Wm_H_Bennett">479</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bickford, C.E.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#CE_Bickford">478</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Boardman, Thomas J.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Boardman, William</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Brand, Carl W.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Carl_W_Brand">512</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Brandenstein, M.J.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Burns, Jabez</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Jabez_Burns">527</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canby, Edward</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Casanas, Ben C.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Ben_C_Casanas">512</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cauchois. F.A.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Chase, Caleb</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cheek, J.O.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a>, <a href="#Joel_O_Cheek">515</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Closset, Joseph</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Coste, Felix</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#portrait3">447</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Crossman, Geo. W.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#George_W_Crossman">479</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Devers, A.H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dwinell, James F.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Eppens, Fred</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Eppens, Julius A.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a>, <a href="#Julius_A_Eppens">497</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Eppens, W.H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a>, <a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Evans, David G.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Fischer, Benedickt</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Flint, J.G.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Folger, J.A., Jr.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Folger, J.A., Sr.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Forbes, A.E.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Forbes, Jas. H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Geiger, Frank J.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Gillies, Jas. W.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Gillies, Wright</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Grossman, William</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Harrison, D.Y.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Harrison, W.H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Haulenbeek, Peter</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hayward, Martin</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Heekin, James</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Jones, W.T.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kimball, O.G.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#OG_Kimball">478</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kinsella, W.J.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kirkland, Alexander</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kolschitzky, Franz George</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Franz_George_Kolschitzky_Patron_Saint_of_Vienna_Coffee_Lovers">50</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>McLaughlin, W.F.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mahood, Samuel</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mayo, Henry</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Meehan, P.C.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PC_Meehan">477</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Menezes, Th. Langgaard de</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Menezes_Th_Langgaard_de">446</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Meyer, Robert</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Robert_Meyer">511</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Peck, Edwin H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Edwin_H_Peck">477</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Phyfe, Jas. W.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#James_W_Phyfe">478</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Pierce, O.W., Sr.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Pupke, John F.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Purcell, Joseph</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Joseph_Purcell">476</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Reid, Fred</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Reid, Thomas</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a>, <a href="#Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Roome, Col. William P.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Col_William_P_Roome">499</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Russell, James C.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#James_C_Russell">478</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sanborn, James S.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Schilling, A.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Schotten, Julius J.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a>, <a href="#Julius_J_Schotten">512</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Schotten, William</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Seelye, Frank R.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Frank_R_Seelye">512</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sielcken, Hermann</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Sielcken_H">476</a>, <a href="#Hermann_Sielcken">519</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Simmonds, H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#H_Simmonds">477</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sinnot, J.B.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Smith, L.B.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Smith, M.E.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sprague, Albert A.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Stephens, Henry A.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Stoffregen, Charles</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Stoffregen, C.H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#portrait3">447</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Taylor, James H.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#James_H_Taylor">477</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Thomson, A.M.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Van Loan, Thomas</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#Thomas_Van_Loan">498</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Weir, Ross W.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#portrait3">447</a>, <a href="#Ross_W_Weir">512</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Westfeldt, George</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#George_Westfeldt">479</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Widlar, Francis</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wilde, Samuel</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Withington, Elijah</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Woolson, Alvin M.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wright, George C.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wright, George S.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#portrait3">447</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Young, Samuel</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Zinsmeister, J.</td> + <td align='right'><a href="#PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US">504</a></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + + +<div class='table1'><br /><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Maps, Charts, and Diagrams"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Maps, Charts, and Diagrams</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='right' colspan='2'><small><i>Page</i></small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#MAP_SHOWING_THE_LOCATION_OF_MANY_OF_THE_OLD_LONDON_COFFEE_HOUSES_PREVIOUS_TO_THE_FIRE_OF_1748">Map of London coffee-house district, 1748</a></td> + <td align='right'>76</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Formula_for_Caffein_Showing_Its_Relation_to_the_Purin_Group">Formula for Caffein</a></td> + <td align='right'>160</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COMMERCIAL_COFFEE_CHART">Commercial coffee chart</a></td> + <td align='right'>191</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#EIFFEL_AND_WOOLWORTH_TOWERS_IN_COFFEE">Eiffel and Woolworth towers in coffee</a></td> + <td align='right'>272</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#WORLDS_COFFEE_CUP_AND_LARGEST_SHIP">World's coffee cup and largest ship</a></td> + <td align='right'>275</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Exports_1850_1920">Coffee exports, 1850–1920</a></td> + <td align='right'>277</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Exports_1916_1920">Coffee exports, 1916–1920</a></td> + <td align='right'>277</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Brazil_Coffee_Exports_1850_1920">Brazil coffee exports, 1850–1920</a></td> + <td align='right'>278</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Worlds_Coffee_Consumption_1850_1920">World's coffee consumption, 1850</a></td> + <td align='right'>286</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Imports_1916_1920">Coffee imports, 1916–1920</a></td> + <td align='right'>286</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#World_Trend_of_Consumption_of_Tea_and_Coffee_1860_1820">World trend of consumption of tea and coffee, 1860–1920</a></td> + <td align='right'>288</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Map_of_the_World">Coffee map of World (folded insert) <i>facing</i></a></td> + <td align='right'>288</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pre-War_Average_Annual_Production_of_Coffee_by_Continents">Pre-war annual average production of coffee by continents</a></td> + <td align='right'>294</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pre-War_Average_Annual_Production_of_Coffee_by_Countries">Pre-war annual average production of coffee by countries</a></td> + <td align='right'>294</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pre-War_Average_Annual_Imports_of_Coffee_into_U_S_by_Continents">Pre-war average annual imports of coffee into U.S. by continents</a></td> + <td align='right'>295</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pre-War_Average_Annual_Imports_of_Coffee_into_U_S_by_Countries">Pre-war average annual imports of coffee into U.S. by countries</a></td> + <td align='right'>295</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pre-War_Chart_of_Coffee_Imports">Pre-war coffee-imports chart</a></td> + <td align='right'>297</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Pre-War_Consumption_and_Price_Chart">Pre-war consumption and price chart</a></td> + <td align='right'>297</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Map_of_Brazil">Coffee map, Brazil</a></td> + <td align='right'>342</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Map_of_Satildeo_Paulo_Minatildes_and_Rio">Coffee map, São Paulo, Minãs, and Rio</a></td> + <td align='right'>344</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mild_Coffee_Map_No_1">Mild-coffee map, 1</a></td> + <td align='right'>346</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Coffee_Map_of_Africa_and_Arabia">Coffee map, Africa and Arabia</a></td> + <td align='right'>352</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Mild_Coffee_Map_No_2">Mild-coffee map, 2</a></td> + <td align='right'>354</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#COMPLETE_REFERENCE_TABLE">Complete reference table (21 pp.)</a></td> + <td align='right'>358</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Plan_Milling-Machine_Connections">Plan of milling-machine connections</a></td> + <td align='right'>381</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Plan_Green-Coffee-Mixer_Connections">Plan of green-coffee-mixer connections</a></td> + <td align='right'>383</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Layout_for_Coffee_and_Tea_Department">Layout for coffee and tea department</a></td> + <td align='right'>418</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Chart_Advertising_of_Coffee_and_Coffee_Substitutes_1911_20">Chart, advertising of coffee and coffee substitutes, 1911–20</a></td> + <td align='right'>440</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Charts_Per_Capita_Consumption_and_Coffee_and_Substitute_Advertising">Charts, per capita consumption of coffee, and coffee and substitute advertising</a></td> + <td align='right'>441</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#Chart_Plan_of_Advertising_Campaign">Chart, plan of advertising campaign</a></td> + <td align='right'>448</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><a href="#CHART_PRIVATE_BRAND_ADVERTISING_IN_1921">Chart, private-brand advertising, 1921</a></td> + <td align='right'>458</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="A_COFFEE_THESAURUS" id="A_COFFEE_THESAURUS"></a>A COFFEE THESAURUS</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="noin"><i>Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, and +the beverage</i></p> +</div> + +<p class="poem1"> +<i>The Plant</i><br /> +<br /> +The precious plant<br /> +This friendly plant<br /> +Mocha's happy tree<br /> +The gift of Heaven<br /> +The plant with the jessamine-like flowers<br /> +The most exquisite perfume of Araby the blest<br /> +Given to the human race by the gift of the Gods<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>The Berry</i><br /> +<br /> +The magic bean<br /> +The divine fruit<br /> +Fragrant berries<br /> +Rich, royal berry<br /> +Voluptuous berry<br /> +The precious berry<br /> +The healthful bean<br /> +The Heavenly berry<br /> +The marvelous berry<br /> +This all-healing berry<br /> +Yemen's fragrant berry<br /> +The little aromatic berry<br /> +Little brown Arabian berry<br /> +Thought-inspiring bean of Arabia<br /> +The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends<br /> +That wild fruit which gives so beloved a drink<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>The Beverage</i><br /> +<br /> +Nepenthe<br /> +Festive cup<br /> +Juice divine<br /> +Nectar divine<br /> +Ruddy mocha<br /> +A man's drink<br /> +Lovable liquor<br /> +Delicious mocha<br /> +The magic drink<br /> +This rich cordial<br /> +Its stream divine<br /> +The family drink<br /> +The festive drink<br /> +Coffee is our gold<br /> +Nectar of all men<br /> +The golden mocha<br /> +This sweet nectar<br /> +Celestial ambrosia<br /> +The friendly drink<br /> +The cheerful drink<br /> +The essential drink<br /> +The sweet draught<br /> +The divine draught<br /> +The grateful liquor<br /> +The universal drink<br /> +The American drink<br /> +The amber beverage<br /> +The convivial drink<br /> +The universal thrill<br /> +King of all perfumes<br /> +The cup of happiness<br /> +The soothing draught<br /> +Ambrosia of the Gods<br /> +The intellectual drink<br /> +The aromatic draught<br /> +The salutary beverage<br /> +The good-fellow drink<br /> +The drink of democracy<br /> +The drink ever glorious<br /> +Wakeful and civil drink<br /> +The beverage of sobriety<br /> +A psychological necessity<br /> +The fighting man's drink<br /> +Loved and favored drink<br /> +The symbol of hospitality<br /> +This rare Arabian cordial<br /> +Inspirer of men of letters<br /> +The revolutionary beverage<br /> +Triumphant stream of sable<br /> +Grave and wholesome liquor<br /> +The drink of the intellectuals<br /> +A restorative of sparkling wit<br /> +Its color is the seal of its purity<br /> +The sober and wholesome drink<br /> +Lovelier than a thousand kisses<br /> +This honest and cheering beverage<br /> +A wine which no sorrow can resist<br /> +The symbol of human brotherhood<br /> +At once a pleasure and a medicine<br /> +The beverage of the friends of God<br /> +The fire which consumes our griefs<br /> +Gentle panacea of domestic troubles<br /> +The autocrat of the breakfast table<br /> +The beverage of the children of God<br /> +King of the American breakfast table<br /> +Soothes you softly out of dull sobriety<br /> +The cup that cheers but not inebriates<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a><br /> +Coffee, which makes the politician wise<br /> +Its aroma is the pleasantest in all nature<br /> +The sovereign drink of pleasure and health<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a><br /> +The indispensable beverage of strong nations<br /> +The stream in which we wash away our sorrows<br /> +The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has brought<br /> +Favored liquid which fills all my soul with delight<br /> +The delicious libation we pour on the altar of friendship<br /> +This invigorating drink which drives sad care from the heart<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="EVOLUTION_OF_A_CUP_OF_COFFEE" id="EVOLUTION_OF_A_CUP_OF_COFFEE"></a>EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE</h2> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image1.jpg" width="500" height="714" alt="Evolution of a Cup of Coffee" title="" /> +<br /><br /></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="COFFEE_ARABICA_LEAVES_FLOWERS_AND_FRUIT" id="COFFEE_ARABICA_LEAVES_FLOWERS_AND_FRUIT"> +<img src="images/plate2.jpg" width="600" height="838" alt="COFFEE ARABICA; LEAVES, FLOWERS AND FRUIT" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">COFFEE ARABICA; LEAVES, FLOWERS AND FRUIT</span> +<p class="center"><small>Painted from nature by M.E. Eaton—Detail sketches show anther, pistil, +and section of corolla</small></p> +</div> + + + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_I" id="Chapter_I"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter I</span></h2> + +<h3>DEALING WITH THE ETYMOLOGY OF COFFEE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various +languages—Views of many writers</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> history of the word coffee involves several phonetic difficulties. +The European languages got the name of the beverage about 1600 from the +original Arabic <img src="images/arabic1.jpg" width="40" height="25" alt="qahwah" title="" /> +<i>qahwah</i>, not directly, but through its +Turkish form, <i>kahveh</i>. This was the name, not of the plant, but the +beverage made from its infusion, being originally one of the names +employed for wine in Arabic.</p> + +<p>Sir James Murray, in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, says that some have +conjectured that the word is a foreign, perhaps African, word disguised, +and have thought it connected with the name Kaffa, a town in Shoa, +southwest Abyssinia, reputed native place of the coffee plant, but that +of this there is no evidence, and the name <i>qahwah</i> is not given to the +berry or plant, which is called <img src="images/arabic2.jpg" width="30" height="28" alt="bunn" title="" /> +<i>bunn</i>, the native name in +Shoa being <i>būn</i>.</p> + +<p>Contributing to a symposium on the etymology of the word coffee in +<i>Notes and Queries</i>, 1909, James Platt, Jr., said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The Turkish form might have been written <i>kahvé</i>, as its final <i>h</i> +was never sounded at any time. Sir James Murray draws attention to +the existence of two European types, one like the French <i>café</i>, +Italian <i>caffè</i>, the other like the English <i>coffee</i>, Dutch +<i>koffie</i>. He explains the vowel <i>o</i> in the second series as +apparently representing <i>au</i>, from Turkish <i>ahv</i>. This seems +unsupported by evidence, and the <i>v</i> is already represented by the +<i>ff</i>, so on Sir James's assumption <i>coffee</i> must stand for +<i>kahv-ve</i>, which is unlikely. The change from <i>a</i> to <i>o</i>, in my +opinion, is better accounted for as an imperfect appreciation. The +exact sound of ă in Arabic and other Oriental languages is that +of the English short <span class="smcap">u</span>, as in "cuff." This sound, so easy to us, is +a great stumbling-block to other nations. I judge that Dutch +<i>koffie</i> and kindred forms are imperfect attempts at the notation +of a vowel which the writers could not grasp. It is clear that the +French type is more correct. The Germans have corrected their +<i>koffee</i>, which they may have got from the Dutch, into <i>kaffee</i>. +The Scandinavian languages have adopted the French form. Many must +wonder how the <i>hv</i> of the original so persistently becomes <i>ff</i> in +the European equivalents. Sir James Murray makes no attempt to +solve this problem.</p></div> + +<p>Virendranath Chattopádhyáya, who also contributed to the <i>Notes and +Queries</i> symposium, argued that the <i>hw</i> of the Arabic <i>qahwah</i> becomes +sometimes <i>ff</i> and sometimes only <i>f</i> or <i>v</i> in European translations +because some languages, such as English, have strong syllabic accents +(stresses), while others, as French, have none. Again, he points out +that the surd aspirate <i>h</i> is heard in some languages, but is hardly +audible in others. Most Europeans tend to leave it out altogether.</p> + +<p>Col. W.F. Prideaux, another contributor, argued that the European +languages got one form of the word coffee directly from the Arabic +<i>qahwah</i>, and quoted from Hobson-Jobson in support of this:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot"><i>Chaoua</i> in 1598, <i>Cahoa</i> in 1610, <i>Cahue</i> in 1615; while Sir +Thomas Herbert (1638) expressly states that "they drink (in Persia) +... above all the rest, <i>Coho</i> or <i>Copha</i>: by Turk and Arab called +<i>Caphe</i> and <i>Cahua</i>." Here the Persian, Turkish, and Arabic +pronunciations are clearly differentiated.</p></div> + +<p>Col. Prideaux then calls, as a witness to the Anglo-Arabic +pronunciation, one whose evidence was not available when the <i>New +English Dictionary</i> and Hobson-Jobson articles were written. This is +John Jourdain, a Dorsetshire seaman, whose <i>Diary</i> was printed by the +Hakluyt Society in 1905. On May 28, 1609, he records that "in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +afternoone wee departed out of Hatch (Al-Hauta, the capital of the Lahej +district near Aden), and travelled untill three in the morninge, and +then wee rested in the plaine fields untill three the next daie, neere +unto a cohoo howse in the desert." On June 5 the party, traveling from +Hippa (Ibb), "laye in the mountaynes, our camells being wearie, and our +selves little better. This mountain is called Nasmarde (Nakīl +Sumāra), where all the cohoo grows." Farther on was "a little +village, where there is sold cohoo and fruite. The seeds of this cohoo +is a greate marchandize, for it is carried to grand Cairo and all other +places of Turkey, and to the Indias." Prideaux, however, mentions that +another sailor, William Revett, in his journal (1609) says, referring to +Mocha, that "Shaomer Shadli (Shaikh 'Ali bin 'Omar esh-Shādil) was +the fyrst inventour for drynking of coffe, and therefor had in +esteemation." This rather looks to Prideaux as if on the coast of +Arabia, and in the mercantile towns, the Persian pronunciation was in +vogue; whilst in the interior, where Jourdain traveled, the Englishman +reproduced the Arabic.</p> + +<p>Mr. Chattopádhyáya, discussing Col. Prideaux's views as expressed above, +said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Col. Prideaux may doubt "if the worthy mariner, in entering the +word in his log, was influenced by the abstruse principles of +phonetics enunciated" by me, but he will admit that the change from +<i>kahvah</i> to <i>coffee</i> is a phonetic change, and must be due to the +operation of some phonetic principle. The average man, when he +endeavours to write a foreign word in his own tongue, is +handicapped considerably by his inherited and acquired phonetic +capacity. And, in fact, if we take the quotations made in +"Hobson-Jobson," and classify the various forms of the word +<i>coffee</i> according to the nationality of the writer, we obtain very +interesting results.</p> + +<p class="quot">Let us take Englishmen and Dutchmen first. In Danvers's <i>Letters</i> +(1611) we have both "<i>coho</i> pots" and "<i>coffao</i> pots"; Sir T. Roe +(1615) and Terry (1616) have <i>cohu</i>; Sir T. Herbert (1638) has +<i>coho</i> and <i>copha</i>; Evelyn (1637), <i>coffee</i>; Fryer (1673) <i>coho</i>; +Ovington (1690), <i>coffee</i>; and Valentijn (1726), <i>coffi</i>. And from +the two examples given by Col. Prideaux, we see that Jourdain +(1609) has <i>cohoo</i>, and Revett (1609) has <i>coffe</i>.</p></div> + +<p>To the above should be added the following by English writers, given in +Foster's <i>English Factories in India</i> (1618–21, 1622–23, 1624–29): cowha +(1619), cowhe, couha (1621), coffa (1628).</p> + +<p>Let us now see what foreigners (chiefly French and Italian) write. The +earliest European mention is by Rauwolf, who knew it in Aleppo in 1573. +He has the form <i>chaube</i>. Prospero Alpini (1580) has <i>caova</i>; Paludanus +(1598) <i>chaoua</i>; Pyrard de Laval (1610) <i>cahoa</i>; P. Della Valle (1615) +<i>cahue</i>; Jac. Bontius (1631) <i>caveah</i>; and the <i>Journal d'Antoine +Galland</i> (1673) <i>cave</i>. That is, Englishmen use forms of a certain +distinct type, <i>viz.</i>, cohu, coho, coffao, coffe, copha, coffee, which +differ from the more correct transliteration of foreigners.</p> + +<p>In 1610 the Portuguese Jew, Pedro Teixeira (in the Hakluyt Society's +edition of his <i>Travels</i>) used the word <i>kavàh</i>.</p> + +<p>The inferences from these transitional forms seem to be: 1. The word +found its way into the languages of Europe both from the Turkish and +from the Arabic. 2. The English forms (which have strong stress on the +first syllable) have <i>ŏ</i> instead of <i>ă</i>, and <i>f</i> instead of <i>h</i>. +3. The foreign forms are unstressed and have no <i>h</i>. The original <i>v</i> or +<i>w</i> (or labialized <i>u</i>) is retained or changed into <i>f</i>.</p> + +<p>It may be stated, accordingly, that the chief reason for the existence +of two distinct types of spelling is the omission of <i>h</i> in unstressed +languages, and the conversion of <i>h</i> into <i>f</i> under strong stress in +stressed languages. Such conversion often takes place in Turkish; for +example, <i>silah dar</i> in Persian (which is a highly stressed language) +becomes <i>zilif dar</i> in Turkish. In the languages of India, on the other +hand, in spite of the fact that the aspirate is usually very clearly +sounded, the word <i>qăhvăh</i> is pronounced <i>kaiva</i> by the less +educated classes, owing to the syllables being equally stressed.</p> + +<p>Now for the French viewpoint. Jardin<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> opines that, as regards the +etymology of the word coffee, scholars are not agreed and perhaps never +will be. Dufour<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> says the word is derived from <i>caouhe</i>, a name given +by the Turks to the beverage prepared from the seed. Chevalier +d'Arvieux, French consul at Alet, Savary, and Trevoux, in his +dictionary, think that coffee comes from the Arabic, but from the word +<i>cahoueh</i> or <i>quaweh</i>, meaning to give vigor or strength, because, says +d'Arvieux, its most general effect is to fortify and strengthen. +Tavernier combats this opinion. Moseley attributes the origin of the +word coffee to Kaffa. Sylvestre de Sacy, in his <i>Chréstomathie<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> Arabe</i>, +published in 1806, thinks that the word <i>kahwa</i>, synonymous with +<i>makli</i>, roasted in a stove, might very well be the etymology of the +word coffee. D'Alembert in his encyclopedic dictionary, writes the word +<i>caffé</i>. Jardin concludes that whatever there may be in these various +etymologies, it remains a fact that the word coffee comes from an +Arabian word, whether it be <i>kahua</i>, <i>kahoueh</i>, <i>kaffa</i> or <i>kahwa</i>, and +that the peoples who have adopted the drink have all modified the +Arabian word to suit their pronunciation. This is shown by giving the +word as written in various modern languages:</p> + +<p>French, <i>café</i>; Breton, <i>kafe</i>; German, <i>kaffee</i> (coffee tree, +<i>kaffeebaum</i>); Dutch, <i>koffie</i> (coffee tree, <i>koffieboonen</i>); Danish, +<i>kaffe</i>; Finnish, <i>kahvi</i>; Hungarian, <i>kavé</i>; Bohemian, <i>kava</i>; Polish, +<i>kawa</i>; Roumanian, <i>cafea</i>; Croatian, <i>kafa</i>; Servian, <i>kava</i>; Russian, +<i>kophe</i>; Swedish, <i>kaffe</i>; Spanish, <i>café</i>; Basque, <i>kaffia</i>; Italian, +<i>caffè</i>; Portuguese, <i>café</i>; Latin (scientific), <i>coffea</i>; Turkish, +<i>kahué</i>; Greek, <i>kaféo</i>; Arabic, <i>qahwah</i> (coffee berry, <i>bun</i>); +Persian, <i>qéhvé</i> (coffee berry, <i>bun</i><a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>); Annamite, <i>ca-phé</i>; +Cambodian, <i>kafé</i>; Dukni<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, <i>bunbund</i><a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>; Teluyan<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>, <i>kapri-vittulu</i>; +Tamil<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>, <i>kapi-kottai</i> or <i>kopi</i>; Canareze<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>, <i>kapi-bija</i>; Chinese, +<i>kia-fey</i>, <i>teoutsé</i>; Japanese, <i>kéhi</i>; Malayan, <i>kawa</i>, <i>koppi</i>; +Abyssinian, <i>bonn</i><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>; Foulak, <i>legal café</i><a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>; Sousou, <i>houri +caff</i><a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>; Marquesan, <i>kapi</i>; Chinook<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>, <i>kaufee</i>; Volapuk, <i>kaf</i>; +Esperanto, <i>kafva</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="THE_FAIRY_BEAUTY_OF_A_COFFEE_TREE_IN_FLOWER" id="THE_FAIRY_BEAUTY_OF_A_COFFEE_TREE_IN_FLOWER"> +<img src="images/image2.jpg" width="400" height="572" alt="THE FAIRY BEAUTY OF A COFFEE TREE IN FLOWER" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">THE FAIRY BEAUTY OF A COFFEE TREE IN FLOWER</span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_II" id="Chapter_II"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter II</span></h2> + +<h3>HISTORY OF COFFEE PROPAGATION</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old +World and its introduction into the New—A romantic coffee +adventure</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> history of the propagation of the coffee plant is closely interwoven +with that of the early history of coffee drinking, but for the purposes +of this chapter we shall consider only the story of the inception and +growth of the cultivation of the coffee tree, or shrub, bearing the +seeds, or berries, from which the drink, coffee, is made.</p> + +<p>Careful research discloses that most authorities agree that the coffee +plant is indigenous to Abyssinia, and probably Arabia, whence its +cultivation spread throughout the tropics. The first reliable mention of +the properties and uses of the plant is by an Arabian physician toward +the close of the ninth century A.D., and it is reasonable to suppose +that before that time the plant was found growing wild in Abyssinia and +perhaps in Arabia. If it be true, as Ludolphus writes,<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> that the +Abyssinians came out of Arabia into Ethiopia in the early ages, it is +possible that they may have brought the coffee tree with them; but the +Arabians must still be given the credit for discovering and promoting +the use of the beverage, and also for promoting the propagation of the +plant, even if they found it in Abyssinia and brought it to Yemen.</p> + +<p>Some authorities believe that the first cultivation of coffee in Yemen +dates back to 575 A.D., when the Persian invasion put an end to the +Ethiopian rule of the negus Caleb, who conquered the country in 525.</p> + +<p>Certainly the discovery of the beverage resulted in the cultivation of +the plant in Abyssinia and in Arabia; but its progress was slow until +the 15th and 16th centuries, when it appears as intensively carried on +in the Yemen district of Arabia. The Arabians were jealous of their new +found and lucrative industry, and for a time successfully prevented its +spread to other countries by not permitting any of the precious berries +to leave the country unless they had first been steeped in boiling water +or parched, so as to destroy their powers of germination. It may be that +many of the early failures successfully to introduce the cultivation of +the coffee plant into other lands was also due to the fact, discovered +later, that the seeds soon lose their germinating power.</p> + +<p>However, it was not possible to watch every avenue of transport, with +thousands of pilgrims journeying to and from Mecca every year; and so +there would appear to be some reason to credit the Indian tradition +concerning the introduction of coffee cultivation into southern India by +Baba Budan, a Moslem pilgrim, as early as 1600, although a better +authority gives the date as 1695. Indian tradition relates that Baba +Budan planted his seeds near the hut he built for himself at Chickmaglur +in the mountains of Mysore, where, only a few years since, the writer +found the descendants of these first plants growing under the shade of +the centuries-old original jungle trees. The greater part of the plants +cultivated by the natives of Kurg and Mysore appear to have come from +the Baba Budan importation. It was not until 1840 that the English began +the cultivation of coffee in India. The plantations extend now from the +extreme north of Mysore to Tuticorin.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Early Cultivation by the Dutch</i></p> + +<p>In the latter part of the 16th century, German, Italian, and Dutch +botanists and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> travelers brought back from the Levant considerable +information regarding the new plant and the beverage. In 1614 +enterprising Dutch traders began to examine into the possibilities of +coffee cultivation and coffee trading. In 1616 a coffee plant was +successfully transported from Mocha to Holland. In 1658 the Dutch +started the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon, although the Arabs are said +to have brought the plant to the island prior to 1505. In 1670 an +attempt was made to cultivate coffee on European soil at Dijon, France, +but the result was a failure.</p> + +<p>In 1696, at the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen, then burgomaster of +Amsterdam, Adrian Van Ommen, commander at Malabar, India, caused to be +shipped from Kananur, Malabar, to Java, the first coffee plants +introduced into that island. They were grown from seed of the <i>Coffea +arabica</i> brought to Malabar from Arabia. They were planted by +Governor-General Willem Van Outshoorn on the Kedawoeng estate near +Batavia, but were subsequently lost by earthquake and flood. In 1699 +Henricus Zwaardecroon imported some slips, or cuttings, of coffee trees +from Malabar into Java. These were more successful, and became the +progenitors of all the coffees of the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch were +then taking the lead in the propagation of the coffee plant.</p> + +<p>In 1706 the first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown in +Java, were received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens. Many plants were +afterward propagated from the seeds produced in the Amsterdam gardens, +and these were distributed to some of the best known botanical gardens +and private conservatories in Europe.</p> + +<p>While the Dutch were extending the cultivation of the plant to Sumatra, +the Celebes, Timor, Bali, and other islands of the Netherlands Indies, +the French were seeking to introduce coffee cultivation into their +colonies. Several attempts were made to transfer young plants from the +Amsterdam botanical gardens to the botanical gardens at Paris; but all +were failures.</p> + +<p>In 1714, however, as a result of negotiations entered into between the +French government and the municipality of Amsterdam, a young and +vigorous plant about five feet tall was sent to Louis XIV at the chateau +of Marly by the burgomaster of Amsterdam. The day following, it was +transferred to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, where it was received +with appropriate ceremonies by Antoine de Jussieu, professor of botany +in charge. This tree was destined to be the progenitor of most of the +coffees of the French colonies, as well as of those of South America, +Central America, and Mexico.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Romance of Captain Gabriel de Clieu</i></p> + +<p>Two unsuccessful attempts were made to transport to the Antilles plants +grown from the seed of the tree presented to Louis XIV; but the honor of +eventual success was won by a young Norman gentleman, Gabriel Mathieu de +Clieu, a naval officer, serving at the time as captain of infantry at +Martinique. The story of de Clieu's achievement is the most romantic +chapter in the history of the propagation of the coffee plant.</p> + +<p>His personal affairs calling him to France, de Clieu conceived the idea +of utilizing the return voyage to introduce coffee cultivation into +Martinique. His first difficulty lay in obtaining several of the plants +then being cultivated in Paris, a difficulty at last overcome through +the instrumentality of M. de Chirac, royal physician, or, according to a +letter written by de Clieu himself, through the kindly offices of a lady +of quality to whom de Chirac could give no refusal. The plants selected +were kept at Rochefort by M. Bégon, commissary of the department, until +the departure of de Clieu for Martinique. Concerning the exact date of +de Clieu's arrival at Martinique with the coffee plant, or plants, there +is much conflict of opinion. Some authorities give the date as 1720, +others 1723. Jardin<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> suggests that the discrepancy in dates may arise +from de Clieu, with praiseworthy perseverance, having made the voyage +twice. The first time, according to Jardin, the plants perished; but the +second time de Clieu had planted the seeds when leaving France and these +survived, "due, they say, to his having given of his scanty ration of +water to moisten them." No reference to a preceding voyage, however, is +made by de Clieu in his own account, given in a letter written to the +<i>Année Littéraire</i><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> in 1774. There is also a difference of opinion as +to whether de Clieu arrived with one or three plants. He himself says +"one" in the letter referred to.</p> + +<p>According to the most trustworthy data, de Clieu embarked at Nantes, +1723.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> had installed his precious plant in a box covered with a +glass frame in order to absorb the rays of the sun and thus better to +retain the stored-up heat for cloudy days. Among the passengers one man, +envious of the young officer, did all in his power to wrest from him the +glory of success. Fortunately his dastardly attempt failed of its +intended effect.</p> + +<p>"It is useless," writes de Clieu in his letter to the <i>Année +Littéraire</i>, "to recount in detail the infinite care that I was obliged +to bestow upon this delicate plant during a long voyage, and the +difficulties I had in saving it from the hands of a man who, basely +jealous of the joy I was about to taste through being of service to my +country, and being unable to get this coffee plant away from me, tore +off a branch."</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Captain_de_Clieu_Shares_His_Drinking_Water_With_the_Coffee_Plant_He_Is_Carrying_to_Martinique" id="Captain_de_Clieu_Shares_His_Drinking_Water_With_the_Coffee_Plant_He_Is_Carrying_to_Martinique"></a> +<img src="images/image3.jpg" width="300" height="515" alt="Captain de Clieu Shares His Drinking Water With the +Coffee Plant He Is Carrying to Martinique" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Captain de Clieu Shares His Drinking Water With the +Coffee Plant He Is Carrying to Martinique</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The vessel carrying de Clieu was a merchantman, and many were the trials +that beset passengers and crew. Narrowly escaping capture by a corsair +of Tunis, menaced by a violent tempest that threatened to annihilate +them, they finally encountered a calm that proved more appalling than +either. The supply of drinking water was well nigh exhausted, and what +was left was rationed for the remainder of the voyage.</p> + +<p>"Water was lacking to such an extent," says de Clieu, "that for more +than a month I was obliged to share the scanty ration of it assigned to +me with this my coffee plant upon which my happiest hopes were founded +and which was the source of my delight. It needed such succor the more +in that it was extremely backward, being no larger than the slip of a +pink." Many stories have been written and verses sung recording and +glorifying this generous sacrifice that has given luster to the name of +de Clieu.</p> + +<p>Arrived in Martinique, de Clieu planted his precious slip on his estate +in Prêcheur, one of the cantons of the island; where, says Raynal, "it +multiplied with extraordinary rapidity and success." From the seedlings +of this plant came most of the coffee trees of the Antilles. The first +harvest was gathered in 1726.</p> + +<p>De Clieu himself describes his arrival as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Arriving at home, my first care was to set out my plant with great +attention in the part of my garden most favorable to its growth. +Although keeping it in view, I feared many times that it would be +taken from me; and I was at last obliged to surround it with thorn +bushes and to establish a guard about it until it arrived at +maturity ... this precious plant which had become still more dear +to me for the dangers it had run and the cares it had cost me.</p></div> + +<p>Thus the little stranger thrived in a distant land, guarded day and +night by faithful slaves. So tiny a plant to produce in the end all the +rich estates of the West India islands and the regions bordering on the +Gulf of Mexico! What luxuries, what future comforts and delights, +resulted from this one small talent confided to the care of a man of +rare vision and fine intellectual sympathy, fired by the spirit of real +love for his fellows! There is no instance in the history of the French +people of a good deed done by stealth being of greater service to +humanity.</p> + +<p>De Clieu thus describes the events that followed fast upon the +introduction of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> coffee into Martinique, with particular reference to +the earthquake of 1727:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Success exceeded my hopes. I gathered about two pounds of seed +which I distributed among all those whom I thought most capable of +giving the plants the care necessary to their prosperity.</p> + +<p class="quot">The first harvest was very abundant; with the second it was +possible to extend the cultivation prodigiously, but what favored +multiplication, most singularly, was the fact that two years +afterward all the cocoa trees of the country, which were the +resource and occupation of the people, were uprooted and totally +destroyed by horrible tempests accompanied by an inundation which +submerged all the land where these trees were planted, land which +was at once made into coffee plantations by the natives. These did +marvelously and enabled us to send plants to Santo Domingo, +Guadeloupe, and other adjacent islands, where since that time they +have been cultivated with the greatest success.</p></div> + +<p>By 1777 there were 18,791,680 coffee trees in Martinique.</p> + +<p>De Clieu was born in Angléqueville-sur-Saane, Seine-Inférieure +(Normandy), in 1686 or 1688.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> In 1705 he was a ship's ensign; in 1718 +he became a chevalier of St. Louis; in 1720 he was made a captain of +infantry; in 1726, a major of infantry; in 1733 he was a ship's +lieutenant; in 1737 he became governor of Guadeloupe; in 1746 he was a +ship's captain; in 1750 he was made honorary commander of the order of +St. Louis; in 1752 he retired with a pension of 6000 francs; in 1753 he +re-entered the naval service; in 1760 he again retired with a pension of +2000 francs.</p> + +<p>In 1746 de Clieu, having returned to France, was presented to Louis XV +by the minister of marine, Rouillé de Jour, as "a distinguished officer +to whom the colonies, as well as France itself, and commerce generally, +are indebted for the cultivation of coffee."</p> + +<p>Reports to the king in 1752 and 1759 recall his having carried the first +coffee plant to Martinique, and that he had ever been distinguished for +his zeal and disinterestedness. In the <i>Mercure de France</i>, December, +1774, was the following death notice:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Gabriel d'Erchigny de Clieu, former Ship's Captain and Honorary +Commander of the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis, died in +Paris on the 30th of November in the 88th year of his age.</p></div> + +<p>A notice of his death appeared also in the <i>Gazette de France</i> for +December 5, 1774, a rare honor in both cases; and it has been said that +at this time his praise was again on every lip.</p> + +<p>One French historian, Sidney Daney,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> records that de Clieu died in +poverty at St. Pierre at the age of 97; but this must be an error, +although it does not anywhere appear that at his death he was possessed +of much, if any, means. Daney says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">This generous man received as his sole recompense for a noble deed +the satisfaction of seeing this plant for whose preservation he had +shown such devotion, prosper throughout the Antilles. The +illustrious de Clieu is among those to whom Martinique owes a +brilliant reparation.</p></div> + +<p>Daney tells also that in 1804 there was a movement in Martinique to +erect a monument upon the spot where de Clieu planted his first coffee +plant, but that the undertaking came to naught.</p> + +<p>Pardon, in his <i>La Martinique</i> says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Honor to this brave man! He has deserved it from the people of two +hemispheres. His name is worthy of a place beside that of +Parmentier who carried to France the potato of Canada. These two +men have rendered immense service to humanity, and their memory +should never be forgotten—yet alas! Are they even remembered?</p></div> + +<p>Tussac, in his <i>Flora de las Antillas</i>, writing of de Clieu, says, +"Though no monument be erected to this beneficent traveler, yet his name +should remain engraved in the heart of every colonist."</p> + +<p>In 1774 the <i>Année Littéraire</i> published a long poem in de Clieu's +honor. In the feuilleton of the <i>Gazette de France</i>, April 12, 1816, we +read that M. Donns, a wealthy Hollander, and a coffee connoisseur, +sought to honor de Clieu by having painted upon a porcelain service all +the details of his voyage and its happy results. "I have seen the cups," +says the writer, who gives many details and the Latin inscription.</p> + +<p>That singer of navigation, Esménard, has pictured de Clieu's devotion in +the following lines:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Forget not how de Clieu with his light vessel's sail,<br /> +Brought distant Moka's gift—that timid plant and frail.<br /> +The waves fell suddenly, young zephyrs breathed no more,<br /> +Beneath fierce Cancer's fires behold the fountain store,<br /> +Exhausted, fails; while now inexorable need<br /> +Makes her unpitying law—with measured dole obeyed.<br /> +<br /> +Now each soul fears to prove Tantalus torment first.<br /> +De Clieu alone defies: While still that fatal thirst,<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>Fierce, stifling, day by day his noble strength devours,<br /> +And still a heaven of brass inflames the burning hours.<br /> +With that refreshing draught his life he will not cheer;<br /> +But drop by drop revives the plant he holds more dear.<br /> +Already as in dreams, he sees great branches grow,<br /> +One look at his dear plant assuages all his woe.<br /> +</p> + +<p>The only memorial to de Clieu in Martinique is the botanical garden at +Fort de France, which was opened in 1918 and dedicated to de Clieu, +"whose memory has been too long left in oblivion.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>"</p> + +<p>In 1715 coffee cultivation was first introduced into Haiti and Santo +Domingo. Later came hardier plants from Martinique. In 1715–17 the +French Company of the Indies introduced the cultivation of the plant +into the Isle of Bourbon (now Réunion) by a ship captain named +Dufougeret-Grenier from St. Malo. It did so well that nine years later +the island began to export coffee.</p> + +<p>The Dutch brought the cultivation of coffee to Surinam in 1718. The +first coffee plantation in Brazil was started at Pará in 1723 with +plants brought from French Guiana, but it was not a success. The English +brought the plant to Jamaica in 1730. In 1740 Spanish missionaries +introduced coffee cultivation into the Philippines from Java. In 1748 +Don José Antonio Gelabert introduced coffee into Cuba, bringing the seed +from Santo Domingo. In 1750 the Dutch extended the cultivation of the +plant to the Celebes. Coffee was introduced into Guatemala about +1750–60. The intensive cultivation in Brazil dates from the efforts +begun in the Portuguese colonies in Pará and Amazonas in 1752. Porto +Rico began the cultivation of coffee about 1755. In 1760 João Alberto +Castello Branco brought to Rio de Janeiro a coffee tree from Goa, +Portuguese India. The news spread that the soil and climate of Brazil +were particularly adapted to the cultivation of coffee. Molke, a Belgian +monk, presented some seeds to the Capuchin monastery at Rio in 1774. +Later, the bishop of Rio, Joachim Bruno, became a patron of the plant +and encouraged its propagation in Rio, Minãs, Espirito Santo, and São +Paulo. The Spanish voyager, Don Francisco Xavier Navarro, is credited +with the introduction of coffee into Costa Rica from Cuba in 1779. In +Venezuela the industry was started near Caracas by a priest, José +Antonio Mohedano, with seed brought from Martinique in 1784.</p> + +<p>Coffee cultivation in Mexico began in 1790, the seed being brought from +the West Indies. In 1817 Don Juan Antonio Gomez instituted intensive +cultivation in the State of Vera Cruz. In 1825 the cultivation of the +plant was begun in the Hawaiian Islands with seeds from Rio de Janeiro. +As previously noted, the English began to cultivate coffee in India in +1840. In 1852 coffee cultivation was begun in Salvador with plants +brought from Cuba. In 1878 the English began the propagation of coffee +in British Central Africa, but it was not until 1901 that coffee +cultivation was introduced into British East Africa from Réunion. In +1887 the French introduced the plant into Tonkin, Indo-China. Coffee +growing in Queensland, introduced in 1896, has been successful in a +small way.</p> + +<p>In recent years several attempts have been made to propagate the coffee +plant in the southern United States, but without success. It is +believed, however, that the topographic and climatic conditions in +southern California are favorable for its cultivation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="THE_LEGENDARY_DISCOVERY_OF_THE_COFFEE_DRINK" id="THE_LEGENDARY_DISCOVERY_OF_THE_COFFEE_DRINK"></a> +<img src="images/image4.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt="Omar and the Marvelous Coffee Bird" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Omar and the Marvelous Coffee Bird</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image5.jpg" width="400" height="268" alt="Kaldi and His Dancing Goats" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Kaldi and His Dancing Goats</span><br /> +THE LEGENDARY DISCOVERY OF THE COFFEE DRINK<br /> +<small>From drawings by a modern French artist</small></span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_III" id="Chapter_III"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter III</span></h2> + +<h3>EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE DRINKING</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries—Stories of its +origin—Discovery by physicians and adoption by the Church—Its +spread through Arabia, Persia and Turkey—Persecutions and +intolerances—Early coffee manners and customs</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> coffee drink had its rise in the classical period of Arabian +medicine, which dates from Rhazes (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya El +Razi) who followed the doctrines of Galen and sat at the feet of +Hippocrates. Rhazes (850–922) was the first to treat medicine in an +encyclopedic manner, and, according to some authorities, the first +writer to mention coffee. He assumed the poetical name of Razi because +he was a native of the city of Raj in Persian Irak. He was a great +philosopher and astronomer, and at one time was superintendent of the +hospital at Bagdad. He wrote many learned books on medicine and surgery, +but his principal work is <i>Al-Haiwi</i>, or <i>The Continent</i>, a collection +of everything relating to the cure of disease from Galen to his own +time.</p> + +<p>Philippe Sylvestre Dufour (1622–87)<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>, a French coffee merchant, +philosopher, and writer, in an accurate and finished treatise on coffee, +tells us (see the early edition of the work translated from the Latin) +that the first writer to mention the properties of the coffee bean under +the name of <i>bunchum</i> was this same Rhazes, "in the ninth century after +the birth of our Saviour"; from which (if true) it would appear that +coffee has been known for upwards of 1000 years. Robinson<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>, however, +is of the opinion that <i>bunchum</i> meant something else and had nothing to +do with coffee. Dufour, himself, in a later edition of his <i>Traitez +Nouveaux et Curieux du Café</i> (the Hague, 1693) is inclined to admit that +<i>bunchum</i> may have been a root and not coffee, after all; however, he is +careful to add that there is no doubt that the Arabs knew coffee as far +back as the year 800. Other, more modern authorities, place it as early +as the sixth century.</p> + +<p><i>Wiji Kawih</i> is mentioned in a Kavi (Javan) inscription A.D. 856; and it +is thought that the "bean broth" in David Tapperi's list of Javanese +beverages (1667–82) may have been coffee<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>.</p> + +<p>While the true origin of coffee drinking may be forever hidden among the +mysteries of the purple East, shrouded as it is in legend and fable, +scholars have marshaled sufficient facts to prove that the beverage was +known in Ethiopia "from time immemorial," and there is much to add +verisimilitude to Dufour's narrative. This first coffee merchant-prince, +skilled in languages and polite learning, considered that his character +as a merchant was not inconsistent with that of an author; and he even +went so far as to say there were some things (for instance, coffee) on +which a merchant could be better informed than a philosopher.</p> + +<p>Granting that by <i>bunchum</i> Rhazes meant coffee, the plant and the drink +must have been known to his immediate followers; and this, indeed, seems +to be indicated by similar references in the writings of Avicenna (Ibn +Sina), the Mohammedan physician and philosopher, who lived from 980 to +1037 A.D.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p><p>Rhazes, in the quaint language of Dufour, assures us that "<i>bunchum</i> +(coffee) is hot and dry and very good for the stomach." Avicenna +explains the medicinal properties and uses of the coffee bean (<i>bon</i> or +<i>bunn</i>), which he, also, calls <i>bunchum</i>, after this fashion:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">As to the choice thereof, that of a lemon color, light, and of a +good smell, is the best; the white and the heavy is naught. It is +hot and dry in the first degree, and, according to others, cold in +the first degree. It fortifies the members, it cleans the skin, and +dries up the humidities that are under it, and gives an excellent +smell to all the body.</p></div> + +<p>The early Arabians called the bean and the tree that bore it, <i>bunn</i>; +the drink, <i>bunchum</i>. A. Galland<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> (1646–1715), the French Orientalist +who first analyzed and translated from the Arabic the Abd-al-Kâdir +manuscript<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>, the oldest document extant telling of the origin of +coffee, observes that Avicenna speaks of the <i>bunn</i>, or coffee; as do +also Prospero Alpini and Veslingius (Vesling). Bengiazlah, another great +physician, contemporary with Avicenna, likewise mentions coffee; by +which, says Galland, one may see that we are indebted to physicians for +the discovery of coffee, as well as of sugar, tea, and chocolate.</p> + +<p>Rauwolf<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> (d. 1596), German physician and botanist, and the first +European to mention coffee, who became acquainted with the beverage in +Aleppo in 1573, telling how the drink was prepared by the Turks, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In this same water they take a fruit called <i>Bunnu</i>, which in its +bigness, shape, and color is almost like unto a bayberry, with two +thin shells surrounded, which, as they informed me, are brought +from the <i>Indies</i>; but as these in themselves are, and have within +them, two yellowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides, +being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and name with the +<i>Bunchum</i> of Avicenna and <i>Bunco</i>, of <i>Rasis ad Almans</i> exactly: +therefore I take them to be the same.</p></div> + +<p>In Dr. Edward Pocoke's translation (Oxford, 1659) of <i>The Nature of the +Drink Kauhi, or Coffee, and the Berry of which it is Made, Described by +an Arabian Phisitian</i>, we read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot"><i>Bun</i> is a plant in <i>Yaman</i> [Yemen], which is planted in <i>Adar</i>, +and groweth up and is gathered in <i>Ab</i>. It is about a cubit high, +on a stalk about the thickness of one's thumb. It flowers white, +leaving a berry like a small nut, but that sometimes it is broad +like a bean; and when it is peeled, parteth in two. The best of it +is that which is weighty and yellow; the worst, that which is +black. It is hot in the first degree, dry in the second: it is +usually reported to be cold and dry, but it is not so; for it is +bitter, and whatsoever is bitter is hot. It may be that the scorce +is hot, and the Bun it selfe either of equall temperature, or cold +in the first degree.</p> + +<p class="quot">That which makes for its coldnesse is its stipticknesse. In summer +it is by experience found to conduce to the drying of rheumes, and +flegmatick coughes and distillations, and the opening of +obstructions, and the provocation of urin. It is now known by the +name of <i>Kohwah</i>. When it is dried and thoroughly boyled, it +allayes the ebullition of the blood, is good against the small poxe +and measles, the bloudy pimples; yet causeth vertiginous headheach, +and maketh lean much, occasioneth waking, and the Emrods, and +asswageth lust, and sometimes breeds melancholly.</p> + +<p class="quot">He that would drink it for livelinesse sake, and to discusse +slothfulnesse, and the other properties that we have mentioned, let +him use much sweat meates with it, and oyle of pistaccioes, and +butter. Some drink it with milk, but it is an error, and such as +may bring in danger of the leprosy.</p></div> + +<p>Dufour concludes that the coffee beans of commerce are the same as the +<i>bunchum</i> (<i>bunn</i>) described by Avicenna and the <i>bunca</i> (<i>bunchum</i>) of +Rhazes. In this he agrees, almost word for word, with Rauwolf, +indicating no change in opinion among the learned in a hundred years.</p> + +<p>Christopher Campen thinks Hippocrates, father of medicine, knew and +administered coffee.</p> + +<p>Robinson, commenting upon the early adoption of coffee into materia +medica, charges that it was a mistake on the part of the Arab +physicians, and that it originated the prejudice that caused coffee to +be regarded as a powerful drug instead of as a simple and refreshing +beverage.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Homer, the Bible, and Coffee</i></p> + +<p>In early Grecian and Roman writings no mention is made of either the +coffee plant or the beverage made from the berries. Pierre (Pietro) +Delia Valle<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> (1586–1652), however, maintains that the <i>nepenthe</i>, +which Homer says Helen brought with her out of Egypt, and which she +employed as surcease for sorrow, was nothing else but coffee mixed with +wine.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> This is disputed by M. Petit, a well known physician of Paris, +who died in 1687. Several later British authors, among them, Sandys, +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> poet; Burton; and Sir Henry Blount, have suggested the probability +of coffee being the "black broth" of the Lacedæmonians.</p> + +<p>George Paschius, in his Latin treatise of the <i>New Discoveries Made +since the Time of the Ancients</i>, printed at Leipsic in 1700, says he +believes that coffee was meant by the five measures of parched corn +included among the presents Abigail made to David to appease his wrath, +as recorded in the <i>Bible</i>, 1 Samuel, xxv, 18. The <i>Vulgate</i> translates +the Hebrew words <i>sein kali</i> into <i>sata polentea</i>, which signify wheat, +roasted, or dried by fire.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Title_Page_of_Dufour39s_Book_Edition_of_1693" id="Title_Page_of_Dufour39s_Book_Edition_of_1693"></a> +<img src="images/image6.jpg" width="300" height="598" alt="Title Page of Dufour's Book, Edition of 1693" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Title Page of Dufour's Book, Edition of 1693</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Pierre Étienne Louis Dumant, the Swiss Protestant minister and author, +is of the opinion that coffee (and not lentils, as others have supposed) +was the red pottage for which Esau sold his birthright; also that the +parched grain that Boaz ordered to be given Ruth was undoubtedly roasted +coffee berries.</p> + +<p>Dufour mentions as a possible objection against coffee that "the use and +eating of beans were heretofore forbidden by Pythagoras," but intimates +that the coffee bean of Arabia is something different.</p> + +<p>Scheuzer,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> in his <i>Physique Sacrée</i>, says "the Turks and the Arabs +make with the coffee bean a beverage which bears the same name, and many +persons use as a substitute the flour of roasted barley." From this we +learn that the coffee substitute is almost as old as coffee itself.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Early Legends</i></p> + +<p>After medicine, the church. There are several Mohammedan traditions that +have persisted through the centuries, claiming for "the faithful" the +honor and glory of the first use of coffee as a beverage. One of these +relates how, about 1258 A.D., Sheik Omar, a disciple of Sheik Abou'l +hasan Schadheli, patron saint and legendary founder of Mocha, by chance +discovered the coffee drink at Ousab in Arabia, whither he had been +exiled for a certain moral remissness.</p> + +<p>Facing starvation, he and his followers were forced to feed upon the +berries growing around them. And then, in the words of the faithful Arab +chronicle in the Bibliothéque Nationale at Paris, "having nothing to eat +except coffee, they took of it and boiled it in a saucepan and drank of +the decoction." Former patients in Mocha who sought out the good +doctor-priest in his Ousab retreat, for physic with which to cure their +ills, were given some of this decoction, with beneficial effect. As a +result of the stories of its magical properties, carried back to the +city, Sheik Omar was invited to return in triumph to Mocha where the +governor caused to be built a monastery for him and his companions.</p> + +<p>Another version of this Oriental legend gives it as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The dervish Hadji Omar was driven by his enemies out of Mocha into +the desert, where they expected he would die of starvation. This +undoubtedly would have occurred if he had not plucked up courage to +taste some strange berries which he found growing on a shrub. While +they seemed to be edible, they were very bitter; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> he tried to +improve the taste by roasting them. He found, however, that they +had become very hard, so he attempted to soften them with water. +The berries seemed to remain as hard as before, but the liquid +turned brown, and Omar drank it on the chance that it contained +some of the nourishment from the berries. He was amazed at how it +refreshed him, enlivened his sluggishness, and raised his drooping +spirits. Later, when he returned to Mocha, his salvation was +considered a miracle. The beverage to which it was due sprang into +high favor, and Omar himself was made a saint.</p></div> + +<p>A popular and much-quoted version of Omar's discovery of coffee, also +based upon the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript, is the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In the year of the Hegira 656, the mollah Schadheli went on a +pilgrimage to Mecca. Arriving at the mountain of the Emeralds +(Ousab), he turned to his disciple Omar and said: "I shall die in +this place. When my soul has gone forth, a veiled person will +appear to you. Do not fail to execute the command which he will +give you."</p> + +<p class="quot">The venerable Schadheli being dead, Omar saw in the middle of the +night a gigantic specter covered by a white veil.</p> + +<p class="quot">"Who are you?" he asked.</p> + +<p class="quot">The phantom drew back his veil, and Omar saw with surprise +Schadheli himself, grown ten cubits since his death. The mollah dug +in the ground, and water miraculously appeared. The spirit of his +teacher bade Omar fill a bowl with the water and to proceed on his +way and not to stop till he reached the spot where the water would +stop moving.</p> + +<p class="quot">"It is there," he added, "that a great destiny awaits you."</p> + +<p class="quot">Omar started his journey. Arriving at Mocha in Yemen, he noticed +that the water was immovable. It was here that he must stop.</p> + +<p class="quot">The beautiful village of Mocha was then ravaged by the plague. Omar +began to pray for the sick and, as the saintly man was close to +Mahomet, many found themselves cured by his prayers.</p> + +<p class="quot">The plague meanwhile progressing, the daughter of the King of Mocha +fell ill and her father had her carried to the home of the dervish +who cured her. But as this young princess was of rare beauty, after +having cured her, the good dervish tried to carry her off. The king +did not fancy this new kind of reward. Omar was driven from the +city and exiled on the mountain of Ousab, with herbs for food and a +cave for a home.</p> + +<p class="quot">"Oh, Schadheli, my dear master," cried the unfortunate dervish one +day; "if the things which happened to me at Mocha were destined, +was it worth the trouble to give me a bowl to come here?"</p> + +<p class="quot">To these just complaints, there was heard immediately a song of +incomparable harmony, and a bird of marvelous plumage came to rest +in a tree. Omar sprang forward quickly toward the little bird which +sang so well, but then he saw on the branches of the tree only +flowers and fruit. Omar laid hands on the fruit, and found it +delicious. Then he filled his great pockets with it and went back +to his cave. As he was preparing to boil a few herbs for his +dinner, the idea came to him of substituting for this sad soup, +some of his harvested fruit. From it he obtained a savory and +perfumed drink; it was coffee.</p></div> + +<p>The Italian <i>Journal of the Savants</i> for the year 1760 says that two +monks, Scialdi and Ayduis, were the first to discover the properties of +coffee, and for this reason became the object of special prayers. "Was +not this Scialdi identical with the Sheik Schadheli?" asks Jardin.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> + +<p>The most popular legend ascribes the discovery of the drink to an +Arabian herdsman in upper Egypt, or Abyssinia, who complained to the +abbot of a neighboring monastery that the goats confided to his care +became unusually frolicsome after eating the berries of certain shrubs +found near their feeding grounds. The abbot, having observed the fact, +determined to try the virtues of the berries on himself. He, too, +responded with a new exhilaration. Accordingly, he directed that some be +boiled, and the decoction drunk by his monks, who thereafter found no +difficulty in keeping awake during the religious services of the night. +The abbé Massieu in his poem, <i>Carmen Caffaeum</i>, thus celebrates the +event:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The monks each in turn, as the evening draws near,<br /> +Drink 'round the great cauldron—a circle of cheer!<br /> +And the dawn in amaze, revisiting that shore,<br /> +On idle beds of ease surprised them nevermore!<br /> +</p> + +<p>According to the legend, the news of the "wakeful monastery" spread +rapidly, and the magical berry soon "came to be in request throughout +the whole kingdom; and in progress of time other nations and provinces +of the East fell into the use of it."</p> + +<p>The French have preserved the following picturesque version of this +legend:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">A young goatherd named Kaldi noticed one day that his goats, whose +deportment up to that time had been irreproachable, were abandoning +themselves to the most extravagant prancings. The venerable buck, +ordinarily so dignified and solemn, bounded about like a young kid. +Kaldi attributed this foolish gaiety to certain fruits of which the +goats had been eating with delight.</p> + +<p class="quot">The story goes that the poor fellow had a heavy heart; and in the +hope of cheering himself up a little, he thought he would pick and +eat of the fruit. The experiment succeeded marvelously. He forgot +his troubles and became the happiest herder in happy Arabia. When +the goats danced, he gaily made himself one of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> party, and +entered into their fun with admirable spirit.</p> + +<p class="quot">One day, a monk chanced to pass by and stopped in surprise to find +a ball going on. A score of goats were executing lively pirouettes +like a ladies' chain, while the buck solemnly <i>balancé-ed</i>, and the +herder went through the figures of an eccentric pastoral dance.</p> + +<p class="quot">The astonished monk inquired the cause of this saltatorial madness; +and Kaldi told him of his precious discovery.</p> + +<p class="quot">Now, this poor monk had a great sorrow; he always went to sleep in +the middle of his prayers; and he reasoned that Mohammed without +doubt was revealing this marvelous fruit to him to overcome his +sleepiness.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Frontispiece_from_Dufours_work" id="Frontispiece_from_Dufours_work"></a> +<img src="images/image7.jpg" width="300" height="511" alt="Frontispiece from Dufour's work" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Arab Drinking Coffee; Chinaman, Tea; and Indian, +Chocolate</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Frontispiece from Dufour's work</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Piety does not exclude gastronomic instincts. Those of our good +monk were more than ordinary; because he thought of drying and +boiling the fruit of the herder. This ingenious concoction gave us +coffee. Immediately all the monks of the realm made use of the +drink, because it encouraged them to pray and, perhaps, also +because it was not disagreeable.</p></div> + +<p>In those early days it appears that the drink was prepared in two ways; +one in which the decoction was made from the hull and the pulp +surrounding the bean, and the other from the bean itself. The roasting +process came later and is an improvement generally credited to the +Persians. There is evidence that the early Mohammedan churchmen were +seeking a substitute for the wine forbidden to them by the Koran, when +they discovered coffee. The word for coffee in Arabic, <i>qahwah</i>, is the +same as one of those used for wine; and later on, when coffee drinking +grew so popular as to threaten the very life of the church itself, this +similarity was seized upon by the church-leaders to support their +contention that the prohibition against wine applied also to coffee.</p> + +<p>La Roque,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> writing in 1715, says that the Arabian word <i>cahouah</i> +signified at first only wine; but later was turned into a generic term +applied to all kinds of drink. "So there were really three sorts of +coffee; namely, wine, including all intoxicating liquors; the drink made +with the shells, or cods, of the coffee bean; and that made from the +bean itself."</p> + +<p>Originally, then, the coffee drink may have been a kind of wine made +from the coffee fruit. In the coffee countries even today the natives +are very fond, and eat freely, of the ripe coffee cherries, voiding the +seeds. The pulp surrounding the coffee seeds (beans) is pleasant to +taste, has a sweetish, aromatic flavor, and quickly ferments when +allowed to stand.</p> + +<p>Still another tradition (was the wish father to the thought?) tells how +the coffee drink was revealed to Mohammed himself by the Angel Gabriel. +Coffee's partisans found satisfaction in a passage in the <i>Koran</i> which, +they said, foretold its adoption by the followers of the Prophet:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They shall be given to drink an excellent wine, sealed; its seal is +that of the musk.</p></div> + +<p>The most diligent research does not carry a knowledge of coffee back +beyond the time of Rhazes, two hundred years after Mohammed; so there is +little more than speculation or conjecture to support the theory that it +was known to the ancients, in Bible times or in the days of The Praised +One. Our knowledge of tea, on the other hand, antedates the Christian +era. We know also that tea was intensively cultivated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> and taxed under +the Tang dynasty in China, A.D. 793, and that Arab traders knew of it in +the following century.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The First Reliable Coffee Date</i></p> + +<p>About 1454 Sheik Gemaleddin Abou Muhammad Bensaid, mufti of Aden, +surnamed Aldhabani, from Dhabhan, a small town where he was born, became +acquainted with the virtues of coffee on a journey into Abyssinia.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> +Upon his return to Aden, his health became impaired; and remembering the +coffee he had seen his countrymen drinking in Abyssinia, he sent for +some in the hope of finding relief. He not only recovered from his +illness; but, because of its sleep-dispelling qualities, he sanctioned +the use of the drink among the dervishes "that they might spend the +night in prayers or other religious exercises with more attention and +presence of mind.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>"</p> + +<p>It is altogether probable that the coffee drink was known in Aden before +the time of Sheik Gemaleddin; but the endorsement of the very learned +imam, whom science and religion had already made famous, was sufficient +to start a vogue for the beverage that spread throughout Yemen, and +thence to the far corners of the world. We read in the Arabian +manuscript at the Bibliothéque Nationale that lawyers, students, as well +as travelers who journeyed at night, artisans, and others, who worked at +night, to escape the heat of the day, took to drinking coffee; and even +left off another drink, then becoming popular, made from the leaves of a +plant called <i>khat</i> or <i>cat</i> (<i>catha edulis</i>).</p> + +<p>Sheik Gemaleddin was assisted in his work of spreading the gospel of +this the first propaganda for coffee by one Muhammed Alhadrami, a +physician of great reputation, born in Hadramaut, Arabia Felix.</p> + +<p>A recently unearthed and little known version of coffee's origin shows +how features of both the Omar tradition and the Gemaleddin story may be +combined by a professional Occidental tale-writer<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Toward the middle of the fifteenth century, a poor Arab was +traveling in Abyssinia. Finding himself weak and weary, he stopped +near a grove. For fuel wherewith to cook his rice, he cut down a +tree that happened to be covered with dried berries. His meal being +cooked and eaten, the traveler discovered that these half-burnt +berries were fragrant. He collected a number of them and, on +crushing them with a stone, found that the aroma was increased to a +great extent. While wondering at this, he accidentally let the +substance fall into an earthen vessel that contained his scanty +supply of water.</p> + +<p class="quot">A miracle! The almost putrid water was purified. He brought it to +his lips; it was fresh and agreeable; and after a short rest the +traveler so far recovered his strength and energy as to be able to +resume his journey. The lucky Arab gathered as many berries as he +could, and having arrived at Aden, informed the mufti of his +discovery. That worthy was an inveterate opium-smoker, who had been +suffering for years from the influence of the poisonous drug. He +tried an infusion of the roasted berries, and was so delighted at +the recovery of his former vigor that in gratitude to the tree he +called it <i>cahuha</i> which in Arabic signifies "force".</p></div> + +<p>Galland, in his analysis of the Arabian manuscript, already referred to, +that has furnished us with the most trustworthy account of the origin of +coffee, criticizes Antoine Faustus Nairon, Maronite professor of +Oriental languages at Rome, who was the author of the first printed +treatise on coffee only,<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> for accepting the legends relating to Omar +and the Abyssinian goatherd. He says they are unworthy of belief as +facts of history, although he is careful to add that there is <i>some</i> +truth in the story of the discovery of coffee by the Abyssinian goats +and the abbot who prescribed the use of the berries for his monks, "the +Eastern Christians being willing to have the honor of the invention of +coffee, for the abbot, or prior, of the convent and his companions are +only the mufti Gemaleddin and Muhammid Alhadrami, and the monks are the +dervishes."</p> + +<p>Amid all these details, Jardin reaches the conclusion that it is to +chance we must attribute the knowledge of the properties of coffee, and +that the coffee tree was transported from its native land to Yemen, as +far as Mecca, and possibly into Persia, before being carried into Egypt.</p> + +<p>Coffee, being thus favorably introduced into Aden, it has continued +there ever since, without interruption. By degrees the cultivation of +the plant and the use of the beverage passed into many neighboring +places. Toward the close of the fifteenth century (1470–1500) it reached +Mecca and Medina, where it was introduced, as at Aden, by the dervishes, +and for the same religious purpose. About 1510 it reached Grand Cairo in +Egypt, where the dervishes from Yemen, living in a district by +themselves, drank coffee on the nights they intended to spend in +religious devotion. They kept it in a large red earthen vessel—each in +turn receiving it, respectfully, from their superior, in a small bowl, +which he dipped into the jar—in the meantime chanting their prayers, +the burden of which was always: "There is no God but one God, the true +King, whose power is not to be disputed."</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Coffee Tree Bears Fruit"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="THE_COFFEE_TREE_BEARS_FRUIT_LEAF_AND_BLOSSOM_AT_THE_SAME_TIME" id="THE_COFFEE_TREE_BEARS_FRUIT_LEAF_AND_BLOSSOM_AT_THE_SAME_TIME"></a> +<img src="images/plate3a.jpg" alt="A Bouquet of Ripe Fruit" title="" /> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">A Bouquet of Ripe Fruit</span></p> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/plate3b.jpg" alt="Flowers, Fruit, and Leaves" title="" /> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Flowers, Fruit, and Leaves</span></p> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='2'> +THE COFFEE TREE BEARS FRUIT, LEAF, AND BLOSSOM AT THE SAME TIME</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p><p>After the dervishes, the bowl was passed to lay members of the +congregation. In this way coffee came to be so associated with the act +of worship that "they never performed a religious ceremony in public and +never observed any solemn festival without taking coffee."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the inhabitants of Mecca became so fond of the beverage that, +disregarding its religious associations, they made of it a secular drink +to be sipped publicly in <i>kaveh kanes</i>, the first coffee houses. Here +the idle congregated to drink coffee, to play chess and other games, to +discuss the news of the day, and to amuse themselves with singing, +dancing, and music, contrary to the manners of the rigid Mahommedans, +who were very properly scandalized by such performances. In Medina and +in Cairo, too, coffee became as common a drink as in Mecca and Aden.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The First Coffee Persecution</i></p> + +<p>At length the pious Mahommedans began to disapprove of the use of coffee +among the people. For one thing, it made common one of the best +psychology-adjuncts of their religion; also, the joy of life, that it +helped to liberate among those who frequented the coffee houses, +precipitated social, political, and religious arguments; and these +frequently developed into disturbances. Dissensions arose even among the +churchmen themselves. They divided into camps for and against coffee. +The law of the Prophet on the subject of wine was variously construed as +applying to coffee.</p> + +<p>About this time (1511) Kair Bey was governor of Mecca for the sultan of +Egypt. He appears to have been a strict disciplinarian, but lamentably +ignorant of the actual conditions obtaining among his people. As he was +leaving the mosque one evening after prayers, he was offended by seeing +in a corner a company of coffee drinkers who were preparing to pass the +night in prayer. His first thought was that they were drinking wine; and +great was his astonishment when he learned what the liquor really was +and how common was its use throughout the city. Further investigation +convinced him that indulgence in this exhilarating drink must incline +men and women to extravagances prohibited by law, and so he determined +to suppress it. First he drove the coffee drinkers out of the mosque.</p> + +<p>The next day, he called a council of officers of justice, lawyers, +physicians, priests, and leading citizens, to whom he declared what he +had seen the evening before at the mosque; and, "being resolved to put a +stop to the coffee-house abuses, he sought their advice upon the +subject." The chief count in the indictment was that "in these places +men and women met and played tambourines, violins, and other musical +instruments. There were also people who played chess, mankala, and other +similar games, for money; and there were many other things done contrary +to our sacred law—may God keep it from all corruption until the day +when we shall all appear before him!<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>"</p> + +<p>The lawyers agreed that the coffee houses needed reforming; but as to +the drink itself, inquiry should be made as to whether it was in any way +harmful to mind or body; for if not, it might not be sufficient to close +the places that sold it. It was suggested that the opinion of the +physicians be sought.</p> + +<p>Two brothers, Persian physicians named Hakimani, and reputed the best in +Mecca, were summoned, although we are told they knew more about logic +than they did about physic. One of them came into the council fully +prejudiced, as he had already written a book against coffee, and filled +with concern for his profession, being fearful lest the common use of +the new drink would make serious inroads on the practise of medicine. +His brother joined with him in assuring the assembly that the plant +<i>bunn</i>, from which coffee was made, was "cold and dry" and so +unwholesome. When another physician present reminded them that +Bengiazlah, the ancient and respected contemporary of Avicenna, taught +that it was "hot and dry," they made arbitrary answer that Bengiazlah +had in mind another plant of the same name, and that anyhow, it was not +material; for, if the coffee drink disposed people to things forbidden +by religion, the safest course for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> Mahommedans was to look upon it as +unlawful.</p> + +<p>The friends of coffee were covered with confusion. Only the mufti spoke +out in the meeting in its favor. Others, carried away by prejudice or +misguided zeal, affirmed that coffee clouded their senses. One man arose +and said it intoxicated like wine; which made every one laugh, since he +could hardly have been a judge of this if he had not drunk wine, which +is forbidden by the Mohammedan religion. Upon being asked whether he had +ever drunk any, he was so imprudent as to admit that he had, thereby +condemning himself out of his own mouth to the bastinado.</p> + +<p>The mufti of Aden, being both an officer of the court and a divine, +undertook, with some heat, a defense of coffee; but he was clearly in an +unpopular minority. He was rewarded with the reproaches and affronts of +the religious zealots.</p> + +<p>So the governor had his way, and coffee was solemnly condemned as thing +forbidden by the law; and a presentment was drawn up, signed by a +majority of those present, and dispatched post-haste by the governor to +his royal master, the sultan, at Cairo. At the same time, the governor +published an edict forbidding the sale of coffee in public or private. +The officers of justice caused all the coffee houses in Mecca to be +shut, and ordered all the coffee found there, or in the merchants' +warehouses, to be burned.</p> + +<p>Naturally enough, being an unpopular edict, there were many evasions, +and much coffee drinking took place behind closed doors. Some of the +friends of coffee were outspoken in their opposition to the order, being +convinced that the assembly had rendered a judgment not in accordance +with the facts, and above all, contrary to the opinion of the mufti who, +in every Arab community, is looked up to as the interpreter, or +expounder, of the law. One man, caught in the act of disobedience, +besides being severely punished, was also led through the most public +streets of the city seated on an ass.</p> + +<p>However, the triumph of the enemies of coffee was short-lived; for not +only did the sultan of Cairo disapprove the "indiscreet zeal" of the +governor of Mecca, and order the edict revoked; but he read him a severe +lesson on the subject. How dared he condemn a thing approved at Cairo, +the capital of his kingdom, where there were physicians whose opinions +carried more weight than those of Mecca, and who had found nothing +against the law in the use of coffee? The best things might be abused, +added the sultan, even the sacred waters of Zamzam, but this was no +reason for an absolute prohibition. The fountain, or well, of Zamzam, +according to the Mohammedan teaching, is the same which God caused to +spring up in the desert to comfort Hagar and Ishmael when Abraham +banished them. It is in the enclosure of the temple at Mecca; and the +Mohammedans drink of it with much show of devotion, ascribing great +virtues to it.</p> + +<p>It is not recorded whether the misguided governor was shocked at this +seeming profanity; but it is known that he hastened to obey the orders +of his lord and master. The prohibition was recalled, and thereafter he +employed his authority only to preserve order in the coffee houses. The +friends of coffee, and the lovers of poetic justice, found satisfaction +in the governor's subsequent fate. He was exposed as "an extortioner and +a public robber," and "tortured to death," his brother killing himself +to avoid the same fate. The two Persian physicians who had played so +mean a part in the first coffee persecution, likewise came to an unhappy +end. Being discredited in Mecca they fled to Cairo, where, in an +unguarded moment, having cursed the person of Selim I, emperor of the +Turks, who had conquered Egypt, they were executed by his order.</p> + +<p>Coffee, being thus re-established at Mecca, met with no opposition until +1524, when, because of renewed disorders, the kadi of the town closed +the coffee houses, but did not seek to interfere with coffee drinking at +home and in private. His successor, however, re-licensed them; and, +continuing on their good behavior since then, they have not been +disturbed.</p> + +<p>In 1542 a ripple was caused by an order issued by Soliman the Great, +forbidding the use of coffee; but no one took it seriously, especially +as it soon became known that the order had been obtained "by surprise" +and at the desire of only one of the court ladies "a little too nice in +this point."</p> + +<p>One of the most interesting facts in the history of the coffee drink is +that wherever it has been introduced it has spelled revolution. It has +been the world's most radical drink in that its function has always been +to make people think. And when the people began to think, they became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +dangerous to tyrants and to foes of liberty of thought and action. +Sometimes the people became intoxicated with their new found ideas; and, +mistaking liberty for license, they ran amok, and called down upon their +heads persecutions and many petty intolerances. So history repeated +itself in Cairo, twenty-three years after the first Mecca persecution.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee's Second Religious Persecution</i></p> + +<p>Selim I, after conquering Egypt, had brought coffee to Constantinople in +1517. The drink continued its progress through Syria, and was received +in Damascus (about 1530), and in Aleppo (about 1532), without +opposition. Several coffee houses of Damascus attained wide fame, among +them the Café of the Roses, and the Café of the Gate of Salvation.</p> + +<p>Its increasing popularity and, perhaps, the realization that the +continued spread of the beverage might lessen the demand for his +services, caused a physician of Cairo to propound (about 1523) to his +fellows this question:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">What is your opinion concerning the liquor called coffee which is +drank in company, as being reckoned in the number of those we have +free leave to make use of, notwithstanding it is the cause of no +small disorders, that it flies up into the head and is very +pernicious to health? Is it permitted or forbidden?</p></div> + +<p>At the end he was careful to add, as his own opinion (and without +prejudice?), that coffee was unlawful. To the credit of the physicians +of Cairo as a class, it should be recorded that they looked with +unsympathetic eyes upon this attempt on the part of one of their number +to stir up trouble for a valuable adjunct to their materia medica, and +so the effort died a-borning.</p> + +<p>If the physicians were disposed to do nothing to stop coffee's progress, +not so the preachers. As places of resort, the coffee houses exercised +an appeal that proved stronger to the popular mind than that of the +temples of worship. This to men of sound religious training was +intolerable. The feeling against coffee smouldered for a time; but in +1534 it broke out afresh. In that year a fiery preacher in one of +Cairo's mosques so played upon the emotions of his congregation with a +preachment against coffee, claiming that it was against the law and that +those who drank it were not true Mohammedans, that upon leaving the +building a large number of his hearers, enraged, threw themselves into +the first coffee house they found in their way, burned the coffee pots +and dishes, and maltreated all the persons they found there.</p> + +<p>Public opinion was immediately aroused; and the city was divided into +two parties; one maintaining that coffee was against the law of +Mohammed, and the other taking the contrary view. And then arose a +Solomon in the person of the chief justice, who summoned into his +presence the learned physicians for consultation. Again the medical +profession stood by its guns. The medical men pointed out to the chief +justice that the question had already been decided by their predecessors +on the side of coffee, and that the time had come to put some check "on +the furious zeal of the bigots" and the "indiscretions of ignorant +preachers." Whereupon, the wise judge caused coffee to be served to the +whole company and drank some himself. By this act he "re-united the +contending parties, and brought coffee into greater esteem than ever."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee in Constantinople</i></p> + +<p>The story of the introduction of coffee into Constantinople shows that +it experienced much the same vicissitudes that marked its advent at +Mecca and Cairo. There were the same disturbances, the same unreasoning +religious superstition, the same political hatreds, the same stupid +interference by the civil authorities; and yet, in spite of it all, +coffee attained new honors and new fame. The Oriental coffee house +reached its supreme development in Constantinople.</p> + +<p>Although coffee had been known in Constantinople since 1517, it was not +until 1554 that the inhabitants became acquainted with that great +institution of early eastern democracy—the coffee house. In that year, +under the reign of Soliman the Great, son of Selim I, one Schemsi of +Damascus and one Hekem of Aleppo opened the first two coffee houses in +the quarter called Taktacalah. They were wonderful institutions for +those days, remarkable alike for their furnishings and their comforts, +as well as for the opportunity they afforded for social intercourse and +free discussion. Schemsi and Hekem received their guests on "very neat +couches or sofas," and the admission was the price of a dish of +coffee—about one cent.</p> + +<p>Turks, high and low, took up the idea with avidity. Coffee houses +increased in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> number. The demand outstripped the supply. In the seraglio +itself special officers (<i>kahvedjibachi</i>) were commissioned to prepare +the coffee drink for the sultan. Coffee was in favor with all classes.</p> + +<p>The Turks gave to the coffee houses the name <i>kahveh kanes</i> +(<i>diversoria</i>, Cotovicus called them); and as they grew in popularity, +they became more and more luxurious. There were lounges, richly +carpeted; and in addition to coffee, many other means of entertainment. +To these "schools of the wise" came the "young men ready to enter upon +offices of judicature; kadis from the provinces, seeking re-instatement +or new appointments; muderys, or professors; officers of the seraglio; +bashaws; and the principal lords of the port," not to mention merchants +and travelers from all parts of the then known world.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee House Persecutions</i></p> + +<p>About 1570, just when coffee seemed settled for all time in the social +scheme, the imams and dervishes raised a loud wail against it, saying +the mosques were almost empty, while the coffee houses were always full. +Then the preachers joined in the clamor, affirming it to be a greater +sin to go to a coffee house than to enter a tavern. The authorities +began an examination; and the same old debate was on. This time, +however, appeared a mufti who was unfriendly to coffee. The religious +fanatics argued that Mohammed had not even known of coffee, and so could +not have used the drink, and, therefore, it must be an abomination for +his followers to do so. Further, coffee was burned and ground to +charcoal before making a drink of it; and the <i>Koran</i> distinctly forbade +the use of charcoal, including it among the unsanitary foods. The mufti +decided the question in favor of the zealots, and coffee was forbidden +by law.</p> + +<p>The prohibition proved to be more honored in the breach than in the +observance. Coffee drinking continued in secret, instead of in the open. +And when, about 1580, Amurath III, at the further solicitation of the +churchmen, declared in an edict that coffee should be classed with wine, +and so prohibited in accordance with the law of the Prophet, the people +only smiled, and persisted in their secret disobedience. Already they +were beginning to think for themselves on religious as well as political +matters. The civil officers, finding it useless to try to suppress the +custom, winked at violations of the law; and, for a consideration, +permitted the sale of coffee privately, so that many Ottoman +"speak-easies" sprung up—places where coffee might be had behind shut +doors; shops where it was sold in back-rooms.</p> + +<p>This was enough to re-establish the coffee houses by degrees. Then came +a mufti less scrupulous or more knowing than his predecessor, who +declared that coffee was not to be looked upon as coal, and that the +drink made from it was not forbidden by the law. There was a general +renewal of coffee drinking; religious devotees, preachers, lawyers, and +the mufti himself indulging in it, their example being followed by the +whole court and the city.</p> + +<p>After this, the coffee houses provided a handsome source of revenue to +each succeeding grand vizier; and there was no further interference with +the beverage until the reign of Amurath IV, when Grand Vizier Kuprili, +during the war with Candia, decided that for political reasons, the +coffee houses should be closed. His argument was much the same as that +advanced more than a hundred years later by Charles II of England, +namely, that they were hotbeds of sedition. Kuprili was a military +dictator, with nothing of Charles's vacillating nature; and although, +like Charles, he later rescinded his edict, he enforced it, while it was +effective, in no uncertain fashion. Kuprili was no petty tyrant. For a +first violation of the order, cudgeling was the punishment; for a second +offense, the victim was sewn in a leather bag and thrown into the +Bosporus. Strangely enough, while he suppressed the coffee houses, he +permitted the taverns, that sold wine forbidden by the <i>Koran</i>, to +remain open. Perhaps he found the latter produced a less dangerous kind +of mental stimulation than that produced by coffee. Coffee, says Virey, +was too intellectual a drink for the fierce and senseless administration +of the pashas.</p> + +<p>Even in those days it was not possible to make people good by law. +Paraphrasing the copy-book, suppressed desires will arise, though all +the world o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes. An unjust law was no more +enforceable in those centuries than it is in the twentieth century. Men +are humans first, although they may become brutish when bereft of +reason. But coffee does not steal away their reason; rather, it sharpens +their reasoning faculties. As Galland has truly said: "Coffee joins men, +born for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> society, in a more perfect union; protestations are more +sincere in being made at a time when the mind is not clouded with fumes +and vapors, and therefore not easily forgotten, which too frequently +happens when made over a bottle."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Turkish_Coffee_House_of_the_Seventeenth_Century" id="Turkish_Coffee_House_of_the_Seventeenth_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image8.jpg" width="500" height="458" alt="Characteristic Scene in a Turkish Coffee House of the +Seventeenth Century" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Characteristic Scene in a Turkish Coffee House of the +Seventeenth Century</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Despite the severe penalties staring them in the face, violations of the +law were plentiful among the people of Constantinople. Venders of the +beverage appeared in the market-places with "large copper vessels with +fire under them; and those who had a mind to drink were invited to step +into any neighboring shop where every one was welcome on such an +account."</p> + +<p>Later, Kuprili, having assured himself that the coffee houses were no +longer a menace to his policies, permitted the free use of the beverage +that he had previously forbidden.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee and Coffee Houses in Persia</i></p> + +<p>Some writers claim for Persia the discovery of the coffee drink; but +there is no evidence to support the claim. There are, however, +sufficient facts to justify a belief that here, as in Ethiopia, coffee +has been known from time immemorial—which is a very convenient phrase. +At an early date the coffee house became an established institution in +the chief towns. The Persians appear to have used far more intelligence +than the Turks in handling the political phase of the coffee-house +question, and so it never became necessary to order them suppressed in +Persia.</p> + +<p>The wife of Shah Abbas, observing that great numbers of people were wont +to gather and to talk politics in the leading coffee house of Ispahan, +appointed a mollah—an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> ecclesiastical teacher and expounder of the +law—to sit there daily to entertain the frequenters of the place with +nicely turned points of history, law, and poetry. Being a man of wisdom +and great tact, he avoided controversial questions of state; and so +politics were kept in the background. He proved a welcome visitor, and +was made much of by the guests. This example was generally followed, and +as a result disturbances were rare in the coffee houses of Ispahan.</p> + +<p>Adam Olearius<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> (1599–1671), who was secretary to the German Embassy +that traveled in Turkey in 1633–36, tells of the great diversions made +in Persian coffee houses "by their poets and historians, who are seated +in a high chair from whence they make speeches and tell satirical +stories, playing in the meantime with a little stick and using the same +gestures as our jugglers and legerdemain men do in England."</p> + +<p>At court conferences conspicuous among the shah's retinue were always to +be seen the "kahvedjibachi," or "coffee-pourers."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Early Coffee Manners and Customs</i></p> + +<p>Karstens Niebuhr<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> (1733–1815), the Hanoverian traveler, furnishes the +following description of the early Arabian, Syrian, and Egyptian coffee +houses:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They are commonly large halls, having their floors spread with +mats, and illuminated at night by a multitude of lamps. Being the +only theaters for the exercise of profane eloquence, poor scholars +attend here to amuse the people. Select portions are read, <i>e.g.</i> +the adventures of Rustan Sal, a Persian hero. Some aspire to the +praise of invention, and compose tales and fables. They walk up and +down as they recite, or assuming oratorial consequence, harangue +upon subjects chosen by themselves.</p> + +<p class="quot">In one coffee house at Damascus an orator was regularly hired to +tell his stories at a fixed hour; in other cases he was more +directly dependant upon the taste of his hearers, as at the +conclusion of his discourse, whether it had consisted of literary +topics or of loose and idle tales, he looked to the audience for a +voluntary contribution.</p> + +<p class="quot">At Aleppo, again, there was a man with a soul above the common, +who, being a person of distinction, and one that studied merely for +his own pleasure, had yet gone the round of all the coffee houses +in the city to pronounce moral harangues.</p></div> + +<p>In some coffee houses there were singers and dancers, as before, and +many came to listen to the marvelous tales, of the <i>Thousand and One +Nights</i>.</p> + +<p>In Oriental countries it was once the custom to offer a cup of "bad +coffee," i.e., coffee containing poison, to those functionaries or other +persons who had proven themselves embarrassing to the authorities.</p> + +<p>While coffee drinking started as a private religious function, it was +not long after its introduction by the coffee houses that it became +secularized still more in the homes of the people, although for +centuries it retained a certain religious significance. Galland says +that in Constantinople, at the time of his visit to the city, there was +no house, rich or poor, Turk or Jew, Greek or Armenian, where it was not +drunk at least twice a day, and many drank it oftener, for it became a +custom in every house to offer it to all visitors; and it was considered +an incivility to refuse it. Twenty dishes a day, per person, was not an +uncommon average.</p> + +<p>Galland observes that "as much money must be spent in the private +families of Constantinople for coffee as for wine at Paris," and relates +that it is as common for beggars to ask for money to buy coffee, as it +is in Europe to ask for money to buy wine or beer.</p> + +<p>At this time to refuse or to neglect to give coffee to their wives was a +legitimate cause for divorce among the Turks. The men made promise when +marrying never to let their wives be without coffee. "That," says +Fulbert de Monteith, "is perhaps more prudent than to swear fidelity."</p> + +<p>Another Arabic manuscript by Bichivili in the Bibliothéque Nationale at +Paris furnishes us with this pen picture of the coffee ceremony as +practised in Constantinople in the sixteenth century:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In all the great men's houses, there are servants whose business it +is only to take care of the coffee; and the head officer among +them, or he who has the inspection over all the rest, has an +apartment allowed him near the hall which is destined for the +reception of visitors. The Turks call this officer <i>Kavveghi</i>, that +is, Overseer or Steward of the Coffee. In the harem or ladies' +apartment in the seraglio, there are a great many such officers, +each having forty or fifty <i>Baltagis</i> under them, who, after they +have served a certain time in these coffee-houses, are sure to be +well provided for, either by an advantageous post, or a sufficient +quantity of land. In the houses of persons of quality likewise, +there are pages, called <i>Itchoglans</i>, who receive the coffee from +the stewards, and present it to the company with surprising +dexterity and address, as soon as the master of the family makes a +sign for that purpose, which is all the language they ever speak to +them.... The coffee is served on salvers without feet, made +commonly of painted or varnished wood, and sometimes of silver. +They hold from 15 to 20 china dishes each; and such as can afford +it have these dishes half set in silver ... the dish may be easily +held with the thumb below and two fingers on the upper edge.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Serving_Coffee_to_a_Guest" id="Serving_Coffee_to_a_Guest"></a> +<img src="images/image9.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="Serving Coffee to a Guest.—After a Drawing in an Early +Edition of "Arabian Nights"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Serving Coffee to a Guest.—After a Drawing in an Early +Edition of "Arabian Nights"</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In his <i>Relation of a Journey to Constantinople in 1657</i>, Nicholas +Rolamb, the Swedish traveler and envoy to the Ottoman Porte, gives us +this early glimpse of coffee in the home life of the Turks:<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">This [coffee] is a kind of pea that grows in <i>Egypt</i>, which the +<i>Turks</i> pound and boil in water, and take it for pleasure instead +of brandy, sipping it through the lips boiling hot, persuading +themselves that it consumes catarrhs, and prevents the rising of +vapours out of the stomach into the head. The drinking of this +coffee and smoking tobacco (for tho' the use of tobacco is +forbidden on pain of death, yet it is used in <i>Constantinople</i> more +than any where by men as well as women, tho' secretly) makes up all +the pastime among the <i>Turks</i>, and is the only thing they treat one +another with; for which reason all people of distinction have a +particular room next their own, built on purpose for it, where +there stands a jar of coffee continually boiling.</p></div> + +<p>It is curious to note that among several misconceptions that were held +by some of the peoples of the Levant was one that coffee was a promoter +of impotence, although a Persian version of the Angel Gabriel legend +says that Gabriel invented it to restore the Prophet's failing +metabolism. Often in Turkish and Arabian literature, however, we meet +with the suggestion that coffee drinking makes for sterility and +barrenness, a notion that modern medicine has exploded; for now we know +that coffee stimulates the racial instinct, for which tobacco is a +sedative.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="THE_FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_COFFEE" id="THE_FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_COFFEE"></a><a href="images/image10a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image10.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="THE FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE, AS IT APPEARS IN +RAUWOLF'S WORK, 1582" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">THE FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE, AS IT APPEARS IN +RAUWOLF'S WORK, 1582</span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_IV" id="Chapter_IV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter IV</span></h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO WESTERN EUROPE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, +came to Europe—Coffee first mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582—Early +days of coffee in Italy—How Pope Clement VIII baptized it and made +it a truly Christian beverage—The first European coffee house, in +Venice, 1645—The famous Caffè Florian—Other celebrated Venetian +coffee houses of the eighteenth century—The romantic story of +Pedrocchi, the poor lemonade-vender, who built the most beautiful +coffee house in the world</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">O</span><span class="caps">f</span> the world's three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, +cocoa was the first to be introduced into Europe, in 1528, by the +Spanish. It was nearly a century later, in 1610, that the Dutch brought +tea to Europe. Venetian traders introduced coffee into Europe in 1615.</p> + +<p>Europe's first knowledge of coffee was brought by travelers returning +from the Far East and the Levant. Leonhard Rauwolf started on his famous +journey into the Eastern countries from Marseilles in September, 1573, +having left his home in Augsburg, the 18th of the preceding May. He +reached Aleppo in November, 1573; and returned to Augsburg, February 12, +1576. He was the first European to mention coffee; and to him also +belongs the honor of being the first to refer to the beverage in print.</p> + +<p>Rauwolf was not only a doctor of medicine and a botanist of great +renown, but also official physician to the town of Augsburg. When he +spoke, it was as one having authority. The first printed reference to +coffee appears as <i>chaube</i> in chapter viii of <i>Rauwolf's Travels</i>, which +deals with the manners and customs of the city of Aleppo. The exact +passage is reproduced herewith as it appears in the original German +edition of Rauwolf published at Frankfort and Lauingen in 1582–83. The +translation is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">If you have a mind to eat something or to drink other liquors, +there is commonly an open shop near it, where you sit down upon the +ground or carpets and drink together. Among the rest they have a +very good drink, by them called <i>Chaube</i> [coffee] that is almost as +black as ink, and very good in illness, chiefly that of the +stomach; of this they drink in the morning early in open places +before everybody, without any fear or regard, out of <i>China</i> cups, +as hot as they can; they put it often to their lips but drink but +little at a time, and let it go round as they sit.</p> + +<p class="quot">In this same water they take a fruit called <i>Bunnu</i> which in its +bigness, shape and color is almost like unto a bayberry, with two +thin shells surrounded, which, as they informed me, are brought +from the <i>Indies</i>; but as these in themselves are, and have within +them, two yellowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides, +being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and name with the +<i>Bunchum</i> of <i>Avicenna</i>, and <i>Bunca</i>, of <i>Rasis ad Almans</i> exactly; +therefore I take them to be the same, until I am better informed by +the learned. This liquor is very common among them, wherefore there +are a great many of them that sell it, and others that sell the +berries, everywhere in their <i>Batzars</i>.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Early Days of Coffee in Italy</i></p> + +<p>It is not easy to determine just when the use of coffee spread from +Constantinople to the western parts of Europe; but it is more than +likely that the Venetians, because of their close proximity to, and +their great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> trade with, the Levant, were the first acquainted with it.</p> + +<p>Prospero Alpini (Alpinus; 1553–1617), a learned physician and botanist +of Padua, journeyed to Egypt in 1580, and brought back news of coffee. +He was the first to print a description of the coffee plant and drink in +his treatise <i>The Plants of Egypt</i>, written in Latin, and published in +Venice, 1592. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">I have seen this tree at Cairo, it being the same tree that +produces the fruit, so common in Egypt, to which they give the name +<i>bon</i> or <i>ban</i>. The Arabians and the Egyptians make a sort of +decoction of it, which they drink instead of wine; and it is sold +in all their public houses, as wine is with us. They call this +drink <i>caova</i>. The fruit of which they make it comes from "Arabia +the Happy," and the tree that I saw looks like a spindle tree, but +the leaves are thicker, tougher, and greener. The tree is never +without leaves.</p></div> + +<p>Alpini makes note of the medicinal qualities attributed to the drink by +dwellers in the Orient, and many of these were soon incorporated into +Europe's materia medica.</p> + +<p>Johann Vesling (Veslingius; 1598–1649), a German botanist and traveler, +settled in Venice, where he became known as a learned Italian physician. +He edited (1640) a new edition of Alpini's work; but earlier (1638) +published some comments on Alpini's findings, in the course of which he +distinguished certain qualities found in a drink made from the husks +(skins) of the coffee berries from those found in the liquor made from +the beans themselves, which he calls the stones of the coffee fruit. He +says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Not only in Egypt is coffee in much request, but in almost all the +other provinces of the Turkish Empire. Whence it comes to pass that +it is dear even in the Levant and scarce among the Europeans, who +by that means are deprived of a very wholesome liquor.</p></div> + +<p>From this we may conclude that coffee was not wholly unknown in Europe +at that time. Vesling adds that when he visited Cairo, he found there +two or three thousand coffee houses, and that "some did begin to put +sugar in their coffee to correct the bitterness of it, and others made +sugar-plums of the berries."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Baptized by the Pope</i></p> + +<p>Shortly after coffee reached Rome, according to a much quoted legend, it +was again threatened with religious fanaticism, which almost caused its +excommunication from Christendom. It is related that certain priests +appealed to Pope Clement VIII (1535–1605) to have its use forbidden +among Christians, denouncing it as an invention of Satan. They claimed +that the Evil One, having forbidden his followers, the infidel Moslems, +the use of wine—no doubt because it was sanctified by Christ and used +in the Holy Communion—had given them as a substitute this hellish black +brew of his which they called coffee. For Christians to drink it was to +risk falling into a trap set by Satan for their souls.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="An_Eighteenth_Century_Italian_Coffee_House" id="An_Eighteenth_Century_Italian_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image11.jpg" width="300" height="231" alt="An Eighteenth Century Italian Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Eighteenth Century Italian Coffee House</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>After Goldoni, by Zatta</small></p> +</div> + +<p>It is further related that the pope, made curious, desired to inspect +this Devil's drink, and had some brought to him. The aroma of it was so +pleasant and inviting that the pope was tempted to try a cupful. After +drinking it, he exclaimed, "Why, this Satan's drink is so delicious that +it would be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive use of it. We +shall fool Satan by baptizing it, and making it a truly Christian +beverage."</p> + +<p>Thus, whatever harmfulness its opponents try to attribute to coffee, the +fact remains (if we are to credit the story) that it has been baptized +and proclaimed unharmful, and a "truly Christian beverage," by his +holiness the pope.</p> + +<p>The Venetians had further knowledge of coffee in 1585, when +Gianfrancesco Morosini, city magistrate at Constantinople, reported to +the Senate that the Turks "drink a black water as hot as they can suffer +it, which is the infusion of a bean called <i>cavee</i>, which is said to +possess the virtue of stimulating mankind."</p> + +<p>Dr. A. Couguet, in an Italian review, asserts that Europe's first cup of +coffee was sipped in Venice, toward the close of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> the sixteenth century. +He is of the opinion that the first berries were imported by Mocengio, +who was called the <i>pevere</i>, because he made a huge fortune trading in +spices and other specialties of the Orient.</p> + +<p>In 1615 Pierre (Pietro) Delia Valle (1586–1652), the well known Italian +traveler and author of <i>Travels in India and Persia</i>, wrote a letter +from Constantinople to his friend Mario Schipano at Venice:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The Turks have a drink of black color, which during the summer is +very cooling, whereas in the winter it heats and warms the body, +remaining always the same beverage and not changing its substance. +They swallow it hot as it comes from the fire and they drink it in +long draughts, not at dinner time, but as a kind of dainty and +sipped slowly while talking with one's friends. One cannot find any +meetings among them where they drink it not.... With this drink, +which they call <i>cahue</i>, they divert themselves in their +conversations.... It is made with the grain or fruit of a certain +tree called <i>cahue</i>.... When I return I will bring some with me and +I will impart the knowledge to the Italians.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Nobility_in_an_Early_Venetian_Caffegrave" id="Nobility_in_an_Early_Venetian_Caffegrave"></a> +<img src="images/image12.jpg" width="300" height="480" alt="Nobility in an Early Venetian Caffè" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nobility in an Early Venetian Caffè</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From the Grevembroch collection in the Museo Civico</small></p> +</div> + + + +<p>Della Valle's countrymen, however, were in a fair way to become well +acquainted with the beverage, for already (1615) it had been introduced +into Venice. At first it was used largely for medicinal purposes; and +high prices were charged for it. Vesling says of its use in Europe as a +medicine, "the first step it made from the cabinets of the curious, as +an exotic seed, being into the apothecaries' shops as a drug."</p> + +<p>The first coffee house in Italy is said to have been opened in 1645, but +convincing confirmation is lacking. In the beginning, the beverage was +sold with other drinks by lemonade-venders. The Italian word +<i>aquacedratajo</i> means one who sells lemonade and similar refreshments; +also one who sells coffee, chocolate, liquor, etc. Jardin says the +beverage was in general use throughout Italy in 1645. It is certain, +however, that a coffee shop was opened in Venice in 1683 under the +<i>Procuratie Nuove</i>. The famous Caffè Florian was opened in Venice by +Floriono Francesconi in 1720.</p> + +<p>The first authoritative treatise devoted to coffee only appeared in +1671. It was written in Latin by Antoine Faustus Nairon (1635–1707), +Maronite professor of the Chaldean and Syrian languages in the College +of Rome.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of the seventeenth century and the first half of +the eighteenth, the coffee house made great progress in Italy. It is +interesting to note that this first European adaptation of the Oriental +coffee house was known as a <i>caffè</i>. The double <i>f</i> is retained by the +Italians to this day, and by some writers is thought to have been taken +from <i>coffea</i>, without the double <i>f</i> being lost, as in the case of the +French and some other Continental forms.</p> + +<p>To Italy, then, belongs the honor of having given to the Western world +the real coffee house, although the French and Austrians greatly +improved upon it. It was not long after its beginning that nearly every +shop on the Piazza di San Marco in Venice was a <i>caffè</i><a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>. Near the +Piazza was the Caffè della Ponte dell' Angelo, where in 1792 died the +dog Tabacchio, celebrated by Vincenzo Formaleoni in a satirical eulogy +that is a parody of the oration of Ubaldo Bregolini upon the death of +Angelo Emo.</p> + +<p>In the Caffè della Spaderia, kept by Marco Ancilloto, some radicals +proposed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> open a reading-room to encourage the spread of liberal +ideas. The inquisitors sent a foot-soldier to notify the proprietor that +he should inform the first person entering the room that he was to +present himself before their tribunal. The idea was thereupon abandoned.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Goldoni_in_a_Venetian_Caffegrave" id="Goldoni_in_a_Venetian_Caffegrave"></a> +<img src="images/image13.jpg" width="300" height="369" alt="Goldoni in a Venetian Caffè" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Goldoni in a Venetian Caffè</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a painting by P. Longhi</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Among other celebrated coffee houses was the one called Menegazzo, from +the name of the rotund proprietor, Menico. This place was much +frequented by men of letters; and heated discussions were common there +between Angelo Maria Barbaro, Lorenzo da Ponte, and others of their +time.</p> + +<p>The coffee house gradually became the common resort of all classes. In +the mornings came the merchants, lawyers, physicians, brokers, workers, +and wandering venders; in the afternoons, and until the late hours of +the nights, the leisure classes, including the ladies.</p> + +<p>For the most part, the rooms of the first Italian <i>caffè</i> were low, +simple, unadorned, without windows, and only poorly illuminated by +tremulous and uncertain lights. Within them, however, joyous throngs +passed to and fro, clad in varicolored garments, men and women chatting +in groups here and there, and always above the buzz there were to be +heard such choice bits of scandal as made worthwhile a visit to the +coffee house. Smaller rooms were devoted to gaming.</p> + +<p>In the "little square" described by Goldoni<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> in his comedy <i>The +Coffee House</i>, where the combined barber-shop and gambling house was +located, Don Marzio, that marvelous type of slanderous old romancer, is +shown as one typical of the period, for Goldoni was a satirist. The +other characters of the play were also drawn from the types then to be +seen every day in the coffee houses on the Piazza.</p> + +<p>In the square of St. Mark's, in the eighteenth century, under the +<i>Procuratie Vecchie</i>, were the <i>caffè</i> Re di Francia, Abbondanza, Pitt, +l'eroe, Regina d'Ungheria, Orfeo, Redentore, Coraggio-Speranza, Arco +Celeste, and Quadri. The last-named was opened in 1775 by Giorgio Quadri +of Corfu, who served genuine Turkish coffee for the first time in +Venice.</p> + +<p>Under the <i>Procuratie Nuove</i> were to be found the <i>caffè</i> Angelo +Custode, Duca di Toscana, Buon genio-Doge, Imperatore Imperatrice della +Russia, Tamerlano, Fontane di Diana, Dame Venete, Aurora Piante d'oro, +Arabo-Piastrelle, Pace, Venezia trionfante, and Florian.</p> + +<p>Probably no coffee house in Europe has acquired so world-wide a +celebrity as that kept by Florian, the friend of Canova the sculptor, +and the trusted agent and acquaintance of hundreds of persons in and out +of the city, who found him a mine of social information and a convenient +city directory. Persons leaving Venice left their cards and itineraries +with him; and new-comers inquired at Florian's for tidings of those whom +they wished to see. "He long concentrated in himself a knowledge more +varied and multifarious than that possessed by any individual before or +since," says Hazlitt<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>, who has given us this delightful pen picture +of <i>caffè</i> life in Venice in the eighteenth century:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Venetian coffee was said to surpass all others, and the article +placed before his visitors by Florian was the best in Venice. Of +some of the establishments as they then existed, Molmenti has +supplied us with illustrations, in one of which Goldoni the +dramatist is represented as a visitor, and a female mendicant is +soliciting alms.</p> + +<p class="quot">So cordial was the esteem of the great sculptor Canova for him, +that when Florian was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> overtaken by gout, he made a model of his +leg, that the poor fellow might be spared the anguish of fitting +himself with boots. The friendship had begun when Canova was +entering on his career, and he never forgot the substantial +services which had been rendered to him in the hour of need.</p> + +<p class="quot">In later days, the Caffè Florian was under the superintendence of a +female chef, and the waitresses used, in the case of certain +visitors, to fasten a flower in the button-hole, perhaps allusively +to the name. In the Piazza itself girls would do the same thing. A +good deal of hospitality is, and has ever been, dispensed at Venice +in the cafés and restaurants, which do service for the domestic +hearth.</p> + +<p class="quot">There were many other establishments devoted, more especially in +the latest period of Venetian independence, to the requirements of +those who desired such resorts for purposes of conversation and +gossip. These houses were frequented by various classes of +patrons—the patrician, the politician, the soldier, the artist, +the old and the young—all had their special haunts where the +company and the tariff were in accordance with the guests. The +upper circles of male society—all above the actually +poor—gravitated hither to a man.</p> + +<p class="quot">For the Venetian of all ranks the coffee house was almost the last +place visited on departure from the city, and the first visited on +his return. His domicile was the residence of his wife and the +repository of his possessions; but only on exceptional occasions +was it the scene of domestic hospitality, and rare were the +instances when the husband and wife might be seen abroad together, +and when the former would invite the lady to enter a café or a +confectioner's shop to partake of an ice.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Florian39s_Famous_Caffegrave" id="Florian39s_Famous_Caffegrave"></a> +<img src="images/image14.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="Florian's Famous Caffè in the Piazza di San Marco, +Venice, Nineteenth Century" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Florian's Famous Caffè in the Piazza di San Marco, +Venice, Nineteenth Century</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The Caffè Florian has undergone many changes, but it still survives as +one of the favorite <i>caffè</i> in the Piazza San Marco.</p> + +<p>By 1775 coffee-house history had begun to repeat itself in Venice. +Charges of immorality, vice, and corruption, were preferred against the +<i>caffè</i>; and the Council of Ten in 1775, and again in 1776, directed the +Inquisitors of State to eradicate these "social cankers." However, they +survived all attempts of the reformers to suppress them.</p> + +<p>The Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua was another of the early Italian coffee +houses that became famous. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776–1852) was a +lemonade-vender who, in the hope of attracting the gay youth, the +students of his time, bought an old house with the idea of converting +the ground floor into a series of attractive rooms. He put all his ready +money and all he could borrow into the venture, only to find there were +no cellars, indispensable for making ices and beverages on the premises, +and that the walls and floors were so old that they crumbled when +repairs were started.</p> + +<p>He was in despair; but, nothing daunted, he decided to have a cellar +dug. What was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> his surprise to find the house was built over the vault +of an old church, and that the vault contained considerable treasure. +The lucky proprietor found himself free to continue his trade of +lemonade-vender and coffee-seller, or to live a life of ease. Being a +wise man, he adhered to his original plan; and soon his luxurious rooms +became the favorite rendezvous for the smart set of his day. In this +period lemonade and coffee frequently went together. The Caffè Pedrocchi +is considered one of the finest pieces of architecture erected in Italy +in the nineteenth century. It was begun in 1816, opened in 1831, and +completed in 1842.</p> + +<p>Coffee houses were early established in other Italian cities, +particularly in Rome, Florence, and Genoa.</p> + +<p>In 1764, <i>Il Caffè</i>, a purely philosophical and literary periodical, +made its appearance in Milan, being founded by Count Pietro Verri +(1728–97). Its chief editor was Cesare Beccaria. Its object was to +counteract the influence and superficiality of the Arcadians. It +acquired its title from the fact that Count Verri and his friends were +wont to meet at a coffee house in Milan kept by a Greek named Demetrio. +It lived only two years.</p> + +<p>Other periodicals of the same name appeared at later periods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_V" id="Chapter_V"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter V</span></h2> + +<h3>THE BEGINNINGS OF COFFEE IN FRANCE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>What French travelers did for coffee—The introduction of coffee +by P. de la Roque into Marseilles in 1644—The first commercial +importation of coffee from Egypt—The first French coffee +house—Failure of the attempt by physicians of Marseilles to +discredit coffee—Soliman Aga introduces coffee into +Paris—Cabarets à caffè—Celebrated works on coffee by French +writers</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">W</span><span class="caps">e</span> are indebted to three great French travelers for much valuable +knowledge about coffee; and these gallant gentlemen first fired the +imagination of the French people in regard to the beverage that was +destined to play so important a part in the French revolution. They are +Tavernier (1605–89), Thévenot (1633–67), and Bernier (1625–88).</p> + +<p>Then there is Jean La Roque (1661–1745), who made a famous "Voyage to +Arabia the Happy" (<i>Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse</i>) in 1708–13 and to +whose father, P. de la Roque, is due the honor of having brought the +first coffee into France in 1644. Also, there is Antoine Galland +(1646–1715), the French Orientalist, first translator of the <i>Arabian +Nights</i> and antiquary to the king, who, in 1699, published an analysis +and translation from the Arabic of the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript (1587), +giving the first authentic account of the origin of coffee.</p> + +<p>Probably the earliest reference to coffee in France is to be found in +the simple statement that Onorio Belli (Bellus), the Italian botanist +and author, in 1596 sent to Charles de l'Écluse (1526–1609), a French +physician, botanist and traveler, "seeds used by the Egyptians to make a +liquid they call <i>cave</i>.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>"</p> + +<p>P. de la Roque accompanied M. de la Haye, the French ambassador, to +Constantinople; and afterward traveled into the Levant. Upon his return +to Marseilles in 1644, he brought with him not only some coffee, but +"all the little implements used about it in Turkey, which were then +looked upon as great curiosities in France." There were included in the +coffee service some findjans, or china dishes, and small pieces of +muslin embroidered with gold, silver, and silk, which the Turks used as +napkins.</p> + +<p>Jean La Roque gives credit to Jean de Thévenot for introducing coffee +privately into Paris in 1657, and for teaching the French how to use +coffee.</p> + +<p>De Thévenot writes in this entertaining fashion concerning the use of +the drink in Turkey in the middle of the seventeenth century:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They have another drink in ordinary use. They call it <i>cahve</i> and +take it all hours of the day. This drink is made from a berry +roasted in a pan or other utensil over the fire. They pound it into +a very fine powder.</p> + +<p class="quot">When they wish to drink it, they take a boiler made expressly for +the purpose, which they call an <i>ibrik</i>; and having filled it with +water, they let it boil. When it boils, they add to about three +cups of water a heaping spoonful of the powder; and when it boils, +they remove it quickly from the fire, or sometimes they stir it, +otherwise it would boil over, as it rises very quickly. When it has +boiled up thus ten or twelve times, they pour it into porcelain +cups, which they place upon a platter of painted wood and bring it +to you thus boiling.</p> + +<p class="quot">One must drink it hot, but in several instalments, otherwise it is +not good. One takes it in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> little swallows<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> for fear of burning +one's self—in such fashion that in a <i>cavekane</i> (so they call the +places where it is sold ready prepared), one hears a pleasant +little musical sucking sound.... There are some who mix with it a +small quantity of cloves and cardamom seeds; others add sugar.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Title_Page_of_La_Roque39s_Work_1716" id="Title_Page_of_La_Roque39s_Work_1716"></a> +<img src="images/image15.jpg" width="300" height="518" alt="Title Page of La Roque's Work, 1716" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Title Page of La Roque's Work, 1716</span></span> +</div> + +<p>It was really out of curiosity that the people of France took to coffee, +says Jardin; "they wanted to know this Oriental beverage, so much +vaunted, although its blackness at first sight was far from attractive."</p> + +<p>About the year 1660 several merchants of Marseilles, who had lived for a +time in the Levant and felt they were not able to do without coffee, +brought some coffee beans home with them; and later, a group of +apothecaries and other merchants brought in the first commercial +importation of coffee in bales from Egypt. The Lyons merchants soon +followed suit, and the use of coffee became general in those parts. In +1671 certain private persons opened a coffee house in Marseilles, near +the Exchange, which at once became popular with merchants and travelers. +Others started up, and all were crowded. The people did not, however, +drink any the less at home. "In fine," says La Roque, "the use of the +beverage increased so amazingly that, as was inevitable, the physicians +became alarmed, thinking it would not agree with the inhabitants of a +country hot and extremely dry."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_Coffee_Tree_as_Pictured_by_La_Roque" id="The_Coffee_Tree_as_Pictured_by_La_Roque"></a> +<img src="images/image16.jpg" width="300" height="417" alt="The Coffee Tree as Pictured by La Roque in His "Voyage de +l'Arabie Heureuse"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Coffee Tree as Pictured by La Roque in His "Voyage de +l'Arabie Heureuse"</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The age-old controversy was on. Some sided with the physicians, others +opposed them, as at Mecca, Cairo, and Constantinople; only here the +argument turned mainly on the medicinal question, the Church this time +having no part in the dispute. "The lovers of coffee used the physicians +very ill when they met together, and the physicians on their side +threatened the coffee drinkers with all sorts of diseases."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="A_CLOSE-UP_OF_RIPE_COFFEE_BERRIES" id="A_CLOSE-UP_OF_RIPE_COFFEE_BERRIES"></a> +<img src="images/plate4.jpg" width="400" height="623" alt="A CLOSE-UP OF RIPE COFFEE BERRIES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A CLOSE-UP OF RIPE COFFEE BERRIES</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p><p>Matters came to a head in 1679, when an ingenious attempt by the +physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee took the form of having a +young student, about to be admitted to the College of Physicians, +dispute before the magistrate in the town hall, a question proposed by +two physicians of the Faculty of Aix, as to whether coffee was or was +not prejudicial to the inhabitants of Marseilles.</p> + +<p>The thesis recited that coffee had won the approval of all nations, had +almost wholly put down the use of wine, although it was not to be +compared even with the lees of that excellent beverage; that it was a +vile and worthless foreign novelty; that its claim to be a remedy +against distempers was ridiculous, because it was not a bean but the +fruit of a tree discovered by goats and camels; that it was hot and not +cold, as alleged; that it burned up the blood, and so induced palsies, +impotence, and leanness; "from all of which we must necessarily conclude +that coffee is hurtful to the greater part of the inhabitants of +Marseilles."</p> + +<p>Thus did the good doctors of the Faculty of Aix set forth their +prejudices, and this was their final decision upon coffee. Many thought +they overreached themselves in their misguided zeal. They were handled +somewhat roughly in the disputation, which disclosed many false +reasonings, to say nothing of blunders as to matters of fact. The world +had already advanced too far to have another decision against coffee +count for much, and this latest effort to stop its onward march was of +even less force than the diatribes of the Mohammedan priests. The coffee +houses continued to be as much frequented as before, and the people +drank no less coffee in their homes. Indeed, the indictment proved a +boomerang, for consumption received such an impetus that the merchants +of Lyons and Marseilles, for the first time in history, began to import +green coffee from the Levant by the ship-load in order to meet the +increased demand.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in 1669, Soliman Aga, the Turkish ambassador from Mohammed IV +to the court of Louis XIV, had arrived in Paris. He brought with him a +considerable quantity of coffee, and introduced the coffee drink, made +in Turkish style, to the French capital.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="A_Coffee_Branch_With_Flowers_and_Fruit_as_Illustrated_in_La_Roque39s" id="A_Coffee_Branch_With_Flowers_and_Fruit_as_Illustrated_in_La_Roque39s"></a> +<img src="images/image17.jpg" width="300" height="513" alt="A Coffee Branch With Flowers and Fruit as Illustrated in +La Roque's "Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Coffee Branch With Flowers and Fruit as Illustrated in +La Roque's "Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse"</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The ambassador remained in Paris only from July, 1669, to May, 1670, but +long enough firmly to establish the custom he had introduced. Two years +later, Pascal, an Armenian, opened his coffee-drinking booth at the fair +of St.-Germain, and this event marked the beginning of the Parisian +coffee houses. The story is told in detail in chapter XI.</p> + +<p>The custom of drinking coffee having become general in the capital, as +well as in Marseilles and Lyons, the example was followed in all the +provinces. Every city soon had its coffee houses, and the beverage was +largely consumed in private homes. La Roque writes: "None, from the +meanest citizen to the persons of the highest quality, failed to use it +every morning or at least soon after dinner, it being the custom +likewise to offer it in all visits."</p> + +<p>"The persons of highest quality" encouraged the fashion of having +<i>cabaréts à caffé</i>; and soon it was said that there could be seen in +France all that the East could furnish of magnificence in coffee houses, +"the china jars and other Indian furniture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> being richer and more +valuable than the gold and silver with which they were lavishly +adorned."</p> + +<p>In 1671 there appeared in Lyons a book entitled <i>The Most Excellent +Virtues of the Mulberry, Called Coffee</i>, showing the need for an +authoritative work on the subject—a need that was ably filled that same +year and in Lyons by the publication of Philippe Sylvestre Dufour's +admirable treatise, <i>Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate</i>. +Again at Lyons, Dufour published (1684) his more complete work on <i>The +Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate</i>. This was followed (1715) +by the publication in Paris of Jean La Roque's <i>Voyage de l'Arabie +Heureuse</i>, containing the story of the author's journey to the court of +the king of Yemen in 1711, a description of the coffee tree and its +fruit, and a critical and historical treatise on its first use and +introduction to France.</p> + +<p>La Roque's description of his visit to the king's gardens is interesting +because it shows the Arabs still held to the belief that coffee grew +only in Arabia. Here it is:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">There was nothing remarkable in the King's Gardens, except the +great pains taken to furnish it with all the kinds of trees that +are common in the country; amongst which there were the coffee +trees, the finest that could be had. When the deputies represented +to the King how much that was contrary to the custom of the Princes +of Europe (who endeavor to stock their gardens chiefly with the +rarest and most uncommon plants that can be found) the King +returned them this answer: That he valued himself as much upon his +good taste and generosity as any Prince in Europe; the coffee tree, +he told them, was indeed common in his country, but it was not the +less dear to him upon that account; the perpetual verdure of it +pleased him extremely; and also the thoughts of its producing a +fruit which was nowhere else to be met with; and when he made a +present of that that came from his own Gardens, it was a great +satisfaction to him to be able to say that he had planted the trees +that produced it with his own hands.</p></div> + +<p>The first merchant licensed to sell coffee in France was one Damame +François, a bourgeois of Paris, who secured the privilege through an +edict of 1692. He was given the sole right for ten years to sell coffees +and teas in all the provinces and towns of the kingdom, and in all +territories under the sovereignty of the king, and received also +authority to maintain a warehouse.</p> + +<p>To Santo Domingo (1738) and other French colonies the café was soon +transported from the homeland, and thrived under special license from +the king.</p> + +<p>In 1858 there appeared in France a leaflet-periodical, entitled <i>The +Café, Literary, Artistic, and Commercial</i>. Ch. Woinez, the editor, said +in announcing it: "The Salon stood for privilege, the Café stands for +equality." Its publication was of short duration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VI" id="Chapter_VI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter VI</span></h2> + +<h3>THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO ENGLAND</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The first printed reference to coffee in English—Early mention of +coffee by noted English travelers and writers—The Lacedæmonian +"black broth" controversy—How Conopios introduced coffee drinking +at Oxford—The first English coffee house in Oxford—Two English +botanists on coffee</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">E</span><span class="caps">nglish</span> travelers and writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries +were quite as enterprising as their Continental contemporaries in +telling about the coffee bean and the coffee drink. The first printed +reference to coffee in English, however, appears as <i>chaoua</i> in a note +by a Dutchman, Paludanus, in <i>Linschoten's Travels</i>, the title of an +English translation from the Latin of a work first published in Holland +in 1595 or 1596, the English edition appearing in London in 1598. A +reproduction made from a photograph of the original work, with the +quaint black-letter German text and the Paludanus notation in roman, is +shown herewith.</p> + +<p>Hans Hugo (or John Huygen) Van Linschooten (1563–1611) was one of the +most intrepid of Dutch travelers. In his description of Japanese manners +and customs we find one of the earliest tea references. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Their manner of eating and drinking is: everie man hath a table +alone, without table-clothes or napkins, and eateth with two pieces +of wood like the men of Chino: they drinke wine of Rice, wherewith +they drink themselves drunke, and after their meat they use a +certain drinke, which is a pot with hote water, which they drinke +as hote as ever they may indure, whether it be Winter or Summer.</p></div> + +<p>Just here Bernard Ten Broeke Paludanus (1550–1633), Dutch savant and +author, professor of philosophy at the University of Leyden, himself a +traveler over the four quarters of the globe, inserts his note +containing the coffee reference. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The Turks holde almost the same manner of drinking of their +<i>Chaona</i><a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>, which they make of certaine fruit, which is like unto +the Bakelaer<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>, and by the Egyptians called <i>Bon</i> or <i>Ban</i><a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>: +they take of this fruite one pound and a half, and roast them a +little in the fire and then sieth them in twenty pounds of water, +till the half be consumed away: this drinke they take every morning +fasting in their chambers, out of an earthen pot, being verie hote, +as we doe here drinke <i>aquacomposita</i><a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> in the morning: and they +say that it strengtheneth and maketh them warme, breaketh wind, and +openeth any stopping.</p></div> + +<p>Van Linschooten then completes his tea reference by saying:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The manner of dressing their meat is altogether contrarie unto +other nations: the aforesaid warme water is made with the powder of +a certaine hearbe called <i>Chaa</i>, which is much esteemed, and is +well accounted among them.</p></div> + +<p>The <i>chaa</i> is, of course, tea, dialect <i>t'eh</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1599, "Sir" Antony (or Anthony) Sherley (1565–1630), a picturesque +gentleman-adventurer, the first Englishman to mention coffee drinking in +the Orient, sailed from Venice on a kind of self-appointed, informal +Persian mission, to invite the shah to ally himself with the Christian +princes against the Turks, and incidentally, to promote English trade +interests in the East. The English government knew nothing of the +arrangement, disavowed him, and forbade his return to England. However, +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> expedition got to Persia; and the account of the voyage thither was +written by William Parry, one of the Sherley party, and was published in +London in 1601. It is interesting because it contains the first printed +reference to coffee in English employing the more modern form of the +word. The original reference was photographed for this work in the Worth +Library of the British Museum, and is reproduced herewith on page 39.</p> + +<p>The passage is part of an account of the manners and customs of the +Turks (who, Parry says, are "damned infidells") in Aleppo. It reads:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They sit at their meat (which is served to them upon the ground) as +Tailers sit upon their stalls, crosse-legd; for the most part, +passing the day in banqueting and carowsing, untill they surfet, +drinking a certaine liquor, which they do call <i>Coffe</i>, which is +made of seede much like mustard seede, which will soone intoxicate +the braine like our Metheglin.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p></div> + +<p>Another early English reference to coffee, wherein the word is spelled +"coffa", is in Captain John Smith's book of <i>Travels and Adventure</i>, +published in 1603. He says of the Turks: "Their best drink is <i>coffa</i> of +a graine they call <i>coava</i>."</p> + +<p>This is the same Captain John Smith who in 1607 became the founder of +the Colony of Virginia and brought with him to America probably the +earliest knowledge of the beverage given to the new Western world.</p> + +<p>Samuel Purchas (1527–1626), an early English collector of travels, in +<i>Purchas His Pilgrimes</i>, under the head of "Observations of William +Finch, merchant, at Socotra" (Sokotra—an island in the Indian Ocean) in +1607, says of the Arab inhabitants:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Their best entertainment is a china dish of <i>Coho</i>, a blacke +bitterish drinke, made of a berry like a bayberry, brought from +Mecca, supped off hot, good for the head and stomache.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p></div> + +<p>Still other early and favorite English references to coffee are those to +be found in the <i>Travels</i> of William Biddulph. This work was published +in 1609. It is entitled <i>The Travels of Certayne Englishmen in Africa, +Asia, etc.... Begunne in 1600 and by some of them finished—this yeere +1608</i>. These references are also reproduced herewith from the +black-letter originals in the British Museum (<a href="#Page_40">see page 40</a>).</p> + +<p>Biddulph's description of the drink, and of the coffee-house customs of +the Turks, was the first detailed account to be written by an +Englishman. It also appears in <i>Purchas His Pilgrimes</i> (1625). But, to +quote:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Their most common drinke is <i>Coffa</i>, which is a blacke kinde of +drinke, made of a kind of Pulse like Pease, called <i>Coaua</i>; which +being grownd in the Mill, and boiled in water, they drinke it as +hot as they can suffer it; which they finde to agree very well with +them against their crudities, and feeding on hearbs and rawe +meates. Other compounded drinkes they have, called <i>Sherbet</i>, made +of Water and Sugar, or Hony, with Snow therein to make it coole; +for although the Countrey bee hot, yet they keepe Snow all the +yeere long to coole their drinke. It is accounted a great curtesie +amongst them to give unto their frends when they come to visit +them, a Fin-ion or Scudella of <i>Coffa</i>, which is more holesome than +toothsome, for it causeth good concoction, and driveth away +drowsinesse.</p> + +<p class="quot">Some of them will also drinke Bersh or Opium, which maketh them +forget themselves, and talk idely of Castles in the Ayre, as though +they saw Visions, and heard Revelations. Their <i>Coffa</i> houses are +more common than Ale-houses in England; but they use not so much to +sit in the houses, as on benches on both sides the streets, neere +unto a Coffa house, every man with his Fin-ionful; which being +smoking hot, they use to put it to their Noses & Eares, and then +sup it off by leasure, being full of idle and Ale-house talke +whiles they are amongst themselves drinking it; if there be any +news, it is talked of there.</p></div> + +<p>Among other early English references to coffee we find an interesting +one by Sir George Sandys (1577–1644), the poet, who gave a start to +classical scholarship in America by translating Ovid's <i>Metamorphoses</i> +during his pioneer days in Virginia. In 1610 he spent a year in Turkey, +Egypt, and Palestine, and records of the Turks:<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Although they be destitute of Taverns, yet have they their +Coffa-houses, which something resemble them. There sit they +chatting most of the day; and sippe of a drinke called Coffa (of +the berry that it is made of) in little <i>China</i> dishes as hot as +they can suffer it: blacke as soote, and tasting not much unlike it +(why not that blacke broth which was in use amongst the +<i>Lacedemonians</i>?) which helpeth, as they say, digestion, and +procureth alacrity: many of the Coffa-men keeping beautifull boyes, +who serve as stales to procure them customers.</p></div> + +<p>Edward Terry (1590–1660), an English traveler, writes, under date of +1616, that many of the best people in India who are strict in their +religion and drink no wine at all, "use a liquor more wholesome than +pleasant, they call coffee; made by a black Seed boyld in water, which +turnes it almost into the same colour, but doth very little alter the +taste of the water [!], notwithstanding it is very good to help +Digestion, to quicken the Spirits and to cleanse the Blood."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_COFFEE_IN_ENGLISH_1598" id="FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_COFFEE_IN_ENGLISH_1598"></a><a href="images/image18a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image18.jpg" width="500" height="805" alt="FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE IN ENGLISH, 1598" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE IN ENGLISH, 1598</span> +<p class="center"><small>It appears as <i>Chaona</i> (<i>chaoua</i>) in the second line of the roman text +notation by Paludanus</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p><p>In 1623, Francis Bacon (1561–1626), in his <i>Historia Vitae et Mortis</i> +says: "The Turkes use a kind of herb which they call <i>caphe</i>"; and, in +1624, in his <i>Sylva Sylvarum</i><a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> (published in 1627, after his death), +he writes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They have in Turkey a drink called <i>coffa</i> made of a berry of the +same name, as black as soot, and of a strong scent, but not +aromatical; which they take, beaten into powder, in water, as hot +as they can drink it: and they take it, and sit at it in their +coffa-houses, which are like our taverns. This drink comforteth the +brain and heart, and helpeth digestion. Certainly this berry coffa, +the root and leaf betel, the leaf tobacco, and the tear of poppy +(opium) of which the Turks are great takers (supposing it expelleth +all fear), do all condense the spirits, and make them strong and +aleger. But it seemeth they were taken after several manners; for +coffa and opium are taken down, tobacco but in smoke, and betel is +but champed in the mouth with a little lime.</p></div> + +<p>Robert Burton (1577–1640), English philosopher and humorist, in his +<i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i><a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> writes in 1632:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The Turkes have a drinke called coffa (for they use no wine), so +named of a berry as blacke as soot and as bitter (like that blacke +drinke which was in use amongst the Lacedemonians and perhaps the +same), which they sip still of, and sup as warme as they can +suffer; they spend much time in those coffa-houses, which are +somewhat like our Ale-houses or Taverns, and there they sit, +chatting and drinking, to drive away the time, and to be merry +together, because they find, by experience, that kinde of drinke so +used, helpeth digestion and procureth alacrity.</p></div> + +<p>Later English scholars, however, found sufficient evidence in the works +of Arabian authors to assure their readers that coffee sometimes breeds +melancholy, causes headache, and "maketh lean much." One of these, Dr. +Pocoke, (1659: <a href="#Chapter_III">see chapter III</a>) stated that, "he that would drink it for +livelinesse sake, and to discusse slothfulnesse ... let him use much +sweet meates with it, and oyle of pistaccioes, and butter. Some drink it +with milk, but it is an error, and such as may bring in danger of the +leprosy." Another writer observed that any ill effects caused by coffee, +unlike those of tea, etc., ceased when its use was discontinued. In this +connection it is interesting to note that in 1785 Dr. Benjamin Mosely, +physician to the Chelsea Hospital, member of the College of Physicians, +etc., probably having in mind the popular idea that the Arabic original +of the word coffee meant force, or vigor, once expressed the hope that +the coffee drink might return to popular favor in England as "a cheap +substitute for those enervating teas and beverages which produce the +pernicious habit of dram-drinking."</p> + +<p>About 1628, Sir Thomas Herbert (1606–1681), English traveler and writer, +records among his observations on the Persians that:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">"They drink above all the rest <i>Coho</i> or <i>Copha</i>: by Turk and Arab +called <i>Caphe</i> and <i>Cahua</i>: a drink imitating that in the Stigian +lake, black, thick, and bitter: destrain'd from <i>Bunchy</i>, <i>Bunnu</i>, +or Bay berries; wholesome, they say, if hot, for it expels +melancholy ... but not so much regarded for those good properties, +as from a Romance that it was invented and brew'd by Gabriel ... to +restore the decayed radical Moysture of kind hearted Mahomet.'<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p></div> + +<p>In 1634, Sir Henry Blount (1602–82), sometimes referred to as "the +father of the English coffee house," made a journey on a Venetian galley +into the Levant. He was invited to drink <i>cauphe</i> in the presence of +Amurath IV; and later, in Egypt, he tells of being served the beverage +again "in a porcelaine dish". This is how he describes the drink in +Turkey:<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They have another drink not good at meat, called <i>Cauphe</i>, made of +a <i>Berry</i> as big as a small <i>Bean</i>, dried in a Furnace, and beat to +Pouder, of a Soot-colour, in taste a little bitterish, that they +seeth and drink as hot as may be endured: It is good all hours of +the day, but especially morning and evening, when to that purpose, +they entertain themselves two or three hours in <i>Cauphe-houses</i>, +which in all Turkey abound more than <i>Inns</i> and <i>Ale-houses</i> with +us; it is thought to be the old black broth used so much by the +<i>Lacedemonians</i>, and dryeth ill Humours in the stomach, comforteth +the Brain, never causeth Drunkenness or any other Surfeit, and is a +harmless entertainment of good Fellowship; for there upon Scaffolds +half a yard high, and covered with Mats, they sit Cross-leg'd after +the <i>Turkish</i> manner, many times two or three hundred together, +talking, and likely with some poor musick passing up and down.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_quotCOFFEEquot_IN_ENGLISH_IN_ITS_MODERN_FORM_1601" id="FIRST_PRINTED_REFERENCE_TO_quotCOFFEEquot_IN_ENGLISH_IN_ITS_MODERN_FORM_1601"></a><a href="images/image19a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image19.jpg" width="600" height="448" alt="FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO "COFFEE" IN ENGLISH, IN ITS MODERN FORM, 1601" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO "COFFEE" IN ENGLISH, IN ITS MODERN FORM, 1601</span> +<p class="center"><small>Photographed from the black-letter original of W. Parry's book in the +Worth Library of the British Museum</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p><p>This reference to the Lacedæmonian black broth, first by Sandys, then +by Burton, again by Blount, and concurred in by James Howell +(1595–1666), the first historiographer royal, gave rise to considerable +controversy among Englishmen of letters in later years. It is, of +course, a gratuitous speculation. The black broth of the Lacedæmonians +was "pork, cooked in blood and seasoned with salt and vinegar.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>"</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="References_to_Coffee_as_Found_in_Biddulph39s_Travels_1609" id="References_to_Coffee_as_Found_in_Biddulph39s_Travels_1609"></a> +<img src="images/image20.jpg" width="600" height="449" alt="References to Coffee as Found in Biddulph's Travels 1609" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">References to Coffee as Found in Biddulph's Travels 1609</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From the black-letter original in the British Museum</small></p> +</div> + +<p>William Harvey (1578–1657), the famous English physician who discovered +the circulation of the blood, and his brother are reputed to have used +coffee before coffee houses came into vogue in London—this must have +been previous to 1652. "I remember", says Aubrey<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>, "he was wont to +drinke coffee; which his brother Eliab did, before coffee houses were +the fashion in London." Houghton, in 1701, speaks of "the famous +inventor of the circulation of the blood, Dr. Harvey, who some say did +frequently use it."</p> + +<p>Although it seems likely that coffee must have been introduced into +England sometime during the first quarter of the seventeenth century, +with so many writers and travelers describing it, and with so much +trading going on between the merchants of the British Isles and the +Orient, yet the first reliable record we have of its advent is to be +found in the <i>Diary and Correspondence of John Evelyn, F.R.S.</i><a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>, +under "Notes of 1637", where he says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">There came in my time to the college (Baliol, Oxford) one Nathaniel +Conopios, out of Greece, from Cyrill, the Patriarch of +Constantinople, who, returning many years after was made (as I +understand) Bishop of Smyrna. He was the first I ever saw drink +coffee; which custom came not into England till thirty years +thereafter.</p></div> + +<p>Evelyn should have said thirteen years after; for then it was that the +first coffee house was opened (1650).</p> + +<p>Conopios was a native of Crete, trained in the Greek church. He became +<i>primore</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> to Cyrill, Patriarch of Constantinople. When Cyrill was +strangled by the vizier, Conopios fled to England to avoid a like +barbarity. He came with credentials to Archbishop Laud, who allowed him +maintenance in Balliol College.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">It was observed that while he continued in Balliol College he made +the drink for his own use called Coffey, and usually drank it every +morning, being the first, as the antients of that House have +informed me, that was ever drank in Oxon.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Mol39s_Coffee_House_Exeter_England_Now_Worth39s_Art_Rooms" id="Mol39s_Coffee_House_Exeter_England_Now_Worth39s_Art_Rooms"></a> +<img src="images/image21.jpg" width="300" height="562" alt="Mol's Coffee House, Exeter, England, Now Worth's Art Rooms" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mol's Coffee House, Exeter, England, Now Worth's Art Rooms</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1640 John Parkinson (1567–1650), English botanist and herbalist, +published his <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i><a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>, containing the first botanical +description of the coffee plant in English, referred to as "<i>Arbor Bon +cum sua Buna.</i> The Turkes Berry Drinke".</p> + +<p>His work being somewhat rare, it may be of historical interest to quote +the quaint description here:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Alpinus, in his Booke of Egiptian plants, giveth us a description +of this tree, which as hee saith, hee saw in the garden of a +certain Captaine of the <i>Ianissaries</i>, which was brought out of +<i>Arabia felix</i> and there planted as a rarity, never seene growing +in those places before.</p> + +<p class="quot">The tree, saith <i>Alpinus</i>, is somewhat like unto the <i>Evonymus</i> +Pricketimber tree, whose leaves were thicker, harder, and greener, +and always abiding greene on the tree; the fruite is called <i>Buna</i> +and is somewhat bigger then an Hazell Nut and longer, round also, +and pointed at the end, furrowed also on both sides, yet on one +side more conspicuous than the other, that it might be parted in +two, in each side whereof lyeth a small long white kernell, flat on +that side they joyne together, covered with a yellowish skinne, of +an acid taste, and somewhat bitter withall and contained in a +thinne shell, of a darkish ash-color; with these berries generally +in <i>Arabia</i> and <i>Egipt</i>, and in other places of the <i>Turkes</i> +Dominions, they make a decoction or drinke, which is in the stead +of Wine to them, and generally sold in all their tappe houses, +called by the name of <i>Caova</i>; <i>Paludanus</i> saith <i>Chaova</i>, and +<i>Rauwolfius</i> <i>Chaube</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot">This drinke hath many good physical properties therein; for it +strengthened a week stomacke, helpeth digestion, and the tumors and +obstructions of the liver and spleene, being drunke fasting for +some time together.</p></div> + +<p>In 1650, a certain Jew from Lebanon, in some accounts Jacob or Jacobs by +name, in others Jobson<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>, opened "at the Angel in the parish of St. +Peter in the East", Oxford, the earliest English coffee house and "there +it [coffee] was by some who delighted in noveltie, drank". Chocolate was +also sold at this first coffee house.</p> + +<p>Authorities differ, but the confusion as to the name of the coffee-house +keeper may have arisen from the fact that there were two—Jacobs, who +began in 1650; and another, Cirques Jobson, a Jewish Jacobite, who +followed him in 1654.</p> + +<p>The drink at once attained great favor among the students. Soon it was +in such demand that about 1655 a society of young students encouraged +one Arthur Tillyard, "apothecary and Royalist," to sell "coffey +publickly in his house against All Soules College." It appears that a +club composed of admirers of the young Charles met at Tillyard's and +continued until after the Restoration. This Oxford Coffee Club was the +start of the Royal Society.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p><p>Jacobs removed to Old Southhampton Buildings, London, where he was in +1671.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the first coffee house in London had been opened by Pasqua +Rosée in 1652; and, as the remainder of the story of coffee's rise and +fall in England centers around the coffee houses of old London, we shall +reserve it for a separate chapter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Early_English_Reference_to_Coffee_by_Sir_George_Sandys" id="Early_English_Reference_to_Coffee_by_Sir_George_Sandys"></a> +<img src="images/image22.jpg" width="500" height="131" alt="Early English Reference to Coffee by Sir George Sandys" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early English Reference to Coffee by Sir George Sandys</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From the seventh edition of <i>Sandys' Travels</i>, London, 1673</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Of course, the coffee-house idea, and the use of coffee in the home, +quickly spread to other cities in Great Britain; but all the coffee +houses were patterned after the London model. Mol's coffee house at +Exeter, Devonshire, which is pictured on page 41, was one of the first +coffee houses established in England, and may be regarded as typical of +those that sprang up in the provinces. It had previously been a noted +club house; and the old hall, beautifully paneled with oak, still +displays the arms of noted members. Here Sir Walter Raleigh and +congenial friends regaled themselves with smoking tobacco. This was one +of the first places where tobacco was smoked in England. It is now an +art gallery.</p> + +<p>When the Bishop of Berytus (Beirut) was on his way to Cochin China in +1666, he reported that the Turks used coffee to correct the +indisposition caused in the stomach by the bad water. "This drink," he +says, "imitates the effect of wine ... has not an agreeable taste but +rather bitter, yet it is much used by these people for the good effects +they find therein."</p> + +<p>In 1686, John Ray (1628–1704), one of the most celebrated of English +naturalists, published his <i>Universal History of Plants</i>, notable among +other things for being the first work of its kind to extol the virtues +of coffee in a scientific treatise.</p> + +<p>R. Bradley, professor of botany at Cambridge, published (1714) <i>A Short +Historical Account of Coffee</i>, all trace of which appears to be lost.</p> + +<p>Dr. James Douglas published in London (1727) his <i>Arbor Yemensis fructum +Cofe ferens; or, a description and History of the Coffee Tree</i>, in which +he laid under heavy contribution the Arabian and French writers that had +preceded him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VII" id="Chapter_VII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter VII</span></h2> + +<h3>THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO HOLLAND</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's +market for coffee—Activities of the Netherlands East India +Company—The first coffee house at the Hague—The first public +auction at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven +cents a pound, green</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> Dutch had early knowledge of coffee because of their dealings with +the Orient and with the Venetians, and of their nearness to Germany, +where Rauwolf first wrote about it in 1582. They were familiar with +Alpini's writings on the subject in 1592. Paludanus, in his coffee note +on <i>Linschoten's Travels</i>, furnished further enlightenment in 1598.</p> + +<p>The Dutch were always great merchants and shrewd traders. Being of a +practical turn of mind, they conceived an ambition to grow coffee in +their colonial possessions, so as to make their home markets +headquarters for a world's trade in the product. In considering modern +coffee-trading, the Netherlands East India Company may be said to be the +pioneer, as it established in Java one of the first experimental gardens +for coffee cultivation.</p> + +<p>The Netherlands East India Company was formed in 1602. As early as 1614, +Dutch traders visited Aden to examine into the possibilities of coffee +and coffee-trading. In 1616 Pieter Van dan Broeck brought the first +coffee from Mocha to Holland. In 1640 a Dutch merchant, named Wurffbain, +offered for sale in Amsterdam the first commercial shipment of coffee +from Mocha. As indicating the enterprise of the Dutch, note that this +was four years before the beverage was introduced into France, and only +three years after Conopios had privately instituted the breakfast coffee +cup at Oxford.</p> + +<p>About 1650, Varnar, the Dutch minister resident at the Ottoman Porte, +published a treatise on coffee.</p> + +<p>When the Dutch at last drove the Portuguese out of Ceylon in 1658, they +began the cultivation of coffee there, although the plant had been +introduced into the island by the Arabs prior to the Portuguese invasion +in 1505. However, it was not until 1690 that the more systematic +cultivation of the coffee plant by the Dutch was undertaken in Ceylon.</p> + +<p>Regular imports of coffee from Mocha to Amsterdam began in 1663. Later, +supplies began to arrive from the Malabar coast.</p> + +<p>Pasqua Rosée, who introduced the coffee house into London in 1652, is +said to have made coffee popular as a beverage in Holland by selling it +there publicly in 1664. The first coffee house was opened in the Korten +Voorhout, the Hague, under the protection of the writer Van Essen; +others soon followed in Amsterdam and Haarlem.</p> + +<p>At the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen, burgomaster of Amsterdam and +governor of the East India Company, Adrian Van Ommen, commander of +Malabar, sent the first Arabian coffee seedlings to Java in 1696, +recorded in the chapter on the history of coffee propagation. These were +destroyed by flood, but were followed in 1699 by a second shipment, from +which developed the coffee trade of the Netherlands East Indies, that +made Java coffee a household word in every civilized country.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p><p>A trial shipment of the coffee grown near Batavia was received at +Amsterdam in 1706, also a plant for the botanical gardens. This plant +subsequently became the progenitor of most of the coffees of the West +Indies and America.</p> + +<p>The first Java coffee for the trade was received at Amsterdam 1711. The +shipment consisted of 894 pounds from the Jakatra plantations and from +the interior of the island. At the first public auction, this coffee +brought twenty-three and two-thirds <i>stuivers</i> (about forty-seven cents) +per Amsterdam pound.</p> + +<p>The Netherlands East India Company contracted with the regents of +Netherlands India for the compulsory delivery of coffee; and the natives +were enjoined to cultivate coffee, the production thus becoming a forced +industry worked by government. A "general system of cultivation" was +introduced into Java in 1832 by the government, which decreed the +employment of forced labor for different products. Coffee-growing was +the only forced industry that existed before this system of cultivation, +and it was the only government cultivation that survived the abolition +of the system in 1905–08. The last direct government interest in coffee +was closed out in 1918. From 1870 to 1874, the government plantations +yielded an average of 844,854 piculs<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> a year; from 1875 to 1878, the +average was 866,674 piculs. Between 1879 and 1883, it rose to 987,682 +piculs. From 1884 to 1888, the average annual yield was only 629,942 +piculs.</p> + +<p>Holland readily adopted the coffee house; and among the earliest coffee +pictures preserved to us is one depicting a scene in a Dutch coffee +house of the seventeenth century, the work of Adriaen Van Ostade +(1610–1675), shown on page 586.</p> + +<p>History records no intolerance of coffee in Holland. The Dutch attitude +was ever that of the constructionist. Dutch inventors and artisans gave +us many new designs in coffee mortars, coffee roasters, and coffee +serving-pots.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_VIII" id="Chapter_VIII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII</span></h2> + +<h3>THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO GERMANY</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the +literature of the early history of coffee—The first coffee house +in Hamburg opened by an English merchant—Famous coffee houses of +old Berlin—The first coffee periodical, and the first +kaffee-klatsch—Frederick the Great's coffee-roasting +monopoly—Coffee persecutions—"Coffee-smellers"—The first coffee +king</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">A</span><span class="caps">s</span> we have already seen, Leonhard Rauwolf, in 1573, made his memorable +trip to Aleppo and, in 1582, won for Germany the honor of being the +first European country to make printed mention of the coffee drink.</p> + +<p>Adam Olearius (or Oelschlager), a German Orientalist (1599–1671), +traveled in Persia as secretary to a German embassy in 1633–36. Upon his +return he published an account of his journeys. In it, under date of +1637, he says of the Persians:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They drink with their tobacco a certain black water, which they +call <i>cahwa</i>, made of a fruit brought out of Egypt, and which is in +colour like ordinary wheat, and in taste like Turkish wheat, and is +of the bigness of a little bean.... The Persians think it allays +the natural heat.</p></div> + +<p>In 1637, Joh. Albrecht von Mandelsloh, in his <i>Oriental Trip</i>, mentions +"the black water of the Persians called <i>Kahwe</i>", saying "it must be +drunk hot."</p> + +<p>Coffee drinking was introduced into Germany about 1670. The drink +appeared at the court of the great elector of Brandenburg in 1675. +Northern Germany got its first taste of the beverage from London, an +English merchant opening the first coffee house in Hamburg in 1679–80. +Regensburg followed in 1689; Leipsic, in 1694; Nuremberg, in 1696; +Stuttgart, in 1712; Augsburg, in 1713; and Berlin, in 1721. In that year +(1721) King Frederick William I granted a foreigner the privilege of +conducting a coffee house in Berlin free of all rental charges. It was +known as the English coffee house, as was also the first coffee house in +Hamburg. And for many years, English merchants supplied the coffees +consumed in northern Germany; while Italy supplied southern Germany.</p> + +<p>Other well known coffee houses of old Berlin were, the Royal, in Behren +<i>Strasse</i>; that of the Widow Doebbert, in the Stechbahn; the City of +Rome, in Unter-den-Linden; Arnoldi, in Kronen <i>Strasse</i>; Miercke, in +Tauben <i>Strasse</i>, and Schmidt, in Post <i>Strasse</i>.</p> + +<p>Later, Philipp Falck opened a Jewish coffee house in Spandauer +<i>Strasse</i>. In the time of Frederick the Great (1712–1786) there were at +least a dozen coffee houses in the metropolitan district of Berlin. In +the suburbs were many tents where coffee was served.</p> + +<p>The first coffee periodical, <i>The New and Curious Coffee House</i>, was +issued in Leipsic in 1707 by Theophilo Georgi. The full title was <i>The +New and Curious Coffee House, formerly in Italy but now opened in +Germany. First water debauchery. "City of the Well." Brunnenstadt by +Lorentz Schoepffwasser</i> [draw-water] 1707. The second issue gave the +name of Georgi as the real publisher. It was intended to be in the +nature of an organ for the first real German kaffee-klatsch. It was a +chronicle of the comings and goings of the savants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> who frequented the +"Tusculum" of a well-to-do gentleman in the outskirts of the city. At +the beginning the master of the house declared:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">I know that the gentlemen here speak French, Italian and other +languages. I know also that in many coffee and tea meetings it is +considered requisite that French be spoken. May I ask, however, +that he who calls upon me should use no other language but German. +We are all Germans, we are in Germany; shall we not conduct +ourselves like true Germans?</p></div> + +<p>In 1721 Leonhard Ferdinand Meisner published at Nuremberg the first +comprehensive German treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate.</p> + +<p>During the second half of the eighteenth century coffee entered the +homes, and began to supplant flour-soup and warm beer at breakfast +tables.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile coffee met with some opposition in Prussia and Hanover. +Frederick the Great became annoyed when he saw how much money was paid +to foreign coffee merchants for supplies of the green bean, and tried to +restrict its use by making coffee a drink of the "quality". Soon all the +German courts had their own coffee roasters, coffee pots, and coffee +cups.</p> + +<p>Many beautiful specimens of the finest porcelain cups and saucers made +in Meissen, and used at court fêtes of this period, survive in the +collections at the Potsdam and Berlin museums. The wealthy classes +followed suit; but when the poor grumbled because they could not afford +the luxury, and demanded their coffee, they were told in effect: "You +had better leave it alone. Anyhow, it's bad for you because it causes +sterility." Many doctors lent themselves to a campaign against coffee, +one of their favorite arguments being that women using the beverage must +forego child-bearing. Bach's <i>Coffee Cantata</i><a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> (1732) was a notable +protest in music against such libels.</p> + +<p>On September 13, 1777, Frederick issued a coffee and beer manifesto, a +curious document, which recited:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">It is disgusting to notice the increase in the quantity of coffee +used by my subjects, and the amount of money that goes out of the +country in consequence. Everybody is using coffee. If possible, +this must be prevented. My people must drink beer. His Majesty was +brought up on beer, and so were his ancestors, and his officers. +Many battles have been fought and won by soldiers nourished on +beer; and the King does not believe that coffee-drinking soldiers +can be depended upon to endure hardship or to beat his enemies in +case of the occurrence of another war.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Richter39s_Coffee_House_in_Leipsic" id="Richter39s_Coffee_House_in_Leipsic"></a> +<img src="images/image23.jpg" width="300" height="252" alt="Richter's Coffee House in Leipsic—Seventeenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Richter's Coffee House in Leipsic—Seventeenth Century</span></span> +</div> + +<p>For a time beer was restored to its honored place; and coffee continued +to be a luxury afforded only by the rich. Soon a revulsion of feeling +set in; and it was found that even Prussian military rule could not +enforce coffee prohibition. Whereupon, in 1781, finding that all his +efforts to reserve the beverage for the exclusive court circles, the +nobility, and the officers of his army, were vain, the king created a +royal monopoly in coffee, and forbade its roasting except in royal +roasting establishments. At the same time, he made exceptions in the +cases of the nobility, the clergy, and government officials; but +rejected all applications for coffee-roasting licenses from the common +people. His object, plainly, was to confine the use of the drink to the +elect. To these representatives of the cream of Prussian society, the +king issued special licenses permitting them to do their own roasting. +Of course, they purchased their supplies from the government; and as the +price was enormously increased, the sales yielded Frederick a handsome +income. Incidentally, the possession of a coffee-roasting license became +a kind of badge of membership in the upper class. The poorer classes +were forced to get their coffee by stealth; and, failing this, they fell +back upon numerous barley, wheat, corn, chicory, and dried-fig +substitutes, that soon appeared in great numbers.</p> + +<p>This singular coffee ordinance was known as the "<i>Déclaration du Roi +concernant la vente du café brûlé</i>", and was published January 21, 1781.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Coffee_House_in_Germany_Middle_of_the_Seventeenth_Century" id="Coffee_House_in_Germany_Middle_of_the_Seventeenth_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image24.jpg" width="400" height="186" alt="Coffee House in Germany—Middle of the Seventeenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee House in Germany—Middle of the Seventeenth Century</span></span> +</div> + +<p>After placing the coffee <i>regie</i> (revenue) in the hands of a Frenchman, +Count de Lannay, so many deputies were required to make collections that +the administration of the law became a veritable persecution. Discharged +wounded soldiers were mostly employed, and their principal duty was to +spy upon the people day and night, following the smell of roasting +coffee whenever detected, in order to seek out those who might be found +without roasting permits. The spies were given one-fourth of the fine +collected. These deputies made themselves so great a nuisance, and +became so cordially disliked, that they were called "coffee-smellers" by +the indignant people.</p> + +<p>Taking a leaf out of Frederick's book, the elector of Cologne, +Maximilian Frederick, bishop of Münster, (Duchy of Westphalia) on +February 17, 1784, issued a manifesto which said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">To our great displeasure we have learned that in our Duchy of +Westphalia the misuse of the coffee beverage has become so extended +that to counteract the evil we command that four weeks after the +publication of this decree no one shall sell coffee roasted or not +roasted under a fine of one hundred dollars, or two years in +prison, for each offense.</p> + +<p class="quot">Every coffee-roasting and coffee-serving place shall be closed, and +dealers and hotel-keepers are to get rid of their coffee supplies +in four weeks. It is only permitted to obtain from the outside +coffee for one's own consumption in lots of fifty pounds. House +fathers and mothers shall not allow their work people, especially +their washing and ironing women, to prepare coffee, or to allow it +in any manner under a penalty of one hundred dollars.</p> + +<p class="quot">All officials and government employees, to avoid a penalty of one +hundred gold florins, are called upon closely to follow and to keep +a watchful eye over this decree. To the one who reports such +persons as act contrary to this decree shall be granted one-half of +the said money fine with absolute silence as to his name.</p></div> + +<p>This decree was solemnly read in the pulpits, and was published besides +in the usual places and ways. There immediately followed a course of +"telling-ons", and of "coffee-smellings", that led to many bitter +enmities and caused much unhappiness in the Duchy of Westphalia. +Apparently the purpose of the archduke was to prevent persons of small +means from enjoying the drink, while those who could afford to purchase +fifty pounds at a time were to be permitted the indulgence. As was to be +expected, the scheme was a complete failure.</p> + +<p>While the king of Prussia exploited his subjects by using the state +coffee monopoly as a means of extortion, the duke of Württemberg had a +scheme of his own. He sold to Joseph Suess-Oppenheimer, an unscrupulous +financier, the exclusive privilege of keeping coffee houses in +Württemberg. Suess-Oppenheimer in turn sold the individual coffee-house +licenses to the highest bidders, and accumulated a considerable fortune. +He was the first "coffee king."</p> + +<p>But coffee outlived all these unjust slanders and cruel taxations of too +paternal governments, and gradually took its rightful place as one of +the favorite beverages of the German people.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"><a name="KOLSCHITZKY_THE_GREAT_BROTHER-HEART_IN_HIS_BLUE_BOTTLE_CAFEacute" id="KOLSCHITZKY_THE_GREAT_BROTHER-HEART_IN_HIS_BLUE_BOTTLE_CAFEacute"></a> +<img src="images/image25.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="KOLSCHITZKY, THE GREAT BROTHER-HEART, IN HIS BLUE BOTTLE CAFÉ, VIENNA, 1683" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">KOLSCHITZKY, THE GREAT BROTHER-HEART, IN HIS BLUE BOTTLE CAFÉ, VIENNA, 1683<br /> +<small>From a lithograph after the painting by Franz Schams, entitled "Das Erste (Kulczycki'sche) Kaffee Haus"</small></span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_IX" id="Chapter_IX"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter IX</span></h2> + +<h3>TELLING HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitzky, who carried "a +message to Garcia" through the enemy's lines and won for himself +the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese the art of +making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of +the green beans left behind by the Turks; also the gift of a house +from a grateful municipality, and a statue after +death—Affectionate regard in which "brother-heart" Kolschitzky is +held as the patron saint of the Vienna kaffee-sieder—Life in the +early Vienna cafés</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">A</span> <span class="caps">romantic</span> tale has been woven around the introduction of coffee into +Austria. When Vienna was besieged by the Turks in 1683, so runs the +legend, Franz George Kolschitzky, a native of Poland, formerly an +interpreter in the Turkish army, saved the city and won for himself +undying fame, with coffee as his principal reward.</p> + +<p>It is not known whether, in the first siege of Vienna by the Turks in +1529, the invaders boiled coffee over their camp fires that surrounded +the Austrian capital; although they might have done so, as Selim I, +after conquering Egypt in 1517, had brought with him to Constantinople +large stores of coffee as part of his booty. But it is certain that when +they returned to the attack, 154 years later, they carried with them a +plentiful supply of the green beans.</p> + +<p>Mohammed IV mobilized an army of 300,000 men and sent it forth under his +vizier, Kara Mustapha, (Kuprili's successor) to destroy Christendom and +to conquer Europe. Reaching Vienna July 7, 1683, the army quickly +invested the city and cut it off from the world. Emperor Leopold had +escaped the net and was several miles away. Nearby was the prince of +Lorraine, with an army of 33,000 Austrians, awaiting the succor promised +by John Sobieski, king of Poland, and an opportunity to relieve the +besieged capital. Count Rudiger von Starhemberg, in command of the +forces in Vienna, called for a volunteer to carry a message through the +Turkish lines to hurry along the rescue. He found him in the person of +Franz George Kolschitzky, who had lived for many years among the Turks +and knew their language and customs.</p> + +<p>On August 13, 1683, Kolschitzky donned a Turkish uniform, passed through +the enemy's lines and reached the Emperor's army across the Danube. +Several times he made the perilous journey between the camp of the +prince of Lorraine and the garrison of the governor of Vienna. One +account says that he had to swim the four intervening arms of the Danube +each time he performed the feat. His messages did much to keep up the +morale of the city's defenders. At length King John and his army of +rescuing Poles arrived and were consolidated with the Austrians on the +summit of Mount Kahlenberg. It was one of the most dramatic moments in +history. The fate of Christian Europe hung in the balance. Everything +seemed to point to the triumph of the crescent over the cross. Once +again Kolschitzky crossed the Danube, and brought back word concerning +the signals that the prince of Lorraine and King John<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> would give from +Mount Kahlenberg to indicate the beginning of the attack. Count +Starhemberg was to make a sortie at the same time.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Franz_George_Kolschitzky_Patron_Saint_of_Vienna_Coffee_Lovers" id="Franz_George_Kolschitzky_Patron_Saint_of_Vienna_Coffee_Lovers"></a> +<img src="images/portrait1.jpg" width="300" height="468" alt="Franz George Kolschitzky, Patron Saint of Vienna Coffee Lovers" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Franz George Kolschitzky, Patron Saint of Vienna Coffee Lovers</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The battle took place September 12, and thanks to the magnificent +generalship of King John, the Turks were routed. The Poles here rendered +a never-to-be-forgotten service to all Christendom. The Turkish invaders +fled, leaving 25,000 tents, 10,000 oxen, 5,000 camels, 100,000 bushels +of grain, a great quantity of gold, and many sacks filled with +coffee—at that time unknown in Vienna. The booty was distributed; but +no one wanted the coffee. They did not know what to do with it; that is, +no one except Kolschitzky. He said, "If nobody wants those sacks, I will +take them", and every one was heartily glad to be rid of the strange +beans. But Kolschitzky knew what he was about, and he soon taught the +Viennese the art of preparing coffee. Later, he established the first +public booth where Turkish coffee was served in Vienna.</p> + +<p>This, then, is the story of how coffee was introduced into Vienna, where +was developed that typical Vienna café which has become a model for a +large part of the world. Kolschitzky is honored in Vienna as the patron +saint of coffee houses. His followers, united in the guild of coffee +makers (<i>kaffee-sieder</i>), even erected a statue in his honor. It still +stands as part of the facade of a house where the Kolschitzygasse merges +into the Favoritengasse, as shown in the accompanying picture.</p> + +<p>Vienna is sometimes referred to as the "mother of cafés". Café Sacher is +world-renowned. Tart à la Sacher is to be found in every cook-book. The +Viennese have their "<i>jause</i>" every afternoon. When one drinks coffee at +a Vienna café one generally has a <i>kipfel</i> with it. This is a +crescent-shaped roll—baked for the first time in the eventful year +1683, when the Turks besieged the city. A baker made these crescent +rolls in a spirit of defiance of the Turk. Holding sword in one hand and +<i>kipfel</i> in the other, the Viennese would show themselves on top of +their redoubts and challenge the cohorts of Mohammed IV.</p> + +<p>Mohammed IV was deposed after losing the battle, and Kara Mustapha was +executed for leaving the stores—particularly the sacks of coffee +beans—at the gates of Vienna; but Vienna coffee and Vienna <i>kipfel</i> are +still alive, and their appeal is not lessened by the years.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_First_Coffee_House_in_the_Leopoldstadt" id="The_First_Coffee_House_in_the_Leopoldstadt"></a> +<img src="images/image26.jpg" width="300" height="206" alt="The First Coffee House in the Leopoldstadt" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The First Coffee House in the Leopoldstadt</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a cut so titled in Bermann's <i>Alt und Neu Wien</i></small></p> +</div> + +<p>The hero Kolschitzky was presented with a house by the grateful +municipality; and there, at the sign of the Blue Bottle, according to +one account, he continued as a coffee-house keeper for many years.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> +This, in brief, is the story that—although not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> authenticated in all +its particulars—is seriously related in many books, and is firmly +believed throughout Vienna.</p> + +<p>It seems a pity to discredit the hero of so romantic an adventure; but +the archives of Vienna throw a light upon Kolschitzky's later conduct +that tends to show that, after all, this Viennese idol's feet were of +common clay.</p> + +<p>It is said that Kolschitzky, after receiving the sacks of green coffee +left behind by the Turks, at once began to peddle the beverage from +house to house, serving it in little cups from a wooden platter. Later +he rented a shop in Bischof-hof. Then he began to petition the municipal +council, that, in addition to the sum of 100 ducats already promised him +as further recognition of his valor, he should receive a house with good +will attached; that is, a shop in some growing business section. "His +petitions to the municipal council", writes M. Bermann<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>, "are amazing +examples of measureless self-conceit and the boldest greed. He seemed +determined to get the utmost out of his own self-sacrifice. He insisted +upon the most highly deserved reward, such as the Romans bestowed upon +their Curtius, the Lacedæmonians upon their Pompilius, the Athenians +upon Seneca, with whom he modestly compared himself."</p> + +<p>At last, he was given his choice of three houses in the Leopoldstadt, +any one of them worth from 400 to 450 gulden, in place of the money +reward, that had been fixed by a compromise agreement at 300 gulden. But +Kolschitzky was not satisfied with this; and urged that if he was to +accept a house in full payment it should be one valued at not less than +1000 gulden. Then ensued much correspondence and considerable haggling. +To put an end to the acrimonious dispute, the municipal council in 1685 +directed that there should be deeded over to Kolschitzky and his wife, +Maria Ursula, without further argument, the house known at that time as +30 (now 8) Haidgasse.</p> + +<p>It is further recorded that Kolschitzky sold the house within a year; +and, after many moves, he died of tuberculosis, February 20, 1694, aged +fifty-four years. He was courier to the emperor at the time of his +death, and was buried in the Stefansfreithof Cemetery.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Statue_of_Kolschitzky_Erected_by_the_Coffee_Makers_Guild_of_Vienna" id="Statue_of_Kolschitzky_Erected_by_the_Coffee_Makers_Guild_of_Vienna"></a> +<img src="images/image27.jpg" width="300" height="526" alt="Statue of Kolschitzky Erected by the Coffee Makers Guild of Vienna" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Statue of Kolschitzky Erected by the Coffee Makers Guild of Vienna</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Kolschitzky's heirs moved the coffee house to Donaustrand, near the +wooden Schlagbrücke, later known as Ferdinand's <i>brücke</i> (bridge). The +celebrated coffee house of Franz Mosee (d. 1860) stood on this same +spot.</p> + +<p>In the city records for the year 1700 a house in the +Stock-im-Eisen-Platz (square) is designated by the words "<i>allwo das +erste kaffeegewölbe</i>" ("here was the first coffee house"). +Unfortunately, the name of the proprietor is not given.</p> + +<p>Many stories are told of Kolschitzky's popularity as a coffee-house +keeper. He is said to have addressed everyone as <i>bruderherz</i> +(brother-heart) and gradually he himself acquired the name <i>bruderherz</i>. +A portrait of Kolschitzky, painted about the time of his greatest vogue, +is carefully preserved by the Innung der Wiener Kaffee-sieder (the +Coffee Makers' Guild of Vienna).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p><p>Even during the lifetime of the first <i>kaffee-sieder</i>, a number of +others opened coffee houses and acquired some little fame. Early in the +eighteenth century a tourist gives us a glimpse of the progress made by +coffee drinking and by the coffee-house idea in Vienna. We read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The city of Vienna is filled with coffee houses, where the +novelists or those who busy themselves with the newspapers delight +to meet, to read the gazettes and discuss their contents. Some of +these houses have a better reputation than others because such +<i>zeitungs-doctors</i> (newspaper doctors—an ironical title) gather +there to pass most unhesitating judgment on the weightiest events, +and to surpass all others in their opinions concerning political +matters and considerations.</p> + +<p class="quot">All this wins them such respect that many congregate there because +of them, and to enrich their minds with inventions and foolishness +which they immediately run through the city to bring to the ears of +the said personalities. It is impossible to believe what freedom is +permitted, in furnishing this gossip. They speak without reverence +not only of the doings of generals and ministers of state, but also +mix themselves in the life of the Kaiser (Emperor) himself.</p></div> + +<p>Vienna liked the coffee house so well that by 1839 there were eighty of +them in the city proper and fifty more in the suburbs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_X" id="Chapter_X"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter X</span></h2> + +<h3>THE COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee—The +first coffee house in London—The first coffee handbill, and the +first newspaper advertisement for coffee—Strange coffee +mixtures—Fantastic coffee claims—Coffee prices and coffee +licenses—Coffee club of the Rota—Early coffee-house manners and +customs—Coffee-house keepers' tokens—Opposition to the coffee +house—"Penny universities"—Weird coffee substitutes—The proposed +coffee-house newspaper monopoly—Evolution of the club—Decline and +fall of the coffee house—Pen pictures of coffee-house life—Famous +coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—Some Old +World pleasure gardens—Locating the notable coffee houses</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> two most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee have to do +with the period of the old London and Paris coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Much of the poetry and romance of +coffee centers around this time.</p> + +<p>"The history of coffee houses," says D'Israeli, "ere the invention of +clubs, was that of the manners, the morals and the politics of a +people." And so the history of the London coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is indeed the history of the +manners and customs of the English people of that period.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The First London Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>"The first coffee house in London," says John Aubrey (1626–97), the +English antiquary and folklorist, "was in St. Michael's Alley, in +Cornhill, opposite to the church, which was sett up by one ... Bowman +(coachman to Mr. Hodges, a Turkey merchant, who putt him upon it) in or +about the yeare 1652. 'Twas about four years before any other was sett +up, and that was by Mr. Farr. Jonathan Paynter, over-against to St. +Michael's Church, was the first apprentice to the trade, viz., to +Bowman."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> + +<p>Another account, for which we are indebted to William Oldys (1696–1761), +the bibliographer, relates that Mr. Edwards, a London merchant, acquired +the coffee habit in Turkey, and brought home with him from Ragusa, in +Dalmatia, Pasqua Rosée, an Armenian or Greek youth, who prepared the +beverage for him. "But the novelty thereof," says Oldys, "drawing too +much company to him, he allowed the said servant with another of his +son-in-law to set up the first coffee house in London at St. Michael's +Alley, in Cornhill."</p> + +<p>From this it would appear that Pasqua Rosée had as partner in this +enterprise, the Bowman, who, according to Aubrey, was coachman to Mr. +Hodges, the son-in-law of Mr. Edwards, and a fellow merchant traveler.</p> + +<p>Oldys tells us that Rosée and Bowman soon separated. John Timbs +(1801–1875), another English antiquary, says they quarreled, Rosée +keeping the house, and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> partner Bowman obtaining leave to pitch a +tent and to sell the drink in St. Michael's churchyard.</p> + +<p>Still another version of this historic incident is to be found in +<i>Houghton's Collection</i>, 1698. It reads:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">It appears that a Mr. Daniel Edwards, an English merchant of +Smyrna, brought with him to this country a Greek of the name of +Pasqua, in 1652, who made his coffee; this Mr. Edwards married one +Alderman Hodges's daughter, who lived in Walbrook, and set up +Pasqua for a coffee man in a shed in the churchyard in St. Michael, +Cornhill, which is now a scrivener's brave-house, when, having +great custom, the ale-sellers petitioned the Lord Mayor against him +as being no freeman. This made Alderman Hodges join his coachman, +Bowman, who was free, as Pasqua's partner; but Pasqua, for some +misdemeanor, was forced to run the country, and Bowman, by his +trade and a contribution of 1000 sixpences, turned the shed to a +house. Bowman's apprentices were first, John Painter, then Humphry, +from whose wife I had this account.</p></div> + +<p>This account makes it appear that Edwards was Hodges' son-in-law. +Whatever the relationship, most authorities agree that Pasqua Rosée was +the first to sell coffee publicly, whether in a tent or shed, in London +in or about the year 1652. His original shop-bill, or handbill, the +first advertisement for coffee, is in the British Museum, and from it +the accompanying photograph was made for this work. It sets forth in +direct fashion: "The Vertue of the <i>COFFEE</i> Drink First publiquely made +and sold in England, by <i>Pasqua Rosée</i> ... in St. <i>Michaels Alley</i> in +<i>Cornhill</i> ... at the Signe of his own Head."<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> + +<p>H.R. Fox Bourne<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> (about 1870) is alone in an altogether different +version of this historic event. He says:</p> + +<p>"In 1652 Sir Nicholas Crispe, a Levant merchant, opened in London the +first coffee house known in England, the beverage being prepared by a +Greek girl brought over for the work."</p> + +<p>There is nothing to substantiate this story; the preponderance of +evidence is in support of the Edwards-Rosée version.</p> + +<p>Such then was the advent of the coffee house in London, which introduced +to English-speaking people the drink of democracy. Oddly enough, coffee +and the Commonwealth came in together. The English coffee house, like +its French contemporary, was the home of liberty.</p> + +<p>Robinson, who accepts that version of the event wherein Edwards marries +Hodges's daughter, says that after the partners Rosée and Bowman +separated, and Bowman had set up his tent opposite Rosée, a zealous +partisan addressed these verses "To Pasqua Rosée, at the Sign of his own +Head and half his Body in St. Michael's Alley, next the first +Coffee-Tent in London":</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Were not the fountain of my Tears<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Each day exhausted by the steam</span><br /> +Of your Coffee, no doubt appears<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But they would swell to such a stream</span><br /> +As could admit of no restriction<br /> +To see, poor Pasqua, thy Affliction.<br /> +<br /> +What! Pasqua, you at first did broach<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">This Nectar for the publick Good,</span><br /> +Must you call Kitt down from the Coach<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To drive a Trade he understood</span><br /> +No more than you did then your creed,<br /> +Or he doth now to write or read?<br /> +<br /> +Pull Courage, Pasqua, fear no Harms<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">From the besieging Foe;</span><br /> +Make good your Ground, stand to your Arms,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hold out this summer, and then tho'</span><br /> +He'll storm, he'll not prevail—your Face<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a><br /> +Shall give the Coffee Pot the chace.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Eventually Pasqua Rosée disappeared, some say to open a coffee house on +the Continent, in Holland or Germany. Bowman, having married Alderman +Hodges's cook, and having also prevailed upon about a thousand of his +customers to lend him sixpence apiece, converted his tent into a +substantial house, and eventually took an apprentice to the trade.</p> + +<p>Concerning London's second coffee-house keeper, James Farr, proprietor +of the Rainbow, who had as his most distinguished visitor Sir Henry +Blount, Edward Hatton<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">I find it recorded that one James Farr, a barber, who kept the +coffee-house which is now the Rainbow, by the Inner Temple Gate +(one of the first in England), was in the year 1657, prosecuted by +the inquest of St Dunstan's in the West, for making and selling a +sort of liquor called coffe, as a great nuisance and prejudice to +the neighborhood, etc., and who would then have thought London +would ever have had near three thousand such nuisances, and that +coffee would have been, as now, so much drank by the best of +quality and physicians?</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="FIRST_ADVERTISEMENT_FOR_COFFEE_1652" id="FIRST_ADVERTISEMENT_FOR_COFFEE_1652"></a> +<img src="images/image28.jpg" width="400" height="695" alt="FIRST ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE—1652" title="" /> +<span class="caption">FIRST ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE—1652</span> +<p class="center"><small>Handbill used by Pasqua Rosée, who opened the first coffee house in +London From the original in the British Museum</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p><p>Hatton evidently attributed Fair's nuisance to the coffee itself, +whereas the presentment<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> clearly shows it was in Farr's chimney and +not in the coffee.</p> + +<p>Mention has already been made that Sir Henry Blount was spoken of as +"the father of English coffee houses" and his claim to this distinction +would seem to be a valid one, for his strong personality "stamped itself +upon the system." His favorite motto, "<i>Loquendum est cum vulgo, +sentiendum cum sapientibus</i>" (the crowd may talk about it; the wise +decide it), says Robinson, "expresses well their colloquial purpose, and +was natural enough on the lips of one whose experience had been world +wide." Aubrey says of Sir Henry Blount, "He is now neer or altogether +eighty yeares, his intellectuals good still and body pretty strong."</p> + +<p>Women played a not inconspicuous part in establishing businesses for the +sale of the coffee drink in England, although the coffee houses were not +for both sexes, as in other European countries. The London City +<i>Quaeries</i> for 1660 makes mention of "a she-coffee merchant." Mary +Stringar ran a coffee house in Little Trinity Lane in 1669; Anne Blunt +was mistress of one of the Turk's-Head houses in Cannon Street in 1672. +Mary Long was the widow of William Long, and her initials, together with +those of her husband, appear on a token issued from the Rose tavern in +Bridge Street, Covent Garden. Mary Long's token from the "Rose coffee +house by the playhouse" in Covent Garden is shown among the group of +coffee-house keepers' tokens herein illustrated.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The First Newspaper Advertisement</i></p> + +<p>The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appeared, May 26, 1657, in +the <i>Publick Adviser</i> of London, one of the first weekly pamphlets. The +name of this publication was erroneously given as the <i>Publick +Advertiser</i> by an early writer on coffee, and the error has been copied +by succeeding writers. The first newspaper advertisement was contained +in the issue of the <i>Publick Adviser</i> for the week of May 19 to May 26, +and read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In <i>Bartholomew</i> Lane on the back side of the Old Exchange, the +drink called <i>Coffee</i>, (which is a very wholsom and Physical drink, +having many excellent vertues, closes the Orifice of the Stomack, +fortifies the heat within, helpeth Digestion, quickneth the +Spirits, maketh the heart lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, +Coughs, or Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Dropsie, Gout, +Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others is to be sold both in the +morning, and at three of the clock in the afternoon).</p></div> + +<p>Chocolate was also advertised for sale in London this same year. The +issue of the <i>Publick Adviser</i> for June 16, 1657, contained this +announcement:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In Bishopgate Street, in Queen's Head Alley, at a Frenchman's house +is an excellent West India drink called chocolate, to be sold, +where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade at +reasonable rates.</p></div> + +<p>Tea was first sold publicly at Garraway's (or Garway's) in 1657.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Strange Coffee Mixtures</i></p> + +<p>The doctors were loath to let coffee escape from the mysteries of the +pharmacopœia and become "a simple and refreshing beverage" that any +one might obtain for a penny in the coffee houses, or, if preferred, +might prepare at home. In this they were aided and abetted by many +well-meaning but misguided persons (some of them men of considerable +intelligence) who seemed possessed of the idea that the coffee drink was +an unpleasant medicine that needed something to take away its curse, or +else that it required a complex method of preparation. Witness "Judge" +Walter Rumsey's <i>Electuary of Cophy</i>, which appeared in 1657 in +connection with a curious work of his called <i>Organon Salutis: an +instrument to cleanse the stomach</i>.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> The instrument itself was a +flexible whale-bone, two or three feet long, with a small linen or silk +button at the end, and was designed to be introduced into the stomach to +produce the effect of an emetic. The electuary of coffee was to be taken +by the patient before and after using the instrument, which the "judge" +called his <i>Provang</i>. And this was the "judge's" "new and superior way +of preparing coffee" as found in his prescription for making electuary +of cophy:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Take equal quantity of Butter and Sallet-oyle, melt them well +together, but not boyle them: Then stirre them well that they may +incorporate together: Then melt therewith three times as much +Honey, and stirre it well together: Then add thereunto powder of +Turkish Cophie, to make it a thick Electuary.</p></div> + +<p>A little consideration will convince any one that the electuary was most +likely to achieve the purpose for which it was recommended.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="THE_FIRST_NEWSPAPER_ADVERTISEMENT_FOR_COFFEE_1657" id="THE_FIRST_NEWSPAPER_ADVERTISEMENT_FOR_COFFEE_1657"></a> +<img src="images/image29.jpg" width="400" height="722" alt="THE FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE—1657" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE—1657</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p><p>Another concoction invented by the "judge" was known as "wash-brew", +and included oatmeal, powder of "cophie", a pint of ale or any wine, +ginger, honey, or sugar to please the taste; to these ingredients butter +might be added and any cordial powder or pleasant spice. It was to be +put into a flannel bag and "so keep it at pleasure like starch." This +was a favorite medicine among the common people of Wales.</p> + +<p>The book contained in a prefix an interesting historical document in the +shape of a letter from James Howell (1595–1666) the writer and +historiographer, which read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Touching coffee, I concurre with them in opinion, who hold it to be +that black-broth which was us'd of old in Lacedemon, whereof the +Poets sing; Surely it must needs be salutiferous, because so many +sagacious, and the wittiest sort of Nations use it so much; as they +who have conversed with Shashes and Turbants doe well know. But, +besides the exsiccant quality it hath to dry up the crudities of +the Stomach, as also to comfort the Brain, to fortifie the sight +with its steem, and prevent Dropsies, Gouts, the Scurvie, together +with the Spleen and Hypocondriacall windes (all which it doth +without any violance or distemper at all.) I say, besides all these +qualities, 'tis found already, that this Coffee-drink hath caused a +greater sobriety among the nations; for whereas formerly +Apprentices and Clerks with others, used to take their mornings' +draught in Ale, Beer or Wine, which by the dizziness they cause in +the Brain, make many unfit for business, they use now to play the +Good-fellows in this wakefull and civill drink: Therefore that +worthy Gentleman, Mr. Mudiford<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>, who introduced the practice +hereof first to London, deserves much respect of the whole nation.</p></div> + +<p>The coffee drink at one time was mixed with sugar candy, and also with +mustard. In the coffee houses, however, it was usually served black; +"few people then mixed it with either sugar or milk."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Fantastic Coffee Claims</i></p> + +<p>One can not fail to note in connection with the introduction of coffee +into England that the beverage suffered most from the indiscretions of +its friends. On the one hand, the quacks of the medical profession +sought to claim it for their own; and, on the other, more or less +ignorant laymen attributed to the drink such virtues as its real +champions among the physicians never dreamed of. It was the favorite +pastime of its friends to exaggerate coffee's merits; and of its +enemies, to vilify its users. All this furnished good "copy" for and +against the coffee house, which became the central figure in each new +controversy.</p> + +<p>From the early English author who damned it by calling it "more +wholesome than toothsome", to Pasqua Rosée and his contemporaries, who +urged its more fantastic claims, it was forced to make its way through a +veritable morass of misunderstanding and intolerance. No harmless drink +in history has suffered more at hands of friend and foe.</p> + +<p>Did its friends hail it as a panacea, its enemies retorted that it was a +slow poison. In France and in England there were those who contended +that it produced melancholy, and those who argued it was a cure for the +same. Dr. Thomas Willis (1621–1673), a distinguished Oxford physician +whom Antoine Portal (1742–1832) called "one of the greatest geniuses +that ever lived", said he would sometimes send his patients to the +coffee house rather than to the apothecary's shop. An old broadside, +described later in this chapter, stressed the notion that if you "do but +this Rare ARABIAN cordial use, and thou may'st all the Doctors Slops +Refuse."</p> + +<p>As a cure for drunkenness its "magic" power was acclaimed by its +friends, and grudgingly admitted by its foes. This will appear presently +in a description of the war of the broadsides and the pamphlets. Coffee +was praised by one writer as a deodorizer. Another (Richard Bradley), in +his treatise concerning its use with regard to the plague, said if its +qualities had been fully known in 1665, "Dr. Hodges and other learned +men of that time would have recommended it." As a matter of fact, in +Gideon Harvey's <i>Advice against the Plague</i>, published in 1665, we find, +"coffee is commended against the contagion."</p> + +<p>This is how the drink's sobering virtue was celebrated by the author of +the <i>Rebellious Antidote</i>:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Come, Frantick Fools, leave off your Drunken fits.<br /> +Obsequious be and I'll recall your Wits,<br /> +From perfect Madness to a modest Strain<br /> +For farthings four I'll fetch you back again,<br /> +Enable all your mene with tricks of State,<br /> +Enter and sip and then attend your Fate;<br /> +Come Drunk or Sober, for a gentle Fee,<br /> +Come n'er so Mad, I'll your Physician be.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Dr. Willis, in his <i>Pharmaceutice Rationalis</i> (1674), was one of the +first to attempt to do justice to both sides of the coffee question. At +best, he thought it a somewhat risky beverage, and its votaries must,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +in some cases, be prepared to suffer languor and even paralysis; it may +attack the heart and cause tremblings in the limbs. On the other hand it +may, if judiciously used, prove a marvelous benefit; "being daily drunk +it wonderfully clears and enlightens each part of the Soul and disperses +all the clouds of every Function."</p> + +<p>It was a long time before recognition was obtained for the truth about +the "novelty drink"; especially that, if there were any beyond purely +social virtues to be found in coffee, they were "political rather than +medical."</p> + +<p>Dr. James Duncan, of the Faculty of Montpellier, in his book <i>Wholesome +Advice against the Abuse of Hot Liquors</i>, done into English in 1706, +found coffee no more deserving of the name of panacea than that of +poison.</p> + +<p>George Cheyne (1671–1743), the noted British physician, proclaimed his +neutrality in the words, "I have neither great praise nor bitter blame +for the thing."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Prices and Coffee Licenses</i></p> + +<p>Coffee, with tea and chocolate, was first mentioned in the English +Statute books in 1660, when a duty of four pence was laid upon every +gallon made and sold, "to be paid by the maker." Coffee was classed by +the House of Commons with "other outlandish drinks."</p> + +<p>It is recorded in 1662 that "the right coffee powder" was being sold at +the Turk's Head coffee house in Exchange Alley for "4s. to 6s. 8d. per +pound; that pounded in a mortar, 2s; East India berry, 1s. 6d.; and the +right Turkie berry, well garbled [ground] at 3s. The ungarbled [in the +bean] for less with directions how to use the same." Chocolate was also +to be had at "2s. 6d. the pound; the perfumed from 4s. to 10s."</p> + +<p>At one time coffee sold for five guineas a pound in England, and even +forty crowns (about forty-eight dollars) a pound was paid for it.</p> + +<p>In 1663, all English coffee houses were required to be licensed; the fee +was twelve pence. Failure to obtain a license was punished by a fine of +five pounds for every month's violation of the law. The coffee houses +were under close surveillance by government officials. One of these was +Muddiman, a good scholar and an "arch rogue", who had formerly "written +for the Parliament" but who later became a paid spy. L'Estrange, who had +a patent on "the sole right of intelligence", wrote in his +<i>Intelligencer</i> that he was alarmed at the ill effects of "the ordinary +written papers of Parliament's news ... making coffee houses and all the +popular clubs judges of those councils and deliberations which they have +nothing to do with at all."</p> + +<p>The first royal warrant for coffee was given by Charles II to Alexander +Man, a Scotsman who had followed General Monk to London, and set up in +Whitehall. Here he advertised himself as "coffee man to Charles II."</p> + +<p>Owing to increased taxes on tea, coffee, and newspapers, near the end of +Queen Anne's reign (1714) coffee-house keepers generally raised their +prices as follows: Coffee, two pence per dish; green tea, one and a half +pence per dish. All drams, two pence per dram. At retail, coffee was +then sold for five shillings per pound; while tea brought from twelve to +twenty-eight shillings per pound.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Club of The Rota</i></p> + +<p>"Coffee and Commonwealth", says a pamphleteer of 1665, "came in together +for a Reformation, to make 's a free and sober nation." The writer +argues that liberty of speech should be allowed, "where men of differing +judgements croud"; and he adds, "that's a coffee-house, for where should +men discourse so free as there?" Robinson's comments are apt:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Now perhaps we do not always connect the ideas of sociableness and +freedom of discussion with the days of Puritan rule; yet it must be +admitted that something like geniality and openness characterized +what Pepys calls the Coffee Club of the Rota. This "free and open +Society of ingenious gentlemen" was founded in the year 1659 by +certain members of the Republican party, whose peculiar opinions +had been timidly expressed and not very cordially tolerated under +the Great Oliver. By the weak Government that followed, these views +were regarded with extreme dislike and with some amount of terror.</p></div> + +<p>"They met", says Aubrey, who was himself of their number, "at the Turk's +Head [Miles's coffee house] in New Palace Yard, Westminster, where they +take water, at one Miles's, the next house to the staires, where was +made purposely a large ovall table, with a passage in the middle for +Miles to deliver his coffee."</p> + +<p>Robinson continues:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">This curious refreshment bar and the interest with which the +beverage itself was regarded, were quite secondary to the +excitement caused<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> by another novelty. When, after heated +disputation, a member desired to test the opinion of the meeting, +any particular point might, by agreement, be put to the vote and +then everything depended upon "our wooden oracle," the first +balloting-box ever seen in England. Formal methods of procedure and +the intensely practical nature of the subjects discussed, combined +to give a real importance to this Amateur Parliament.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="A_Coffee_House_in_the_Time_of_Charles_II" id="A_Coffee_House_in_the_Time_of_Charles_II"></a> +<img src="images/image30.jpg" width="400" height="215" alt="A Coffee House in the Time of Charles II" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Coffee House in the Time of Charles II</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a wood cut of 1674</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The Rota, or Coffee Club, as Pepys called it, was essentially a debating +society for the dissemination of republican opinions. It was preceded +only, in the reign of Henry IV, by the club called La Court de Bone +Compagnie; by Sir Walter Raleigh's Friday Street, or Bread Street, club; +the club at the Mermaid tavern in Bread Street, of which Shakespeare, +Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh, Selden, Donne, <i>et al.</i>, were members; and +"rare" Ben Jonson's Devil tavern club, between Middle Temple Gate and +Temple Bar.</p> + +<p>The Rota derived its name from a plan, which it was designed to promote, +for changing a certain number of members of parliament annually by +rotation. It was founded by James Harrington, who had painted it in +fairest colors in his <i>Oceana</i>, that ideal commonwealth.</p> + +<p>Sir William Petty was one of its members. Around the table, "in a room +every evening as full as it could be crammed," says Aubrey, sat Milton +(?) and Marvell, Cyriac Skinner, Harrington, Nevill, and their friends, +discussing abstract political questions.</p> + +<p>The Rota became famous for its literary strictures. Among these was "The +censure of the Rota upon Mr. Milton's book entitled <i>The ready and easie +way to establish a free commonwealth</i>" (1660), although it is doubtful +if Milton was ever a visitor to this "bustling coffee club." The Rota +also censured "Mr. Driden's <i>Conquest of Granada</i>" (1673).</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Early Coffee-House Manners and Customs</i></p> + +<p>Among many of the early coffee-house keepers there was great anxiety +that the coffee house, open to high and low, should be conducted under +such restraints as might secure the better class of customers from +annoyance. The following set of regulations in somewhat halting rhyme +was displayed on the walls of several of the coffee houses in the +seventeenth century:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="smcap">The Rules and Orders of the Coffee House.</span><br /> +<br /> +Enter, Sirs, freely, but first, if you please,<br /> +Peruse our civil orders, which are these.<br /> +<br /> +First, gentry, tradesmen, all are welcome hither,<br /> +And may without affront sit down together:<br /> +Pre-eminence of place none here should mind,<br /> +But take the next fit seat that he can find:<br /> +Nor need any, if finer persons come,<br /> +Rise up to assigne to them his room;<br /> +To limit men's expence, we think not fair,<br /> +But let him forfeit twelve-pence that shall swear;<br /> +He that shall any quarrel here begin,<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>Shall give each man a dish t' atone the sin;<br /> +And so shall he, whose compliments extend<br /> +So far to drink in <i>coffee</i> to his friend;<br /> +Let noise of loud disputes be quite forborne,<br /> +No maudlin lovers here in corners mourn,<br /> +But all be brisk and talk, but not too much,<br /> +On sacred things, let none presume to touch.<br /> +Nor profane Scripture, nor sawcily wrong<br /> +Affairs of state with an irreverent tongue:<br /> +Let mirth be innocent, and each man see<br /> +That all his jests without reflection be;<br /> +To keep the house more quiet and from blame,<br /> +We banish hence cards, dice, and every game;<br /> +Nor can allow of wagers, that exceed<br /> +Five shillings, which ofttimes much trouble breed;<br /> +Let all that's lost or forfeited be spent<br /> +In such good liquor as the house doth vent.<br /> +And customers endeavour, to their powers,<br /> +For to observe still, seasonable hours.<br /> +Lastly, let each man what he calls for pay,<br /> +And so you're welcome to come every day.<br /> +</p> + +<p>The early coffee houses were often up a flight of stairs, and consisted +of a single large room with "tables set apart for divers topics." There +is a reference to this in the prologue to a comedy of 1681 (quoted by +Malone):</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In a coffee house just now among the rabble<br /> +I bluntly asked, which is the treason table?<br /> +</p> + +<p>This was the arrangement at Man's and others favored by the wits, the +<i>literati</i>, and "men of fashionable instincts." In the distinctly +business coffee houses separate rooms were provided at a later time for +mercantile transactions. The introduction of wooden partitions—wooden +boxes, as at a tavern—was also of somewhat later date.</p> + +<p>A print of 1674 shows five persons of different ranks in life, one of +them smoking, sitting on chairs around a coffee-house table, on which +are small basins, or dishes, without saucers, and tobacco pipes, while a +coffee boy is serving coffee.</p> + +<p>In the beginning, only coffee was dispensed in the English coffee +houses. Soon chocolate, sherbert, and tea were added; but the places +still maintained their status as social and temperance factors. +Constantine Jennings (or George Constantine) of the Grecian advertised +chocolate, sherbert and tea at retail in 1664–65; also free instruction +in the part of preparing these liquors. "Drams and cordial waters were +to be had only at coffee houses newly set up," says Elford the younger, +writing about 1689. "While some few places added ale and beer as early +as 1669, intoxicating liquors were not items of importance for many +years."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="A_London_Coffee_House_of_the_Seventeenth_Century" id="A_London_Coffee_House_of_the_Seventeenth_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image31.jpg" width="300" height="569" alt="A London Coffee House of the Seventeenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A London Coffee House of the Seventeenth Century</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a wood cut of the period</small></p> +</div> + +<p>After the fire of 1666, many new coffee houses were opened that were not +limited to a single room up a flight of stairs. Because the coffee-house +keepers over-emphasized the sobering qualities of the coffee drink, they +drew many undesirable characters from the taverns and ale houses after +the nine o'clock closing hour. These were hardly calculated to improve +the reputation of the coffee houses; and, indeed, the decline of the +coffee houses as a temperance institution would seem to trace back to +this attitude of false pity for the victims of tavern vices, evils that +many of the coffee houses later on embraced to their own undoing. The +early institution was unique, its distinctive features being unlike +those of any public house in England or on the Continent. Later on, in +the eighteenth century, when these distinctive features<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> became +obscured, the name coffee house became a misnomer.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_House_Queen_Anne39s_Time_1702ndash14" id="Coffee_House_Queen_Anne39s_Time_1702ndash14"></a> +<img src="images/image32.jpg" width="300" height="478" alt="Coffee House, Queen Anne's Time—1702–14" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee House, Queen Anne's Time—1702–14</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Showing coffee pots, coffee dishes, and coffee boy</small></p> +</div> + +<p>However, Robinson says, "the close intercourse between the habitués of +the coffee house, before it lost anything of its generous social +traditions and whilst the issue of the struggle for political liberty +was as yet uncertain, was to lead to something more than a mere jumbling +or huddling together of opposites. The diverse elements gradually united +in the bonds of common sympathy, or were forcibly combined by +persecution from without until there resulted a social, political and +moral force of almost irresistible strength."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee-House Keepers' Tokens</i></p> + +<p>The great London fire of 1666 destroyed some of the coffee houses; but +prominent among those that survived was the Rainbow, whose proprietor, +James Farr, issued one of the earliest coffee-house tokens, doubtless in +grateful memory of his escape. Farr's token shows an arched rainbow +emerging from the clouds of the "great fire," indicating that all was +well with him, and the Rainbow still radiant. On the reverse the medal +was inscribed, "In Fleet Street—His Half Penny."</p> + +<p>A large number of these trade coins were put out by coffee-house keepers +and other tradesmen in the seventeenth century as evidence of an amount +due, as stated thereon, by the issuer to the holder. Tokens originated +because of the scarcity of small change. They were of brass, copper, +pewter, and even leather, gilded. They bore the name, address, and +calling of the issuer, the nominal value of the piece, and some +reference to his trade. They were readily redeemed, on presentation, at +their face value. They were passable in the immediate neighborhood, +seldom reaching farther than the next street. C.G. Williamson writes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Tokens are essentially democratic; they would never have been +issued but for the indifference of the Government to a public need; +and in them we have a remarkable instance of a people forcing a +legislature to comply with demands at once reasonable and +imperative. Taken as a whole series, they are homely and quaint, +wanting in beauty, but not without a curious domestic art of their +own.</p></div> + +<p>Robinson finds an exception to the general simplicity in the tokens +issued by one of the Exchange Alley houses. The dies of these tokens are +such as to have suggested the skilled workmanship of John Roettier. The +most ornate has the head of a Turkish sultan at that time famed for his +horrible deeds, ending in suicide; its inscription runs:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Morat ye Great Men did mee call;<br /> +Where Eare I came I conquer'd all.<br /> +</p> + +<p>A number of the most interesting coffee-house keepers' tokens in the +Beaufoy collection in the Guildhall Museum were photographed for this +work, and are shown herewith. It will be observed that many of the +traders of 1660–75 adopted as their trade sign a hand pouring coffee +from a pot, invariably of the Turkish-ewer pattern. Morat (Amurath) and +Soliman were frequent coffee-house signs in the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>J.H. Burn, in his <i>Catalogue of Traders' Tokens</i>, recites that in 1672 +"divers persons who presumed ... to stamp, coin, exchange and distribute +farthings, halfpence and pence of brass and copper" were "taken into +custody, in order to a severe prosecution"; but upon submission, their +offenses were forgiven, and it was not until the year 1675 that the +private token ceased to pass current.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PLATE_1_COFFEE-HOUSE_KEEPERS39_TOKENS_OF_THE_17TH_CENTURY" id="PLATE_1_COFFEE-HOUSE_KEEPERS39_TOKENS_OF_THE_17TH_CENTURY"></a> +<img src="images/image33.jpg" width="500" height="697" alt="PLATE 1—COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE 1—COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY</span> +<p class="center"><small>Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the +Beaufoy collection at the Guildhall Museum</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p><p>A royal proclamation at the close of 1674 enjoined the prosecution of +any who should "utter base metals with private stamps," or "hinder the +vending of those half pence and farthings which are provided for +necessary exchange." After this, tokens were issued stamped "necessary +change."</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a name="A_Broad-side_of_1663" id="A_Broad-side_of_1663"></a><a href="images/image34a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image34.jpg" width="400" height="476" alt="A Broad-side of 1663" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Broad-side of 1663</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Opposition to the Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>It is easy to see why the coffee houses at once found favor among men of +intelligence in all classes. Until they came, the average Englishman had +only the tavern as a place of common resort. But here was a public house +offering a non-intoxicating beverage, and its appeal was instant and +universal. As a meeting place for the exchange of ideas it soon attained +wide popularity. But not without opposition. The publicans and ale-house +keepers, seeing business slipping away from them, made strenuous +propaganda against this new social center; and not a few attacks were +launched against the coffee drink. Between the Restoration and the year +1675, of eight tracts written upon the subject of the London coffee +houses, four have the words "character of a coffee house" as part of +their titles. The authors appear eager to impart a knowledge of the +town's latest novelty, with which many readers were unacquainted.</p> + +<p>One of these early pamphlets (1662) was entitled <i>The Coffee Scuffle</i>, +and professed to give a dialogue between "a learned knight and a +pitifull pedagogue," and contained an amusing account of a house where +the Puritan element was still in the ascendant. A numerous company is +present, and each little group being occupied with its own subject, the +general effect is that of another Babel. While one is engaged in quoting +the classics, another confides to his neighbors how much he admires +Euclid;</p> + +<p class="poem"> +A third's for a lecture, a fourth a conjecture,<br /> +A fifth for a penny in the pound.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Theology is introduced. Mask balls and plays are condemned. Others again +discuss the news, and are deep in the store of "mercuries" here to be +found. One cries up philosophy. Pedantry is rife, and for the most part +unchecked, when each 'prentice-boy "doth call for his coffee in Latin" +and all are so prompt with their learned quotations that "'t would make +a poor Vicar to tremble."</p> + +<p>The first noteworthy effort attacking the coffee drink was a satirical +broadside that appeared in 1663. It was entitled <i>A Cup of Coffee: or, +Coffee in its Colours</i>. It said:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +For men and Christians to turn Turks, and think<br /> +T'excuse the Crime because 'tis in their drink,<br /> +Is more than Magick....<br /> +Pure English Apes! Ye may, for ought I know,<br /> +Would it but mode, learn to eat Spiders too.<br /> +</p> + +<p>The writer wonders that any man should prefer coffee to canary, and +refers to the days of Beaumont, Fletcher, and Ben Jonson. He says:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +They drank pure nectar as the gods drink too,<br /> +Sublim'd with rich Canary....<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 15em;">shall then</span><br /> +These less than coffee's self, these coffee-men,<br /> +These sons of nothing, that can hardly make<br /> +Their Broth, for laughing how the jest doth take;<br /> +Yet grin, and give ye for the Vine's pure Blood<br /> +A loathsome potion, not yet understood,<br /> +Syrrop of soot, or Essence of old Shooes,<br /> +Dasht with Diurnals and the Books of news?<br /> +</p> + +<p>The author of <i>A Cup of Coffee</i>, it will be seen, does not shrink from +using epithets.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PLATE_2_COFFEE-HOUSE_KEEPERS39_TOKENS_OF_THE_17TH_CENTURY" id="PLATE_2_COFFEE-HOUSE_KEEPERS39_TOKENS_OF_THE_17TH_CENTURY"></a> +<img src="images/image35.jpg" width="500" height="704" alt="PLATE 2—COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLATE 2—COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY</span> +</div> + +<p>Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the +Beaufoy collection at the Guildhall Museum]</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p><p><i>The Coffee Man's Granado Discharged upon the Maiden's Complaint +Against Coffee</i>, a dialogue in verse, also appeared in 1663.</p> + +<p><i>The Character of a Coffee House, by an Eye and Ear Witness</i> appeared in +1665. It was a ten-page pamphlet, and proved to be excellent propaganda +for coffee. It is so well done, and contains so much local color, that +it is reproduced here, the text Museum. The title page reads:</p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Pamphlet"> +<tr> + <td>The<br /> +<span class="smcap">Character</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">of a</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Coffee-House</span><br /> +wherein<br /> +Is contained a Description of the Persons<br /> +usually frequenting it, with their Discourse<br /> +and Humors,<br /> +As Also<br /> +The Admirable Vertues of<br /> +COFFEE<br /> +By an Eye and Ear Witness</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='left'> +<i>When Coffee once was vended here,<br /> +The Alc'ron shortly did appear,<br /> +For our Reformers were such Widgeons.<br /> +New Liquors brought in new Religions.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Printed in the Year, 1665.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The text and the arrangement of the body of the pamphlet are as follows:</p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="The Character of a Coffee-House"> +<tr><td> +<span class="smcap">The<br /> +Character<br /> +of a<br /> +Coffee-House</span></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class="ampm">THE DERIVATION OF<br /> +A COFFEE-HOUSE</span><br /> +<br /> +A <i>Coffee-house</i>, the learned hold<br /> +It is a place where <i>Coffee's</i> sold;<br /> +This derivation cannot fail us,<br /> +For where <i>Ale's</i> vended, that's an <i>Ale-house</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">This being granted to be true,</span><br /> +'Tis meet that next the <i>Signs</i> we shew<br /> +Both <i>where</i> and <i>how</i> to find this house<br /> +Where men such <i>cordial broth</i> carowse.<br /> +And if <i>Culpepper</i> woon some glory<br /> +In turning the <i>Dispensatory</i><br /> +From <i>Latin</i> into <i>English</i>; then<br /> +Why should not all good <i>English men</i><br /> +Give him much thanks who shews a <i>cure</i><br /> +For all diseases men endure?<br /> +<br /> +<span class="ampm">SIGNS: HOW TO<br /> +FIND IT OUT</span><br /> +<br /> +As you along the streets do trudge,<br /> +To take the pains you must not grudge,<br /> +To view the Posts or Broomsticks where<br /> +The Signs of <i>Liquors</i> hanged are.<br /> +And if you see the great <i>Morat</i><br /> +With Shash on's head instead of hat,<br /> +Or any <i>Sultan</i> in his dress,<br /> +Or picture of a <i>Sultaness</i>,<br /> +Or <i>John's</i> admir'd curled pate,<br /> +Or th' great <i>Mogul</i> in's Chair of State,<br /> +Or <i>Constantine</i> the <i>Grecian</i>,<br /> +Who fourteen years was th' onely man<br /> +That made <i>Coffee</i> for th' great <i>Bashaw</i>,<br /> +Although the man he never saw;<br /> +Or if you see a <i>Coffee</i>-cup<br /> +Fil'd from a Turkish pot, hung up<br /> +Within the clouds, and round it <i>Pipes</i>,<br /> +<i>Wax Candles</i>, <i>Stoppers</i>, these are types<br /> +And certain signs (with many more<br /> +Would be too long to write them 'ore,)<br /> +Which plainly do Spectators tell<br /> +That in that house they <i>Coffee</i> sell.<br /> +Some wiser than the rest (no doubt,)<br /> +Say they can by the smell find't out;<br /> +In at a door (say they,) but thrust<br /> +Your Nose, and if you scent <i>burnt Crust</i>,<br /> +Be sure there's <i>Coffee</i> sold that's good,<br /> +For so by most 'tis understood.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Now being enter'd, there's no needing</span><br /> +Of complements or gentile breeding,<br /> +For you may seat you any where,<br /> +There's no respect of persons there;<br /> +Then comes the <i>Coffee-man</i> to greet you,<br /> +With welcome Sir, let me entreat you,<br /> +To tell me what you'l please to have,<br /> +For I'm your humble, humble slave;<br /> +But if you ask, what good does Coffee?<br /> +He'l answer, Sir, don't think I scoff yee,<br /> +If I affirm there's no disease<br /> +Men have that drink it but find ease.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="ampm">THE VERTUES<br /> +OF COFFEE</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Look, there's a man who takes the steem</span><br /> +In at his Nose, has an extreme<br /> +<i>Worm</i> in his pate, and giddiness,<br /> +Ask him and he will say no less.<br /> +There sitteth one whose Droptick belly<br /> +Was hard as flint, now's soft as jelly.<br /> +There stands another holds his head<br /> +'Ore th' <i>Coffee</i>-pot, was almost dead<br /> +Even now with Rhume; ask him hee'l say<br /> +That all his Rhum's now past away.<br /> +See, there's a man sits now demure<br /> +And sober, was within this hour<br /> +Quite drunk, and comes here frequently,<br /> +For 'tis his daily Malady,<br /> +More, it has such reviving power<br /> +'Twill keep a man awake an houre,<br /> +Nay, make his eyes wide open stare<br /> +Both Sermon time and all the prayer.<br /> +Sir, should I tell you all the rest<br /> +O' th' cures 't has done, two hours at least<br /> +In numb'ring them I needs must spend,<br /> +Scarce able then to make an end.<br /> +Besides these vertues that's therein.<br /> +For any kind of <i>Medicine</i>,<br /> +The <i>Commonwealth-Kingdom</i> I'd say,<br /> +Has mighty reason for to pray<br /> +That still <i>Arabia</i> may produce<br /> +Enough of Berry for it's use:<br /> +For't has such strange magnetick force,<br /> +That it draws after't great concourse<br /> +Of all degrees of persons, even<br /> +From high to low, from morn till even;<br /> +Especially the <i>sober Party</i>,<br /> +And News-mongers do drink't most hearty<br /> +Here you'r not thrust into a <i>Box</i><br /> +As <i>Taverns</i> do to catch the <i>Fox</i>,<br /> +But as from th' top of <i>Pauls</i> high steeple,<br /> +Th' whole <i>City's</i> view'd, even so all <i>people</i><br /> +May here be seen; no secrets are<br /> +At th' <i>Court</i> for <i>Peace</i>, or th' <i>Camp</i> for <i>War</i>,<br /> +But straight they'r here disclos'd and known;<br /> +Men in this Age so wise are grown.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>Now (Sir) what profit may accrew<br /> +By this, to all good men, judge you.<br /> +With that he's loudly call'd upon<br /> +For <i>Coffee</i>, and then whip he's gone.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="ampm">THE COMPANY</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Here at a Table sits (perplext)</span><br /> +A griping <i>Usurer</i>, and next<br /> +To him a gallant <i>Furioso</i>,<br /> +Then nigh to him a <i>Virtuoso</i>;<br /> +A <i>Player</i> then (full fine) sits down,<br /> +And close to him a <i>Country Clown</i>.<br /> +O' th' other side sits some <i>Pragmatick</i>,<br /> +And next to him some sly <i>Phanatick</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="ampm">THE SEVERAL<br /> +LIQUORS</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The gallant he for <i>Tea</i> doth call,</span><br /> +The <i>Usurer</i> for nought at all.<br /> +The <i>Pragmatick</i> he doth intreat<br /> +That they will fill him some <i>Beau-cheat</i>,<br /> +The <i>Virtuoso</i> he cries hand me<br /> +Some <i>Coffee</i> mixt with <i>Sugar-candy</i>.<br /> +<i>Phanaticus</i> (at last) says come,<br /> +Bring me some <i>Aromaticum</i>.<br /> +The <i>Player</i> bawls for <i>Chocolate</i>,<br /> +All which the <i>Bumpkin</i> wond'ring at,<br /> +Cries, ho, my <i>Masters</i>, what d' ye speak,<br /> +D' ye call for drink in Heathen Greek?<br /> +Give me some good old <i>Ale</i> or <i>Beer</i>,<br /> +Or else I will not drink, I swear.<br /> +Then having charg'd their <i>Pipes</i> around.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="ampm">THEIR DISCOURSE</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">They silence break; First the profound</span><br /> +And sage <i>Phanatique</i>, Sirs what news?<br /> +Troth says the <i>Us'rer</i> I ne'r use<br /> +To tip my tongue with such discourse,<br /> +'Twere news to know how to disburse<br /> +A summ of mony (makes me sad)<br /> +To get ought by't, times are so bad.<br /> +The other answers, truly Sir<br /> +You speak but truth, for I'le aver<br /> +They ne'r were worse; did you not hear<br /> +What <i>prodigies</i> did late appear<br /> +At <i>Norwich, Ipswich, Grantham, Gotam</i>?<br /> +And though prophane ones do not not'em,<br /> +Yet we—Here th' <i>Virtuoso</i> stops<br /> +The current of his speech, with hopes<br /> +Quoth he, you will not tak'd amiss,<br /> +I say all's lies that's news like this,<br /> +For I have Factors all about<br /> +The Realm, so that no <i>Stars</i> peep out<br /> +That are unusual, much less these<br /> +Strange and unheard-of <i>prodigies</i><br /> +You would relate, but they are tost<br /> +To me in letters by first Post.<br /> +At which the <i>Furioso</i> swears<br /> +Such chat as this offends his ears<br /> +It rather doth become this Age<br /> +To talk of bloodshed, fury, rage,<br /> +And t' drink stout healths in brim-fill'd <i>Nogans</i>.<br /> +To th' downfall of the <i>Hogan Mogans</i>.<br /> +With that the <i>Player</i> doffs his Bonnet,<br /> +And tunes his voice as if a Sonnet<br /> +Were to be sung; then gently says,<br /> +O what delight there is in <i>Plays</i>!<br /> +Sure if we were but all in <i>Peace</i>,<br /> +This noise of <i>Wars</i> and <i>News</i> would cease;<br /> +All sorts of people then would club<br /> +Their pence to see a Play that's good.<br /> +You'l wonder all this while (perhaps)<br /> +The <i>Curioso</i> holds his chaps.<br /> +But he doth in his thoughts devise,<br /> +How to the rest he may seem wise;<br /> +Yet able longer not to hold,<br /> +His tedious tale too must be told,<br /> +And thus begins, Sirs unto me<br /> +It reason seems that liberty<br /> +Of speech and words should be allow'd<br /> +Where men of differing judgements croud,<br /> +And that's a <i>Coffee-house</i>, for where<br /> +Should men discourse so free as there?<br /> +<i>Coffee</i> and <i>Commonwealth</i> begin<br /> +Both with one letter, both came in<br /> +Together for a <i>Reformation</i>,<br /> +To make's a free and sober <i>Nation</i>.<br /> +But now—With that <i>Phanaticus</i><br /> +Gives him a nod, and speaks him thus,<br /> +Hold brother, I know your intent,<br /> +That's no dispute convenient<br /> +For this same place, truths seldome find<br /> +Acceptance here, they'r more confin'd<br /> +To <i>Taverns</i> and to <i>Ale-house</i> liquor,<br /> +Where men do vent their minds more quicker<br /> +If that may for a truth but pass<br /> +What's said, <i>In vino veritas</i>.<br /> +With that up starts the <i>Country Clown</i>,<br /> +And stares about with threatening frown.<br /> +As if he would even eat them all up.<br /> +Then bids the boy run quick and call up,<br /> +A <i>Constable</i>, for he has reason<br /> +To fear their Latin may be <i>treason</i><br /> +But straight they all call what's to pay,<br /> +Lay't down, and march each several way.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="ampm">THE COMPANY</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">At th' other table sits a Knight,</span><br /> +And here <i>a grave old man</i> ore right<br /> +Against his <i>worship</i>, then perhaps<br /> +That <i>by</i> and <i>by</i> a <i>Drawer</i> claps<br /> +His bum close by them, there down squats<br /> +<i>A dealer in old shoes and hats</i>;<br /> +And here withouten any panick<br /> +Fear, dread or care a bold <i>Mechanick</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="ampm">HEIR DISCOURSE</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The <i>Knight</i> (because he's so) he prates</span><br /> +Of matters far beyond their pates.<br /> +<i>The grave old man</i> he makes a bustle,<br /> +And his wise sentence in must justle.<br /> +Up starts th' <i>Apprentice boy</i> and he<br /> +Says boldly so and so't must be.<br /> +<i>The dealer in old shoes to</i> utter<br /> +His saying too makes no small sputter.<br /> +Then comes the pert <i>mechanick blade</i>,<br /> +And contradicts what all have said.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">There by the fier-side doth sit,</span><br /> +One freezing in an <i>Ague</i> fit.<br /> +Another poking in't with th' tongs,<br /> +Still ready to cough up his lungs<br /> +Here sitteth one that's melancolick,<br /> +And there one singing in a frolick.<br /> +Each one hath such a prety gesture,<br /> +At Smithfield fair would yield a tester.<br /> +Boy reach a pipe cries he that shakes,<br /> +The songster no Tobacco takes,<br /> +Says he who coughs, nor do I smoak,<br /> +Then <i>Monsieur Mopus</i> turns his cloak<br /> +Off from his face, and with a grave<br /> +Majestick beck his pipe doth crave.<br /> +They load their guns and fall a smoaking<br /> +Whilst he who coughs sits by a choaking,<br /> +Till he no longer can abide.<br /> +And so removes from th' fier side.<br /> +Now all this while none calls to drink,<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>Which makes the <i>Coffee boy</i> to think<br /> +Much they his pots should so enclose,<br /> +He cannot pass but tread on toes.<br /> +With that as he the <i>Nectar</i> fills<br /> +From pot to pot, some on't he spills<br /> +Upon the <i>Songster</i>. Oh cries he.<br /> +Pox, what dost do? thou'st burnt my knee;<br /> +No says the boy, (to make a bald<br /> +And blind excuse.) <i>Sir 'twill not scald</i>.<br /> +With that the man lends him a cuff<br /> +O' th' ear, and whips away in snuff.<br /> +The other two, their pipes being out,<br /> +Says <i>Monsieur Mopus</i> I much doubt<br /> +My friend I wait for will not come,<br /> +But if he do, say I'm gone home.<br /> +Then says the <i>Aguish man</i> I must come<br /> +According to my wonted custome,<br /> +To give ye' a visit, although now<br /> +I dare not drink, and so <i>adieu</i>.<br /> +The boy replies, O Sir, however<br /> +You'r very welcome, we do never<br /> +Our <i>Candles</i>, <i>Pipes</i> or <i>Fier</i> grutch<br /> +To daily customers and such,<br /> +They'r <i>Company</i> (without expence,)<br /> +For that's sufficient recompence.<br /> +Here at a table all alone,<br /> +Sits (studying) <i>a spruce youngster</i>, (one<br /> +Who doth conceipt himself fully witty,<br /> +And's counted <i>one o' th' wits o' th' City</i>,)<br /> +Till by him (with a stately grace,)<br /> +A Spanish <i>Don</i> himself doth place.<br /> +Then (cap in hand) a brisk <i>Monsieur</i><br /> +He takes his seat, and crowds as near<br /> +As possibly that he can come.<br /> +Then next a <i>Dutchman</i> takes his room.<br /> +The Wits glib tongue begins to chatter,<br /> +Though't utters more of noise than matter,<br /> +Yet 'cause they seem to mind his words,<br /> +His lungs more battle still affords<br /> +At last says he to <i>Don</i>, I trow<br /> +You understand me? <i>Sennor no</i><br /> +Says th' other. Here the Wit doth pause<br /> +A little while, then opes his jaws,<br /> +And says to <i>Monsieur</i>, you enjoy<br /> +Our tongue I hope? <i>Non par ma foy</i>,<br /> +Replies the <i>Frenchman</i>: nor you, Sir?<br /> +Says he to th' <i>Dutchman, Neen mynheer</i>,<br /> +With that he's gone, and cries, why sho'd<br /> +He stay where <i>wit's</i> not understood?<br /> +There in a place of his own chusing<br /> +(Alone) some <i>lover</i> sits a musing,<br /> +With arms across, and's eyes up lift,<br /> +As if he were of sence bereft.<br /> +Till sometimes to himself he's speaking,<br /> +Then sighs as if his heart were breaking.<br /> +Here in a corner sits a <i>Phrantick</i>,<br /> +And there stands by a frisking Antick,<br /> +Of all sorts some and all conditions<br /> +Even <i>Vintners</i>, <i>Surgeons</i> and <i>Physicians</i>.<br /> +The <i>blind</i>, the <i>deaf</i>, and <i>aged cripple</i><br /> +Do here resort and Coffee tipple.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Now here (perhaps) you may expect</span><br /> +My <i>Muse</i> some trophies should erect<br /> +In high flown verse, for to set forth<br /> +The <i>noble praises</i> of its <i>worth</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Truth is, <i>old Poets</i> beat their brains</span><br /> +To find out high and lofty strains<br /> +To praise the (now too frequent) use<br /> +Of the bewitching <i>grapes strong juice</i>,<br /> +Some have strain'd hard for to exalt<br /> +The <i>liquor</i> of our <i>English Mault</i><br /> +Nay <i>Don</i> has almost crackt his <i>nodle</i><br /> +Enough t'applaud his <i>Caaco Caudle</i>.<br /> +The <i>Germans Mum</i>, <i>Teag's Usquebagh</i>,<br /> +(Made him so well defend <i>Tredagh</i>,)<br /> +<i>Metheglin</i>, which the <i>Brittains</i> tope,<br /> +Hot <i>Brandy</i> wine, the <i>Hogans</i> hope.<br /> +Stout <i>Meade</i> which makes the <i>Russ</i> to laugh,<br /> +Spic'd <i>Punch</i> (in bowls) the <i>Indians quaff</i>.<br /> +All these have had their pens to raise<br /> +Them <i>Monuments</i> of lasting praise,<br /> +Onely poor <i>Coffee</i> seems to me<br /> +No subject fit for <i>Poetry</i><br /> +At least 'tis one that none of mine is,<br /> +So I do wave 't, and here write—<br /><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;">FINIS.</span><br /> +</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="A_Broad-side_of_1667" id="A_Broad-side_of_1667"></a><a href="images/image36a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image36.jpg" width="400" height="654" alt="A Broad-side of 1667" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Broad-side of 1667</span></span> +</div> + +<p><i>News from the Coffe House; in which is shewn their several sorts of +Passions</i> appeared in 1667. It was reprinted in 1672 as <i>The Coffee +House or News-mongers' Hall</i>.</p> + +<p>Several stanzas from these broadsides have been much quoted. They serve +to throw additional light upon the manners of the time, and upon the +kind of conversation met with in any well frequented coffee house of the +seventeenth century, particularly under the Stuarts. They are finely +descriptive of the company characteristics<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> of the early coffee houses. +The fifth stanza of the edition of 1667, inimical to the French, was +omitted when the broadside was amended and reprinted in 1672, the year +that England joined with France and again declared war on the Dutch. The +following verses with explanatory notes are from Timbs:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">News from the Coffe House</span></span><br /> +<br /> +You that delight in Wit and Mirth,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And long to hear such News,</span><br /> +As comes from all Parts of the <i>Earth</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Dutch</i>, <i>Danes</i>, and <i>Turks</i>, and <i>Jews</i>,</span><br /> +I'le send yee to a Rendezvouz,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Where it is smoaking new;</span><br /> +Go hear it at a <i>Coffe-house</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>It cannot but be true</i>.</span><br /> +<br /> +There Battles and Sea-Fights are Fought,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And bloudy Plots display'd;</span><br /> +They know more Things then ere was thought<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or ever was betray'd:</span><br /> +No Money in the Minting-house<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Is halfe so Bright and New;</span><br /> +And comming from a <i>Coffe-house</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>It cannot but be true</i>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Before the <i>Navyes</i> fall to Work,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">They know who shall be Winner;</span><br /> +They there can tell ye what the <i>Turk</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Last <i>Sunday</i> had to Dinner;</span><br /> +Who last did Cut <i>Du Ruitters</i><a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Corns,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amongst his jovial Crew;</span><br /> +Or Who first gave the <i>Devil</i> Horns,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Which cannot but be true</i>.</span><br /> +<br /> +A <i>Fisherman</i> did boldly tell,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And strongly did avouch,</span><br /> +He Caught a Shoal of Mackarel,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That Parley'd all in <i>Dutch</i>,</span><br /> +And cry'd out <i>Yaw, yaw, yaw Myne Here</i>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But as the Draught they Drew</span><br /> +They Stunck for fear, that <i>Monck<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> was there</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Which cannot but be true</i>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +There's nothing done in all the World,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">From <i>Monarch</i> to the <i>Mouse</i></span><br /> +But every Day or Night 'tis hurld<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Into the <i>Coffe-house</i>.</span><br /> +What <i>Lillie</i><a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> or what <i>Booker</i><a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> can<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">By Art, not bring about,</span><br /> +At <i>Coffe-house</i> you'l find a Man,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Can quickly find it out</i>.</span><br /> +<br /> +They know who shall in Times to come,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Be either made, or undone,</span><br /> +From great <i>St. Peters street</i> in <i>Rome</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To <i>Turnbull-street</i><a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> in <i>London</i>;</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +They know all that is Good, or Hurt,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To Dam ye, or to Save ye;</span><br /> +There is the <i>Colledge</i>, and the <i>Court</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The <i>Country</i>, <i>Camp</i> and <i>Navie</i>;</span><br /> +So great a <i>Universitie</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I think there ne're was any;</span><br /> +In which you may a Schoolar be<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For spending of a Penny.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +Here Men do talk of every Thing,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With large and liberal Lungs,</span><br /> +Like Women at a Gossiping,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With double tyre of Tongues;</span><br /> +They'l give a Broad-side presently,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Soon as you are in view,</span><br /> +With Stories that, you'l wonder at,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Which they will swear are true.</span><br /> +<br /> +The Drinking there of <i>Chockalat</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Can make a <i>Fool</i> a <i>Sophie</i>:</span><br /> +'Tis thought the <i>Turkish Mahomet</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Was first Inspir'd with <i>Coffe</i>,</span><br /> +By which his Powers did Over-flow<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Land of <i>Palestine</i>:</span><br /> +Then let us to, the <i>Coffe-house</i> go,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Tis Cheaper farr then Wine.</span><br /> +<br /> +You shall know there, what Fashions are;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">How Perrywiggs are Curl'd;</span><br /> +And for a Penny you shall heare,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">All Novells in the World.</span><br /> +Both Old and Young, and Great and Small,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And Rich, and Poore, you'l see;</span><br /> +Therefore let's to the <i>Coffe</i> All,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Come All away with Mee.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;"><span class="smcap">Finis.</span></span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Robert Morton made a contribution to the controversy in <i>Lines Appended +to the Nature, Quality and Most Excellent Vertues of Coffee</i> in 1670.</p> + +<p>There was published in 1672 <i>A Broad-side Against Coffee, or the +Marriage of the Turk</i>, verses that attained considerable fame because of +their picturesque invective. They also stressed the fact that Pasqua +Rosées partner was a coachman,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> and imitated the broken English of the +Ragusan youth:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">A Broad-side Against COFFEE;</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5em;"><span class="smcap">Or, the</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Marriage of the Turk</span></span><br /> +<br /> + +<i>Coffee</i>, a kind of <i>Turkish Renegade</i>,<br /> +Has late a match with <i>Christian water</i> made;<br /> +At first between them happen'd a Demur,<br /> +Yet joyn'd they were, but not without great <i>stir</i>;<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee</i> was cold as <i>Earth, Water</i> as <i>Thames</i>,<br /> +And stood in need of recommending Flames;<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee</i> so brown as berry does appear,<br /> +Too swarthy for a Nymph so fair, so clear:<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +A Coachman was the first (here) <i>Coffee</i> made,<br /> +And ever since the rest <i>drive on</i> the trade;<br /> +<i>Me no good Engalash</i>! and sure enough,<br /> +He plaid the Quack to salve his Stygian stuff;<br /> +<i>Ver boon for de stomach, de Cough, de Ptisick</i><br /> +And I believe him, for it looks like Physick.<br /> +<i>Coffee</i> a crust is charkt into a coal,<br /> +The smell and taste of the Mock <i>China</i> bowl;<br /> +Where huff and puff, they labour out their lungs,<br /> +Lest <i>Dives</i>-like they should bewail their tongues.<br /> +And yet they tell ye that it will not burn,<br /> +Though on the Jury Blisters you return;<br /> +Whose furious heat does make the water rise,<br /> +And still through the Alembicks of your eyes.<br /> +Dread and desire, ye fall to't snap by snap,<br /> +As hungry Dogs do scalding porrige lap,<br /> +But to cure Drunkards it has got great Fame;<br /> +<i>Posset</i> or <i>Porrige</i>, will't not do the same?<br /> +Confusion huddles all into one Scene,<br /> +Like <i>Noah's</i> Ark, the clean and the unclean.<br /> +But now, alas! the Drench has credit got,<br /> +And he's no Gentleman that drinks it not;<br /> +That such a <i>Dwarf</i> should rise to such a stature!<br /> +But Custom is but a remove from Nature.<br /> +A <i>little</i> Dish, and a <i>large</i> Coffee-house,<br /> +What is it, but a <i>Mountain</i> and a <i>Mouse</i>?<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mens humana novitatis avidissima.</i><br /> +</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="A_Broad-side_of_1670" id="A_Broad-side_of_1670"></a><a href="images/image37a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image37.jpg" width="400" height="601" alt="A Broad-side of 1670" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Broad-side of 1670</span></span> +</div> + +<p>And so it came to pass that coffee history repeated itself in England. +Many good people became convinced that coffee was a dangerous drink. The +tirades against the beverage in that far-off time sound not unlike the +advertising patter employed by some of our present-day coffee-substitute +manufacturers. It was even ridiculed by being referred to as "ninny +broth" and "Turkey gruel."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="A_Broad-side_of_1672" id="A_Broad-side_of_1672"></a><a href="images/image39a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image39.jpg" width="400" height="516" alt="A Broad-side of 1672" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Broad-side of 1672</span></span> +</div> + +<p><i>A brief description of the excellent vertues of that sober and +wholesome drink called coffee</i> appeared in 1674 and proved an able and +dignified answer to the attacks that had preceded it. That same year, +for the first time in history, the sexes divided in a coffee +controversy, and there was issued <i>The Women's Petition against Coffee, +representing to public consideration the grand inconveniences accruing +to their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> sex from the excessive use of the drying and enfeebling +Liquor</i>, in which the ladies, who had not been accorded the freedom of +the coffee houses in England, as was the custom in France, Germany, +Italy, and other countries on the Continent, complained that coffee made +men as "unfruitful as the deserts where that unhappy berry is said to be +bought." Besides the more serious complaint that the whole race was in +danger of extinction, it was urged that "on a domestic message a husband +would stop by the way to drink a couple of cups of coffee."</p> + +<p>This pamphlet is believed to have precipitated the attempt at +suppression by the crown the following year, despite the prompt +appearing, in 1674, of <i>The Men's Answer to the Women's Petition Against +Coffee, vindicating ... their liquor, from the undeserved aspersion +lately cast upon them, in their scandalous pamphlet</i>.</p> + +<p>The 1674 broadside in defense of coffee was the first to be illustrated; +and for all its air of pretentious grandeur and occasional bathos, it +was not a bad rhyming advertisement for the persecuted drink. It was +printed for Paul Greenwood and sold "at the sign of the coffee mill and +tobacco-roll in Cloath-fair near West-Smithfield, who selleth the best +Arabian coffee powder and chocolate in cake or roll, after the Spanish +fashion, etc." The following extracts will serve to illustrate its epic +character:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +When the sweet Poison of the Treacherous Grape,<br /> +Had Acted on the world a General Rape;<br /> +Drowning our very Reason and our Souls<br /> +In such deep Seas of large o'reflowing Bowls.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +When Foggy Ale, leavying up mighty Trains<br /> +Of muddy Vapours, had besieg'd our Brains;<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +Then Heaven in Pity, to Effect our Cure.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +First sent amongst us this <i>All-healing-Berry</i>,<br /> +At once to make us both <i>Sober</i> and <i>Merry</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Arabian</i> Coffee, a Rich Cordial</span><br /> +To Purse and Person Beneficial,<br /> +Which of so many Vertues doth partake,<br /> +Its Country's called Felix for its sake.<br /> +From the Rich Chambers of the Rising Sun,<br /> +Where Arts, and all good Fashions first begun,<br /> +Where Earth with choicest Rarities is blest,<br /> +And dying <i>Phoenix</i> builds Her wondrous Nest:<br /> +COFFEE arrives, that Grave and wholesome Liquor,<br /> +That heals the Stomack, makes the Genius quicker,<br /> +Relieves the Memory, Revives the Sad.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +Do but this Rare ARABIAN Cordial Use,<br /> +And thou may'st all the Doctors Slops Refuse.<br /> +Hush then, dull QUACKS, your Mountebanking cease,<br /> +COFFEE'S a speedier Cure for each Disease;<br /> +How great its Vertues are, we hence may think,<br /> +The Worlds third Part makes it their common Drink:<br /> +In Breif, all you who Healths Rich Treasures Prize,<br /> +And Court not Ruby Noses, or blear'd Eyes,<br /> +But own Sobriety to be your Drift.<br /> +And Love at once good Company and Thrift;<br /> +To Wine no more make Wit and Coyn a Trophy,<br /> +But come each Night and Frollique here in Coffee.<br /> +</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="A_Broad-side_of_1674" id="A_Broad-side_of_1674"></a><a href="images/image38a.jpg"> +<img src="images/image38.jpg" width="400" height="596" alt="A Broad-side of 1674" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Broad-side of 1674</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>The first one to be illustrated</small></p> +</div> + +<p>An eight-page folio, the last argument to be issued in defense of coffee +before Charles II sought to follow in the footsteps of Kair Bey and +Kuprili, was issued in the early part of 1675. It was entitled <i>Coffee +Houses Vindicated. In answer to the late published Character of a Coffee +House. Asserting from Reason, Experience and good Authors the Excellent +Use and physical Virtues of that Liquor ... With the Grand Convenience +of such civil Places of Resort and ingenious Conversation</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p><p>The advantage of a coffee house compared with a "publick-house" is thus +set forth:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">First, In regard of easy expense. Being to wait for or meet a +friend, a tavern-reckoning soon breeds a purse-consumption: in an +ale house, you must gorge yourself with pot after pot.... But here, +for a penny or two, you may spend two or three hours, have the +shelter of a house, the warmth of a fire, the diversion of company; +and conveniency, if you please, of taking a pipe of tobacco; and +all this without any grumbling or repining. Secondly. For sobriety. +It is grown, by the ill influences of I know not what hydropick +stars, almost a general custom amongst us, that no bargain can be +drove, or business concluded between man and man, but it must be +transacted at some publick-house ... where continual sippings ... +would be apt to fly up into their brains, and render them drowsy +and indisposed ... whereas, having now the opportunity of a +coffee-house, they repair thither, take each man a dish or two (so +far from causing, that it cures any dizziness, or disturbant +fumes): and so, dispatching their business, go out more sprightly +about their affairs, than before.... Lastly, For diversion ... +where can young gentlemen, or shop-keepers, more innocently and +advantageously spend an hour or two in the evening than at a +coffee-house? Where they shall be sure to meet company, and, by the +custom of the house, not such as at other places stingy and +reserved to themselves, but free and communicative, where every man +may modestly begin his story, and propose to, or answer another, as +he thinks fit.... So that, upon the whole matter, spight of the +idle sarcasms and paltry reproaches thrown upon it, we may, with no +less truth than plainness, give this brief character of a +well-regulated coffee-house, (for our pen disdains to be an +advocate for any sordid holes, that assume that name to cloke the +practice of debauchery,) that it is the sanctuary of health, the +nursery of temperance, the delight of frugality, and academy of +civility, and free-school of ingenuity.</p></div> + +<p><i>The Ale Wives' Complaint Against the Coffee-houses</i>, a dialogue between +a victualer's wife and a coffee man, at difference about spiriting away +each other's trade, also was issued in 1675.</p> + +<p>As early as 1666, and again in 1672, we find the government planning to +strike a blow at the coffee houses. By the year 1675, these "seminaries +of sedition" were much frequented by persons of rank and substance, who, +"suitable to our native genius," says Anderson,<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> "used great freedom +therein with respect to the courts' proceedings in these and like +points, so contrary to the voice of the people."</p> + +<p>In 1672, Charles II, seemingly eager to emulate the Oriental intolerants +that preceded him, determined to try his hand at suppression. "Having +been informed of the great inconveniences arising from the great number +of persons that resort to coffee-houses," the king "desired the Lord +Keeper and the Judges to give their opinion in writing as to how far he +might lawfully proceed against them."</p> + +<p>Roger North in his <i>Examen</i> gives the full story; and D'Israeli, +commenting on it, says, "it was not done without some apparent respect +for the British constitution." The courts affected not to act against +the law, and the judges were summoned to a consultation; but the five +who met could not agree in opinion.</p> + +<p>Sir William Coventry spoke against the proposed measure. He pointed out +that the government obtained considerable revenue from coffee, that the +king himself owed to these seemingly obnoxious places no small debt of +gratitude in the matter of his own restoration; for they had been +permitted in Cromwell's time, when the king's friends had used more +liberty of speech than "they dared to do in any other." He urged, also, +that it might be rash to issue a command so likely to be disobeyed.</p> + +<p>At last, being hard pressed for a reply, the judges gave such a halting +opinion in favor of the king's policy as to remind us of the reluctant +verdict wrung from the physicians and lawyers of Mecca on the occasion +of coffee's first persecution.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> "The English lawyers, in language +which, for its civility and indefiniteness," says Robinson, "would have +been the envy of their Eastern brethren," declared that:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Retailing coffee <i>might</i> be an innocent trade, as it <i>might</i> be +exercised; but as it is used at present, in the nature of a common +assembly, to discourse of matters of State, news and <i>great +Persons</i>, as they are Nurseries of Idleness and Pragmaticalness, +and hinder the expence of our native Provisions, they <i>might</i> be +thought common nuisances.</p></div> + +<p>An attempt was made to mold public opinion to a favorable consideration +of the attempt at suppression in <i>The Grand Concern of England +explained</i>, which was good propaganda for his majesty's enterprise, but +utterly failed to carry conviction to the lovers of liberty.</p> + +<p>After much backing and filling, the king, on December 23, 1675, issued a +proclamation which in its title frankly stated its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> object—"for the +suppression of coffee houses." It is here given in a somewhat condensed +form:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"> + +BY THE KING: A PROCLAMATION<br /> +FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF<br /> +COFFEE HOUSES<br /> +</p> + +<p class="noin"><i>Charles R.</i></p> + +<p class="quot">Whereas it is most apparent that the multitude of Coffee Houses of +late years set up and kept within this kingdom, the dominion of +Wales, and town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and the great resort of Idle +and disaffected persons to them, have produced very evil and +dangerous effects; as well for that many tradesmen and others, do +herein mispend much of their time, which might and probably would +be employed in and about their Lawful Calling and Affairs; but +also, for that in such houses ... divers false, malitious and +scandalous reports are devised and spread abroad to the Defamation +of his Majestie's Government, and to the Disturbance of the Peace +and Quiet of the Realm; his Majesty hath thought fit and necessary, +that the said Coffee Houses be (for the future) Put down, and +suppressed, and doth ... strictly charge and command all manner of +persons, That they or any of them do not presume from and after the +Tenth Day of January next ensuing, to keep any Public Coffee House, +or to utter or sell by retail, in his, her or their house or houses +(to be spent or consumed within the same) any Coffee, Chocolet, +Sherbett or Tea, as they will answer the contrary at their utmost +perils ... (all licenses to be revoked).</p> + +<p class="quot">Given at our Court at Whitehall, this third-and-twentieth day of +Dec., 1675, in the seven-and-twentieth year of our Reign.</p> + +<p class="quot">GOD SAVE THE KING.</p></div> + +<p>And then a remarkable thing happened. It is not usual for a royal +proclamation issued on the 29th of one month to be recalled on the 8th +day of the next; but this is the record established by Charles II. The +proclamation was made on December 23, 1675, and issued December 29, +1675. It forbade the coffee houses to operate after January 10, 1676. +But so intense was the feeling aroused, that eleven days was sufficient +time to convince the king that a blunder had been made. Men of all +parties cried out against being deprived of their accustomed haunts. The +dealers in coffee, tea, and chocolate demonstrated that the proclamation +would greatly lessen his majesty's revenues. Convulsion and discontent +loomed large. The king heeded the warning, and on January 8, 1676, +another proclamation was issued by which the first proclamation was +recalled.</p> + +<p>In order to save the king's face, it was solemnly recited that "His +Gracious Majesty," out of his "princely consideration and royal +compassion" would allow the retailers of coffee liquor to keep open +until the 24th of the following June. But this was clearly only a royal +subterfuge, as there was no further attempt at molestation, and it is +extremely doubtful if any was contemplated at the time the second +proclamation was promulgated.</p> + +<p>"Than both which proclamations nothing could argue greater guilt nor +greater weakness," says Anderson. Robinson remarks, "A battle for +freedom of speech was fought and won over this question at a time when +Parliaments were infrequent and when the liberty of the press did not +exist."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />"<i>Penny Universities</i>"</p> + +<p>We read in 1677 that "none dare venture into the coffee houses unless he +be able to argue the question whether Parliament were dissolved or not."</p> + +<p>All through the years remaining in the seventeenth century, and through +most of the eighteenth century, the London coffee houses grew and +prospered. As before stated, they were originally temperance +institutions, very different from the taverns and ale houses. "Within +the walls of the coffee house there was always much noise, much clatter, +much bustle, but decency was never outraged."</p> + +<p>At prices ranging from one to two pence per dish, the demand grew so +great that coffee-house keepers were obliged to make the drink in pots +holding eight or ten gallons.</p> + +<p>The seventeenth-century coffee houses were sometimes referred to as the +"penny universities"; because they were great schools of conversation, +and the entrance fee was only a penny. Two pence was the usual price of +a dish of coffee or tea, this charge also covering newspapers and +lights. It was the custom for the frequenter to lay his penny on the +bar, on entering or leaving. Admission to the exchange of sparkling wit +and brilliant conversation was within the reach of all.</p> + +<p class="poem"> +So great a <i>Universitie</i><br /> +I think there ne're was any;<br /> +In which you may a Schoolar be<br /> +For spending of a Penny.<br /> +</p> + +<p>"Regular customers," we are told, "had particular seats and special +attention from the fair lady at the bar, and the tea and coffee boys."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p><p>It is believed that the modern custom of tipping, and the word "tip," +originated in the coffee houses, where frequently hung brass-bound boxes +into which customers were expected to drop coins for the servants. The +boxes were inscribed "To Insure Promptness" and from the initial letters +of these words came "tip."</p> + +<p>The <i>National Review</i> says, "before 1715 the number of coffee houses in +London was reckoned at 2000." Dufour, who wrote in 1683, declares, upon +information received from several persons who had staid in London, that +there were 3000 of these places. However, 2000 is probably nearer the +fact.</p> + +<p>In that critical time in English history, when the people, tired of the +misgovernment of the later Stuarts, were most in need of a forum where +questions of great moment could be discussed, the coffee house became a +sanctuary. Here matters of supreme political import were threshed out +and decided for the good of Englishmen for all time. And because many of +these questions were so well thought out then, there was no need to +fight them out later. England's great struggle for political liberty was +really fought and won in the coffee house.</p> + +<p>To the end of the reign of Charles II, coffee was looked upon by the +government rather as a new check upon license than an added luxury. +After the revolution, the London coffee merchants were obliged to +petition the House of Lords against new import duties, and it was not +until the year 1692 that the government, "for the greater encouragement +and advancement of trade and the greater importation of the said +respective goods or merchandises," discharged one half of the obnoxious +tariff.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Weird Coffee Substitutes</i></p> + +<p>Shortly after the "great fire," coffee substitutes began to appear. +First came a liquor made with betony, "for the sake of those who could +not accustom themselves to the bitter taste of coffee." Betony is a herb +belonging to the mint family, and its root was formerly employed in +medicine as an emetic or purgative. In 1719, when coffee was 7s. a +pound, came bocket, later known as saloop, a decoction of sassafras and +sugar, that became such a favorite among those who could not afford tea +or coffee, that there were many saloop stalls in the streets of London. +It was also sold at Read's coffee house in Fleet Street.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>The Coffee Men Overreach Themselves</i></p> + +<p>The coffee-house keepers had become so powerful a force in the community +in 1729 that they lost all sense of proportion; and we find them +seriously proposing to usurp the functions of the newspapers. The +vainglorious coffee men requested the government to hand over to them a +journalistic monopoly; the argument being that the newspapers of the day +were choked with advertisements, filled with foolish stories gathered by +all-too enterprising newswriters, and that the only way for the +government to escape "further excesses occasioned by the freedom of the +press" and to rid itself of "those pests of society, the unlicensed +newsvendors," was for it to intrust the coffee men, as "the chief +supporters of liberty" with the publication of a <i>Coffee House Gazette</i>. +Information for the journal was to be supplied by the habitués of the +houses themselves, written down on brass slates or ivory tablets, and +called for twice daily by the <i>Gazette's</i> representatives. All the +profits were to go to the coffee men—including the expected increase of +custom.</p> + +<p>Needless to say, this amazing proposal of the coffee-house masters to +have the public write its own newspapers met with the scorn and the +derision it invited, and nothing ever came of it.</p> + +<p>The increasing demand for coffee caused the government tardily to seek +to stimulate interest in the cultivation of the plant in British +colonial possessions. It was tried out in Jamaica in 1730. By 1732 the +experiment gave such promise that Parliament, "for encouraging the +growth of coffee in His Majesty's plantations in America," reduced the +inland duty on coffee coming from there, "but of none other," from two +shillings to one shilling six pence per pound. "It seems that the French +at Martinico, Hispaniola, and at the Isle de Bourbon, near Madagascar, +had somewhat the start of the English in the new product as had also the +Dutch at Surinam, yet none had hitherto been found to equal coffee from +Arabia, whence all the rest of the world had theirs." Thus writes Adam +Anderson in 1787, somewhat ungraciously seeking to damn England's +business rivals with faint praise. Java coffee was even then in the +lead, and the seeds of Bourbon-Santos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> were multiplying rapidly in +Brazilian soil.</p> + +<p>The British East India Company, however, was much more interested in tea +than in coffee. Having lost out to the French and Dutch on the "little +brown berry of Arabia," the company engaged in so lively a propaganda +for "the cup that cheers" that, whereas the annual tea imports from 1700 +to 1710 averaged 800,000 pounds, in 1721 more than 1,000,000 pounds of +tea were brought in. In 1757, some 4,000,000 pounds were imported. And +when the coffee house finally succumbed, tea, and not coffee, was firmly +intrenched as the national drink of the English people.</p> + +<p>A movement in 1873 to revive the coffee house in the form of a coffee +"palace," designed to replace the public house as a place of resort for +working men, caused the Edinburgh Castle to be opened in London. The +movement attained considerable success throughout the British Isles, and +even spread to the United States.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Evolution of the Club</i></p> + +<p>Every profession, trade, class, and party had its favorite coffee house. +"The bitter black drink called coffee," as Mr. Pepys described the +beverage, brought together all sorts and conditions of men; and out of +their mixed association there developed groups of patrons favoring +particular houses and giving them character. It is easy to trace the +transition of the group into a clique that later became a club, +continuing for a time to meet at the coffee house or the chocolate +house, but eventually demanding a house of its own.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Decline and Fall of the Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>Starting as a forum for the commoner, "the coffee house soon became the +plaything of the leisure class; and when the club was evolved, the +coffee house began to retrograde to the level of the tavern. And so the +eighteenth century, which saw the coffee house at the height of its +power and popularity, witnessed also its decline and fall. It is said +there were as many clubs at the end of the century as there were coffee +houses at the beginning."</p> + +<p>For a time, when the habit of reading newspapers descended the social +ladder, the coffee house acquired a new lease of life. Sir Walter Besant +observes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">They were then frequented by men who came, not to talk, but to +read; the smaller tradesmen and the better class of mechanic now +came to the coffee-house, called for a cup of coffee, and with it +the daily paper, which they could not afford to take in. Every +coffee-house took three or four papers; there seems to have been in +this latter phase of the once social institution no general +conversation. The coffee-house as a place of resort and +conversation gradually declined; one can hardly say why, except +that all human institutions do decay. Perhaps manners declined; the +leaders in literature ceased to be seen there; the city clerk began +to crowd in; the tavern and the club drew men from the +coffee-house.</p></div> + +<p>A few houses survived until the early years of the nineteenth century, +but the social side had disappeared. As tea and coffee entered the +homes, and the exclusive club house succeeded the democratic coffee +forum, the coffee houses became taverns or chop houses, or, convinced +that they had outlived their usefulness, just ceased to be.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Pen Pictures of Coffee-House Life</i></p> + +<p>From the writings of Addison in the <i>Spectator</i>, Steele in the <i>Tatler</i>, +Mackay in his <i>Journey Through England</i>, Macaulay in his history, and +others, it is possible to draw a fairly accurate pen-picture of life in +the old London coffee house.</p> + +<p>In the seventeenth century the coffee room usually opened off the +street. At first only tables and chairs were spread about on a sanded +floor. Later, this arrangement was succeeded by the boxes, or booths, +such as appear in the Rowlandson caricatures, the picture of the +interior of Lloyds, etc.</p> + +<p>The walls were decorated with handbills and posters advertising the +quack medicines, pills, tinctures, salves, and electuaries of the +period, all of which might be purchased at the bar near the entrance, +presided over by a prototype of the modern English barmaid. There were +also bills of the play, auction notices, etc., depending upon the +character of the place.</p> + +<p>Then, as now, the barmaids were made much of by patrons. Tom Brown +refers to them as charming "Phillises who invite you by their amorous +glances into their smoaky territories."</p> + +<p>Messages were left and letters received at the bar for regular +customers. Stella was instructed to address her letters to Swift, "under +cover to Addison at the St. James's coffee house." Says Macaulay:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Foreigners remarked that it was the coffee house which specially +distinguished London from all other cities; that the coffee house +was the Londoner's home, and that those who wished to find a +gentleman commonly asked, not whether he lived in Fleet Street or +Chancery Lane, but whether he frequented the Grecian or the +Rainbow.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="MAP_SHOWING_THE_LOCATION_OF_MANY_OF_THE_OLD_LONDON_COFFEE_HOUSES_PREVIOUS_TO_THE_FIRE_OF_1748" id="MAP_SHOWING_THE_LOCATION_OF_MANY_OF_THE_OLD_LONDON_COFFEE_HOUSES_PREVIOUS_TO_THE_FIRE_OF_1748"></a> +<a href="images/map1a.jpg"> +<img src="images/map1.jpg" width="600" height="451" alt="MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF MANY OF THE OLD LONDON COFFEE HOUSES PREVIOUS TO THE FIRE OF 1748" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF MANY OF THE OLD LONDON COFFEE HOUSES PREVIOUS TO THE FIRE OF 1748</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p><p>So every man of the upper or middle classes went daily to his coffee +house to learn the news and to discuss it. The better class houses were +the meeting places of the most substantial men in the community. Every +coffee house had its orator, who became to his admirers a kind of +"fourth estate of the realm."</p> + +<p>Macaulay gives us the following picture of the coffee house of 1685:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Nobody was excluded from these places who laid down his penny at +the bar. Yet every rank and profession, and every shade of +religious and political opinion had its own headquarters.</p> + +<p class="quot">There were houses near St. James' Park, where fops congregated, +their heads and shoulders covered with black or flaxen wigs, not +less ample than those which are now worn by the Chancellor and by +the Speaker of the House of Commons. The atmosphere was like that +of a perfumer's shop. Tobacco in any form than that of richly +scented snuff was held in abomination. If any clown, ignorant of +the usages of the house, called for a pipe, the sneers of the whole +assembly and the short answers of the waiters soon convinced him +that he had better go somewhere else.</p> + +<p class="quot">Nor, indeed, would he have far to go. For, in general, the +coffee-houses reeked with tobacco like a guard room. Nowhere was +the smoking more constant than at Will's. That celebrated house, +situated between Covent Garden and Bow street, was sacred to polite +letters. There the talk was about poetical justice and the unities +of place and time. Under no roof was a greater variety of figures +to be seen. There were earls in stars and garters, clergymen in +cassocks and bands, pert Templars, sheepish lads from universities, +translators and index makers in ragged coats of frieze. The great +press was to get near the chair where John Dryden sate. In winter +that chair was always in the warmest nook by the fire; in summer it +stood in the balcony. To bow to the Laureate, and to hear his +opinion of Racine's last tragedy, or of Bossu's treatise on epic +poetry, was thought a privilege. A pinch from his snuff-box was an +honour sufficient to turn the head of a young enthusiast.</p> + +<p class="quot">There were coffee-houses where the first medical men might be +consulted. Dr. John Radcliffe, who, in the year 1685, rose to the +largest practice in London, came daily, at the hour when the +Exchange was full, from his house in Bow street, then a fashionable +part of the capital, to Garraway's, and was to be found, surrounded +by surgeons and apothecaries, at a particular table.</p> + +<p class="quot">There were Puritan coffee-houses where no oath was heard, and where +lank-haired men discussed election and reprobation through their +noses; Jew coffee-houses, where dark-eyed money changers from +Venice and Amsterdam greeted each other; and Popish coffee-houses, +where, as good Protestants believed, Jesuits planned over their +cups another great fire, and cast silver bullets to shoot the King.</p></div> + +<p>Ned Ward gives us this picture of the coffee house of the seventeenth +century. He is describing Old Man's, Scotland Yard:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">We now ascended a pair of stairs, which brought us into an +old-fashioned room, where a gaudy crowd of odoriferous Tom-Essences +were walking backwards and forwards, with their hats in their +hands, not daring to convert them to their intended use lest it +should put the foretops of their wigs into some disorder. We +squeezed through till we got to the end of the room, where, at a +small table, we sat down, and observed that it was as great a +rarity to hear anybody call for a dish of politicians porridge, or +any other liquor, as it is to hear a beau call for a pipe of +tobacco; their whole exercise being to charge and discharge their +nostrils and keep the curls of their periwigs in their proper +order. The clashing of their snush-box lids, in opening and +shutting, made more noise than their tongues. Bows and cringes of +the newest mode were here exchanged 'twixt friend and friend with +wonderful exactness. They made a humming like so many hornets in a +country chimney, not with their talking, but with their whispering +over their new Minuets and Bories, with the hands in their pockets, +if only freed from their snush-box. We now began to be thoughtful +of a pipe of tobacco, whereupon we ventured to call for some +instruments of evaporation, which were accordingly brought us, but +with such a kind of unwillingness, as if they would much rather +been rid of our company; for their tables were so very neat, and +shined with rubbing like the upper-leathers of an alderman's shoes, +and as brown as the top of a country housewife's cupboard. The +floor was as clean swept as a Sir Courtly's dining room, which made +us look round to see if there were no orders hung up to impose the +forfeiture of so much mop-money upon any person that should spit +out of the chimney-corner. Notwithstanding we wanted an example to +encourage us in our porterly rudeness, we ordered them to light the +wax candle, by which we ignified our pipes and blew about our +whiffs; at which several Sir Foplins drew their faces into as many +peevish wrinkles as the beaux at the Bow Street Coffee-house, near +Covent Garden, did when the gentleman in masquerade came in amongst +them, with his oyster-barrel muff and turnip-buttons, to ridicule +their foperies.</p></div> + +<p>In <i>A Brief and Merry History of Great Britain</i> we read:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">There is a prodigious number of Coffee-Houses in London, after the +manner I have seen some in Constantinople. These Coffee-Houses are +the constant Rendezvous for Men of Business as well as the idle +People. Besides Coffee, there are many other Liquors, which People +cannot well relish at first. They smoak Tobacco, game and read +Papers of Intelligence; here they treat of Matters of State, make +Leagues with Foreign Princes, break them again,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> and transact +Affairs of the last Consequence to the whole World. They represent +these Coffee-Houses as the most agreeable things in London, and +they are, in my Opinion, very proper Places to find People that a +Man has Business with, or to pass away the Time a little more +agreeably than he can do at home; but in other respects they are +loathsome, full of smoak, like a Guard-Room, and as much crowded. I +believe 'tis these Places that furnish the Inhabitants with +Slander, for there one hears exact Account of everything done in +Town, as if it were but a Village.</p> + +<p class="quot">At those Coffee-Houses, near the Courts, called White's, St. +James's, Williams's, the Conversation turns chiefly upon the +Equipages, Essence, Horse-Matches, Tupees, Modes and Mortgages; the +Cocoa-Tree upon Bribery and Corruption, Evil ministers, Errors and +Mistakes in Government; the Scotch Coffee-Houses towards Charing +Cross, on Places and Pensions; the Tiltyard and Young Man's on +Affronts, Honour, Satisfaction, Duels and Rencounters. I was +informed that the latter happen so frequently, in this part of the +Town, that a Surgeon and a Sollicitor are kept constantly in +waiting; the one to dress and heal such Wounds as may be given, and +the other in case of Death to bring off the Survivor with a Verdict +of Se Devendendo or Manslaughter. In those Coffee-Houses about the +Temple the Subjects are generally on Causes, Costs, Demurrers, +Rejoinders and Exceptions; Daniel's the Welch Coffee-House in Fleet +Street, on Births, Pedigrees and Descents; Child's and the Chapter +upon Glebes, Tithes, Advowsons, Rectories and Lectureships; North's +Undue Elections, False Polling, Scrutinies, etc.; Hamlin's, +Infant-Baptism, Lay-Ordination, Free-Will, Election and +Reprobation; Batson's, the Prices of Pepper, Indigo and Salt-Petre; +and all those about the Exchange, where the Merchants meet to +transact their Affairs, are in a perpetual hurry about +Stock-Jobbing, Lying, Cheating, Tricking Widows and Orphans, and +committing Spoil and Rapine on the Publick.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="White39s_and_Brookes39_St_James39s_Street" id="White39s_and_Brookes39_St_James39s_Street"></a> +<img src="images/image40.jpg" width="300" height="210" alt="White's and Brookes', St. James's Street" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">White's and Brookes', St. James's Street</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In the eighteenth century beer and wine were commonly sold at the coffee +houses in addition to tea and chocolate. Daniel Defoe, writing of his +visit to Shrewsbury in 1724, says, "I found there the most coffee houses +around the Town Hall that ever I saw in any town, but when you come into +them they are but ale houses, only they think that the name coffee house +gives a better air."</p> + +<p>Speaking of the coffee houses of the city, Besant says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Rich merchants alone ventured to enter certain of the coffee +houses, where they transacted business more privately and more +expeditiously than on the Exchange. There were coffee houses where +officers of the army alone were found; where the city shopkeeper +met his chums; where actors congregated; where only divines, only +lawyers, only physicians, only wits and those who came to hear them +were found. In all alike the visitor put down his penny and went +in, taking his own seat if he was an habitue; he called for a cup +of tea or coffee and paid his twopence for it; he could call also, +if he pleased, for a cordial; he was expected to talk with his +neighbour whether he knew him or not. Men went to certain coffee +houses in order to meet the well-known poets and writers who were +to be found there, as Pope went in search of Dryden. The daily +papers and the pamphlets of the day were taken in. Some of the +coffee houses, but not the more respectable, allowed the use of +tobacco.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_House_Politicians_of_the_Seventeenth_Century" id="Coffee_House_Politicians_of_the_Seventeenth_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image41.jpg" width="300" height="433" alt="Coffee House Politicians of the Seventeenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee House Politicians of the Seventeenth Century</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_Great_Fair_on_the_Frozen_Thames_1683" id="The_Great_Fair_on_the_Frozen_Thames_1683"></a> +<img src="images/image42.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="The Great Fair on the Frozen Thames—1683" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Great Fair on the Frozen Thames—1683</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a broadside entitled <i>Wonders on the Deep</i>. Figure 2 is the Duke of +York's Coffee House</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Mackay, in his <i>Journey Through England</i> (1724), says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">We rise by nine, and those that frequent great men's levees find +entertainment at them till eleven, or, as in Holland, go to +tea-tables; about twelve the <i>beau monde</i> assemble in several +coffee or chocolate houses; the best of which are the Cocoatree and +White's chocolate houses, St. James', the Smyrna, Mrs. Rochford's +and the British coffee houses; and all these so near one another +that in less than an hour you see the company of them all. We are +carried to these places in chairs (or sedans), which are here very +cheap, a guinea a week, or a shilling per hour, and your chairmen +serve you for porters to run on errands, as your gondoliers do at +Venice.</p> + +<p class="quot">If it be fine weather we take a turn into the park till two, when +we go to dinner; and if it be dirty, you are entertained at picquet +or basset at White's, or you may talk politics at the Smyrna or St. +James'. I must not forget to tell you that the parties have their +different places, where, however, a stranger is always well +received; but a Whig will no more go to the Cocoatree than a Tory +will be seen at the Coffee House, St James'.</p> + +<p class="quot">The Scots go generally to the British, and a mixture of all sorts +go to the Smyrna. There are other little coffee houses much +frequented in this neighborhood—Young Man's for officers; Old +Man's for stock jobbers, paymasters and courtiers, and Little Man's +for sharpers. I never was so confounded in my life as when I +entered into this last. I saw two or three tables full at faro, and +was surrounded by a set of sharp faces that I was afraid would have +devoured me with their eyes. I was glad to drop two or three half +crowns at faro to get off with a clear skin, and was overjoyed I so +got rid of them.</p> + +<p class="quot">At two we generally go to dinner; ordinaries are not so common here +as abroad, yet the French have set up two or three good ones for +the convenience of foreigners in Suffolk street, where one is +tolerably well served; but the general way here is to make a party +at the coffee house to go to dine at the tavern, where we sit till +six, when we go to the play, except you are invited to the table of +some great man, which strangers are always courted to and nobly +entertained.</p></div> + +<p>Mackay writes that "in all the coffee houses you have not only the +foreign prints but several English ones with foreign occurrences, +besides papers of morality and party disputes."</p> + +<p>"After the play," writes Defoe, "the best company generally go to Tom's +and Will's coffee houses, near adjoining, where there is playing at +picquet and the best of conversation till midnight. Here you will see +blue and green ribbons and stars sitting familiarly and talking with the +same freedom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> as if they had left their equality and degrees of distance +at home."</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a name="The_Lion39s_Head_at_Button39s_Coffee_House" id="The_Lion39s_Head_at_Button39s_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image43.jpg" width="400" height="550" alt="The Lion's Head at Button's Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Lion's Head at Button's Coffee House</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Designed by Hogarth, and put up by Addison, 1713 From a water color by +T.H. Shepherd</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Before entering the coffee house every one was recommended by the +<i>Tatler</i> to prepare his body with three dishes of bohea and to purge his +brains with two pinches of snuff. Men had their coffee houses as now +they have their clubs—sometimes contented with one, sometimes belonging +to three or four. Johnson, for instance, was connected with St. James's, +the Turk's Head, the Bedford, Peele's, besides the taverns which he +frequented. Addison and Steele used Button's; Swift, Button's, the +Smyrna, and St. James's; Dryden, Will's; Pope, Will's and Button's; +Goldsmith, the St. James's and the Chapter; Fielding, the Bedford; +Hogarth, the Bedford and Slaughter's; Sheridan, the Piazza; Thurlow, +Nando's.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Some Famous Coffee Houses</i></p> + +<p>Among the famous English coffee houses of the seventeenth-eighteenth +century period were St. James's, Will's, Garraway's, White's, +Slaughter's, the Grecian, Button's, Lloyd's, Tom's, and Don Saltero's.</p> + +<p>St. James's was a Whig house frequented by members of Parliament, with a +fair sprinkling of literary stars. Garraway's catered to the gentry of +the period, many of whom naturally had Tory proclivities.</p> + +<p>One of the notable coffee houses of Queen Anne's reign was Button's. +Here Addison could be found almost every afternoon and evening, along +with Steele, Davenant, Carey, Philips, and other kindred minds. Pope was +a member of the same coffee house club for a year, but his inborn +irascibility eventually led him to drop out of it.</p> + +<p>At Button's a lion's head, designed by Hogarth after the Lion of Venice, +"a proper emblem of knowledge and action, being all head and paws," was +set up to receive letters and papers for the <i>Guardian</i>.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> The +<i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i> were born in the coffee house, and probably +English prose would never have received the impetus given it by the +essays of Addison and Steele had it not been for coffee house +associations.</p> + +<p>Pope's famous <i>Rape of the Lock</i> grew out of coffee-house gossip. The +poem itself contains one charming passage on coffee.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p> + +<p>Another frequenter of the coffee houses of London, when he had the money +to do so, was Daniel Defoe, whose <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> was the precursor of +the English novel. Henry Fielding, one of the greatest of all English +novelists, loved the life of the more bohemian coffee houses, and was, +in fact, induced to write his first great novel, <i>Joseph Andrews</i>, +through coffee-house criticisms of Richardson's <i>Pamela</i>.</p> + +<p>Other frequenters of the coffee houses of the period were Thomas Gray +and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Garrick was often to be seen at Tom's in +Birchin Lane, where also Chatterton might have been found on many an +evening before his untimely death.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>The London Pleasure Gardens</i></p> + +<p>The second half of the eighteenth century was covered by the reigns of +the Georges. The coffee houses were still an important factor in London +life, but were influenced somewhat by the development of gardens in +which were served tea, chocolate, and other drinks, as well as coffee. +At the coffee houses themselves, while coffee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> remained the favorite +beverage, the proprietors, in the hope of increasing their patronage, +began to serve wine, ale, and other liquors. This seems to have been the +first step toward the decay of the coffee house.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="A_Trio_of_Notables_at_Button39s_in_1730" id="A_Trio_of_Notables_at_Button39s_in_1730"></a> +<img src="images/image44.jpg" width="500" height="388" alt="A Trio of Notables at Button's in 1730" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Trio of Notables at Button's in 1730</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The figure in the cloak is Count Viviani; of the figures facing the +reader, the draughts player is Dr. Arbuthnot, and the figure standing is +assumed to be Pope]</p> + +<p>The coffee houses, however, continued to be the centers of intellectual +life. When Samuel Johnson and David Garrick came together to London, +literature was temporarily in a bad way, and the hack writers of the +time dwelt in Grub Street.</p> + +<p>It was not until after Johnson had met with some success, and had +established the first of his coffee-house clubs at the Turk's Head, that +literature again became a fashionable profession.</p> + +<p>This really famous literary club met at the Turk's Head from 1763 to +1783. Among the most notable members were Johnson, the arbiter of +English prose; Oliver Goldsmith; Boswell, the biographer; Burke, the +orator; Garrick, the actor; and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the painter. Among +the later members were Gibbon, the historian; and Adam Smith, the +political economist.</p> + +<p>Certain it is that during the sway of the English coffee house, and at +least partly through its influence, England produced a better prose +literature, as embodied alike in her essays, literary criticisms, and +novels, than she ever had produced before.</p> + +<p>The advent of the pleasure garden brought coffee out into the open in +England; and one of the reasons why gardens, such as Ranelagh and +Vauxhall, began to be more frequented than the coffee houses was that +they were popular resorts for women as well as for men. All kinds of +beverages were served in them; and soon the women began to favor tea as +an afternoon drink. At least, the great development in the use of tea +dates from this period; and many of these resorts called themselves tea +gardens.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p><p>The use of coffee by this time, however, was well established in the +homes as a breakfast and dinner beverage, and such consumption more than +made up for any loss sustained through the gradual decadence of the +coffee house. Yet signs of the change in national taste that arrived +with the Georges were not wanting; for the active propaganda of the +British East India Company was fairly well launched during Queen Anne's +reign.</p> + +<p>The London pleasure gardens of the eighteenth century were unique. At +one time there was a "mighty maze" of them. Their season extended from +April or May to August or September. At first there was no charge for +admission, but Warwick Wroth<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> tells us that visitors usually +purchased cheese cakes, syllabubs, tea, coffee and ale.</p> + +<p>The four best-known London gardens were Vauxhall; Marylebone; Cuper's, +where the charge for admission subsequently was fixed at not less than a +shilling; and Ranelagh, where the charge of half a crown included "the +Elegant Regale" of tea, coffee, and bread and butter.</p> + +<p>The pleasure gardens provided walks, rooms for dancing, skittle grounds, +bowling greens, variety entertainments, and promenade concerts; and not +a few places were given over to fashionable gambling and racing.</p> + +<p>The Vauxhall Gardens, one of the most favored resorts of +pleasure-seeking Londoners, were located on the Surrey side of the +Thames, a short distance east of Vauxhall Bridge. They were originally +known as the New Spring Gardens (1661), to distinguish them from the old +Spring Gardens at Charing Cross. They became famous in the reign of +Charles II. Vauxhall was celebrated for its walks, lit with thousands of +lamps, its musical and other performances, suppers, and fireworks. High +and low were to be found there, and the drinking of tea and coffee in +the arbors was a feature. The illustration shows the garden brightly +illuminated by lanterns and lamps on some festival occasion. Coffee and +tea were served in the arbors.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Vauxhall_Gardens_on_a_Gala_Night" id="Vauxhall_Gardens_on_a_Gala_Night"></a> +<img src="images/image45.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="Vauxhall Gardens on a Gala Night" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Vauxhall Gardens on a Gala Night</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The Ranelagh, "a place of public entertainment," erected at Chelsea in +1742, was a kind of Vauxhall under cover. The principal room, known as +the Rotunda, was circular in shape, 150 feet in diameter, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> had an +orchestra in the center and tiers of boxes all around. Promenading and +taking refreshments in the boxes were the principal divertisements. +Except on gala nights of masquerades and fireworks, only tea, coffee, +bread and butter were to be had at Ranelagh.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_Rotunda_in_Ranelagh_Gardens_With_the_Company_at_Breakfast_1751" id="The_Rotunda_in_Ranelagh_Gardens_With_the_Company_at_Breakfast_1751"></a> +<img src="images/image46.jpg" width="500" height="325" alt="The Rotunda in Ranelagh Gardens With the Company at Breakfast—1751" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Rotunda in Ranelagh Gardens With the Company at Breakfast—1751</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In the group of gardens connected with mineral springs was the Dog and +Duck (St. George's Spa), which became at last a tea garden and a dancing +saloon of doubtful repute.</p> + +<p>Still another division, recognized by Wroth, consisted mainly of tea +gardens, among them Highbury Barn, The Canonbury House, Hornsey and +Copenhagen House, Bagnigge Wells, and White Conduit House. The two last +named were the classic tea gardens of the period. Both were provided +with "long rooms" in case of rain, and for indoor promenades with organ +music. Then there were the Adam and Eve tea gardens, with arbors for +tea-drinking parties, which subsequently became the Adam and Eve Tavern +and Coffee House. Well known were the Bayswater Tea Gardens and the Jews +Harp House and Tea Gardens. All these were provided with neat, "genteel" +boxes, let into the hedges and alcoves, for tea and coffee drinkers.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Locating the Notable Coffee Houses</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Garraway" id="Garraway"></a>Garraway's</span>, 3 'Change Alley, Cornhill, was a place for great mercantile +transactions. Thomas Garway, the original proprietor, was a tobacconist +and coffee man, who claimed to be the first that sold tea in England, +although not at this address. The later Garraway's was long famous as a +sandwich and drinking room for sherry, pale ale, and punch, in addition +to tea and coffee. It is said that the sandwich-maker was occupied two +hours in cutting and arranging the sandwiches for the day's consumption. +After the "great fire" of 1666 <span class="smcap">Garraway's</span> moved into the same place in +Exchange Alley where Elford had been before the fire. Here he claimed to +have the oldest coffee house in London; but the ground on which <span class="smcap">Bowman's</span> +had stood was occupied later by the <span class="smcap">Virginia</span> and the <span class="smcap">Jamaica</span> coffee +houses. The latter was damaged by the fire of 1748 which consumed +<span class="smcap">Garraway's</span> and <span class="smcap">Elford's</span> (<a href="#MAP_SHOWING_THE_LOCATION_OF_MANY_OF_THE_OLD_LONDON_COFFEE_HOUSES_PREVIOUS_TO_THE_FIRE_OF_1748">see map of the 1748 fire</a>).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Will's</span>, the predecessor of <span class="smcap">Button's</span>, first had the title of the <span class="smcap">Red Cow</span>, +then of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> the <span class="smcap">Rose</span>. It was kept by William Urwin, and was on the north +side of Russell Street at the corner of Bow Street. "It was Dryden who +made Will's coffee house the great resort of the wits of his time." +(<i>Pope</i> and <i>Spence</i>.) The room in which the poet was accustomed to sit +was on the first floor; and his place was the place of honor by the +fireside in the winter, and at the corner of the balcony, looking over +the street, in fine weather; he called the two places his winter and his +summer seat. This was called the dining-room floor. The company did not +sit in boxes as subsequently, but at various tables which were dispersed +through the room. Smoking was permitted in the public room; it was then +so much in vogue that it does not seem to have been considered a +nuisance. Here, as in other similar places of meeting, the visitors +divided themselves into parties; and we are told by Ward that the young +beaux and wits, who seldom approached the principal table, thought it a +great honor to have a pinch out of Dryden's snuff-box. After Dryden's +death <span class="smcap">Will's</span> was transferred to a house opposite, and became <span class="smcap">Button's</span>, +"over against <span class="smcap">Thomas's</span> in Covent Garden." Thither also Addison +transferred much company from <span class="smcap">Thomas's</span>. Here Swift first saw Addison. +Hither also came "Steele, Arbuthnot and many other wits of the time." +<span class="smcap">Button's</span> continued in vogue until Addison's death and Steele's +retirement into Wales, after which the coffee drinkers went to the +<span class="smcap">Bedford</span>, dinner parties to the <span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>. <span class="smcap">Button's</span> was subsequently +known as the <span class="smcap">Caledonien</span>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Garraway39s_Coffee_House_in_39Change_Alley" id="Garraway39s_Coffee_House_in_39Change_Alley"></a> +<img src="images/image47.jpg" width="300" height="426" alt="Garraway's Coffee House in 'Change Alley" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Garraway's Coffee House in 'Change Alley</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Garway (or Garraway) claimed to have been first to sell Tea in England</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Button39s_Coffee_House_Great_Russell_Street" id="Button39s_Coffee_House_Great_Russell_Street"></a> +<img src="images/image48.jpg" width="300" height="467" alt="Button's Coffee House, Great Russell Street" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Button's Coffee House, Great Russell Street</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Afterward it became the Caledonien<br /> +From a water color by T.H. Shepherd</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Slaughter's</span>, famous as the resort of painters and sculptors in the +eighteenth century, was situated at the upper end of the west side of +St. Martin's Lane. Its first landlord was Thomas Slaughter, 1692. A +second <span class="smcap">Slaughter's (New Slaughter's</span>) was established in the same street +in 1760, when the original <span class="smcap">Slaughter's</span> adopted the name of <span class="smcap">Old +Slaughter's</span>. It was torn down in 1843–44. Among the notables who +frequented it were Hogarth; young Gainsborough; Cipriani; Haydon; +Roubiliac; Hudson, who painted the Dilettanti portraits; M'Ardell, the +mezzotinto-scraper;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> Luke Sullivan, the engraver; Gardell, the portrait +painter; and Parry, the Welsh harper.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tom's</span>, in Birchin Lane, Cornhill, though in the main a mercantile +resort, acquired some celebrity from having been frequented by Garrick. +<span class="smcap">Tom's</span> was also frequented by Chatterton, as a place "of the best +resort." Then there was <span class="smcap">Tom's</span> in Devereux Court, Strand, and <span class="smcap">Tom's</span> at 17 +Great Russell Street, Covent Garden, opposite <span class="smcap">Button's</span>, a celebrated +resort during the reign of Queen Anne and for more than a century after.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Grecian</span>, Devereux Court, Strand, was originally kept by one +Constantine, a Greek. From this house Steele proposed to date his +learned articles in the <i>Tatler</i>; it is mentioned in No. 1 of the +<i>Spectator</i>, and it was much frequented by Goldsmith. The <span class="smcap">Grecian</span> was +Foote's morning lounge. In 1843 the premises became the Grecian +Chambers, with a bust of Lord Devereux, earl of Essex, over the door.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Slaughter39s_Coffee_House_St_Martin39s_Lane" id="Slaughter39s_Coffee_House_St_Martin39s_Lane"></a> +<img src="images/image49.jpg" width="300" height="420" alt="Slaughter's Coffee House, St. Martin's Lane" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Slaughter's Coffee House, St. Martin's Lane</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>It was taken down in 1843<br /> +From a water color by T.H. Shepherd, 1841</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Tom39s_Coffee_House_17_Great_Russell_Street" id="Tom39s_Coffee_House_17_Great_Russell_Street"></a> +<img src="images/image50.jpg" width="300" height="458" alt="Tom's Coffee House, 17 Great Russell Street" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tom's Coffee House, 17 Great Russell Street</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Used as a coffee house until 1804 and razed in 1865<br /> +From a water color by T.H. Shepherd</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lloyd's</span>, Royal Exchange, celebrated for its priority of shipping +intelligence and its marine insurance, originated with Edward Lloyd, who +about 1688 kept a coffee house in Tower Street, later in Lombard Street +corner of Abchurch Lane. It was a modest place of refreshment for +seafarers and merchants. As a matter of convenience, Edward Lloyd +prepared "ships' lists" for the guidance of the frequenters of the +coffee house. "These lists, which were written by hand, contained," +according to Andrew Scott, "an account of vessels which the underwriters +who met there were likely to have offered them for insurance." Such was +the beginning of two institutions that have since exercised a dominant +influence on the sea-carrying trade of the whole world—the Royal +Exchange Lloyd's, the greatest insurance institution in the world, and +Lloyd's Register of Shipping. Lloyd's now has 1400 agents in all parts +of the world. It receives as many as 100,000 telegrams a year. It +records through its intelligence service the daily movements of 11,000 +vessels.</p> + +<p>In the beginning one of the apartments in the Exchange was fitted up as +<span class="smcap">Lloyd's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></span> coffee room. Edward Lloyd died in 1712. Subsequently the coffee +house was in Pope's Head Alley, where it was called <span class="smcap">New Lloyd's</span> coffee +house, but on September 14, 1784, it was removed to the northwest corner +of the Royal Exchange, where it remained until the partial destruction +of that building by fire.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Lloyd39s_Coffee_House_in_the_Royal_Exchange_Showing_the_Subscription_Room" id="Lloyd39s_Coffee_House_in_the_Royal_Exchange_Showing_the_Subscription_Room"></a> +<img src="images/image51.jpg" width="500" height="303" alt="Lloyd's Coffee House in the Royal Exchange, Showing the Subscription Room" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lloyd's Coffee House in the Royal Exchange, Showing the Subscription Room</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In rebuilding the Exchange there were provided the Subscribers' or +Underwriters' room, the Merchants' room, and the Captains' room. <i>The +City</i>, second edition, 1848, contains the following description of this +most famous rendezvous of eminent merchants, shipowners, underwriters, +insurance, stock and exchange brokers:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Here is obtained the earliest news of the arrival and sailing of +vessels, losses at sea, captures, recaptures, engagements and other +shipping intelligence; and proprietors of ships and freights are +insured by the underwriters. The rooms are in the Venetian style +with Roman enrichments. At the entrance of the room are exhibited +the Shipping Lists, received from Lloyd's agents at home and +abroad, and affording particulars of departures or arrivals of +vessels, wrecks, salvage, or sale of property saved, etc. To the +right and left are "Lloyd's Books," two enormous ledgers. Right +hand, ships "spoken with" or arrived at their destined ports; left +hand, records of wrecks, fires or severe collisions, written in a +fine Roman hand in "double lines." To assist the underwriters in +their calculations, at the end of the room is an Anemometer, which +registers the state of the wind day and night; attached is a rain +gauge.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The British</span>, Cockspur Street, "long a house of call for Scotchmen," was +fortunate in its landladies. In 1759 it was kept by the sister of Bishop +Douglas, so well known for his works against Lauder and Bower, which may +explain its Scottish fame. At another period it was kept by Mrs. +Anderson, described in Mackenzie's <i>Life of Home</i> as "a woman of +uncommon talents and the most agreeable conversation."</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Don Saltero's</span>, 18 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, was opened by a barber named +Salter in 1695. Sir Hans Sloane contributed of his own collection some +of the refuse gimcracks that were to be found in Salter's "museum." +Vice-Admiral Munden, who had been long on the coast of Spain, where he +had acquired a fondness for Spanish titles, named the keeper of the +house Don Saltero, and his coffee house and museum <span class="smcap">Don Saltero's</span>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Squire's</span> was in Fulwood's Rents, Holburn, running up to Gray's Inn. It +was one of the receiving houses of the <i>Spectator</i>. In No. 269 the +<i>Spectator</i> accepts Sir Roger de Coverley's invitation to "smoke a pipe +with him over a dish of coffee at Squire's. As I love the old man, I +take delight in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> complying with everything that is agreeable to him, and +accordingly waited on him to the coffee-house, where his venerable +figure drew upon us the eyes of the whole room. He had no sooner seated +himself at the upper end of the high table, but he called for a clean +pipe, a paper of tobacco, a dish of coffee, a wax candle and the +'Supplement' (a periodical paper of that time), with such an air of +cheerfulness and good humour, that all the boys in the coffee room (who +seemed to take pleasure in serving him) were at once employed on his +several errands, insomuch that nobody else could come at a dish of tea +until the Knight had got all his conveniences about him." Such was the +coffee room in the <i>Spectator's</i> day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Interior_of_Dick39s_Coffee_House" id="Interior_of_Dick39s_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image52.jpg" width="300" height="486" alt="Interior of Dick's Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Interior of Dick's Coffee House</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From the frontispiece to "The Coffee House—a dramatick Piece" (<a href="#Chapter_XXXII">see +chapter XXXII</a>)</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Cocoa-Tree</span> was originally a coffee house on the south side of Pall +Mall. When there grew up a need for "places of resort of a more elegant +and refined character," chocolate houses came into vogue, and the +<span class="smcap">Cocoa-Tree</span> was the most famous of these. It was converted into a club in +1746.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_Grecian_Coffee_House_Devereux_Court" id="The_Grecian_Coffee_House_Devereux_Court"></a> +<img src="images/image53.jpg" width="300" height="476" alt="The Grecian Coffee House, Devereux Court" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Grecian Coffee House, Devereux Court</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>It was closed in 1843. From a drawing dated 1809</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">White's</span> chocolate house, established by Francis White about 1693 in St. +James's Street, originally open to any one as a coffee house, soon +became a private club, composed of "the most fashionable exquisites of +the town and court." In its coffee-house days, the entrance was +sixpence, as compared with the average penny fee of the other coffee +houses. Escott refers to <span class="smcap">White's</span> as being "the one specimen of the class +to which it belongs, of a place at which, beneath almost the same roof, +and always bearing the same name, whether as coffee house or club, the +same class of persons has congregated during more than two hundred +years."</p> + +<p>Among hundreds of other coffee houses that flourished during the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the following more notable ones are +deserving of mention:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Don_Saltero39s_Coffee_House_Cheyne_Walk" id="Don_Saltero39s_Coffee_House_Cheyne_Walk"></a> +<img src="images/image54.jpg" width="300" height="464" alt="Don Saltero's Coffee House, Cheyne Walk" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Don Saltero's Coffee House, Cheyne Walk</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a steel engraving in the British Museum</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_British_Coffee_House" id="The_British_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image55.jpg" width="300" height="661" alt="The British Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The British Coffee House in Cockspur Street</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a print published in 1770</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Baker's</span>, 58 'Change Alley, for nearly half a century noted for its chops +and steaks broiled in the coffee room and eaten hot from the gridiron; +the <span class="smcap">Baltic</span>, in Threadneedle Street, the rendezvous of brokers and +merchants connected with the Russian trade; the <span class="smcap">Bedford</span>, "under the +Piazza, in Covent Garden," crowded every night with men of parts and +"signalized for many years as the emporium of wit, the seat of criticism +and the standard of taste"; the <span class="smcap">Chapter</span>, in Paternoster Row, frequented +by Chatterton and Goldsmith; <span class="smcap">Child's</span>, in St. Paul's Churchyard, one of +the <i>Spectator's</i> houses, and much frequented by the clergy and fellows +of the Royal Society; <span class="smcap">Dick's</span>, in Fleet Street, frequented by Cowper, and +the scene of Rousseau's comedietta, entitled <i>The Coffee House</i>; <span class="smcap">St. +James's</span>, in St. James's Street, frequented by Swift, Goldsmith, and +Garrick; <span class="smcap">Jerusalem</span>, in Cowper's Court, Cornhill, frequented by merchants +and captains connected with the commerce of China, India, and Australia; +<span class="smcap">Jonathan's</span>, in 'Change Alley, described by the <i>Tatler</i> as "the general +mart of stock jobbers"; the <span class="smcap">London</span>, in Ludgate Hill, noted for its +publishers' sales of stock and copyrights; <span class="smcap">Man's</span>, in Scotland Yard, +which took its name from the proprietor, Alexander Man, and was +sometimes known as <span class="smcap">Old Man's</span>, or the <span class="smcap">Royal</span>, to distinguish it from <span class="smcap">Young +Man's, Little Man's, New Man's</span>, etc., minor establishments in the +neighborhood;<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> <span class="smcap">Nando's</span>, in Fleet Street, the favorite haunt of Lord +Thurlow and many professional loungers, attracted by the fame of the +punch and the charms of the landlady; <span class="smcap">New England and North and South +American</span>, in Threadneedle Street, having on its subscription list +representatives of Barings, Rothschilds, and other wealthy +establishments; <span class="smcap">Peele's</span>, in Fleet Street, having a portrait of Dr. +Johnson said to have been painted by Sir Joshua<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> Reynolds; the <span class="smcap">Percy</span>, in +Oxford Street, the inspiration for the <i>Percy Anecdotes</i>; the <span class="smcap">Piazza</span>, in +Covent Garden, where Macklin fitted up a large coffee room, or theater, +for oratory, and Fielding and Foote poked fun at him; the <span class="smcap">Rainbow</span>, in +Fleet Street, the second coffee house opened in London, having its token +money; the <span class="smcap">Smyrna</span>, in Pall Mall, a "place to talk politics," and +frequented by Prior and Swift; <span class="smcap">Tom King's</span>, one of the old night houses +of Covent Garden Market, "well known to all gentlemen to whom beds are +unknown"; the <span class="smcap">Turk's Head</span>, 'Change Alley, which also had its tokens; the +<span class="smcap">Turk's Head</span>, in the Strand, which was a favorite supping house for Dr. +Johnson and Boswell; the <span class="smcap">Folly</span>, a coffee house on a house-boat on the +Thames, which became quite notorious during Queen Anne's reign.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_French_Coffee_House_in_London_Second_Half_of_the_Eighteenth_Century" id="The_French_Coffee_House_in_London_Second_Half_of_the_Eighteenth_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image56.jpg" width="500" height="356" alt="The French Coffee House in London, Second Half of the Eighteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The French Coffee House in London, Second Half of the Eighteenth Century</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From the original water-color drawing by Thomas Rowlandson</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="RAMPONAUX39_ROYAL_DRUMMER_ONE_OF_THE_MOST_POPULAR_OF_THE_EARLY_PARISIAN_CAFEacuteS" id="RAMPONAUX39_ROYAL_DRUMMER_ONE_OF_THE_MOST_POPULAR_OF_THE_EARLY_PARISIAN_CAFEacuteS"></a> +<img src="images/image57.jpg" width="600" height="387" alt="RAMPONAUX' ROYAL DRUMMER, ONE OF THE MOST POPULAR OF THE EARLY PARISIAN CAFÉS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">RAMPONAUX' ROYAL DRUMMER, ONE OF THE MOST POPULAR OF THE EARLY PARISIAN CAFÉS</span> +<p class="center"><small>Started originally as a tavern, this hostelry added coffee to its +cuisine and became famous in the reign of Louis XV The illustration is +from an early print used to advertise the "Royal Drummer's" attractions</small></p> +</div> + + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XI" id="Chapter_XI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XI</span></h2> + +<h3>HISTORY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thévenot in 1657—How +Soliman Aga established the custom of coffee drinking at the court +of Louis XIV—Opening the first coffee houses—How the French +adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real +French café of François Procope—The important part played by the +coffee houses in the development of French literature and the +stage—Their association with the Revolution and the founding of +the Republic—Quaint customs and patrons—Historic Parisian cafés</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">I</span><span class="caps">f</span> we are to accept the authority of Jean La Roque, "before the year +1669 coffee had scarcely been seen in Paris, except at M. Thévenot's and +at the homes of some of his friends. Nor had it been heard of except in +the writings of travelers."</p> + +<p>As noted in chapter V, Jean de Thévenot brought coffee into Paris in +1657. One account says that a decoction, supposed to have been coffee, +was sold by a Levantine in the Petit Châtelet under the name of <i>cohove</i> +or <i>cahoue</i> during the reign of Louis XIII, but this lacks confirmation. +Louis XIV is said to have been served with coffee for the first time in +1664.</p> + +<p>Soon after the arrival, in July, 1669, of the Turkish ambassador, +Soliman Aga, it became noised abroad that he had brought with him for +his own use, and that of his retinue, great quantities of coffee. He +"treated several persons with it, both in the court and the city." At +length "many accustomed themselves to it with sugar, and others who +found benefit by it could not leave it off."</p> + +<p>Within six months all Paris was talking of the sumptuous coffee +functions of the ambassador from Mohammed IV to the court of Louis XIV.</p> + +<p>Isaac D'Israeli best describes them in his <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">On bended knee, the black slaves of the Ambassador, arrayed in the +most gorgeous Oriental costumes, served the choicest Mocha coffee +in tiny cups of egg-shell porcelain, hot, strong and fragrant, +poured out in saucers of gold and silver, placed on embroidered +silk doylies fringed with gold bullion, to the grand dames, who +fluttered their fans with many grimaces, bending their piquant +faces—be-rouged, be-powdered and be-patched—over the new and +steaming beverage.</p></div> + +<p>It was in 1669 or 1672 that Madame de Sévigné (Marie de Rabutin-Chantal; +1626–96), the celebrated French letter-writer, is said to have made that +famous prophecy, "There are two things Frenchmen will never +swallow—coffee and Racine's poetry," sometimes abbreviated into, +"Racine and coffee will pass." What Madame really said, according to one +authority, was that Racine was writing for Champmeslé, the actress, and +not for posterity; again, of coffee she said, "<i>s'en dégoûterait comme; +d'un indigne favori</i>" (People will become disgusted with it as with an +unworthy favorite).</p> + +<p>Larousse says the double judgment was wrongly attributed to Mme. de +Sévigné. The celebrated aphorism, like many others, was forged later. +Mme. de Sévigné said, "Racine made his comedies for the Champmeslé—not +for the ages to come." This was in 1672. Four years later, she said to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +her daughter, "You have done well to quit coffee. Mlle. de Mere has also +given it up."</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Was_First_Sold_and_Served_Publicly_in_the_Fair_of_St-Germain" id="Coffee_Was_First_Sold_and_Served_Publicly_in_the_Fair_of_St-Germain"></a> +<img src="images/image58.jpg" width="300" height="548" alt="Coffee Was First Sold and Served Publicly in the Fair of St.-Germain" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Was First Sold and Served Publicly in the Fair of St.-Germain</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a Seventeenth-Century Print</small></p> +</div> + +<p>However it may have been, the amiable letter-writer was destined to live +to see Frenchmen yielding at once to the lure of coffee and to the +poetical artifices of the greatest dramatic craftsman of his day.</p> + +<p>While it is recorded that coffee made slow progress with the court of +Louis XIV, the next king, Louis XV, to please his mistress, du Barry, +gave it a tremendous vogue. It is related that he spent $15,000 a year +for coffee for his daughters.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in 1672, one Pascal, an Armenian, first sold coffee publicly +in Paris. Pascal, who, according to one account, was brought to Paris by +Soliman Aga, offered the beverage for sale from a tent, which was also a +kind of booth, in the fair of St.-Germain, supplemented by the service +of Turkish waiter boys, who peddled it among the crowds from small cups +on trays. The fair was held during the first two months of spring, in a +large open plot just inside the walls of Paris and near the Latin +Quarter. As Pascal's waiter boys circulated through the crowds on those +chilly days the fragrant odor of freshly made coffee brought many ready +sales of the steaming beverage; and soon visitors to the fair learned to +look for the "little black" cupful of cheer, or <i>petit noir</i>, a name +that still endures.</p> + +<p>When the fair closed, Pascal opened a small coffee shop on the Quai de +l'École, near the Pont Neuf; but his frequenters were of a type who +preferred the beers and wines of the day, and coffee languished. Pascal +continued, however, to send his waiter boys with their large coffee +jugs, that were heated by lamps, through the streets of Paris and from +door to door. Their cheery cry of "<i>café! café!</i>" became a welcome call +to many a Parisian, who later missed his <i>petit noir</i> when Pascal gave +up and moved on to London, where coffee drinking was then in high favor.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Street_Coffee_Vender_of_Paris_Period_1672_to_1689mdashTwo_Sous_per_Dish_Sugar_Included" id="Street_Coffee_Vender_of_Paris_Period_1672_to_1689mdashTwo_Sous_per_Dish_Sugar_Included"></a> +<img src="images/image59.jpg" width="300" height="377" alt="Street Coffee Vender of Paris—Period, 1672 to 1689—Two Sous per Dish, Sugar Included" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Street Coffee Vender of Paris—Period, 1672 to 1689—Two Sous per Dish, Sugar Included</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Lacking favor at court, coffee's progress was slow. The French smart set +clung to its light wines and beers. In 1672, Maliban,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> another Armenian, +opened a coffee house in the rue Bussy, next to the Metz tennis court +near St.-Germain's abbey. He supplied tobacco also to his customers. +Later he went to Holland, leaving his servant and partner, Gregory, a +Persian, in charge. Gregory moved to the rue Mazarine, to be near the +Comédie Française. He was succeeded in the business by Makara, another +Persian, who later returned to Ispahan, leaving the coffee house to one +Le Gantois, of Liége.</p> + +<p>About this period there was a cripple boy from Candia, known as le +Candiot, who began to cry "coffee!" in the streets of Paris. He carried +with him a coffee pot of generous size, a chafing-dish, cups, and all +other implements necessary to his trade. He sold his coffee from door to +door at two sous per dish, sugar included.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Many_of_the_Early_Parisian_Coffee_Houses_Followed_Pascal39s_Lead_and_Affected_Armenian_Decorations" id="Many_of_the_Early_Parisian_Coffee_Houses_Followed_Pascal39s_Lead_and_Affected_Armenian_Decorations"></a> +<img src="images/image60.jpg" width="300" height="442" alt="Many of the Early Parisian Coffee Houses Followed Pascal's Lead and Affected Armenian Decorations" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Many of the Early Parisian Coffee Houses Followed Pascal's Lead and Affected Armenian Decorations</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a Seventeenth-Century Print</small></p> +</div> + +<p>A Levantine named Joseph also sold coffee in the streets, and later had +several coffee shops of his own. Stephen, from Aleppo, next opened a +coffee house on Pont au Change, moving, when his business prospered, to +more pretentious quarters in the rue St.-André, facing St.-Michael's +bridge.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="A_Corner_of_the_Historic_Cafeacute_de_Procope" id="A_Corner_of_the_Historic_Cafeacute_de_Procope"></a> +<img src="images/image61.jpg" width="300" height="454" alt="A Corner of the Historic Café de Procope Showing Voltaire and Diderot in Debate" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Corner of the Historic Café de Procope Showing Voltaire and Diderot in Debate</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a rare water color</small></p> +</div> + +<p>All these, and others, were essentially the Oriental style of coffee +house of the lower order, and they appealed principally to the poorer +classes and to foreigners. "Gentlemen and people of fashion" did not +care to be seen in this type of public house. But when the French +merchants began to set up, first at St.-Germain's fair, "spacious +apartments in an elegant manner, ornamented with tapestries, large +mirrors, pictures, marble tables, branches for candles, magnificent +lustres, and serving coffee, tea, chocolate, and other refreshments", +they were soon crowded with people of fashion and men of letters.</p> + +<p>In this way coffee drinking in public acquired a badge of +respectability. Presently there were some three hundred coffee houses in +Paris. The principal coffee men, in addition to plying their trade in +the city, maintained coffee rooms in St.-Germain's and St.-Laurence's +fairs. These were frequented by women as well as men.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>The Progenitor of the Real Parisian Café</i></p> + +<p>It was not until 1689, that there appeared in Paris a real French +adaptation of the Oriental coffee house. This was the Café de Procope, +opened by François Procope (Procopio Cultelli, or Cotelli) who came from +Florence or Palermo. Procope was a <i>limonadier</i> (lemonade vender) who +had a royal license to sell spices, ices, barley water, lemonade, and +other such refreshments. He early added coffee to the list, and +attracted a large and distinguished patronage.</p> + +<p>Procope, a keen-witted merchant, made his appeal to a higher class of +patrons than did Pascal and those who first followed him. He established +his café directly opposite the newly opened Comédie Française, in the +street then known as the rue des Fossés-St.-Germain, but now the rue de +l'Ancienne Comédie. A writer of the period has left this description of +the place: "The Café de Procope ... was also called the Antre [cavern] +de Procope, because it was very dark even in full day, and ill-lighted +in the evenings; and because you often saw there a set of lank, sallow +poets, who had somewhat the air of apparitions."</p> + +<p>Because of its location, the Café de Procope became the gathering place +of many noted French actors, authors, dramatists, and musicians of the +eighteenth century. It was a veritable literary salon. Voltaire was a +constant patron; and until the close of the historic café, after an +existence of more than two centuries, his marble table and chair were +among the precious relics of the coffee house. His favorite drink is +said to have been a mixture of coffee and chocolate. Rousseau, author +and philosopher; Beaumarchais, dramatist and financier; Diderot, the +encyclopedist; Ste.-Foix, the abbé of Voisenon; de Belloy, author of the +<i>Siege of Callais</i>; Lemierre, author of <i>Artaxerce</i>; Crébillon; Piron; +La Chaussée; Fontenelle; Condorcet; and a host of lesser lights in the +French arts, were habitués of François Procope's modest coffee saloon +near the Comédie Française.</p> + +<p>Naturally, the name of Benjamin Franklin, recognized in Europe as one of +the world's foremost thinkers in the days of the American Revolution, +was often spoken over the coffee cups of Café de Procope; and when the +distinguished American died in 1790, this French coffee house went into +deep mourning "for the great friend of republicanism." The walls, inside +and out, were swathed in black bunting, and the statesmanship and +scientific attainments of Franklin were acclaimed by all frequenters.</p> + +<p>The Café de Procope looms large in the annals of the French Revolution. +During the turbulent days of 1789 one could find at the tables, drinking +coffee or stronger beverages, and engaged in debate over the burning +questions of the hour, such characters as Marat, Robespierre, Danton, +Hébert, and Desmoulins. Napoleon Bonaparte, then a poor artillery +officer seeking a commission, was also there. He busied himself largely +in playing chess, a favorite recreation of the early Parisian +coffee-house patrons. It is related that François Procope once compelled +young Bonaparte to leave his hat for security while he sought money to +pay his coffee score.</p> + +<p>After the Revolution, the Café de Procope lost its literary prestige and +sank to the level of an ordinary restaurant. During the last half of the +nineteenth century, Paul Verlaine, bohemian, poet, and leader of the +symbolists, made the Café de Procope his haunt; and for a time it +regained some of its lost popularity. The Restaurant Procope still +survives at 13 rue de l'Ancienne Comédie.</p> + +<p>History records that, with the opening of the Café de Procope, coffee +became firmly established in Paris. In the reign of Louis XV there were +600 cafés in Paris. At the close of the eighteenth century there were +more than 800. By 1843 the number had increased to more than 3000.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Development of the Cafés</i></p> + +<p>Coffee's vogue spread rapidly, and many cabaréts and famous eating +houses began to add it to their menus. Among these was the Tour d'Argent +(silver tower), which had been opened on the Quai de la Tournelle in +1582, and speedily became Paris's most fashionable restaurant. It still +is one of the chief attractions for the epicure, retaining the +reputation for its cooking that drew a host of world leaders, from +Napoleon to Edward VII, to its quaint interior.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="THE_CAFEacute_DE_PROCOPE_IN_1743" id="THE_CAFEacute_DE_PROCOPE_IN_1743"></a> +<img src="images/image62.jpg" width="500" height="681" alt="THE CAFÉ DE PROCOPE IN 1743" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE CAFÉ DE PROCOPE IN 1743</span> +<p class="center"><small>From an engraving by Bosredon</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p><p>Another tavern that took up coffee after Procope, was the Royal +Drummer, which Jean Ramponaux established at the Courtille des +Porcherons and which followed Magny's. His hostelry rightly belongs to +the tavern class, although coffee had a prominent place on its menu. It +became notorious for excesses and low-class vices during the reign of +Louis XV, who was a frequent visitor. Low and high were to be found in +Ramponaux's cellar, particularly when some especially wild revelry was +in prospect. Marie Antoinette once declared she had her most enjoyable +time at a wild <i>farandole</i> in the Royal Drummer. Ramponaux was taken to +its heart by fashionable Paris; and his name was used as a trade mark on +furniture, clothes, and foods.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_Cashier39s_Counter_in_a_Paris_Coffee_House_of_1782" id="The_Cashier39s_Counter_in_a_Paris_Coffee_House_of_1782"></a> +<img src="images/image63.jpg" width="300" height="468" alt="The Cashier's Counter in a Paris Coffee House of 1782" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Cashier's Counter in a Paris Coffee House of 1782</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a drawing by Rétif de la Bretonne</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The popularity of Ramponaux's Royal Drummer is attested by an +inscription on an early print showing the interior of the café. +Translated, it reads:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +The pleasures of ease untroubled to taste,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The leisure of home to enjoy without haste,</span><br /> +Perhaps a few hours at Magny's to waste,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ah, that was the old-fashioned way!</span><br /> +Today all our laborers, everyone knows,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Go running away ere the working hours close,</span><br /> +And why? They must be at Monsieur Ramponaux'!<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Behold, the new style of café!</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>When coffee houses began to crop up rapidly in Paris, the majority +centered in the Palais Royal, "that garden spot of beauty, enclosed on +three sides by three tiers of galleries," which Richelieu had erected in +1636, under the name of Palais Cardinal, in the reign of Louis XIII. It +became known as the Palais Royal in 1643; and soon after the opening of +the Café de Procope, it began to blossom out with many attractive coffee +stalls, or rooms, sprinkled among the other shops that occupied the +galleries overlooking the gardens.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Life In The Early Coffee Houses</i></p> + +<p>Diderot tells in 1760, in his <i>Rameau's Nephew</i>, of the life and +frequenters of one of the Palais Royal coffee houses, the Regency (<i>Café +de la Régence</i>):</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In all weathers, wet or fine, it is my practice to go toward five +o'clock in the evening to take a turn in the Palais Royal.... If +the weather is too cold or too wet I take shelter in the Regency +coffee house. There I amuse myself by looking on while they play +chess. Nowhere in the world do they play chess as skillfully as in +Paris and nowhere in Paris as they do at this coffee house; 'tis +here you see Légal the profound, Philidor the subtle, Mayot the +solid; here you see the most astounding moves, and listen to the +sorriest talk, for if a man be at once a wit and a great chess +player, like Légal, he may also be a great chess player and a sad +simpleton, like Joubert and Mayot.</p></div> + +<p>The beginnings of the Regency coffee house are associated with the +legend that Lefévre, a Parisian, began peddling coffee in the streets of +Paris about the time Procope opened his café in 1689. The story has it +that Lefévre later opened a café near the Palais Royal, selling it in +1718 to one Leclerc, who named it the Café de la Régence, in honor of +the regent of Orleans, a name that still endures on a broad sign over +its doors. The nobility had their rendezvous there after having paid +their court to the regent.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="THE_CAFEacute_FOY_IN_THE_PALAIS_ROYAL_1789" id="THE_CAFEacute_FOY_IN_THE_PALAIS_ROYAL_1789"></a> +<img src="images/image64.jpg" width="500" height="711" alt="THE CAFÉ FOY IN THE PALAIS ROYAL, 1789" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE CAFÉ FOY IN THE PALAIS ROYAL, 1789</span> +<p class="center"><small>From an engraving by Bosredon</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p><p>To name the patrons of the Café de la Régence in its long career would +be to outline a history of French literature for more than two +centuries. There was Philidor the "greatest theoretician of the +eighteenth century, better known for his chess than his music"; +Robespierre, of the Revolution, who once played chess with a +girl—disguised as a boy—for the life of her lover; Napoleon, who was +then noted more for his chess than his empire-building propensities; and +Gambetta, whose loud voice, generally raised in debate, disturbed one +chess player so much that he protested because he could not follow his +game. Voltaire, Alfred de Musset; Victor Hugo, Théophile Gautier, J.J. +Rousseau, the Duke of Richelieu, Marshall Saxe, Buffon, Rivarol, +Fontenelle, Franklin, and Henry Murger are names still associated with +memories of this historic café: Marmontel and Philidor played there at +their favorite game of chess. Diderot tells in his <i>Memoirs</i> that his +wife gave him every day nine sous to get his coffee there. It was in +this establishment that he worked on his <i>Encyclopedia</i>.</p> + +<p>Chess is today still in favor at the Régence, although the players are +not, as were the earlier patrons, obliged to pay by the hour for their +tables with extra charges for candles placed by the chess-boards. The +present Café de la Régence is in the rue St.-Honoré, but retains in +large measure its aspect of olden days.</p> + +<p>Michelet, the historian, has given us a rhapsodic pen picture of the +Parisian cafés under the regency:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Paris became one vast café. Conversation in France was at its +zenith. There were less eloquence and rhetoric than in '89. With +the exception of Rousseau, there was no orator to cite. The +intangible flow of wit was as spontaneous as possible. For this +sparkling outburst there is no doubt that honor should be ascribed +in part to the auspicious revolution of the times, to the great +event which created new customs, and even modified human +temperament—the advent of coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot">Its effect was immeasurable, not being weakened and neutralized as +it is today by the brutalizing influence of tobacco. They took +snuff, but did not smoke. The cabarét was dethroned, the ignoble +cabarét, where, during the reign of Louis XIV, the youth of the +city rioted amid wine-casks in the company of light women. The +night was less thronged with chariots. Fewer lords found a resting +place in the gutter. The elegant shop, where conversation flowed, a +salon rather than a shop, changed and ennobled its customs. The +reign of coffee is that of temperance. Coffee, the beverage of +sobriety, a powerful mental stimulant, which, unlike spirituous +liquors, increases clearness and lucidity; coffee, which suppresses +the vague, heavy fantasies of the imagination, which from the +perception of reality brings forth the sparkle and sunlight of +truth; coffee anti-erotic....</p> + +<p class="quot">The three ages of coffee are those of modern thought; they mark the +serious moments of the brilliant epoch of the soul.</p> + +<p class="quot">Arabian coffee is the pioneer, even before 1700. The beautiful +ladies that you see in the fashionable rooms of Bonnard, sipping +from their tiny cups—they are enjoying the aroma of the finest +coffee of Arabia. And of what are they chatting? Of the seraglio, +of Chardin, of the Sultana's coiffure, of the <i>Thousand and One +Nights</i> (1704). They compare the ennui of Versailles with the +paradise of the Orient.</p> + +<p class="quot">Very soon, in 1710–1720, commences the reign of Indian coffee, +abundant, popular, comparatively cheap. Bourbon, our Indian island, +where coffee was transplanted, suddenly realizes unheard-of +happiness. This coffee of volcanic lands acts as an explosive on +the Regency and the new spirit of things. This sudden cheer, this +laughter of the old world, these overwhelming flashes of wit, of +which the sparkling verse of Voltaire, the <i>Persian Letters</i>, give +us a faint idea! Even the most brilliant books have not succeeded +in catching on the wing this airy chatter, which comes, goes, flies +elusively. This is that spirit of ethereal nature which, in the +<i>Thousand and One Nights</i>, the enchanter confined in his bottle. +But what phial would have withstood that pressure?</p> + +<p class="quot">The lava of Bourbon, like the Arabian sand, was unequal to the +demand. The Regent recognized this and had coffee transported to +the fertile soil of our Antilles. The strong coffee of Santo +Domingo, full, coarse, nourishing as well as stimulating, sustained +the adult population of that period, the strong age of the +encyclopedia. It was drunk by Buffon, Diderot, Rousseau, added its +glow to glowing souls, its light to the penetrating vision of the +prophets gathered in the cave of Procope, who saw at the bottom of +the black beverage the future rays of '89. Danton, the terrible +Danton, took several cups of coffee before mounting the tribune. +'The horse must have its oats,' he said.</p></div> + +<p>The vogue of coffee popularized the use of sugar, which was then bought +by the ounce at the apothecary's shop. Dufour says that in Paris they +used to put so much sugar in the coffee that "it was nothing but a syrup +of blackened water." The ladies were wont to have their carriages stop +in front of the Paris cafés and to have their coffee served to them by +the porter on saucers of silver.</p> + +<p>Every year saw new cafés opened. When they became so numerous, and +competition grew so keen, it was necessary to invent new attractions for +customers. Then was born the <i>café chantant</i>, where songs, monologues, +dances, little plays and farces (not always in the best taste), were +provided to amuse the frequenters. Many of these <i>cafés chantants</i> were +in the open air along the Champs-Elysées. In bad weather, Paris provided +the pleasure-seeker with the Eldorado, Alcazar d'Hiver, Scala, Gaieté, +Concert du XIX<sup>me</sup> Siécle, Folies Bobino, Rambuteau, Concert Européen, +and countless other meeting places where one could be served with a cup +of coffee.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="THE_CAFEacute_DES_MILLE_COLONNES_IN_1811" id="THE_CAFEacute_DES_MILLE_COLONNES_IN_1811"></a> +<img src="images/image65.jpg" width="500" height="712" alt="THE CAFÉ DES MILLE COLONNES IN 1811" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE CAFÉ DES MILLE COLONNES IN 1811</span> +<p class="center"><small>From an engraving by Bosredon</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p><p>As in London, certain cafés were noted for particular followings, like +the military, students, artists, merchants. The politicians had their +favorite resorts. Says Salvandy:<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">These were senates in miniature; here mighty political questions +were discussed; here peace and war were decided upon; here generals +were brought to the bar of justice ... distinguished orators were +victoriously refuted, ministers heckled upon their ignorance, their +incapacity, their perfidy, their corruption. The café is in reality +a French institution; in them we find all these agitations and +movements of men, the like of which is unknown in the English +tavern. No government can go against the sentiment of the cafés. +The Revolution took place because they were for the Revolution. +Napoleon reigned because they were for glory. The Restoration was +shattered, because they understood the Charter in a different +manner.</p></div> + +<p>In 1700 appeared the <i>Portefeuille Galant</i>, containing conversations of +the cafés.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Cafés in the French Revolution</i></p> + +<p>The Palais Royal coffee houses were centers of activity in the days +preceding and following the Revolution. A picture of them in the July +days of 1789 has been left by Arthur Young, who was visiting Paris at +that time:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The coffee houses present yet more singular and astounding +spectacles; they are not only crowded within, but other expectant +crowds are at the doors and windows, listening <i>à gorge déployée</i> +to certain orators who from chairs or tables harangue each his +little audience; the eagerness with which they are heard, and the +thunder of applause they receive for every sentiment of more than +common hardiness or violence against the government, cannot easily +be imagined.</p></div> + +<p>The Palais Royal teemed with excited Frenchmen on the fateful Sunday of +July 12, 1789. The moment was a tense one, when, coming out of the Café +Foy, Camille Desmoulins, a youthful journalist, mounted a table and +began the harangue that precipitated the first overt act of the French +Revolution. Blazing with a white hot frenzy, he so played upon the +passions of the mob that at the conclusion of his speech he and his +followers "marched away from the Café on their errand of Revolution." +The Bastille fell two days later.</p> + +<p>As if abashed by its reputation as the starting point of the mob spirit +of the Revolution, Café Foy became in after years a sedate +gathering-place of artists and literati. Up to its close it was +distinguished among other famous Parisian cafés for its exclusiveness +and strictly enforced rule of "no smoking."</p> + +<p>Even from the first the Parisian cafés catered to all classes of +society; and, unlike the London coffee houses, they retained this +distinctive characteristic. A number of them early added other liquid +and substantial refreshments, many becoming out-and-out restaurants.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee-House Customs and Patrons</i></p> + +<p>Coffee's effect on Parisians is thus described by a writer of the latter +part of the eighteenth century:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">I think I may safely assert that it is to the establishment of so +many cafés in Paris that is due the urbanity and mildness +discernible upon most faces. Before they existed, nearly everybody +passed his time at the cabarét, where even business matters were +discussed. Since their establishment, people assemble to hear what +is going on, drinking and playing only in moderation, and the +consequence is that they are more civil and polite, at least in +appearance.</p></div> + +<p>Montesquieu's satirical pen pictured in his <i>Persian Letters</i> the +earliest cafés as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In some of these houses they talk news; in others, they play +draughts. There is one where they prepare the coffee in such a +manner that it inspires the drinkers of it with wit; at least, of +all those who frequent it, there is not one person in four who does +not think he has more wit after he has entered that house. But what +offends me in these wits is that they do not make themselves useful +to their country.</p></div> + +<p>Montesquieu encountered a geometrician outside a coffee house on the +Pont Neuf, and accompanied him inside. He describes the incident in this +manner:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">I observe that our geometrician was received there with the utmost +officiousness, and that the coffee house boys paid him much more +respect than two musqueteers who were in a corner of the room. As +for him, he seemed as if he thought himself in an agreeable place; +for he unwrinkled his brows a little and laughed, as if he had not +the least tincture of geometrician in him.... He was offended at +every start of wit, as a tender eye is by too strong a light.... At +last I saw an old man enter, pale and thin, whom I knew to be a +coffee house politician before he sat down; he was not one of those +who are never to be intimidated by disasters, but always prophesy +of victories and success; he was one of those timorous wretches who +are always boding ill.</p></div> + +<p>Café Momus and Café Rotonde figure conspicuously in the record of French +bohemianism. The Momus stood near the right bank of the River Seine in +rue des Prêtres St.-Germain, and was known as the home of the bohemians. +The Rotonde stood on the left bank at the corner of the rue de l'École +de Médecine and the rue Hautefeuille.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="THE_CAFEacute_DE_PARIS_IN_1843" id="THE_CAFEacute_DE_PARIS_IN_1843"></a> +<img src="images/image66.jpg" width="500" height="709" alt="THE CAFÉ DE PARIS IN 1843" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE CAFÉ DE PARIS IN 1843</span> +<p class="center"><small>From an engraving by Bosredon</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p><p>Alexandre Schanne has given us a glimpse of bohemian life in the early +cafés. He lays his scene in the Café Rotonde, and tells how a number of +poor students were wont to make one cup of coffee last the coterie a +full evening by using it to flavor and to color the one glass of water +shared in common. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Every evening, the first comer at the waiter's inquiry, "What will +you take, sir?" never failed to reply, "Nothing just at present, I +am waiting for a friend." The friend arrived, to be assailed by the +brutal question, "Have you any money?" He would make a despairing +gesture in the negative, and then add, loud enough to be heard by +the <i>dame du comptoir</i>, "By Jove, no; only fancy, I left my purse +on my console-table, with gilt feet, in the purest Louis XV style. +Ah! what a thing it is to be forgetful." He would sit down, and the +waiter would wipe the table as if he had something to do. A third +would come, who was sometimes able to reply, "Yes. I have ten +sous." "Good!" we would reply; "order a cup of coffee, a glass and +a water bottle; pay and give two sous to the waiter to secure his +silence." This would be done. Others would come and take their +places beside us, repeating to the waiter the same chorus, "We are +with this gentleman." Frequently we would be eight or nine sitting +at the same table, and only one customer. Whilst smoking and +reading the papers we would, however, pass the glass and bottle. +When the water began to run short, as on a ship in distress, one of +us would have the impudence to call out, "Waiter, some water!" The +master of the establishment, who understood our situation, had no +doubt given orders for us to be left alone, and made his fortune +without our help. He was a good fellow and an intelligent one, +having subscribed to all the scientific journals of Europe, which +brought him the custom of foreign students.</p></div> + +<p>Another café perpetuating the best traditions of the Latin Quarter was +the Vachette, which survived until the death of Jean Moréas in 1911. The +Vachette is usually cited by antiquarians as a model of circumspection +as compared with the scores of cafés in the Quarter that were given up +to debaucheries. One writer puts it: "The Vachette traditions leaned +more to scholarship than sensuality."</p> + +<p>In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries the Parisian café +was truly a coffee house; but as many of the patrons began to while away +most of their waking hours in them, the proprietors added other +beverages and food to hold their patronage. Consequently, we find listed +among the cafés of Paris some houses that are more accurately described +as restaurants, although they may have started their careers as coffee +houses.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Historic Parisian Cafés</i></p> + +<p>Some of the historic cafés are still thriving in their original +locations, although the majority have now passed into oblivion. Glimpses +of the more famous houses are to be found in the novels, poetry, and +essays written by the French literati who patronized them. These +first-hand accounts give insights that are sometimes stirring, often +amusing, and frequently revolting—such as the assassination of +St.-Fargean in Février's low-vaulted cellar café in the Palais Royal.</p> + +<p>There is Magny's, originally the haunt of such literary men as Gautier, +Taine, Saint-Victor, Turguenieff, de Goncourt, Soulie, Renan, Edmond. In +recent years the old Magny's was razed, and on its site was built the +modern restaurant of the same name, but in a style that has no +resemblance to its predecessor. Even the name of the street has been +changed, from rue Contrescarpe to the rue Mazet.</p> + +<p>Méot's, the Véry, Beauvilliers', Massé's, the Café Chartres, the Troi +Fréres Provençaux, and the du Grand Commun, all situated in the Palais +Royal, are cafés that figured conspicuously in the French Revolution, +and are closely identified with the French stage and literature. Méot's +and Massé's were the trysting places of the Royalists in the days +preceding the outbreak, but welcomed the Revolutionists after they came +in power. The Chartres was notorious as the gathering place of young +aristocrats who escaped the guillotine, and, thus made bold, often +called their like from adjoining cafés to partake in some of their plans +for restoration of the empire. The Trois Fréres Provençaux, well known +for its excellent and costly dinners, is mentioned by Balzac, Lord +Lytton, and Alfred de Musset in some of their novels. The Café du Grand +Commun appears in Rousseau's <i>Confessions</i> in connection with the play +<i>Devin du Village</i>.</p> + +<p>Among the most famous of the cafés on the Rue St. Honoré were Venua's, +patronized by Robespierre and his companions of the Revolution, and +perhaps the scene of the inhuman murder of Berthier and its revolting +aftermath; the Mapinot, which has gone down in café history as the scene +of the banquet to Archibald Alison, the 22-year-old<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> historian; and +Voisin's café, around which still cling traditions of such literary +lights as Zola, Alphonse Daudet, and Jules de Goncourt.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Interior_of_a_Typical_Parisian_Cafeacute" id="Interior_of_a_Typical_Parisian_Cafeacute"></a> +<img src="images/image67.jpg" width="400" height="241" alt="Interior of a Typical Parisian Café of the Early Nineteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Typical Parisian Café of the Early Nineteenth Century</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Perhaps the boulevard des Italiens had, and still has, more fashionable +cafés than any other section of the French capital. The Tortoni, opened +in the early days of the Empire by Velloni, an Italian lemonade vender, +was the most popular of the boulevard cafés, and was generally thronged +with fashionables from all parts of Europe. Here Louis Blanc, historian +of the Revolution, spent many hours in the early days of his fame. +Talleyrand; Rossini, the musician; Alfred Stevens and Edouard Manet, +artists, are some of the names still linked with the traditions of the +Tortoni. Farther down the boulevard were the Café Riche, Maison Dorée, +Café Anglais, and the Café de Paris. The Riche and the Dorée, standing +side by side, were both high-priced and noted for their revelries. The +Anglais, which came into existence after the snuffing out of the Empire, +was also distinguished for its high prices, but in return gave an +excellent dinner and fine wines. It is told that even during the siege +of Paris the Anglais offered its patrons "such luxuries as ass, mule, +peas, fried potatoes, and champagne."</p> + +<p>Probably the Café de Paris, which came into existence in 1822, in the +former home of the Russian Prince Demidoff, was the most richly equipped +and elegantly conducted of any café in Paris in the nineteenth century. +Alfred de Musset, a frequenter, said, "you could not open its doors for +less than 15 francs."</p> + +<p>The Café Littéraire, opened on boulevard Bonne Nouvelle late in the +nineteenth century, made a direct appeal to literary men for patronage, +printing this footnote on its menu: "Every customer spending a franc in +this establishment is entitled to one volume of any work to be selected +from our vast collection."</p> + +<p>The names of Parisian cafés once more or less famous are legion. Some of +them are:</p> + +<p>The Café Laurent, which Rousseau was forced to leave after writing an +especially bitter satire; the English café in which eccentric Lord +Wharton made merry with the Whig habitués; the Dutch café, the haunt of +Jacobites; Terre's, in the rue Neuve des Petits Champs, which Thackeray +described in <i>The Ballad of Bouillabaisse</i>; Maire's, in the boulevard +St.-Denis, which dates back beyond 1850; the Café Madrid, in the +boulevard Montmartre, of which Carjat, the Spanish lyric poet, was an +attraction; the Café de la Paix, in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> boulevard des Capucines, the +resort of Second Empire Imperialists and their spies; the Café Durand, +in the place de la Madeleine, which started on a plane with the +high-priced Riche, and ended its career early in the twentieth century; +the Rocher de Cancale, memorable for its feasts and high-living patrons +from all over Europe; the Café Guerbois, near the rue de St. Petersburg, +where Manet, the impressionist, after many vicissitudes, won fame for +his paintings and held court for many years; the Chat Noir, on the rue +Victor Massé at Montmartre, a blend of café and concert hall, which has +since been imitated widely, both in name and feature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Chess_Has_Been_a_Favorite_Pastime_at_the_Cafeacute_de_la_Reacutegence" id="Chess_Has_Been_a_Favorite_Pastime_at_the_Cafeacute_de_la_Reacutegence"></a> +<img src="images/image68.jpg" width="400" height="316" alt="Chess Has Been a Favorite Pastime at the Café de la Régence for two hundred years." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Chess Has Been a Favorite Pastime at the Café de la Régence for two hundred years.</span></span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XII" id="Chapter_XII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XII</span></h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO NORTH AMERICA</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the +first to bring to North America a knowledge of coffee in 1607—The +coffee grinder on the Mayflower—Coffee drinking in 1668—William +Penn's coffee purchase in 1683—Coffee in colonial New England—The +psychology of the Boston "tea party," and why the United States +became a nation of coffee drinkers instead of tea drinkers, like +England—The first coffee license to Dorothy Jones in 1670—The +first coffee house in New England—Notable coffee houses of old +Boston—A skyscraper coffee house</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">U</span><span class="caps">ndoubtedly</span> the first to bring a knowledge of coffee to North America +was Captain John Smith, who founded the Colony of Virginia at Jamestown +in 1607. Captain Smith became familiar with coffee in his travels in +Turkey.</p> + +<p>Although the Dutch also had early knowledge of coffee, it does not +appear that the Dutch West India Company brought any of it to the first +permanent settlement on Manhattan Island (1624). Nor is there any record +of coffee in the cargo of the Mayflower (1620), although it included a +wooden mortar and pestle, later used to make "coffee powder."</p> + +<p>In the period when New York was New Amsterdam, and under Dutch occupancy +(1624–64), it is possible that coffee may have been imported from +Holland, where it was being sold on the Amsterdam market as early as +1640, and where regular supplies of the green bean were being received +from Mocha in 1663; but positive proof is lacking. The Dutch appear to +have brought tea across the Atlantic from Holland before coffee. The +English may have introduced the coffee drink into the New York colony +between 1664 and 1673. The earliest reference to coffee in America is +1668<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a>, at which time a beverage made from the roasted beans, and +flavored with sugar or honey, and cinnamon, was being drunk in New York.</p> + +<p>Coffee first appears in the official records of the New England colony +in 1670. In 1683, the year following William Penn's settlement on the +Delaware, we find him buying supplies of coffee in the New York market +and paying for them at the rate of eighteen shillings and nine pence per +pound.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p> + +<p>Coffee houses patterned after the English and Continental prototypes +were soon established in all the colonies. Those of New York and +Philadelphia are described in separate chapters. The Boston houses are +described at the end of this chapter.</p> + +<p>Norfolk, Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans also had them. Conrad +Leonhard's coffee house at 320 Market Street. St. Louis, was famous for +its coffee and coffee cake, from 1844 to 1905, when it became a bakery +and lunch room, removing in 1919 to Eighth and Pine Streets.</p> + +<p>In the pioneer days of the great west, coffee and tea were hard to get; +and, instead of them, teas were often made from garden herbs, spicewood, +sassafras-roots,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> and other shrubs, taken from the thickets<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a>. In +1839, in the city of Chicago, one of the minor taverns was known as the +Lake Street coffee house. It was situated at the corner of Lake and +Wells Streets. A number of hotels, which in the English sense might more +appropriately be called inns, met a demand for modest accommodation<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a>. +Two coffee houses were listed in the Chicago directories for 1843 and +1845, the Washington coffee house, 83 Lake Street; and the Exchange +coffee house, Clarke Street between La Salle and South Water Streets.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Types_of_Colonial_Coffee_Roasters" id="Types_of_Colonial_Coffee_Roasters"></a> +<img src="images/image69.jpg" width="300" height="171" alt="Types of Colonial Coffee Roasters" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Types of Colonial Coffee Roasters</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The cylinder at the top of the picture was revolved by hand in the +fireplace; the skillets were set in the smouldering ashes</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The old-time coffee houses of New Orleans were situated within the +original area of the city, the section bounded by the river, Canal +Street, Esplanade Avenue and Rampart Street. In the early days most of +the big business of the city was transacted in the coffee houses. The +<i>brûleau</i>, coffee with orange juice, orange peel, and sugar, with cognac +burned and mixed in it, originated in the New Orleans coffee house, and +led to its gradual evolution into the saloon.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>How the United States Became a Nation of Coffee Drinkers</i></p> + +<p>Coffee, tea, and chocolate were introduced into North America almost +simultaneously in the latter part of the seventeenth century. In the +first half of the eighteenth century, tea had made such progress in +England, thanks to the propaganda of the British East India Company, +that, being moved to extend its use in the colonies, the directors +turned their eyes first in the direction of North America. Here, +however, King George spoiled their well-laid plans by his unfortunate +stamp act of 1765, which caused the colonists to raise the cry of "no +taxation without representation."</p> + +<p>Although the act was repealed in 1766, the right to tax was asserted, +and in 1767 was again used, duties being laid on paints, oils, lead, +glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted; and, by refusing to +import any goods of English make, so distressed the English +manufacturers that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. +Despite the growing fondness for the beverage in America, the colonists +preferred to get their tea elsewhere to sacrificing their principles and +buying it from England. A brisk trade in smuggling tea from Holland was +started.</p> + +<p>In a panic at the loss of the most promising of its colonial markets, +the British East India Company appealed to Parliament for aid, and was +permitted to export tea, a privilege it had never before enjoyed. +Cargoes were sent on consignment to selected commissioners in Boston, +New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. The story of the subsequent +happenings properly belongs in a book on tea. It is sufficient here to +refer to the climax of the agitation against the fateful tea tax, +because it is undoubtedly responsible for our becoming a nation of +coffee drinkers instead of one of tea drinkers, like England.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="An_Early_Family_Coffee_Roaster" id="An_Early_Family_Coffee_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image70.jpg" width="300" height="264" alt="An Early Family Coffee Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Early Family Coffee Roaster</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This machine, known in Holland as a "Coffee Burner," was used late in +the 18th century in New England. It hung in the fireplace or stood in +the embers</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The Boston "tea party" of 1773, when citizens of Boston, disguised as +Indians, boarded the English ships lying in Boston harbor and threw +their tea cargoes into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> bay, cast the die for coffee; for there and +then originated a subtle prejudice against "the cup that cheers", which +one hundred and fifty years have failed entirely to overcome. Meanwhile, +the change wrought in our social customs by this act, and those of like +nature following it, in the New York, Pennsylvania, and Charleston +colonies, caused coffee to be crowned "king of the American breakfast +table", and the sovereign drink of the American people.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Historical_Relics_Associated_With_the_Early_Days_of_Coffee_in_New_England" id="Historical_Relics_Associated_With_the_Early_Days_of_Coffee_in_New_England"></a> +<img src="images/image71.jpg" width="500" height="239" alt="Historical Relics Associated With the Early Days of Coffee in New England" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Historical Relics Associated With the Early Days of Coffee in New England</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>These exhibits are in the Museum of the Maine Historical Society at +Portland. On the left is Kenrick's Patent coffee mill. In the center is +a Britannia urn with an iron bar for heating the liquid. The bar was +encased in a tin receptacle that hung inside the cover. On the right is +a wall type of coffee or spice grinder</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee in Colonial New England</i></p> + +<p>The history of coffee in colonial New England is so closely interwoven +with the story of the inns and taverns that it is difficult to +distinguish the genuine coffee house, as it was known in England, from +the public house where lodgings and liquors were to be had. The coffee +drink had strong competition from the heady wines, the liquors, and +imported teas, and consequently it did not attain the vogue among the +colonial New Englanders that it did among Londoners of the late +seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.</p> + +<p>Although New England had its coffee houses, these were actually taverns +where coffee was only one of the beverages served to patrons. "They +were", says Robinson, "generally meeting places of those who were +conservative in their views regarding church and state, being friends of +the ruling administration. Such persons were terms 'Courtiers' by their +adversaries, the Dissenters and Republicans."</p> + +<p>Most of the coffee houses were established in Boston, the metropolis of +the Massachusetts Colony, and the social center of New England. While +Plymouth, Salem, Chelsea, and Providence had taverns that served coffee, +they did not achieve the name and fame of some of the more celebrated +coffee houses in Boston.</p> + +<p>It is not definitely known when the first coffee was brought in; but it +is reasonable to suppose that it came as part of the household supplies +of some settler (probably between 1660 and 1670), who had become +acquainted with it before leaving England. Or it may have been +introduced by some British officer, who in London had made the rounds of +the more celebrated coffee houses of the latter half of the seventeenth +century.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The First Coffee License</i></p> + +<p>According to early town records of Boston, Dorothy Jones was the first +to be licensed to sell "coffee and cuchaletto," the latter being the +seventeenth-century spelling for chocolate or cocoa. This license is +dated 1670, and is said to be the first written reference to coffee in +the Massachusetts Colony. It is not stated whether Dorothy Jones was a +vender of the coffee drink or of "coffee powder," as ground coffee was +known in the early days.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_Mayflower_quotCoffee_Grinderquot" id="The_Mayflower_quotCoffee_Grinderquot"></a> +<img src="images/image72.jpg" width="300" height="295" alt="The Mayflower "Coffee Grinder"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Mayflower "Coffee Grinder"</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Mortar and pestle for "braying" coffee to make coffee powder, brought +over in the Mayflower by the parents of Peregrine White</small></p> +</div> + +<p>There is some question as to whether Dorothy Jones was the first to sell +coffee as a beverage in Boston. Londoners had known and drunk coffee for +eighteen years before Dorothy Jones got her coffee license. British +government officials were frequently taking ship from London to the +Massachusetts Colony, and it is likely that they brought tidings and +samples of the coffee the English gentry had lately taken up. No doubt +they also told about the new-style coffee houses that were becoming +popular in all parts of London. And it may be assumed that their tales +caused the landlords of the inns and taverns of colonial Boston to add +coffee to their lists of beverages.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>New England's First Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>The name coffee house did not come into use in New England until late in +the seventeenth century. Early colonial records do not make it clear +whether the London coffee house or the Gutteridge coffee house was the +first to be opened in Boston with that distinctive title. In all +likelihood the London is entitled to the honor, for Samuel Gardner Drake +in his <i>History and Antiquities of the City of Boston</i>, published in +1854, says that "Benj. Harris sold books there in 1689." Drake seems to +be the only historian of early Boston to mention the London coffee +house.</p> + +<p>Granting that the London coffee house was the first in Boston, then the +Gutteridge coffee house was the second. The latter stood on the north +side of State Street, between Exchange and Washington Streets, and was +named after Robert Gutteridge, who took out an innkeeper's license in +1691. Twenty-seven years later, his widow, Mary Gutteridge, petitioned +the town for a renewal of her late husband's permit to keep a public +coffee house.</p> + +<p>The British coffee house, which became the American coffee house when +the crown officers and all things British became obnoxious to the +colonists, also began its career about the time Gutteridge took out his +license. It stood on the site that is now 66 State Street, and became +one of the most widely known coffee houses in colonial New England.</p> + +<p>Of course, there were several inns and taverns in existence in Boston +long before coffee and coffee houses came to the New England metropolis. +Some of these taverns took up coffee when it became fashionable in the +colony, and served it to those patrons who did not care for the stronger +drinks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_Crown_Coffee_House_Boston" id="The_Crown_Coffee_House_Boston"></a> +<img src="images/image73.jpg" width="300" height="374" alt="The Crown Coffee House, Boston" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Crown Coffee House, Boston</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>One of the first in New England to bear the distinctive name of coffee +house; opened in 1711 and burned down in 1780</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The earliest known inn was set up by Samuel Cole in Washington Street, +midway between Faneuil Hall and State Street. Cole was licensed as a +"comfit maker" in 1634, four years after the founding of Boston; and two +years later, his inn was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> temporary abiding place of the Indian +chief Miantonomoh and his red warriors, who came to visit Governor Vane. +In the following year, the Earl of Marlborough found that Cole's inn was +so "exceedingly well governed," and afforded so desirable privacy, that +he refused the hospitality of Governor Winthrop at the governor's +mansion.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Making_and_Serving_Devices_Used_in_the_Massachusetts_Colony" id="Coffee_Making_and_Serving_Devices_Used_in_the_Massachusetts_Colony"></a> +<img src="images/image74.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Coffee Making and Serving Devices Used in the Massachusetts Colony" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Making and Serving Devices Used in the Massachusetts Colony</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>These exhibits are in the Museum of the Essex Institute at Salem, Mass. +Top row, left and right, Britannia serving pots; center, Britannia table +urn; bottom row, left end, tin coffee making pot; center, Britannia +serving pots; right end, tin French drip pot</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Another popular inn of the day was the Red Lyon, which was opened in +1637 by Nicholas Upshall, the Quaker, who later was hanged for trying to +bribe a jailer to pass some food into the jail to two Quakeresses who +were starving within.</p> + +<p>Ship tavern, erected in 1650, at the corner of North and Clark Streets, +then on the waterfront, was a haunt of British government officials. The +father of Governor Hutchinson was the first landlord, to be succeeded in +1663 by John Vyal. Here lived the four commissioners who were sent to +these shores by King Charles II to settle the disputes then beginning +between the colonies and England.</p> + +<p>Another lodging and eating place for the gentlemen of quality in the +first days of Boston was the Blue Anchor, in Cornhill, which was +conducted in 1664 by Robert Turner. Here gathered members of the +government, visiting officials, jurists, and the clergy, summoned into +synod by the Massachusetts General Court. It is assumed that the clergy +confined their drinking to coffee and other moderate beverages, leaving +the wines and liquors to their confrères.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Notable Boston Coffee Houses</i></p> + +<p>In the last quarter of the seventeenth century quite a number of taverns +and inns sprang up. Among the most notable that have obtained +recognition in Boston's historical records were the King's Head, at the +corner of Fleet and North Streets; the Indian Queen, on a passageway +leading from Washington Street to Hawley Street; the Sun, in Faneuil +Hall Square, and the Green Dragon, which became one of the most +celebrated coffee-house taverns.</p> + +<p>The King's Head, opened in 1691, early became a rendezvous of crown +officers and the citizens in the higher strata of colonial society.</p> + +<p>The Indian Queen also became a favorite resort of the crown officers +from Province House. Started by Nathaniel Bishop about 1673, it stood +for more than 145 years as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> the Indian Queen, and then was replaced by +the Washington coffee house, which became noted throughout New England +as the starting place for the Roxbury "hourlies," the stage coaches that +ran every hour from Boston to nearby Roxbury.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Devices_that_Figured_in_the_Pioneering_of_the_Great_West" id="Coffee_Devices_that_Figured_in_the_Pioneering_of_the_Great_West"></a> +<img src="images/image75.jpg" width="500" height="120" alt="Coffee Devices that Figured in the Pioneering of the Great West" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Devices that Figured in the Pioneering of the Great West</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Photographed for this work in the Museum of the State Historical Society +of Wisconsin. Left to right, English decorated tin pot; coffee and spice +mill from Lexington, Mass.; Globe roaster built by Rays & Wilcox Co., +Berlin, Conn., under Wood's patent; sheet brass coffee mill from +Lexington, Mass.; John Luther's coffee mill, Warren, R.I.; cast-iron +hopper mill</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The Sun tavern lived a longer life than any other Boston inn. Started in +1690 in Faneuil Hall Square, it was still standing in 1902, according to +Henry R. Blaney; but has since been razed to make way for a modern +skyscraper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Metal_and_China_Coffee_Pots_Used_in_New_England39s_Colonial_Days" id="Metal_and_China_Coffee_Pots_Used_in_New_England39s_Colonial_Days"></a> +<img src="images/image76.jpg" width="500" height="210" alt="Metal and China Coffee Pots Used in New England's Colonial Days" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Metal and China Coffee Pots Used in New England's Colonial Days</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>From the collection in the Museum of the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial +Association, Deerfield, Mass.</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><i>New England's Most Famous Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>The Green Dragon, the last of the inns that were popular at the close of +the seventeenth century, was the most celebrated of Boston's +coffee-house taverns. It stood on Union Street, in the heart of the +town's business center, for 135 years, from 1697 to 1832, and figured in +practically all the important local and national events during its long +career. Red-coated British soldiers, colonial governors, bewigged crown +officers, earls and dukes, citizens of high estate, plotting +revolutionists of lesser degree, conspirators in the Boston Tea Party, +patriots and generals of the Revolution—all these were wont to gather +at the Green Dragon to discuss their various interests over their cups +of coffee, and stronger drinks. In the words of Daniel Webster, this +famous coffee-house tavern was the "headquarters of the Revolution." It +was here that Warren, John Adams, James Otis, and Paul Revere met as a +"ways and means committee" to secure freedom for the American colonies. +Here, too, came members of the Grand Lodge of Masons to hold their +meetings under the guidance of Warren, who was the first grand master of +the first Masonic lodge in Boston. The site of the old tavern, now +occupied by a business block, is still the property of the St. Andrew's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +Lodge of Free Masons. The old tavern was a two-storied brick structure +with a sharply pitched roof. Over its entrance hung a sign bearing the +figure of a green dragon.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_Green_Dragon_the_Center_of_Social_and_Political_Life_in_Boston_for_135_Years" id="The_Green_Dragon_the_Center_of_Social_and_Political_Life_in_Boston_for_135_Years"></a> +<img src="images/image77.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="The Green Dragon, the Center of Social and Political Life in Boston for 135 Years" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Green Dragon, the Center of Social and Political Life in Boston for 135 Years</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This tavern figured in practically all the important national affairs +from 1697 to 1832, and, according to Daniel Webster, was the +"headquarters of the Revolution"</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Patrons of the Green Dragon and the British coffee house were decidedly +opposed in their views on the questions of the day. While the Green +Dragon was the gathering place of the patriotic colonials, the British +was the rendezvous of the loyalists, and frequent were the encounters +between the patrons of these two celebrated taverns. It was in the +British coffee house that James Otis was so badly pummeled, after being +lured there by political enemies, that he never regained his former +brilliancy as an orator.</p> + +<p>It was there, in 1750, that some British red coats staged the first +theatrical entertainment given in Boston, playing Otway's <i>Orphan</i>. +There, the first organization of citizens to take the name of a club +formed the Merchants' Club in 1751. The membership included officers of +the king, colonial governors and lesser officials, military and naval +leaders, and members of the bar, with a sprinkling of high-ranking +citizens who were staunch friends of the crown. However, the British +became so generally disliked that as soon as the king's troops evacuated +Boston in the Revolution, the name of the coffee house was changed to +the American.</p> + +<p>The Bunch of Grapes, that Francis Holmes presided over as early as 1712, +was another hot-bed of politicians. Like the Green Dragon over the way, +its patrons included unconditional freedom seekers, many coming from the +British coffee house when things became too hot for them in that Tory +atmosphere. The Bunch of Grapes became the center of a stirring +celebration in 1776, when a delegate from Philadelphia read the +Declaration of Independence from the balcony of the inn to the crowd +assembled in the street below. So enthusiastic did the Bostonians become +that, in the excitement that followed, the inn was nearly destroyed when +one enthusiast built a bonfire too close to its walls. Another anecdote +told of the Bunch of Grapes concerns Sir William Phipps, governor of +Massachusetts from 1692–94, who was noted for his irascibility. He had +his favorite chair and window in the inn, and in the accounts of the +period it is written that on any fine afternoon his glowering +countenance could be seen at the window by the passers-by on State +Street.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p><p>After the beginning of the eighteenth century the title of coffee house +was applied to a number of hostelries opened in Boston. One of these was +the Crown, which was opened in the "first house on Long Wharf" in 1711 +by Jonathan Belcher, who later became governor of Massachusetts, and +still later of New Jersey. The first landlord of the Crown was Thomas +Selby, who by trade was a periwig maker, but probably found the selling +of strong drink and coffee more profitable. Selby's coffee house was +also used as an auction room. The Crown stood until 1780, when it was +destroyed in a fire that swept the Long Wharf. On its site now stands +the Fidelity Trust Company at 148 State Street.</p> + +<p>Another early Boston coffee house on State Street was the Royal +Exchange. How long it had been standing before it was first mentioned in +colonial records in 1711 is unknown. It occupied an ancient two-story +building, and was kept in 1711 by Benjamin Johns. This coffee house +became the starting place for stage coaches running between Boston and +New York, the first one leaving September 7, 1772. In the <i>Columbian +Centinel</i> of January 1, 1800, appeared an advertisement in which it was +said: "New York and Providence Mail Stage leaves Major Hatches' Royal +Exchange Coffee House in State Street every morning at 8 o'clock."</p> + +<p>In the latter half of the eighteenth century the North-End coffee house +was celebrated as the highest-class coffee house in Boston. It occupied +the three-storied brick mansion which had been built about 1740 by +Edward Hutchinson, brother of the noted governor. It stood on the west +side of North Street, between Sun Court and Fleet Street, and was one of +the most pretentious of its kind. An eighteenth century writer, in +describing this coffee-house mansion, made much of the fact that it had +forty-five windows and was valued at $4,500, a large sum for those days. +During the Revolution, Captain David Porter, father of Admiral David D. +Porter, was the landlord, and under him it became celebrated throughout +the city as a high-grade eating place. The advertisements of the +North-End coffee house featured its "dinners and suppers—small and +retired rooms for small company—oyster suppers in the nicest manner."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Metal_Coffee_Pots_Used_in_the_New_York_Colony" id="Metal_Coffee_Pots_Used_in_the_New_York_Colony"></a> +<img src="images/image78.jpg" width="500" height="270" alt="Metal Coffee Pots Used in the New York Colony" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Metal Coffee Pots Used in the New York Colony</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Left, tin coffee pot, dark brown, with "love apple" decoration in red, +New Jersey Historical Society, Newark; right, weighted bottom tin pot +with rose decoration, private owner</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>A "Skyscraper" Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>The Boston coffee-house period reached its height in 1808, when the +doors of the Exchange coffee house were thrown open after three years of +building. This structure,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> situated on Congress Street near State +Street, was the skyscraper of its day, and probably was the most +ambitious coffee-house project the world has known. Built of stone, +marble, and brick, it stood seven stories high, and cost a half-million +dollars. Charles Bulfinch, America's most noted architect of that +period, was the designer.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Exchange_Coffee_House_Boston_1808_Probably_the_Largest_and_Most_Costly_in_the_World" id="Exchange_Coffee_House_Boston_1808_Probably_the_Largest_and_Most_Costly_in_the_World"></a> +<img src="images/image79.jpg" width="500" height="301" alt="Exchange Coffee House, Boston, 1808, Probably the Largest and Most Costly in the World" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Exchange Coffee House, Boston, 1808, Probably the Largest and Most Costly in the World</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Built of stone, marble and brick, it stood seven stories high and cost +$500,000. It was patterned after Lloyd's of London, and was the center +of marine intelligence in Boston</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Like Lloyd's coffee house in London, the Exchange was the center of +marine intelligence, and its public rooms were thronged all day and +evening with mariners, naval officers, ship and insurance brokers, who +had come to talk shop or to consult the records of ship arrivals and +departures, manifests, charters, and other marine papers. The first +floor of the Exchange was devoted to trading. On the next floor was the +large dining room, where many sumptuous banquets were given, notably the +one to President Monroe in July, 1817, which was attended by former +President John Adams, and by many generals, commodores, governors, and +judges. The other floors were given over to living and sleeping rooms, +of which there were more than 200. The Exchange coffee house was +destroyed by fire in 1818; and on its site was erected another, bearing +the same name, but having slight resemblance to its predecessor.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PRESIDENT-ELECT_WASHINGTON_WELCOMED_AT_THE_MERCHANTS_COFFEE_HOUSE_NEW_YORK" id="PRESIDENT-ELECT_WASHINGTON_WELCOMED_AT_THE_MERCHANTS_COFFEE_HOUSE_NEW_YORK"></a> +<img src="images/image80.jpg" width="600" height="407" alt="PRESIDENT-ELECT WASHINGTON WELCOMED AT THE MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE, NEW YORK" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PRESIDENT-ELECT WASHINGTON WELCOMED AT THE MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE, NEW YORK</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The reception took place April 23, 1789, one week before his +inauguration. From a painting by Charles P. Gruppe, owned by the author</small></p> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XIII" id="Chapter_XIII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XIII</span></h2> + +<h3>HISTORY OF COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for +"must," or beer, at breakfast in 1668—William Penn makes his first +purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York merchants in +1683—The King's Arms, the first coffee house—The historic +Merchants, sometimes called the "Birthplace of our Union"—The +coffee house as a civic forum—The Exchange, Whitehall, Burns, +Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses—The Vauxhall and +Ranelagh pleasure gardens</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> Dutch founders of New York seem to have introduced tea into New +Amsterdam before they brought in coffee. This was somewhere about the +middle of the seventeenth century. We find it recorded that about 1668 +the burghers succumbed to coffee<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>. Coffee made its way slowly, first +in the homes, where it replaced the "must", or beer, at breakfast. +Chocolate came about the same time, but was more of a luxury than tea or +coffee.</p> + +<p>After the surrender of New York to the British in 1674, English manners +and customs were rapidly introduced. First tea, and later coffee, were +favorite beverages in the homes. By 1683 New York had become so central +a market for the green bean, that William Penn, as soon as he found +himself comfortably settled in the Pennsylvania Colony, sent over to New +York for his coffee supplies<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>. It was not long before a social need +arose that only the London style of coffee house could fill.</p> + +<p>The coffee houses of early New York, like their prototypes in London, +Paris, and other old world capitals, were the centers of the business, +political and, to some extent, of the social life of the city. But they +never became the forcing-beds of literature that the French and English +houses were, principally because the colonists had no professional +writers of note.</p> + +<p>There is one outstanding feature of the early American coffee houses, +particularly of those opened in New York, that is not distinctive of the +European houses. The colonists sometimes held court trials in the long, +or assembly, room of the early coffee houses; and often held their +general assembly and council meetings there.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>The Coffee House as a Civic Forum</i></p> + +<p>The early coffee house was an important factor in New York life. What +the perpetuation of this public gathering place meant to the citizens is +shown by a complaint (evidently designed to revive the declining +fortunes of the historic Merchants coffee house) in the <i>New York +Journal</i> of October 19, 1775, which, in part, said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin">To the Inhabitants of New York:</p> + +<p class="quot">It gives me concern, in this time of public difficulty and danger, +to find we have in this city no place of daily general meeting, +where we might hear and communicate intelligence from every quarter +and freely confer with one another on every matter that concerns +us. Such a place of general meeting is of very great advantage in +many respects, especially at such a time as this, besides the +satisfaction it affords and the sociable disposition it has a +tendency to keep up among us, which was never more wanted than at +this time. To answer all these and many other good and useful +purposes, coffee houses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> have been universally deemed the most +convenient places of resort, because, at a small expense of time or +money, persons wanted may be found and spoke with, appointments may +be made, current news heard, and whatever it most concerns us to +know. In all cities, therefore, and large towns that I have seen in +the British dominions, sufficient encouragement has been given to +support one or more coffee houses in a genteel manner. How comes it +then that New York, the most central, and one of the largest and +most prosperous cities in British America, cannot support one +coffee house? It is a scandal to the city and its inhabitants to be +destitute of such a convenience for want of due encouragement. A +coffee house, indeed, there is, a very good and comfortable one, +extremely well tended and accommodated, but it is frequented but by +an inconsiderable number of people; and I have observed with +surprise, that but a small part of those who do frequent it, +contribute anything at all to the expense of it, but come in and go +out without calling for or paying anything to the house. In all the +coffee houses in London, it is customary for every one that comes +in to call for at least a dish of coffee, or leave the value of +one, which is but reasonable, because when the keepers of these +houses have been at the expense of setting them up and providing +all necessaries for the accommodation of company, every one that +comes to receive the benefit of these conveniences ought to +contribute something towards the expense of them.</p></div> + +<p class="right"> +<span class="smcap">A Friend to the City.</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>New York's First Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>Some chroniclers of New York's early days are confident that the first +coffee house in America was opened in New York; but the earliest +authenticated record they have presented is that on November 1, 1696, +John Hutchins bought a lot on Broadway, between Trinity churchyard and +what is now Cedar Street, and there built a house, naming it the King's +Arms. Against this record, Boston can present the statement in Samuel +Gardner Drake's <i>History and Antiquities of the City of Boston</i> that +Benj. Harris sold books at the "London Coffee House" in 1689.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="New_York39s_Pioneer_Coffee_House_The_King39s_Arms_Opened_in_1696" id="New_York39s_Pioneer_Coffee_House_The_King39s_Arms_Opened_in_1696"></a> +<img src="images/image81.jpg" width="500" height="369" alt="New York's Pioneer Coffee House, The King's Arms, Opened in 1696" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">New York's Pioneer Coffee House, The King's Arms, Opened in 1696</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This view shows the garden side of the historic old house as it was +conducted by John Hutchins, near Trinity Church, on Broadway. The +observatory may have been added later</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The King's Arms was built of wood, and had a front of yellow brick, said +to have been brought from Holland. The building was two stories high, +and on the roof was an "observatory," arranged with seats, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +commanding a fine view of the bay, the river, and the city. Here the +coffee-house visitors frequently sat in the afternoons. It is not shown +in the illustration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Burns_Coffee_House_as_It_Appeared_About_the_Middle_of_the_Nineteenth_Century" id="Burns_Coffee_House_as_It_Appeared_About_the_Middle_of_the_Nineteenth_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image82.jpg" width="500" height="347" alt="Burns Coffee House as It Appeared About the Middle of the Nineteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns Coffee House as It Appeared About the Middle of the Nineteenth Century</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>It stood for many years on Broadway, opposite Bowling Green, in the old +De Lancey House, becoming known in 1763 as the King's Arms, and later +the Atlantic Garden House</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The sides of the main room on the lower floor were lined with booths, +which, for the sake of greater privacy, were screened with green +curtains. There a patron could sip his coffee, or a more stimulating +drink, and look over his mail in the same exclusiveness affected by the +Londoner of the time.</p> + +<p>The rooms on the second floor were used for special meetings of +merchants, colonial magistrates and overseers, or similar public and +private business.</p> + +<p>The meeting room, as above described, seems to have been one of the +chief features distinguishing a coffee house from a tavern. Although +both types of houses had rooms for guests, and served meals, the coffee +house was used for business purposes by permanent customers, while the +tavern was patronized more by transients. Men met at the coffee house +daily to carry on business, and went to the tavern for convivial +purposes or lodgings. Before the front door hung the sign of "the lion +and the unicorn fighting for the crown."</p> + +<p>For many years the King's Arms was the only coffee house in the city; or +at least no other seems of sufficient importance to have been mentioned +in colonial records. For this reason it was more frequently designated +as "the" coffee house than the King's Arms. Contemporary records of the +arrest of John Hutchins of the King's Arms, and of Roger Baker, for +speaking disrespectfully of King George, mention the King's Head, of +which Baker was proprietor. But it is generally believed that this +public house was a tavern and not rightfully to be considered as a +coffee house. The White Lion, mentioned about 1700, was also a tavern, +or inn.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The New Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>Under date of September 22, 1709, the <i>Journal of the General Assembly +of the Colony of New York</i> refers to a conference held in the "New +Coffee House." About this date the business section of the city had +begun to drift eastward from Broadway to the waterfront; and from this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +fact it is assumed that the name "New Coffee House" indicates that the +King's Arms had been removed from its original location near Cedar +Street, or that it may have lost favor and have been superseded in +popularity by a newer coffee house. The <i>Journal</i> does not give the +location of the "New" coffee house. Whatever the case may be, the name +of the King's Arms does not again appear in the records until 1763, and +then it had more the character of a tavern, or roadhouse.</p> + +<p>The public records from 1709 up to 1729 are silent in regard to coffee +houses in New York. In 1725 the pioneer newspaper in the city, the <i>New +York Gazette</i>, came into existence; and four years later, 1729, there +appeared in it an advertisement stating that "a competent bookkeeper may +be heard of" at the "Coffee House." In 1730 another advertisement in the +same journal tells of a sale of land by public vendue (auction) to be +held at the Exchange coffee house.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Exchange Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>By reason of its name, the Exchange Coffee House is thought to have been +located at the foot of Broad Street, abutting the sea-wall and near the +Long Bridge of that day. At that time this section was the business +center of the city, and here was a trading exchange.</p> + +<p>That the Exchange coffee house was the only one of its kind in New York +in 1732 is inferred from the announcement in that year of a meeting of +the conference committee of the Council and Assembly "at the Coffee +House." In seeming confirmation of this conclusion, is the advertisement +in 1733 in the <i>New York Gazette</i> requesting the return of "lost sleeve +buttons to Mr. Todd, next door to the Coffee House." The records of the +day show that a Robert Todd kept the famous Black Horse tavern which was +located in this part of the city.</p> + +<p>Again we hear of the Exchange coffee house in 1737, and apparently in +the same location, where it is mentioned in an account of the "Negro +plot" as being next door to the Fighting Cocks tavern by the Long +Bridge, at the foot of Broad Street. Also in this same year it is named +as the place of public vendue of land situated on Broadway.</p> + +<p>By this time the Exchange coffee house had virtually become the city's +official auction room, as well as the place to buy and to drink coffee. +Commodities of many kinds were also bought and sold there, both within +the house and on the sidewalk before it.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Merchants Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>In the year 1750, the Exchange coffee house had begun to lose its +long-held prestige, and its name was changed to the Gentlemen's Exchange +coffee house and tavern. A year later it had migrated to Broadway under +the name of the Gentlemens' coffee house and tavern. In 1753 it was +moved again, to Hunter's Quay, which was situated on what is now Front +Street, somewhere between the present Old Slip and Wall Street. The +famous old coffee house seems to have gone out of existence about this +time, its passing hastened, no doubt, by the newer enterprise, the +Merchants coffee house, which was to become the most celebrated in New +York, and, according to some writers, the most historic in America.</p> + +<p>It is not certain just when the Merchants coffee house was first opened. +As near as can be determined, Daniel Bloom, a mariner, in 1737 bought +the Jamaica Pilot Boat tavern from John Dunks and named it the Merchants +coffee house. The building was situated on the northwest corner of the +present Wall Street and Water (then Queen) Street; and Bloom was its +landlord until his death, soon after the year 1750. He was succeeded by +Captain James Ackland, who shortly sold it to Luke Roome. The latter +disposed of the building in 1758 to Dr. Charles Arding. The doctor +leased it to Mrs. Mary Ferrari, who continued as its proprietor until +she moved, in 1772, to the newer building diagonally across the street, +built by William Brownejohn, on the southeast corner of Wall and Water +Streets. Mrs. Ferrari took with her the patronage and the name of the +Merchants coffee house, and the old building was not used again as a +coffee house.</p> + +<p>The building housing the original Merchants coffee house was a two-story +structure, with a balcony on the roof, which was typical of the middle +eighteenth century architecture in New York. On the first floor were the +coffee bar and booths described in connection with the King's Arms +coffee house. The second floor had the typical long room for public +assembly.</p> + +<p>During Bloom's proprietorship the Merchants coffee house had a long, +hard struggle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> to win the patronage away from the Exchange coffee house, +which was flourishing at that time. But, being located near the Meal +Market, where the merchants were wont to gather for trading purposes, it +gradually became the meeting place of the city, at the expense of the +Exchange coffee house, farther down the waterfront.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Merchants_Coffee_House" id="Merchants_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image83.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="Merchants Coffee House (at the Right) as It Appeared from 1772 to 1804" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Merchants Coffee House (at the Right) as It Appeared from 1772 to 1804</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The original coffee house of this name was opened on the northwest +corner of Wall and Water Streets about 1737, the business being moved to +the southeast corner in 1772</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Widow Ferrari presided over the original Merchants coffee house for +fourteen years, until she moved across the street. She was a keen +business woman. Just before she was ready to open the new coffee house +she announced to her old patrons that she would give a house-warming, at +which arrack, punch, wine, cold ham, tongue, and other delicacies of the +day would be served. The event was duly noted in the newspapers, one +stating that "the agreeable situation and the elegance of the new house +had occasioned a great resort of company to it."</p> + +<p>Mrs. Ferrari continued in charge until May 1, 1776, when Cornelius +Bradford became proprietor and sought to build up the patronage, that +had dwindled somewhat during the stirring days immediately preceding the +Revolution. In his announcement of the change of ownership, he said, +"Interesting intelligence will be carefully collected and the greatest +attention will be given to the arrival of vessels, when trade and +navigation shall resume their former channels." He referred to the +complete embargo of trade to Europe which the colonists were enduring. +When the American troops withdrew from the city during the Revolution, +Bradford went also, to Rhinebeck on the Hudson.</p> + +<p>During the British occupation, the Merchants coffee house was a place of +great activity. As before, it was the center of trading, and under the +British régime it became also the place where the prize ships were sold. +The Chamber of Commerce resumed its sessions in the upper long room in +1779, having been suspended since 1775. The Chamber paid fifty pounds +rent per annum for the use of the room to Mrs. Smith, the landlady at +the time.</p> + +<p>In 1781 John Stachan, then proprietor of the Queen's Head tavern, became +landlord of the Merchants coffee house, and he promised in a public +announcement "to pay attention not only as a Coffee House, but as a +tavern, in the truest; and to distinguish the same as the City Tavern +and Coffee House, with constant and best attendance. Breakfast from +seven to eleven; soups and relishes from eleven to half-past<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> one. Tea, +coffee, etc., in the afternoon, as in England." But when he began +charging sixpence for receiving and dispatching letters by man-o'-war to +England, he brought a storm about his ears, and was forced to give up +the practise. He continued in charge until peace came, and Cornelius +Bradford came with it to resume proprietorship of the coffee house.</p> + +<p>Bradford changed the name to the New York coffee house, but the public +continued to call it by its original name, and the landlord soon gave +in. He kept a marine list, giving the names of vessels arriving and +departing, recording their ports of sailing. He also opened a register +of returning citizens, "where any gentleman now resident in the city," +his advertisement stated, "may insert their names and place of +residence." This seems to have been the first attempt at a city +directory. By his energy Bradford soon made the Merchants coffee house +again the business center of the city. When he died, in 1786, he was +mourned as one of the leading citizens. His funeral was held at the +coffee house over which he had presided so well.</p> + +<p>The Merchants coffee house continued to be the principal public +gathering place until it was destroyed by fire in 1804. During its +existence it had figured prominently in many of the local and national +historic events, too numerous to record here in detail.</p> + +<p>Some of the famous events were: The reading of the order to the +citizens, in 1765, warning them to stop rioting against the Stamp Act; +the debates on the subject of not accepting consignments of goods from +Great Britain; the demonstration by the Sons of Liberty, sometimes +called the "Liberty Boys," made before Captain Lockyer of the tea ship +Nancy which had been turned away from Boston and sought to land its +cargo in New York in 1774; the general meeting of citizens on May 19, +1774, to discuss a means of communicating with the Massachusetts colony +to obtain co-ordinated effort in resisting England's oppression, out of +which came the letter suggesting a congress of deputies from the +colonies and calling for a "virtuous and spirited Union;" the mass +meeting of citizens in the days immediately following the battles at +Concord and Lexington in Massachusetts; and the forming of the Committee +of One Hundred to administer the public business, making the Merchants +coffee house virtually the seat of government.</p> + +<p>When the American Army held the city in 1776, the coffee house became +the resort of army and navy officers. Its culminating glory came on +April 23, 1789, when Washington, the recently elected first president of +the United States, was officially greeted at the coffee house by the +governor of the State, the mayor of the city, and the lesser municipal +officers.</p> + +<p>As a meeting place for societies and lodges the Merchants coffee house +was long distinguished. In addition to the purely commercial +organizations that gathered in its long room, these bodies regularly met +there in their early days: The Society of Arts, Agriculture and Economy; +Knights of Corsica; New York Committee of Correspondence; New York +Marine Society; Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York; Lodge 169, +Free and Accepted Masons; Whig Society; Society of the New York +Hospital; St. Andrew's Society; Society of the Cincinnati; Society of +the Sons of St. Patrick; Society for Promoting the Manumission of +Slaves; Society for the Relief of Distressed Debtors; Black Friars +Society; Independent Rangers; and Federal Republicans.</p> + +<p>Here also came the men who, in 1784, formed the Bank of New York, the +first financial institution in the city; and here was held, in 1790, the +first public sale of stocks by sworn brokers. Here, too, was held the +organization meeting of subscribers to the Tontine coffee house, which +in a few years was to prove a worthy rival.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Lesser Known Coffee Houses</i></p> + +<p>Before taking up the story of the famous Tontine coffee house it should +be noted that the Merchants coffee house had some prior measure of +competition. For four years the Exchange coffee room sought to cater to +the wants of the merchants around the foot of Broad Street. It was +located in the Royal Exchange, which had been erected in 1752 in place +of the old Exchange, and until 1754 had been used as a store. Then +William Keen and Alexander Lightfoot got control and started their +coffee room, with a ball room attached. The partnership split up in +1756, Lightfoot continuing operations until he died the next year, when +his widow tried to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> carry it on. In 1758 it had reverted into its +original character of a mercantile establishment.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_Tontine_Coffee_House" id="The_Tontine_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image84.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="The Tontine Coffee House (Second Building at the Left), Opened in 1792" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Tontine Coffee House (Second Building at the Left), Opened in 1792</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This is the original structure, northwest corner of Wall and Water +Streets, which was succeeded about 1850 by a five-story building (<a href="#Page_122">see +page 122</a>) that in turn was replaced by a modern office building</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Then there was the Whitehall coffee house, which two men, named Rogers +and Humphreys, opened in 1762, with the announcement that "a +correspondence is settled in London and Bristol to remit by every +opportunity all the public prints and pamphlets as soon as published; +and there will be a weekly supply of New York, Boston and other American +newspapers." This enterprise had a short life.</p> + +<p>The early records of the city infrequently mention the Burns coffee +house, sometimes calling it a tavern. It is likely that the place was +more an inn than a coffee house. It was kept for a number of years by +George Burns, near the Battery, and was located in the historic old De +Lancey house, which afterward became the City hotel.</p> + +<p>Burns remained the proprietor until 1762, when it was taken over by a +Mrs. Steele, who gave it the name of the King's Arms. Edward Barden +became the landlord in 1768. In later years it became known as the +Atlantic Garden house. Traitor Benedict Arnold is said to have lodged in +the old tavern after deserting to the enemy.</p> + +<p>The Bank coffee house belonged to a later generation, and had few of the +characteristics of the earlier coffee houses. It was opened in 1814 by +William Niblo, of Niblo's Garden fame, and stood at the corner of +William and Pine Streets, at the rear of the Bank of New York. The +coffee house endured for probably ten years, and became the gathering +place of a coterie of prominent merchants, who formed a sort of club. +The Bank coffee house became celebrated for its dinners and dinner +parties.</p> + +<p>Fraunces' tavern, best known as the place where Washington bade farewell +to his army officers, was, as its name states, a tavern, and can not be +properly classed as a coffee house. While coffee was served, and there +was a long room for gatherings, little, if any, business was done there +by merchants. It was largely a meeting place for citizens bent on a +"good time."</p> + +<p>Then there was the New England and Quebec coffee house, which was also a +tavern.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_Tontine_Building_of_1850" id="The_Tontine_Building_of_1850"></a> +<img src="images/image85.jpg" width="300" height="258" alt="The Tontine Building of 1850" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Tontine Building of 1850</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets; an omnibus of the +Broadway-Wall-Street Ferry line is passing</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Tontine Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>The last of the celebrated coffee houses of New York bore the name, +Tontine coffee house. For several years after the burning of the +Merchants coffee house, in 1804, it was the only one of note in the +city.</p> + +<p>Feeling that they should have a more commodious coffee house for +carrying on their various business enterprises, some 150 merchants +organized, in 1791, the Tontine coffee house. This enterprise was based +on the plan introduced into France in 1653 by Lorenzo Tonti, with slight +variations. According to the New York Tontine plan, each holder's share +reverted automatically to the surviving shareholders in the association, +instead of to his heirs. There were 157 original shareholders, and 203 +shares of stock valued at £200 each.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Niblo39s_Garden_Broadway_and_Prince_Street_1828" id="Niblo39s_Garden_Broadway_and_Prince_Street_1828"></a> +<img src="images/image86.jpg" width="300" height="270" alt="Niblo's Garden, Broadway and Prince Street, 1828" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Niblo's Garden, Broadway and Prince Street, 1828</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The directors bought the house and lot on the northwest corner of Wall +and Water Streets, where the original Merchants coffee house stood, +paying £1,970. They next acquired the adjoining lots on Wall and Water +Streets, paying £2,510 for the former, and £1,000 for the latter.</p> + +<p>The cornerstone of the new coffee house was laid June 5, 1792; and a +year later to the day, 120 gentlemen sat down to a banquet in the +completed coffee house to celebrate the event of the year before. John +Hyde was the first landlord. The house had cost $43,000.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Relics_of_Dutch_New_York" id="Coffee_Relics_of_Dutch_New_York"></a> +<img src="images/image87.jpg" width="300" height="383" alt="Coffee Relics of Dutch New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Relics of Dutch New York</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Spice-grinder boat, coffee roaster, and coffee pots at the Van Cortlandt +Museum</small></p> +</div> + +<p>A contemporary account of how the Tontine coffee house looked in 1794 is +supplied by an Englishman visiting New York at the time:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The Tontine tavern and coffee house is a handsome large brick +building; you ascend six or eight steps under a portico, into a +large public room, which is the Stock Exchange of New York, where +all bargains are made. Here are two books kept, as at Lloyd's [in +London] of every ship's arrival and clearance. This house was built +for the accommodation of the merchants by Tontine shares of two +hundred pounds each. It is kept by Mr. Hyde, formerly a woolen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +draper in London. You can lodge and board there at a common table, +and you pay ten shillings currency a day, whether you dine out or +not.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="New_York39s_Vauxhall_Garden_of_1803" id="New_York39s_Vauxhall_Garden_of_1803"></a> +<img src="images/image88.jpg" width="400" height="233" alt="New York's Vauxhall Garden of 1803" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">New York's Vauxhall Garden of 1803</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From an old print</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The stock market made its headquarters in the Tontine coffee house in +1817, and the early organization was elaborated and became the New York +Stock and Exchange Board. It was removed in 1827 to the Merchants +Exchange Building, where it remained until that place was destroyed by +fire in 1835.</p> + +<p>It was stipulated in the original articles of the Tontine Association +that the house was to be kept and used as a coffee house, and this +agreement was adhered to up to the year 1834, when, by permission of the +Court of Chancery, the premises were let for general business-office +purposes. This change was due to the competition offered by the +Merchants Exchange, a short distance up Wall Street, which had been +opened soon after the completion of the Tontine coffee house building.</p> + +<p>As the city grew, the business-office quarters of the original Tontine +coffee house became inadequate; and about the year 1850 a new five-story +building, costing some $60,000, succeeded it. By this time the building +had lost its old coffee-house characteristics. This new Tontine +structure is said to have been the first real office building in New +York City. Today the site is occupied by a large modern office building, +which still retains the name of Tontine. It was owned by John B. and +Charles A. O'Donohue, well known New York coffee merchants, until 1920, +when it was sold for $1,000,000 to the Federal Sugar Refining Company.</p> + +<p>The Tontine coffee house did not figure so prominently in the historic +events of the nation and city as did its neighbor, the Merchants coffee +house. However, it became the Mecca for visitors from all parts of the +country, who did not consider their sojourn in the city complete until +they had at least inspected what was then one of the most pretentious +buildings in New York. Chroniclers of the Tontine coffee house always +say that most of the leaders of the nation, together with distinguished +visitors from abroad, had foregathered in the large room of the old +coffee house at some time during their careers.</p> + +<p>It was on the walls of the Tontine coffee house that bulletins were +posted on Hamilton's struggle for life after the fatal duel forced on +him by Aaron Burr.</p> + +<p>The changing of the Tontine coffee house into a purely mercantile +building marked the end of the coffee-house era in New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> York. Exchanges +and office buildings had come into existence to take the place of the +business features of the coffee houses; clubs were organized to take +care of the social functions; and restaurants and hotels had sprung up +to cater to the needs for beverages and food.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>New York's Pleasure Gardens</i></p> + +<p>There was a fairly successful attempt made to introduce the London +pleasure-garden idea into New York. First, tea gardens were added to +several of the taverns already provided with ball rooms. Then, on the +outskirts of the city, were opened the Vauxhall and the Ranelagh +gardens, so named after their famous London prototypes. The first +Vauxhall garden (there were three of this name) was on Greenwich Street, +between Warren and Chambers Streets. It fronted on the North River, +affording a beautiful view up the Hudson. Starting as the Bowling Green +garden, it changed to Vauxhall in 1750.</p> + +<p>Ranelagh was on Broadway, between Duane and Worth Streets, on the site +where later the New York Hospital was erected. From advertisements of +the period (1765–69) we learn that there were band concerts twice a week +at the Ranelagh. The gardens were "for breakfasting as well as the +evening entertainment of ladies and gentlemen." There was a commodious +hall in the garden for dancing. Ranelagh lasted twenty years. Coffee, +tea, and hot rolls could be had in the pleasure gardens at any hour of +the day. Fireworks were featured at both Ranelagh and Vauxhall gardens. +The second Vauxhall was near the intersection of the present Mulberry +and Grand Streets, in 1798; the third was on Bowery Road, near Astor +Place, in 1803. The Astor library was built upon its site in 1853.</p> + +<p>William Niblo, previously proprietor of the Bank coffee house in Pine +Street, opened, in 1828, a pleasure garden, that he named Sans Souci, on +the site of a circus building called the Stadium at Broadway and Prince +Street. In the center of the garden remained the stadium, which was +devoted to theatrical performances of "a gay and attractive character." +Later, he built a more pretentious theater that fronted on Broadway. The +interior of the garden was "spacious, and adorned with shrubbery and +walks, lighted with festoons of lamps." It was generally known as +Niblo's garden.</p> + +<p>Among other well known pleasure gardens of old New York were Contoit's, +later the New York garden, and Cherry gardens, on old Cherry Hill.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Tavern_and_Grocers39_Signs_Used_in_Old_New_York" id="Tavern_and_Grocers39_Signs_Used_in_Old_New_York"></a> +<img src="images/image89.jpg" width="500" height="131" alt="Tavern and Grocers' Signs Used in Old New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tavern and Grocers' Signs Used in Old New York</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Left, Smith Richards, grocer and confectioner, "at the sign of the tea +canister and two sugar loaves" (1773); center, the King's Arms, +originally Burns coffee house (1767); right, George Webster, Grocer, "at +the sign of the three sugar loaves"</small></p> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XIV" id="Chapter_XIV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XIV</span></h2> + +<h3>COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD PHILADELPHIA</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about +1700—The two London coffee houses—The City tavern, or Merchants +coffee house—How these, and other celebrated resorts, dominated +the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City in the +eighteenth century</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">W</span><span class="caps">illiam Penn</span> is generally credited with the introduction of coffee into +the Quaker colony which he founded on the Delaware in 1682. He also +brought to the "city of brotherly love" that other great drink of human +brotherhood, tea. At first (1700), "like tea, coffee was only a drink +for the well-to-do, except in sips."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> As was the case in the other +English colonies, coffee languished for a time while tea rose in favor, +more especially in the home.</p> + +<p>Following the stamp act of 1765, and the tea tax of 1767, the +Pennsylvania Colony joined hands with the others in a general tea +boycott; and coffee received the same impetus as elsewhere in the +colonies that became the thirteen original states.</p> + +<p>The coffee houses of early Philadelphia loom large in the history of the +city and the republic. Picturesque in themselves, with their distinctive +colonial architecture, their associations also were romantic. Many a +civic, sociological, and industrial reform came into existence in the +low-ceilinged, sanded-floor main rooms of the city's early coffee +houses.</p> + +<p>For many years, Ye coffee house, the two London coffee houses, and the +City tavern (also known as the Merchants coffee house) each in its turn +dominated the official and social life of Philadelphia. The earlier +houses were the regular meeting places of Quaker municipal officers, +ship captains, and merchants who came to transact public and private +business. As the outbreak of the Revolution drew near, fiery colonials, +many in Quaker garb, congregated there to argue against British +oppression of the colonies. After the Revolution, the leading citizens +resorted to the coffee house to dine and sup and to hold their social +functions.</p> + +<p>When the city was founded in 1682, coffee cost too much to admit of its +being retailed to the general public at coffee houses. William Penn +wrote in his <i>Accounts</i> that in 1683 coffee in the berry was sometimes +procured in New York at a cost of eighteen shillings nine pence the +pound, equal to about $4.68. He told also that meals were served in the +ordinaries at six pence (equal to twelve cents), to wit: "We have seven +ordinaries for the entertainment of strangers and for workmen that are +not housekeepers, and a good meal is to be had there for six pence +sterling." With green coffee costing $4.68 a pound, making the price of +a cup about seventeen cents, it is not likely that coffee was on the +menus of the ordinaries serving meals at twelve cents each. Ale was the +common meal-time beverage.</p> + +<p>There were four classes of public houses—inns, taverns, ordinaries, and +coffee houses. The inn was a modest hotel that supplied lodgings, food, +and drink, the beverages consisting mostly of ale, port, Jamaica rum, +and Madeira wine. The tavern,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> though accommodating guests with bed and +board, was more of a drinking place than a lodging house. The ordinary +combined the characteristics of a restaurant and a boarding house. The +coffee house was a pretentious tavern, dispensing, in most cases, +intoxicating drinks as well as coffee.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Philadelphia's First Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>The first house of public resort opened in Philadelphia bore the name of +the Blue Anchor tavern, and was probably established in 1683 or 1684; +colonial records do not state definitely. As its name indicates, this +was a tavern. The first coffee house came into existence about the year +1700. Watson, in one place in his <i>Annals</i> of the city, says 1700, but +in another 1702. The earlier date is thought to be correct, and is +seemingly substantiated by the co-authors Scharf and Westcott in their +<i>History</i> of the city, in which they say, "The first public house +designated as a coffee house was built in Penn's time [1682–1701] by +Samuel Carpenter, on the east side of Front Street, probably above +Walnut Street. That it was the first of its kind—the only one in fact +for some years—seems to be established beyond doubt. It was always +referred to in old times as 'Ye Coffee House.'"</p> + +<p>Carpenter owned also the Globe inn, which was separated from Ye coffee +house by a public stairway running down from Front Street to Water +Street, and, it is supposed, to Carpenter's Wharf. The exact location of +the old house was recently established from the title to the original +patentee, Samuel Carpenter, by a Philadelphia real-estate +title-guarantee company, as being between Walnut and Chestnut Streets, +and occupying six and a half feet of what is now No. 137 South Front +Street and the whole of No. 139.</p> + +<p>How long Ye coffee house endured is uncertain. It was last mentioned in +colonial records in a real estate conveyance from Carpenter to Samuel +Finney, dated April 26, 1703. In that document it is described as "That +brick Messuage, or Tenement, called Ye Coffee House, in the possession +of Henry Flower, and situate, lying and being upon or before the bank of +the Delaware River, containing in length about thirty feet and in +breadth about twenty-four."</p> + +<p>The Henry Flower mentioned as the proprietor of Philadelphia's first +coffee house, was postmaster of the province for a number of years, and +it is believed that Ye coffee house also did duty as the post-office for +a time. Benjamin Franklin's <i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i>, in an issue +published in 1734, has this advertisement:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot"><i>All persons who are indebted to Henry Flower, late postmaster of +Pennsylvania, for Postage of Letters or otherwise, are desir'd to +pay the same to him at the old Coffee House in Philadelphia.</i></p></div> + +<p>Flower's advertisement would indicate that Ye coffee house, then +venerable enough to be designated as old, was still in existence, and +that Flower was to be found there. Franklin also seems to have been in +the coffee business, for in several issues of the <i>Gazette</i> around the +year 1740 he advertised: "Very good coffee sold by the Printer."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The First London Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>Philadelphia's second coffee house bore the name of the London coffee +house, which title was later used for the resort William Bradford opened +in 1754. The first house of this name was built in 1702, but there seems +to be some doubt about its location. Writing in the <i>American Historical +Register</i>, Charles H. Browning says: "William Rodney came to +Philadelphia with Penn in 1682, and resided in Kent County, where he +died in 1708; he built the old London coffee house at Front and Market +Streets in 1702." Another chronicler gives its location as "above Walnut +Street, either on the east side of Water Street, or on Delaware Avenue, +or, as the streets are very close together, it may have been on both. +John Shewbert, its proprietor, was a parishioner of Christ Church, and +his establishment was largely patronized by Church of England people." +It was also the gathering place of the followers of Penn and the +Proprietary party, while their opponents, the political cohorts of +Colonel Quarry, frequented Ye coffee house.</p> + +<p>The first London coffee house resembled a fashionable club house in its +later years, suitable for the "genteel" entertainments of the well-to-do +Philadelphians. Ye coffee house was more of a commercial or public +exchange. Evidence of the gentility of the London is given by John +William Wallace:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The appointments of the London Coffee House, if we may infer what +they were from the will of Mrs. Shubert [Shewbert] dated November +27, 1751, were genteel. By that instrument she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> makes bequest of +two silver quart tankards; a silver cup; a silver porringer; a +silver pepper pot; two sets of silver castors; a silver soup spoon; +a silver sauce spoon, and numerous silver tablespoons and tea +spoons, with a silver tea-pot.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_Second_London_Coffee_House" id="The_Second_London_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image90.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="The Second London Coffee House, Opened in 1754 by William Bradford, the Printer" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Second London Coffee House, Opened in 1754 by William Bradford, the Printer</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Up to the outbreak of the American Revolution, it was more frequented +than any other tavern in the Quaker city as a place of resort and +entertainment, and was famous throughout the colonies</small></p> +</div> + +<p>One of the many historic incidents connected with this old house was the +visit there by William Penn's eldest son, John, in 1733, when he +entertained the General Assembly of the province on one day and on the +next feasted the City Corporation.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Roberts' Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>Another house with some fame in the middle of the eighteenth century was +Roberts' coffee house, which stood in Front Street near the first London +house. Though its opening date is unknown, it is believed to have come +into existence about 1740. In 1744 a British army officer recruiting +troops for service in Jamaica advertised in the newspaper of the day +that he could be seen at the Widow Roberts' coffee house. During the +French and Indian War, when Philadelphia was in grave danger of attack +by French and Spanish privateers, the citizens felt so great relief when +the British ship Otter came to the rescue, that they proposed a public +banquet in honor of the Otter's captain to be held at Roberts' coffee +house. For some unrecorded reason the entertainment was not given; +probably because the house was too small to accommodate all the citizens +desiring to attend. Widow Roberts retired in 1754.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The James Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>Contemporary with Roberts' coffee house was the resort run first by +Widow James, and later by her son, James James. It was established in +1744, and occupied a large wooden building on the northwest corner of +Front and Walnut Streets. It was patronized by Governor Thomas and many +of his political followers, and its name frequently appeared in the news +and advertising columns of the <i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i>.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Second London Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>Probably the most celebrated coffee house in Penn's city was the one +established by William Bradford, printer of the <i>Pennsylvania Journal</i>. +It was on the southwest corner of Second and Market Streets, and was +named the London coffee house, the second house in Philadelphia to bear +that title. The building had stood since 1702, when Charles Reed, later +mayor of the city, put it up on land which he bought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> from Letitia Penn, +daughter of William Penn, the founder. Bradford was the first to use the +structure for coffee-house purposes, and he tells his reason for +entering upon the business in his petition to the governor for a +license: "Having been advised to keep a Coffee House for the benefit of +merchants and traders, and as some people may at times be desirous to be +furnished with other liquors besides coffee, your petitioner apprehends +it is necessary to have the Governor's license." This would indicate +that in that day coffee was drunk as a refreshment between meals, as +were spirituous liquors for so many years before, and thereafter up to +1920.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Selling_Slaves_at_the_Old_London_Coffee_House" id="Selling_Slaves_at_the_Old_London_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image91.jpg" width="300" height="368" alt="Selling Slaves at the Old London Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Selling Slaves at the Old London Coffee House</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Bradford's London coffee house seems to have been a joint-stock +enterprise, for in his <i>Journal</i> of April 11, 1754, appeared this +notice: "Subscribers to a public coffee house are invited to meet at the +Courthouse on Friday, the 19th instant, at 3 o'clock, to choose trustees +agreeably to the plan of subscription."</p> + +<p>The building was a three-story wooden structure, with an attic that some +historians count as the fourth story. There was a wooden awning +one-story high extending out to cover the sidewalk before the coffee +house. The entrance was on Market (then known as High) Street.</p> + +<p>The London coffee house was "the pulsating heart of excitement, +enterprise, and patriotism" of the early city. The most active citizens +congregated there—merchants, shipmasters, travelers from other colonies +and countries, crown and provincial officers. The governor and persons +of equal note went there at certain hours "to sip their coffee from the +hissing urn, and some of those stately visitors had their own stalls." +It had also the character of a mercantile exchange—carriages, horses, +foodstuffs, and the like being sold there at auction. It is further +related that the early slave-holding Philadelphians sold negro men, +women, and children at vendue, exhibiting the slaves on a platform set +up in the street before the coffee house.</p> + +<p>The resort was the barometer of public sentiment. It was in the street +before this house that a newspaper published in Barbados, bearing a +stamp in accordance with the provisions of the stamp act, was publicly +burned in 1765, amid the cheers of bystanders. It was here that Captain +Wise of the brig Minerva, from Pool, England, who brought news of the +repeal of the act, was enthusiastically greeted by the crowd in May, +1766. Here, too, for several years the fishermen set up May poles.</p> + +<p>Bradford gave up the coffee house when he joined the newly formed +Revolutionary army as major, later becoming a colonel. When the British +entered the city in September, 1777, the officers resorted to the London +coffee house, which was much frequented by Tory sympathizers. After the +British had evacuated the city, Colonel Bradford resumed proprietorship; +but he found a change in the public's attitude toward the old resort, +and thereafter its fortunes began to decline, probably hastened by the +keen competition offered by the City tavern, which had been opened a few +years before.</p> + +<p>Bradford gave up the lease in 1780, transferring the property to John +Pemberton, who leased it to Gifford Dally. Pemberton was a Friend, and +his scruples about gambling and other sins are well exhibited in the +terms of the lease in which said Dally "covenants and agrees and +promises that he will exert his endeavors as a Christian to preserve +decency and order in said house, and to discourage the profanation of +the sacred name of God Almighty by cursing, swearing, etc., and that the +house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> on the first day of the week shall always be kept closed from +public use." It is further covenanted that "under a penalty of £100 he +will not allow or suffer any person to use, or play at, or divert +themselves with cards, dice, backgammon, or any other unlawful game."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_City_Tavern_Built_in_1773_and_Known_as_the_Merchants_Coffee_House" id="The_City_Tavern_Built_in_1773_and_Known_as_the_Merchants_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image92.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="The City Tavern, Built in 1773, and Known as the Merchants Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The City Tavern, Built in 1773, and Known as the Merchants Coffee House</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>The tavern (at the left) was regarded as the largest inn of the colonies +and stood next to the Bank of Pennsylvania (center). From a print made +from a rare Birch engraving</small></p> +</div> + +<p>It would seem from the terms of the lease that what Pemberton thought +were ungodly things, were countenanced in other coffee houses of the +day. Perhaps the regulations were too strict; for a few years later the +house had passed into the hands of John Stokes, who used it as dwelling +and a store.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>City Tavern or Merchants Coffee House</i></p> + +<p>The last of the celebrated coffee houses in Philadelphia was built in +1773 under the name of the City tavern, which later became known as the +Merchants coffee house, possibly after the house of the same name that +was then famous in New York. It stood in Second Street near Walnut +Street, and in some respects was even more noted than Bradford's London +coffee house, with which it had to compete in its early days.</p> + +<p>The City tavern was patterned after the best London coffee houses; and +when opened, it was looked upon as the finest and largest of its kind in +America. It was three stories high, built of brick, and had several +large club rooms, two of which were connected by a wide doorway that, +when open, made a large dining room fifty feet long.</p> + +<p>Daniel Smith was the first proprietor, and he opened it to the public +early in 1774. Before the Revolution, Smith had a hard struggle trying +to win patronage from Bradford's London coffee house, standing only a +few blocks away. But during and after the war, the City tavern gradually +took the lead, and for more than a quarter of a century was the +principal gathering place of the city. At first, the house had various +names in the public mind, some calling it by its proper title, the City +tavern, others attaching the name of the proprietor and designating it +as Smith's tavern, while still others used the title, the New tavern.</p> + +<p>The gentlefolk of the city resorted to the City tavern after the +Revolution as they had to Bradford's coffee house before. However, +before reaching this high estate, it once was near destruction at the +hands of the Tories, who threatened to tear it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> down. That was when it +was proposed to hold a banquet there in honor of Mrs. George Washington, +who had stopped in the city in 1776 while on the way to meet her +distinguished husband, then at Cambridge in Massachusetts, taking over +command of the American army. Trouble was averted by Mrs. Washington +tactfully declining to appear at the tavern.</p> + +<p>After peace came, the house was the scene of many of the fashionable +entertainments of the period. Here met the City Dancing Assembly, and +here was held the brilliant fête given by M. Gerard, first accredited +representative from France to the United States, in honor of Louis XVI's +birthday. Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, and other leaders of public +thought were more or less frequent visitors when in Philadelphia.</p> + +<p>The exact date when the City tavern became the Merchants coffee house is +unknown. When James Kitchen became proprietor, at the beginning of the +nineteenth century, it was so called. In 1806 Kitchen turned the house +into a bourse, or mercantile exchange. By that time clubs and hotels had +come into fashion, and the coffee-house idea was losing caste with the +élite of the city.</p> + +<p>In the year 1806 William Renshaw planned to open the Exchange coffee +house in the Bingham mansion on Third Street. He even solicited +subscriptions to the enterprise, saying that he proposed to keep a +marine diary and a registry of vessels for sale, to receive and to +forward ships' letter bags, and to have accommodations for holding +auctions. But he was persuaded from the idea, partly by the fact that +the Merchants coffee house seemed to be satisfactorily filling that +particular niche in the city life, and partly because the hotel business +offered better inducements. He abandoned the plan, and opened the +Mansion House hotel in the Bingham residence in 1807.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Exchange_Coffee_House_Scene_in_quotHamiltonquot" id="Exchange_Coffee_House_Scene_in_quotHamiltonquot"></a> +<img src="images/image93.jpg" width="500" height="268" alt="Exchange Coffee House Scene in "Hamilton"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Exchange Coffee House Scene in "Hamilton"</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>In this setting for the first act of the play by Mary P. Hamlin and +George Arliss, produced in 1918, the scenic artist aimed to give a true +historical background, and combined the features of several inns and +coffee houses in Philadelphia, Virginia, and New England as they existed +in Washington's first administration</small></p> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XV" id="Chapter_XV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XV</span></h2> + +<h3>THE BOTANY OF THE COFFEE PLANT</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, +genus, and species—How the Coffea arabica grows, flowers, and +bears—Other species and hybrids described—Natural caffein-free +coffee—Fungoid diseases of coffee</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> coffee tree, scientifically known as <i>Coffea arabica</i>, is native to +Abyssinia and Ethiopia, but grows well in Java, Sumatra, and other +islands of the Dutch East Indies; in India, Arabia, equatorial Africa, +the islands of the Pacific, in Mexico, Central and South America, and +the West Indies. The plant belongs to the large sub-kingdom of plants +known scientifically as the Angiosperms, or <i>Angiospermæ</i>, which means +that the plant reproduces by seeds which are enclosed in a box-like +compartment, known as the ovary, at the base of the flower. The word +Angiosperm is derived from two Greek words, <i>sperma</i>, a seed, and +<i>aggeion</i>, pronounced angeion, a box, the box referred to being the +ovary.</p> + +<p>This large sub-kingdom is subdivided into two classes. The basis for +this division is the number of leaves in the little plant which develops +from the seed. The coffee plant, as it develops from the seed, has two +little leaves, and therefore belongs to the class <i>Dicotyledoneæ</i>. This +word <i>dicotyledoneæ</i> is made up of the two Greek words, <i>di(s)</i>, two, +and <i>kotyledon</i>, cavity or socket. It is not necessary to see the young +plant that develops from the seed in order to know that it had two seed +leaves; because the mature plant always shows certain characteristics +that accompany this condition of the seed.</p> + +<p>In every plant having two seed leaves, the mature leaves are +netted-veined, which is a condition easily recognized even by the +layman; also the parts of the flowers are in circles containing two or +five parts, but never in threes or sixes. The stems of plants of this +class always increase in thickness by means of a layer of cells known as +a cambium, which is a tissue that continues to divide throughout its +whole existence. The fact that this cambium divides as long as it lives, +gives rise to a peculiar appearance in woody stems by which we can, on +looking at the stem of a tree of this type when it has been sawed +across, tell the age of the tree.</p> + +<p>In the spring the cambium produces large open cells through which large +quantities of sap can run; in the fall it produces very thick-walled +cells, as there is not so much sap to be carried. Because these +thin-walled open cells of one spring are next to the thick-walled cells +of the last autumn, it is very easy to distinguish one year's growth +from the next; the marks so produced are called annual rings.</p> + +<p>We have now classified coffee as far as the class; and so far we could +go if we had only the leaves and stem of the coffee plant. In order to +proceed farther, we must have the flowers of the plant, as botanical +classification goes from this point on the basis of the flowers. The +class <i>Dicotyledoneæ</i> is separated into sub-classes according to whether +the flower's corolla (the showy part of the flower which ordinarily +gives it its color) is all in one piece, or is divided into a number of +parts. The coffee flower is arranged with its corolla all in one piece, +forming a tube-shaped arrangement, and accordingly the coffee plant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +belongs to the sub-class <i>Sympetalæ</i>, or <i>Metachlamydeæ</i>, which means +that its petals are united.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_Coffee_Tree_Showing_Details_of_Flowers_and_Fruit" id="The_Coffee_Tree_Showing_Details_of_Flowers_and_Fruit"></a> +<img src="images/image94.jpg" width="500" height="282" alt="The Coffee Tree, Showing Details of Flowers and Fruit" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Coffee Tree, Showing Details of Flowers and Fruit</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's <i>Le Caféier et Le Café</i></small></p> +</div> + +<p>The next step in classification is to place the plant in the proper +division under the sub-class, which is the order. Plants are separated +into orders according to their varied characteristics. The coffee plant +belongs to an order known as <i>Rubiales</i>. These orders are again divided +into families. Coffee is placed in the family <i>Rubiaceæ</i>, or Madder +Family, in which we find herbs, shrubs or trees, represented by a few +American plants, such as bluets, or Quaker ladies, small blue spring +flowers, common to open meadows in northern United States; and partridge +berries (<i>Mitchella repens</i>).</p> + +<p>The Madder Family has more foreign representatives than native genera, +among which are <i>Coffea</i>, <i>Cinchona</i>, and <i>Ipecacuanha</i> (<i>Uragoga</i>), all +of which are of economic importance. The members of this family are +noted for their action on the nervous system. Coffee, as is well known, +contains an active principle known as caffein which acts as a stimulant +to the nervous system and in small quantities is very beneficial. +<i>Cinchona</i> supplies us with quinine, while <i>Ipecacuanha</i> produces +ipecac, which is an emetic and purgative.</p> + +<p>The families are divided into smaller sections known as genera, and to +the genus <i>Coffea</i> belongs the coffee plant. Under this genus <i>Coffea</i> +are several sub-genera, and to the sub-genus <i>Eucoffea</i> belongs our +common coffee, <i>Coffea arabica</i>. <i>Coffea arabica</i> is the original or +common Java coffee of commerce. The term "common" coffee may seem +unnecessary, but there are many other species of coffee besides +<i>arabica</i>. These species have not been described very frequently; +because their native haunts are the tropics, and the tropics do not +always offer favorable conditions for the study of their plants.</p> + +<p>All botanists do not agree in their classification of the species and +varieties of the <i>coffea</i> genus. M.E. de Wildman, curator of the royal +botanical gardens at Brussels, in his <i>Les Plantes Tropicales de Grande +Culture</i>, says the systematic division of this interesting genus is far +from finished; in fact, it may be said hardly to be begun.</p> + +<p><i>Coffea arabica</i> we know best because of the important rôle it plays in +commerce.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Complete Classification of Coffee"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Complete Classification of Coffee</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'>Kingdom</td> + <td align='right'><i>Vegetable</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sub-Kingdom</td> + <td align='right'><i>Angiospermæ</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Class</td> + <td align='right'><i>Dicotyledoneæ</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sub-class</td> + <td align='right'><i>Sympetalæ or Metachlamydeæ</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Order</td> + <td align='right'><i>Rubiales</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Family</td> + <td align='right'><i>Rubiaceæ</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Genus</td> + <td align='right'><i>Coffea</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sub-genus</td> + <td align='right'><i>Eucoffea</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Species</td> + <td align='right'><i>C. arabica</i></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p><p>The coffee plant most cultivated for its berries is, as already stated, +<i>Coffea arabica</i>, which is found in tropical regions, although it can +grow in temperate climates. Unlike most plants that grow best in the +tropics, it can stand low temperatures. It requires shade when it grows +in hot, low-lying districts; but when it grows on elevated land, it +thrives without such protection. Freeman<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> says there are about eight +recognized species of <i>coffea</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Details_of_the_Germination_of_the_Coffee_Plant" id="Details_of_the_Germination_of_the_Coffee_Plant"></a> +<img src="images/image95.jpg" width="500" height="281" alt="Details of the Germination of the Coffee Plant" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Details of the Germination of the Coffee Plant</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's <i>Le Caféier et Le Café</i></small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffea Arabica</i></p> + +<p><i>Coffea arabica</i> is a shrub with evergreen leaves, and reaches a height +of fourteen to twenty feet when fully grown. The shrub produces +dimorphic branches, <i>i.e.</i>, branches of two forms, known as uprights and +laterals. When young, the plants have a main stem, the upright, which, +however, eventually sends out side shoots, the laterals. The laterals +may send out other laterals, known as secondary laterals; but no lateral +can ever produce an upright. The laterals are produced in pairs and are +opposite, the pairs being borne in whorls around the stem. The laterals +are produced only while the joint of the upright, to which they are +attached, is young; and if they are broken off at that point, the +upright has no power to reproduce them. The upright can produce new +uprights also; but if an upright is cut off, the laterals at that +position tend to thicken up. This is very desirable, as the laterals +produce the flowers, which seldom appear on the uprights. This fact is +utilized in pruning the coffee tree, the uprights being cut back, the +laterals then becoming more productive. Planters generally keep their +trees pruned down to about six feet.</p> + +<p>The leaves are lanceolate, or lance-shaped, being borne in pairs +opposite each other. They are three to six inches in length, with an +acuminate apex, somewhat attenuate at the base, with very short petioles +which are united with the short interpetiolar stipules at the base. The +coffee leaves are thin, but of firm texture, slightly coriaceous. They +are very dark green on the upper surface, but much lighter underneath. +The margin of the leaf is entire and wavy. In some tropical countries +the natives brew a coffee tea from the leaves of the coffee tree.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="BRAZIL_COFFEE_PLANTATION_IN_FLOWER" id="BRAZIL_COFFEE_PLANTATION_IN_FLOWER"></a> +<img src="images/image96.jpg" width="600" height="392" alt="BRAZIL COFFEE PLANTATION IN FLOWER" title="" /> +<span class="caption">BRAZIL COFFEE PLANTATION IN FLOWER</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p><p>The coffee flowers are small, white, and very fragrant, having a +delicate characteristic odor. They are borne in the axils of the leaves +in clusters, and several crops are produced in one season, depending on +the conditions of heat and moisture that prevail in the particular +season. The different blossomings are classed as main blossoming and +smaller blossomings. In semi-dry high districts, as in Costa Rica or +Guatemala, there is one blossoming season, about March, and flowers and +fruit are not found together, as a rule, on the trees. But in lowland +plantations where rain is perennial, blooming and fruiting continue +practically all the year; and ripe fruits, green fruits, open flowers, +and flower buds are to be found at the same time on the same branchlet, +not mixed together, but in the order indicated.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffea_Arabica_Porto_Rico" id="Coffea_Arabica_Porto_Rico"></a> +<img src="images/image97.jpg" width="300" height="229" alt="Coffea Arabica—Porto Rico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffea Arabica—Porto Rico</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The flowers are also tubular, the tube of the corolla dividing into five +white segments. Dr. P.J.S. Cramer, chief of the division of plant +breeding, Department of Agriculture, Netherlands India, says the number +of petals is not at all constant, not even for flowers of the same tree. +The corolla segments are about one-half inch in length, while the tube +itself is about three-eighths of an inch long. The anthers of the +stamens, which are five in number, protrude from the top of the corolla +tube, together with the top of the two-cleft pistil. The calyx, which is +so small as to escape notice unless one is aware of its existence, is +annular, with small, tooth-like indentations.</p> + +<p>While the usual color of the coffee flower is white, the fresh stamens +and pistils may have a greenish tinge, and in some cultivated species +the corolla is pale pink.</p> + +<p>The size and condition of the flowers are entirely dependent on the +weather. The flowers are sometimes very small, very fragrant, and very +numerous; while at other times, when the weather is not hot and dry, +they are very large, but not so numerous. Both sets of flowers mentioned +above "set fruit," as it is called; but at times, especially in a very +dry season, they bear flowers that are few in number, small, and +imperfectly formed, the petals frequently being green instead of white. +These flowers do not set fruit. The flowers that open on a dry sunny day +show a greater yield of fruit than those that open on a wet day, as the +first mentioned have a better chance of being pollinated by the insects +and the wind. The beauty of a coffee estate in flower is of a very +fleeting character. One day it is a snowy expanse of fragrant white +blossoms for miles and miles, as far as the eye can see, and two days +later it reminds one of the lines from Villon's <i>Des Dames du Temps +Jadis</i>.</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Where are the snows of yesterday?<br /> +The winter winds have blown them all away.<br /> +</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffea_Arabica_Flower_and_Fruit_Costa_Rica" id="Coffea_Arabica_Flower_and_Fruit_Costa_Rica"></a> +<img src="images/image98.jpg" width="300" height="397" alt="Coffea Arabica, Flower and Fruit—Costa Rica" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffea Arabica, Flower and Fruit—Costa Rica</span></span> +</div> + +<p>But here, the winter winds are not to blame: the soft, gentle breezes of +the perpetual summer have wrought the havoc, leaving, however, a not +unpleasing picture of dark, cool, mossy green foliage.</p> + +<p>The flowers are beautiful, but the eye of the planter sees in them not +alone beauty and fragrance. He looks far beyond, and in his mind's eye +he sees bags and bags<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> of green coffee, representing to him the goal and +reward of all his toil. After the flowers droop, there appear what are +commercially known as the coffee berries. Botanically speaking, "berry" +is a misnomer. These little fruits are not berries, such as are well +represented by the grape; but are drupes, which are better exemplified +by the cherry and the peach. In the course of six or seven months, these +coffee drupes develop into little red balls about the size of an +ordinary cherry; but, instead of being round, they are somewhat +ellipsoidal, having at the outer end a small umbilicus. The drupe of the +coffee usually has two locules, each containing a little "stone" (the +seed and its parchment covering) from which the coffee bean (seed) is +obtained. Some few drupes contain three, while others, at the outer ends +of the branches, contain only one round bean, known as the peaberry. The +number of pickings corresponds to the different blossomings in the same +season; and one tree of the species <i>arabica</i> may yield from one to +twelve pounds a year.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Young_Coffea_Arabica_Tree_at_Kona_Hawaii" id="Young_Coffea_Arabica_Tree_at_Kona_Hawaii"></a> +<img src="images/image99.jpg" width="300" height="397" alt="Young Coffea Arabica Tree at Kona, Hawaii" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Young Coffea Arabica Tree at Kona, Hawaii</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In countries like India and Africa, the birds and monkeys eat the ripe +coffee berries. The so-called "monkey coffee" of India, according to +Arnold, is the undigested coffee beans passed through the alimentary +canal of the animal.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Survivors_of_the_First_Liberian_Coffee_Trees_Introduced_into_Java_in_1876" id="Survivors_of_the_First_Liberian_Coffee_Trees_Introduced_into_Java_in_1876"></a> +<img src="images/image100.jpg" width="300" height="387" alt="Survivors of the First Liberian Coffee Trees Introduced into Java in 1876" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Survivors of the First Liberian Coffee Trees Introduced into Java in 1876</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The pulp surrounding the coffee beans is at present of no commercial +importance. Although efforts have been made at various times by natives +to use it as a food, its flavor has not gained any great popularity, and +the birds are permitted a monopoly of the pulp as a food. From the human +standpoint the pulp, or sarcocarp, as it is scientifically called, is +rather an annoyance, as it must be removed in order to procure the +beans. This is done in one of two ways. The first is known as the dry +method, in which the entire fruit is allowed to dry, and is then cracked +open. The second way is called the wet method; the sarcocarp is removed +by machine, and two wet, slimy seed packets are obtained. These packets, +which look for all the world like seeds, are allowed to dry in such a +way that fermentation takes place. This rids them of all the slime; and, +after they are thoroughly dry, the endocarp, the so-called parchment +covering, is easily cracked open and removed. At the same time that the +parchment is removed, a thin silvery membrane, the silver skin, beneath +the parchment, comes off, too. There are always small fragments of this +silver skin to be found in the groove of the coffee bean contained +within the parchment packet.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEA_ARABICA_IN_FLOWER_ON_A_JAVA_ESTATE" id="COFFEA_ARABICA_IN_FLOWER_ON_A_JAVA_ESTATE"></a> +<img src="images/image101.jpg" width="500" height="676" alt="COFFEA ARABICA IN FLOWER ON A JAVA ESTATE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEA ARABICA IN FLOWER ON A JAVA ESTATE</span> +<p class="center"><small>From a photograph made at Dramaga, Preanger, Java, in 1907</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Liberian_Coffee_Tree_at_Lamoa_PI" id="Liberian_Coffee_Tree_at_Lamoa_PI"></a> +<img src="images/image102.jpg" width="300" height="382" alt="Liberian Coffee Tree at Lamoa, P.I." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Liberian Coffee Tree at Lamoa, P.I.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>We have said that the coffee tree yields from one to twelve pounds a +year, but of course this varies with the individual tree and also with +the region. In some countries the whole year's yield is less than 200 +pounds per acre, while there is on record a patch in Brazil which yields +about seventeen pounds to the tree, bringing the yield per acre much +higher.</p> + +<p>The beans do not retain their vitality for planting for any considerable +length of time; and, if they are thoroughly dried, or are kept for +longer than three or four months, they are useless for that purpose. It +takes the seed about six weeks to germinate and to appear above ground. +Trees raised from seed begin to blossom in about three years; but a good +crop can not be expected of them for the first five or six years. Their +usefulness, save in exceptional cases, is ended in about thirty years.</p> + +<p>The coffee tree can be propagated in a way other than by seeds. The +upright branches can be used as slips, which, after taking root, will +produce seed-bearing laterals. The laterals themselves can not be used +as slips. In Central America the natives sometimes use coffee uprights +for fences and it is no uncommon sight to see the fence posts "growing."</p> + +<p>The wood of the coffee tree is used also for cabinet work, as it is much +stronger than many of the native woods, weighing about forty-three +pounds to the cubic foot, having a crushing strength of 5,800 pounds per +square inch, and a breaking strength of 10,900 pounds per square inch.</p> + +<p>The propagation of the coffee plant by cutting has two distinct +advantages over propagation by seed, in that it spares the expense of +seed production, which is enormous, and it gives also a method of +hybridization, which, if used, might lead not only to very interesting +but also to very profitable results.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Two-and-One-Half-Year-Old_C_Congensis" id="Two-and-One-Half-Year-Old_C_Congensis"></a> +<img src="images/image103.jpg" width="300" height="353" alt="Two-and-One-Half-Year-Old C. Congensis" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Two-and-One-Half-Year-Old C. Congensis</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The hybridization of the coffee plant was taken up in a thoroughly +scientific manner by the Dutch government at the experimental garden +established at Bangelan, Java, in 1900. In his studies, twelve varieties +of <i>Coffea arabica</i> are recognized by Dr. P.J.S. Cramer<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>, namely:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot"><i>Laurina</i>, a hybrid of <i>Coffea arabica</i> with C. <i>mauritiana</i>, +having small narrow leaves, stiff, dense branches, young leaves +almost white, berry long and narrow, and beans narrow and oblong.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Murta</i>, having small leaves, dense branches, beans as in the +typical <i>Coffea arabica</i>, and the plant able to stand bitter cold.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Menosperma</i>, a distinct type, with narrow leaves and bent-down +branches resembling a willow, the berries seldom containing more +than one seed.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="A_HEAVY_FLOWERING_OF_FIVE-YEAR-OLD_COFFEA_EXCELSA" id="A_HEAVY_FLOWERING_OF_FIVE-YEAR-OLD_COFFEA_EXCELSA"></a> +<img src="images/image104.jpg" width="500" height="713" alt="A HEAVY FLOWERING OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD COFFEA EXCELSA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A HEAVY FLOWERING OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD COFFEA EXCELSA</span> +<p class="center"><small>This is a comparatively new species, discovered in the Tchad Lake +district of West Africa in 1905. It is a small-beaned variety of <i>Coffea +liberica</i></small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Branches_of_Coffea_Excelsa_Grown_at_the_Lamao_Experiment_Station_PI" id="Branches_of_Coffea_Excelsa_Grown_at_the_Lamao_Experiment_Station_PI"></a> +<img src="images/image105.jpg" width="300" height="517" alt="Branches of Coffea Excelsa Grown at the Lamao Experiment Station, P.I." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Branches of Coffea Excelsa Grown at the Lamao Experiment Station, P.I.</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot"><i>Mokka</i> (<i>Coffea Mokkæ</i>), having small leaves, dense foliage, small +round berries, small round beans resembling split peas, and +possessed of a stronger flavor than <i>Coffea arabica</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Purpurescens</i>, a red-leaved variety, comparable with the +red-leaved hazel and copper beech, a little less productive than +the <i>Coffea arabica</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Variegata</i>, having variegated leaves striped and spotted with +white.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Amarella</i>, having yellow berries, comparable with the +white-fruited variety of the strawberry, raspberry, etc.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Bullata</i>, having broad, curled leaves; stiff, thick, fragile +branches, and round, fleshy berries containing a high percentage of +empty beans.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Angustifolia</i>, a narrow-leaved variety, with berries somewhat more +oblong and, like the foregoing, a poor producer.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Erecta</i>, a variety that is sturdier than the typical <i>arabica</i>, +better suited to windy places, and having a production as in the +common <i>arabica</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Maragogipe</i>, a well-defined variety with light green leaves having +colored edges: berries large, broad, sometimes narrower in the +middle; a light bearer, the whole crop sometimes being reduced to a +couple of berries per tree.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="C_Stenophylla_From_Which_Is_Obtained_the_Highland_Coffee_of_Sierra_Leone" id="C_Stenophylla_From_Which_Is_Obtained_the_Highland_Coffee_of_Sierra_Leone"></a> +<img src="images/image106.jpg" width="300" height="409" alt="C. Stenophylla, From Which Is Obtained the Highland Coffee of Sierra Leone" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">C. Stenophylla, From Which Is Obtained the Highland Coffee of Sierra Leone</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot"><i>Columnaris</i>, a vigorous variety, sometimes reaching a height of 25 +feet, having leaves rounded at the base and rather broad, but a shy +bearer, recommended for dry climates.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffea Stenophylla</i></p> + +<p><i>Coffea arabica</i> has a formidable rival in the species <i>stenophylla</i>. +The flavor of this variety is pronounced by some as surpassing that of +<i>arabica</i>. The great disadvantage of this plant is the fact that it +requires so long a time before a yield of any value can be secured. +Although the time required for the maturing of the crop is so long, when +once the plantation begins to yield, the crop is as large as that of +<i>Coffea arabica</i>, and occasionally somewhat larger. The leaves are +smaller than any of the species described, and the flowers bear their +parts in numbers varying from six to nine. The tree is a native of +Sierra Leone, where it grows wild.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="NEAR_VIEW_OF_COFFEE_BERRIES_OF_COFFEA_ARABICA" id="NEAR_VIEW_OF_COFFEE_BERRIES_OF_COFFEA_ARABICA"></a> +<img src="images/image107.jpg" width="500" height="675" alt="NEAR VIEW OF COFFEE BERRIES OF COFFEA ARABICA" title="" /> +<p class="noin"><small>Copyright, 1909, by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</small></p> +<span class="caption">NEAR VIEW OF COFFEE BERRIES OF COFFEA ARABICA</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Coffea Liberica</i></p> + +<p>The bean of <i>Coffea arabica</i>, although the principal bean used in +commerce, is not the only one; and it may not be out of place here to +describe briefly some of the other varieties that are produced +commercially. <i>Coffea liberica</i> is one of these plants. The quality of +the beverage made from its berries is inferior to that of <i>Coffea +arabica</i>, but the plant itself offers distinct advantages in its hardy +growing qualities. This makes it attractive for hybridization.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Wild_quotCaffein-Freequot_Coffee_Tree" id="Wild_quotCaffein-Freequot_Coffee_Tree"></a> +<img src="images/image108.jpg" width="300" height="543" alt="Wild "Caffein-Free" Coffee Tree" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Wild "Caffein-Free" Coffee Tree</span></span> +<p class="center"><small><i>Mantsaka</i> or <i>Café Sauvage</i>—Madagascar</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The <i>Coffea liberica</i> tree is much larger and sturdier than the <i>Coffea +arabica</i>, and in its native haunts it reaches a height of 30 feet. It +will grow in a much more torrid climate and can stand exposure to strong +sunlight. The leaves are about twice as long as those of <i>arabica</i>, +being six to twelve inches in length, and are very thick, tough, and +leathery. The apex of the leaf is acute. The flowers are larger than +those of <i>arabica</i>, and are borne in dense clusters. At any time during +the season, the same tree may bear flowers, white or pinkish, and +fragrant, or even green, together with fruits, some green, some ripe and +of a brilliant red. The corolla has been known to have seven segments, +though as a rule it has five. The fruits are large, round, and dull red; +the pulps are not juicy, and are somewhat bitter. Unlike <i>Coffea +arabica</i>, the ripened drupes do not fall from the trees, and so the +picking can be delayed at the planter's convenience.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Differentiating_Characteristics_of_Coffee_Beans_in_Cross-section" id="Differentiating_Characteristics_of_Coffee_Beans_in_Cross-section"></a> +<img src="images/image109.jpg" width="300" height="345" alt="Differentiating Characteristics of Coffee Beans, in Cross-section" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Differentiating Characteristics of Coffee Beans, in Cross-section</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Col. I. Mature bean. Col. II. Embryo.<br /> +<i>A. Coffea arabica, R. Coffea robusta, L. Coffea liberica</i></small></p> +</div> + +<p>Among the allied Liberian species Dr. Cramer recognizes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot"><i>Abeokutæ</i>, having small leaves of a bright green, flower buds +often pink just before opening (in Liberian coffee never), fruit +smaller with sharply striped red and yellow shiny skin, and +producing somewhat smaller beans than Liberian coffee, but beans +whose flavor and taste are praised by brokers;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Dewevrei</i>, having curled edged leaves, stiff branches, +thick-skinned berries, sometimes pink flowers, beans generally +smaller than in <i>C. liberica</i>, but of little interest to the trade;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Arnoldiana</i>, a species near to <i>Coffea Abeokutæ</i> having darker +foliage and the even colored small berries;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Laurentii Gillet</i>, a species not to be confused with the <i>C. +Laurentii</i> belonging to the <i>robusta</i> coffee, but standing near to +<i>C. liberica</i>, characterized by oblong rather than thin-skinned +berries;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Excelsa</i>, a vigorous, disease-resisting species discovered in 1905 +by Aug. Chevalier in West Africa, in the region of the Chari River, +not far from Lake Tchad. The broad, dark-green leaves have an under +side of light green with a bluish tinge; the flowers are large and +white, borne in axillary clusters of one to five; the berries are +short and broad, in color crimson, the bean smaller than <i>robusta</i>, +very like <i>Mocha</i>, but in color a bright yellow like <i>liberica</i>. +The caffein content of the coffee is high, and the aroma is very +pronounced;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Dybowskii</i>, another disease-resisting variety similar to +<i>excelsa</i>, but having different leaf and fruit characteristics;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Lamboray</i>, having bent gutter-like leaves, and soft-skinned, +oblong fruit;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Wanni Rukula</i>, having large leaves, a vigorous growth, and small +berries;</p> + +<p class="quot"><i>Coffea aruwimensis</i>, being a mixture of different types.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEA_ARABICA_BERRIES_GROWN_IN_THE_HAWAIIAN_ISLANDS" id="COFFEA_ARABICA_BERRIES_GROWN_IN_THE_HAWAIIAN_ISLANDS"></a> +<img src="images/image110.jpg" width="500" height="708" alt="COFFEA ARABICA BERRIES GROWN IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEA ARABICA BERRIES GROWN IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p><p>The last three types were received by Dr. Cramer at Bangelan from Frère +Gillet in the Belgian Congo, and were still under trial in Java in 1919.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffea Robusta</i></p> + +<p>Emil Laurent, in 1898, discovered a species of coffee growing wild in +Congo. This was taken up by a horticultural firm of Brussels, and +cultivated for the market. This firm gave to the coffee the name <i>Coffea +robusta</i>, although it had already been given the name of the discoverer, +being known as <i>Coffea Laurentii</i>. The plant differs widely from both +<i>arabica</i> and <i>liberica</i>, being considerably larger than either. The +tree is umbrella-shaped, due to the fact that its branches are very long +and bend toward the ground.</p> + +<p>The leaves of <i>robusta</i> are much thinner than those of <i>liberica</i>, +though not as thin as those of <i>arabica</i>. The tree, as a whole, is a +very hardy variety and even bears blossoms when it is less than a year +old. It blossoms throughout the entire year, the flowers having +six-parted corollas. The drupes are smaller than those of <i>liberica;</i> +but are much thinner skinned, so that the coffee bean is actually not +any smaller. The drupes mature in ten months. Although the plants bear +as early as the first year, the yield for the first two years is of no +account; but by the fourth year the crop is large.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Robusta_Coffee_in_Flower_Preanger_Java" id="Robusta_Coffee_in_Flower_Preanger_Java"></a> +<img src="images/image111.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Robusta Coffee in Flower, Preanger, Java" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Robusta Coffee in Flower, Preanger, Java</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><br /><a name="COFFEE_UNDER_THE_STARS_AND_STRIPES" id="COFFEE_UNDER_THE_STARS_AND_STRIPES"></a> +<img src="images/plate5a.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="Coffee Estate in the Luquillo Mountains, Porto Rico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Estate in the Luquillo Mountains, Porto Rico</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/plate5b.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Japanese Laborers Picking Coffee on Kona Side, Island of Hawaii" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Japanese Laborers Picking Coffee on Kona Side, Island of Hawaii</span></span> +<p class="center">COFFEE UNDER THE STARS AND STRIPES</p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p><p>Arno Viehoever, pharmacognosist in charge of the pharmacognosy +laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of +Agriculture, has recently announced findings confirming Hartwich which +appear to permit of differentiation between <i>robusta, arabica</i>, and +<i>liberica</i>.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> These are mainly the peculiar folding of the endosperm, +showing quite generally a distinct hook in the case of the <i>robusta</i> +coffee bean. The size of the embryo, and especially the relation of the +rootlet to hypercotyl, will be found useful in the differentiation of +the species <i>Coffea arabica, liberica</i>, and <i>robusta</i> (<a href="#Page_142">see cut, page +142</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="One-Year-Old_Robusta_Estate_on_Sumatra39s_West_Coast" id="One-Year-Old_Robusta_Estate_on_Sumatra39s_West_Coast"></a> +<img src="images/image112.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="One-Year-Old Robusta Estate, on Sumatra's West Coast" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">One-Year-Old Robusta Estate, on Sumatra's West Coast</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Viehoever and Lepper carried on a series of cup tests of <i>robusta</i>, the +results as to taste and flavor being distinctly favorable. They +summarized their studies and tests as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The time when coffee could be limited to beans obtained from plants +of <i>Coffea arabica</i> and <i>Coffea liberica</i> has passed. Other +species, with qualities which make them desirable, even in +preference to the well reputed named ones, have been discovered and +cultivated. Among them, the species or group of <i>Coffea robusta</i> +has attained a great economic significance, and is grown in +increasing amounts. While it has, as reports seem to indicate, not +as yet been possible to obtain a strain that would be as desirable +in flavor as the old "standard" <i>Coffea</i> <i>arabica</i>, well known as +Java or "Fancy Java" coffee, its merits have been established.</p> + +<p class="quot">The botanical origin is not quite cleared up, and the +classification of the varieties belonging to the <i>robusta</i> group +deserves further study. Anatomical means of differentiating +<i>robusta</i> coffee from other species or groups, may be applied as +distinctly helpful....</p> + +<p class="quot">As is usual in most of the coffee species, caffein is present. The +amount appears to be, on an average, somewhat larger (even +exceeding 2.0 percent) than in the South American coffee species. +In no instance, however, did the amount exceed the maximum limits +observed in coffee in general....</p> + +<p class="quot">Due to its rapid growth, early and prolific yield, resistance to +coffee blight, and many other desirable qualities, <i>Coffea robusta</i> +has established "its own". In the writers' judgment, <i>robusta</i> +coffee deserves consideration and recognition.</p></div> + +<p>Among the <i>robusta</i> varieties, <i>Coffea canephora</i> is a distinct species, +well characterized by growth, leaves, and berries. The branches are +slender and thinner than <i>robusta</i>; the leaves are dark green and +narrower; the flowers are often tinged with red; the unripe berries are +purple, the ripe berries bright red and oblong. The produce is like +<i>robusta</i>, only the shape of the bean, somewhat narrower and more +oblong, makes it look more attractive. <i>Coffea canephora</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> like <i>C. +robusta</i>, seems better fitted to higher altitudes.</p> + +<p>Other <i>canephora</i> varieties include:</p> + +<p><i>Madagascar</i>, having small, slightly striped, bright red berries and +small round beans;</p> + +<p><i>Quillouensis</i>, having dark green foliage and reddish brown young +leaves; and,</p> + +<p><i>Stenophylla Paris</i>, with purplish young berries.</p> + +<p>These last two named were under test at the Bangelan gardens in 1919.</p> + +<p>Among other allied <i>robusta</i> species are:</p> + +<p><i>Ugandæ</i>:, whose produce is said to possess a better flavor than +<i>robusta</i>;</p> + +<p><i>Bukobensis</i>, different from <i>Ugandæ</i> in the color of its berries, which +are a dark red; and</p> + +<p><i>Quillou</i>, having bright red fruit, a copper-colored silver skin, three +pounds of fruit producing one pound of market coffee. Some people prefer +<i>Quillou</i> to <i>robusta</i> because of the difference in the taste of the +roasted bean.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Interesting Hybrids</i></p> + +<p>The most popular hybrid belongs to a crossing of <i>liberica</i> and +<i>arabica</i>. Cramer states that the beans of this hybrid make an excellent +coffee combining the strong taste of the <i>liberica</i> with the fine flavor +of the old Government Java <i>(arabica</i>), adding:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The hybrids are not only of value to the roaster, but also to the +planter. They are vigorous trees, practically free from leaf +disease; they stand drought well and also heavy rains; they are not +particular in regard to shade and upkeep; never fail to give a fair +and often a rather heavy crop. The fruit ripens all the year +around, and does not fall so easily as in the case of <i>arabica</i>.</p></div> + +<p>Among other hybrids (many were still under trial in 1919) may be +mentioned: <i>Coffea excelsia x liberica</i>; <i>C. Abeokutæ x liberica</i>; <i>C. +Dybowskii x excelsa</i>; <i>C. stenophylla x Abeokutæ</i>; <i>C. congensis x +Ugandæ</i>; <i>C. Ugandæ x congensis</i>; and <i>C. robusta x Maragogipe</i>.</p> + +<p>There are many species of <i>Coffea</i> that stand quite apart from the main +groups, <i>arabica, robusta</i> and <i>liberica</i>; but while some are of +commercial value, most of them are interesting only from the scientific +point of view. Among the latter may be mentioned: <i>Coffea bengalensis</i>, +<i>C. Perieri</i>, <i>C. mauritiana</i>, <i>C. macrocarpa</i>, <i>C. madagascariensis</i>, +and <i>C. schumanniana</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffea_Quillou_Flowers_in_Full_Bloom" id="Coffea_Quillou_Flowers_in_Full_Bloom"></a> +<img src="images/image113.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="Coffea Quillou Flowers in Full Bloom" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffea Quillou Flowers in Full Bloom</span></span> +</div> + +<p>M. Teyssonnier, of the experimental garden at Camayenne, French Guinea, +West Africa, has produced a promising species of coffee known as +<i>affinis</i>. It is a hybrid of <i>C. stenophylla</i> with a species of +<i>liberica</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p><p>Among other promising species recognized by Dr. Cramer are:</p> + +<p><i>Coffea congensis</i>, whose berry resembles that of <i>C. arabica</i>, when +well prepared for the market being green or bluish; and</p> + +<p><i>Coffea congensis var. Chalotii</i>, probably a hybrid of <i>C. congensis</i> +with <i>C. canephora</i>.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Caffein-free Coffee</i></p> + +<p>Certain trees growing wild in the Comoro Islands and Madagascar are +known as caffein-free coffee trees. Just whether they are entitled to +this classification or not is a question. Some of the French and German +investigators have reported coffee from these regions that was +absolutely devoid of caffein. It was thought at first that they must +represent an entirely new genus; but upon investigation, it was found +that they belonged to the genus <i>Coffea</i>, to which all our common +coffees belong. Professor Dubard, of the French National Museum and +Colonial Garden, studied these trees botanically and classified them as +<i>C. Gallienii</i>, <i>C. Bonnieri</i>, <i>C. Mogeneti</i>, and <i>C. Augagneuri</i>. The +beans of berries from these trees were analyzed by Professor Bertrand +and pronounced caffein-free; but Labroy, in writing of the same coffee, +states that, while the bean is caffein-free, it contains a very bitter +substance, cafamarine, which makes the infusion unfit for use. Dr. O.W. +Willcox<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>, in examining some specimens of wild coffee from Madagascar, +found that the bean was not caffein-free; and though the caffein content +was low, it was no lower than in some of the Porto Rican varieties.</p> + +<p>Hartwich<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> reports that Hanausek found no caffein in <i>C. mauritiana</i>, +<i>C. humboltiana</i>, <i>C. Gallienii</i>, <i>C. Bonnerii</i>, and <i>C. Mogeneti</i>.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Fungoid Disease of Coffee</i></p> + +<p>The coffee tree, like every other living thing, has specific diseases +and enemies, the most common of which are certain fungoid diseases where +the mycelium of the fungus grows into the tissue and spots the leaves, +eventually causing them to fall, thus robbing the plant of its only +means of elaborating food. Its most deadly enemy in the insect world is +a small insect of the lepidopterous variety, which is known as the +coffee-leaf miner. It is closely related to the clothes moth and, like +the moth, bores in its larval stage, feeding on the mesophyl of the +leaves. This gives the leaves an appearance of being shriveled or dried +by heat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="An_Eighteen-Months39-Old_Coffea_Quillou_Tree_in_Blossom" id="An_Eighteen-Months39-Old_Coffea_Quillou_Tree_in_Blossom"></a> +<img src="images/image114.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="An Eighteen-Months'-Old Coffea Quillou Tree in Blossom" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Eighteen-Months'-Old Coffea Quillou Tree in Blossom</span></span> +</div> + +<p>There are three principal diseases, due to fungi, from which the coffee +plants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> suffer. The most common is known as the leaf-blight fungus, +<i>Pellicularia tokeroga</i>, which is a slow-spreading disease, but one that +causes great loss. Although the fungus does not produce spores, the +leaves die and dry, and are blown away, carrying with them the dried +mycelium of the fungus. This mycelium will start to grow as soon as it +is supplied with a new moist coffee leaf to nourish it. The method of +getting rid of this disease is to spray the trees in seasons of drought.</p> + +<p>It was a fungoid disease known as the <i>Hemileia vastatrix</i> that attacked +Ceylon's coffee industry in 1869, and eventually destroyed it. It is a +microscopic fungus whose spores, carried by the wind, adhere to and +germinate upon the leaves of the coffee tree<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a>.</p> + +<p>Another common disease is known as the root disease, which eventually +kills the tree by girdling it below the soil. It spreads slowly, but +seems to be favored by collections of decaying matter around the base of +the tree. Sometimes the digging of ditches around the roots is +sufficient to protect it. The other common disease is due to <i>Stilbium +flavidum</i>, and is found only in regions of great humidity. It affects +both the leaf and the fruit and is known as the spot of leaf and fruit.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffea_Ugandaelig_Bent_Over_by_a_Heavy_Crop" id="Coffea_Ugandaelig_Bent_Over_by_a_Heavy_Crop"></a> +<img src="images/image115.jpg" width="500" height="304" alt="Coffea Ugandæ Bent Over by a Heavy Crop" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffea Ugandæ Bent Over by a Heavy Crop</span></span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XVI" id="Chapter_XVI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XVI</span></h2> + +<h3>THE MICROSCOPY OF THE COFFEE FRUIT</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is +revealed—Structure of the berry, the green, and the roasted +bean—The coffee leaf disease under the microscope—Value of +microscopic analysis in detecting adulteration</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> microscopy of coffee is, on the whole, more important to the planter +than to the consumer and the dealer; while, on the other hand, the +microscopy is of paramount importance to the consumer and the dealer as +furnishing the best means of determining whether the product offered is +adulterated or not. Also, from this standpoint, the microscopy of the +plant is less important than that of the bean.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fig_331_Coffee_Coffea_arabica" id="Fig_331_Coffee_Coffea_arabica"></a> +<img src="images/image116.jpg" width="500" height="156" alt="Fig. 331. Coffee (Coffea arabica)." title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 331. Coffee (Coffea arabica). I—Cross-section of +berry, natural size; <i>Pk</i>, outer pericarp; <i>Mk</i>, endocarp; <i>Ek</i>, +spermoderm; <i>Sa</i>, hard endosperm; Sp, soft endosperm. II—Longitudinal +section of berry, natural size; <i>Dis</i>, bordered disk; <i>Se</i>, remains of +sepals; <i>Em</i>, embryo. III—Embryo, enlarged; <i>cot</i>, cotyledon; <i>rad</i>, +radicle. (Tschirch and Oesterle.)</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Fruit and the Bean</i></p> + +<p>The fruit, as stated in chapter XV, consists of two parts, each one +containing a single seed, or bean. These beans are flattened laterally, +so as to fit together, except in the following instances: in the +peaberry, where one of the ovules never develops, the single ovule, +having no pressure upon it, is spherical; in the rare instances where +three seeds are found, the grains are angular.</p> + +<p>The coffee bean with which the consumer is familiar is only a small part +of the fruit. The fruit, which is the size of a small cherry, has, like +the cherry, an outer fleshy portion called the pericarp. Beneath this is +a part like tissue paper, spoken of technically as the parchment, but +known scientifically as the endocarp. Next in position to this, and +covering the seed, is the so-called spermoderm, which means the seed +skin, referred to in the trade as the silver skin. Small portions of +this silver skin are always to be found in the cleft of the coffee bean.</p> + +<p>The coffee bean is the embryo and its food supply; the embryo is that +part of the seed which, when supplied with food and moisture, develops +into a new plant. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> embryo of the coffee is very minute (Fig. 331, +II, <i>Em</i>)<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>; and the greater part of the seed is taken up by the food +supply, consisting of hard and soft endosperm (Fig. 331, I and II, <i>Sa</i>, +<i>Sp</i>). The minute embryo consists of two small thick leaves, the +cotyledons (Fig. 331, III, <i>cot</i>), a short stem, invisible in the +undissected embryo, and a small root, the radicle (Fig. 331, III, +<i>rad</i>).</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_332_Coffee_Cross_section_of_bean" id="Fig_332_Coffee_Cross_section_of_bean"></a> +<img src="images/image117.jpg" width="300" height="238" alt="Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross section of bean" title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross section of beanshowing folded +endosperm with hard and soft tissues. x6. (Moeller)</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Fruit Structure</i></p> + +<p>In order to examine the structure of these layers of the fruit under the +microscope, it is necessary to use the pericarp dry, as it is not easily +obtainable in its natural condition. If desired, an alcoholic specimen +may be used, but it has been found that the dry method gives more +satisfactory results. The dried pericarp is about 0.5 mm thick. Great +difficulty is experienced in cutting microtome sections of pericarp when +the specimen is embedded in paraffin, because the outer layers are soft +and the endocarp is hard, and the two parts of the section separate at +this point. To overcome this, the sections might also be embedded in +celloidin. When the sections are satisfactory, they may be stained with +any of the double stains ordinarily used in the study of plant +histology.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_333_Coffee_Cross_section_of_hull_and_bean" id="Fig_333_Coffee_Cross_section_of_hull_and_bean"></a> +<img src="images/image118.jpg" width="300" height="482" alt="Fig. 333. Coffee. Cross section of hull and bean." title="" /> +<p class="hang"><small>Fig. 333. Coffee. Cross section of hull and bean. Pericarp consists of: 1, epicarp; 2–3, layers of mesocarp, with 4, +fibro-vascular bundle; 5, palisade layer; and 6, endocarp; <i>ss</i>, +spermoderm, consists of 8, sclerenchyma, and 9, parenchyma; <i>End</i>, +endosperm (Tschirch and Oesterle)</small></p> +</div> + + +<p>A section cut crosswise through the entire fruit would present the +appearance shown in Fig. 333. The cells of the epicarp are broad and +polygonal, sometimes regularly four-sided, about 15–35 µ broad. At +intervals along the surface of the epicarp are stomata, or breathing +pores, surrounded by guard cells. The next layer of the pericarp is the +mesocarp (Figs. 333, 334, 335), the cells of which are larger and more +regular in outline than the epicarp. The cells of the mesocarp become as +large as 100 µ broad, but in the inner parts of the layer they become +very much flattened. Fibrovascular bundles are scattered through the +compressed cells of the mesocarp. The cell walls are thick; and large, +amorphous, brown masses are found within the cell; occasionally, large +crystals are found in the outer part of the layer. The fibro-vascular +bundles consist mainly of bast and wood fibers and vessels. The bast +fibers are as large as 1 mm long and 25 µ broad, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> thick walls and +very small <i>lumina</i>. Spiral and pitted vessels are also present.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_334_Coffee_Surface_view_of_ep_epicarp" id="Fig_334_Coffee_Surface_view_of_ep_epicarp"></a> +<img src="images/image119.jpg" width="300" height="282" alt="Fig. 334. Coffee. Surface view of ep, epicarp," title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 334. Coffee. Surface view of ep, epicarp, and <i>p</i>, +outer parenchyma of mesocarp. x160. (Moeller)</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The layer next to this is a soft tissue, parenchyma (Fig. 333, 5; Fig. +334, <i>p</i>). The parenchyma, or palisade cells as they are called, is a +thin-walled tissue in which the cells are elongated, from which fact +they receive their name. The walls of these cells, though very thin, are +mucilaginous, and capable of taking up large amounts of water. They +stain well with the aniline stains.</p> + +<p>The endocarp (Fig. 336) is closely connected with the palisade layer and +has thin-walled cells that closely resemble, in all respects, the +endocarp of the apple. The outer layer consists of thick-walled fibers, +which are remarkably porous (Fig. 333, 6; Fig. 336) while the fibers of +the inner layer are thin-walled and run in the transverse direction.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Bean Structure</i></p> + +<p>Spermoderm, or silver skin, is not difficult to secure for microscopic +analysis; because shreds of it remain in the groove of the berry, and +these shreds are ample for examination. It can readily be removed +without tearing, if soaked in water for a few hours. The spermoderm is +thin enough not to need sectioning. It consists of two +elements—sclerenchyma and parenchyma cells. (Figs. 333, 337, <i>st</i>, +<i>p</i>).</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_335_Coffee_Elements_of_pericarp_in_surface_view" id="Fig_335_Coffee_Elements_of_pericarp_in_surface_view"></a> +<img src="images/image121.jpg" width="300" height="275" alt="Fig. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarp in surface view." title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarp in surface view. <i>p</i>, parenchyma; <i>bp</i>, parenchyma of fibro-vascular bundle; <i>b</i>, bast +fiber; <i>sp</i>, spiral vessel. x160. (Moeller)</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Sclerenchyma forms an uninterrupted covering in the early stages of the +seed; but as the seed develops, surrounding tissues grow more rapidly +than the sclerenchyma, and the cells are pushed apart and scattered. The +cells occurring in the cleft of the berry are straight, narrow, and +long, becoming as long as 1 mm, and resemble bast fibers somewhat. On +the surface of the berry, and sometimes in the cleft, there are found +smaller, thicker cells, which are irregular in outline, club-shaped and +vermiform types predominating.</p> + +<p>Parenchyma cells form the remainder of the spermoderm; and these are +partially obliterated, so that the structure is not easily seen, +appearing almost like a solid membrane. The raphe runs through the +parenchyma found in the cleft of the berry.</p> + +<p>The endosperm (Figs. 333; 338) consist of small cells in the outer part, +and large cells, frequently as thick as 100 µ, in the inner part. The +cell walls are thickened and knotted. Certain of the inner cells have +mucilaginous walls which when treated with water disappear, leaving only +the middle lamellae, which gives the section a peculiar appearance. The +cells contain no starch, the reserve food supply being stored cellulose, +protein, and aleurone grains. Various investigators report the presence +of sugar, tannin, iron, salts, and caffein.</p> + +<p>The embryo (Fig. 331, III) may be obtained by soaking the bean in water +for several hours, cutting through the cleft and carefully breaking +apart the endosperm. If<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> it is now soaked in diluted alkali, the embryo +protrudes through the lower end of the endosperm. It is then cleared in +alkali, or in chloral hydrate. The cotyledons shown have three pairs of +veins, which are slightly netted. The radicle is blunt and is about <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> +mm in length, while the cotyledons are <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> mm long.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_336_Coffee_Sclerenchyma_fibers_of_endocarp" id="Fig_336_Coffee_Sclerenchyma_fibers_of_endocarp"></a> +<img src="images/image120.jpg" width="300" height="203" alt="Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of endocarp. x160. (Moeller)" title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of endocarp. x160. (Moeller)</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Coffee-Leaf Disease</i></p> + +<p>The coffee tree has many pests and diseases; but the disease most feared +by planters is that generally referred to as the coffee-leaf disease, +and by this is meant the fungoid <i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>, which as told in +chapter XV, destroyed Ceylon's once prosperous coffee industry. As it +has since been found in nearly all coffee-producing countries, it has +become a nightmare in the dreams of all coffee planters. The microscope +shows how the spores of this dreaded fungus, carried by the winds upon a +leaf of the coffee tree, proceed to germinate at the expense of the +leaf; robbing it of its nourishment, and causing it to droop and to die. +A mixture of powdered lime and sulphur has been found to be an effective +germicide, if used in time and diligently applied.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Figs 337, 338, and 339"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='2'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_337_Coffee_Spermoderm_in_surface_view" id="Fig_337_Coffee_Spermoderm_in_surface_view"></a> +<img src="images/image122.jpg" alt="Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view. st. sclerenchyma; p, compressed parenchyma. x160. (Moeller)" title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view. st. sclerenchyma; p, compressed parenchyma. x160. (Moeller)</small></p> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_338_Coffee_Cross-section_of_outer_layers_of_endosperm" id="Fig_338_Coffee_Cross-section_of_outer_layers_of_endosperm"></a> +<img src="images/image123.jpg" alt="Fig. 338. Coffee. Cross-section of outer layers of endosperm, showing knotty thickenings of cell walls. x160. (Moeller)" title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 338. Coffee. Cross-section of outer layers of endosperm, showing knotty thickenings of cell walls. x160. (Moeller)</small></p> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fig_339_Coffee_Tissues_of_embryo_in_section" id="Fig_339_Coffee_Tissues_of_embryo_in_section"></a> +<img src="images/image124.jpg" alt="Fig. 339. Coffee. Tissues of embryo in section. x160. (Moeller)" title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 339. Coffee. Tissues of embryo in section. x160. (Moeller)</small></p> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Value of Microscopic Analysis</i></p> + +<p>The value of the microscopic analysis of coffee may not be apparent at +first sight; but when one realizes that in many cases the microscopic +examination is the only way to detect adulteration in coffee, its +importance at once becomes apparent. In many instances the chemical +analysis fails to get at the root of the trouble, and then the only +method to which the tester has recourse is the examination of the +suspected material under the scope. The mixing of chicory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> with coffee +has in the past been one of the commonest forms of adulteration. The +microscopic examination in this connection is the most reliable. The +coffee grain will have the appearance already described. +Microscopically, chicory shows numerous thin-walled parenchymatous +cells, lactiferous vessels, and sieve tubes with transverse plates. +There are also present large vessels with huge, well-defined pits.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Leaf_Disease_Hemileia_vastatrix" id="Coffee_Leaf_Disease_Hemileia_vastatrix"></a> +<img src="images/image125.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="Coffee Leaf Disease (Hemileia vastatrix)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Leaf Disease (Hemileia vastatrix)</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1. under surface of affected leaf, x <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>; 2, section through same +showing mycelium, haustoria, and a spore-cluster; 3, a spore-cluster +seen from below; 4, a uredospore; 5, germinating uredospore; 6, +appressorial swellings at tips of germ-tubes; 7, infection through stoma +of leaf; 8, teleutospores; 9, teleutospore germinating with promycelium +and sporidia; 10, sporidia and their germination (2 after Zimmermann, 3 +after Delacroix, 4–10 after Ward)</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Roasted date stones have been used as adulterants, and these can be +detected quite readily with the aid of the microscope, as they have a +very characteristic microscopic appearance. The epidermal cells are +almost oblong, while the parenchymatous cells are large, irregular and +contain large quantities of tannin.</p> + +<p>Adulteration and adulterants are considered more fully in chapter XVII.</p> + +<div class="figgroup" style="width: 650px;"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Green_and_Roasted_Coffee_Under_the_Microscope" id="Green_and_Roasted_Coffee_Under_the_Microscope"></a> +<img src="images/image126.jpg" width="300" height="242" alt="Green Bean" title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Green bean, showing the size and form of the cells as well as the drops +of oil contained within their cavities. Drawn with the camera lucida, +and magnified 140 diameters.</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image127.jpg" width="300" height="230" alt="Roasted Coffee" title="" /> +<p class="hang2"><small>A fragment of roasted coffee under the microscope. Drawn with the camera +lucida, and magnified 140 diameters.</small></p> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Green and Roasted Coffee Under the Microscope</span></span></p> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"><br /><br /> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="GREEN_AND_ROASTED_BOGOTA_COFFEE_UNDER_THE_MICROSCOPE" id="GREEN_AND_ROASTED_BOGOTA_COFFEE_UNDER_THE_MICROSCOPE"></a> +<img src="images/image128.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="Bogota, Green" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bogota, Green</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Longitudinal—Magnified 200 diameters</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image129.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="Bogota, Green" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bogota, Green</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Cross Section—Magnified 200 diameters</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image130.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="Bogota, Green" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bogota, Green</span></span> +<p class="center"><small>Tangential—Magnified 200 diameters</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image131.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="Bogota, Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Bogota, Roasted</span> +<p class="center"><small>Tangential—Magnified 200 diameters</small></p> +</div> +<p class="center"><span class="caption">GREEN AND ROASTED BOGOTA COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE</span></p> + +<p class="hang2"><small>These pictures serve to demonstrate that the coffee bean is made up of +minute cells that are not broken down to any extent by the roasting +process. Note that the oil globules are more prominent in the green than +in the roasted product</small></p></div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XVII" id="Chapter_XVII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XVII</span></h2> + +<h3>THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COFFEE BEAN</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green +bean—Artificial aging—Renovating damaged +coffees—Extracts—"Caffetannic acid"—Caffein, caffein-free +coffee—Caffeol—Fats and oils—Carbohydrates—Roasting—Scientific +aspects of grinding and packaging—The coffee brew—Soluble +coffee—Adulterants and substitutes—Official methods of analysis</i></p><br /><br /></div> + +<p class="center">By Charles W. Trigg</p> + +<p class="center"><small>Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, +Pittsburgh, 1916–1920</small></p> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">W</span><span class="caps">hen</span> the vast extent of the coffee business is considered, together with +the intimate connection which coffee has with the daily life of the +average human, the relatively small amount of accurate knowledge which +we possess regarding the chemical constituents and the physiological +action of coffee is productive of amazement.</p> + +<p>True, a painstaking compilation of all the scientific and +semi-scientific work done upon coffee furnishes quite a compendium of +data, the value of which is not commensurate with its quantity, because +of the spasmodic nature of the investigations and the non-conclusive +character of the results so far obtained. The following general survey +of the field argues in favor of the promulgation of well-ordered and +systematic research, of the type now in progress at several places in +the United States, into the chemical behavior of coffee throughout the +various processes to which it is subjected in the course of its +preparation for human consumption.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Green Coffee</i></p> + +<p>One of the few chemical investigations of the growing tree is the +examination by Graf of flowers from 20-year-old coffee trees, in which +he found 0.9 percent caffein, a reducing sugar, caffetannic acid, and +phytosterol. Power and Chestnut<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> found 0.82 percent caffein in +air-dried coffee leaves, but only 0.087 percent of the alkaloid in the +stems of the plant separated from the leaves. In the course of a +study<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> instituted for the purpose of determining the best +fertilizers for coffee trees, it developed that the cherries in +different stages of growth show a preponderance of potash throughout, +while the proportion of P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> attains a maximum in the fourth month +and then steadily declines.</p> + +<p>Experiments are still in progress to ascertain the precise mineral +requirements of the crop as well as the most suitable stage at which to +apply them. During the first five months the moisture content undergoes +a steady decrease, from 87.13 percent to 65.77 percent, but during the +final ripening stage in the last month there is a rise of nearly 1 +percent. This may explain the premature falling and failure to ripen of +the crop on certain soils, especially in years of low rainfall. +Malnutrition of the trees may result also in the production of oily +beans.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p><p>The coffee berry comprises about 68 percent pulp, 6 percent parchment, +and 26 percent clean coffee beans. The pulp is easily removed by +mechanical means; but in order to separate the soft, glutinous, +saccharine parchment, it is necessary to resort to fermentation, which +loosens the skin so that it may be removed easily, after which the +coffee is properly dried and aged. There is first a yeast fermentation +producing alcohol; and then a bacterial action giving mainly inactive +lactic acid, which is the main factor in loosening the parchment. For +the production of the best coffee, acetic acid fermentation (which +changes the color of the bean) and temperature above 60° should be +avoided, as these inhibit subsequent enzymatic action.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p> + +<p>Various schemes have been proposed for utilizing the large amount of +pulp so obtained in preparing coffee for market. Most of these depend +upon using the pulp as fertilizer, since fresh pulp contains 2.61 +percent nitrogen, 0.81 percent P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, 2.38 percent potassium, and +0.57 percent calcium. One procedure<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> in particular is to mix pulp +with sawdust, urine, and a little lime, and then to leave this mixture +covered in a pit for a year before using. In addition to these mineral +matters, the pulp also contains about 0.88 percent of caffein and 18 to +37 percent sugars. Accordingly, it has been proposed<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> to extract the +caffein with chloroform, and the sugars with acidulated water. The +aqueous solution so obtained is then fermented to alcohol. The insoluble +portion left after extraction can be used as fuel, and the resulting ash +as fertilizer.</p> + +<p>The pulp has been dried and roasted for use in place of the berry, and +has been imported to England for this purpose. It is stated that the +Arabs in the vicinity of Jiddah discard the kernel of the coffee berries +and make an infusion of the husk.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> + +<p>Quality of green coffee is largely dependent upon the methods used and +the care taken in curing it, and upon the conditions obtaining in +shipment and storage. True, the soil and climatic conditions play a +determinative rôle in the creation of the characteristics of coffee, but +these do not offer any greater opportunity for constructive research and +remunerative improvement than does the development of methods and +control in the processes employed in the preparation of green coffee for +the market.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Cross-Section_of_the_Endosperm_or_Hard_Structure_of_the_Green_Bean" id="Cross-Section_of_the_Endosperm_or_Hard_Structure_of_the_Green_Bean"></a> +<img src="images/image132.jpg" width="300" height="272" alt="Cross-Section of the Endosperm or Hard Structure of the Green Bean" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cross-Section of the Endosperm or Hard Structure of the Green Bean</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Storage prior and subsequent to shipment, and circumstances existing +during transportation, are not to be disregarded as factors contributory +to the final quality of the coffee. The sweating of mules carrying bags +of poorly packed coffee, and the absorption of strong foreign aromas and +flavors from odoriferous substances stored in too close proximity to the +coffee beans, are classic examples of damage that bear iterative +mention. Damage by sea water, due more to the excessive moisture than to +the salt, is not so common an occurrence now as heretofore. However, a +cheap and thoroughly effective means of ethically renovating coffee +which has been damaged in this manner would not go begging for +commercial application.</p> + +<p>That green coffee improves with age, is a tenet generally accepted by +the trade. Shipments long in transit, subjected to the effects of +tropical heat under closely battened hatches in poorly ventilated holds, +have developed into much-prized yellow matured coffee. Were it not for +the large capital required and the attendant prohibitive carrying +charges, many roasters would permit their coffees to age more thoroughly +before roasting. In fact, some roasters do indulge this desire in regard +to a portion of their stock. But were it feasible to treat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> and hold +coffees long enough to develop their attributes to a maximum, still the +exact conditions which would favor such development are not definitely +known. What are the optimum temperature and the correct humidity to +maintain, and should the green coffee be well ventilated or not while in +storage? How long should coffee be stored under the most favorable +conditions best to develop it? Aging for too long a period will develop +flavor at the expense of body; and the general cup efficiency of some +coffees will suffer if they be kept too long.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Portion_of_the_Investing_Membrane_Showing_Its_Structure" id="Portion_of_the_Investing_Membrane_Showing_Its_Structure"></a> +<img src="images/image133.jpg" width="300" height="329" alt="Portion of the Investing Membrane, Showing Its Structure" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Portion of the Investing Membrane, Showing Its Structure</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140 diameters</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The exact reason for improvement upon aging is in no wise certain, but +it is highly probable that the changes ensuing are somewhat analogous to +those occurring in the aging of grain. Primarily an undefined enzymatic +and mold action most likely occurs, the nature of the enzymes and molds +being largely dependent upon the previous treatment of the coffee. Along +with this are a loss of moisture and an oxidation, all three actions +having more evident effects with the passage of time.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Artificial Aging</i></p> + +<p>In consideration of the higher prices which aged products demand, +attempts have naturally been made to shorten by artificial means the +time necessary for their natural production. Some of these methods +depend upon obtaining the most favorable conditions for acceleration of +the enzyme action; others, upon the effects of micro-organisms; and +still others, upon direct chemical reaction or physical alteration of +the green bean.</p> + +<p>One of the first efforts toward artificial maturing was that of +Ashcroft<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a>, who argued from the improved nature of coffee which had +experienced a delayed voyage. His method consisted of inclosing the +coffee in sweat-boxes having perforated bottoms and subjecting it to the +sweating action of steam, the boxes being enclosed in an oven or room +maintained at the temperature of steam.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Structure_of_the_Green_Bean" id="Structure_of_the_Green_Bean"></a> +<img src="images/image134.jpg" width="300" height="287" alt="Structure of the Green Bean" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Structure of the Green Bean</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Showing thick-walled cells enclosing drops of oil</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Timby<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> claimed to remove dusts, foreign odors, and impurities, while +attaining in a few hours or days a ripening effect normally secured only +in several seasons. In this process, the bagged coffee is placed in +autoclaves and subjected to the action of air at a pressure of 2 to 3 +atmospheres and a temperature of 40° to 100° F. The temperature should +seldom be allowed to rise above 150° F. The pressure is then allowed to +escape and a partial vacuum created in the apparatus. This alteration of +pressure and vacuum is continued until the desired maturation is +obtained. Desvignes<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> employs a similar procedure, although he +accomplishes seasoning by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> treating the coffee also with oxygen or +ozone.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> First the coffee is rendered porous by storage in a hot +chamber, which is then exhausted prior to admission of the oxygen. The +oxygen can be ozonized in the closed vessel while in contact with the +coffee. Complete aging in a few days is claimed.</p> + +<p>Weitzmann<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> adopts a novel operation, by exposing bags of raw coffee +to the action of a powerful magnetic field, obtained with two adjustable +electro-magnets. The claim that a maturation naturally produced in +several years is thus obtained in <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> to 2 hours is open to considerable +doubt. A process that is probably attended with more commercial success +is that of Gram<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> in which the coffee is treated with gaseous +nitrogen dioxid.</p> + +<p>By far the most notable progress in this field, both scientifically and +commercially, has been made by Robison<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> with his "culturing" method. +Here the green coffee is washed with water, and then inoculated with +selected strains of micro-organisms, such as <i>Ochraeceus</i> or +<i>Aspergillus Wintii</i>. Incubation is then conducted for 6 to 7 days at +90° F. and 85 percent relative humidity. Subsequent to this incubation, +the coffee is stored in bins for about ten days; after which it is +tumbled and scoured. With this process it is possible to improve the +cupping qualities of a coffee to a surprising degree.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Renovating Damaged Coffees</i></p> + +<p>Sophistication has often been resorted to in order ostensibly to improve +damaged or cheap coffee. Glazing, coloring, and polishing of the green +beans was openly and covertly practised until restricted by law. The +steps employed did not actually improve the coffee by any means, but +merely put it into condition for more ready sale. An apparently sincere +endeavor to renovate damaged coffee was made by Evans<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> when he +treated it with an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid having a density +of 10.5° Baumé. After agitation in this solution, the beans were washed +free from acid and dried. In this manner discolorations and impurities +were removed and the beans given a fuller appearance.</p> + +<p>The addition of glucose, sucrose, lactose, or dextrin to green coffees +is practised by von Niessen<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> and by Winter<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>, with the object of +giving a mild taste and strong aroma to "hard" coffees. The addition is +accomplished by impregnating, with or without the aid of vacuum, the +beans with a moderately concentrated solution of the sugar, the liquid +being of insufficient quantity to effect extraction. When the solution +has completely disseminated through the kernels, they are removed and +dried. Upon subsequent roasting, a decided amelioration of flavor is +secured.</p> + +<p>Another method developed by von Niessen<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> comprises the softening of +the outer layers of the beans by steam, cold or warm water, or brine, +and then surrounding them with an absorbent paste or powder, such as +china clay, to which a neutralizing agent such as magnesium oxid may be +added. After drying, the clay can be removed by brushing or by causing +the beans to travel between oppositely reciprocated wet cloths. In the +development of this process, von Niessen evidently argued that the +so-called "caffetannic acid" is the "harmful" substance in coffee, and +that it is concentrated in the outer layers of the coffee beans. If +these be his precepts, the question of their correctness and of the +efficiency of his process becomes a moot one.</p> + +<p>A procedure which aims at cleaning and refining raw coffee, and which +has been the subject of much polemical discussion, is that of Thum<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>. +It entails the placing of the green beans in a perforated drum; just +covering them with water, or a solution of sodium chloride or sodium +carbonate, at 65° to 70° C.; and subjecting them to a vigorous brushing +for from 1 to 5 minutes, according to the grade of coffee being treated. +The value of this method is somewhat doubtful, as it would not seem to +accomplish any more than simple washing. In fact, if anything, the +process is undesirable; as some of the extractive matters present in the +coffee, and particularly caffein, will be lost. Both Freund<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> and +Harnack<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> hold briefs for the product produced by this method, and +the latter endeavors analytically to prove its merits; but as his +experimental data are questionable, his conclusions do not carry much +weight.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>The Acids of Coffee</i></p> + +<p>The study of the acids of coffee has been productive of much controversy +and many contradictory results, few of which possess any value. The acid +of coffee is generally spoken of as "caffetannic acid." Quite a few +attempts have been made to determine the composition and structure of +this compound and to assign it a formula. Among them may be noted those +of Allen,<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> who gives it the empirical formula C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>16</sub>O<sub>7</sub>; +Hlasiwetz,<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> who represents it as C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>18</sub>O<sub>8</sub>; Richter, as +C<sub>30</sub>H<sub>18</sub>O<sub>16</sub>; Griebel,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> as C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>24</sub>O<sub>10</sub>, and Cazeneuve +and Haddon,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> as C<sub>21</sub>H<sub>28</sub>O<sub>14</sub>. It is variously supposed to +exist in coffee as the potassium, calcium, or magnesium salt. In regard +to the physical appearance of the isolated substance there is also some +doubt, Thorpe<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> describing it as an amorphous powder, and Howard<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> +as a brownish, syrup-like mass, having a slight acid and astringent +taste.</p> + +<p>The chemical reactions of "caffetannic acid" are generally agreed upon. +A dark green coloration is given with ferric chloride; and upon boiling +it with alkalies or dilute acids, caffeic acid and glucose are formed. +Fusion with alkali produces protocatechuic acid.</p> + +<p>K. Gorter<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> has made an extensive and accurate investigation into the +matter, and in reporting upon the same has made some very pertinent +observations. His claim is that the name "caffetannic acid" is a +misnomer and should be abandoned. The so-called "caffetannic acid" is +really a mixture which has among its constituents chlorogenic acid +(C<sub>32</sub>H<sub>38</sub>O<sub>19</sub>), which is not a tannic acid, and coffalic acid. +Tatlock and Thompson<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> have expressed the opinion that roasted coffee +contains no tannin, and that the lead precipitate contains mostly +coloring matter. They found only 4.5 percent of tannin (precipitable by +gelatin or alkaloids) in raw coffee.</p> + +<p>Hanausek<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> demonstrated the presence of oxalic acid in unripe beans, +and citric acid has been isolated from Liberian coffee. It also has been +claimed that viridic acid, C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>11</sub>, is present in coffee. In +addition to these, the fat of coffee contains a certain percentage of +free fatty acids.</p> + +<p>It is thus apparent that even in green coffee there is no definite +compound "caffetannic acid," and there is even less likelihood of its +being present in roasted coffee. The conditions, high heat and +oxidation, to which coffee is subjected in roasting would suffice to +decompose this hypothetical acid if it were present.</p> + +<p>In the method of analysis for caffetannic acid (No. 24) given at the end +of this chapter, there are many chances of error, although this +procedure is the best yet devised. Lead acetate forms three different +compounds with "caffetannic acid," so that this reagent must be added +with extreme care in order to precipitate the compound desired. The +precipitate, upon forming, mechanically carries down with it any fats +which may be present, and which are removed from it only with +difficulty. The majority of the mineral salts in the solution will come +down simultaneously. All of the above-mentioned organic acids form +insoluble salts with lead acetate, and there will also be a tendency +toward precipitation of certain of the components of caramel, the acidic +polymerization products of acrolein, glycerol, etc., and of the proteins +and their decomposition products.</p> + +<p>In view of this condition of uncertainty in composition, necessity for +great care in manipulation, and ever-present danger of contamination, +the significance of "caffetannic acid analysis" fades. It is highly +desirable that the nomenclature relevant to this analytical procedure be +changed to one, such as "lead number," which will be more truly +indicative of its significance.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Alkaloids of Coffee</i></p> + +<p>In addition to caffein, the main alkaloid of coffee, trigonellin—the +methylbetaine of nicotinic acid—sometimes known as caffearine, has been +isolated from coffee.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> This alkaloid, having the formula +C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>16</sub>O<sub>4</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, is also found in fenugreek, <i>Trigonella +fœnum-græcum</i>, in various leguminous plants, and in the seeds of +strophanthus. When pure it forms colorless needles melting at 140° C., +and, as with all alkaloids, gives a weak basic reaction. It is very +soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, and only very slightly +soluble in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> ether, chloroform or benzol, so that it does not contaminate +the caffein in the determination of the latter. Its effects on the body +have not been studied, but they are probably not very great, as +Polstorff obtained only 0.23 percent from the coffee which he examined.</p> + +<p>Caffein, thein, trimethylxanthin, or C<sub>5</sub>H(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, in +addition to being in the coffee bean is also found in guarana leaves, +the kola nut, maté, or Paraguay tea, and, in small quantities, in cocoa. +It is also found in other parts of these plants besides those commonly +used for food purposes.</p> + +<p>A neat test for detecting the presence of caffein is that of A. +Viehoever,<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> in which the caffein is sublimed directly from the plant +tissue in a special apparatus. The presence of caffein in the sublimate +is verified by observing its melting point, determined on a special +heating stage used in connection with a microscope.</p> + +<p>The chief commercial source of this alkaloid is waste and damaged tea, +from which it is prepared by extraction with boiling water, the tannin +precipitated from the solution with litharge, and the solution then +concentrated to crystallize out the caffein. It is further purified by +sublimation or recrystallization from water. Coffee chaff and +roaster-flue dust have been proposed as sources for medicinal caffein, +but the extraction of the alkaloid from the former has not proven to be +a commercial success. Several manufacturers of pharmaceuticals are now +extracting caffein from roaster-flue dust, probably by an adaptation of +the Faunce<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> process. The recovery of caffein from roaster-flue gases +may be facilitated and increased by the use of a condenser such as +proposed Ewé.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p> + +<p>Pure caffein forms long, white, silky, flexible needles, which readily +felt together to form light, fleecy masses. It melts at 235–7° C. and +sublimes completely at 178° C., though the sublimation starts at 120°. +Salts of an unstable nature are formed with caffein by most acids. The +solubility of caffein as determined by Seidell<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> is given in Table I.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" width="50%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="The Solubility of Caffein"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Table I—The Solubility of Caffein</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'><small>Solvent</small></td> + <td align='center'><small>Sp. Gr. of<br />Solvent</small></td> + <td align='center'><small>Temperature<br /> of Solution</small></td> + <td align='center'><small>Solubility:<br />Grm. Caffein<br />per 100<br />Grm. of<br />Saturated<br />Solution</small></td> + <td align='center'><small>Sp. Gr. of<br />Saturated<br />Solution</small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Water</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.997</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>25</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.14</td> + <td align='center'>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ether</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.716</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>25</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.27</td> + <td align='center'>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Chloroform</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.476</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>25</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>11.0</td> + <td align='center'>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Acetone</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.809</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>30–1</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.18</td> + <td align='center'>0.832</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Benzene</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.872</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>30–1</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.22</td> + <td align='center'>0.875</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Benzaldehyde</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.055</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>30–1</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>11.62</td> + <td align='center'>1.087</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Amylacetate</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.860</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>30–1</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.72</td> + <td align='center'>0.862</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aniline</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.02</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>30–1</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>22.89</td> + <td align='center'>1.080</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Amyl alcohol</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.814</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>25</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.49</td> + <td align='center'>0.810</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Acetic acid</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.055</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>21.5</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.44</td> + <td align='center'>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Xylene</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.847</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>32.5</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.11</td> + <td align='center'>0.847</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Toluene</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>0.862</td> + <td class='tdlpl3'>25</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.57</td> + <td align='center'>0.861</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The similarity between caffein and theobromin (the chief alkaloid of +cocoa), xanthin (one of the constituents of meat), and uric acid, is +shown by the accompanying structural formulæ.</p> + +<p>These formulæ show merely the relative position occupied by caffein in +the purin group, and do not in any wise indicate, because of its +similarity of structure to the other compounds, that it has the same +physiological action. The presence and position of the methyl groups +(CH<sub>3</sub>) in caffein is probably the controlling factor which makes its +action differ from the behavior of other members of the series. The +structure of these compounds was established, and their syntheses +accomplished, in the course of various classic researches by Emil +Fischer.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Formula_for_Caffein_Showing_Its_Relation_to_the_Purin_Group" id="Formula_for_Caffein_Showing_Its_Relation_to_the_Purin_Group"></a> +<img src="images/diagram1.jpg" width="500" height="125" alt="Formula for Caffein, Showing Its Relation to the Purin Group" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Formula for Caffein, Showing Its Relation to the Purin Group</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Gorter states that caffein exists in coffee in combination with +chlorogenic acid as a potassium chlorogenate, C<sub>32</sub>H<sub>36</sub>O<sub>19</sub>, +K<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>2</sub>N<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O, which he isolated in colorless +prisms. This compound is water-soluble, but caffein can not be extracted +from the crystals with anhydrous solvents. To this behavior can probably +be attributed the difficulty experienced in extracting caffein from +coffee with dry organic solvents. However, the fact that a small +percentage can be extracted from the green bean in this manner indicates +that some of the caffein content exists therein in a free state. This +acid compound of caffein will be largely decomposed during the process +of torrefaction, so that in roasted coffee a larger percentage will be +present in the free state. Microscopical examination of the roasted bean +lends verisimilitude to this contention.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_BRITISH_INDIA" id="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_BRITISH_INDIA"></a> +<img src="images/plate6a.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="Planter's Bungalow with Coffee Trees in Flower, Mysore" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Planter's Bungalow with Coffee Trees in Flower, Mysore</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/plate6b.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="Coolies Bagging Coffee on the Drying Grounds" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coolies Bagging Coffee on the Drying Grounds</span><br /> +COFFEE SCENES IN BRITISH INDIA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Coffee Analyses"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='9'><span class="smcap">Table II—Coffee Analyses</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class="tr1"> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'>Santos<br />Green</td> + <td align='center'>Santos<br />Roasted</td> + <td align='center'>Padang<br />Green</td> + <td align='center'>Padang<br />Roasted</td> + <td align='center'>Guatemala<br />Green</td> + <td align='center'>Guatemala<br />Roasted</td> + <td align='center'>Mocha<br />Green</td> + <td align='center'>Mocha<br />Roasted</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'>Moisture April 20th</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8.75</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>3.75</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8.78</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.72</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>9.59</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>3.40</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>9.06</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>3.36</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Moisture September 20th</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8.12</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>6.45</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8.05</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>6.03</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8.68</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>6.92</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8.15</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>7.10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ash</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>4.41</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>4.49</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>4.23</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>4.70</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>3.93</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>4.48</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>4.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>4.43</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Oil</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>12.96</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>13.76</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>12.28</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>13.33</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>12.42</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>13.07</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>14.04</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>14.18</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Caffein</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.87</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.81</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.56</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.47</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.26</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.22</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.31</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.28</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Caffein, dry basis</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.03</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.69</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.39</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.44</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Crude fiber</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>20.70</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>14.75</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>21.92</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>14.95</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>22.23</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>15.23</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>22.46</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>15.41</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Protein</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>9.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>12.93</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>12.62</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>14.75</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>10.43</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>11.69</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8.56</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>9.57</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Protein, dry basis</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>10.41</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>13.68</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>11.53</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>9.41</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Water extract</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>31.11</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>30.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>30.83</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>30.21</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>31.04</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>30.47</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>31.27</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>30.44</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Specific gravity, 10 percent extract</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0109</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0101</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0107</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0104</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0105</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0404</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0108</td> + <td align='right'> 1.0108</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bushelweight</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>47.0</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>28.2</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>45.2</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>27.8</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>52.2</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>27.2</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>48.8</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>30.2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1,000 kernel weight</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>103.60</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>120.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>167.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>151.35</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>189.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>165.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>119.52</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>100.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1,000 kernel weight, dry basis</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>119.1</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>115.7</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>154.1</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>147.2</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>171.0</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>160.1</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>108.6</td> + <td class='tdrpr25'>96.6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dextrose</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.72</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.81</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.54</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>0.46</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Caffetannic acid</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>.58</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>17.44</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>15.37</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>16.93</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>16.27</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>17.13</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>15.61</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>16.89</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Acidity by titration apparent</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.08</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.47</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.39</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.13</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.11</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.87</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>As may be seen in Table II,<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> the caffein content of coffee varies +with the different kinds, a fair average of the caffein content being +about 1.5 percent for <i>C. arabica</i>, to which class most of our coffees +belong. However, aside from these may be mentioned <i>C. canephora</i>, which +yields 1.97 percent caffein; <i>C. mauritiana</i>, which contains 0.07 +percent of the alkaloid (less than the average "caffein-free coffee"); +and <i>C. humboltiana</i>, which contains no caffein, but a bitter principle, +cafemarin. Neither do the berries of <i>C. Gallienii</i>, <i>C. Bonnieri</i>, or +<i>C. Mogeneti</i> contain any caffein; and there has also been reported<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> +a "Congo coffee" which contained no crystallizable alkaloid whatever.</p> + +<p>Apparently the variation in caffein content is largely due to the genus +of the tree from which the berry comes, but it is also quite probable +that the nature of the soil and climatic conditions play an important +part. In the light of what has been accomplished in the field of +agricultural research, it does not seem improbable that a man of +Burbank's ability and foresight could successfully develop a series of +coffees possessed of all the cup qualities inherent in those now used, +but totally devoid of caffein. Whether this is desirable or not is a +question to be considered in an entirely different light from the +possibility of its accomplishment.</p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" width="30%" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Caffein in Different Roasts"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Table III—Caffein in Different Roasts</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'>Rio</td> + <td align='center'>Santos</td> + <td align='center'>Guatemala</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Green</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.68%</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.85%</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.82%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cinnamon</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.70</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.72</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.80</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Medium</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.66</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.66</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.56</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>City</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.36</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.66</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1.46</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>The variation in the caffein content of coffee at different intensities +of roasting, as shown in Table III<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> is, of course, primarily +dependent upon the original content of the green. A considerable portion +of the caffein is sublimed off during roasting, thus decreasing the +amount in the bean. The higher the roast is carried, the greater the +shrinkage; but, as the analyses in the above table show, the loss of +caffein proceeds out of proportion to the shrinkage, for the percentage +of caffein constantly decreases with the increase in color. If the roast +be carried almost to the point of carbonization, as in the case of the +"Italian roast," the caffein content will be almost nil. This is not a +suitable coffee for one desiring an almost caffein-free drink, for the +empyreumatic products produced by this excessive roasting will be more +toxic by far than the caffein itself would have been.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Caffein-free Coffee</i></p> + +<p>The demand for a caffein-free coffee may be attributed to two causes, +namely: the objectionable effect which caffein has upon neurasthenics; +and the questionable advertising of the "coffee-substitute" dealers, who +have by this means persuaded many normal persons into believing that +they are decidedly sub-normal. As a result of this demand, a variety of +decaffeinated coffees<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> have been placed on the market. Just why the +coffee men have not taken advantage of naturally caffein-free coffees, +or of the possibility of obtaining coffees low in caffein content by +chemical selection from the lines now used, is a difficult question to +answer.</p> + +<p>In the endeavor to develop a commercial decaffeinated coffee the first +method of procedure was to extract the caffein from roasted coffee. This +method had its advantages and its disadvantages, of which the latter +predominated. The caffein in the roasted coffee is not as tightly bound +chemically as in the green coffee, and is, therefore, more easily +extracted. Also, the structure of the roasted bean renders it more +readily penetrable by solvents than does that of the green bean. +However, the great objection to this method arises from the fact that at +the same time as the caffein is extracted, the volatile aromatic and +flavoring constituents of the coffee are removed also. These substances, +which are essential for the maintenance of quality by the coffee, though +readily separated from the caffein, can not be returned to the roasted +bean with any degree of certainty. This virtually insurmountable +obstacle forced the abandonment of this mode of attack.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid this action, the attention of investigators was +directed to extraction of the alkaloid in question from the green bean. +Because of the difficulty of causing the solvent to penetrate the bean, +recourse to grinding resulted. This greatly facilitated the desired +extraction, but a difficulty was encountered when the subsequent +roasting was attempted. The irregular and broken character of the ground +green beans resisted all attempts to produce practically a uniformly +roasted, highly aromatic product from the ground material.</p> + +<p>Avoidance of this lack of uniformity in the product, and the great +desirability to duplicate the normal bean as far as possible, +necessitated the development of a method of extraction of the caffein +from the whole raw bean without a permanent alteration of the shape +thereof. The close structure of the green bean, and its consequent +resistance to penetration by solvents, and the existence of the caffein +in the bean as an acid salt, which is not easily soluble, offered +resistance to successful extraction.</p> + +<p>As a means of overcoming the difficulty of structure, the beans were +allowed to stand in water in order to swell, or the cells were expanded +by treatment with steam, or the beans were subjected to the action of +some "cellulose-softening acids," such as acetic acid or sulphur dioxid. +As a method of facilitating the mechanical side of extraction without +deleterious effects, the treatment of the coffee with steam under +pressure, as utilized in the patented process of Myer, Roselius, and +Wimmer,<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> is probably the safest.</p> + +<p>Many ingenious methods have been devised for the ready removal of the +caffein from this point on. Several processes employ an alkali, such as +ammonium hydroxid, to free the caffein from the acid; or an acid, such +as acetic, hydrochloric, or sulphurous, is used to form a more soluble +salt of caffein. Other procedures effect the dissociation of the +caffein-acid salt by dampening or immersion in a liquid and subjecting +the mass to the action of an electric current.</p> + +<p>The caffein is usually extracted from the beans by benzol or chloroform, +but a variety of solvents may be employed, such as petrolic ether, +water, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, ethylene chloride, acetone, ethyl +ether, or mixtures or emulsions of these. After extraction, the beans +may be steam distilled to remove and to recover any residual traces of +solvent, and then dried and roasted. It is said<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> that by heating the +beans before bringing them into contact with steam, not only is an +economy of steam effected, but the quality of the resultant product is +improved.</p> + +<p>One clever but expensive method<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> of preparing caffein-free coffee +consists in heating the beans under pressure, with some substance, such +as sodium salicylate, with the resultant formation of a more soluble and +more easily steam-distillable compound of caffein. The beans are then +steam distilled to remove the caffein, dried, and roasted.</p> + +<p>Another process of peculiar interest is that of Hubner,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> in which +the coffee beans are well washed and then spread in layers and kept +covered with water at 15° C. until limited germination has taken place, +whereupon the beans are removed and the caffein extracted with water at +50° C. It is claimed by the inventor that sprouting serves to remove +some of the caffein, but it is quite probable that the process does +nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> more than accomplish simple aqueous extraction.</p> + +<p>In the majority of these processes the flavor of the resultant product +should be very similar to natural roasted coffee. However, in the cases +where aqueous extraction is employed, other substances besides caffein +are removed that are replaced in the bean only with difficulty. The +resultant product accordingly is very likely to have a flavor not +entirely natural. On the other hand, beans from which the caffein is +extracted with volatile solvents, if the operation be conducted +carefully, should give a natural-tasting roast. Any residual traces of +the solvent left in the bean are volatilized upon roasting.</p> + +<p>Some of the caffein-free coffees on the market show upon analysis almost +as much caffein as the natural bean. Those manufactured by reliable +concerns, however, are virtually caffein-free, their content of the +alkaloid varying from 0.3 to 0.07 percent as opposed to 1.5 percent in +the untreated coffee. Thus, although actually only caffein-poor, in +order to get the reaction of one cup of ordinary coffee one would have +to drink an unusual amount of the brew made from these coffees.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Aromatic Principles of Coffee</i></p> + +<p>To ascertain just what substance or substances give the pleasing and +characteristic aroma to coffee has long been the great desire of both +practical and scientific men interested in the coffee business. This +elusive material has been variously called caffeol, caffeone, "the +essential oil of coffee," etc., the terms having acquired an ambiguous +and incorrect significance. It is now generally agreed that the aromatic +constituent of coffee is not an essential oil, but a complex of +compounds which usage has caused to be collectively called "caffeol."</p> + +<p>These substances are not present in the green bean, but are produced +during the process of roasting. Attempts at identification and location +of origin have been numerous; and although not conclusive, still have +not proven entirely futile. One of the first observations along this +line was that of Benjamin Thompson in 1812. "This fragrance of coffee is +certainly owing to the escape of a volatile aromatic substance which did +not originally exist as such in the grain, but which is formed in the +process of roasting it." Later, Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell started +on the way to the identification of this aroma by noting that "in common +with all the valuable constituents of coffee, caffeone is found to come +from the soluble portion of the roasted seed."<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p> + +<p>Comparison of the aroma given off by coffee during the roasting process +with that of fresh-ground roasted coffee shows that the two aromas, +although somewhat different, may be attributed to the same substances +present in different proportions in the two cases. Recovery and +identification of the aromatic principles escaping from the roaster +would go far toward answering the question regarding the nature of the +aroma. Bernheimer<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> reported water, caffein, caffeol, acetic acid, +quinol, methylamin, acetone, fatty acids and pyrrol in the distillate +coming from roasting coffee. The caffeol obtained by Bernheimer in this +work was believed by him to be a methyl derivative of saligenin. +Jaeckle<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> examined a similar product and found considerable +quantities of caffein, furfurol, and acetic acid, together with small +amounts of acetone, ammonia, trimethylamin, and formic acid. The caffeol +of Bernheimer could not be detected. Another substance was separated +also, but in too small a quantity to permit complete identification. +This substance consisted of colorless crystals, which readily sublimed, +melted at 115° to 117° C., and contained sulphur. The crystals were +insoluble in water, almost insoluble in alcohol, but readily soluble in +ether.</p> + +<p>By distilling roasted coffee with superheated steam, Erdmann<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> +obtained an oil consisting of an indifferent portion of 58 percent and +an acid portion of 42 percent, consisting mainly of a valeric acid, +probably alphamethylbutyric acid. The indifferent portion was found to +contain about 50 percent furfuryl alcohol, together with a number of +phenols. The fraction containing the characteristic odorous constituent +of coffee boiled at 93° C. under 13 mm. pressure. The yield of this +latter principle was extremely small, only about 0.89 gram being +procured from 65 kilos of coffee.</p> + +<p>Pyridin was also shown to be present in coffee by Betrand and +Weisweiller<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> and by Sayre.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> As high as 200 to 500 milligrams<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> of +this toxic compound have been obtained from 1 kilogram of freshly +roasted coffee.</p> + +<p>As stated above, the empyreumatic volatile aromatic constituents of the +coffee are without question formed during and by the roasting process. +According to Thorpe,<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> the most favorable temperature for development +of coffee odor and flavor is about 200° C. Erdmann claimed to have +produced caffeol by gently heating together caffetannic acid, caffein, +and cane sugar. Other investigators have been unable to duplicate this +work. Another authority,<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> giving it the empirical formula +C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, states that it is produced during roasting, probably +at the expense of a portion of the caffein. These conceptions are in the +main incomplete and inaccurate.</p> + +<p>By means of careful work, Grafe<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> came closer to ascertaining the +origin of the fugacious aromatic materials. His work with normal, +caffein-free coffee and with Thum's purified coffee led him to state +that a part of these substances was derived from the crude fiber, +probably from the hemi-cellulose of the thick endosperm cells. +Sayre<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> makes the most plausible proposal regarding the origin of +caffeol. He considers the roasting of coffee as a destructive +distillation process, summarizing the results, briefly, as the +production of furfuraldehyde from the carbohydrates, acrolein from the +fats, catechol and pyrogallol from the tannins, and ammonia, amins, and +pyrrols from the proteins. The products of roasting inter-react to +produce many compounds of varying degrees of complexity and toxicity.</p> + +<p>The great difficulty which arises in the attempt to identify the +aromatic constituents of coffee is that the caffeols of no two coffees +may be said to be the same. The reason for this is apparent; for the +green coffees themselves vary in composition, and those of the same +constitution are not roasted under identical conditions. Therefore, it +is not to be expected that the decomposition products formed by the +action of the different greens would be the same. Also, these volatile +products occur in the roasted coffee in such a small amount that the +ascertaining of their percentage relationship and the recognition of all +that are present are not possible with the methods of analysis at +present at our disposal. Until better analytical procedures have been +developed we can not hope to establish a chemical basis for the grading +of coffees from this standpoint.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Oil and Fat</i></p> + +<p>It is well to distinguish between the "coffee oils," as they are termed +by the trade, and true coffee oil. In speaking of the qualities of +coffee, connoisseurs frequently use erroneous terms, particularly when +they designate certain of the flavoring and aromatic constituents of +coffee as "oils" or "essential oils." Coffee does not contain any +essential oils, the aromatic constituent corresponding to essential oil +in coffee being caffeol, a complex which is water-soluble, a property +not possessed by any true oil. True, the oil when isolated from roasted +coffee does possess, before purification, considerable of the aromatic +and flavoring constituents of coffee. They are, however, no part of the +coffee fat, but are held in it no doubt by an enfleurage action in much +the same way that perfumes of roses, etc., are absorbed and retained by +fats and oils in the commercial preparation of pomades and perfumes. +This affinity of the coffee oil for caffeol assists in the retention of +aromatic substances by the whole roasted bean. However, upon extraction +of ground roasted coffee with water, the caffeol shows a preferential +solubility in water, and is dissolved out from the oil, going into the +brew.</p> + +<p>The true oil of coffee has been investigated to a fair degree and has +been found to be inodorous when purified. Analysis of green and roasted +coffees shows them to possess between 12 percent and 20 percent fat. +Warnier<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> extracted ground unroasted coffee with petroleum ether, +washed the extract with water, and distilled off the solvent, obtaining +a yellow-brownish oil possessing a sharp taste. From his examination of +this oil he reported these constants: d<sub>24–5</sub>, 0.942; refraction at +25°, 81.5; solidifying point, 6° to 5°; melting point, 8° to 9°; +saponification number, 177.5; esterification number, 166.7; acid number, +6.2; acetyl number, 0; iodin number, 84.5 to 86.3. Meyer and Eckert<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> +carefully purified coffee oil and saponified it with Li<sub>2</sub>O in alcohol. +In the saponifiable portion, glycerol was the only alcohol present, the +acids being carnaubic, 10 percent; daturinic acid, 1 to 1.5 percent; +palmitic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> acid, 25 to 28 percent; capric acid, 0.5 percent; oleic acid, +2 percent, and linoleic acid, 50 percent. The unsaponifiable wax +amounted to 21.2 percent, was nitrogen-free, gave a phytostearin +reaction, and saponification and oxidation indicated that it was +probably a tannol carnaubate. Von-Bitto<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> examined the fat extracted +from the inner husk of the coffee berry and found it to be faint yellow +in color, and to solidify only gradually after melting. Upon analysis, +it showed: saponification value, 141.2; palmitic acid, 37.84 percent, +and glycerids as tripalmitin, 28.03 percent.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Carbohydrates of the Coffee Berry</i></p> + +<p>There has been considerable diversity of opinion regarding the sugar of +coffee. Bell believed the sugar to be of a peculiar species allied to +melezitose, but Ewell,<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> G.L. Spencer, and others definitely proved +the presence of sucrose in coffee. In fat-free coffee 6 percent of +sucrose was found extractable by 70 percent alcohol. Baker<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> claimed +that manno-arabinose, or manno-xylose, formed one of the most important +constituents of the coffee-berry substance and yielded mannose on +hydrolysis. Schultze and Maxwell state that raw coffee contains +galactan, mannan, and pentosans, the latter present to the extent of 5 +percent in raw and 3 percent in roasted coffee. By distilling coffee +with hydrochloric acid Ewell obtained furfurol equivalent to 9 percent +pentose. He also obtained a gummy substance which, on hydrolysis, gave +rise to a reducing sugar; and as it gave mucic acid and furfurol on +oxidation, he concluded that it was a compound of pentose and galactose. +In undressed Mysore coffee Commaille<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> found 2.6 percent of glucose +and no dextrin. This claim of the presence of glucose in coffee was +substantiated by the work of Hlasiwetz,<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> who resolved a caffetannic +acid, which he had isolated, into glucose and a peculiar crystallizable +acid, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, which he named caffeic acid.</p> + +<p>The starch content of coffee is very low. Cereals may readily be +detected and identified in coffee mixtures by the presence and +characteristics of their starch, in view of the fact that coffee +(chicory, too) is practically free from starch. On this score it is +inadvisable for diabetics to use any of the many cereal substitutes for +coffee. It is pertinent to note in this connection that persons +suffering from diabetes may sweeten their coffee with saccharin (<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> to +1 grain per cup) or glycerol, thus obtaining perfect satisfaction +without endangering their health.</p> + +<p>The cellulose in coffee is of a very hard and horny character in the +green bean, but it is made softer and more brittle during the process of +roasting. It is rather difficult to define under the microscope, +particularly after roasting, even though the chief characteristics of +the cellular tissue are more or less retained. Coffee cellulose gives a +blue color with sulphuric acid and iodin, and is dissolved by an +ammoniacal solution of copper oxid. Even after roasting, remnants of the +silver skin are always present, the structure of which, a thin membrane +with adherent, thick-walled, spindle-shaped, hollow cells, is peculiar +to coffee.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Chemistry of Roasting</i></p> + +<p>The effect of the heat in the roasting of coffee is largely evidenced as +a destructive distillation and also as a partial dehydration. At the +same time, oxidizing and reducing reactions probably occur within the +bean, as well as some polymerization and inter-reactions.</p> + +<p>A loss of water is to be expected as the natural outcome of the +application of heat; and analyses show that the moisture content of raw +coffee varies from 8 to 14 percent, while after roasting it rarely +exceeds 3 percent, and frequently falls as low as 0.5 percent. The loss +of the original water content of the green bean is not the only moisture +loss; for many of the constituents of coffee, notably the carbohydrates, +are decomposed upon heating to give off water, so that analysis before +and after roasting is no direct indication of the exact amount of water +driven off in the process. If it be desired to ascertain this quantity +accurately, catching of the products which are driven off and +determination of their water content becomes necessary.</p> + +<p>The carbohydrates both dehydrate and decompose. The result of the +dehydration is the formation of caramel and related products, which +comprise the principal coloring matters in coffee infusion. That portion +of the carbohydrates known as pentosans gives rise to furfuraldehyde, +one of the important components of caffeol.</p> + +<p>The effect of roasting upon the fat content of the beans is to reduce +its actual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> weight, but not to change appreciably the percentage +present, since the decrease in quantity keeps pace fairly well with the +shrinkage. Some of the more volatile fatty acids are driven off, and the +fats break down to give a larger percentage of free fatty acids, some +light esters, acrolein, and formic acid. If the roast be a very heavy +one, or is brought up too rapidly, the fat will come to the surface, +through breaking of the fat cells, with a decided alteration in the +chemical nature of the fat and with pronounced expansion and cracking.</p> + +<p>Decomposition of the caffein acid-salt and considerable sublimation of +the caffein also occur. The majority of the caffein undergoes this +volatilization unchanged, but a portion of it is probably oxidized with +the formation of ammonia, methylamin, di-methylparabanic acid, and +carbon dioxid. This reaction partly explains why the amount of caffein +recovered from the roaster flues is not commensurate with the amount +lost from the roasting coffee; although incomplete condensation is also +an important factor. Microscopic examination of the roasted beans will +show occasional small crystals of caffein in the indentations on the +surface, where they have been deposited during the cooling process.</p> + +<p>The compound, or compounds, known as "caffetannic acid" are probably the +source of catechol, as the proteins are of ammonia, amins, and pyrrols. +The crude fiber and other unnamed constituents of the raw beans react +analogously to similar compounds in the destructive distillation of +wood, giving rise to acetone, various fatty acids, carbon dioxid and +other uncondensable gases, and many compounds of unknown identity.</p> + +<p>During the course of roasting and subsequent cooling these decomposition +products probably interact and polymerize to form aromatic tar-like +materials and other complexes which play an important rôle among the +delicate flavors of coffee. In fact, it is not unlikely that these +reactions continue throughout the storage time after roasting, and that +upon them the deterioration of roasted coffee is largely dependent. +Speculation upon what complex compounds are thus formed offers much +attraction. A notable one by Sayre<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> postulates the reaction between +acrolein and ammonia to give methyl pyridin, which in turn with furfurol +forms furfurol vinyl pyridin. This upon reduction would produce the +alkaloid, conin, traces of which have been found in coffee.</p> + +<p>Although furfuraldehyde is the natural decomposition product of +pentosans, furfuryl alcohol is the main furane body of coffee aroma. +This would indicate that active reducing conditions prevail within the +bean during roasting; and the further fact that carbon monoxid is given +off during roasting makes this seem quite probable. If one admits that +caffetannic acid exists in the green bean; that upon oxidation it gives +viridic acid; and that it is concentrated in the outer layers of the +bean, as certain investigators have claimed, then there is chemical +proof of the existence of oxidizing conditions about the exterior of the +bean. In any event, however, the fact that oxidizing conditions +predominate on the external portion of the bean is obvious. Accordingly, +our meager knowledge of the chemistry of roasting indicates that while +the external layers of the roasting beans are subjected to oxidizing +conditions, reducing ones exist in the interior. Future experimentation +will, no doubt, prove this to be the case.</p> + +<p>Attempts have been made to retain in the beans the volatile products, +which normally escape, both by coating previous to roasting<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> and by +conducting the process under pressure.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> However, the results so +obtained were not practical, since the cup values were decreased in the +majority of cases, and the physiological effects produced were +undesirable. In cases where the quality was improved, the gain was not +sufficient to recompense the roaster for the additional expense and +difficulty of operation.</p> + +<p>Various persons have essayed to control the roasting process +automatically; but the extreme variance in composition of different +coffees, the effect of changing atmospheric conditions, and the lack of +constancy in the calorific power of fuels have conspired to defeat the +automatic roasting machine.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> It is even doubtful whether De +Mattia's<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> process for roasting until the vapors evolved produce a +violet color when passed into a solution of fuchsin decolorized with +sulphur dioxid is commercially reliable.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p><p>Many patents have been granted for the treatment of coffees immediately +prior to or during roasting with the object of thus improving the +product. The majority of these depend upon adding solutions of +sugar,<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> calcium saccharate,<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> or other carbohydrates,<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> and in +the case of Eckhardt,<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> of small percentages of tannic acid and fat. +In direct opposition to this latter practise, Jurgens and Westphal<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> +apply alkali, ostensibly to lessen the "tannic acid" content. +Brougier<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> sprays a solution containing caffein upon the roasting +berries; and Potter<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> roasts the coffee together with chicory, +effecting a separation at the end.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Ground_Coffee_Under_the_Microscope" id="Ground_Coffee_Under_the_Microscope"></a> +<img src="images/image135.jpg" width="300" height="289" alt="Ground Coffee Under the Microscope" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ground Coffee Under the Microscope</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The exact effect which roasting with sugars has upon the flavor is not +well understood; but it is known that it causes the beans to absorb more +moisture, due to the hygroscopicity of the caramel formed. For instance, +berries roasted with the addition of glucose syrup hold an additional 7 +percent of water and give a darker infusion than normally roasted +coffee. When the green coffee is glazed with cane sugar prior to +roasting, the losses during the process are much higher than ordinarily, +on account of the higher temperature required to attain the desired +results. Losses for ordinary coffee taken to a 16-percent roast are 9.7 +percent of the original fat and 21.1 percent of the original caffein; +while for "sugar glazed" coffee the losses were 18.3 percent of the +original fat and 44.3 percent of the original caffein, using 8 to 9 +percent sugar with Java coffee.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Grinding and Packaging</i></p> + +<p>It is a curious fact that green coffee improves upon aging, whereas +after roasting it deteriorates with time. Even when packed in the best +containers, age shows to a disadvantage on the roasted bean. This is due +to a number of causes, among which are oxidation, volatilization of the +aroma, absorption of moisture and consequent hydrolysis, and alteration +in the character of the aromatic principles. Doolittle and Wright<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a> +in the course of some extensive experiments found that roasted coffee +showed a continual gain in weight throughout 60 weeks, this gain being +mostly due to moisture absorption. An investigation by Gould<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> also +demonstrated that roasted coffee gives off carbon dioxid and carbon +monoxid upon standing. The latter, apparently produced during roasting +and retained by the cellular structure of the bean, diffuses therefrom; +whereas the former comes from an ante-roasting decomposition of unstable +compounds present.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p> + +<p>The surface of the whole bean forms a natural protection against +atmospheric influences, and as soon as this is broken, deterioration +sets in. On this account, coffee should be ground immediately before +extraction if maximum efficiency is to be obtained. The cells of the +beans tend to retain the fugacious aromatic principles to a certain +extent; so that the more of these which are broken in grinding, the +greater will be the initial loss and the more rapid the vitiation of the +coffee. It might, therefore, seem desirable to grind coarsely in order +to avoid this as much as possible. However, the coarser the grind, the +slower and more incomplete will be the extraction. A patent<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a> has +been granted for a grind which contains about 90 percent fine coffee and +10 percent coarse, the patentee's claim being that in his "irregular +grind" the coarse coffee retains enough of the volatile constituents to +flavor the beverage, while the fine coffee gives a very high +extraction,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> thus giving an efficient brew without sacrificing +individuality.</p> + +<p>In packaging roasted coffee the whole bean is naturally the best form to +employ, but if the coffee is ground first, King<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> found that +deterioration is most rapid with the coarse ground coffee, the speed +decreasing with the size of the ground particles. He explains this on +the ground of "ventilation"—the finer the grind, the closer the +particles pack together, the less the circulation of air through the +mass, and the smaller the amount of aroma which is carried away. He also +found that glass makes the best container for coffee, with the tin can, +and the foil-lined bag with an inner lining of glassine, not greatly +inferior.</p> + +<p>Considerable publicity has been given recently to the method of packing +coffee in a sealed tin under reduced pressure. While thus packing in a +partial vacuum undoubtedly retards oxidation and precludes escape of +aroma from the original package, it would seem likely to hasten the +initial volatilizing of the aroma. Also, it would appear from +Gould's<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> work that roasted coffee evolves carbon dioxid until a +certain positive pressure is attained, regardless of the initial +pressure in the container. Accordingly, vacuum-packing apparently +enhances decomposition of certain constituents of coffee. Whether this +result is beneficial or otherwise is not quite clear.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Brewing</i></p> + +<p>The old-time boiling method of making coffee has gone out of style, +because the average consumer is becoming aware of the fact that it does +not give a drink of maximum efficiency. Boiling the ground coffee with +water results in a large loss of aromatic principles by steam +distillation, a partial hydrolysis of insoluble portions of the grounds, +and a subsequent extraction of the products thus formed, which give a +bitter flavor to the beverage. Also, the maintenance of a high +temperature by the direct application of heat has a deleterious effect +upon the substances in solution. This is also true in the case of the +pumping percolator, and any other device wherein the solution is caused +to pass directly into steam at the point where heat is applied. Warm and +cold water extract about the same amount of material from coffee; but +with different rates of speed, an increase in temperature decreasing the +time necessary to effect the desired result.</p> + +<p>It is a well known fact that re-warming a coffee brew has an undesirable +effect upon it. This is very probably due to the precipitation of some +of the water-soluble proteins when the solution cools, and their +subsequent decomposition when heat is applied directly to them in +reheating the solution. The absorption of air by the solution upon +cooling, with attendant oxidation, which is accentuated by the +application of heat in re-warming, must also be considered. It is +likewise probable that when an extract of coffee cools upon standing, +some of the aromatic principles separate out and are lost by +volatilization.</p> + +<p>The method of extracting coffee which gives the most satisfaction is +practised by using a grind just coarse enough to retain the +individualistic flavoring components, retaining the ground coffee in a +fine cloth bag, as in the urn system, or on a filter paper, as in the +Tricolator, and pouring water at boiling temperature over the coffee. +During the extraction, a top should be kept on the device to minimize +volatilization, and the temperature of the extract should be maintained +constant at about 200° F. after being made. Whether a repouring is +necessary or not is dependent upon the speed with which the water passes +through the coffee, which in turn is controlled by the fineness of the +grind and of the filtering medium.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Water Extract</i></p> + +<p>Although many analyses of the whole coffee bean are available, but +little work has been reported upon the aqueous extracts. The total water +extract of roasted coffee varies from 20 to 31 percent in different +kinds of coffee. The following analysis of the extract from a Santos +coffee may be taken as a fair average example of the water-soluble +material.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Analysis of Santos Coffee Extract"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Table IV—Analysis of Santos Coffee Extract + <br />(Dry Basis)</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'>Ether extract, fixed</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Total nitrogen</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Caffein</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Crude fiber</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Total ash</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Reducing sugar</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Caffetannic acid</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Protein</td> + <td align='right'>1.06%</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It is difficult to make the trade terms, such as acidity, astringency, +etc., used in describing a cup of coffee, conform with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> chemical +meanings of the same terms. However, a fair explanation of the cause of +some of these qualities can be made. Careful work by Warnier<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> showed +the actual acidities of some East India coffees to be:</p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Acidity of Some East India Coffees"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Table V—Acidity of Some East India Coffees</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'>Coffee from</td> + <td align='right'>Acid Content</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Sindjai</td> + <td align='right'>0.033%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Timor</td> + <td align='right'>0.028%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Bauthain</td> + <td align='right'>0.019%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Boengei</td> + <td align='right'>0.016%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Loewae</td> + <td align='right'>0.021%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Waloe Pengenten</td> + <td align='right'>0.018%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Kawi Redjo</td> + <td align='right'>0.015%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Palman Tjiasem</td> + <td align='right'>0.022%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Malang</td> + <td align='right'>0.013%</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>These figures may be taken as reliable examples of the true acid content +of coffee; and though they seem very low, it is not at all +incomprehensible that the acids which they indicate produce the acidity +in a cup of coffee. They probably are mainly volatile organic acids, +together with other acidic-natured products of roasting. We know that +very small quantities of acids are readily detected in fruit juices and +beer, and that variation in their percentage is quickly noticed, while +the neutralization of this small amount of acidity leaves an insipid +drink. Hence, it seems quite likely that this small acid content gives +to the coffee brew its essential acidity. A few minor experiments on +neutralization have proven that a very insipid beverage is produced by +thus treating a coffee infusion.</p> + +<p>The body, or what might be called the licorice-like character, of +coffee, is due conceivably to the presence of bodies of a glucosidic +nature and to caramel. Astringency, or bitterness, is dependent upon the +decomposition products of crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, and upon the +soluble mineral content of the bean. The degree to which a coffee is +sweet-tasting or not is, of course, dependent upon its other +characteristics, but probably varies with the reducing sugar content. +Aside from the effects of these constituents upon cup quality, the +influence of volatile aromatic and flavoring constituents is always +evident in the cup valuation, and introduces a controlling factor in the +production of an individualistic drink.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Extracts</i></p> + +<p>The uncertainty of the quality of coffee brews as made from day to day, +the inconvenience to the housewife of conducting the extraction, and the +inevitable trend of the human race toward labor-saving devices, have +combined their influences to produce a demand for a substance which will +give a good cup of coffee when added to water. This gave rise to a +number of concentrated liquid and solid "extracts of coffee," which, +because of their general poor quality, soon brought this type of product +into disrepute. This is not surprising; for these preparations were +mainly mixtures of caramel and carelessly prepared extracts of chicory, +roasted cereals, and cheap coffee.</p> + +<p>Liquid extracts of coffee galore have appeared on the market only soon +to disappear. Difficulty is experienced in having them maintain their +quality over a protracted period of time, primarily due to the +hydrolyzing action of water on the dissolved substances. They also +ferment readily, although a small percentage of preservative, such as +benzoate of soda, will halt spoilage.<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p> + +<p>So much trouble is not encountered with coffee-extract powders—the +so-called "soluble" or "instant" coffees. The majority of these powdered +dry extracts do, however, show great affinity for atmospheric moisture. +Their hygroscopicity necessitates packing and keeping them in air-tight +containers to prevent them running into a solid, slowly soluble mass.</p> + +<p>The general method of procedure employed in the preparation of these +powders is to extract ground roasted coffee with water, and to evaporate +the aqueous solution to dryness with great care. The major difficulty +which seems to arise is that the heat needed to effect evaporation +changes the character of the soluble material, at the same time driving +off some volatile constituents which are essential to a natural flavor. +Many complex and clever processes have been developed for avoiding these +difficulties, and quite a number of patents on processes, and several on +the resultant product, have been allowed; but the commercial production +of a soluble coffee of freshly-brewed-coffee-duplicating-power is yet to +be accomplished. However, there are now on the market several +coffee-extract powders which dissolve readily in water, giving quite a +fair approximation of freshly brewed coffee. The improvement shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +since they first appeared augurs well for the eventual attainment of +their ultimate goal.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Adulterants and Substitutes</i></p> + +<p>There would appear to be three reasons why substitutes for coffee are +sought—the high cost, or absence, of the real product; the acquiring of +a preferential taste, by the consumer, for the substitute; and the +injurious effects of coffee when used to excess. Makers of coffee +substitutes usually emphasize the latter reason; but many substitutes, +which are, or have been, on the market, seem to depend for their +existence on the other two. Properly speaking, there are scarcely any +real substitutes for coffee. The substances used to replace it are +mostly like it only in appearance, and barely simulate it in taste. +Besides, many of them are not used alone, but are mixed with real coffee +as adulterants.</p> + +<p>The two main coffee substitutes are chicory and cereals. Chicory, +succory, <i>Cichorium Intybus</i>, is a perennial plant, growing to a height +of about three feet, bearing blue flowers, having a long tap root, and +possessing a foliage which is sometimes used as cattle food. The plant +is cultivated generally for the sake of its root, which is cut into +slices, kiln-dried, and then roasted in the same manner as coffee, +usually with the addition of a small proportion of some kind of fat. The +preparation and use of roasted chicory originated in Holland, about +1750. Fresh chicory<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> contains about 77 percent water, 7.5 gummy +matter, 1.1 of glucose, 4.0 of bitter extractive, 0.6 fat, 9.0 +cellulose, inulin and fiber, and 0.8 ash. Pure roasted chicory<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> +contains 74.2 percent water-soluble material, comprised of 16.3 percent +water, 26.1 glucose, 9.6 dextrin and inulin, 3.2 protein, 16.4 coloring +matter, and 2.6 ash; and 25.8 percent insoluble substances, namely, 3.2 +percent protein, 5.7 fat, 12.3 cellulose, and 4.6 ash. The effect of +roasting upon chicory is to drive off a large percentage of water, +increasing the reducing sugars, changing a large proportion of the +bitter extractives and inulin, and forming dextrin and caramel as well +as the characteristic chicory flavor.</p> + +<p>The cereal substitutes contain almost every type of grain, mainly wheat, +rye, oats, buckwheat, and bran. They are prepared in two general ways, +by roasting the grains, or the mixtures of grains, with or without the +addition of such substances as sugar, molasses, tannin, citric acid, +etc., or by first making the floured grains into a dough, and then +baking, grinding, and roasting. Prior to these treatments, the grains +may be subjected to a variety of other treatments, such as impregnation +with various compounds, or germination. The effect of roasting on these +grains and other substitutes is the production of a destructive +distillation, as in the case of coffee; the crude fiber, starches, and +other carbohydrates, etc., being decomposed, with the production of a +flavor and an aroma faintly suggesting coffee.</p> + +<p>The number, of other substitutes and imitations which have been employed +are too numerous to warrant their complete description; but it will +prove interesting to enumerate a few of the more important ones, such as +malt, starch, acorns, soya beans, beet roots, figs, prunes, date stones, +ivory nuts, sweet potatoes, beets, carrots, peas, and other vegetables, +bananas, dried pears, grape seeds, dandelion roots, rinds of citrus +fruits, lupine seeds, whey, peanuts, juniper berries, rice, the fruit of +the wax palm, cola nuts, chick peas, cassia seeds, and the seeds of any +trees and plants indigenous to the country in which the substitute is +produced.</p> + +<p>Aside from adulteration by mixing substitutes with ground coffee, and an +occasional case of factitious molded berries, the main sophistications +of coffee comprise coating and coloring the whole beans. Coloring of +green and roasted coffees is practised to conceal damaged and inferior +beans. Lead and zinc chromates, Prussian blue, ferric oxid, coal-tar +colors, and other substances of a harmful nature, have been employed for +this purpose, being made to adhere to the beans with adhesives. As +glazes and coatings, a variety of substances have been employed, such as +butter, margarin, vegetable oils, paraffin, vaseline, gums, dextrin, +gelatin, resins, glue, milk, glycerin, salt, sodium bicarbonate, +vinegar, Irish moss, isinglass, albumen, etc. It is usually claimed that +coating is applied to retain aroma and to act as a clarifying agent; but +the real reasons are usually to increase weight through absorption of +water, to render low-grade coffees more attractive, to eliminate +by-products, and to assist in advertising.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p> +<p class="center"><br />METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF COFFEES<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p> + +<p class="center">(<i>Official and Tentative</i>)</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin">(Sole responsibility for any errors in compilation or printing of +these methods is assumed by the author.)</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Green Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="noin">1. <i>Macroscopic Examination—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>A macroscopic examination is usually sufficient to show the presence of +excessive amounts of black and blighted coffee beans, coffee hulls, +stones, and other foreign matter. These can be separated by hand-picking +and determined gravi-metrically.</p> + +<p class="noin">2. <i>Coloring Matters—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Shake vigorously 100 grams or more of the sample with cold water or 70 +percent alcohol by volume. Strain through a coarse sieve and allow to +settle. Identify soluble colors in the solution and insoluble pigments +in the sediment.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Roasted Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="noin">3. <i>Macroscopic Examination—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Artificial coffee beans are apparent from their exact regularity of +form. Roasted legumes and lumps of chicory, when present in whole +roasted coffee, can be picked out and identified microscopically. In the +case of ground coffee, sprinkle some of the sample on cold water and +stir lightly. Fragments of pure coffee, if not over-roasted, will float; +while fragments of chicory, legumes, cereals, etc., will sink +immediately, chicory coloring the water a decided brown. In all cases +identify the particles that sink by microscopical examination.</p> + +<p class="noin">4. <i>Preparation of Sample—Official</i></p> + +<p>Grind the sample to pass through a sieve having holes 0.5 mm. in +diameter and preserve in a tightly stoppered bottle.</p> + +<p class="noin">5. <i>Moisture—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Dry 5 grams of the sample at 105°—110°C. for 5 hours and subsequent +periods of an hour each until constant weight is obtained. The same +procedure may be used, drying <i>in vacuo</i> at the temperature of boiling +water. In the case of whole coffee, grind rapidly to a coarse powder and +weigh at once portions for the determination without sifting and without +unnecessary exposure to the air.</p> + +<p class="noin">6. <i>Soluble Solids—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Place 4 grams of the sample in a 200-cc. flask, add water to the mark, +and allow the mass to infuse for eight hours, with occasional shaking; +let stand 16 hours longer without shaking, filter, evaporate 50 cc. of +filtrate to dryness in a flat-bottomed dish, dry at 100° C., cool and +weigh.</p> + +<p class="noin">7. <i>Ash—Official</i></p> + +<p>Char a quantity of the substance, representing about 2 grams of the dry +material, and burn until free of carbon at a low heat, not to exceed +dull redness. If a carbon-free ash can not be obtained in this manner, +exhaust the charred mass with hot water, collect the insoluble residue +on a filter, burn till the ash is white or nearly so, and then add the +filtrate to the ash and evaporate to dryness. Heat to low redness, until +ash is white or grayish white, and weigh.</p> + +<p class="noin">8. <i>Ash Insoluble in Acid—Official</i></p> + +<p>Boil the water-insoluble residue, obtained as directed under 9, or the +total ash obtained as directed under 7, with 25 cc. of 10-percent +hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.050) for 5 minutes, collect the insoluble +matter on a Gooch crucible or an ashless filter, wash with hot water, +ignite and weigh.</p> + +<p class="noin">9. <i>Soluble and Insoluble Ash—Official</i></p> + +<p>Heat 5 to 10 grams of the sample in a platinum dish of from 50 to 100 +cc. capacity at 100° C. until the water is expelled, and add a few drops +of pure olive oil and heat slowly over a flame until swelling ceases. +Then place the dish in a muffle and heat at low redness until a white +ash is obtained. Add water to the ash, in the platinum dish, heat nearly +to boiling, filter through ash-free filter paper, and wash with hot +water until the combined filtrate and washings measure to about 60 cc. +Return the filter and contents to the platinum dish, carefully ignite, +cool and weigh. Compute percentages of water-insoluble ash and +water-soluble ash.</p> + +<p class="noin">10. <i>Alkalinity of the Soluble Ash—Official</i></p> + +<p>Cool the filtrate from 9 and titrate with N/10 hydrochloric acid, using +methyl orange as an indicator.</p> + +<p>Express the alkalinity in terms of the number of cc. of N/10 acid per 1 +gram of the sample.</p> + +<p class="noin">11. <i>Soluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash—Official</i></p> + +<p>Acidify the solution of soluble ash, obtained in 9, with dilute nitric +acid and determine phosphoric acid (P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>). For percentages up to 5 +use an aliquot corresponding to 0.4 gram of substance, for percentages +between 5 and 20 use an aliquot corresponding to 0.2 gram of substance, +and for percentages above 20 use an aliquot corresponding to 0.1 gram of +substance. Dilute to 75–100 cc., heat in a water-bath to 60°–65° C., and +for percentages below 5 add 20–25 cc. of freshly filtered molybdate +solution. For percentages between 5 and 20 add 30–35 cc. of molybdate +solution. For percentages greater than 20 add sufficient molybdate +solution to insure complete precipitation. Stir, let stand in the bath +for about 15 minutes, filter <i>at once</i>, wash once or twice with water by +decantation, using 25–30 cc. each time, agitate the precipitate +thoroughly and allow to settle; transfer to the filter and wash with +cold water until the filtrate from two fillings of the filter yields a +pink color upon the addition of phenolphthalein and one drop of the +standard alkali. Transfer the precipitate and filter to the beaker, or +precipitating vessel, dissolve the precipitate in a small excess of the +standard alkali, add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution, and +titrate with the standard acid.</p> + +<p class="noin">12. <i>Insoluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash—Official</i></p> + +<p>Determine phosphoric acid (P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>) in the Insoluble ash by the +foregoing method.</p> + +<p class="noin">13. <i>Chlorides—Official</i></p> + +<p>Moisten 5 grams of the substance in a platinum dish with 20 cc. of a +5-percent solution of sodium carbonate, evaporate to dryness and ignite +as thoroughly as possible at a temperature not exceeding dull redness. +Extract with hot water, filter and wash. Return the residue to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> the +platinum dish and ignite to an ash; dissolve in nitric acid, and add +this solution to the water extract. Add a known volume of N/10 silver +nitrate in slight excess to the combined solutions. Stir well, filter +and wash the silver chloride precipitate thoroughly. To the filtrate and +washings add 5 cc. of a saturated solution of ferric alum and a few cc. +of nitric acid. Titrate the excess silver with N/10 ammonium or +potassium thiocyanate until a permanent light brown color appears. +Calculate the amount of chlorin.</p> + +<p class="noin">14. <i>Caffein—The Fendler and Stüber Method—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Pulverize the coffee to pass without residue through a sieve having +circular openings 1 mm. in diameter. Treat a 10-gram sample with 10 +grams of 10-percent ammonium hydroxid and 200 grams of chloroform in a +glass-stoppered bottle and shake continuously by machine or hand for +one-half hour. Pour the entire contents of the bottle on a 12.5-cm. +folded filter, covering with a watch glass. Weigh 150 grams of the +filtrate into a 250-cc. flask and evaporate on the steam bath, removing +the last chloroform with a blast of air. Digest the residue with 80 cc. +of hot water for ten minutes on a steam bath with frequent shaking, and +let cool. Treat the solution with 20 cc. (for roasted coffee) or 10 cc. +(for unroasted coffee) of 1-percent potassium permanganate and let stand +for 15 minutes at room temperature. Add 2 cc. of 3-percent hydrogen +peroxid (containing 1 cc. of glacial acetic acid in 100 cc.). If the +liquid is still red or reddish, add hydrogen peroxid, 1 cc. at a time, +until the excess of potassium permanganate is destroyed. Place the flask +on the steam bath for 15 minutes, adding hydrogen peroxid in 0.5-cc. +portions until the liquid becomes no lighter in color. Cool and filter +into a separatory funnel, washing with cold water. Extract four times +with 25 cc. of chloroform. Evaporate the chloroform extract from a +weighed flask with aid of an air blast and dry at 100° C. to constant +weight (one-half hour is usually sufficient). Weigh the residue as +caffein and calculate on 7.5 grams of coffee. Test the purity of the +residue by determining nitrogen and multiplying by 3.464 to obtain +caffein.</p> + +<p class="noin">15. <i>Caffein—Power-Chestnut Method—Official</i></p> + +<p>Moisten 10 grams of the finely powdered sample with alcohol, transfer to +a Soxhlet, or similar extraction apparatus, and extract with alcohol for +8 hours. (Care should be exercised to assure complete extraction.) +Transfer the extract with the aid of hot water to a porcelain dish +containing 10 grams of heavy magnesium oxid in suspension in 100 cc. of +water. (This reagent should meet the U.S.P. requirements.) Evaporate +slowly on the steam bath with frequent stirring to a dry, powdery mass. +Rub the residue with a pestle into a paste with boiling water. Transfer +with hot water to a smooth filter, cleaning the dish with a +rubber-tipped glass rod. Collect the filtrate in a liter flask marked at +250 cc. and wash with boiling water until the filtrate reaches the mark. +Add 10 cc. of 10-percent sulphuric acid and boil gently for 30 minutes +with a funnel in the neck of the flask. Cool and filter through a +moistened double paper into a separatory funnel and wash with small +portions of 0.5-percent sulphuric acid. Extract with six successive +25-cc. portions of chloroform. Wash the combined chloroform extracts in +a separatory funnel with 5 cc. of 1-percent potassium hydroxid solution. +Filter the chloroform into an Erlenmeyer flask. Wash the potassium +hydroxid with 2 portions of chloroform of 10 cc. each, adding them to +the flask together with the chloroform washings of the filter paper. +Evaporate or distil on the steam bath to a small volume (10–15 cc.), +transfer with chloroform to a tared beaker, evaporate carefully, dry for +30 minutes in a water oven, and weigh. The purity of the residue can be +tested by determining nitrogen and multiplying by the factor 3.464.</p> + +<p class="noin">16. <i>Crude Fiber—Official</i></p> + +<p>Prepare solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxid of exactly +1.25-percent strength, determined by titration. Extract a quantity of +the substance representing about 2 grams of the dry material with +ordinary ether, or use residue from the determination of the ether +extract. To this residue in a 500-cc. flask add 200 cc. of boiling +1.25-percent sulphuric acid; connect the flask with a reflux condenser, +the tube of which passes only a short distance beyond the rubber stopper +into the flask, or simply cover a tall conical flask, which is well +suited for this determination, with a watch glass or short stemmed +funnel. Boil at once and continue boiling gently for thirty minutes. A +blast of air conducted into the flask may serve to reduce the frothing +of the liquid. Filter through linen, and wash with boiling water until +the washings are no longer acid; rinse the substance back into the flask +with 200 cc. of the boiling 1.25-percent solution of sodium hydroxid +free, or nearly so, of sodium carbonate; boil at once and continue +boiling gently for thirty minutes in the same manner as directed above +for the treatment with acid. Filter at once rapidly, wash with boiling +water until the washings are neutral. The last filtration may be +performed upon a Gooch crucible, a linen filter, or a tared filter +paper. If a linen filter is used, rinse the crude fiber, after washing +is completed, into a flat-bottomed platinum dish by means of a jet of +water; evaporate to dryness on a steam bath, dry to constant weight at +110° C., weigh, incinerate completely, and weigh again. The loss in +weight is considered to be crude fiber. If a tared filter paper is used, +weigh in a weighing bottle. In any case, the crude fiber after drying to +constant weight at 110° C., must be incinerated and the amount of the +ash deducted from the original weight.</p> + +<p class="noin">17. <i>Starch—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Extract 5 grams of the finely pulverized sample on a hardened filter +with five successive portions (10 cc. each) of ether, wash with small +portions of 95-percent alcohol by volume until a total of 200 cc. have +passed through, place the residue in a beaker with 50 cc. of water, +immerse the beaker in boiling water and stir constantly for 15 minutes +or until all the starch is gelatinized; cool to 55° C., add 20 cc. of +malt extract and maintain at this temperature for an hour. Heat again to +boiling for a few minutes, cool to 55° C., add 20 cc. of malt extract +and maintain at this temperature for an hour or until the residue +treated with iodin shows no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> blue color upon microscopic examination. +Cool, make up directly to 250 cc., and filter. Place 200 cc. of the +filtrate in a flask with 20 cc. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.125); +connect with a reflux condenser and heat in a boiling water bath for 2.5 +hours. Cool, nearly neutralize with sodium hydroxid solution, and make +up to 500 cc. Mix the solution well, pour through a dry filter and +determine the dextrose in an aliquot. Conduct a blank determination upon +the same volume of the malt extract as used upon the sample, and correct +the weight of reduced copper accordingly. The weight of the dextrose +obtained multiplied by 0.90 gives the weight of starch.</p> + +<p class="noin">18. <i>Sugars—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>See original.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p> + +<p class="noin">19. <i>Petroleum Ether Extract—Official</i></p> + +<p>Dry 2 grams of coffee at 100° C., extract with petroleum ether (boiling +point 35° to 50° C.) for 16 hours, evaporate the solvent, dry the +residue at 100° C., cool, and weigh.</p> + +<p class="noin">20. <i>Total Acidity—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Treat 10 grams of the sample, prepared as directed under 4, with 75 cc. +of 80-percent alcohol by volume in an Erlenmeyer flask, stopper, and +allow to stand 16 hours, shaking occasionally. Filter and transfer an +aliquot of the filtrate (25 cc. in the case of green coffee, 10 cc. in +the case of roasted coffee) to a beaker, dilute to about 100 cc. with +water and titrate with N/10 alkali, using phenolphthalein as an +indicator. Express the result as the number of cc. of N/10 alkali +required to neutralize the acidity of 100 grams of the sample.</p> + +<p class="noin">21. <i>Volatile Acidity—Tentative</i></p> + +<p>Into a volatile acid apparatus introduce a few glass beads, and over +these place 20 grams of the unground sample. Add 100 cc. of recently +boiled water to the sample, place a sufficient quantity of recently +boiled water in the outer flask and distil until the distillate is no +longer acid to litmus paper. Usually 100 cc. of distillate will be +collected. Titrate the distillate with N/10 alkali, using +phenolphthalein as an indicator. Express the result as the number of cc. +of N/10 alkali required to neutralize the acidity of 100 grams of the +sample.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Unofficial Methods</span></p> + +<p class="noin">22. <i>Protein</i></p> + +<p>Determine nitrogen in 3 grams of the sample by the Kjeldahl or Gunning +method. This gives the total nitrogen due to both the proteids and the +caffein. To obtain the protein nitrogen, subtract from the total +nitrogen the nitrogen due to caffein, obtained by direct determination +on the separated caffein or by calculation (caffein divided by 3.464 +gives nitrogen). Multiply by 6.25 to obtain the amount of protein.</p> + +<p class="noin">23. <i>Ten Percent Extract—McGill Method</i></p> + +<p>Weigh into a tared flask the equivalent of 10 grains of the dried +substance, add water until the contents of the flask weigh 110 grams, +connect with a reflux condenser and heat, beginning the boiling in 10 to +15 minutes. Boil for 1 hour, cool for 15 minutes, weigh again, making up +any loss by the addition of water, filter, and take the specific gravity +of the filtrate at 15° C.</p> + +<p>According to McGill, a 10-percent extract of pure coffee has a specific +gravity of 1.00986 at 15° C., and under the same treatment chicory gives +an extract with a specific gravity of 1.02821. In mixtures of coffee and +chicory the approximate percentage of chicory may be calculated by the +following formula:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 10.5em;">(1.02821 – sp. gr.)</span><br /> +Percent of chicory = 100 —————————<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 12.5em;">0.01835</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>The index of refraction of the above solution may be taken with the +Zeiss immersion refractometer or with the Abbe refractometer.</p> + +<p>With a 10-percent coffee extract, n<sub>d</sub> 20° = 1.3377.</p> + +<p>With a 10-percent chicory extract, n<sub>d</sub> 20° = 1.3448.</p> + +<p>Determinations of the solids, ash, sugar, nitrogen, etc., may be made in +the 10-percent extract, if desired.</p> + +<p class="noin">24. <i>Caffetannic Acid—Krug's Method</i><a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a></p> + +<p>Treat 2 grains of the coffee with 10 cc. of water and digest for 36 +hours; add 25 cc. of 90-percent alcohol and digest 24 hours more, +filter, and wash with 90-percent alcohol. The filtrate contains tannin, +caffein, color, and fat. Heat the filtrate to the boiling point and add +a saturated solution of lead acetate. If this is carefully done, a +caffetannate of lead will be precipitated containing 49 percent of lead. +As soon as the precipitate has become flocculent, collect on a tared +filter, wash with 90-percent alcohol until free from lead, wash with +ether, dry and weigh. The precipitate multiplied by 0.51597 gives the +weight of the caffetannic acid.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XVIII" id="Chapter_XVIII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XVIII</span></h2> + +<h3>PHARMACOLOGY OF THE COFFEE DRINK</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>General physiological action—Effect on children—Effect on +longevity—Behavior in the alimentary régime—Place in +dietary—Action on bacteria—Use in medicine—Physiological action +of "caffetannic acid"—Of caffeol—Of caffein—Effect of caffein on +mental and motor efficiency—Conclusions</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="center">By Charles W. Trigg</p> + +<p class="center"><small>Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, +Pittsburgh, 1916–1920</small></p> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> published information regarding the effects of coffee drinking on +the human system is so contradictory in its nature that it is hazardous +to make many generalizations about the physiological behavior of coffee. +Most of the investigations that have been conducted to date have been +characterized by incompleteness and a failure to be sufficiently +comprehensive to eliminate the element of individual idiosyncrasy from +the results obtained. Accordingly, it is possible to select statements +from literature to the effect either that coffee is an "elixir of life," +or even a poison.</p> + +<p>This is a deplorable state of affairs, not calculated to promote the +dissemination of accurate knowledge among the consuming public, but it +may be partly excused upon the grounds that experimental apparatus has +not always been at the level of perfection that it now occupies. Also, +to do justice to some of the able men who have interested themselves in +this problem, it should be said that some of their results were obtained +in researches, distinguished by painstaking accuracy, which have +effected the establishment of the major reactions of ingested coffee.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Physiological Action of Coffee</i></p> + +<p>Drinking of coffee by mankind may be attributed to three causes: the +demand for, and the pleasing effects of, a hot drink (a very small +percentage of the coffee consumed is taken cold), the pleasing reaction +which its flavors excite on the gustatory nerve, and the stimulating +effect which it has upon the body. The flavor is due largely to the +volatile aromatic constituents, "caffeol," which, when isolated, have a +general depressant action on the system; and the stimulation is caused +by the caffein. The general and specific actions of these individual +components, together with that of the hypothetical "caffetannic acid," +are considered under separate headings.</p> + +<p>Coffee may be considered a member of the general class of adjuvant, or +auxiliary, foods to which other beverages and condiments of negligible +inherent food value belong. Its position on the average menu may be +attributed largely to its palatability and comforting effects. However, +the medicinal value of coffee in the dietary and <i>per se</i> must not be +overlooked.</p> + +<p>The ingestion of coffee infusion is always followed by evidences of +stimulation. It acts upon the nervous system as a powerful +cerebro-spinal stimulant, increasing mental activity and quickening the +power of perception, thus making the thoughts more precise and clear, +and intellectual work easier without any evident subsequent depression. +The muscles are caused to contract more vigorously, increasing their +working power without there being any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> secondary reaction leading to a +diminished capacity for work. Its action upon the circulation is +somewhat antagonistic; for while it tends to increase the rate of the +heart by acting directly on the heart muscle, it tends to decrease it by +stimulating the inhibitory center in the medulla.<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p> + +<p>The effect on the kidneys is more marked, the diuretic effect being +shown by an increase in water, soluble solids, and of uric acid directly +attributable to the caffein content of the coffee taken. In the +alimentary tract coffee seems to stimulate the oxyntic cells and +slightly to increase the secretion of hydrochloric acid, as well as to +favor intestinal peristalsis. It is difficult to accept reports of +coffee accomplishing both a decrease in metabolism and an increase in +body heat; but if the production of heat by the demethylation of caffein +to form uric acid and a possible repression of perspiration by coffee be +considered, the simultaneous occurrence of these two physiological +reactions may be credited.</p> + +<p>The disagreement of medical authorities over the physiological effects +of coffee is quite pronounced. This may be observed by a careful perusal +of the following statements made by these men. It will be noticed that +the majority opinion is that coffee in moderation is not harmful. Just +how much coffee a person may drink, and still remain within the limits +of moderation and temperance, is dependent solely upon the individual +constitution, and should be decided from personal experience rather than +by accepting an arbitrary standard set by some one who professes to be +an authority on the matter.</p> + +<p>A writer in the <i>British Homeopathic Review</i><a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> says that "the +exciting effects of coffee upon the nervous system exhibit themselves in +all its departments as a temporary exaltation. The emotions are raised +in pitch, the fancies are lively and vivid, benevolence is excited, the +religious sense is stimulated, there is great loquacity.... The +intellectual powers are stimulated, both memory and judgment are +rendered more keen and unusual vivacity of verbal expression rules for a +short time." He continues:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Hahnemann gives a characteristically careful account of the coffee +headache. If the quantity of coffee taken be immoderately great and +the body be very excitable and quite unused to coffee, there occurs +a semilateral headache from the upper part of the parietal bone to +the base of the brain. The cerebral membranes of this side also +seem to be painfully sensitive, the hands and feet becoming cold, +and sweat appears on the brows and palms. The disposition becomes +irritable and intolerant, anxiety, trembling and restlessness are +apparent.... I have met with headaches of this type which yielded +readily to coffee and with many more in which the indicated remedy +failed to act until the use of coffee as a beverage was abandoned. +The eyes and ears suffer alike from the super-excitation of coffee. +There is a characteristic toothache associated with coffee.</p></div> + +<p>In apparent contradiction of this opinion, Dr. Valentin Nalpasse,<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> +of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, states:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">When coffee is properly made and taken in moderation, it is a most +valuable drink. It facilitates the digestion because it produces a +local excitement. Its principal action gives clear and stable +imaginative power to the brain. By doing that, it makes +intellectual work easy, and, to a certain extent, regulates the +functions of the brain. The thoughts become more precise and clear, +and mental combinations are formed with much greater rapidity. +Under the influence of coffee, the memory is sometimes surprisingly +active, and ideas and words flow with ease and elegance.... Many +people abuse coffee without feeling any bad effect.</p></div> + +<p>Discussing the use and abuse of coffee, I.N. Love<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The world has in the infusion of coffee one of its most valuable +beverages. It is a prompt diffusible stimulant, antiseptic and +encourager of elimination. In season it supports, tides over +danger, helps the appropriate powers of the system, whips up the +flagging energies, enhances the endurance; but it is in no sense a +food, and for this reason it should be used temperately.</p></div> + +<p>Also Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> makes the following weighty +pronouncement:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In reference to my suggestion to give children tea and coffee. I +may explain that it is done advisedly. There is probably no +objection to their use even at early ages. They arouse the dull, +calm the excitable, prevent headaches, and fit the brain for work. +They preserve the teeth, keep them tight in their place, strengthen +the vocal chords, and prevent sore throat. To stigmatize these +invaluable articles of diet as "nerve stimulants" is an erroneous +expression, for they undoubtedly have a right to rank as nerve +nutrients.</p></div> + +<p>But Dr. Harvey Wiley<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> comes forth with evidence on the other side, +saying:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The effects of the excessive use of coffee, tea, and other natural +caffein beverages is well known. Although the caffein is combined +in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> beverages naturally, and they are as a rule taken at meal +times, which mitigates the effects of the caffein, they are +recognized by every one as tending to produce sleeplessness, and +often indigestion, stomach disorders, and a condition which, for +lack of a better term, is described as nervousness.... The +excessive drinking of tea and coffee is acknowledged to be +injurious by practically all specialists.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. V.C. Vaughn,<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a> of the University of Michigan, speaking of tea and +coffee, expresses this opinion:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">I believe that caffein used as a beverage and in moderation not +only is harmless to the majority of adults, but is beneficial.</p></div> + +<p>This verdict is upheld by the results of a symposium<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> conducted by +the <i>Medical Times</i>, in which a large majority of the medical experts +participating, among whom may be enumerated Drs. Lockwood, Wood, +Hollingworth, Robinson, and Barnes, agreed that the drinking of coffee +is not harmful <i>per se</i>, but that over-indulgence is the real cause of +any ill effects. This is also true of any ingested material.</p> + +<p>Insomnia is a condition frequently attributed to coffee, but that the +authorities disagree on this ground is shown by Wiley's<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> contention, +"We know beyond doubt that the caffein (in coffee) makes a direct attack +on the nerves and causes insomnia." While Woods Hutchinson<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> +observes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Oddly enough, a cup of hot, weak tea or coffee, with plenty of +cream and sugar, will often help you to sleep, for the grateful +warmth and stimulus to the lining of the stomach, drawing the blood +into it and away from the head, will produce more soothing effects +than the small amount of caffein will produce stimulating and +wakeful ones.</p></div> + +<p>The writer has often had people remark to him that while black coffee +sometimes kept them awake, coffee with cream or sugar or both made them +drowsy.</p> + +<p>In the course of experiments conducted by Montuori and Pollitzer<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a> it +was found that coffee prepared by hot infusion when given by mouth or +hypodermically with the addition of a small dose of alcohol proved an +efficient means of combating the pernicious effects of low temperatures. +Coffee prepared by boiling, and tea, showed negative effects.</p> + +<p>The value of coffee as a strength-conserver, and its function of +increasing endurance, morale, and healthfulness, was demonstrated by the +great stress which the military authorities, in the late and in previous +wars, placed upon furnishing the soldiers with plenty of good coffee, +particularly at times when they were under the greatest strain. Various +articles<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> record this fact; and these statements are further borne +out by the data given below in the discussion of the physiological +effects of caffein, to which the majority of the stimulating effects of +coffee may be attributed.</p> + +<p>According to Fauvel,<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a> with a healthy patient on a vegetable diet, +chocolate and coffee increase the excretion of purins, diminishing the +excretion of uric acid and apparently hindering the precipitation of +uric acid in the organism. This diminution, however, was not due to +retention of uric acid in the organism.</p> + +<p>"Habit-forming" is one of the adjectives often used in describing +coffee, but it is a fact that coffee is much less likely than alcoholic +liquors to cause ill effects. A man rarely becomes a slave of coffee; +and excessive drinking of this beverage never produces a state of moral +irresponsibility or leads to the commission of crime. Dr. J.W. +Mallet,<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> in testimony given before a Federal Court, stated that +caffein and coffee were not habit-forming in the correct sense of the +term. His definition of the expression is that the habit formed must be +a detrimental and injurious one—one which becomes so firmly fixed upon +a person forming it that it is thrown off with great difficulty and with +considerable suffering, continuous exercise of the habit increasing the +demand for the habit-forming drug. It is well known that the desire +ceases in a very short period of time after cessation of use of +caffein-containing beverages, so that in that sense, coffee is not +habit-forming.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PICKING_AND_SACKING_COFFEE_IN_BRAZIL" id="PICKING_AND_SACKING_COFFEE_IN_BRAZIL"></a> +<img src="images/plate7a.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="Men and Women Laborers Picking Coffee on a São Paulo Estate" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Men and Women Laborers Picking Coffee on a São Paulo Estate</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate7b.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="Sacking Coffee in a Warehouse at the Port of Santos" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sacking Coffee in a Warehouse at the Port of Santos</span><br /> +PICKING AND SACKING COFFEE IN BRAZIL</span> +</div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p><p>It has been shown by Gourewitsch<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> that the daily administration of +coffee produces a certain degree of tolerance, and that the doses must +be increased to obtain toxic results. Harkness<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> has been quoted as +stating that "taken in moderation; coffee is one of the most wholesome +beverages known. It assists digestion, exhilarates the spirits, and +counteracts the tendency to sleep." Carl V. Voit,<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a> the German +physiological chemist, says this about coffee:</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The effect of coffee is that we are bothered less by unpleasant +experiences and become more able to conquer difficulties; +therefore, for the feasting rich, it makes intestinal work after a +meal less evident and drives away the deadly ennui; for the student +it is a means to keep wide awake and fresh; for the worker it makes +the day's fatigue more bearable.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Brady<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> believes that the so-called harmfulness of coffee is +mainly psychological, as evidenced by his expression, "Most of the +prejudice which exists against coffee as a beverage is based upon +nothing more than morbid fancy. People of dyspeptic or neurotic +temperament are fond of assuming that coffee must be bad because it is +so good, and accordingly, denying themselves the pleasure of drinking +it."</p> + +<p>The recounting of evidence, both <i>pro</i> and <i>con</i>, relevant to the +general effects of coffee could continue almost <i>ad infinitum</i>, but the +fairest unification of the various opinions is best quoted from Woods +Hutchinson<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Somewhere from 1 to 3 percent of the community are distinctly +injured or poisoned by tea or coffee, even small amounts producing +burning of the stomach, palpitation of the heart, headache, +eruptions of the skin, sensations of extreme nervousness, and so +on; though the remaining 97 percent are not injured by them in any +appreciable way if consumed in moderation.</p></div> + +<p>So, if one is personally satisfied that he belongs to the abnormal +minority, and has not been argued by fallacious reasoning into his +belief that coffee injures him, he should either reduce his consumption +of coffee or let it alone. Even those most vitally interested in the +commercial side of coffee will admit that this is the logical procedure.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Effects of Coffee on Children</i></p> + +<p>The same sort of controversy has raged around the question of the +advisability of giving coffee to children as has occurred regarding its +general action. Dr. J. Hutchinson<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> advocates furnishing children +with coffee, while Dr. Charlotte Abbey<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> is strongly against such a +practise, claiming that use of caffein-containing beverages before the +attainment of full growth will weaken nerve power. Nalpasse<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> +observes that until fully developed the young are immoderately excited +by coffee; and Hawk<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> is of the opinion that to give such a stimulant +to an active school-child is both logically and dietetically incorrect. +Dr. Vaughn<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a> advances this scientific argument against the drinking +of coffee by children under seven years of age:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In proportion to body weight the young contain more of the xanthin +bases than adults. They are already laden with these physiological +stimulants, and the additional dose given in tea or coffee may be +harmful.</p></div> + +<p>In a study of the effects of coffee drinking upon 464 school children, +C.K. Taylor<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> found a slight difference in mental ability and +behavior, unfavorable to coffee. About 29 percent of these children +drank no coffee; 46 percent drank a cup a day; 12 percent, 2 cups; 8 +percent, 3 cups; and the remainder, 4 or more cups a day. The +measurements of height, weight, and hand strength also showed a slight +advantage in favor of the non-coffee drinkers. If these results be taken +as truly representative, their indication is obvious. However, it seems +desirable to repeat these experiments upon other groups; at the same +time noting carefully the factors of environment, and other diet, before +any criterion is made.</p> + +<p>As a refutation to this experimental evidence is the practical +experience of the inhabitants of the Island of Groix, off the Brittany +coast, whose annual consumption of coffee is nearly 30 pounds per +capita, being ingested both as the roasted bean and as an infusion. It +is reported that many of the children are nourished almost entirely on +coffee soup up to ten years of age, yet the mentality and physique of +the populace does not fall below that of others of the same stock and +educational opportunities.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p> + +<p>Pertinent in this connection is Hawk's<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> statement that young mothers +should refrain from the use of coffee, as caffein stimulates the action +of the kidneys and tends to bring about a loss from the body of some of +the salts necessary to the development of the unborn child as well as +for the proper production of milk during the nursing period. The caffein +of coffee also increases the flow of milk, but the milk produced is +correspondingly dilute and a later decreased secretion may be expected.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +Furthermore, some of the caffein of the coffee may pass into the +mother's milk, thus reaching the child, so that the use of coffee during +the nursing period is undesirable on this ground also. Naturally, the +question arises as to whether this arraignment is purely theoretical or +based upon analytical and clinical data.</p> + +<p>It is a difficult matter definitely to set an age below which coffee +should not be drunk, as the time of reaching maturity varies with +climate and ancestral origin. Yet, from a theoretical standpoint, +children before or during the adolescent period should be limited to the +use of a rather small amount of tea and coffee as beverages, as their +poise and nerve control have not reached a stage of development +sufficient to warrant the stimulation incident to the consumption of an +appreciable quantity of caffein.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Drinking and Longevity</i></p> + +<p>There are many who would have us believe that the use of coffee is only +a means toward the end of quickly reaching the great beyond; but it is +known that the habitual coffee drinker generally enjoys good health, and +some of the longest-lived people have used it from their earliest youth +without any apparent injury to their health. Nearly every one has an +acquaintance who has lived to a ripe old age despite the use of coffee. +Quoting Metchnikoff<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">In some cases centenarians have been much addicted to the drinking +of coffee. The reader will recall Voltaire's reply when his doctor +described the grave harm that comes from the abuse of coffee, which +acts as a real poison. "Well", said Voltaire, "I have been +poisoning myself for nearly eighty years." There are centenarians +who have lived longer than Voltaire and have drunk still more +coffee. Elizabeth Durieux, a native of Savoy, reached the age of +114. Her principal food was coffee, of which she took daily as many +as forty small cups. She was jovial and a boon table companion, and +used black coffee in quantities that would have surprised an Arab. +Her coffee-pot was always on the fire, like the tea-pot in an +English cottage (Lejoncourt, p. 84; Chemin, p. 147).</p></div> + +<p>The entire matter resolves itself into one of individual tolerance, +resistivity, and constitution. Numerous examples of young abstainers who +have died and coffee drinkers who have still lived on can be found, and +<i>vice versa</i>, the preponderance of instances being in neither direction. +Bodies of persons killed by accident have been painstakingly examined +for physiological changes attributable to coffee; but no difference +between those of coffee and of non-coffee drinkers (ascertained by +careful investigation of their life history) could be discerned.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> In +the long run, it is safe to say that the effect of coffee drinking upon +the prolongation or shortening of life is neutral.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee in the Alimentary Tract</i></p> + +<p>When coffee is taken <i>per os</i> it passes directly to the stomach, where +its sole immediate action is to dilute the previous contents, just as +other ingested liquids do. Eventually the caffein content is absorbed by +the system, and from thence on a stimulation is apparent. Considerable +conjecture has occurred over the difference in the effects of tea and +coffee, the most feasible explanation advanced being one appearing in +the London <i>Lancet</i>.<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The caffein tannate of tea is precipitated by weak acids, and the +presumption is that it is precipitated by the gastric juice and, +therefore, the caffein is probably not absorbed until it reaches +the alkaline alimentary tract. In the case of coffee, however, in +whatever form the caffein may be present, it is soluble in both +alkaline and acid fluids, and, therefore, the absorption of the +alkaloid probably takes place in the stomach.</p></div> + +<p>This theory, if true, goes far toward explaining the more rapid +stimulation of coffee.</p> + +<p>The statement has sometimes been made that milk or cream causes the +coffee liquid to become coagulated when it comes into contact with the +acids of the stomach. This is true, but does not carry with it the +inference that indigestibility accompanies this coagulation. Milk and +cream, upon reaching the stomach, are coagulated by the gastric juice; +but the casein product formed is not indigestible. These liquids, when +added to coffee, are partially acted upon by the small acid content of +the brew, so that the gastric juice action is not so pronounced, for the +coagulation was started before ingestion, and the coagulable +constituent, casein, is more dilute in the cup as consumed than it is in +milk. Accordingly, the particles formed by it in the stomach will be +relatively smaller and more quickly and easily digested than milk <i>per +se</i>. It has been observed that coffee containing milk or cream is not as +stimulating as black coffee. The writer believes that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> this is probably +due to mechanical inclusion of caffein in the casein and fat particles, +and also to some adsorption of the alkaloid by them. This would +materially retard the absorption of the caffein by the body, spread the +action over a longer period of time, and hence decrease the maximum +stimulation attained.</p> + +<p>In a few instances, a small fraction of one percent of coffee users, +there is a certain type of distress, localized chiefly in the alimentary +tract, caused by coffee, which can not be blamed upon the much-maligned +caffein. The irritating elements may be generally classified as +compounds formed upon the addition of cream or milk to the coffee +liquor, volatile constituents, and products formed by hydrolysis of the +fibrous part of the grounds. It may be generally postulated that the +main causation of this discomfort is due to substances formed in the +incorrect brewing of coffee, the effect of which is accentuated by the +addition of cream or milk, when the condition of individual idiosyncrasy +is present.</p> + +<p>Without enlarging upon his reason, Lorand<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> concludes that neither +tea nor coffee is advisable for weak stomachs. Nalpasse,<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> however, +believes that coffee taken after meals makes the digestion more perfect +and more rapid, augmenting the secretions, and that it agrees equally +well with people inclined to embonpoint and heavy eaters whose digestion +is slow and difficult. Thompson<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> also observes that coffee drunk in +moderation is a mild stimulant to gastric digestion.</p> + +<p>Eder<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> reported, as the result of an inquiry into the action of +coffee on the activity of the stomachs of ruminants, that coffee +infusions produced a transitory increase in the number and intensity of +the movements of the paunch, but that the influence exercised was very +irregular.</p> + +<p>An elaborate investigation of the action of tea and coffee on digestion +in the stomach was made by Fraser,<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> in which he found that both +retard peptic digestion, the former to a greater degree than the latter. +The digestion of white of egg, ham, salt beef, and roast beef was much +less affected than that of lamb, fowl, or bread. Coffee seemed actually +to aid the digestion of egg and ham. He attributed the retarding effect +to the tannic acid of the tea and the volatile constituents of the +coffee—the caffein itself favoring digestion rather than otherwise. Tea +increased the production of gas in all but salt foods, whereas coffee +did not. Coffee is, therefore, to be preferred in cases of flatulent +dyspepsia.</p> + +<p>Hutchinson, in his <i>Food and Dietetics</i>, opines:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">As regards the practical inferences to be drawn from experiences +and observations, it may be said that in health the disturbance of +digestion produced by the infused beverages (tea and coffee) is +negligible. Roberts, indeed, goes so far as to suggest that the +slight slowing of digestion which they produce may be favored +rather than otherwise, as tending to compensate for too rapid +digestibility which refinements of manufacture and preparation have +made characteristic of modern foods.</p></div> + +<p>Regarding increase in secretory activity, Moore and Allanston<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a> +report that in their experience meat extracts, tea, caffein solution, +and coffee call forth a greater gastric secretion than does water, while +with milk the flow of gastric juice seems to be retarded. Cushing<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a> +and others support this statement. This action is partially explained by +Voit on the grounds that all tasty foods increase gastric secretion, the +action being partly psychological; but Cushing observed the same effects +upon introducing coffee directly into the stomachs of animals.</p> + +<p>In general, a moderate amount of coffee stimulates appetite, improves +digestion and relieves the sense of plenitude in the stomach. It +increases intestinal peristalsis, acts as a mild laxative, and slightly +stimulates secretion of bile. Excessive use, however, profoundly +disturbs digestive function, and promotes constipation and +hemorrhoids.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> There is much evidence to support the view that +"neither tea, coffee, nor chicory in dilute solutions has any +deleterious action on the digestive ferments, although in strong +solutions such an action may be manifest."<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a> After conducting +exhaustive experiments with various types of coffee, Lehmann<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> +concluded that ordinary coffee is without effect on the digestion of the +majority of sound persons, and may be used with impunity.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee in the Dietary—Food Value</i></p> + +<p>There are three things to be considered in deciding upon the inclusion +of a substance in the dietary—palatability, digestibility without +toxicity or disarrangement, and calorific value. Coffee is as +satisfactory from these viewpoints as any other food product.</p> + +<p>The palatability of a well-made cup of good coffee needs no eulogizing; +it speaks for itself. It adds enormously to the attractiveness of the +meal, and to our ability to eat with relish and appetite large amounts +of solid foods, without a subsequent uncomfortable feeling. Wiley<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> +says that the feeling of drowsiness after a full meal is a natural +condition incidental to the proper conduct of digestion, and that to +drive away this natural feeling with coffee must be an interference with +the normal condition. However, if by so doing, we can increase our +over-all efficiency without material harm to our digestive organs (and +we can and do), the procedure has much in its favor both psychologically +and dietetically.</p> + +<p>The fact that coffee favors digestion without eventual disarrangement +has been demonstrated above. On the subject of the relative agreement +with the constitution of foods of daily consumption, Dr. English<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> +said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">It is well known that there is no species of diet which invariably +suits all constitutions, nor will that which is palatable and +salutary at one time be equally palatable and salutary at another +time to the same individual. I think the most natural food provided +for us is milk; yet I will engage to show twenty instances where +milk disagrees more than coffee.</p></div> + +<p>Further in this regard, Hutchinson<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a> considers that ninety percent of +the "dyspepsias" attributed to coffee are due to malnutrition, or to +food simultaneously ingested, no disease known to the medical profession +being directly attributable to it.</p> + +<p>No one cognizant of the facts will contend that a cup of black coffee +has any direct food value; but not so with the roasted bean. This has +quite an appreciable content of protein and fat, both substances of high +calorific value. The inhabitants of the Island of Groix eat the whole +roasted coffee bean in considerable quantity, and seem to obtain +considerable nourishment therefrom. Also, the Galla, a wandering tribe +of Africa, make large use of food balls, about the size of billiard +balls, consisting of pulverized coffee held in shape with fat. One ball +is said to contain a day's ration; and, because of its food content and +stimulating power, serves to sustain them on long marches of days' +duration.</p> + +<p>When an infusion, or decoction, of roasted coffee is made, about 1.25 +percent of the extracted matter is protein, it being accompanied by +traces of dextrin and sugar. The same dearth of extraction of food +materials occurs upon infusing coffee substitutes. This small amount can +have but little dietetic significance. However, upon addition of sugar +and of milk or cream, with their content of protein, fat, and lactose, +the calorific value of the cup of coffee rises. Lusk and Gephart<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> +give the food value of an ordinary restaurant cup of coffee as 195.5 +calories, and Locke<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> gives it as 156.</p> + +<p>Mattei<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> found that 8 cc. of an infusion of roasted Mocha coffee of +five-percent strength suppressed incipient polyneuritis in pigeons +within a few hours' time. Their weight did not improve, but otherwise +they were completely restored to health. However, in from four to six +weeks after the apparent cure, the symptoms rapidly returned and the +pigeons perished, with symptoms of paralysis and cerebral complications. +The temporary cure was probably due to caffein stimulation and secondary +actions of the volatile constituents of coffee, which may be related to +the vitamines; for it is not likely that the vitamines would withstand +the heat of roasting. If B-vitamine does occur in roasted coffee, it is +present only in traces.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a></p> + +<p>The inclusion of coffee in the average dietary is warranted because of +its evident worth as an aid to digestion and for its assimilating power, +thus earning its characterization as an "adjuvant food."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Action of Coffee on Bacteria</i></p> + +<p>The employment of coffee as an aid to sanitation has been but little +considered. Coffee, when freshly roasted and ground, is deodorant, +antiseptic, and germicidal, probably due to the empyreumatic products +developed during the process of roasting. An infusion of 0.5 percent +inhibits the growth of many pathogenic organisms, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> those of 10 +percent kill anthrax bacteria in three hours, cholera spirilla in four +hours, and many other bacteria, including those producing typhoid, in +two to six days.<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p> + +<p>The maintenance of a low rate of contraction of typhoid fever has often +been attributed to drinking of coffee instead of water, the action of +the coffee being partly due to the bactericidal effect of the caffeol +and partly to the boiling of the water before infusion. The stimulating +tendency of the caffein to sustain and to "tide over" those of low +vitalities is also evidenced.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Use of Coffee in Medicine</i></p> + +<p>Coffee has been employed in medicinal practise as a direct specific, as +a preventive, and as an antidote. The <i>United States Dispensatory</i><a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> +summarizes the uses of caffein and coffee as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Caffein is a valuable remedy in practical medicine as a cerebral +and cardiac stimulant and as a diuretic. In undue <i>somnolence</i>, in +<i>nervous headache</i>, in <i>narcotism</i>, also, at times when the +exigencies of life require excessively prolonged wakefulness, +caffein may be used as the most powerful agent known for producing +wakefulness. In a series of experiments, J. Hughes Bennett found +that within narrow limits there is a direct physiological +antagonism between caffein and morphine. Coffee and caffein in +narcotic poisoning are of value as a means of keeping the patient +awake, and of stimulating the respiratory centres.</p> + +<p class="quot">As a cardiac stimulant, caffein may be used in any form of heart +failure; the indications for its use are those which call for the +employment of digitalis. It is superior to digitalis in never +disagreeing with the stomach, in having no distinctive cumulative +tendency, and in the promptness of its action. It is pronouncedly +inferior to digitalis in the power and certainty of its action, and +in the permanence of its influence once asserted. As a diuretic it +is superior; it is very valuable in the treatment of <i>cardiac +dropsies</i>, and is often useful in <i>chronic Bright's disease</i> when +there is no irritation of the kidneys.</p> + +<p class="quot">On account of its tendency to produce wakefulness, it is usually +better to mass the doses early in the day, at least six hours being +left between the last dose and the ordinary time for sleep. From +eight to fifteen grams (of caffein) may be given in the course of a +day in severe cases. If tried, it would probably prove a useful +drug in cases of <i>sudden collapse</i> from various causes.</p></div> + +<p>Good effects of coffee are recounted by Thompson.<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">It removes the sensation of fatigue in the muscles, and increases +their functional activity; it allays hunger to a limited extent; it +strengthens the heart action; it acts as a diuretic, and increases +the excretion of urea; it has a mildly sudorific influence; it +counteracts nervous exhaustion and stimulates nerve centers. It is +used sometimes as a nervine in cases of migraine, and there are +many persons who can sustain prolonged mental fatigue and strain +from anxiety and worry much better by the use of strong black +coffee. In low delirium, or when the nervous system is overcome by +the use of narcotics or by excessive hemorrhage, strong black +coffee is serviceable to keep the patient from falling into the +drowsiness which soon merges into coma. In such cases as much as +half a pint of strong black coffee may be injected into the rectum.</p> + +<p class="quot">Strong coffee with a little lemon juice or brandy is often useful +in overcoming a malarial chill or a paroxysm of asthma. It is a +useful temporary cardiac stimulant for children suffering collapse.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Restrepo,<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> of Medellin, Colombia, claims to have cured many +cases of chronic malaria and related diseases with infusion of green +coffee, after quinine had failed. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> states that tincture of +green coffee is a natural and efficacious specific for cholera, and that +she knows of more than a thousand eases of cholera and diarrhea which +have been treated with it without an isolated case of failure. +Landanabileo has been quoted as using raw coffee infusion in hepatic and +nephritic diseases, venal and hepatic colics, and in diabetes.</p> + +<p>In the Civil War, surgeons utilized coffee in allaying malarial fever +and other maladies with which they had to contend, often under the most +trying conditions, and with severely limited means of combating +disease.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> Its effect is to counteract the depressant action of low +and miasmatic atmospheres, opening the secretions which they have +checked. Travelers from the colder climes soon find that the fragrant +cup of coffee is a corrective to derangements of the liver resulting +from climatic conditions.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a></p> + +<p>Dr. Guillasse, of the French Navy, in a paper on typhoid fever, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Coffee has given us unhoped for satisfaction, and after having +dispensed it we find, to our great surprise, that its action is as +prompt as it is decisive. No sooner have our patients taken a few +tablespoonfuls of it, than their features become relaxed and they +come to their senses. The next day the improvement is such that we +are tempted to look upon coffee as a specific against typhoid +fever. Under its influence the stupor is dispelled, and the patient +arouses from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> the state of somnolency in which he has been since +the invasion of the disease. Soon all the functions take their +natural course, and he enters upon convalescence.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p></div> + +<p>Also it has been reported that in extreme cases of yellow fever, coffee +has been used most effectively by many physicians as the main reliance +after all other well known remedies have been administered and failed.</p> + +<p>According to Lorand,<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> the use of coffee in gout is strictly +prohibited by Umber and Schittenhelm; but he considered it a mistake +absolutely to forbid coffee, as, when a person has good kidneys, the +small amount of uric acid furnished by the caffein can readily be +eliminated. A curious remedy for gout and rheumatism, the efficacy of +which the writer scouts, is said to be<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a>—a pint of hot, strong, +black coffee, which must be perfectly pure, and seasoned with a +teaspoonful of pure black pepper, thoroughly mixed before drinking, and +the preparation taken just before going to bed. If this has any value, +it is probably purely psychological in its function.</p> + +<p>Several writers<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> attribute amblyopia and other affections of the +sight to coffee and chicory, without giving much conclusive experimental +data. Beer,<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a> a Vienna oculist, however, held that the vapor from +pure, hot, freshly-made coffee is beneficial to the eyes.</p> + +<p>Coffee and caffein are physiologically antagonistic to the common +narcotics, nicotine, morphine, opium, alcohol, etc., and are frequently +used as antidotes for these poisons. Binz found that dogs that have been +stupified with alcohol could be awakened with coffee. It may thus be +prescribed for hard drinkers to counteract the baleful excitability +produced by alcohol; in fact, many topers taper off after a long debauch +with coffee containing small amounts of alcoholic beverages. Considering +its ability to counteract the slow intoxication of tobacco, it may be +inferred that coffee is indispensable for hard smokers.</p> + +<p>In general, the medicinal value of coffee may be said to be directly +attributable to its caffein content, although its antiseptic properties +are dependent upon the volatile aromatic constituents. Its function is +to raise and to sustain vitalities which have been lowered by disease or +drugs. Although some of the cures attributed to it are probably purely +traditional; still, it must be admitted, that by utilizing its +stimulating qualities in many illnesses the patient may be carried past +the danger point into convalescence.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Physiological Action of "Caffetannic Acid"</i></p> + +<p>It has been demonstrated in chapter XVII that there is no definite +compound "caffetannic acid," and that the heterogeneous material +designated by this name does not possess the properties of tanning. +Further substantiation of this contention, and more evidence of the +innocuous character of the tannin-like compounds in coffee, are +contained in the testimony of Sollmann.<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> "Tannins precipitate +proteins, gelatine, and connective tissue, and thus act as astringents, +styptics, and antiseptics. The different tannins are not equivalent in +these respects. Some (which are perhaps misnamed) such as those of +coffee and ipecac, are practically non-precipitant.... On the whole, one +may say that the small quantities of tannin ordinarily taken with the +food and drink are not injurious, but that large quantities (excessive +tea drinking) are certainly deleterious. The tannin of coffee is +scarcely astringent, and, therefore, lacks this action," which is proven +by the fact that it does not precipitate proteins.</p> + +<p>"It has been claimed that 'caffetannic acid' injures the stomach walls, +but there is no evidence that this is so."<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a> Wiley,<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> in reporting +some of his experiments, says: "Apparently the efforts to saddle the +injurious effects of coffee-drinking upon caffetannic acid in any form +in which it may exist in the coffee-extract are not supported by these +recent data." The fact that tannins retard intestinal peristalsis, +whereas coffee promotes this digestive action, lends further proof to +the non-existence of tannin in coffee. These statements by eminent +authorities may be consolidated into the verity that there is no tannin, +in the true sense of the term, in coffee; and that the constituents of +the coffee brew which have been so designated are physiologically +harmless.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Physiological Action of Caffeol</i></p> + +<p>The evidence regarding the physiological action of caffeol is +contradictory in many cases. J. Lehmann found in 1853, that the +"empyreumatic oil of coffee, <i>caffeone</i>," is active; but more recent +investigations have yielded results at variance with this. Hare and +Marshall<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> believe that they proved it to be active. E.T. +Reichert,<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> however, found it inactive in dogs, excepting in so far +that, when given intravenously, it mechanically interfered with the +circulation. With it Binz<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> was able to produce in man only feeble +nervous excitement, with restlessness and increase in the rate and depth +of respirations.</p> + +<p>The general effects, as summated by Sollmann<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> are, for <i>small +doses</i>, pleasant stimulation; increased respiration; increased heart +rate, but fall of blood pressure; muscular restlessness; insomnia; +perspiration; congestion; for <i>large doses</i>, increased peristalsis and +defecation; depression of respiration and heart; fall of blood pressure +and temperature; paralytic phenomena. It is doubtful whether the +quantities taken in the beverage cause any direct central stimulation.</p> + +<p>Investigations have also been conducted with the various known +constituents of this "coffee oil." Erdmann<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a> found that in doses of +between 0.5 and 0.6 gram per kilo of body weight, furane-alcohol kills a +rabbit by respiratory paralysis; and that the symptoms of poisoning are +a short primary excitement, salivation, diarrhea, respiratory +depression, continuous fall of the body temperature, and death from +collapse with respiratory failure. In man, doses of from 0.6 to 1 gram +of furane-alcohol increased respiratory activity without producing other +symptoms.</p> + +<p>However, man is not as susceptible to these compounds as are the smaller +animals. But even if their relative susceptibility be assumed to be the +same, the lethal dose given the rabbit is equivalent to giving a +140-pound man one dose containing the furane-alcohol content of over +5,000 cups of coffee. Thus, in view of the very apparent minuteness of +the quantity of this compound present in one cup of coffee, together +with the fact that it is not cumulative in its physiological action, the +importance of its toxic properties becomes very inconsequential to even +the most profuse and inveterate coffee drinkers.</p> + +<p>Burmann<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> reported the volatile principle to have a reducing action +on the hemoglobin; a depressing effect on the blood pressure; a +depressant action on the central nervous system, disturbing the cardiac +rhythm; and an action on the respiratory centers, causing dyspnea. The +report of Sayre<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> regarding the minimum lethal dose of the +concentrated combined active principles of coffee obtained from dry +distillation is, for frogs, administered intraperitoneally and +subcutaneously, 0.03 cubic centimeters per gram of body weight; for +guinea pigs per stomach, 7.0 cc. per kilogram of body weight, and +administered intravenously and intraperitoneally, about 1.0 cc. per +kilogram.</p> + +<p>This evidence regarding the physiological action of caffeol can not in +any wise be construed to indicate a harmfulness of coffee. The +percentage of these volatile substances in a cup of coffee infusion is +so low as to be relatively negligible in its action. And, again, the +caffein content of the brew, as will be seen, tends to counteract any +possible desultory effects of the caffeol.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>General Physiological Action of Caffein</i></p> + +<p>More attention has been given to the study of the physiological action +of caffein than to that of the other individual constituents of coffee. +Since certain of the effects of coffee drinking have been attributed to +this alkaloid, a brief presentment of the pharmacology of caffein will +be given as an exposition of the many statements made regarding it. +According to the <i>British Pharmaceutical Codex</i><a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Caffein exerts three important actions: (1) on the central nervous +system: (2) on muscles, including cardiac: and (3) on the kidney. +The action on the central nervous system is mainly on that part of +the brain connected with psychical functions. It produces a +condition of wakefulness and increased mental activity. The +interpretation of sensory impressions is more perfect and correct, +and thought becomes clearer and quicker. With larger doses of +caffein the action extends from the psychical areas to the motor +area and to the cord, and the patient becomes at first restless and +noisy, and later may show convulsive movements.</p> + +<p class="quot">Caffein facilitates the performance of all forms of physical work, +and actually increases the total work which can be obtained from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +muscle. On the normal man, however, it is impossible to say how +much of the action on the muscle is central and how much +peripheral, but, as fatigue shows itself first by an action on the +center, it is probable that the action of caffein in diminishing +fatigue is mainly central. Caffein accelerates the pulse and +slightly raises blood pressure. It has no action in any way +resembling digitalis; by increasing the irritability of the cardiac +muscle, its prolonged use rather tends to fatigue than to rest the +heart.</p> + +<p class="quot">Caffein and its allies form a very important group of diuretics. +The urine is generally of a lower specific gravity than normal, +since it contains a lesser proportion of salt and urea; but the +total excretion of solids, both as regards urea, uric acid, and +salts, is increased. Caffein, by exciting the medulla, produces an +initial vaso-constriction of the kidneys, which tends at first to +retard the flow of urine. So in recent years, other drugs have been +introduced, allies of caffein, which act like it on the kidneys, +but are without the stimulant action on the brain. Theobromine is +such a drug.</p></div> + +<p>Another authority states that<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">One of the most constant symptoms produced in man by over-doses of +caffein is excessive diuresis, and experiments made upon the lower +animals show that caffein acts as a diuretic not only by +influencing the circulation, but also by directly affecting the +secreting cells, the probabilities being in favor of the first of +these theories of action. According to Schroeder, not only the +water but also the solids of the urine are increased.</p> + +<p class="quot">The question whether caffein has an influence upon tissue changes +and the consequent nitrogenous elimination can not be considered as +distinctly answered, though the most probable conclusion is that +the action of caffein upon urea elimination and upon general +nutrition is not direct or pronounced. While the therapeutic dose +of caffein is broken up in the body with the formation of +methylxanthin, which escapes with the urine, the toxic dose is at +least in part eliminated by the kidney unchanged.</p></div> + +<p>The metabolism of the methyl purins, of which group caffein is a member, +appears to vary with the quantity ingested. The manner in which the +methyl group is liberated by the cell protoplasm is said<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> to +determine the amount of stimulus which the tissues receive from these +substances. The xanthin group is almost without any excitatory action, +and its metabolic end products are constant. Perhaps the variation in +the excretions of unchanged methylpurins is dependent upon the amount of +total reactive energy they invoke.</p> + +<p>Baldi<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a> found that caffein in small doses increases muscular +excitability in dogs and frogs. The spinal and muscular hyperic +excitability produced by caffein is, in his opinion, due to the methyl +groups attached to the xanthin nucleus. Fredericq<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> states that +caffein increases the irritability of the cardiac vagus and accelerates +the appearance of pseudofatigue of the vagus which is produced by +prolonged stimulation of the nerve. The action of caffein on the +mammalian heart has also been investigated by Pilcher,<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> who found +that, following the rapid intravenous injection of caffein, there is an +acute fall of blood pressure; and with a maximal quantity of caffein, 10 +milligrams per kilogram, the cardiac volume and the amplitude of the +excursions are usually unchanged. With larger quantities, the volume +progressively increases and the amplitude of the excursion decreases.</p> + +<p>Salant<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> found that the intravenous injection of 15 to 25 milligrams +of caffein per kilogram in animals was followed by a fall of blood +pressure amounting to 7 to 35 percent in most cases, which was +transitory, although in some animals it remained unchanged. A moderate +rise was rarely observed. Caffein aids the action of nitrates, +acetanilid, ethyl alcohol and amyl alcohol, and increases the toxicity +of barium chloride. In a very thorough study of the toxicity of caffein +which he made with Reiger,<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> a greater toxicity of about 15 to 20 +percent by subcutaneous injection than by mouth, and but about one-half +this when injected peritoneally, was found. Intramuscularly the toxicity +is 30 percent greater than subcutaneously. In making the tests on +animals, they found that individuality, season, age, species, and +certain pathological conditions caused variation in the toxic effect of +the administered caffein. Low protein diet tends to decrease resistance +to caffein in dogs, and a milk or meat diet does the same for growing +dogs. Caffein is not cumulative for the rabbit or dog.</p> + +<p>As a result of experiments on the action of caffein on the bronchiospasm +caused by peptone (Witte), silk peptone, B-imidoazolyl-ethylamin, +curare, vasodilation, and mucarin, Pal<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a> concluded that caffein +stimulates certain branches of the peripheral sympathetic and is thus +enabled to widen the bronchi or remove bronchiospasm.</p> + +<p>According to Lapicque<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a>, caffein produces a change in the +excitability of the medulla of the frog similar to that produced by +raising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> the temperature of the nerve centers. Schürhoff<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> has +pointed out that the continued use of large quantities of caffein will +produce cardiac irregularity and sleeplessness.</p> + +<p>Cochrane<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> cited three cases where caffein was hypodermically +administered in cases of acute indigestion, etc., and concluded that the +cases prove that caffein, or a compound containing it as a synergist, +does indirectly make the injection of morphia a safe proceeding, and +directly increases the force of the heart and arterial tension. However, +Wood<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> found that medium doses of caffein do not produce any marked +rise in blood pressure, and cause a reduction in pulse rate. He +attributes the contradictory results which prior investigations gave, to +employment of unusually large doses and to inaccurate experimental +methods.</p> + +<p>Caffein was found by Nonnenbruch and Szyszka<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> to have a slight +action toward accelerating the coagulation time of the blood, being +active over several hours. It inhibits coagulation <i>in vitrio</i>. Its +action in the body apparently rests on an increase of the fibrin +ferment. There is no reason to believe that the behavior is dependent on +a toxic action, but there is probably an action on the spleen; for in +several rabbits from which the spleen was removed, no action was +observed.</p> + +<p>Experiments conducted by Levinthal<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> gave no positive information as +to the formation of uric acid from caffein in the human organism. The +elimination of caffein has also been studied by Salant and Reiger<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a>, +who found that larger amounts of caffein are demethylated in carnivora +than in herbivora, and resistance to caffein is inversely as +demethylation, caffein being much more toxic in the former class. In a +similar investigation, Zenetz<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> observed that caffein is very +slightly eliminated from the system by the kidneys, and that its action +on the heart is cumulative; therefore he concludes that it is +contra-indicated in all renal diseases, in arterio-sclerosis, and in +cardiac affections secondary to them. The inaccuracy of these +conclusions regarding the non-elimination of caffein and those of +Albanese,<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> Bondzynski and Gottlieb<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a>, Leven<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a>, +Schurtzkwer<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a>, and Minkowski<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a>, has been shown by Mendel and +Wardell<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a>, who point out that many of these experimenters worked with +dogs, in which the chief end-product of purin metabolism is not uric +acid, but allantoin. They observe that the increase in excretion of uric +acid after the addition of caffein to the diet seems to be proportional +to the quantity of caffein taken, and equivalent to from 10 to 15 +percent of the ingested caffein. The remainder of the caffein is +probably eliminated as mono-methylpurins.</p> + +<p>Regarding the alleged cumulative action of caffein, Pletzer<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a>, +Liebreich,<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> Szekacs<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a>, Pawinski,<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> and Seifert<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a> all +concluded from their investigations that the action of caffein is +usually of brief duration, and does not have a cumulative effect, +because of its rapid elimination; so that there is no danger of +intoxication.</p> + +<p>Dr. Oswald Schmiedeberg says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Caffein is a means of refreshing bodily and mental activity, so +that this may be prolonged when the condition of fatigue has +already begun to produce restraint, and to call for more severe +exertion of the will, a state which, as is well known, is painful +or disagreeable.</p> + +<p class="quot">This advantageous effect, in conditions of fatigue, of small +quantities of caffein, as it is commonly taken in coffee or tea, +might, however, by continued use become injurious, if it were in +all cases necessarily exerted; that is to say, if by caffein the +muscles and nerves were directly spurred on to increased activity. +This is not the case, however, and just in this lies the +peculiarity of the effect in question. The muscles and the +simultaneously-acting nerves only under the influence of caffein +respond more easily to the impulse of the will, but do not develop +spontaneous activity; that is, without the co-operation of the +will.</p> + +<p class="quot">The character of caffein action makes plain that these food +materials do not injure the organism by their caffein content, and +do not by continued use cause any chronic form of illness.</p></div> + +<p>According to Dr. Hollingworth's<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> deductions, caffein is the only +known stimulant that quickens the functions of the human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> body without a +subsequent period of depression. His explanation for this behavior is +that "caffein acts as a lubricator for the nervous system, having an +actual physical action whereby the nerves are enabled to do their work +more easily. Other stimulants act on the nerves themselves, causing a +waste of energy, and consequently, according to nature's law, a period +of depression follows, and the whole process tends to injure the human +machine." In not a single instance during his experiments at Columbia +University did depression follow the use of caffein.</p> + +<p>Of course, caffein, like any other alkaloid, if used to excess will +prove harmful, due to the over-stimulation induced by it. However, taken +in moderate quantities, as in coffee and tea by normal persons, the +conclusions of Hirsch<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a> may be taken as correct, namely: caffein is a +mild stimulant, without direct effect on the muscles, the effect +resulting from its own destruction and being temporary and transitory; +it is not a depressant either initially or eventually; and is not +habit-forming but a true stimulant, as distinguished from sedatives and +habit-forming drugs.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Caffein and Mental and Motor Efficiency</i></p> + +<p>The literature on the influence of caffein on fatigue has been +summarized, and the older experiments clearly pointed out, by +Rivers<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a>. A summary of the most important researches which have had +as their object the determination of the influence of caffein on mental +and motor processes has been made by Hollingworth<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a>, from whose +monograph much of the following material has been taken.</p> + +<p>Increase in the force of muscular contractions was demonstrated in 1892 +by De Sarlo and Barnardini<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> for caffein and by Kraepelin for tea. +These investigators used the dynamometer as a measure of the force of +contraction; however, most of the subsequent work on motor processes has +been by the ergographic method. Ugolino Mosso<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a>, Koch<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a>. +Rossi<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a>, Sobieranski<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>, Hoch and Kraepelin,<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> Destrée,<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> +Benedicenti,<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a> Schumberg,<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> Hellsten,<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> and Joteyko,<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> have +all observed a stimulating effect of caffein on ergographic performance. +Only one investigation of those reported by Rivers failed to find an +appreciable effect, that of Oseretzkowsky and Kraepelin,<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a> while +Feré<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a> affirms that the effect is only an acceleration of fatigue.</p> + +<p>In spite of the general agreement as to the presence of stimulation +there is some dissension regarding whether only the height of the +contractions or their number or both are affected. As might be expected +from the great diversity of methods employed, the quantitative results +also have varied considerably. Carefully controlled experiments by +Rivers and Webber<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a> "confirm in general the conclusion reached by all +previous workers that caffein stimulates the capacity for muscular work; +and it is clear that this increase is not due to the various psychical +factors of interest, sensory stimulation, and suggestion, which the +experiments were especially designed to exclude. The greatest increase +... falls, however, far short of that described by some previous +workers, such as Mosso; and it is probable that part of the effect +described by these workers was due to the factors in question."</p> + +<p>Investigations of mental processes under the influence of caffein have +been much less frequent, most notable among which are those of Dietl and +Vintschgau,<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a> Dehio,<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> Kraepelin and Hoch,<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> Ach,<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a> +Langfeld,<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a> and Rivers.<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a> Kraepelin<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> observes: "We know that +tea and coffee increase our mental efficiency in a definite way, and we +use these as a means of overcoming mental fatigue ... In the morning +these drinks remove the last traces of sleepiness and in the evening +when we still have intellectual tasks to dispose of they aid in keeping +us awake." Their use induces a greater briskness and clearness of +thought, after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> which secondary fatigue is either entirely absent or is +very slight.</p> + +<p>Tendency toward habituation of the pyschic functions to caffein has been +studied by Wedemeyer<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a>, who found that in the regular administration +of it in the course of four to five weeks there is a measurable +weakening of its action on psychic processes.</p> + +<p>Rivers<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a>, who seems to have been the first to appreciate fully the +genuine and practical importance of thoroughly controlling the +psychological factors that are likely to play a rôle in such +experiments, concludes that "caffein increases the capacity for both +muscular and mental work, this stimulating action persisting for a +considerable time after the substance has been taken without there being +any evidence, with moderate doses, of reaction leading to diminished +capacity for work, the substance thus really diminishing and not merely +obscuring the effects of fatigue."</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Effects of Caffein on Mental and Motor Processes"> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='8'><span class="smcap">Effect of Caffein on Mental and Motor Processes</span><br /> + Schematic Summary of All Results<br /> + St.=Stimulation. 0=No effect. Ret.=Retardation.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center' colspan='2'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="ampm">PRIMARY EFFECT</span></td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='center'>Process</td> + <td class='center'>Tests</td> + <td class='center'>Small<br />Doses</td> + <td class='center'>Medium<br />Doses</td> + <td class='center'>Large<br />Doses</td> + <td class='center'>Secondary<br />Reaction</td> + <td class='center'>Action Time<br />Hours</td> + <td class='center'>Duration<br />in Hours</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Motor speed</td> + <td align='left'>1. Tapping</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center'>.75–1.5</td> + <td align='center'>2–4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Coordination</td> + <td align='left'>2. Three-hole</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>0</td> + <td align='center'>Ret.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center'>1–1.5</td> + <td align='center'>3–4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>3. Typewriting</td> + <td align='center' colspan='6'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>(a) Speed</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>0</td> + <td align='center'>Ret.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2' rowspan='2'>Results show only in total<br />days' work</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>(b) Errors</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'>Fewer for all doses</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Association</td> + <td align='left'>4. Color-naming</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center'>2–2.5</td> + <td align='center'>3–4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>5. Opposites</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center'>2.5–3</td> + <td align='center'>Next day</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>6. Calculation</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center'>2.5</td> + <td align='center'>Next day</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Choice</td> + <td align='left'>7. Discrimination reaction time</td> + <td align='center'>Ret.</td> + <td align='center'>0</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center'>2–4</td> + <td align='center'>Next day</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>8. Cancellation</td> + <td align='center'>Ret.</td> + <td align='center'>?</td> + <td align='center'>St.</td> + <td align='center'>None</td> + <td align='center'>3–5</td> + <td align='center'>No data</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>9. S-W illusion</td> + <td align='center'>0</td> + <td align='center'>0</td> + <td align='center'>0</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>General</td> + <td align='left'>10. Steadiness</td> + <td align='center'>?</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>Unsteadiness</td> + <td align='center'>None </td> + <td align='center'>1–3</td> + <td align='center'>3–4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>11. Sleep quality</td> + <td align='left' colspan='3' rowspan='3'>Individual differences<br /> + depending on body weight<br />and conditions of<br />administration</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>12. Sleep quantity</td> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'>2 ?</td> + <td align='center'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='left'>13. General health</td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'> </td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Subsequent to these investigations was that of Hollingworth<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> which +is at once the most comprehensive, carefully conducted, and +scientifically accurate one yet performed. He employed an ample number +of subjects in his experimentation; and both his subjects, and the +assistants who recorded the observations, were in no wise cognizant of +the character or quantity of the dose of caffein administered, the other +experimental conditions being similarly rigorous and extensive.</p> + +<p>The purpose of his study was to determine both qualitatively and +quantitatively the effect of caffein on a wide range of mental and motor +processes, by studying the performance of a considerable number of +individuals for a long period of time, under controlled conditions; to +study the way in which this influence is modified by such factors as the +age, sex, weight, idiosyncrasy, and previous caffein habits of the +subjects, and the degree to which it depends on the amount of the dose +and the time and conditions of its administration; and to investigate +the influence of caffein on the general health, quality and amount of +sleep, and food habits of the individual tested.</p> + +<p>To obtain this information the chief tests employed were the steadiness, +tapping, coordination, typewriting, color-naming, calculations, +opposites, cancellation, and discrimination tests, the familiar +size-weight illusion, quality and amount of sleep, and general health +and feeling of well-being. A brief review of the results of these tests +is given in the tabular summary.</p> + +<p>From these Hollingworth concluded that caffein influenced all the tests +in a given group in much the same way. The effect on motor processes +comes quickly and is transient, while the effect on higher mental +processes comes more slowly and is more persistent. Whether this result +is due to quicker reaction on the part of motor-nerve centers, or +whether it is due to a direct peripheral effect on the muscle tissue is +uncertain, but the indications are that caffein has a direct action on +the muscle tissue, and that this effect is fairly rapid in appearance. +The two principal factors which seem to modify the degree of caffein +influence are <i>body weight</i> and <i>presence of food</i> in the stomach at the +time of ingestion of the caffein. In practically all of the tests the +magnitude of the caffein influence varied inversely with the body +weight, and was most marked when taken on an empty stomach or without +food substance. This variance in action was also true for both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> the +quality and amount of sleep, and seemed to be accentuated when taken on +successive days; but it did not appear to depend on the age, sex, or +previous caffein habits of the individual. Those who had given up the +use of caffein-containing beverages during the experiment did not report +any craving for the drinks as such, but several expressed a feeling of +annoyance at not having some sort of a warm drink for breakfast.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that he also found a complete absence of any +trace of secondary depression or of any sort of secondary reaction +consequent upon the stimulation which was so strikingly present in many +of the tests. The production of an increased capacity for work was +clearly demonstrated, the same being a genuine drug effect, and not +merely the effect of excitement, interest, sensory stimulation, +expectation, or suggestion. However, this study does not show whether +this increased capacity comes from a new supply of energy introduced or +rendered available by the drug action, or whether energy already +available comes to be employed more effectively, or whether fatigue +sensations are weakened and the individual's standard of performance +thereby raised. But they do show that from a standpoint of mental and +productive physical efficiency "the widespread consumption of caffeinic +beverages, even under circumstances in which and by individuals for whom +the use of other drugs is stringently prohibited or decried, is +justified."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Conclusion</i></p> + +<p>Brief summarization of the information available on the pharmacology of +coffee indicates that it should be used in moderation, particularly by +children, the permissible quantity varying with the individual and +ascertainable only through personal observation. Used in moderation, it +will prove a valuable stimulant increasing personal efficiency in mental +and physical labor. Its action in the alimentary régime is that of an +adjuvant food, aiding digestion, favoring increased flow of the +digestive juices, promoting intestinal peristalsis, and not tanning any +portion of the digestive organs. It reacts on the kidneys as a diuretic, +and increases the excretion of uric acid, which, however, is not to be +taken as evidence that it is harmful in gout. Coffee has been indicated +as a specific for various diseases, its functions therein being the +raising and sustaining of low vitalities. Its effect upon longevity is +virtually <i>nil</i>. A small proportion of humans who are very nervous may +find coffee undesirable; but sensible consumption of coffee by the +average, normal, non-neurasthenic person will not prove harmful but +beneficial.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XIX" id="Chapter_XIX"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XIX</span></h2> + +<h3>THE COMMERCIAL COFFEES OF THE WORLD</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North +America, Central America, South America, the West India Islands, +Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies—A +statistical study of the distribution of the principal kinds—A +commercial coffee chart of the world's leading growths, with market +names and general trade characteristics</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">A</span> <span class="caps">study</span> of the geographical distribution of the coffee tree shows that +it is grown in well-defined tropical limits. The coffee belt of the +world lies between the tropic of cancer and the tropic of capricorn. The +principal coffee consuming countries are nearly all to be found in the +north temperate zone, between the tropic of cancer and the arctic +circle.</p> + +<p>The leading commercial coffees of the world are listed in the +accompanying commercial coffee chart, which shows at a glance their +general trade character. The cultural methods of the producing countries +are discussed in chapter XX; statistics in chapter XXII; and the trade +characteristics, in detail, in chapter XXIV, which considers also +countries and coffees not so important in a commercial sense. Mexico is +the principal producing country in the northern part of the western +continent, and Brazil in the southern part. In Africa, the eastern coast +furnishes the greater part of the supply; while in Asia, the Netherlands +Indies, British India, and Arabia lead.</p> + +<p>Within the last two decades there has been an expansion of the +production areas in South America, Africa, and in southeastern Asia; and +a contraction in British India and the Netherlands Indies.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Shifting Coffee Currents of the World</i></p> + +<p>Seldom does the coffee drinker realize how the ends of the earth are +drawn upon to bring the perfected beverage to his lips. The trail that +ends in his breakfast cup, if followed back, would be found to go a +devious and winding way, soon splitting up into half-a-dozen or more +straggling branches that would lead to as many widely scattered regions. +If he could mount to a point where he could enjoy a bird's-eye view of +these and a hundred kindred trails, he would find an intricate +criss-cross of streamlets and rivers of coffee forming a tangled pattern +over the tropics and reaching out north and south to all civilized +countries. This would be a picture of the coffee trade of the world.</p> + +<p>It would be a motion picture, with the rivulets swelling larger at +certain seasons, but seldom drying up entirely at any time. In the main +the streamlets and rivers keep pretty much the same direction and volume +one year after another, but then there is also a quiet shifting of these +currents. Some grow larger, and others diminish gradually until they +fade out entirely. In one of the regions from which they take their +source a tree disease may cause a decline; in another, a hurricane may +lay the industry low at one quick stroke; and in still another, a rival +crop may drain away the life-blood of capital. But for the most part, +when times are normal, the shift is gradual; for international trade is +conservative, and likes to run where it finds a well-worn channel.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p><p>In recent times, of course, the big disturbing element in the coffee +trade was the World War. Whole countries were cut out of the market, +shipping was drained away from every sea lane, stocks were piled high in +exporting ports, prices were fixed, imports were sharply restricted, and +the whole business of coffee trading was thrown out of joint. To what +extent has the world returned to normal in this trade? Were the +stoppages in trade merely temporary suspensions, or are they to prove +permanent? How are the old, long-worn channels filling up again, now +that the dams have been taken away?</p> + +<p>We are now far enough removed from the war to begin to answer these +questions. We find our answer in the export figures of the chief +producing countries, which for the most part are now available in detail +for one or two post-war years. These figures are given in the tables +below; and for comparison, there are also given figures showing the +distribution of exports in 1913 and in an earlier year near the +beginning of the century. These figures, of course, do not necessarily +give an accurate index to normal trade; as in any given year some +abnormal happening, such as an exceptionally large crop or a revolution, +may affect exports drastically as compared with years before and after. +But normally the proportions of a country's exports going to its various +customers are fairly constant one year after another, and can be taken +for any given year as showing approximately the coffee currents of that +period.</p> + +<p>The figures following are for the calendar year unless the fiscal year +is indicated. Where figures could not be obtained from the original +statistical publications, they have been supplied as far as possible +from consular reports.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brazil.</span> The war naturally increased the dependence of Brazil on its +chief customer, and the proportion of the total crop coming to this +country since the war has continued to be large. Shipments to United +States ports in 1920 represented about fifty-four percent of the total +exports. Figures for that year indicate also that France and Belgium +were working back to their normal trade; but that Spain, Great Britain, +and the Netherlands were taking much less coffee than in the year just +before the war. Germany was buying strongly again, her purchases of +72,000,000 pounds being about half as much as in 1913. Shipments to +Italy were four times as heavy as in 1913. The natural return to normal +was much interfered with by speculation and valorization. Brazil seems +to have come through the cataclysmic period of the war in better style +than might have been expected.</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Brazil"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Brazil</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1900<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1920<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>566,686,345</td> + <td align='right'>650,071,337</td> + <td align='right'>826,425,340</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>78,408,862</td> + <td align='right'>244,295,282</td> + <td align='right'>203,694,212</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>6,442,739</td> + <td align='right'>32,559,715</td> + <td align='right'>9,597,378</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>235,131,881</td> + <td align='right'>246,767,144</td> + <td align='right'>72,196,934</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>71,696,556</td> + <td align='right'>134,495,310</td> + <td align='right'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Netherlands</td> + <td align='right'>102,711,887</td> + <td align='right'>196,169,240</td> + <td align='right'>49,760,767</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>17,559,107</td> + <td align='right'>31,364,656</td> + <td align='right'>132,543,798</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Spain</td> + <td align='right'>868,617</td> + <td align='right'>14,407,906</td> + <td align='right'>6,057,833</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>41,500,638</td> + <td align='right'>58,858,562</td> + <td align='right'>42,309,469</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>59,432,882</td> + <td align='right'>145,896,327</td> + <td align='right'>181,796,919</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>1,180,439,514</td> + <td align='right'>1,754,885,479</td> + <td align='right'>1,524,382,650</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The 1900 figures are for the ports of Rio, Santos, Bahia, and Victoria.</p> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1913 included Argentina, 32,941,182 pounds; Sweden, +28,045,737 pounds; Cape Colony, 15,930,731 pounds; Denmark, 6,252,931 +pounds. In 1920 they included Argentina, 37,736,498 pounds; Sweden, +51,026,591 pounds; Denmark, 18,764,483 pounds; Cape Colony, 26,936,653 +pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venezuela.</span> Venezuela's coffee trade was deeply affected by the war; both +because the Germans were prominent in the industry, and because the +regular shipping service to Europe was discontinued. Large amounts of +coffee were piled up at the ports and elsewhere; and when the +restrictions were swept away in 1919, an abnormal exportation resulted. +Although Germany had been one of the chief buyers before the war, +Venezuela was by no means dependent on the German market. In fact, her +combined shipments to France and the United States, just before the war, +were three times as great as her exports to Germany. These two countries +took two-thirds of her total exports in 1920. Spain and the Netherlands +were also prominent buyers.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Venezuela"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Venezuela</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1906<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1920<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>35,704,398</td> + <td align='right'>45,570,268</td> + <td align='right'>43,670,191</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>21,748,370</td> + <td align='right'>46,413,174</td> + <td align='right'>4,647,978</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>5,270,814</td> + <td align='right'>32,203,972</td> + <td align='right'>546,363</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>289,851</td> + <td align='right'>3,015,723</td> + <td align='right'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Spain</td> + <td align='right'>3,133,012</td> + <td align='right'>7,372,839</td> + <td align='right'>15,210,756</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Netherlands</td> + <td align='right'>28,549,920</td> + <td align='right'>2,903,806</td> + <td align='right'>1,836,209</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>315,293</td> + <td align='right'>2,805,948</td> + <td align='right'>719,850</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>404,720</td> + <td align='right'>98,796</td> + <td align='right'>1,518,175</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>2,663,507</td> + <td align='right'>1,631,143</td> + <td align='right'>5,577,110</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>98,079,885</td> + <td align='right'>142,015,669</td> + <td align='right'>73,726,632</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='table3'><br /><a name="COMMERCIAL_COFFEE_CHART" id="COMMERCIAL_COFFEE_CHART"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Commercial Coffee Chart"> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='5'>COMMERCIAL COFFEE CHART</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='5'><i>The World's Leading Growths, with Market Names and General Trade Characteristics</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr2'> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>Grand Division</i></td> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>Country</i></td> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>Principal Shipping<br />Ports</i></td> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>Best Known<br />Market Names</i></td> + <td class='center'><i>Trade Characteristics</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>North America</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mexico</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Vera Cruz</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Coatepec<br />Huatusco<br />Orizaba</td> + <td align='left'>Greenish to yellow<br />bean; mild flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='3'>Central America</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Guatemala</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Puerto Barrios</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cobán<br />Antigua</td> + <td align='left'>Waxy, bluish bean;<br />mellow flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Salvador</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>La Libertad</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santa Ana<br />Santa Tecla</td> + <td align='left'>Smooth, green bean;<br />neutral flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr4'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Costa Rica</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Puerto Limon</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Costa Ricas</td> + <td align='left'>Blue-greenish bean;<br />mild flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='4'>West Indies</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Haiti</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cape Haitien</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Haiti</td> + <td align='left'>Blue bean; rich, fairly<br />acid; sweet flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santo Domingo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santo Domingo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santo Domingo</td> + <td align='left'>Flat, greenish-yellow<br />bean; strong flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Jamaica</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Kingston</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Blue Mountain</td> + <td align='left'>Bluish-green bean;<br />rich, full flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr4'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Porto Rico</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ponce</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Porto Ricans</td> + <td align='left'>Gray-blue bean;<br />strong, heavy flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='4'>South America</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Colombia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Savanilla</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Medellin<br />Manizales, Bogota<br />Bucaramanga</td> + <td align='left'>Greenish-yellow bean;<br />rich, mellow flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Venezuela</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>La Guaira<br />Maracaibo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Merida<br />Cucuta<br />Caracas</td> + <td align='left'>Greenish-yellow bean;<br />mild, mellow flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='2'>Brazil</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santos</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santos</td> + <td align='left'>Small bean; mild flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr4'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Rio de Janeiro</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Rio</td> + <td align='left'>Large bean; strong cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='2'>Asia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Arabia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Aden</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mocha</td> + <td align='left'>Small, short, green<br />to yellow bean;<br />unique, mild flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr4'> + <td class='tdlbr'>India</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Madras<br />Calicut</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mysore<br />Coorg (Kurg)</td> + <td align='left'>Small to large,<br />blue-green bean;<br />strong flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='4'>East India Islands</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Malay States</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Penang (Geo't'n)<br />Singapore</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Straits<br />Liberian, Robusta</td> + <td align='left'>Liberian and Robusta<br />growths from Malaysia.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Sumatra</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Padang</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mandheling<br />Ankola<br />Ayer Bangies</td> + <td align='left'>Large, yellow to<br />brown bean; heavy<br />body; exquisite flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Java</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Batavia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Preanger<br />Cheribon, Kroe</td> + <td align='left'>Small, blue to yellow<br />bean; light in cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr4'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Celebes</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Menado<br />Macassar</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Minahassa</td> + <td align='left'>Large, yellow bean;<br />aromatic cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr4'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Africa</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Abyssinia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Jibuti</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Harar<br />Abyssinia</td> + <td align='left'>Large, blue to yellow<br />bean; very like Mocha.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb2' rowspan='2'>Pacific Islands</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Hawaiian<br />Islands</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Honolulu</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Kona<br />Puna</td> + <td align='left'>Large, blue, flinty<br />bean; mildly acid.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr5'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Philippines</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Manila</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Manila</td> + <td align='left'>Yellow and brown large<br />bean; mild cup.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Colombia.</span> Colombian statistics of foreign trade are issued very +irregularly, and no figures are available to afford comparison between +pre-war and post-war trade. The figures below, however, will show the +comparative amounts of coffee going to the chief buying countries at +different periods. From these it will be seen that the countries mainly +interested in the trade in Colombian coffee are those prominent in the +trade in other tropical American sections. England, France, Germany, and +the United States took the great bulk of the exports. A consular report +written after the outbreak of the war says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Prior to the war the United States took about seventy percent of +Colombia's coffee crop; the remainder being about equally divided +between England, France, and Germany, with England taking the +largest share.</p></div> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Columbia"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Colombia</span>[A]<br /> + (From Barranquilla only) </td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1899<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1905<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1916<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>22,573,828</td> + <td align='right'>7,268,429</td> + <td align='right'>442,026</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>6,873,722</td> + <td align='right'>496,120</td> + <td align='right'>1,685,454</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>9,348,028</td> + <td align='right'>8,568,131</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>17,991,500</td> + <td align='right'>43,518,704</td> + <td align='right'>134,292,858</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>7,396,385</td> + <td align='right'>23,753,678</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>56,787,078</td> + <td align='right'>67,247,769</td> + <td align='right'>160,174,016</td> +</tr> +</table></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[A] These figures are taken from a consular report, which gave +statistics only for the port of Barranquilla and did not include the +total shipments from that port. Shipments from Cartagena, the only other +exporting port of any consequence, amounted to 7,836,505 pounds, +destination not stated. The Barranquilla figures, in the absence of +official statistics, can be taken as fairly representative of the total +trade so far as destination is concerned. They are for fiscal years, +ending June 30.</p></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1916 included Italy, 1,135,137 pounds; Venezuela, +20,564,321 pounds; Dutch West Indies, 400,132 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Central America.</span> The three largest producing countries of Central +America, Guatemala, Salvador, and Costa Rica, were all closely linked to +Germany by the coffee trade before the war. German capital was heavily +invested in coffee plantations; German houses had branches in the +principal cities; and German ships regularly served the chief ports. +Accordingly, when the blockade became effective, these countries were +placed in a difficult position. But fortunately for them, a special +effort had been made shortly before by Pacific-coast interests in the +United States to divert a part of the coffee trade to San Francisco<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> +The market to the east being shut off, these countries turned naturally +to the north. This trade with the United States has apparently been +firmly established, and there has not yet been much of a return to +German ports.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guatemala.</span> Of the three countries named, Guatemala was the most heavily +involved in German trade. In 1913 she sent to Germany 53,000,000 pounds +of coffee, a fifth more than in 1900. Her shipments of more than +10,000,000 pounds to the United Kingdom were about the same as at the +beginning of the century. The war turned both these currents into United +States ports, and they continued to flow in that direction through 1920. +The figures follow:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Guatemala"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Guatemala</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1900<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1920<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>44,416,064</td> + <td align='right'>53,232,910</td> + <td align='right'>452,206</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>14,057,120</td> + <td align='right'>21,188,444</td> + <td align='right'>78,226,508</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United Kingdom</td> + <td align='right'>11,467,680</td> + <td align='right'>10,666,604</td> + <td align='right'>2,341,217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>3,041,584</td> + <td align='right'>6,641,936</td> + <td align='right'>13,185,638</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>72,982,448</td> + <td align='right'>91,729,894</td> + <td align='right'>94,205,569</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1913 included Austria-Hungary, 4,205,400 pounds; +Netherlands, 407,900 pounds. In 1920, they included Netherlands, +10,355,625 pounds; Sweden, 422,421 pounds; Norway, 57,408 pounds; Spain, +97,519 pounds; France, 27,956 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salvador.</span> Salvador is one of the countries in which the publication of +foreign-trade statistics has been irregular in the past, and none is +available to show the full trade in coffee at the beginning of the +century. A consular report gives figures for the first half of 1900. The +most recent statistics show that the United States still holds much of +the trade gained during the war, although Salvador is sending to +Scandinavian countries many millions of pounds of her coffee that came +to the United States in war-time.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Salvador"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Salvador</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1900 (1st 6 mos.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1920<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>6,700,101</td> + <td align='right'>10,779,655</td> + <td align='right'>46,262,256</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>22,948,712</td> + <td align='right'>15,955,920</td> + <td align='right'>6,686,714</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>6,607,892</td> + <td align='right'>12,120,133</td> + <td align='right'>813,166</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>4,396,465</td> + <td align='right'>3,415,187</td> + <td align='right'>4,226,061</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>4,322,003</td> + <td align='right'>9,538,976</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>1,335,626</td> + <td align='right'>3,557,482</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>210,834</td> + <td align='right'>5,508</td> + <td align='right'>3,104</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Spain</td> + <td align='right'>24,799</td> + <td align='right'>377,729</td> + <td align='right'>364,296</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>3,920</td> + <td align='right'>7,193,107</td> + <td align='right'>24,509,071</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>46,550,352</td> + <td align='right'>62,943,697</td> + <td align='right'>82,864,668</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1913 included Norway, 2,070,220 pounds; Sweden, +2,238,332 pounds; Netherlands, 738,694 pounds; Chile, 609,441 pounds; +Russia, 95,625 pounds; Denmark, 140,665 pounds. In 1920, they included +Norway, 10,726,375 pounds; Chile, 1,772,346 pounds; Netherlands, +1,071,614 pounds; Sweden, 9,635,947 pounds; Denmark, 1,061,772 pounds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="MILD-COFFEE_CULTURE_AND_PREPARATION" id="MILD-COFFEE_CULTURE_AND_PREPARATION"></a> +<img src="images/plate8a.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="A Flourishing Coffee Estate in Chiapas, Mexico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Flourishing Coffee Estate in Chiapas, Mexico</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate8b.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="Laborers Bringing in the Day's Pickings, Near Bogota, Colombia" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Laborers Bringing in the Day's Pickings, Near Bogota, Colombia</span><br /> +MILD-COFFEE CULTURE AND PREPARATION</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> English, French, and German capital was heavily invested in +Costa Rica before the war, and all three nations were interested in the +coffee trade. For many years England had maintained the lead as a coffee +customer, and shipments continued in large volume after the war. The +following figures are for the crop year ending September 30:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Costa Rica"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Costa Rica</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1903<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1921<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>6,388,236</td> + <td align='right'>1,625,866</td> + <td align='right'>14,137,605</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>27,756,661</td> + <td align='right'>23,464,827</td> + <td align='right'>13,418,527</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>1,241,816</td> + <td align='right'>741,548</td> + <td align='right'>313,538</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>2,676,841</td> + <td align='right'>2,581,055</td> + <td align='right'>376,649</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>147,925</td> + <td align='right'>288,521</td> + <td align='right'>1,155,066</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>38,211,479</td> + <td align='right'>28,701,817</td> + <td align='right'>29,401,385</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In 1900 total shipments were 35,496,055 pounds, of which 20,587,712 +pounds went to Great Britain; 8,874,014 pounds to the United States; and +3,904,566 pounds to Germany.</p> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1903 included Spain, 49,189 pounds; Italy, 4,104 +pounds. In 1921, they included Netherlands, 837,496 pounds; Spain, +308,308 pounds; Chile, 9,259 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mexico.</span> Mexico has naturally sent most of her coffee across the border +into the United States, and she continued to do so during and after the +war. But she had worked up a very important trade with Europe, chiefly +with Germany; and German capital, and German planters and merchants were +prominent in the industry. France and England also were interested in +the trade, and purchased annually several million pounds. During the +war, as shown by the exports in its final year, this trade almost +entirely ceased, and the United States and Spain remained as the only +consumers of Mexican coffee. Details of the after-war trade are not yet +available in published statistics. In the following table, 1900 and 1918 +are calendar years, and 1913 is a fiscal year.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Mexico"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Mexico</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1900<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1918<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>28,882,954</td> + <td align='right'>28,012,655</td> + <td align='right'>23,816,044</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>10,074,001</td> + <td align='right'>10,461,382</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>163,934</td> + <td align='right'>30,864</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>25,855</td> + <td align='right'>39,722</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Spain</td> + <td align='right'>546,132</td> + <td align='right'>184,941</td> + <td align='right'>6,184,494</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>3,927,294</td> + <td align='right'>4,482,011</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Netherlands</td> + <td align='right'>220,607</td> + <td align='right'>46,296</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>3,848,605</td> + <td align='right'>2,170,669</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td align='right'>467,201</td> + <td align='right'>37,921</td> + <td align='right'>171,527</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>157,653</td> + <td align='right'>347,758</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>655,073</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>48,314,236</td> + <td align='right'>46,469,292</td> + <td align='right'>30,172,065</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In 1913 "other countries" included Panama, 342,131 pounds; Canada, +276,567 pounds; Sweden, 3,079 pounds; British Honduras, 33,179 pounds; +Denmark, 112 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jamaica.</span> The French, more than any other peoples in Europe, have +cultivated a taste for coffee from the West Indies; and France normally +has led all other countries in shipments from the larger producing +islands, including Jamaica, although the island is a British possession. +In the year before the war, France bought nearly 4,000,000 pounds of +Jamaican coffee, more than half the total production. In the year +1900–01 also she took about 4,000,000 pounds, leading all other +countries. This trade was very much cut down during the war, but was not +wiped out. As shown in the figures for 1918, England largely took the +place of France in that year, and Canada increased her purchases several +hundred percent.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Jamaica"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Jamaica</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1901 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1918<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>1,849,456</td> + <td align='right'>671,440</td> + <td align='right'>6,919,808</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canada</td> + <td align='right'>109,536</td> + <td align='right'>263,872</td> + <td align='right'>1,819,328</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>2,976,512</td> + <td align='right'>802,032</td> + <td align='right'>643,888</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>3,958,304</td> + <td align='right'>3,743,264</td> + <td align='right'>729,120</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>104,272</td> + <td align='right'>303,296</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td align='right'>114,800</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Barbados</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>226,464</td> + <td align='right'>26,992</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>508,704</td> + <td align='right'>507,248</td> + <td align='right'>97,440</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>9,621,584</td> + <td align='right'>6,517,616</td> + <td align='right'>10,236,576</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1901 included British West Indies, 316,512 pounds. +In 1913, they included Netherlands, 125,216 pounds; Norway, 28,896 +pounds; Sweden, 70,224 pounds; Italy, 46,592 pounds; Australia, 71,456 +pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haiti.</span> Prior to the taking over of the administration of the customs of +Haiti by the United States, detailed statistics of the exports are +almost wholly lacking. France took most of the annual production, +continuing a trade that dated back to old colonial times. An American +consular report says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">Before the war there was no market for Haitian coffee in the United +States, practically the entire crop going to Europe, with France as +the largest consumer. However, there has been for some time past a +determined effort made to create a demand in the United States, and +this is said to be meeting with ever-increasing success.</p></div> + +<p>The actual success achieved can be measured by the following figures for +the fiscal year ended September 30, 1920:</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Haiti"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Haiti</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>27,647,077</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>23,921,083</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>39,583</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>10,362,351</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>61,970,094</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>These figures do not include 6,322,167 pounds of coffee triage, or +waste, of which the United States took 2,028,352 pounds; France, +1,491,507 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dominican Republic.</span> The comparatively small production of the Dominican +Republic was divided among the United States and three or four European +countries before the war. Since the war the exports have been scattered +among the former customers in varying amounts. Germany is again a buyer, +although her purchases have not come back to anything like the pre-war +level.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from the Dominican Republic"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from the Dominican Republic</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1906<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1920<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>564,291</td> + <td align='right'>506,456</td> + <td align='right'>529,831</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>569,215</td> + <td align='right'>1,248,418</td> + <td align='right'>454,165</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>1,562,193</td> + <td align='right'>327,843</td> + <td align='right'>69,224</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>[B]</td> + <td align='right'>195,294</td> + <td align='right'>51,543</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td align='right'>[B]</td> + <td align='right'>25,628</td> + <td align='right'>132,569</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>[B]</td> + <td align='right'>660</td> + <td align='right'>54,114</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>221,028</td> + <td align='right'>8,154</td> + <td align='right'>70,220</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>2,916,727</td> + <td align='right'>2,312,453</td> + <td align='right'>1,361,666</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[B] No shipments, or included in "other countries."</p></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1920 included only the Netherlands.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porto Rico.</span> In spite of several attempts on the part of Porto-Rican +planters to make their product popular in the markets of the United +States, the American consumer has never found the taste of that coffee +to his liking. The big market for the Porto-Rican product has been Cuba, +which has depended on her neighbor for most of her supply. This demand +takes a large part of the annual crop, including the lower grades. The +better grades, before the war, went largely to Europe, mostly to the +Latin countries. During the war, the Cuban market carried the +Porto-Rican planters through, although shipments of considerable size +continued to go to France and Spain. Recovery of the pre-war trade with +Europe, however, has been slow, Spain being the only country to take +over 1,000,000 pounds in 1920. Shipments to that country totaled +3,472,204 pounds; those to France, 900,868 pounds. Both countries +increased their purchases considerably in 1921.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Porto Rico"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Porto Rico</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1900–01 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1921<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>29,565</td> + <td align='right'>628,843</td> + <td align='right'>211,531</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>3,348,025</td> + <td align='right'>6,020,170</td> + <td align='right'>1,625,065</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Spain</td> + <td align='right'>2,590,096</td> + <td align='right'>6,851,235</td> + <td align='right'>5,705,932</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>386,158</td> + <td align='right'>6,729,726</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>493,891</td> + <td align='right'>876,315</td> + <td align='right'>363,993</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>9,964</td> + <td align='right'>25,867</td> + <td align='right'>234,019</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>611,033</td> + <td align='right'>3,498,157</td> + <td align='right'>43,484</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Netherlands</td> + <td align='right'>8,860</td> + <td align='right'>497,938</td> + <td align='right'>25,199</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sweden</td> + <td align='right'>32,390[C]</td> + <td align='right'>633,046</td> + <td align='right'>266,550</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td align='right'>4,633,538</td> + <td align='right'>23,179,690</td> + <td align='right'>21,135,397</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>13,720</td> + <td align='right'>393,586</td> + <td align='right'>356,709</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>12,157,240</td> + <td align='right'>49,334,573</td> + <td align='right'>29,967,879</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[C] Includes Norway.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hawaii.</span> The war disarranged Hawaii's coffee trade very little, as she +had for many years been shipping chiefly to continental United States. +Recently a considerable trade with the Philippines has developed.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Hawaii"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Hawaii</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1900–02 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1921<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>1,082,994</td> + <td align='right'>3,393,009</td> + <td align='right'>4,183,046</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canada</td> + <td align='right'>77,900</td> + <td align='right'>10,200</td> + <td align='right'>11,355</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Japan</td> + <td align='right'>24,155</td> + <td align='right'>49,167</td> + <td align='right'>23,950</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>2,100</td> + <td align='right'>1,612</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Philippines</td> + <td align='right'>[D]</td> + <td align='right'>932,640</td> + <td align='right'>747,700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>23,349</td> + <td align='right'>49,179</td> + <td align='right'>13,070</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>1,210,498</td> + <td align='right'>4,435,807</td> + <td align='right'>4,979,121</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[D] No exports, or included in "other countries."</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aden.</span> Lying on the edge of the war area and on the road to India, Aden +felt the full force of the disarrangement of commercial traffic by the +war. Ordinarily, Aden is not only the chief outlet for the coffee of the +interior of Arabia—the original "Mocha"—but it is also the +transhipping point for large amounts from Africa and India. The figures +given below relate for the most part to this transhipped coffee. Exports +of coffee from Aden go chiefly to the United Kingdom, France, and the +United States, and to other ports of Arabia and Africa. Before the war +no great proportion went to the Central Powers. The following figures +apply to fiscal years ending March 31:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from Aden"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from Aden</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1901 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1914 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1921 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>1,563,632</td> + <td align='right'>696,976</td> + <td align='right'>466,928</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>2,412,368</td> + <td align='right'>4,300,128</td> + <td align='right'>2,507,344</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>3,789,296</td> + <td align='right'>2,975,840</td> + <td align='right'>814,016</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Egypt</td> + <td align='right'>1,024,576</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>3,108,336</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Arab. Gulf Pts.</td> + <td align='right'>860,160</td> + <td align='right'>852,320</td> + <td align='right'>606,592</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>247,184</td> + <td align='right'>465,136</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>341,152</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>553,952</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>197,568</td> + <td align='right'>811,664</td> + <td align='right'>7,504</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Br. Somaliland</td> + <td align='right'>280,224</td> + <td align='right'>23,408</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>[E] Africa</td> + <td align='right'>337,344</td> + <td align='right'>2,390,640</td> + <td align='right'>292,880</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>1,114,848</td> + <td align='right'>2,500,456</td> + <td align='right'>1,659,504</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>12,168,352</td> + <td align='right'>15,570,520</td> + <td align='right'>9,463,104</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[E] Including adjacent islands, but exclusive of British territory.</p></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1914 included Australia, 222,320 pounds; Perim, +142,016 pounds; Zanzibar, 148,848 pounds; Mauritius,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> 154,672 pounds; +Seychelles, 116,704 pounds; Sweden, 118,720 pounds; Norway, 49,168 +pounds; Russia, 196,448 pounds. In 1921, they included Denmark, 120,624 +pounds; Spain, 124,208 pounds; Massowah, 410,704 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British India.</span> As India's trade before the war was chiefly with the +mother country, with France, and with Ceylon, the return to normal has +been rapid. In the year following the war, these three customers were +again credited with the largest amounts exported from India, except for +shipments to Greece, which took little before the war. The following +figures are for the fiscal years ending March 31:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports from British India"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports from British India</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1901 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1914 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1920 (fis. yr.)<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>15,678,768</td> + <td align='right'>10,343,536</td> + <td align='right'>8,138,144</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ceylon</td> + <td align='right'>1,088,528</td> + <td align='right'>1,428,112</td> + <td align='right'>1,423,072</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>8,430,016</td> + <td align='right'>10,924,816</td> + <td align='right'>9,256,352</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>617,792</td> + <td align='right'>1,021,664</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>126,560</td> + <td align='right'>1,033,088</td> + <td align='right'>25,312</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>123,312</td> + <td align='right'>1,358,896</td> + <td align='right'>8,400</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>23,968</td> + <td align='right'>22,624</td> + <td align='right'>30,912</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>54,096</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>16,576</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Turkey in Asia</td> + <td align='right'>232,176</td> + <td align='right'>501,984</td> + <td align='right'>986,720</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>[F]Africa</td> + <td align='right'>118,272</td> + <td align='right'>113,344</td> + <td align='right'>619,696</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>1,106,784</td> + <td align='right'>2,360,736</td> + <td align='right'>10,021,648</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>27,600,272</td> + <td align='right'>29,108,800</td> + <td align='right'>30,526,832</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[F] Including adjacent islands.</p></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1914 included Netherlands, 238,560 pounds; +Australia, 748,608 pounds; Bahrein Islands, 757,568 pounds. In 1920, +they included Greece, 6,487,376 pounds; Australia, 481,152 pounds; +Bahrein Islands, 1,081,696 pounds; Aden and dependencies, 459,984 +pounds; other Arabian ports, 890,176 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dutch East Indies.</span> The war played havoc with the coffee trade of the +Dutch East Indies, taking away shipping, closing trade routes, and +causing immense quantities of coffee to pile up in the warehouses. When +the war ended, this coffee was released; and trade was consequently +again abnormal, although in the opposite direction from that it took +during war years. The 1920 figures indicate that the trade is working +back into its old channels.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Exports From Dutch East Indies"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exports From Dutch East Indies</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>Exported to</td> + <td align='center'>1900<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1913<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1920[G]<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Netherlands</td> + <td align='right'>81,489,000</td> + <td align='right'>33,323,748[H]</td> + <td align='right'>[H]50,028,815</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Great Britain</td> + <td align='right'>88,000</td> + <td align='right'>981,201</td> + <td align='right'>5,987,598</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>2,560,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,081,715[H]</td> + <td align='right'>5,410,582</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aus.-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>1,153,000</td> + <td align='right'>996,988</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>71,000</td> + <td align='right'>997,715[H]</td> + <td align='right'>75,699</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Egypt</td> + <td align='right'>5,494,000</td> + <td align='right'>104,868</td> + <td align='right'>1,418,313</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>8,408,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,695,180</td> + <td align='right'>17,274,522</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Singapore</td> + <td align='right'>9,952,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,785,580</td> + <td align='right'>8,349,415</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td align='right'>2,965,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,831,732</td> + <td align='right'>10,475,509</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>112,180,000</td> + <td align='right'>63,798,727</td> + <td align='right'>99,020,453</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[G] These figures cover only Java and Madura.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[H] Includes shipments "for orders."</p></div> + +<p>"Other countries" in 1920 included, Norway, 2,606,421 pounds; Sweden, +728,580 pounds; Australia, 1,553,495 pounds; British India, 1,912,541 +pounds; Italy, 1,964,109 pounds; Denmark, 1,191,643 pounds; Belgium, +166,092 pounds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_TREE_IN_BEARING_AT_THE_GOVERNMENTAL_EXPERIMENT_STATION_AT_LAMOA" id="COFFEE_TREE_IN_BEARING_AT_THE_GOVERNMENTAL_EXPERIMENT_STATION_AT_LAMOA"></a> +<img src="images/image136.jpg" width="500" height="631" alt="COFFEE TREE IN BEARING AT THE GOVERNMENTAL EXPERIMENT STATION AT LAMOA, NEAR MANILA, P.I." title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEE TREE IN BEARING AT THE GOVERNMENTAL EXPERIMENT STATION AT LAMOA, NEAR MANILA, P.I.</span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XX" id="Chapter_XX"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XX</span></h2> + +<h3>CULTIVATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia—Coffee +cultivation in general—Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, +propagation, preparing the plantation, shade and wind breaks, +fertilizing, pruning, catch crops, pests, and diseases—How coffee +is grown around the world—Cultivation in all the principal +producing countries</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">F</span><span class="caps">or</span> the beginnings of coffee culture we must go back to the Arabian +colony of Harar in Abyssinia, for here it was, about the fifteenth +century, that the Arabs, having found the plant growing wild in the +Abyssinian highlands, first gave it intensive cultivation. The complete +story of the early cultivation of coffee in the old and new worlds is +told in chapter II, which deals with the history of the propagation of +the coffee plant.</p> + +<p>La Roque<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> was the first to tell how the plant was cultivated and the +berries prepared for market in Arabia, where it was brought from +Abyssinia.</p> + +<p>The Arabs raised it from seed grown in nurseries, transplanting it to +plantations laid out in the foot-hills of the mountains, to which they +conducted the mountain streams by ingeniously constructed small channels +to water the roots. They built trenches three feet wide and five feet +deep, lining them with pebbles to cause the water to sink deep into the +earth with which the trenches were filled, to preserve the moisture from +too rapid evaporation. These were so constructed that the water could be +turned off into other channels when the fruit began to ripen. In +plantations exposed to the south, a kind of poplar tree was planted +along the trenches to supply needful shade.</p> + +<p>La Roque noted that the coffee trees in Yemen were planted in lines, +like the apple trees in Normandy; and that when they were much exposed +to the sun, the shade poplars were regularly introduced between the +rows.</p> + +<p>Such cultivation as the plant received in early Abyssinia and Arabia was +crude and primitive at best. Throughout the intervening centuries, there +has been little improvement in Yemen; but modern cultural methods obtain +in the Harar district in Abyssinia.</p> + +<p>Like the Arabs in Yemen, the Harari cultivated in small gardens, +employing the same ingenious system of irrigation from mountain springs +to water the roots of the plants at least once a week during the dry +season. In Yemen and in Abyssinia the ripened berries were sun-dried on +beaten-earth barbecues.</p> + +<p>The European planters who carried the cultivation of the bean to the Far +East and to America followed the best Arabian practise, changing, and +sometimes improving it, in order to adapt it to local conditions.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Cultivation in General</i></p> + +<p>Today the commercial growers of coffee on a large scale practise +intensive cultivation methods, giving the same care to preparing their +plantations and maintaining their trees as do other growers of grains +and fruits. As in the more advanced methods of arboriculture, every +effort is made to obtain the maximum production of quality coffee +consistent with the smallest outlay of money and labor. Experimental +stations in various parts of the world are constantly working to improve +methods and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> products, and to develop types that will resist disease and +adverse climatic conditions.</p> + +<p>While cultivation methods in the different producing countries vary in +detail of practise, the principles are unchanging. Where methods do +differ, it is owing principally to local economic conditions, such as +the supply and cost of labor, machinery, fertilizers, and similar +essential factors.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Implements_Used_in_Early_Arabian_Coffee_Culture" id="Implements_Used_in_Early_Arabian_Coffee_Culture"></a> +<img src="images/image137.jpg" width="400" height="231" alt="Implements Used in Early Arabian Coffee Culture" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Implements Used in Early Arabian Coffee Culture</span><br /> +1, Plow. 2 and 3, Mattocks. 4, Hatchet and sickle. Top, Seeder +Implement</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Soil.</span> Rocky ground that pulverizes easily—and, if possible, of volcanic +origin—is best for coffee; also, soil rich in decomposed mold. In +Brazil the best soil is known as <i>terra roxa</i>, a topsoil of red clay +three or four feet thick with a gravel subsoil.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Climate.</span> The natural habitat of the coffee tree (all species) is +tropical Africa, where the climate is hot and humid, and the soil rich +and moist, yet sufficiently friable to furnish well drained seed beds. +These conditions must be approximated when the tree is grown in other +countries. Because the trees and fruit generally can not withstand +frost, they are restricted to regions where the mean annual temperature +is about 70° F., with an average minimum about 55°, and an average +maximum of about 80°. Where grown in regions subject to more or less +frost, as in the northernmost parts of Brazil's coffee-producing +district, which lie almost within the south temperate zone, the coffee +trees are sometimes frosted, as was the case in 1918, when about forty +percent of the São Paulo crop and trees suffered.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, the most suitable climate for coffee is a temperate +one within the tropics; however, it has been successfully cultivated +between latitudes 28° north and 38° south.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rainfall.</span> Although able to grow satisfactorily only on well drained +land, the coffee tree requires an abundance of water, about seventy +inches of rainfall annually, and must have it supplied evenly throughout +the year. Prolonged droughts are fatal; while, on the other hand, too +great a supply of water tends to develop the wood of the tree at the +expense of the flowers and fruit, especially in low-lying regions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Altitude.</span> Coffee is found growing in all altitudes, from sea-level up to +the frost-line, which is about 6,000 feet in the tropics. <i>Robusta</i> and +<i>liberica</i> varieties of coffee do best in regions from sea-level up to +3,000 feet, while <i>arabica</i> flourishes better at the higher levels.</p> + +<p>Carvalho says that the coffee plant needs sun, but that a few hours +daily exposure is sufficient. Hilly ground has the advantage of offering +the choice of a suitable exposure, as the sun shines on it for only a +part of the day. Whether it is the early morning or the afternoon sun +that enables the plant to attain its optimum conditions is a question of +locality.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Cross_Section_of_Mountain_Slope_in_Yemen_Arabia_Showing_Coffee_Terraces" id="Cross_Section_of_Mountain_Slope_in_Yemen_Arabia_Showing_Coffee_Terraces"></a> +<img src="images/image138.jpg" width="500" height="132" alt="Cross Section of Mountain Slope in Yemen, Arabia, Showing Coffee Terraces" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cross Section of Mountain Slope in Yemen, Arabia, Showing Coffee Terraces</span><br /> +These miniature plantations are found chiefly along the caravan route +between Hodeida and Sanaa</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="THE_FIRST_STEPS_IN_COFFEE_GROWING" id="THE_FIRST_STEPS_IN_COFFEE_GROWING"></a><br /> +<img src="images/image139.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="Clearing Virgin Forest for a Coffee Estate in Mexico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Clearing Virgin Forest for a Coffee Estate in Mexico</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image140.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Coffee Nursery Under a Bamboo Roof in Colombia" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Nursery Under a Bamboo Roof in Colombia</span><br /> +THE FIRST STEPS IN COFFEE GROWING</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p><p>In Mexico, Romero tells us, the highlands of Soconusco have the +advantage that the sun does not shine on the trees during the whole of +the day. On the higher slopes of the Cordilleras—from 2,500 feet above +sea-level—clouds prevail during the summer season, when the sun is +hottest, and are frequently present in the other seasons, after ten +o'clock in the morning. These keep the trees from being exposed to the +heat of the sun during the whole of the day. Perhaps to this +circumstance is due the superior excellence of certain coffees grown in +Mexico, Colombia, and Sumatra at an altitude of 3,000 feet to 4,000 feet +above sea-level.</p> + +<p>Richard Spruce, the botanist, in his notes on South America, as quoted +by Alfred Russel Wallace,<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a> refers to "a zone of the equatorial Andes +ranging between 4,000 and 6,000 feet altitude, where the best flavored +coffee is grown."</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Propagation.</span> Coffee trees are grown most generally from seeds selected +from trees of known productivity and longevity; although in some parts +of the world propagation is done from shoots or cuttings. The seed +method is most general, however, the seeds being either propagated in +nursery beds, or planted at once in the spot where the mature tree is to +stand. In the latter case—called planting at stake—four or five seeds +are planted, much as corn is sown; and after germination, all but the +strongest plant are removed.</p> + +<p>Where the nursery method is followed, the choicest land of the +plantation is chosen for its site; and the seeds are planted in forcing +beds, sometimes called cold-frames. When the plants are to be +transplanted direct to the plantation, the seeds are generally sown six +inches apart and in rows separated by the same distance, and are covered +with only a slight sprinkling of earth. When the plants are to be +transferred from the first bed to another, and then to the plantation, +the seeds are sown more thickly; and the plants are "pricked" out as +needed, and set out in another forcing bed.</p> + +<p>During the six to seven weeks required for the coffee seed to germinate, +the soil must be kept moist and shaded and thoroughly weeded. If the +trees are to be grown without shade, the young plants are gradually +exposed to the sun, to harden them, before they begin their existence in +the plantation proper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Tree_Nursery_Panajabal_Pochuta_Guatemala" id="Coffee_Tree_Nursery_Panajabal_Pochuta_Guatemala"></a> +<img src="images/image141.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Coffee Tree Nursery, Panajabal, Pochuta, Guatemala" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Tree Nursery, Panajabal, Pochuta, Guatemala</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_JAVA_NETHERLANDS_EAST_INDIES" id="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_JAVA_NETHERLANDS_EAST_INDIES"></a> +<img src="images/plate9a.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="Drying Grounds and Factory in the Preanger Regency" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drying Grounds and Factory in the Preanger Regency</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate9b.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="Native Transport, Field to Factory, at Dramaga, Near Buitenzorg" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Native Transport, Field to Factory, at Dramaga, Near Buitenzorg</span><br /> +COFFEE SCENES IN JAVA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p><p>Considerable experimental work has been done in renewing trees by +grafting, notably in Java; but practically all commercial planters +follow the seed method.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Growing_Under_Shade_Porto_Rico" id="Coffee_Growing_Under_Shade_Porto_Rico"></a> +<img src="images/image142.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Coffee Growing Under Shade, Porto Rico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Growing Under Shade, Porto Rico</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Preparing the Plantation.</span> Before transplanting time has come, the +plantation itself has been made ready to receive the young plants. +Coffee plantations are generally laid out on heavily wooded and sloping +lands, most often in forests on mountainsides and plateaus, where there +is an abundance of water, of which large quantities are used in +cultivating the trees and in preparing the coffee beans for market. The +soil most suitable is friable, sandy, or even gravelly, with an +abundance of rocks to keep the soil comparatively cool and well drained, +as well as to supply a source of food by action of the weather. The +ideal soil is one that contains a large proportion of potassium and +phosphoric acid; and for that reason, the general practise is to burn +off the foliage and trees covering the land and to use the ashes as +fertilizer.</p> + +<p>In preparing the soil for the new plantation under the intensive +cultivation method, the surface of the land is lightly plowed, and then +followed up with thorough cultivation. When transplanting time comes, +which is when the plant is about a year old, and stands from twelve to +eighteen inches high with its first pairs of primary branches, the +plants are set out in shallow holes at regular intervals of from eight +to twelve, or even fourteen, feet apart. This gives room for the root +system to develop, provides space for sunlight to reach each tree, and +makes for convenience in cultivating and harvesting. <i>Liberica</i> and +<i>robusta</i> type trees require more room than <i>arabica.</i> When set twelve +feet apart, which is the general practise, with the same distance +maintained between rows, there are approximately four hundred and fifty +trees to the acre. In the triangle, or hexagon, system the trees are +planted in the form of an equilateral triangle, each tree being the same +distance (usually eight or nine feet) from its six nearest neighbors. +This system permits of 600 to 800 trees per acre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shade and Wind Breaks.</span> Strong, chilly winds and intensely hot sunlight +are foes of coffee trees, especially of the <i>arabica</i> variety. +Accordingly, in most countries it is customary to protect the plantation +with wind-breaks consisting of rugged trees, and to shade the coffee by +growing trees of other kinds between the rows. The shade trees serve +also to check soil erosion; and in the case of the leguminous kinds, to +furnish nutriment to the soil. Coffee does best in shade such as is +afforded by the silk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> oak (<i>Grevillea robusta</i>). In <i>Shade in Coffee +Culture</i> (<i>Bulletin</i> 25, 1901, division of botany, United States +Department of Agriculture), O.F. Cook goes extensively into this +subject.</p> + +<p>The methods employed in the care of a coffee plantation do not differ +materially from those followed by advanced orchardists in the colder +fruit-belts of the world. After the young plants have gained their +start, they are cultivated frequently, principally to keep out the +weeds, to destroy pests, and to aerate the earth. The implements used +range from crude hand-plows to horse-drawn cultivators.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fertilizing.</span> Comparatively little fertilizing is done on plantations +established on virgin soil until the trees begin to bear, which occurs +when they are about three years of age. Because the coffee tree takes +potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid from the soil, the scheme of +fertilizing is to restore these elements. The materials used to replace +the soil-constituents consist of stable manure, leguminous plants, +coffee-tree prunings, leaves, certain weeds, oil cake, bone and fish +meal, guano, wood ashes, coffee pulp and parchment, and such chemical +fertilizers as superphosphate of lime, basic slag, sulphate of ammonia, +nitrate of lime, sulphate of potash, nitrate of potash, and similar +materials.</p> + +<p>The relative values of these fertilizers depend largely upon local +climate and soil conditions, the supply, the cost, and other like +factors. The chemical fertilizers are coming into increasing use in the +larger and more economically advanced producing countries. Brazil, +particularly, is showing in late years a tendency toward their adoption +to make up for the dwindling supply of the so-called natural manures. As +the coffee tree grows older, it requires a larger supply of fertilizer.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="The_Famous_Boekit_Gompong_Estate" id="The_Famous_Boekit_Gompong_Estate"></a> +<img src="images/image143.jpg" width="500" height="292" alt="The Famous Boekit Gompong Estate, Near Padang, on Sumatra's West Coast" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Famous Boekit Gompong Estate, Near Padang, on Sumatra's West Coast</span><br /> +Showing the healthy, regular appearance of well-cultivated coffee +bushes, twenty-six years old. Also note the line of feathery bamboo +wind-breaks</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pruning.</span> On the larger plantations, pruning is an important part of the +cultivation processes. If left to their own devices, coffee trees +sometimes grow as high as forty feet, the strength being absorbed by the +wood, with a consequent scanty production of fruit. To prevent this +undesirable result, and to facilitate picking, the trees on the more +modern plantations are pruned down to heights ranging from six to twelve +feet. Except for pruning the roots when transplanting, the tree is +permitted to grow until after producing its first full crop before any +cutting takes place. Then, the branches are severely cut back; and +thereafter, pruning is carried on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> annually. Topping and pruning begin +between the first and the second years.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Estate_in_Antioquia_Colombia" id="Coffee_Estate_in_Antioquia_Colombia"></a> +<img src="images/image144.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="Coffee Estate in Antioquia, Colombia, Showing Wind-Breaks" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Estate in Antioquia, Colombia, Showing Wind-Breaks</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee trees as a rule produce full crops from the sixth to the +fifteenth year, although some trees have given a paying crop until +twenty or thirty years old. Ordinarily the trees bear from one-half +pound to eight pounds of coffee annually, although there are accounts of +twelve pounds being obtained per tree. Production is mostly governed by +the cultivation given the tree, and by climate, soil, and location. When +too old to bear profitable yields, the trees on commercial plantations +are cut down to the level of the ground; and are renewed by permitting +only the strongest sprout springing out of the stump to mature.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Catch Crops.</span> On some plantations it has become the practise to grow +catch crops between the rows of coffee trees, both as a means of +obtaining additional revenue and to shade the young coffee plants. Corn, +beans, cotton, peanuts, and similar plants are most generally used.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pests and Diseases.</span> The coffee tree, its wood, foliage, and fruit, have +their enemies, chief among which are insects, fungi, rodents (the +"coffee rat"), birds, squirrels, and—according to Rossignon—elephants, +buffalo, and native cattle, which have a special liking for the tender +leaves of the coffee plant. Insects and fungi are the most bothersome +pests on most plantations. Among the insects, the several varieties of +borers are the principal foes, boring into the wood of the trunk and +branches to lay <i>larvae</i> which sap the life from the tree. There are +scale insects whose excretion forms a black mold on the leaves and +affects the nutrition by cutting off the sunlight. Numerous kinds of +beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and crickets attack the coffee-tree +leaves, the so-called "leaf-miner" being especially troublesome. The +Mediterranean fruit fly deposits <i>larvae</i> which destroy or lessen the +worth of the coffee berry by tunneling within and eating the contents of +the parchment. The coffee-berry beetle and its grub also live within the +coffee berry.</p> + +<p>Among the most destructive fungoid diseases is the so-called Ceylon leaf +disease, which is caused by the <i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>, a fungus related +to the wheat rust. It was this disease which ruined the coffee industry +in Ceylon, where it first appeared in 1869,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> and since has been found in +other coffee-producing regions of Asia and Africa. America has a similar +disease, caused by the <i>Sphaerostilbe flavida</i>, that is equally +destructive if not vigilantly guarded against. (<a href="#Chapter_XV">See chapters XV</a> <a href="#Chapter_XVI">and +XVI.</a>)</p> + +<p>The coffee-tree roots also are subject to attack. There is the root +disease, prevalent in all countries, and for which no cause has yet been +definitely assigned, although it has been determined that it is of a +fungoid nature. Brazil, and some other American coffee-producing +countries, have a serious disease caused by the eelworm, and for that +reason called the eelworm disease.</p> + +<p>Coffee planters combat pests and diseases principally with sprays, as in +other lines of advanced arboriculture. It is a constant battle, +especially on the large commercial plantations, and constitutes a large +item on the expense sheet.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Cultivation by Countries</i></p> + +<p>Coffee-cultivation methods vary somewhat in detail in the different +producing countries. The foregoing description covers the underlying +principles in practise throughout the world; while the following is +intended to show the local variations in vogue in the principal +countries of production, together with brief descriptions of the main +producing districts, the altitudes, character of soil, climate, and +other factors that are peculiar to each country. In general, they are +considered in the order of their relative importance as producing +countries.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brazil.</span> In Brazil, the Giant of South America, and the world's largest +coffee producer, the methods of cultivation naturally have reached a +high point of development, although the soil and the climate were not at +first regarded as favorable. The year 1723 is generally accepted as the +date of the introduction of the coffee plant into Brazil from French +Guiana. Coffee planting was slow in developing, however, until 1732, +when the governor of the states of Pará and Maranhao urged its +cultivation. Sixteen years later, there were 17,000 trees in Pará. From +that year on, slow but steady progress was made; and by 1770, an export +trade had been begun from the port of Pará to countries in Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Weeding_and_Harrowing_Satildeo_Paulo" id="Weeding_and_Harrowing_Satildeo_Paulo"></a> +<img src="images/image145.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Up-to-Date Weeding and Harrowing, São Paulo" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Up-to-Date Weeding and Harrowing, São Paulo</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The spread of the industry began about this time. The coffee tree was +introduced into the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1770. From there its +cultivation was gradually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> extended into the states of São Paulo, Minãs +Geraes, Bahia, and Espirito Santo, which have become the great +coffee-producing sections of Brazil. The cultivation of the plant did +not become especially noteworthy until the third decade of the +nineteenth century. Large crops were gathered in the season of 1842–43; +and by the middle of the century, the plantations were producing +annually more than 2,000,000 bags.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fazenda_Dumont_Ribeirao_Preto_Satildeo_Paulo" id="Fazenda_Dumont_Ribeirao_Preto_Satildeo_Paulo"></a> +<img src="images/image146.jpg" width="500" height="266" alt="General View of Fazenda Dumont, Ribeirao Preto, São Paulo, Brazil" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">General View of Fazenda Dumont, Ribeirao Preto, São Paulo, Brazil</span><br /> +<small>Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Brazil's commercial coffee-growing region has an estimated area of +approximately 1,158,000 square miles, and extends from the river Amazon +to the southern border of the state of São Paulo, and from the Atlantic +coast to the western boundary of the state of Matto Grosso. This area is +larger than that section of the United States lying east of the +Mississippi River, with Texas added. In every state of the republic, +from Ceará in the north to Santa Catharina in the south, the coffee tree +can be cultivated profitably; and is, in fact, more or less grown in +every state, if only for domestic use. However, little attention is +given to coffee-growing in the north, except in the state of Pernambuco, +which has only about 1,500,000 trees, as compared, with the 764,000,000 +trees of São Paulo in 1922.</p> + +<p>The chief coffee-growing plantations in Brazil are situated on plateaus +seldom less than 1,800 feet above sea-level, and ranging up to 4,000 +feet. The mean annual temperature is approximately 70° F., ranging from +a mean of 60.8° in winter to a mean of 72° in summer. The temperature +has been known, however, to register 32° in winter and 97.7° in summer.</p> + +<p>While coffee trees will grow in almost any part of Brazil, experience +indicates that the two most fertile soils, the <i>terra roxa</i> and the +<i>massape</i>, lie in the "coffee belts." The <i>terra roxa</i> is a dark red +earth, and is practically confined to São Paulo, and to it is due the +predominant coffee productivity of that state. <i>Massape</i> is a yellow, +dark red—or even black—soil, and occurs more or less contiguous to the +<i>terra roxa</i>. With a covering of loose sand, it makes excellent coffee +land.</p> + +<p>Brazil planters follow the nursery-propagated method of planting, and +cultivate, prune, and spray their trees liberally. Transplanting is done +in the months from November to February.</p> + +<p>Coffee-growing profits have shown a decided falling off in Brazil in +recent years. In 1900 it was not uncommon for a coffee estate to yield +an annual profit of from 100 to 250 percent. Ten years later the average +returns did not exceed twelve percent.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="FAZENDA_GUATAPARA_SAtildeO_PAULO" id="FAZENDA_GUATAPARA_SAtildeO_PAULO"></a> +<img src="images/image147.jpg" width="500" height="308" alt="FAZENDA GUATAPARA, SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL, WITH 800,000 TREES IN BEARING" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">FAZENDA GUATAPARA, SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL, WITH 800,000 TREES IN BEARING</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p><p>In Brazil's coffee belt there are two seasons—the wet, running from +September to March; and the dry, running from April to August. The +coffee trees are in bloom from September to December. The blossoms last +about four days, and are easily beaten off by light winds or rains. If +the rains or winds are violent, the green berries may be similarly +destroyed; so that great damage may be caused by unseasonable rains and +storms.</p> + +<p>The harvest usually begins in April or May, and extends well into the +dry season. Even in the picking season, heavy rains and strong +winds—especially the latter—may do considerable damage; for in Brazil +shade trees and wind-breaks are the exception.</p> + +<p>Approximately twenty-five percent of the São Paulo plantations are +cultivated by machinery. A type of cultivator very common is similar to +the small corn-plow used in the United States. The Planet Junior, +manufactured by a well known United States agricultural-machinery firm, +is the most popular cultivator. It is drawn by a small mule, with a boy +to lead it, and a man to drive and to guide the plow.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Picking_Coffee_in_Satildeo_Paulo" id="Picking_Coffee_in_Satildeo_Paulo"></a> +<img src="images/image148.jpg" width="300" height="247" alt="Picking Coffee in São Paulo" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Picking Coffee in São Paulo</span><br /> +<small>Copyright by Brown & Dawson.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The preponderance of the coffee over other industries in São Paulo is +shown in many ways. A few years ago the registration of laborers in all +industries was about 450,000; and of this total, 420,000 were employed +in the production and transportation of coffee alone. Of the capital +invested in all industries, about eighty-five percent was in coffee +production and commerce, including the railroads that depended upon it +directly. An estimated value of $482,500,000 was placed upon the +plantations in the state, including land, machinery, the residences of +owners, and laborers' quarters.</p> + +<p>In all Brazil, there are approximately 1,200,000,000 coffee trees. The +number of bearing coffee trees in São Paulo alone increased from +735,000,000 in 1914–15 to 834,000,000 in 1917–18. The crop in 1917–18 +was 1,615,000,000 pounds, one of the largest on record. In the +agricultural year of 1922–23 there were 764,969,500 coffee trees in +bearing in São Paulo, and in São Paulo, Minãs, and Parana, 824,194,500.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Intensive_Cultivation_Methods_Satildeo_Paulo" id="Intensive_Cultivation_Methods_Satildeo_Paulo"></a> +<img src="images/image149.jpg" width="500" height="230" alt="Intensive Cultivation Methods in the Ribeirao Preto District, São Paulo" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Intensive Cultivation Methods in the Ribeirao Preto District, São Paulo</span><br /> +<small>Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Plantations having from 300,000 to 400,000 trees are common. One +plantation near Ribeirao Preto has 5,000,000 trees, and requires an army +of 6,000 laborers to work<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> it. Another planter owns thirty-two adjacent +plantations containing, in all, from 7,500,000 to 8,000,000 coffee trees +and gives employment to 8,000 persons. There are fifteen plantations +having more than 1,000,000 trees each, and five of these have more than +2,000,000 trees each. In the municipality of Ribeirao Preto there were +30,000,000 trees in 1922.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Private_Railroad_on_a_Satildeo_Paulo" id="Private_Railroad_on_a_Satildeo_Paulo"></a> +<img src="images/image150.jpg" width="500" height="190" alt="Private Railroad on a São Paulo Coffee Fazenda" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Private Railroad on a São Paulo Coffee Fazenda</span><br /> +<small>Showing coffee trees and laborers' houses in the middle distance at right<br />Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The largest coffee plantations in the world are the Fazendas Dumont and +the Fazendas Schmidt. The Fazendas Dumont were valued, in 1915, in cost +of land and improvements, at $5,920,007; and since those figures were +given out, the value of the investment has much increased. Of the +various Fazendas Schmidt, the largest, owned by Colonel Francisco +Schmidt, in 1918 had 9,000,000 trees with an annual yield of 200,000 +bags, or 26,400,000 pounds, of coffee. Other large plantations in São +Paulo with a million or more trees, are the Companhia Agricola Fazenda +Dumont, 2,420,000 trees; Companhia São Martinho, 2,300,000 trees; +Companhia Dumont, 2,000,000 trees; São Paulo Coffee Company, 1,860,000 +trees; Christiana Oxorio de Oliveira, 1,790,000 trees; Companhia +Guatapara, 1,550,000 trees; Dr. Alfredo Ellis, 1,271,000 trees; +Companhia Agricola Araqua, 1,200,000 trees; Companhia Agricola Ribeirao +Preto, 1,138,000 trees; Rodriguez Alves Irmaos, 1,060,000 trees; +Francisca Silveira do Val, 1,050,000 trees; Luiza de Oliveira Azevedo, +1,045,000 trees; and the Companhia Caféeria São Paulo, 1,000,000 trees.</p> + +<p>The average annual yield in São Paulo is estimated at from 1,750 to +4,000 pounds from a thousand trees, while in exceptional instances it is +said that as much as 6,000 pounds per 1,000 trees have been gathered. +Differences in local climatic conditions, in ages of trees, in richness +of soil, and in the care exercised in cultivation, are given as the +reasons for the wide variation.</p> + +<p>The oldest coffee-growing district in São Paulo is Campinas. There are +136 others.</p> + +<p>Bahia coffee is not so carefully cultivated and harvested as the Santos +coffee. The introduction of capital and modern methods would do much for +Bahia, which has the advantage of a shorter haul to the New York and the +European markets.</p> + +<p>On the average, something like seventy percent of the world's coffee +crop is grown in Brazil, and two-thirds of this is produced in São +Paulo. Coffee culture in many districts of São Paulo has been brought to +the point of highest development; and yet its product is essentially a +quantity, not a quality, one.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Colombia.</span> In Colombia, coffee is the principal crop grown for export. It +is produced in nearly all departments at elevations ranging from 3,500 +feet to 6,500 feet. Chief among the coffee-growing departments are +Antioquia (capital, Medellin); Caldas (capital, Manizales); Magdalena +(capital, Santa Marta); Santander (capital, Bucaramanga); Tolima +(capital, Ibague); and the Federal District (capital, Bogota). The +department of Cundinamarca produces a coffee that is counted one of the +best of Colombian grades. The finest grades are grown in the foot-hills +of the Andes, in altitudes from 3,500 to 4,500 feet above sea level.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_CULTURE_IN_SAtildeO_PAULO" id="COFFEE_CULTURE_IN_SAtildeO_PAULO"></a> +<img src="images/image151.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="The Conducting Sluiceway at Guatapara" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Conducting Sluiceway at Guatapara</span><br /> +<small>The running water carries the picked coffee berries to pulpers and washing tanks</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image152.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="Coffee Picking and Field Transport" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Picking and Field Transport</span><br /> +COFFEE CULTURE IN SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /><a name="HEAVILY_LADEN_COFFEE_TREE_ON_A_BOGOTA" id="HEAVILY_LADEN_COFFEE_TREE_ON_A_BOGOTA"></a> +<img src="images/image153.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="A NEAR VIEW OF A HEAVILY LADEN COFFEE TREE ON A BOGOTA PLANTATION" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A NEAR VIEW OF A HEAVILY LADEN COFFEE TREE ON A BOGOTA PLANTATION</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Picking_Coffee_on_a_Bogota_Plantation" id="Picking_Coffee_on_a_Bogota_Plantation"></a><br /> +<img src="images/image154.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Picking Coffee on a Bogota Plantation" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Picking Coffee on a Bogota Plantation</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Methods of planting, cultivation, gathering, and preparing the Colombian +coffee crop for the market are substantially those that are common in +all coffee-producing countries, although they differ in some small +particulars. About 700 trees are usually planted to the acre, and native +trees furnish the necessary shade. The average yield is one pound per +tree per year.</p> + +<p>While <i>Coffea arabica</i> has been mostly cultivated in Colombia, as in the +other countries of South America, the <i>liberica</i> variety has not been +neglected. Seeds of the <i>liberica</i> tree were planted here soon after +1880, and were moderately successful. Since 1900, more attention has +been given to <i>liberica</i>, and attempts have been made to grow it upon +banana and rubber plantations, which seem to provide all the shade +protection that is needed. <i>Liberica</i> coffee trees begin to bear in +their third year. From the fifth year, when a crop of about 650 pounds +to the acre can reasonably be expected, the productiveness steadily +increases until after fifteen or sixteen years, when a maximum of over +one thousand pounds an acre is attained.</p> + +<p>Antioquia is the largest coffee producing department in the republic, +and its coffee is of the highest grade grown. Medellin, the capital, +where the business interests of the industry are concentrated, is a +handsome white city located on the banks of the Aburra river, in a +picturesque valley that is overlooked by the high peaks of the Andean +range. It is a town of about 80,000 inhabitants, thriving as a +manufacturing center, abundant in modern improvements, and is the center +of a coffee production of 500,000 bags known in the market as Medellin +and Manizales. Another center in this coffee region is the town of +Manizales, perched on the crest of the Andean spurs to dominate the +valley extending to Medellin and the Cauca valley to the Pacific. +There-about many small coffee growers are settled, and several hundred +thousand bags of the beans pass through annually.</p> + +<p>One of the interesting plantations of the country was started a few +years ago in a remote region by an enterprising American investor. It +was located on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountains 3,000 to 5,000 +feet above sea-level, about twenty-five miles from the city of Santa +Marta. An extended acreage of forest-covered land was acquired, about +600 acres of which were cleared and either planted in coffee or reserved +for pasturage and other kinds of agriculture.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> When the plantation came +to maturity, it had nearly 300,000 trees. In 1919, there were 425,000 +trees producing 3,600 hundred-weight of coffee.</p> + +<p>A typical Colombian plantation is the Namay, owned by one of the bankers +of the Banco de Colombia of Bogota. It is located a good half day's +travel by rail and horseback from the city, about 5,000 feet above the +level of the sea. There are 1,000 acres in the plantation, with 250,000 +trees having an ultimate productive capacity of nearly 2,000 bags a +year. During crop times, which are from May to July, about two hundred +families are needed on an estate of this size.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venezuela.</span> Seeds of the coffee plant were brought into Venezuela from +Martinique in 1784 by a priest who started a small plantation near +Caracas. Five years later, the first export of the bean was made, 233 +bags, or about 30,000 pounds. Within fifty years, production had +increased to upward of 50,000,000 pounds annually; and by the end of the +nineteenth century, to more than 100,000,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>Situated between the equator and the twelfth parallel of north latitude, +in the world's coffee belt, this country has an area equal to that of +all the United States east of the Mississippi river and north of the +Ohio and Potomac rivers, or greater than that of France, Germany, and +the Netherlands combined—599,533 square miles.</p> + +<p>The chain of the Maritime Andes, reaching eastward across Colombia and +Venezuela, approaches the Caribbean coast in the latter country. Along +the slopes and foot-hills of these mountains are produced some of the +finest grades of South American coffee. Here the best coffee grows in +the <i>tierra templada</i> and in the lower part of the <i>tierra fria</i>, and is +known as the <i>café de tierra fria</i>, or coffee of the cold, or high, +land. In these regions the equable climate, the constant and adequate +moisture, the rich and well-drained soil, and the protecting forest +shade afford the conditions under which the plant grows and thrives +best. On the fertile lowland valleys nearer the coast grows the <i>café de +tierra caliente</i>, or coffee of the hot land.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Altamira_Hacienda_Venezuela" id="Altamira_Hacienda_Venezuela"></a> +<img src="images/image155.jpg" width="500" height="287" alt="On the Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">On the Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela</span><br /> +<small>The long pipe crossing the center of the picture is a water sluiceway +bringing coffee down from the hills</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee growing has become the main agricultural pursuit of the country. +In 1839 it was estimated that there were 8,900 acres of land planted in +coffee, and in 1888 there were 168,000,000 coffee trees in the country +on 346,000 acres of land. In the opening years of the twentieth century +not far from 250,000 acres were devoted to this cultivation, comprised +in upward of 33,000<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> plantations. The average yield per acre is about +250 pounds. The trees are usually planted from two to two and a quarter +meters apart, and this gives about 800 trees to the acre. The triangle +system is unknown.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Carmen_Hacienda_Venezuela" id="Carmen_Hacienda_Venezuela"></a> +<img src="images/image156.jpg" width="500" height="273" alt="Carmen Hacienda, Fronting on the Escalante River, Venezuela" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Carmen Hacienda, Fronting on the Escalante River, Venezuela</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In this country, the coffee tree bears its first crop when four or five +years old. The trees are not subject to unusual hazards from the attacks +of injurious insects and animals or from serious parasitic diseases. +Nature is kind to them, and their only serious contention for existence +arises from the luxuriant tropical vegetation by which they are +surrounded. On the whole their cultivation is comparatively easy. On the +best managed estates there are not more than 1,000 trees to a +<i>fanegada</i>—about one and three-quarters acres of land—and it is +calculated that an average annual yield for such a <i>fanegada</i> should be +about twenty quintals, a little more than 2,032 pounds of merchantable +coffee. It is to be noted, however, that the average yield per tree +throughout Venezuela is low—not more than four ounces.</p> + +<p>There are no great coffee belts as in Mexico and Central America. Many +districts are days' rides apart. The plantations are isolated, and there +is lacking a co-operative spirit among the growers.</p> + +<p>Methods of cultivating and preparing the berry for the market are +substantially those that prevail elsewhere in South America. Most +plantations are handled in ordinary, old-fashioned ways; but the better +estates employ machinery and methods of the most advanced and improved +character at all points of their operation, from the planting of the +seed to the final marketing of the berry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Java.</span> Java, the oldest coffee-producing country in which the tree is not +indigenous, was producing a high-grade coffee long before Brazil, +Colombia, and Venezuela entered the industry; and it held its supremacy +in the world's trade for many years before the younger American +producing countries were able to surpass its annual output. The first +attempt to introduce the plant into Java took place in 1696, the +seedlings being brought from Malabar in India and planted at Kadawoeng, +near Batavia. Earthquake and flood soon destroyed the plants; and in +1699 Henricus Zwaardecroon brought the second lot of seedlings from +Malabar. These became the progenitors of all the <i>arabica</i> coffees of +the Dutch East Indies. The industry grew, and in 1711 the first Java +coffee was sold at public auction in Amsterdam. Exports amounted to +116,587 pounds in 1720; and in 1724 the Amsterdam market sold 1,396,486 +pounds of coffee from Java.</p> + +<p>From the early part of the nineteenth century up to 1905, cultivation +was carried on under a Dutch government monopoly—excepting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> for the +five years, 1811–16, when the British had control of the island. The +government monopoly was first established when Marshal Daendels, acting +for the crown of Holland, took control of the islands from the +Netherlands East India Company. Before that time, the princes of +Preanger had raised all the coffee under the provisions of a treaty made +in the middle of the eighteenth century, by which they paid an annual +tribute in coffee to the company for the privilege of retaining their +land revenues. When the Dutch government recovered the islands from the +British, the plantations, which had been permitted to go to ruin, were +put in order again, and the government system re-established.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="A_Heavy_Fruiting_of_Coffea_Robusta_in_Java" id="A_Heavy_Fruiting_of_Coffea_Robusta_in_Java"></a> +<img src="images/image157.jpg" width="500" height="298" alt="A Heavy Fruiting of Coffea Robusta in Java" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Heavy Fruiting of Coffea Robusta in Java</span></span> +</div> + +<p>A modification of the first monopoly plan of the government was put into +effect later in the régime of Governor Van den Bosch, and was maintained +until into the twentieth century. Under the Daendels plan, each native +family was required to keep 1000 coffee trees in bearing on village +lands, and to give to the government two-fifths of the crop, delivered +cleaned and sorted, at the government store. The natives retained the +other three-fifths. Under the Van den Bosch system, each family was +required to raise and care for 650 trees and to deliver the crop cleaned +and sorted to the government stores at a fixed price. The government +then sold the coffee at public auctions in Batavia, Padang, Amsterdam, +or Rotterdam.</p> + +<p>This method of fostering the new industry resulted in government control +of fully four-fifths of the area under the crop, only the small balance +being owned or worked independently by private enterprise. For many +years after the cultivation had been fully started, this condition of +the business persisted. Most of the privately-operated plantations had +been in existence before the government had set up its monopoly system. +Others were on the estates of native princes who, in treating with the +Dutch, had been able to retain some of their original sovereign rights. +While these plans worked well in encouraging the industry at the outset, +they were not conducive to the fullest possibilities in production. +Forced labor on the government plantations was naturally apt to be slow, +careless, and indifferent. Private ownership and operation bettered this +somewhat, the private estates being able to show annual yields of from +one to two pounds per tree as compared with only a little more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> than +one-half pound per tree on government-controlled estates.</p> + +<p>In the course of time, the system of private ownership gradually +expanded beyond that of the government; and before the end of the +nineteenth century, private owners were growing and exporting more +coffee than did the Javanese government. The government withdrew from +the coffee business in Java in 1905, and the last government auction was +held in June of that year. The monopoly in Sumatra was given up in 1908. +After that, however, coffee continued to be grown on government lands, +but in much less quantity than in the years immediately preceding. The +Dutch government withdrew from all coffee cultivation in 1918–19.</p> + +<p>According to statistics, the ground under cultivation for all kinds of +coffee in Java and the other islands of the Dutch East Indies in 1919 +was 142,272 acres, of which 112,138 acres were in Java. Of this area, +110,903 acres were planted with <i>robusta</i>, 15,314 acres with <i>arabica</i>, +4,940 with <i>liberica</i>, and 11,115 with other varieties.</p> + +<p>There were more than 400 European-managed estates in 1915, covering a +planted area of about 209,000 acres. Three hundred and thirty of these +estates, representing 165,000 acres, were in Java. On that island +production in 1904 was 47,927,000 pounds; in 1905, 59,092,000 pounds; in +1906, 66,953,000 pounds; in 1907, 31,044,000 pounds; 1908, 39,349,000 +pounds. The total crop in 1919 for all the Netherlands East Indies was +97,361,000 pounds, as against 140,764,800 pounds for 1918.</p> + +<p>Intensive cultivation methods on the European-operated plantations in +Java have been practised for many years; and the Netherlands East Indies +government has long maintained experimental stations for the purpose of +improving strains and cultivation methods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Road_Through_a_Coffee_Estate_in_East_Java" id="Road_Through_a_Coffee_Estate_in_East_Java"></a> +<img src="images/image158.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="Road Through a Coffee Estate in East Java" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Road Through a Coffee Estate in East Java</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In some parts of the island, especially in the highlands, the climate +and soil are ideal for coffee culture. The <i>robusta</i> tree grows +satisfactorily even at altitudes of less than 1,000 feet in some +regions; but its bearing life is only about ten years, as compared with +the thirty years of the <i>arabica</i> at altitudes of from 3,000 to 4,000 +feet. The low-ground trees generally produce earlier and more +abundantly. On some of the highland plantations, pruning is not +practised to any great extent, and the trees often reach thirty or forty +feet in height. This necessitates the use of ladders in picking;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> but +frequently the yield per tree has been from six to seven pounds.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Native_Picking_Coffee_Sumatra" id="Native_Picking_Coffee_Sumatra"></a> +<img src="images/image159.jpg" width="300" height="294" alt="Native Picking Coffee, Sumatra" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Native Picking Coffee, Sumatra</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee is produced commercially in nearly every political district in +Java, but the bulk of the yield is obtained from East Java. The names +best known to European and American traders are those of the regencies +of Besoeki and Pasoeroean; because their coffees make up eighty-seven +percent of Java's production. Some of the other better known districts +are: Preanger, Cheribon, Kadoe, Samarang, Soerabaya, and Tegal.</p> + +<p>The <i>arabica</i> variety has practically been driven out of the districts +below 3,500 feet altitude by the leaf disease, and has been succeeded by +the more hardy <i>robusta</i> and <i>liberica</i> coffees and their hybrids. +Illustrating the importance of <i>robusta</i> coffee, Netherlands East India +government in a statement issued August, 1919, estimated the area under +cultivation on all islands as follows: <i>robusta</i>, eighty-four percent; +<i>arabica</i>, five and one-half percent; <i>liberica</i>, four and one-half +percent. The balance, six percent, was made up of scores of other +varieties, among the most important being the <i>canephora</i>, <i>Ugandæ</i>, +<i>baukobensis</i>, <i>suakurensis</i>, <i>Quillou</i>, <i>stenophylla</i>, and +<i>rood-bessige</i>. All of these are similar to <i>robusta</i>, and are exported +as <i>robusta-achtigen</i> (<i>robusta</i>-like). The <i>liberica</i> group includes +the <i>excelsa</i>, <i>abeokuta</i>, <i>Dewevrei</i>, <i>arnoldiana</i>, <i>aruwimiensis</i>, and +<i>Dybowskii</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Bungalow_of_Administrator_Java" id="Bungalow_of_Administrator_Java"></a> +<img src="images/image160.jpg" width="500" height="291" alt="Palatial Bungalow of Administrator, Dramaga, in the Preanger District, Java" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Palatial Bungalow of Administrator, Dramaga, in the Preanger District, Java</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sumatra.</span> Practically all the coffee districts in Sumatra are on the west +coast, where the plant was first propagated early in the eighteenth +century. Padang, the capital city, is the headquarters for Sumatra +coffee. With climate and soil similar to Java, the island of Sumatra has +the added advantage that its land is not "coffee <i>moe</i>", or coffee +tired, as is the case in parts of Java. Some of the world's best coffees +are still coming from Sumatra; and the island has possibilities that +could make it an important factor in production. Sumatra produced +287,179 piculs of coffee in 1920. The total production of all the +islands that year was 807,591 piculs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_SUMATRA" id="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_SUMATRA"></a> +<img src="images/plate10a.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="Old-Time Sailing Vessel Loading in Padang Roads" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Old-Time Sailing Vessel Loading in Padang Roads</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate10b.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Interior of a Dutch Coffee-Cleaning Factory, Padang" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Dutch Coffee-Cleaning Factory, Padang</span><br /> +COFFEE SCENES IN SUMATRA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Administrators_Bungalow_Sumatra" id="Administrators_Bungalow_Sumatra"></a><br /> +<img src="images/image161.jpg" width="500" height="293" alt="Administrator's Bungalow on the Gadoeng Batoe Estate, Sumatra" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Administrator's Bungalow on the Gadoeng Batoe Estate, Sumatra</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The districts of Ankola, Siboga, Ayer Bangies, Mandheling, Palembang, +Padang, and Benkoelen, on the west coast, have some of the largest +estates on the island; and their products are well known in +international trade. The east coast has recently gone in for heavy +plantings of <i>robusta</i>.</p> + +<p>As in Java, coffee for a century or more was cultivated under the +government-monopoly scheme. The compulsory system was given up in this +island in 1908, three years after it was abandoned in Java.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other East Indies.</span> Coffee is grown in several of the other islands in +the Dutch East Indian archipelago, chiefly on the Celebes, Bali, Lombok, +the Moluccas, and Timor. Most of the estates are under native control, +and the methods of cultivation are not up to the standard of the +European-owned plantations on the larger islands of Java and Sumatra. +The most important of these islands is Celebes, where the first coffee +plant was introduced from Java about 1750, but where cultivation was not +carried on to any great extent until about seventy-five years later. In +1822 the production amounted to 10,000 pounds; in 1917, the yield was +1,322,328 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salvador.</span> Coffee, which is far and away the most important crop in +Salvador, constitutes in value more than one-half the total exports. It +has been cultivated since about 1852, when plants were brought from +Havana; but the development of the industry in its early years was not +rapid. The first large plantations were established in 1876 in La Paz, +and that department has become the leading coffee-producing section of +the country.</p> + +<p>The berry is grown in all districts that have altitudes of from 1,500 to +4,000 feet. Besides those of La Paz, the most productive plantations are +in the departments of Santa Ana, Sonsonate, San Salvador, San Vincente, +San Miguel, Santa Tecla, and Ahuachapan. In contrast with several of the +adjoining Central American republics, native Salvadoreans are the owners +of most of the coffee farms, very few having passed into the hands of +foreigners. The laborers are almost entirely native Indians. A +considerable part of the work of cultivating and preparing the berry for +the market is still done by hand; but in recent years machinery has been +set up on the large estates and for general use in the receiving +centers.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_CULTURE_IN_GUATEMALA" id="COFFEE_CULTURE_IN_GUATEMALA"></a> +<img src="images/image162.jpg" width="500" height="321" alt="Well Cultivated Young Coffee Trees in Blossom" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Well Cultivated Young Coffee Trees in Blossom</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image163.jpg" width="500" height="320" alt="Entrance to a Finca in the Highlands" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Entrance to a Finca in the Highlands</span><br /> +COFFEE CULTURE IN GUATEMALA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p><p>It is estimated that now about 166,000 acres are under coffee, nearly +all the land in the country suitable for that purpose. As in most other +coffee-raising countries, the trees begin bearing when they are two or +three years old, reach full maturity at the age of seven or eight years, +and continue to bear for about thirty years. Intensive cultivation and a +more extensive use of fertilizers have been urged as necessary in order +to increase the crop; but, so far, with not much effect, the importation +of fertilizer being still very small. Crop gathering begins in the +lowlands in November, and gradually proceeds into the higher regions, +month by month, until the picking in the highest altitudes is finished +in the following March.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guatemala.</span> Guatemala began intensive coffee growing about 1875. Coffee +had been known in the country in a small way from about 1850, but now +serious attention began to be given to its cultivation, and it quickly +advanced to an industrial position of importance. Within a generation it +became the great staple crop of the country.</p> + +<p>Guatemala has an area of 48,250 square miles, about the size of the +state of Ohio. Its population is about 2,000,000. Three mountain ranges, +intersecting magnificent table lands, traverse the country from north to +south; and there is the great coffee territory. The table lands are from +2,500 to 5,000 feet above sea-level, and have a temperate climate most +agreeable to the coffee tree. On the lower heights it is necessary to +protect the young trees from the extreme heat of the sun; and the banana +is most approved for this purpose, since it raises its own crop at the +same time that it is giving shade to its companion tree. On the higher +levels the plantations need protection from the cold north winds that +blow strongly across the country, especially in December, January, and +February. The range of hills to the north is the best protection, and +generally is all sufficient. When the weather becomes too severe, heaps +of rubbish mixed with pitch are thrown up to the north of the fields of +coffee trees and set afire, the resultant dense smoke driving down +between rows of trees and saving them from the frost.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Indians_Picking_Coffee_Guatemala" id="Indians_Picking_Coffee_Guatemala"></a> +<img src="images/image164.jpg" width="300" height="377" alt="Indians Picking Coffee, Guatemala" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Indians Picking Coffee, Guatemala</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Named in the order of their productivity, the coffee districts are Costa +Cuca, Costa Grande, Barberena, Tumbador, Cobán, Costa de Cucho, +Chicacao, Xolhuitz, Pochuta, Malacatan, San Marcos, Chuva, Panan, Turgo, +Escuintla, San Vincente, Pacaya, Antigua, Moran, Amatitlan, Sumatan, +Palmar, Zunil, and Motagua.</p> + +<p>Estimates of coffee acreage vary. One authority, too conservatively, +perhaps, puts the figure at 145,000. Another estimate is 260,000 acres. +Under cultivation are from 70,000,000 to 100,000,000 trees from which an +annual crop averaging about 75,000,000 pounds is raised, and the +exceptional amounts of nearly 90,000,000 and 97,000,000 pounds have been +harvested. Several plantations of size can be counted upon for an annual +production of more than 1,000,000 pounds each.</p> + +<p>Before the World War German interests dominated the coffee industry, +handling fully eighty percent of the crop, and growing nearly half of +it.</p> + +<p>Planting and cultivation methods in Guatemala are about the same as +those prevailing in other countries. The trees are usually in flower in +February, March, and April, and the harvesting season extends from +August to January. All work on the plantation is done by Indian laborers +under a peonage system, families working in companies: wages are small, +but sufficient, conditions of living being easy. As elsewhere in these +tropical and sub-tropical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> countries, scarcity of labor is severely +felt, and is a grave obstacle to the development of the industry in a +land that is regarded as particularly well adapted to it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Bungalow_coffee_estate_Guatemala" id="Bungalow_coffee_estate_Guatemala"></a> +<img src="images/image165.jpg" width="500" height="293" alt="The Coffee Planter's Life in Guatemala Is One of Pleasantness and Peace" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Coffee Planter's Life in Guatemala Is One of Pleasantness and Peace</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haiti.</span> Haiti, the magic isle of the Indies, has grown coffee almost from +the beginning of the introduction of the tree into the western +hemisphere. Its cultivation was started there about 1715, but the trees +were largely permitted to fall into a wild natural state, and little +attention was given to them or to the handling of the crop. Fertility of +soil, climate, and moisture are favorable, and the advancement of the +industry has been retarded only by the political conditions of the negro +republic and a general lack of industry and enterprise on the part of +the people.</p> + +<p>Haiti is an island with three names. Haiti is used to describe the +island as a whole, and to denote the Republic of Haiti, which occupies +the western third of its area. The island is also known as Santo +Domingo, and San Domingo, names likewise applied to the Dominican +Republic which occupies the eastern two-thirds of the land unit.</p> + +<p>Plantations now existing in Haiti have had, with rare exceptions, a life +of more than ten or twenty years. It is estimated that they cover about +125,000 acres, with about 400 trees to the acre.</p> + +<p>When the French acquired the island in 1789, the annual production was +88,360,502 pounds. During the following century that amount was not +approached in any year, the nearest to it being 72,637,716 pounds in +1875. The lowest annual production was 20,280,589 pounds in 1818. The +range during the hundred years, 1789–1890, was, with the exceptions +noted, from 45,000,000 to 71,000,000 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mexico.</span> Opinions differ as to the exact date when coffee was introduced +into Mexico. It is said to have been transplanted there from the West +Indies near the end of the eighteenth century. A story is current that a +Spaniard set out a few trees, on trial, in southern Mexico, in 1800, and +that his experiments started other Mexican planters along the same line. +Coffee was grown in the state of Vera Cruz early in the nineteenth +century; and the books of the Vera Cruz custom house record that 1,101 +quintals of coffee were exported through that port during the years +1802, 1803, and 1805.</p> + +<p>In the Coatepec district, which eventually became famous in the annals +of Mexican coffee growing, trees were planted about the year 1808. Local +history says that seeds were brought from Cuba by Arias, a partner of +the house of Pedro Lopez, owners of the large <i>hacienda</i> of Orduna in +Coatepec.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> The seeds were given to a priest, Andres Dominguez, who sowed +them near Teocelo. When he had succeeded in starting seedlings, he gave +them away to other planters there-about. The plants thrived, and this +was the beginning of coffee cultivation in that section of the country.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Thirty-Year-Old_Coffee_Trees_Mexico" id="Thirty-Year-Old_Coffee_Trees_Mexico"></a> +<img src="images/image166.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="Thirty-Year-Old Coffee Trees, La Esperanza, Huatusco, Mexico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Thirty-Year-Old Coffee Trees, La Esperanza, Huatusco, Mexico</span></span> +</div> + +<p>It was, however, nearly ten years later before the cultivation was on a +scale approaching industrial and commercial importance. About 1816 or +1818 a Spaniard, named Juan Antonio Gomez, introduced the plant into the +neighborhood of Cordoba. This city, now on the line of the Mexican and +Vera Cruz Railroad, 200 miles from Mexico City, and sixty miles from +Vera Cruz, is 2,500 feet above sea-level, and is situated in the most +productive tropical region of the country.</p> + +<p>Having been started in Coatepec and Cordoba, the industry was centered +for a long time in the state of Vera Cruz. For many years practically +all the coffee grown commercially in Mexico was produced in that state. +Gradually the new pursuit spread to the mountains in the adjacent states +of Oaxaca and Puebla, where it was taken up by the Indians almost +entirely, and is still followed by them, but not on a large scale.</p> + +<p>Although cultivation is now widely distributed in most of the more +southern states of the republic, the principal coffee territory is still +in Vera Cruz, where lie the districts of Cordoba, Orizaba, Huatusco, and +Coatepec. In the same region are the Jalapa district, and the mountains +of Puebla, where a great deal of coffee is grown. Farther south are the +Oaxaca districts on the mountain slopes of the Pacific coast, and still +farther south the districts of the state of Chiapas. Planting in the +Pluma district in Oaxaca was begun about fifty years ago, and it now +produces annually, in good years, nearly 1,000,000 pounds. The youngest +district in this section is Soconusco, one of the most prolific in the +republic, having been developed within the last thirty years. The region +is near the border of Guatemala, and the coffee is held by many to +possess some of the quality of the coffee of that country. The influence +of Guatemalan methods has been felt also in its cultivation and +handling, especially in increasing plantation productiveness. On the +gulf slope of Oaxaca, there are plantations that annually produce +222,000 to 550,000 pounds. Several United States companies have become +interested in coffee growing in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> state, and their output in recent +years has been put upon the market in St. Louis.</p> + +<p>Two principal varieties of coffee are recognized in Mexico. A +sub-variety of <i>Coffea arabica</i> is mostly cultivated. This is an +evergreen, growing only from five to seven feet. It flourishes well at +different altitudes and in different climes, from the temperate plains +of Puebla to the hot, damp, lower lands of Vera Cruz and Oaxaca, and +other Pacific-coast regions. The range of elevation for it is from 1,500 +to 5,000 feet, and it is satisfied with a temperature as low as 55° or +as high as 80°, with plenty of natural humidity or with irrigation in +the dry season. The other variety is called the "myrtle" and is widely +grown, although not in large quantities. It is distinguished from +<i>arabica</i> by the larger leaf of the tree and by the smaller corolla of +the flower. It is a hardier plant than the <i>arabica</i> and will stand the +higher temperature of low altitudes, thriving at an elevation of from +500 to 3,000 feet above sea-level. Mostly it is cultivated in the +Cordoba district.</p> + +<p>It is claimed by many that the Mexican coffee of best quality is grown +in the western regions of the table lands of Colima and Michoacan, but +only a small quantity of that is available for export. The state of +Michoacan is especially favored by climate, altitude, soil, and +surroundings to produce coffee of exceptionally high grade, and the +Uruapan is considered to be its best.</p> + +<p>Trees flower in January and March, and in high altitudes as late as June +or July. Berries appear in July and are ripe for gathering in October or +November, the picking season lasting until February.</p> + +<p>Trees begin to yield when two or three years old, producing from two to +four ounces. They reach full production, which is about one and a half +pounds, at the age of six or seven years, though in the districts of +Chiapas, Michoacan, Oaxaca, and Puebla, annual yields of three to five +pounds per tree have been reported.</p> + +<p>Since the World War American buyers have shown greater interest in the +Tapachula coffee grown in Chiapas.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Mexican_Coffee_Picker" id="Mexican_Coffee_Picker"></a> +<img src="images/image167.jpg" width="300" height="322" alt="Mexican Coffee Picker, Coatepec District" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mexican Coffee Picker, Coatepec District</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porto Rico.</span> Coffee culture in Porto Rico dates from 1755 or even +earlier, having been introduced from the neighboring islands of +Martinique and Haiti. Count O'Reilly, writing of the island in the +eighteenth century, mentions that the coffee exports for five years +previous to 1765 amounted in value to $2,078. Old records show that in +1770 there was a crop of 700,000 pounds and that seems to be the first +evidence that the new industry was growing to any noticeable +proportions. For a hundred years, at least, only slow progress was made. +In 1768 the king, of Spain issued a royal decree exempting coffee +growers on the island from the payment of taxes or charges for a period +of five years; but even that measure was not materially successful in +stimulating interest and in developing cultivation.</p> + +<p>Porto Rico is a good coffee-growing country; soil, climate, and +temperature are well adapted to the berry. The coffee belt extends +through the western half of the island, beginning in the hills along the +south coast around Ponce, and extending north through the center of the +island almost to Arecibo, near the west end of the north coast. But some +coffee is grown in the other parts of the island, in sixty-four of the +sixty-eight municipalities. Mountain sections are considered to be +superior.</p> + +<p>The largest plantations are in the region which includes the +municipalities of Utuado, Adjuntas, Lares, Las Marias, Yauco, Maricao, +San Sebastian, Mayaguez, Ciales, and Ponce. With the exception of Ponce +and Mayaguez, all these districts are back from the coast; but insular +roads of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> recent construction make them now easily accessible, and there +is no point on the island more than twenty miles distant from the sea.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Receiving_coffee_Mexico" id="Receiving_coffee_Mexico"></a> +<img src="images/image168.jpg" width="500" height="317" alt="Receiving and Measuring the Ripe Berries from the Pickers, Mexico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Receiving and Measuring the Ripe Berries from the Pickers, Mexico</span></span> +</div> + +<p>From the Sierra Luquillo range, which rises to a height of 1,500 feet, +and from Yauco, Utuado, and Lares, come excellent coffees; and, on the +whole, these are considered to be the best coffee regions of the island. +A fine grade of coffee is also grown in the Ciales district. Figures +compiled by the Treasury Department of the insular government for the +purpose of taxation showed that for the tax year 1915–16 there were +167,137 acres of land planted to coffee and valued at $10,341,592, an +average of $61.87 per acre. In 1910, there were 151,000 acres planted in +coffee. In 1916 there were more than 5,000 separate coffee plantations.</p> + +<p>Originally the coffee trees of Porto Rico were all of the <i>arabica</i> +variety. In recent years numerous others have been introduced, until in +1917 there were more than 2,500 trees of new descriptions on the island.</p> + +<p>The virgin land in the interior of the island is admirably adapted to +the coffee tree, and less labor is required to prepare it for plantation +purposes than in many other coffee-growing countries. It is cleared in +the usual manner, and the trees are planted about eight feet apart, an +average of 680 trees to the acre. The seeds are planted in February; and +if the seedlings are transplanted, that is done when they are a year or +a year and a half old. The guama, a big strong tree of dense foliage, is +used for a wind-break on the ridges; and the guava, for shade in the +plantation. Plow cultivation is generally impossible on account of the +lay of the land, and only hoeing and spade work are done. Pruning is +carefully attended to as the trees become full grown.</p> + +<p>Flowering is generally in February and March, or even later. Heavy rains +in April make a poor crop. Harvesting begins in September and extends +into January, during which time ten pickings are made.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="HEAVILY_LADEN_COFFEE_TREE_PORTO_RICO" id="HEAVILY_LADEN_COFFEE_TREE_PORTO_RICO"></a> +<img src="images/image169.jpg" width="500" height="346" alt="SINGLE PORTO RICO COFFEE TREE IN FULL BEARING, PROPPED UP WITH STAKES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SINGLE PORTO RICO COFFEE TREE IN FULL BEARING, PROPPED UP WITH STAKES</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p><p>The average yield per acre is between 200 and 300 pounds; but expert +authority—Prof. O.F. Cook—in a statement made to the Committee on +Insular Affairs of the United States House of Representatives, in 1900, +held that under better cultural methods the yield could be increased to +800 or 900 pounds per acre. One estimator has calculated that an average +plantation of 100 acres had cost its owner at the end of six or seven +years, the bearing age, about $13,100 with yields of 75 pounds per acre +in the third and in the fourth years, 400 pounds per acre in the fifth +year, and 500 pounds in the sixth year, the income from which would +practically have met the cost to that time. It is held by the same +authority that an intensively cultivated, well-situated farm of selected +trees, 880 to the acre, should yield some 880 pounds of cleaned coffee +to the acre.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> Costa Rica ranks next to Guatemala and Salvador among the +Central American countries as a producer of coffee, showing an average +annual yield in recent years of 35,000,000 pounds as compared with +Guatemala's 80,000,000 and Salvador's 75,000,000 pounds. Nicaragua has +an average annual production of 30,000,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>Coffee was introduced into Costa Rica in the latter part of the +eighteenth century; one authority saying that the plants were brought +from Cuba in 1779 by a Spanish voyager, Navarro, and another saying that +the first trees were planted several years later by Padre Carazo, a +Spanish missionary coming from Jamaica. For more than a century six big +coffee trees standing in a courtyard in the city of Cartago were pointed +out to visitors as the very trees that Carazo had planted.</p> + +<p>The coffee-producing districts are principally on the Pacific slope and +in the central plateaus of the interior. Plantations are located in the +provinces of Cartago, Tres Rios, San José, Heredia, and Alajuela. In the +province of Cartago are several extensive new estates on the slope to +the Atlantic coast. The San José and the Cartago districts are +considered by many to be the best naturally for the coffee tree. The +soil is an exceedingly rich black loam made up of continuous layers of +volcanic ashes and dust from three to fifteen feet deep. Preferable +altitudes for plantations range from 3,000 to 4,500 feet, although a +height of 5,000 feet is not out of use and there are some estates that +do fairly well on levels as low as 1,500 feet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Cultivation_Costa_Rica" id="Coffee_Cultivation_Costa_Rica"></a> +<img src="images/image170.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="The Modern Idea in Coffee Cultivation, Costa Rica" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Modern Idea in Coffee Cultivation, Costa Rica</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">India.</span> Tradition has it that a Moslem pilgrim in the seventeenth century +brought from Mecca to India the first coffee seeds known in that +country. They were planted near a temple on a hill in Mysore called Baba +Budan, after the pilgrim; and from there the cultivation of coffee +gradually spread to neighboring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> districts. Aside from this legend, +nothing further is heard about coffee in India until the early part of +the nineteenth century, when its existence there was confirmed by the +granting of a charter to Fort Gloster, near Calcutta, authorizing that +place to become a coffee plantation.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Picking_Costa_Rica_Coffee" id="Picking_Costa_Rica_Coffee"></a> +<img src="images/image171.jpg" width="300" height="341" alt="Picking Costa Rica Coffee" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Picking Costa Rica Coffee</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Planting was begun on the flat land of the plains, but the trees did not +thrive. Then the cultivation was extended to the hills in southern +India, especially in Mysore, where better success was achieved. The +first systematic plantation was established in 1840. For the most part, +the production has always been confined to southern India in the +elevated region near the southwestern coast. The coffee district +comprises the landward slopes of the Western Ghats, from Kanara to +Travancore.</p> + +<p>About one-half of the coffee-producing area is in Mysore; and other +plantations are in Kurg (Coorg), the Madras districts of Malabar, and in +the Nilgiri hills, those regions having 86 percent of the whole area +under cultivation. Some coffee is grown also in other districts in +Madras, principally in Madura, Salem, and Coimbator, in Cochin, in +Travancore, and, on a restricted scale, in Burma, Assam, and Bombay. The +area returned as under coffee in 1885 was 237,448 acres; in 1896, as +303,944 acres. Since then there has been a progressive decrease on +account of damage from leaf diseases difficult to combat, and by +competition with Brazilian coffee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Mountain_Coffee_Estate_Costa_Rica" id="Mountain_Coffee_Estate_Costa_Rica"></a> +<img src="images/image172.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="Coffee Estate in the Mountains of Costa Rica" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Estate in the Mountains of Costa Rica</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p><p>New land that had just been planted with coffee in plantations reported +for 1919–20 amounted to 7,012 acres; while the area abandoned was 8,725 +acres, representing a net decrease in cultivated area of 1,713 acres.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Mysore_Coffee_Estate" id="Mysore_Coffee_Estate"></a> +<img src="images/image173.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="Bird's-Eye View of a Coffee Estate in Mysore, India" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bird's-Eye View of a Coffee Estate in Mysore, India</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Of the total area devoted to coffee cultivation (126,919 acres), 49 +percent was in Mysore, which yielded 35 percent of the total production; +while Madras, with 23 percent of the total area, yielded 38 percent of +the production. The total production for the year 1920–21 is reported as +26,902,471 pounds.</p> + +<p>Yield varies throughout the country according to the methods of +cultivation and the condition of the season. On the best estates in a +good season, the yield per acre may be as high as 1,100 or 1,200 pounds, +and on poor estates it may not be over 200 or 300 pounds. The <i>arabica</i> +variety is chiefly cultivated. The <i>robusta</i> and <i>Maragogipe</i> have been +tried, but without much success.</p> + +<p>A representative plantation is the Santaverre in Mysore, comprising 400 +acres, at an elevation of from 4,000 to 4,500 feet, where the coffee +trees, cultivated under shade, produce from 100 to 250 tons of coffee a +year. Other prominent estates in Mysore are Cannon's Baloor and +Mylemoney, the Hoskahn, and the Sumpigay Khan.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nicaragua.</span> Coffee trees will grow well anywhere in Nicaragua, but the +best locations have altitudes of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea +level. At such elevations the yield varies from one pound to five pounds +per tree annually; but above or below those, the average production +diminishes to from one pound to one-half pound a tree.</p> + +<p>Lands most suitable for the berry are on the Sierra de Managua, in +Diriambe, San Marcos, and Jinotega, and about the base of the volcano +Monbacho near Granada. Good land is also found on the island Omotepe in +Lake Nicaragua, and around Boaco in the department of Chontales, where +cultivation was begun in 1893.</p> + +<p>There are also plantations in the vicinity of Esteli and Lomati in the +department of Neuva Segovia. The most extensive operations are in the +departments of Managua, Carazo, Matagalpa, Chontales, and Jinotega, and +from those regions the annual crop has attained to such quantity that it +has become the chief agricultural product of the republic. Poor and +costly means of transportation on the Atlantic slope have operated to +retard the development<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> of the industry there, even though conditions of +climate are not unfavorable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Growing_Under_India" id="Coffee_Growing_Under_India"></a> +<img src="images/image174.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="Coffee Growing Under Shade, Ubban Estate, India" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Growing Under Shade, Ubban Estate, India</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abyssinia.</span> In the absence of any conclusive evidence to the contrary, +the claim that coffee was first made known to modern man by the trees on +the mountains of the northeastern part of the continent of Africa may be +accepted without reserve. Undoubtedly the plant grew wild all through +tropical Africa; but its value as an addition to man's dietary was +brought forth in Abyssinia.</p> + +<p>Abyssinia, while it may have given coffee to the world, no longer +figures as a prime factor in supplying the world, and now exports only a +limited quantity. There are produced in the country two coffees known to +the trade as Harari and Abyssinian, the former being by far the more +important. The Harari is the fruit of cultivated <i>arabica</i> trees grown +in the province of Harar, and mostly in the neighborhood of the city of +Harar, capital of the province. The Abyssianian is the fruit of wild +<i>arabica</i> trees that grow mainly in the provinces of Sidamo, Kaffa, and +Guma.</p> + +<p>The coffee of Harar is known to the trade as Mocha longberry or +Abyssinian longberry. Most of the plantations upon which it is raised +are owned by the native Hararis, Galla, and Abyssinians, although there +are a few Greek, German, and French planters. The trees are planted in +rows about twelve or fifteen feet apart, and comparatively little +attention is given to cultivation. Crops average two a year, and +sometimes even five in two years. The big yield is in December, January, +and February. The average crop is about seventy pounds, and is mostly +from small plots of from fifty to one hundred trees, there being no very +large plantations. All the coffee is brought into the city of Harar, +whence it is sent on mule-back to Dire-Daoua on the Franco-Ethiopian +Railway, and from there by rail to Jibuti. Some of it is exported +directly from Jibuti, and the rest is forwarded to Aden, in Arabia, for +re-exporting.</p> + +<p>Abyssinian, or wild, coffee is also known as Kaffa coffee, from one of +the districts where it grows most abundantly in a state of nature. This +coffee has a smaller bean and is less rich in aroma and flavor than the +Harari; but the trees grow in such profusion that the possible supply, +at the minimum of labor in gathering, is practically unlimited. It is +said that in southwestern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> Abyssinia there are immense forests of it +that have never been encroached upon except at the outskirts, where the +natives lazily pick up the beans that have fallen to the ground. It is +shelled where it is found, in the most primitive fashion, and goes out +in a dirty, mixed condition.</p> + +<p>Formerly, much of this Kaffa coffee was sent to market through Boromeda, +Harar, and Dire-Daoua. An average annual crop was about 6,000 bags, or +800,000 pounds, of which something more than one-half usually went +through Harar. A customs and trading station has lately been established +at Gambela, on the Sobat River: and with the development of this outlet, +there has been a substantial and increasing exploitation of the +wild-coffee plants since 1913. Large areas of land have been cleared, +with a view to cultivation, and attention is being given to improved +methods of harvesting and of preparing the coffee for the market. At one +time a fair amount of coffee from this region went to Adis Abeba on the +backs of pack mules, a journey of thirty-five or forty days, and then +was carried to Jibuti, nearly 500 miles, part of the way by rail. Now +practically all of it goes to Gambela, thence by steamers to Khartoum, +and by rail to the shipping-point at Port Sudan on the Red Sea.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other African Countries.</span> Practically every part of Africa seems to be +suitable for coffee cultivation, even United South Africa, in the +southern part of the continent, producing 140,212 pounds in 1918. To +name all the countries in which it is grown would be to list nearly all +the political divisions of Africa. Among the largest producers are the +British East African Protectorate, 18,735,572 pounds in 1918; French +Somaliland, 11,222,736 pounds in 1917; Angola, 10,655,934 pounds in +1913; Uganda, 9,999,845 pounds in 1918; former German East Africa, +2,334,450 pounds in 1913; Cape Verde Islands, 1,442,910 pounds in 1916; +Madagascar, 707,676 pounds in 1918; Liberia, 761,300 pounds in 1917; +Eritrea, 728,840 pounds in 1918; St. Thomas and Prince's Islands, +484,350 pounds in 1916; and the Belgian Congo, 375,000 pounds in 1917.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Estate_at_Harar" id="Coffee_Estate_at_Harar"></a> +<img src="images/image175.jpg" width="500" height="304" alt="A Galla Coffee Grower, and His Helper, in His Grove of Young Trees near Harar" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Galla Coffee Grower, and His Helper, in His Grove of Young Trees near Harar</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Angola.</span> Coffee is Angola's second product, and there are large areas of +wild-coffee trees. With a production of nearly 11,000,000 pounds, Angola +ranks about third in Africa as a coffee-growing country. The coffee is +gathered and sold by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> the natives, and there are also several European +companies engaged in the coffee business. The chief coffee belt extends +from the Quanza River northward to the Kongo at an altitude of 1,500 to +2,500 feet. In the Cazengo valley the wild trees are so thick that +thinning out is the only operation necessary to the plantation-owner. +When the trees become too tall, they are simply cut off about two feet +above ground; and new shoots appear from the trunks the following +season.</p> + +<p>The largest coffee plantation, owned by the Companhia Agricola de +Cazengo, produced in 1913, a record year, nearly 1,500 tons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Liberia.</span> Coffee is native to Liberia, growing wild in the hinterland of +the negro republic, and in the natural state the trees often attain a +height of from thirty to forty feet. Cultivated Liberian coffee, <i>Coffea +liberica</i>, has become a staple of the civilized inhabitants of the +country, and is grown successfully in hot, moist lowlands or on hills +that are not much elevated. On account of the size of the trees, only +about four hundred can be planted to the acre. In recent years the +native Africans have been planting thousands of trees in the district of +Grand Cape Mount. Coffee is grown in all parts of the republic, but +chiefly in Grand Cape Mount and Montserrado.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">General Outlook in Africa.</span> In the African countries under control of +European governments much recent progress has been made in promoting +coffee growing and in improving methods of cultivation.</p> + +<p>British interests were reported in 1919 as having started a movement +toward reviving interest in the coffee growing industry in the British +possessions in Africa. The report stated that Uganda, in the East +African Protectorate, had 21,000 acres under coffee cultivation, with +16,000 acres more in other parts of the Protectorate, and 1,300 acres in +Nyasaland; also that there is no hope of an immediate revival of the +industry in Natal, where it was killed twenty years ago by various +pests; "but it should certainly be established in the warmer parts of +Rhodesia; and in the northern part of the Transvaal an effort is being +made to bring this form of enterprise into practical existence."</p> + +<p>Coffee growing possibilities in British East Africa (Kenya Colony) are +alluring, according to reports from planters in that region. Late in +1920, Major C.J. Ross, a British government officer there, said that +"British East Africa is going to be one of the leading coffee countries +of the world." Coffee grows wild in many parts of the Protectorate, but +the natives are too lazy to pick even the wild berries.</p> + +<p>On the more advanced plantations in all parts of Africa the approved +cultivation methods of other leading countries are carefully followed; +especial care being given to weeding and pruning, because of the rank +growth of the tropics. On the whole, however, little attention is given +to intensive methods.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arabia.</span> Whether the coffee tree was first discovered indigenous in the +mountains of Abyssinia, or in the Yemen district of Arabia, will +probably always be a matter of contention. Many writers of Europe and +Asia in the fifteenth century, when coffee was first brought to the +attention of the people of Europe, agree on Arabia; but there is good +reason to believe the plant was brought to Arabia from Abyssinia in the +sixth century.</p> + +<p>Once all the coffee of Arabia went to the outside world through the port +of Mocha on the eastern coast of the Red Sea. Mocha, which never raised +any coffee, is no longer of commercial importance; but its name has been +permanently attached to the coffee of this country.</p> + +<p><i>Mocha</i> (<i>Moka</i>, or <i>Morkha</i>) coffee (i.e. <i>Coffea arabica</i>) is raised +principally in the vilayet of Yemen, a district of southeastern Arabia. +Yemen extends from the north, southerly along the line of the Red Sea, +nearly to the Gulf of Aden. With the exception of a narrow strip of land +along the shores of the Red Sea, the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and the +Gulf of Aden, it is a rugged, mountainous region, in which innumerable +small valleys at high elevations are irrigated by waters from the +melting snows of the mountains.</p> + +<p>Coffee can be successfully grown in any part of Yemen, but its +cultivation is confined to a few widely scattered districts, and the +acreage is not large. The principal coffee regions are in the mountains +between Taiz and Ibb, and between Ibb and Yerim, and Yerim and Sanaa, on +the caravan route from Taiz to Sanaa; between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> Zabeed and Ibb, on the +route from Taiz to Zabeed; between Hajelah and Menakha, on the route +from Hodeida to Sanaa, and in the wild mountain ranges both to the north +and south of that route; between Beit-el-Fakih and Obal; and between +Manakha and Batham to the north of Bajil. The plant does best at +elevations ranging from 3,500 to 6,500 feet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Wild_Coffee_Near_Adis_Abeba" id="Wild_Coffee_Near_Adis_Abeba"></a> +<img src="images/image176.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="Wild Kaffa Coffee Trees Near Adis Abeba" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Wild Kaffa Coffee Trees Near Adis Abeba</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In the Yemen district, coffee is generally grown in small gardens. Large +plantations, as they exist in other coffee-growing countries, are not +seen in Arabia. Many of these small farms may be parts of a large estate +belonging to some rich tribal chief. The native Arabs do not use coffee +in the way it is used elsewhere in the world. They drink <i>kisher</i>, a +beverage brewed from the husks of the berry and not from the bean. +Consequently, the entire crop goes into export. But bad conditions of +trade routes, political disturbances, and small regional wars, absence +of good cultivation methods, and heavy transit taxes imposed by the +government, have combined to restrict the production of Yemen coffee.</p> + +<p>Land for the coffee gardens is selected on hill-slopes, and is terraced +with soil and small walls of stone until it reaches up like an +amphitheater—often to a considerable height. The soil is well +fertilized. For sowing, the seeds are thoroughly dried in ashes, and +after being placed in the ground, are carefully watched, watered, and +shaded. In about a year the shrub has grown to a height of twelve or +more inches. Seedlings in that condition are set out in the gardens in +rows, about ten to thirteen feet apart. The young trees receive moisture +from neighboring wells or from irrigation ditches, and are shaded by +bananas.</p> + +<p>At maturity the trees reach a height of ten or fifteen feet. Since they +never lose all their leaves at one time, they appear always green, and +bear at the same time flowers and fruits, some of which are still green +while others are ripe or approaching maturity. Thus, in some districts, +the trees are considered to have two or even three crops a year. All the +trees begin to bear about the end of the third year.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="MOCHA_COFFEE_GROWING_ON_TERRACES" id="MOCHA_COFFEE_GROWING_ON_TERRACES"></a> +<img src="images/image177.jpg" width="500" height="356" alt="A RARE PICTURE SHOWING MOCHA COFFEE GROWING ON TERRACES IN YEMEN, ARABIA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A RARE PICTURE SHOWING MOCHA COFFEE GROWING ON TERRACES IN YEMEN, ARABIA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Cuba.</span> Coffee can be grown in practically every island of the West +Indies, but owing to the state of civilization in many of the lesser +islands, little is produced for international trade, excepting in +Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad, and +Tobago. In past years a considerable quantity of good-quality coffee was +produced in Cuba, the annual export in the decade of 1840 averaging +50,000,000 pounds. Severe hurricanes, adverse legislation, the rise of +coffee-growing in Brazil, the increase in cultivation of sugar and other +more profitable crops, practically eliminated Cuba from the +international coffee-export trade.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Martinique.</span> This is a name well known to coffee men, the world over, as +the pioneer coffee-growing country of the western hemisphere. Gabriel de +Clieu introduced the coffee plant to the island in 1723 by bringing it +through many hardships from France. For a time, coffee flourished there, +but now practically none is grown. Such coffee as bears the name +Martinique in modern trade centers is produced in Guadeloupe, and is +only shipped through Martinique.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jamaica.</span> Coffee was introduced into Jamaica in 1730; and so highly was +it regarded as a desirable addition to the agricultural resources of the +island, that the British Parliament in 1732 passed a special act +providing for the encouraging and fostering of its cultivation. Later, +it became one of the great staples of the country. Disastrous floods in +1815, and the gradual exhaustion of the best lands since then, have +brought about a decline of the industry, which is now confined to a few +estates in the Blue Mountains and to scattered "settler" or peasant +cultivation in the same districts but at lower altitudes.</p> + +<p>The tree was formerly grown at all altitudes, from sea-level to 5,000 +feet; but the best height for it is about 4,500 feet. Four parishes lead +in coffee producing: Manchester, with an area of 5,045 acres; St. +Thomas, with 2,315 acres; Clarendon, with 2,172 acres; St. Andrew, with +1,584 acres. Nine other parishes that raise coffee have less than 1,000 +acres each under cultivation. There were 24,865 acres devoted to coffee +in 1900. In addition, it was estimated that there were 80,000 acres +suitable for the cultivation, nearly all being owned by the government.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Picking_Blue_Mountain_Berries_Jamaica" id="Picking_Blue_Mountain_Berries_Jamaica"></a> +<img src="images/image178.jpg" width="300" height="313" alt="Picking Blue Mountain Berries, Jamaica" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Picking Blue Mountain Berries, Jamaica</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dominican Republic.</span> Coffee was once the leading staple in the Dominican +Republic as in the adjoining Haitian Republic; but in recent years +cacao, sugar, and tobacco have become the predominating crops. Said to +have the world's richest and most productive soil, one-half of the +republic's area is particularly suited to the cultivation of a good +grade of coffee of the highland type. But political and industrial +conditions have made for neglect of its cultivation by efficient +methods. Lack of suitable roads has also militated against the +development of the coffee industry.</p> + +<p>In spite of many drawbacks, it is to be noted that, from the beginning +of the twentieth century, the coffee-growing area has been gradually +expanded until exports increased from less than 1,000,000 pounds to +5,029,316 pounds in 1918, although in the next two years there was a +recession in the total exports to 1,358,825 pounds in 1920.</p> + +<p>The principal plantations are in the vicinity of the town of Moca and in +the districts of Santiago, Bani, and Barahona. Generally speaking, the +methods of cultivation in the Dominican Republic are somewhat crude as +compared with the practise in the larger countries of production in +Central America and South America.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guadeloupe.</span> Guadeloupe has an area of 619 square miles, and about +one-third of this area is under cultivation. About 15,000 acres are in +coffee, giving employment to upward of 10,000 persons. The average yield +of a plantation of mature trees is about 535 pounds to the acre.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p><p>In the early years of the industry in Guadeloupe, production and export +were considerable. From old records it appears that in 1784 the exports +amounted to 7,500,000 pounds. During the closing years of the eighteenth +century the annual exports were from 6,500,000 to 8,500,000 pounds, and +in the beginning of the next century they registered about 6,000,000 +pounds. Toward the middle of the nineteenth century the growing of sugar +cane overtopped that of coffee in profit, and many planters abandoned +coffee. After 1884, with the decadence of the sugar industry, coffee was +again favored, the government giving substantial encouragement by paying +bounties ranging from $15 to $19 per acre for all new coffee +plantations.</p> + +<p>In recent years, considerable <i>liberica</i> and <i>robusta</i> have been planted +in place of the exhausted <i>arabica</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Pickers_Guadeloupe" id="Coffee_Pickers_Guadeloupe"></a> +<img src="images/image179.jpg" width="500" height="341" alt="Coffee Pickers Returning from the Fields, Guadeloupe" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Pickers Returning from the Fields, Guadeloupe</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trinidad and Tobago.</span> The islands of Trinidad and Tobago are small +factors in international coffee trading. Coffee can be grown almost any +place on the islands; but its cultivation is confined principally to the +districts of Maracas, Aripo, and North Oropouche. Both the <i>arabica</i> and +the <i>liberica</i> varieties are grown.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Honduras.</span> Soil, surface, and climate in Honduras, as far as they relate +to the cultivation of coffee, are similar to those of the adjoining +regions of Central America. The tree grows in the uplands of the +interior, thriving best at an altitude of from 1,500 to 4,000 feet. +Scarcity of labor and insufficient means of transportation have been the +chief obstacles in the way of the large development of the industry.</p> + +<p>The departments of Santa Barbara, Copan, Cortez, La Paz, Choluteca, and +El Paraiso have the principal plantations. The ports of shipment are +Truxillo and Puerto Cortés. Annual production in recent years has been +about 5,000,000 pounds. In 1889 the United States imported 3,322,502 +pounds, but in 1915 its importations fell away to 665,912 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British Honduras.</span> British Honduras has never undertaken to raise coffee +on a commercial scale despite the fact that conditions are not +unfavorable to its cultivation. It has failed to produce enough even for +domestic consumption, importing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> most of what it has needed. Annual +production, as recorded in recent years, has been upward of 10,000 +pounds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_in_Blossom_Panama" id="Coffee_in_Blossom_Panama"></a> +<img src="images/image180.jpg" width="500" height="429" alt="Three-Year-Old Coffee Trees in Blossom, Panama" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Three-Year-Old Coffee Trees in Blossom, Panama</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panama.</span> Panama presents a very favorable field for the growing of +coffee. The best district is situated in the uplands of the district of +Bugaba, where vast areas of the best lands for coffee-growing exist, and +where climatic and other conditions are most favorable to its growth.</p> + +<p>No shade is required in this country; and the only cultivation consists +of three or four cleanings a year to keep down the weeds, as no plowing, +etc., are necessary. Coffee matures from October to January. Water power +being abundant, it is used for running all machinery.</p> + +<p>The annual output of the province of Chiriqui, which produces the bulk +of the coffee, is approximately 4,000 sacks of 100 pounds each; all of +which is produced in the Boquete district at present, as the coffee +planted in the Bugaba section is still young and unproductive. The local +supply does not meet the domestic demand; and instead of exporting, a +great deal is imported from adjoining countries, although, there is a +protective tariff of six dollars per hundred pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Guianas.</span> Coffee has had a precarious existence in the Guianas. +Plants are said to have been brought by Dutch voyagers from Amsterdam in +1718 or 1720. They flourished in the new habitat to which they were +introduced, and in 1725 were carried from Dutch Guiana into the district +of Berbice in British Guiana and into French Guiana. There the berry was +a considerable success for a time; Berbice coffee especially acquiring a +good reputation; and when Demerara was settled, coffee became a staple +of that region.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> Shortage of native labor, and the difficulty of +procuring cheap and capable workers from outside the country, ultimately +compelled the practical abandonment of the crop in all three sections, +Dutch, French, and British. In British Guiana it is now grown mainly for +domestic consumption, and the same is true of French Guiana, which also +imports.</p> + +<p>From the time of its introduction, about 1718, until about 1880, the +only coffee grown in Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, was the <i>Coffea arabica</i>. +It was not a bountiful producer, and with labor scarce and unreliable, +its cultivation was expensive. Therefore experiment was made with the +<i>liberica</i> plant. This proved to be very satisfactory, growing +luxuriantly, producing abundantly, and requiring minimum labor in care. +In 1918 some 16,000,000 pounds were produced.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ecuador.</span> Though not of great commercial importance, coffee in Ecuador +grows on both the mainland and on the adjacent islands. The area planted +to coffee is estimated at 32,000 acres having an aggregate of about +8,000,000 trees. The trees blossom in December, and the picking season +is through April, May and June. Coffee ranks third in value among the +exports of the country.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peru.</span> Although possessed of natural coffee land and climate, little has +been done to develop the industry in Peru. A finely flavored coffee +grows at an altitude of 7,000 feet, while that grown in the lowlands +along the Pacific coast is not so desirable. Such small quantities as +are grown are cultivated in the mountain districts of Choquisongo, +Cajamarca, Perene, Paucartambo, Chaucghamayo, and Huanace. The +Pacific-coast district of Paces-mayo also grows a not unimportant crop.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bolivia.</span> Comparatively little attention is given to coffee cultivation +in Bolivia. Agricultural methods are crude, and are limited to cutting +down weeds and undergrowth twice a year. The coffee is planted in small +patches, or as hedges along the roads or around the fields of other +crops. The first crop is picked at the end of one and a half or two +years. The trees bear for fifteen to twenty years. The average yield is +from three to eight pounds per tree. The best grades of coffee are grown +at 2,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level.</p> + +<p>Coffee is cultivated in the departments of La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa +Cruz, El Beni, and Chuquisca. In the department of Santa Cruz there are +plantations in the provinces of Sara, Velasco, Chiquitos and Cordillera. +In the Yungas and the Apolobamba districts of La Paz, its cultivation +reaches the greatest importance, but even there is not of large +proportions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chile, Paraguay, and Argentina.</span> Coffee is of minor, almost +insignificant, importance in the agriculture of Chile, Paraguay, and +Argentina. In Uruguay the climate is altogether unsuitable for it.</p> + +<p>Argentina and Paraguay each have small growing districts. In the first +named, only the provinces of Salta and Jujuy have, at the latest +reports, a little more than 3,000 acres under cultivation. In Paraguay +some householders have grown coffee in their yards solely for their own +use. In the Paraguayan district of Altos, north of Asuncion, a small +group of plantations was started before the outbreak of the World War, +and produced about 300,000 pounds of coffee in a year.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ceylon.</span> Coffee planting in Ceylon was an important industry for a +century, until the so-called Ceylon leaf disease attacked the +plantations in 1869, and a few years later had practically destroyed all +the trees of the country. Although coffee raising has continued since +then, there has been, especially since the beginning of the twentieth +century, a steady decline in acreage. There were 4,875 acres under +cultivation in 1903, 2,433 acres in 1907, 1,389 in 1912, and 941.5 in +1919. Only 2,200 pounds were produced in 1917. However, the climate and +soil of Ceylon seem adapted to coffee culture, and the experimental +stations at Peradeniya and Anuradhapura have been experimenting in +recent years with <i>robusta</i>, <i>canephora</i>, <i>Ugandæ</i>, and a <i>robusta</i> +hybrid for the purpose of reviving the industry in the country.</p> + +<p>Ceylon is one of the oldest coffee-growing countries, the Arabs having +experimented with it there, according to legend, long before the +Portuguese seized the island in 1505. The Dutch, who gained control in +1658, continued the cultivation, and in 1690 introduced more systematic +methods. They sent a few pounds in 1721 to Amsterdam, where the coffee +brought a higher price than Java or Mocha. However,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> it was not until +after the British occupied the island in 1796, that coffee growing was +carried on extensively. The first British-owned upland plantation was +started in 1825 by Sir Edward Barnes; and for more than fifty years +thereafter coffee was one of the island's leading products. An orgy of +speculation in coffee growing in Ceylon, in which £5,000,000 sterling +are said to have been invested, culminated in 1845 in the bursting of +the coffee bubble, and hundreds were ruined. The peak of the export +trade was reached in 1873, when 111,495,216 pounds of coffee were sent +out of the country. Even then, the plantations were suffering severely +from the leaf disease, which had appeared in 1869; and by 1887, the +coffee tree had practically disappeared from Ceylon. Ceylon's day in +coffee was a cycle of fifty-odd years.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Robusta_Coffee_Cochin-China" id="Robusta_Coffee_Cochin-China"></a> +<img src="images/image181.jpg" width="500" height="301" alt="Robusta Coffee Growing on the Suzannah Estate, Cochin-China" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Robusta Coffee Growing on the Suzannah Estate, Cochin-China</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">French Indo-China.</span> Coffee culture in French Indo-China is a +comparatively small factor in international trade, although production +is on the increase, particularly from those plantations planted to +<i>robusta</i>, <i>liberica</i>, and <i>excelsa</i> varieties. The average annual +export for the five-year period ended with 1918 was 516,978 pounds, +nearly all of it going to France.</p> + +<p>The first experiments with coffee growing were begun in 1887, near Hanoi +in Tonkin. The seeds were of the <i>arabica</i> variety, brought from +Réunion, and the production from the first years was distributed +throughout the country to foster the industry. Eventually <i>arabica</i> was +found unsuitable to the soil and climate, and experiments were begun +with <i>robusta</i> and other hardier types.</p> + +<p>A survey of the industry of the country in 1916 showed that the plant +was being successfully grown in the provinces of Tonkin, Anam, and +Cochin-China, and that altogether there were about 1,000,000 trees in +bearing. The plantations are mostly in the foot-hills of the mountain +ranges or on the slopes, although a few are located near the coast line +at 1,000 feet, or even less, above sea-level.</p> + +<p>The larger and more successful plantations follow advanced methods of +planting and cultivating, while the government maintains experimental +stations for the purpose of fostering the industry. It is believed that +French Indo-China in coming years will assume an important position in +the coffee trade of the world, particularly as a source of supply for +France.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Federated Malay States, Including Straits Settlements.</span> Rubber has been +the chief cause of the decline of coffee industry in the Federated Malay +States. Since the closing years of the nineteenth century coffee has +been steadily on the downward path in acreage and production, with the +possible exception of parts of Straits Settlements, which in 1918 +exported, mostly to England, some 3,500,000 pounds of good grade coffee. +The other sections of the federation shipped less than 1,000,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>In the early days, planters of the Malay Peninsula knew little about +proper methods of cultivating, and depended mostly upon what they +learned of the practises in Ceylon, which, unfortunately for them, were +not at all suited to the Malay country. They secured their best crops +from lowlands where peaty soil prevailed, and eventually all the coffee +grown on the peninsula came from such regions.</p> + +<p><i>Liberica</i> is mostly favored, and is grown with some success as an +inter-crop with cocoanuts and rubber. The <i>robusta</i> variety has also +been introduced, but does not seem to do as well as the <i>liberica</i>. +Between 2,300 and 2,600 acres, according to recent returns, have been +under coffee as a catch-crop with cocoanuts, out of a total of 40,000 +acres in cocoanut estates. One planter has been reported as making quite +a success with this method of inter-cropping for coffee, but it is not +generally approved.</p> + +<p>There has been a general decline in acreage, product, and exports since +the closing years of the nineteenth century, until now the industry is +regarded as practically at a stand-still and likely so to remain as long +as rubber shall continue to hold the commercially high position to which +it has attained. Unsatisfactory prices realized for the crop, poor +growth of the trees in some localities, and the gradual weakening of the +trees under rubber as they mature, are offered as the principal +explanations of this decrease in acreage. Nearly all the Malay crop in +recent years has been grown in Selangor, though Negri Sembilan, Pahang, +and Perak continue as factors in the trade.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Bourbon_Trees_French_Indo-China" id="Bourbon_Trees_French_Indo-China"></a> +<img src="images/image182.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="Coffee Trees of the Bourbon Variety, French Indo-China" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Trees of the Bourbon Variety, French Indo-China</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Australia.</span> Although Australia is a prospective coffee-growing country of +large natural possibilities, the <i>Australian Year Book</i> for 1921 states +that Queensland is the one state in which experiments have been tried, +and that in 1919–20 there were only twenty-four acres under cultivation. +Queensland soils are of volcanic origin, exceptionally rich, and +support<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> trees that are vigorous and prolific with a bean of fine +quality. The <i>arabica</i> is chiefly cultivated, and the trees can be +successfully grown on the plains at sea-level as well as up to a height +of 1,500 or 2,000 feet. The trees mature earlier than in some other +countries. Planted in January, they frequently blossom in December of +the next year, or a month later, and yield a small crop in July or +August; that is, in about two years and a half from the time of +planting. The bean closely resembles the choice Blue Mountain coffee of +Jamaica. For coffee cultivation the labor cost is almost prohibitive.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Picking_Coffee_in_Queensland" id="Picking_Coffee_in_Queensland"></a> +<img src="images/image183.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Picking Coffee on a North Queensland Plantation" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Picking Coffee on a North Queensland Plantation</span></span> +</div> + +<p>As much as fifteen hundred-weight of beans per acre have been gathered +from trees in North Queensland; and for years the average was ten +hundred-weight per acre. After thirty years of cultivation, no signs of +disease have appeared. At late as 1920, the government was proposing to +make advances of fourteen cents a pound upon coffee in the parchment to +encourage the development of the industry to a point where it would be +possible for local coffee growers to capture at least the bulk of the +commonwealth's import coffee trade of 2,605,240 pounds.</p> + +<p>Coffee grows well in most all the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and in +some of them, as in the Philippines and Hawaii, the industry in past +years, reached considerable importance.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hawaii.</span> Coffee has been grown in Hawaii since 1825, from plants brought +from Brazil. It has also been said that seed was brought by Vancouver, +the British navigator, on his Pacific exploration voyage, 1791–94. Not, +however, until 1845 was an official record made of the crop, which was +then 248 pounds. The first plantations, started on the low levels, near +the sea, did not do well; and it was not until the trees were planted at +elevations of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea-level that better +returns were obtained.</p> + +<p>Coffee is grown on all the islands of the group, but nowhere to any +great extent except on Hawaii, which produces ninety-five percent of the +entire crop. Next in importance, though far behind, is the island of +Oahu. On Hawaii there are four principal coffee districts, Kona, +Hamakua, Puna, and Olaa. About four-fifths of the total output of the +islands is produced in Kona. At one time there were considerable coffee +areas in Maui and Kauai, but sugar cane eventually there took the place +of coffee.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_IN_BLOOM_KONA_HAWAII" id="COFFEE_IN_BLOOM_KONA_HAWAII"></a> +<img src="images/image184.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="COFFEE IN BLOSSOM, CAPTAIN COOK COFFEE COMPANY ESTATE, KEALAKEKUA, KONA, HAWAII" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEE IN BLOSSOM, CAPTAIN COOK COFFEE COMPANY ESTATE, KEALAKEKUA, KONA, HAWAII</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p><p>The Kona coffee district extends for many miles along the western slope +of the island of Hawaii and around famous Kealakekua Bay. The soil is +volcanic, and even rocky; but coffee trees flourish surprisingly well +among the rocks, and are said to bear a bean of superior quality.</p> + +<p>Coffee trees in Kona are planted principally in the open, though +sometimes they are shaded by the native <i>kukui</i> trees. They are grown +from seed in nurseries; and the seedlings, when one year old, are +transplanted in regular lines nine feet apart. In two years a small crop +is gathered, yielding from five to twelve bags of cleaned coffee per +acre. At three years of age the trees produce from eight to twenty bags +of cleaned coffee per acre, and from that time they are fully matured. +The ripening season is between September and January, and there are two +principal pickings. Many of the trees are classed as wild; that is, they +are not topped, and are cultivated in an irregular manner and are poorly +cared for; but they yield 700 or 800 pounds per acre. The fruit ripens +very uniformly, and is picked easily and at slight expense.</p> + +<p>It is calculated that in the Hawaiian group more than 250,000 acres of +good coffee land are available and about 200,000 acres more of fair +quality. Comparatively little of this possible acreage has been put to +use. According to the census of 1889, there were then 6,451 acres +devoted to coffee, having, young and old, 3,225,743 bearing trees. The +yield, in that census year, was 2,297,000 pounds, of which 2,112,650 +pounds were credited to Hawaii, the small remainder coming from Maui, +Oahu, Kauai, and Molokai.</p> + +<p>A blight in 1855–56 set back the industry, many plantations being ruined +and then given over to sugar cane. After the blight had disappeared, the +plantations were re-established, and prosperity continued for years. +Following the American occupation of the islands in 1898, came another +period of depression. With the loss of the protective tariff that had +existed, prices fell to an unremunerativte figure; and the more +profitable sugar cane was taken up again. After 1912, the increased +demand for coffee, with higher prices, led again to hopes for the future +of the industry. Planting was encouraged; and it has been demonstrated +that from lands well selected and intelligently cultivated it is +possible to have a yield of from 1,200 to 2,100 pounds per acre. +Improvements have also been made in pulping and milling facilities. Many +of the plantations are cultivated by Japanese labor.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_At_Hamakua_Hawaii" id="Coffee_At_Hamakua_Hawaii"></a> +<img src="images/image185.jpg" width="300" height="337" alt="Coffee Growing Under Shade, Hamakua, H.I." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Growing Under Shade, Hamakua, H.I.</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Exports of coffee from Hawaii to the principal countries of the world in +1920 were 2,573,300 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Philippine Islands.</span> Spanish missionaries from Mexico are said to have +carried the coffee plant to the Philippine Islands in the latter part of +the eighteenth century. At first it was cultivated in the province of La +Laguna; but afterward other provinces, notably Batangas and Cavite, took +it up; and in a short time the industry was one of the most important in +the islands. The coffee was of the <i>arabica</i> variety. In the middle of +the eighteenth century, and after, the industry had a position of +importance; several provinces produced profitable crops that contributed +much to the wealth of the communities where the berry was cultivated. In +those days the city of Yipa was an important trading center. In the +period of its prime Philippine coffee enjoyed fine repute, especially in +Spain, Great Britain, and China (at Hong Kong), those three countries +being the largest consumers. At one time—in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> 1883 and 1884—the annual +export was 16,000,000 pounds, which demonstrates the importance of the +industry at the peak of its prosperity. The leaf blight appeared on the +island about 1889, causing destruction from which there has not yet been +complete recovery. The export of 3,086 pounds in 1917 shows the depths +into which the industry had fallen.</p> + +<p>The Bureau of Agriculture at Manila announced in 1915 that an effort was +to be made to re-habilitate the coffee industry of the islands. Nothing +came of the effort, which died a-borning. Since then, several attempts +to introduce disease-resisting varieties of coffee from Java have failed +because of lack of interest on the part of the natives.</p> + +<p>Despite the misfortunes that have overwhelmed it in the past and are now +retarding its growth, it is still believed that the industry in these +islands may be re-habilitated. Conditions of soil and climate are +favorable; land and labor are cheap, abundant, and dependable: railroads +run into the best coffee regions, and good cart roads are in process of +construction. Some plantations of consequence are still in existence, +and serious consideration is being given to their development and to +increasing their number.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Trees_South_Kona_Hawaii" id="Coffee_Trees_South_Kona_Hawaii"></a> +<img src="images/image186.jpg" width="500" height="430" alt="The Coffee Tree Thrives in the Lava Soil of South Kona, Island of Hawaii" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Coffee Tree Thrives in the Lava Soil of South Kona, Island of Hawaii</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guam.</span> Coffee is one of the commonest wild plants on the little island of +Guam. It grows around the houses like shade trees or flowering shrubs, +and nearly every family cultivates a small patch. Climate and soil are +favorable to it; and it flourishes, with abundant crops, from the +sea-level to the tops of the highest hills. The plants are set in +straight rows, from three and a half to seven feet apart, and are shaded +by banana trees or by cocoanut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> leaves stuck in the ground. There is no +production for export, scarcely enough for home consumption.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Plantation_Near_Sagada_PI" id="Coffee_Plantation_Near_Sagada_PI"></a> +<img src="images/image187.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Coffee Plantation Near Sagada, Bontoc Province, P.I." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Plantation Near Sagada, Bontoc Province, P.I.</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other Pacific Islands.</span> Other islands of the Pacific do not loom large in +coffee growing, though New Caledonia gives promise as a producer, +exporting 1,248,024 pounds in 1916, most of which was <i>robusta</i>. Tahiti +produces a fair coffee, but in no commercial quantity. In the Samoan +group there are plantations, small in number, in size, and in amount of +production. Several islands of the Fiji group are said to be well +adapted to coffee, but little is grown there and none for export.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image188.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="Owner's Residence Adjoining Drying Grounds on One of the Large Estates" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Owner's Residence Adjoining Drying Grounds on One of the Large Estates</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="COFFEE_PREPARATION_SAO_PAULO" id="COFFEE_PREPARATION_SAO_PAULO"></a> +<img src="images/image189.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="Drying Grounds, Fazenda Santa Adelaide, Ribeirao Preto" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drying Grounds, Fazenda Santa Adelaide, Ribeirao Preto</span><br /> +COFFEE PREPARATION IN SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL</span> +</div> + + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXI" id="Chapter_XXI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXI</span></h2> + +<h3>PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Early Arabian methods of preparation—How primitive devices were +replaced by modern methods—A chronological story of the +development of scientific plantation machinery, and the part played +by British and American inventors—The marvelous coffee package, +one of the most ingenious in all nature—How coffee is +harvested—Picking—Preparation by the dry and the wet +methods—Pulping—Fermentation and washing—Drying—Hulling; or +peeling, and polishing—Sizing, or grading—Preparation methods of +different countries</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">L</span><span class="caps">a Roque</span><a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a>, in his description of the ancient coffee culture, and the +preparation methods as followed in Yemen, says that the berries were +permitted to dry on the trees. When the outer covering began to shrivel, +the trees were shaken, causing the fully matured fruits to drop upon +cloths spread to receive them. They were next exposed to the sun on +drying-mats, after which they were husked by means of wooden or stone +rollers. The beans were given a further drying in the sun, and then were +submitted to a winnowing process, for which large fans were used.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Development of Plantation Machinery</i></p> + +<p>The primitive methods of the original Arab planters were generally +followed by the Dutch pioneers, and later by the French, with slight +modifications. As the cultivation spread, necessity for more effective +methods of handling the ripened fruit mothered inventions that soon +began to transform the whole aspect of the business. Probably the first +notable advance was in curing, when the West Indian process, or wet +method, of cleaning the berries was evolved.</p> + +<p>About the time that Brazil began the active cultivation of coffee, +William Panter was granted the first English patent on a "mill for +husking coffee." This was in 1775. James Henckel followed with an +English patent, granted in 1806, on a coffee drier, "an invention +communicated to him by a certain foreigner." The first American to enter +the lists was Nathan Reed of Belfast, Me., who in 1822 was granted a +United States patent on a coffee huller. Roswell Abbey obtained a United +States patent on a huller in 1825; and Zenos Bronson, of Jasper County, +Ga., obtained one on another huller in 1829. In the next few years many +others followed.</p> + +<p>John Chester Lyman, in 1834, was granted an English patent on a coffee +huller employing circular wooden disks, fitted with wire teeth. Isaac +Adams and Thomas Ditson of Boston brought out improved hullers in 1835; +and James Meacock of Kingston, Jamaica, patented in England, in 1845, a +self-contained machine for pulping, dressing, and sorting coffee.</p> + +<p>William McKinnon began, in 1840, the manufacture of coffee plantation +machinery at the Spring Garden Iron Works, founded by him in 1798 in +Aberdeen, Scotland. He died in 1873; but the business continues as Wm. +McKinnon & Co., Ltd.</p> + +<p>About 1850 John Walker, one of the pioneer English inventors of +coffee-plantation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> machinery, brought out in Ceylon his cylinder pulper +for Arabian coffee. The pulping surface was made of copper, and was +pierced with a half-moon punch that raised the cut edges into half +circles.</p> + +<p>The next twenty years witnessed some of the most notable advances in the +development of machinery for plantation treatment, and served to +introduce the inventions of several men whose names will ever be +associated with the industry.</p> + +<p>John Gordon & Co. began the manufacture in London of the line of +plantation machinery still known around the world as "Gordon make" in +1850; and John Gordon was granted an English patent on his improved +coffee pulper in 1859.</p> + +<p>Robert Bowman Tennent obtained English (1852) and United States (1853) +patents on a two-cylinder pulper.</p> + +<p>George L. Squier began the manufacture of plantation machinery in +Buffalo, N.Y., in 1857. He was active in the business until 1893, and +died in 1910. The Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. still continues as +one of the leading American manufacturers of coffee-plantation +machinery.</p> + +<p>Marcus Mason, an American mechanical engineer in San José, Costa Rica, +invented (1860) a coffee pulper and cleaner which became the foundation +stone of the extensive plantation-machinery business of Marcus Mason & +Co., established in 1873 at Worcester, Mass.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Walkers_Original_Disk_Pulper" id="Walkers_Original_Disk_Pulper"></a> +<img src="images/image190.jpg" width="300" height="322" alt="Walker's Original Disk Pulper, 1860" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Walker's Original Disk Pulper, 1860</span><br /> +<small>Much favored in Ceylon and India</small></span> +</div> + +<p>John Walker was granted (1860) an English patent on a disk pulper in +which the copper pulping surface was punched, or knobbed, by a blind +punch that raised rows of oval knobs but did not pierce the sheet, and +so left no sharp edges. During Ceylon's fifty years of coffee +production, the Walker machines played an important part in the +industry. They are still manufactured by Walker, Sons & Co., Ltd., of +Colombo, and are sold to other producing countries.</p> + +<p>Alexius Van Gulpen began the manufacture of a green-coffee-grading +machine at Emmerich, Germany, in 1860.</p> + +<p>Following Newell's United States patents of 1857–59, sixteen other +patents were issued on various types of coffee-cleaning machines, some +designed for plantation use, and some for treating the beans on arrival +in the consuming countries.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Early_English_Coffee_Peeler" id="Early_English_Coffee_Peeler"></a> +<img src="images/image191.jpg" width="300" height="295" alt="Early English Coffee Peeler" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early English Coffee Peeler</span><br /> +<small>Largely used in India and Ceylon</small></span> +</div> + +<p>James Henry Thompson, of Hoboken, and John Lidgerwood were granted, in +1864, an English patent on a coffee-hulling machine. William Van Vleek +Lidgerwood, American chargé d'affaires at Rio de Janeiro, was granted an +English patent on a coffee hulling and cleaning machine in 1866. The +name Lidgerwood has long been familiar to coffee planters. The +Lidgerwood Manufacturing Co., Ltd., has its headquarters in London, with +factory in Glasgow. Branch offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro, +Campinas, and in other cities in coffee-growing countries.</p> + +<p>Probably the name most familiar to coffee men in connection with +plantation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> methods is Guardiola. It first appears in the chronological +record in 1872, when J. Guardiola, of Chocola, Guatemala, was granted +several United States patents on machines for pulping and drying coffee. +Since then, "Guardiola" has come to mean a definite type of rotary +drying machine that—after the original patent expired—was manufactured +by practically all the leading makers of plantation machinery. José +Guardiola obtained additional United States patents on coffee hullers in +1886.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Group_of_English_Cylinder_Pulpers" id="Group_of_English_Cylinder_Pulpers"></a> +<img src="images/image192.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="Group of English Cylinder Coffee-Pulping Machines" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Group of English Cylinder Coffee-Pulping Machines</span></span> +</div> + +<p>William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, Morristown, N.J., was granted an English +patent on an improved coffee pulper in 1875.</p> + +<p>Several important cleaning and grading machinery patents were granted by +the United States (1876–1878) to Henry B. Stevens, who assigned them to +the Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N.Y. One of them was on a +separator, in which the coffee beans were discharged from the hopper in +a thin stream upon an endless carrier, or apron, arranged at such an +inclination that the round beans would roll by force of gravity down the +apron, while the flat beans would be carried to the top.</p> + +<p>C.F. Hargreaves, of Rio de Janeiro, was granted an English patent on +machinery for hulling, polishing, and separating coffee, in 1879.</p> + +<p>The first German patent on a coffee drying apparatus was granted to +Henry Scolfield, of Guatemala, in 1880.</p> + +<p>In 1885 Evaristo Conrado Engelberg of Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, +invented an improved coffee huller which, three years later, was +patented in the United States. The Engelberg Huller Co. of Syracuse, +N.Y., was organized the same year (1888) to make and to sell Engelberg +machines.</p> + +<p>Walker Sons & Co., Ltd., began, in 1886, experimenting in Ceylon with a +Liberian disk pulper that was not fully perfected until twelve years +later.</p> + +<p>Another name, that has since become almost as well known as Guardiola, +appears in the record in 1891. It is that of O'Krassa. In that year +R.F.E. O'Krassa of Antigua, Guatemala, was granted an English patent on +a coffee pulper. Additional patents on washing, hulling, drying, and +separating machines were issued to Mr. O'Krassa in England and in the +United States in 1900, 1908, 1911, 1912, and 1913.</p> + +<p>The Fried. Krupp A.G. Grusonwerk, Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, began the +manufacture of coffee plantation machines about 1892. Among others it +builds coffee pulpers and hulling and polishing machines of the Anderson +(Mexican) and Krull (Brazilian) types.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p><p>Additional United States patents were granted in 1895 to Marcus Mason, +assignor to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, on machines for pulping and +polishing coffee. Douglas Gordon assigned patents on a coffee pulper and +a coffee drier to Marcus Mason & Co. in 1904–05.</p> + +<p>The names of Jules Smout, a Swiss, and Don Roberto O'Krassa, of +Guatemala, are well known to coffee planters the world over because of +their combined peeling and polishing machines.</p> + +<p>The Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver Creek, N.Y., began in 1896 the +manufacture of the Monitor line of coffee-grading-and-cleaning machines.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Marvelous Coffee Package</i></p> + +<p>It is doubtful if in all nature there is a more cunningly devised food +package than the fruit of the coffee tree. It seems as if Good Mother +Nature had said: "This gift of Heaven is too precious to put up in any +ordinary parcel. I shall design for it a casket worthy of its divine +origin. And the casket shall have an inner seal that shall safeguard it +from enemies, and that shall preserve its goodness for man until the day +when, transported over the deserts and across the seas, it shall be +broken open to be transmuted by the fires of friendship, and made to +yield up its aromatic nectar in the Great Drink of Democracy."</p> + +<p>To this end she caused to grow from the heart of the jasmine-like +flower, that first herald of its coming, a marvelous berry which, as it +ripens, turns first from green to yellow, then to reddish, to deep +crimson, and at last to a royal purple.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Copper_Covers_for_Pulper_Cylinders" id="Copper_Covers_for_Pulper_Cylinders"></a> +<img src="images/image193.jpg" width="500" height="366" alt="Specimens of Copper Covers for Pulper Cylinders" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Specimens of Copper Covers for Pulper Cylinders</span></span><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—For Arabian coffee (<i>Coffea arabica</i>). 2—For Liberian coffee +(<i>Coffea liberica</i>). 3—Also for Arabian. 4—For <i>Coffea canephora</i>. +5—For <i>Coffea robusta</i>. 6—For larger Arabian, and for <i>Coffea +Maragogipe</i>.</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The coffee fruit is very like a cherry, though somewhat elongated and +having in its upper end a small umbilicus. But mark with what ingenuity +the package has been constructed! The outer wrapping is a thin, +gossamer-like skin which encloses a soft pulp, sweetish to the taste, +but of a mucilaginous consistency. This pulp in turn is wrapped about +the inner-seal—called the parchment, because of its tough texture. The +parchment encloses the magic bean in its last wrapping, a delicate +silver-colored skin, not unlike fine spun silk or the sheerest of tissue +papers. And this last wrapping is so tenacious, so true to its +guardianship function, that no amount of rough treatment can dislodge it +altogether; for portions of it cling to the bean even into the roasting +and grinding processes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="COFFEE_PREPARATION_IN_CENTRAL_AND_SOUTH_AMERICA" id="COFFEE_PREPARATION_IN_CENTRAL_AND_SOUTH_AMERICA"></a> +<img src="images/plate11a.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="Drying Grounds, Pulping House, and Fermentation Vats, Boa Vista. Brazil" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drying Grounds, Pulping House, and Fermentation Vats, Boa Vista. Brazil</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate11b.jpg" width="500" height="299" alt="Pulping House and Fermentation Tanks, Costa Rica" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pulping House and Fermentation Tanks, Costa Rica</span><br /> +COFFEE PREPARATION IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Granada_Unpulped_Coffee_Separator" id="Granada_Unpulped_Coffee_Separator"></a><br /> +<img src="images/image194.jpg" width="350" height="209" alt="Granada Unpulped Coffee Separator" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Granada Unpulped Coffee Separator</span><br /> +<small>Shown in combination with a Guatemala coffee pulper</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee is said to be "in the husk," or "in the parchment," when the +whole fruit is dried; and it is called "hulled coffee" when it has been +deprived of its hull and peel. The matter forming the fruit, called the +coffee berry, covers two thin, hard, oval seed vessels held together, +one to the other, by their flat sides. These seed vessels, when broken +open, contain the raw coffee beans of commerce. They are usually of a +roundish oval shape, convex on the outside, flat inside, marked +longitudinally in the center of the flat side with a deep incision, and +wrapped in the thin pellicle known as the silver skin. When one of the +two seeds aborts, the remaining one acquires a greater size, and fills +the interior of the fruit, which in that case, of course, has but one +cellule. This abortion is common in the <i>arabica</i> variety, and produces +a bean formerly called <i>gragé</i> coffee, but now more commonly known as +peaberry, or male berry.</p> + +<p>The various coverings of the coffee beans are almost always removed on +the plantations in the producing countries. Properly to prepare the raw +beans, it is necessary to remove the four coverings—the outer skin, the +sticky pulp, the parchment, or husk, and the closely adhering silver +skin.</p> + +<p>There are two distinct methods of treating the coffee fruits, or +"cherries." One process, the one that until recent years was in general +use throughout the world, and is still in many producing countries, is +known as the dry method. The coffee prepared in this way is sometimes +called "common," "ordinary," or "natural," to distinguish it from the +product that has been cleaned by the wet or washed method. The wet +method, or, as it is sometimes designated, the "West Indian process" +(W.I.P.) is practised on all the large modern plantations that have a +sufficient supply of water.</p> + +<p>In the wet process, the first step is called pulping; the second is +fermentation and washing; the third is drying; the fourth is hulling or +peeling; and the last, sizing or grading. In the dry process, the first +step is drying; the second hulling; and the last, sizing or grading.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Hand-Power_Double-Disk_Pulper" id="Hand-Power_Double-Disk_Pulper"></a> +<img src="images/image195.jpg" width="300" height="308" alt="Hand-Power Double-Disk Pulper" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hand-Power Double-Disk Pulper</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Harvesting</i></p> + +<p>The coffee cherry ripens about six to seven months after the tree has +flowered, or blossomed; and becomes a deep purplish-crimson color. It is +then ready for picking. The ripening season varies throughout the world, +according to climate and altitude. In the state of São Paulo, Brazil, +the harvesting season lasts from May to September; while in Java, where +three crops are produced annually, harvesting is almost a continuous +process throughout the year. In Colombia the harvesting seasons are +March and April, and November and December. In Guatemala the crops are +gathered from October through December; in Venezuela, from November +through March. In Mexico the coffee is harvested from November to +January; in Haiti the harvest extends from November to March; in Arabia, +from September to March;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> in Abyssinia, from September through November. +In Uganda, Africa, there are two main crops, one ripening in March and +the other in September, and picking is carried on during practically +every month except December and January. In India the fruit is ready for +harvesting from October to January.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Tandem_Coffee_Pulper" id="Tandem_Coffee_Pulper"></a> +<img src="images/image196.jpg" width="500" height="410" alt="Tandem Coffee Pulper of English Make" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tandem Coffee Pulper of English Make</span><br /> +<small>Being a combination of a Bon-Accord-Valencia pulper with a Bon-Accord repassing machine</small></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Picking</i></p> + +<p>The general practise throughout the world has been to hand-pick the +fruit; although in some countries the cherries are allowed to become +fully ripe on the trees, and to fall to the ground. The introduction of +the wet method of preparation, indeed, has made it largely unnecessary +to hand-pick crops; and the tendency seems to be away from this practise +on the larger plantations. If the berries are gathered promptly after +dropping, the beans are not injured, and the cost of harvesting is +reduced.</p> + +<p>The picking season is a busy time on a large plantation. All hands join +in the work—men, women and children; for it must be rushed. Over-ripe +berries shrink and dry up. The pickers, with baskets slung over their +shoulders, walk between the rows, stripping the berries from the trees, +using ladders to reach the topmost branches, and sometimes even taking +immature fruit in their haste to expedite the work. About thirty pounds +is considered a fair day's work under good conditions. As the baskets +are filled, they are emptied at a "station" in that particular unit of +the plantation; or, in some cases, directly into wagons that keep pace +with the pickers. The coffee is freed as much as possible of sticks, +leaves, etc., and is then conveyed to the preparation grounds.</p> + +<p>A space of several acres is needed for the various preparation processes +on the larger plantations; the plant including concrete-surfaced drying +grounds, large fermentation tanks, washing vats, mills, warehouses, +stables, and even machine shops. In Mexico this place is known as the +<i>beneficio</i>.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Washed and Unwashed Coffee</i></p> + +<p>Where water is plenty, the ripe coffee cherries are fed by a stream of +water into a pulping machine which breaks the outer skins, permitting +the pulpy matter enveloping the beans to be loosened and carried away in +further washings. It is this wet separation of the sticky pulp from the +beans, instead of allowing it to dry on them, to be removed later with +the parchment in the hulling operation, that makes the distinction +between washed and unwashed coffees. Where water is scarce the coffees +are unwashed.</p> + +<p>Either method being well done, does washing improve the strength and +flavor?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> Opinions differ. The soil, altitude, climatic influences, and +cultivation methods of a country give its coffee certain distinctive +drinking qualities. Washing immensely improves the appearance of the +bean; it also reduces curing costs. Generally speaking, washed coffees +will always command a premium over coffees dried in the pulp.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Vertical_Coffee_Washer" id="Vertical_Coffee_Washer"></a> +<img src="images/image197.jpg" width="350" height="349" alt="Costa Rica Vertical Coffee Washer" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Costa Rica Vertical Coffee Washer</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Horizontal_Coffee_Washer" id="Horizontal_Coffee_Washer"></a> +<img src="images/image198.jpg" width="500" height="339" alt="Continuous Working Horizontal Coffee Washer" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Continuous Working Horizontal Coffee Washer</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Whether coffee is washed or not, it has to be dried; and there is a kind +of fermentation that goes on during washing and drying, about which +coffee planters have differing ideas, just as tea planters differ over +the curing of tea leaves. Careful scientific study is needed to +determine how much, if any, effect this fermentation has on the ultimate +cup value.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Preparation by the Dry Method</i></p> + +<p>The dry method of preparing the berries is not only the older method, +but is considered by some operators as providing a distinct advantage +over the wet process, since berries of different degrees of ripeness can +be handled at the same time. However, the success of this method is +dependent largely on the continuance of clear warm weather over quite a +length of time, which can not always be counted on.</p> + +<p>In this process the berries are spread in a thin layer on open drying +grounds, or barbecues, often having cement or brick surfaces. The +berries are turned over several times a day in order to permit the sun +and wind thoroughly to dry all portions. The sun-drying process lasts +about three weeks; and after the first three days of this period, the +berries must be protected from dews and rains by covering them with +tarpaulins, or by raking them into heaps under cover. If the berries are +not spread out, they heat, and the silver skin sticks to the coffee +bean, and frequently discolors it. When thoroughly dry, the berries are +stored, unless the husks (outer skin and inner parchment) are to be +removed at once. Hot air, steam, and other artificial drying methods +take the place of natural sun-drying on some plantations.</p> + +<p>In the dry method, the husks are removed either by hand (threshing and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +pounding in a mortar, on the smaller plantations) or by specially +constructed machinery, known as hulling machines.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coban_Pulper_Venezuela" id="Coban_Pulper_Venezuela"></a> +<img src="images/image199.jpg" width="300" height="217" alt="Cobán Pulper in Tachira, Venezuela" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cobán Pulper in Tachira, Venezuela</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Wet Method—Pulping</i></p> + +<p>The wet method of preparation is the more modern form, and is generally +practised on the larger plantations that have a sufficient supply of +water, and enough money to instal the quite extensive amount of +machinery and equipment required. It is generally considered that +washing results in a better grade of bean.</p> + +<p>In this method the cherries are sometimes thrown into tanks full of +water to soak about twenty-four hours, so as to soften the outer skins +and underlying pulp to a condition that will make them easily removable +by the pulping machine—the idea being to rub away the pulp by friction +without crushing the beans.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Niagara_Power_Coffee_Huller" id="Niagara_Power_Coffee_Huller"></a> +<img src="images/image200.jpg" width="300" height="302" alt="Niagara Power Coffee Huller" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Niagara Power Coffee Huller</span></span> +</div> + +<p>On the larger plantations, however, the coffee cherries are dumped into +large concrete receiving tanks, from which they are carried the same day +by streams of running water directly into the hoppers of the pulping +machines.</p> + +<p>At least two score of different makes of pulping machines are in use in +the various coffee-growing countries. Pulpers are made in various sizes, +from the small hand-operated machine to the large type driven by power; +and in two general styles—cylinder, and disk.</p> + +<p>The cylinder pulper, the latest style—suggesting a huge +nutmeg-grater—consists of a rotary cylinder surrounded with a copper or +brass cover punched with bulbs. These bulbs differ in shape according to +the species, or variety, of coffee to be treated—<i>arabica</i>, <i>liberica</i>, +<i>robusta</i>, <i>canephora</i>, or what not. The cylinder rotates against a +breast with pulping edges set at an angle. The pulping is effected by +the rubbing action of the copper cover against the edges, or ribs, of +the breast. The cherries are subjected to a rubbing and rolling motion, +in the course of which the two parchment-covered beans contained in the +majority of the cherries become loosened. The pulp itself is carried by +the cover and is discharged through a pulp shoot, while the pulped +coffee is delivered through holes on the breast. Cylinder machines vary +in capacity from 400 pounds (hand power) to 4,800 pounds (motive power) +per hour.</p> + +<p>Some cylinder pulpers are double, being equipped with rotary screens or +oscillating sieves, that segregate the imperfectly pulped cherries so +that they may be put through again. Pulpers are also equipped with +attachments that automatically move the imperfectly pulped material over +into a repassing machine for another rubbing. Others have attachments +partially to crush the cherries before pulping.</p> + +<p>The breasts in cylinder machines are usually made with removable steel +ribs; but in Brazil, Nicaragua, and other countries, where, owing to the +short season and scarcity of labor, the planters have to pick, +simultaneously, green, ripe, and over-ripe (dry) cherries, rubber +breasts are used.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="BRITISH_AND_AMERICAN_COFFEE_DRIERS" id="BRITISH_AND_AMERICAN_COFFEE_DRIERS"></a> +<img src="images/image201.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="McKinnon's Guardiola Coffee Drier" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">McKinnon's Guardiola Coffee Drier</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image202.jpg" width="500" height="292" alt="The Squier-Guardiola Coffee Drier, With Direct-Fire Heater" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Squier-Guardiola Coffee Drier, With Direct-Fire Heater</span><br /> +BRITISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE DRIERS—GUARDIOLA SYSTEM<br /> +<small>There are numerous makes of coffee driers based upon the original +invention of José Guardiola of Chocola, Guatemala. In the two +illustrated above both direct-fire heat and steam heat may be utilized</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p><p>The disk pulper (the earliest type, having been in use more than +seventy years) is the style most generally used in the Dutch East Indies +and in some parts of Mexico. The results are the same as those obtained +with the cylindrical pulper. The disk machine is made with one, two, +three, or four vertical iron disks, according to the capacity desired. +The disks are covered on both sides with a copper plate of the same +shape, and punched with blind punches. The pulping operation takes place +between the rubbing action of the blind punches, or bulbs, on the copper +plates and the lateral pulping bars fitted to the side cheeks. As in the +cylinder pulper, the distance between the surface of the bulbs and the +pulping bar may be adjusted to allow of any clearance that may be +required, according to the variety of coffee to be treated.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="American_Guardiola_Drier" id="American_Guardiola_Drier"></a> +<img src="images/image203.jpg" width="300" height="233" alt="Another American Guardiola Drier" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Another American Guardiola Drier</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Disk pulpers vary in capacity from 1,200 pounds to 14,000 pounds of ripe +cherry coffee per hour. They, too, are made in combinations employing +cylindrical separators, shaking sieves, and repassing pulpers, for +completing the pulping of all unpulped or partially pulped cherries.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Fermentation and Washing</i></p> + +<p>The next step in the process consists in running the pulped cherries +into cisterns, or fermentation tanks, filled with water, for the purpose +of removing such pulp as was not removed in the pulping machine. The +saccharine matter is loosened by fermentation in from twenty-four to +thirty-two hours. The mass is kept stirred up for a short time; and, in +general practise, the water is drawn off from above, the light pulp +floating at the top being removed at the same time. The same tanks are +often used for washing, but a better practise is to have separate tanks.</p> + +<p>Some planters permit the pulped coffee to ferment in water. This is +called the wet fermentation process. Others drain off the water from the +tanks and conduct the fermenting operation in a semi-dry state, called +the dry fermentation process.</p> + +<p>The coffee bean, when introduced into the fermentation tanks, is +enclosed in a parchment shell made slimy by its closely adhering +saccharine coat. After fermentation, which not only loosens the +remaining pulp but also softens the membranous covering, the beans are +given a final washing, either in washing tanks or by being run through +mechanical washers. The type of washing machine generally used consists +of a cylindrical tub having a vertical spindle fitted with a number of +stirrers, or arms, which, in rotating, stir and lift up the parchment +coffee. In another type, the cylinder is horizontal; but the operation +is similar.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Drying</i></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Smout_Peeler_and_Polisher" id="Smout_Peeler_and_Polisher"></a> +<img src="images/image204.jpg" width="300" height="328" alt="The Smout Peeler and Polisher" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Smout Peeler and Polisher</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The next step in preparation is drying. The coffee, which is still "in +the parchment," but is now known as washed coffee, is spread out thinly +on a drying ground, as in the dry method. However, if the weather is +unsuitable or can not be depended upon to remain fair for the necessary +length of time, there are machines which can be used to dry the coffee +satisfactorily. On some plantations, the drying is started in the open +and finished by machine. The machines dry the coffee in twenty-four +hours, while ten days are required by the sun.</p> + +<p>The object of the drying machine is to dry the parchment of the coffee +so that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> may be removed as readily as the skin on a peanut; and this +object is achieved in the most approved machines by keeping a hot +current of air stirring through the beans. One of the best-liked types, +the Guardiola, resembles the cylinder of a coffee-roasting machine. It +is made of perforated steel plates in cylinder form, and is carried on a +hollow shaft through which the hot air is circulated by a pressure fan. +The beans are rotated in the revolving cylinder; and as the hot air +strikes the wet coffee, it creates a steam that passes out through the +perforations of the cylinder. Within the cylinder are compartments +equipped with winged plates, or ribs, that keep the coffee constantly +stirred up to facilitate the drying process. Another favorite is the +O'Krassa. It is constructed on the principle just described, but differs +in detail of construction from the Guardiola, and is able to dry its +contents a few hours quicker. Hot air, steam, and electric heat are all +employed in the various makes of coffee driers. A temperature from 65° +to 85° centigrade is maintained during the drying process.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="OKrassas_Coffee_Drier" id="OKrassas_Coffee_Drier"></a> +<img src="images/image206.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="O'Krassa's Coffee Drier Combined with Direct-Fire Heater" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">O'Krassa's Coffee Drier Combined with Direct-Fire Heater</span></span> +</div> + +<p>When thoroughly dry, the parchment can be crumbled between the fingers, +and the bean within is too hard to be dented by finger nail or teeth.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Hulling, Peeling, and Polishing</i></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Smout_Peeler_and_Polisher_Exposed" id="Smout_Peeler_and_Polisher_Exposed"></a> +<img src="images/image205.jpg" width="300" height="232" alt="The Smout Peeler and Polisher, with Cylinder Open Showing Cone" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Smout Peeler and Polisher, with Cylinder Open Showing Cone</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The last step in the preparation process is called hulling or peeling, +both words accurately describing the purpose of the operation. Some +husking machines for hulling or peeling parchment coffee are polishers +as well. This work may be done on the plantation or at the port of +shipment just before the coffee is shipped abroad. Sometimes the coffee +is exported in parchment, and is cleaned in the country of consumption; +but practically all coffee entering the United States arrives without +its parchment.</p> + +<p>Peeling machines, more accurately named hullers, work on the principle +of rubbing the beans between a revolving inner cylinder and an outer +covering of woven wire. Machines of this type vary in construction. Some +have screw-like inner cylinders, or turbines, others having plain +cone-shaped cores on which are knobs and ribs that rub the beans against +one another and the outer shell. Practically all types have sieve or +exhaust-fan attachments, which draw the loosened parchment and silver +skin into one compartment, while the cleaned beans pass into another.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><br /><a name="Six_Well_Known_Hullers_and_Separators" id="Six_Well_Known_Hullers_and_Separators"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Six Well Known Hullers and Separators"> +<tr> +<td align='center'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image207.jpg" width="300" height="318" alt="Krull Hulling Machine (German)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Krull Hulling Machine</span> (German)</span> +</div></td> + +<td align='center'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image208.jpg" width="300" height="284" alt="Anderson Hulling Machine (German)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Anderson Hulling Machine</span> (German)</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image209.jpg" width="300" height="293" alt="Eureka Separator and Grader (American)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Eureka Separator and Grader</span> (American)</span> +</div></td> + +<td align='center'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image210.jpg" width="300" height="222" alt="Caracolillo (Peaberry) Separator (American)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Caracolillo (Peaberry) Separator</span> (American)</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr> +<td align='center'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image211.jpg" width="300" height="258" alt="Engelberg Huller and Separator (American)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Engelberg Huller and Separator</span> (American)</span> +</div></td> + +<td align='center'><div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image212.jpg" width="300" height="268" alt="The American Coffee Huller and Polisher" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The American Coffee Huller and Polisher</span></span> +</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'> +<span class="caption">WELL KNOWN AMERICAN AND GERMAN HULLING AND SEPARATING MACHINES</span></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p><p>Polishers of various makes are sometimes used just to remove the silver +skin and to give the beans a special polish. Some countries demand a +highly polished coffee; and to supply this demand, the beans are sent +through another huller having a phosphor-bronze cylinder and cone. Much +Guadeloupe coffee is prepared in this way, and is known as <i>café +bonifieur</i> from the fact that the polishing machine is called in +Guadeloupe the <i>bonifieur</i> (improver). It is also called <i>café de luxe</i>. +Coffee that has not received the extra polish is described as +<i>habitant</i>; while coffee in the parchment is known as <i>café en parché</i>. +Extra polished coffee is much in demand in the London, Hamburg, and +other European markets. A favorite machine for producing this kind of +coffee is the Smout combined peeler and polisher, the invention of Jules +Smout, a Swiss. Don Roberto O'Krassa also has produced a highly +satisfactory combined peeler and polisher.</p> + +<p>For hulling dry cherry coffee there are several excellent makes of +machines. In one style, the hulling takes place between a rotating disk +and the casing of the machine. In another, it takes place between a +rotary drum covered with a steel plate punched with vertical bulbs, and +a chilled iron hulling-plate with pyramidal teeth cast on the plate. +Both are adjustable to different varieties of coffee. In still another +type of machine, the hulling takes place between steel ribs on an +internal cylinder, and an adjustable knife, or hulling blade, in front +of the machine.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="El_Monarca_Coffee_Classifier" id="El_Monarca_Coffee_Classifier"></a> +<img src="images/image213.jpg" width="500" height="474" alt="El Monarca Coffee Classifier" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">El Monarca Coffee Classifier</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Sizing or Grading</i></p> + +<p>The coffee bean is now clean, the processes described in the foregoing +having removed the outer skin, the saccharine pulp, the parchment, and +the silver skin. This is the end of the cleaning operations; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> there +are two more steps to be taken before the coffee is ready for the trade +of the world—sizing and hand-sorting. These two operations are of great +importance; since on them depends, to a large extent, the price the +coffee will bring in the market.</p> + + +<div class='center'><a name="Hydro-Electric_Installation_Guatemala" id="Hydro-Electric_Installation_Guatemala"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Hydro-Electric Installation Guatemala"> +<tr> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image214.jpg" width="300" height="183" alt="Old rope-drive transmission on Finca Ona." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Old rope-drive transmission on Finca Ona.</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image215.jpg" width="300" height="187" alt="Hydro-electric power plant on Finca Ona" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hydro-electric power plant on Finca Ona.</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'> +<span class="smcap">Hydro-Electric Installation on a Guatemala Finca</span> +</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Sizing, or grading by sizes, is done in modern commercial practise by +machines that automatically separate and distribute the different beans +according to size and form. In principle, the beans are carried across a +series of sieves, each with perforations varying in size from the +others; the beans passing through the holes of corresponding sizes. The +majority of the machines are constructed to separate the beans into five +or more grades, the principal grades being triage, third flats, second +flats, first flats, and first and second peaberries. Some are designed +to handle "elephant" and "mother" sizes. The grades have local +nomenclature in the various countries.</p> + +<p>After grading, the coffee is picked over by hand to remove the faulty +and discolored beans that it is almost impossible to remove thoroughly +by machine. The higher grades of coffee are often double-picked; that +is, picked over twice. When this is done on a large scale, the beans are +generally placed on a belt, or platform, that moves at a regulated speed +before a line of women and children, who pick out the undesirable beans +as they pass on the moving belt. There are small machines of this type +built for one person, who operates the belt mechanism by means of a +treadle.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Preparation in the Leading Countries</i></p> + +<p>The foregoing description tells in general terms the story of the most +approved methods of harvesting, shelling, and cleaning the coffee beans. +The following paragraphs will describe those features of the processes +that are peculiar to the more important large producing countries and +that differ in details or in essentials from the methods just outlined.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>In the Western Hemisphere</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brazil.</span> The operation of some of the large plantations in Brazil, a +number of which have more than a million trees, requires a large number +and a great variety of preparation machines and equipment. Generally +considered, the State of São Paulo is better equipped with approved +machinery than any other commercial district in the world.</p> + +<p>In Brazil, coffee plantations are known as <i>fazendas</i>, and the +proprietors as <i>fazendeiros</i>, terms that are the equivalent of "landed +estates" and "landed proprietors." Practically every <i>fazenda</i> in Brazil +of any considerable commercial importance is equipped with the most +modern of coffee-cleaning equipment. Some of the larger ones in the +state of São Paulo, like the Dumont and the Schmidt estates, are +provided with private railways connecting the <i>fazendas</i> with the main +railroad line some miles away, and also have miniature railway systems +running through the <i>fazendas</i> to move the coffee from one harvesting +and cleaning operation to another. The coffee is carried in small cars +that are either pushed by a laborer or are drawn by horse or mule.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PREPARING_BRAZIL_COFFEE_FOR_MARKET" id="PREPARING_BRAZIL_COFFEE_FOR_MARKET"></a> +<img src="images/image216.jpg" width="500" height="177" alt="Picking Coffee on a Well Kept Fazenda" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Picking Coffee on a Well Kept Fazenda</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image217.jpg" width="500" height="227" alt="Manager's Residence on One of the Big São Paulo Fazendas" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Manager's Residence on One of the Big São Paulo Fazendas</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image218.jpg" width="500" height="231" alt="Drying Grounds on a Modern Estate in Ribeirao Preto" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drying Grounds on a Modern Estate in Ribeirao Preto</span><br /> +<small>Photographs by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.</small><br /> +MAKING BRAZIL COFFEE READY TO MARKET</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p><p>Some of the larger <i>fazendas</i> cover thousands of acres, and have +several millions of trees, giving the impression of an unending forest +stretching far away into the horizon. Here and there are openings in +which buildings appear, the largest group of structures usually +consisting of those making up the <i>cafezale</i>, or cleaning plant. Nearby, +stand the handsome "palaces" of the <i>fazendeiros</i>; but not so close that +the coffee princes and their households will be disturbed by the almost +constant rumble of machinery and the voices of the workers.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Working_Coffee_on_Drying_Flats" id="Working_Coffee_on_Drying_Flats"></a> +<img src="images/image219.jpg" width="300" height="181" alt="Working Coffee on Drying Flats, São Paulo" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Working Coffee on Drying Flats, São Paulo</span><br /> +<small>Copyright by Brown & Dawson.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Brazilian <i>fazendeiros</i> follow the methods described in the foregoing in +preparing their coffee for market, using the most modern of the +equipment detailed under the story of the wet method of preparation. On +most of the <i>fazendas</i> the machinery is operated by steam or +electricity, the latter coming more and more into use each year in all +parts of the coffee-growing region.</p> + +<p>In some districts, however, far in the interior, there are still to be +found small plantations where primitive methods of cleaning are even now +practised. Producing but a small quantity of coffee, possibly for only +local use, the cherries may be freed of their parchment by macerating +the husks by hand labor in a large mortar. On still another plantation, +the old-time bucket-and-beam crusher perhaps may be in use.</p> + +<p>This consists of a beam pivoted on an upright upon which it moves freely +up and down. On one end of the beam is an open bucket; and on the other, +a heavy stone. Water runs into the bucket until its weight causes the +stone end of the beam to rise. When the bucket reaches the ground, the +water is emptied, and the stone crashes down on the coffee cherries +lying in a large mortar.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Fermenting_and_Washing_Tanks_on_a_Sao_Paulo" id="Fermenting_and_Washing_Tanks_on_a_Sao_Paulo"></a> +<img src="images/image220.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="Fermenting and Washing Tanks on a São Paulo Fazenda" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fermenting and Washing Tanks on a São Paulo Fazenda</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The workers on some of the largest Brazilian <i>fazendas</i> would constitute +the population of a small city—more than a thousand families often +finding continuous employment in cultivating, harvesting, cleaning, and +transporting the coffee to market. For the most part, the workers are of +Italian extraction, who have almost altogether superseded the Indian and +Negro laborers of the early days. The workers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> live on the <i>fazendas</i> in +quarters provided by the <i>fazendeiros</i>, and are paid a weekly or monthly +wage for their services; or they may enter upon a year's contract to +cultivate the trees, receiving extra pay for picking and other work. +Brazil in the past has experimented with the slave system, with +government colonization, with co-operative planting, with the harvesting +system, and with the share system. And some features of all these +plans—except slavery, which was abolished in 1888—are still employed +in various parts of the country, although the wage system predominates.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Drying_Grounds_Fazenda_Schmidt" id="Drying_Grounds_Fazenda_Schmidt"></a> +<img src="images/image221.jpg" width="500" height="245" alt="Drying Grounds on Fazenda Schmidt, the Largest in Brazil" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drying Grounds on Fazenda Schmidt, the Largest in Brazil</span><br /> +<small>By Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Brazil has six gradings for its São Paulo coffees, which are also +classified as Bourbon Santos, Flat Bean Santos, and Mocha-seed Santos. +Rio coffees are graded by the number of imperfections for New York, and +as washed and unwashed for Havre. (<a href="#Chapter_XXIV">See chapter XXIV.</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Colombia.</span> Practically all the countries of the western hemisphere +producing coffee in large quantities for export trade use the +cleaning-and-grading machines specified in the first part of this +chapter; and the installation of the equipment is increasing as its +advantages become better known.</p> + +<p>In Colombia, now (1922), next to Brazil the world's largest producer, +the wet method of preparing the coffee for market is most generally +followed, the drying processes often being a combination of sun and +drying machines. Many plantations have their own hulling equipment; but +much of the crop goes in the cherry to local commercial centers where +there are establishments that make a specialty of cleaning and grading +the coffee.</p> + +<p>The Colombia coffee crop is gathered twice a year, the principal one in +March and April and the smaller one in November and December, although +some picking is done throughout the year. For this labor native Indian +and negro women are preferred, as they are more rapid, skilful, and +careful in handling the trees. Contrary to the method in Brazil, where +the tree at one handling is stripped of its entire bearings, ripe and +unripe fruit, here only the fully ripened fruit is picked. That +necessitates going over the ground several times, as the berries +progressively ripen. More time is consumed in this laborious operation, +but it is believed that thereby a better crop of more uniform grade is +obtained and in the aggregate with less waste of time and effort.</p> + +<p>Colombian planters classify their coffees as <i>café trillado</i> (natural or +sun-dried), <i>café lavado</i> (washed), <i>café en pergamino</i> (washed and +dried in the parchment). They grade them as <i>excelso</i> (excellent), +<i>fantasia</i> (<i>excelso</i> and <i>extra</i>), <i>extra</i> (extra), <i>primera</i>, (first), +<i>segundo</i> (second), <i>caracol</i> (peaberry), <i>monstruo</i> (large and +deformed), <i>consumo</i> (defective), and <i>casilla</i> (siftings).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PREPARING_COLOMBIAN_COFFEE_FOR_THE_MARKET" id="PREPARING_COLOMBIAN_COFFEE_FOR_THE_MARKET"></a> +<img src="images/image222.jpg" width="500" height="346" alt="PREPARING COLOMBIAN COFFEE FOR THE MARKET" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PREPARING COLOMBIAN COFFEE FOR THE MARKET</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Venezuela.</span> Venezuela employs both the dry and the wet methods of +preparation, producing both "washed" and "commons" and also, like +Colombia, has a large part of the coffee cleaned in the trading centers +of the various coffee districts. Dry, or unwashed, coffees are known as +<i>trillado</i> (milled), and compose the bulk of the country's output. +Venezuela's plantation-working forces are largely natives of Indian +descent and negroes, some of them coming during harvesting season from +adjoining Colombia and returning there after the picking is done. The +resident workers labor under a sort of peonage system which is tacitly +recognized by both employee and employer, although no laws of peonage or +slavery have ever existed in Venezuela. Under this system, the laborers +live in little colonies scattered over the <i>haciendas</i>, as the coffee +plantations are called in Venezuela. Company stores keep them supplied +with all their wants. Modern plantation machinery is very scarce; the +ancient method of hulling coffee in a circular trough where the dried +berries are crushed by heavy wooden wheels drawn by oxen, is still a +common sight in Venezuela. In preparing washed coffees, some planters +ferment the pulped coffee under water (wet fermentation process); while +others ferment without water (dry fermentation).</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Old-Fashioned_Ox-Power_Huller" id="Old-Fashioned_Ox-Power_Huller"></a> +<img src="images/image223.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="This Old-Fashioned Hulling Machine Is Operated by Ox Power in Venezuela" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">This Old-Fashioned Hulling Machine Is Operated by Ox Power in Venezuela</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The principal ports of shipments for Venezuela coffees are La Guaira, +Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo. Caracas, the capital, is five miles in an +air line from the port of La Guaira; but in ascending the three thousand +feet of altitude to the city the railroad twists and turns among the +mountains for a distance of twenty-four miles. By rail or motor the trip +is one of much charm and great beauty.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salvador.</span> The planters in Salvador favor the dry method of coffee +preparation; and the bulk of the crop is natural, or unwashed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guatemala.</span> Most Guatemalas are prepared for market by the wet method. +The gathering of the crops furnishes employment for half the population. +German and American settlers have introduced the latest improvements in +modern plantation machinery into Guatemala.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mexico.</span> In Mexico coffee is harvested from November to January, and +large quantities are prepared by both the dry and the wet methods, the +latter being practised on the larger estates that have the necessary +water supply and can afford the machinery. Here, too, one will find +coffee being cleaned by the primitive hand-mortar and wind-winnowing +method. Laborers are mostly half-breeds and Indians. Chinese coolies +have been tried and found<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> satisfactory, and some Japanese are utilized, +though not largely.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Street_Car_Coffee_Transport_Orizaba" id="Street_Car_Coffee_Transport_Orizaba"></a> +<img src="images/image224.jpg" width="300" height="193" alt="Street Car Coffee Transport in Orizaba, Mexico" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Street Car Coffee Transport in Orizaba, Mexico</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haiti.</span> In Haiti the picking season is from November to March. In recent +years better attention has been paid to cultural and preparation +methods; and the product is more favorably regarded commercially. Large +quantities are shipped to France and Belgium; and much of that sent to +the United States is reshipped to France, Belgium, and Germany, where it +is sorted by hand. Both dry and wet methods are employed in Haiti.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porto Rico.</span> Here planters favor the wet method of coffee preparation. +The crop is gathered from August to December. The coffees are graded as +<i>caracollilo</i> (peaberry), <i>primero</i> (hand-picked), <i>segundo</i> (second +grade), <i>trillo</i> (low grade).</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_on_Drying_Floors_Porto_Rico" id="Coffee_on_Drying_Floors_Porto_Rico"></a> +<img src="images/image225.jpg" width="300" height="356" alt="Coffee on the Drying Floors in Porto Rico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee on the Drying Floors in Porto Rico</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nicaragua.</span> The wet method of coffee preparation is mostly favored in +Nicaragua. Many of the large plantations are worked by colonies of +Americans and Germans who are competent to apply the abundant natural +water power of the country to the operation of modern coffee cleaning +machinery.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> Costa Rica was one of the first countries of the western +world to use coffee cleaning machinery. Marcus Mason, an American +mechanical engineer then managing an iron foundry in Costa Rica, +invented three machines that would respectively peel off the husk, +remove the parchment and pulp, and winnow the light refuse from the +beans.</p> + +<p>The inventor gave his original demonstration to the planters of San José +in 1860, and duplicates were installed on all the large plantations. In +the course of the next thirty years, Mason brought out other machines +until he had developed a complete line that was largely used on coffee +plantations in all parts of the world.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>In the Eastern Hemisphere</i></p> + +<p>Modern cleaning machinery and methods of preparation are employed to +some extent in the large coffee-producing countries of the eastern +hemisphere, and do not differ materially from those of the western.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arabia.</span> In Arabia the fruit ripens in August or September, and picking +continues from then until the last fruits ripen late in the March +following. The cherries, as they are picked, are left to dry in the sun +on the house-top terrace or on a floor of beaten earth. When they have +become partly dry, they are hulled between two small stones, one of +which is stationary, while the other is worked by the hand power of two +men who rotate it quickly. Further drying of the hulled berry follows. +It is then put into bags of closely woven aloe fiber, lined with matting +made of palm leaves. It is next sent to the local market at the foot of +the mountain. There, on regular market days, the Turkish or Arabian +merchants, or their representatives, buy and dispatch their purchases by +camel train to Hodeida or Aden. The principal primary market in recent +years has been the city of Beit-el-Fakih.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="SUN-DRYING_COFFEE" id="SUN-DRYING_COFFEE"></a> +<img src="images/image226.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Raking Coffee on Drying Floors—Chuva District, Guatemala" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Raking Coffee on Drying Floors—Chuva District, Guatemala</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image227.jpg" width="500" height="344" alt="Coffee Drying Patios, Hacienda Longa-Espana, Venezuela" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Drying Patios, Hacienda Longa-Espana, Venezuela</span><br /> +SUN-DRYING COFFEE AMID SCENES OF RARE TROPICAL BEAUTY</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p><p>In Aden and Hodeida the bean is submitted to further cleaning by the +principal foreign export houses to whom it has come from the mountains +in rather dirty condition. Indian women are the sole laborers employed +in these cleaning houses. First, the coffee beans are separated from the +dry empty husks by tossing the whole into the air from bamboo trays, the +workers deftly permitting the husks to fly off while the beans are +caught again in the tray. The beans are then surface-cleaned by passing +them gently between two very primitive grindstones worked by men. A +third process is the complete clearing of the bean from the silver skin, +and it is then ready for the final hand picking. Women are called into +service again, and they pick out the refuse husks, quaker or black, +beans, green or immature beans, white beans, and broken beans, leaving +the good beans to be weighed and packed for shipment. The cleaned beans +are known as <i>bun safi</i>; the husks become <i>kisher</i>. Some of the poorer +beans also are sold, principally to France and to Egypt. Hand-power +machinery is used to a slight extent; but mostly the old-fashioned +methods hold sway.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Drying_Patio_Costa_Rica" id="Drying_Patio_Costa_Rica"></a> +<img src="images/image228.jpg" width="300" height="248" alt="A Drying Patio on a Costa Rica Estate" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Drying Patio on a Costa Rica Estate</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Early_Guardiola_Steam_Drier" id="Early_Guardiola_Steam_Drier"></a> +<img src="images/image229.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="Early Guardiola Steam Drier, "El Canida" Plantation, Costa Rica" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early Guardiola Steam Drier, "El Canida" Plantation, Costa Rica</span><br /> +<small>Photograph by R.C. Wilhelm.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The Yemen, or Arabian, bale, or package, is unique. It is made up of two +fiber wrappers, one inside the other. The inside one is called <i>attal</i> +or <i>darouf</i>. It is made from cut and plaited leaves of <i>nakhel douin</i> or +<i>narghil</i>, a species of palm. The outer covering, called <i>garair</i>, is a +sack made of woven aloe fiber. The Bedouins weave these covers and bring +them to the export merchants at Aden and Hodeida. A Mocha bundle +contains one, two, or four fiber packages, or bales. When the bundle +contains one bale it is known as a half; when it contains two it is +known as quarters; and when it contains four it is known as eighths. +Arabian coffee for Boston used to be packed in quarters only; for San +Francisco and New York, in quarters and eighths. The longberry +Abyssinian coffees were formerly packed in quarters only. Since the +World War, however, there has been a scarcity of packing materials, and +packing in quarters and eighths has stopped. Now, all Mocha, as well as +Harar, coffee comes in halfs. A half weighs eighty kilos, or 176 pounds, +net—although a few exporters ship "halfs" of 160 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="INDIAN_WOMEN_CLEANING_MOCHA_COFFEE" id="INDIAN_WOMEN_CLEANING_MOCHA_COFFEE"></a> +<img src="images/image230.jpg" width="500" height="575" alt="INDIAN WOMEN CLEANING MOCHA COFFEE IN AN ADEN WAREHOUSE" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">INDIAN WOMEN CLEANING MOCHA COFFEE IN AN ADEN WAREHOUSE<br /></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>There are four processes in cleaning Mocha coffee. In order to separate +the dried beans from the broken hulls these women (brought over from +India) toss the beans in the air, very deftly permitting the empty hulls +to fly off, and catch the coffee beans on the bamboo trays. Then the +coffee is passed between two primitive grindstones, turned by men. After +this grinding process the beans are separated from the crushed outside +hulls and the loose silver skins. In the fourth process the Indian women +pick out by hand the remaining husks, the quakers, the immature beans, +the white beans and the broken beans. Being Mohammedans, their religion +does not permit such little vanities as picture posing, which explains +why their faces are covered and turned away from the camera.</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Abyssinia.</span> Little machinery is used in the preparation of coffee in +Abyssinia; none, in preparing the coffee known as Abyssinian, which is +the product of wild trees; and only in a few instances in cleaning the +Harari coffee, the fruit of cultivated trees. Both classes are raised +mostly by natives, who adhere to the old-time dry method of cleaning. In +Harar, the coffee is sometimes hulled in a wooden mortar; but for the +most part it is sent to the brokers in parchment, and cleaned by +primitive hand methods after its arrival in the trading centers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Angola.</span> In Angola the coffee harvest begins in June, and it is often +necessary for the government to lend native soldiers to the planters to +aid in harvesting, as the labor supply is insufficient. After picking, +the beans are dried in the sun from fourteen to forty days, depending +upon the weather. After drying, they are brought to the hulling and +winnowing machines. There are now about twenty-four of these machines in +the Cazengo and Golungo districts, all manufactured in the United States +and giving satisfactory results. They are operated by natives.</p> + +<p>A condition adversely affecting the trade has been the low price that +Angola coffee commands in European markets. The cost of production per +<i>arroba</i> (thirty-three pounds) on the Cazengo plantations is $1.23, +while Lisbon market quotations average $1.50, leaving only twenty-seven +cents for railway transport to Loanda and ocean freight to Lisbon. It +has been unprofitable to ship to other markets on account of the +preferential export duties. A part of the product is now shipped to +Hamburg, where it is known as the Cazengo brand. Next to Mocha, the +Cazengo coffee is the smallest bean that is to be found in the European +markets.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Cleaning_and_Grading_Machinery_Aden" id="Cleaning_and_Grading_Machinery_Aden"></a> +<img src="images/image231.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="Cleaning and Grading Coffee by Machinery in Aden" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cleaning and Grading Coffee by Machinery in Aden</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Java and Sumatra.</span> The coffee industry in Java and Sumatra, as well as in +the other coffee-producing regions of the Dutch East Indies, was begun +and fostered under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> paternal care of the Dutch government; and for +that reason, machine-cleaning has always been a noteworthy factor in the +marketing of these coffees. Since the government relinquished its +control over the so-called government estates, European operators have +maintained the standard of preparation, and have adopted new equipment +as it was developed. The majority of estates producing considerable +quantities of coffee use the same types of machinery as their +competitors in Brazil and other western countries.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Drying_Coffee_at_Harar" id="Drying_Coffee_at_Harar"></a> +<img src="images/image232.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="Drying Coffee in the Sun at the Custom-House, Harar, Abyssinia" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drying Coffee in the Sun at the Custom-House, Harar, Abyssinia</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In Java, free labor is generally employed; while on the east coast of +Sumatra the work is done by contract, the workers usually being bound +for three years. In both islands the laborers are mostly Javanese +coolies.</p> + +<p>Under the contract system, the worker is subject to laws that compel him +to work, and prevent him from leaving the estate until the contract +period expires. Under the free-labor system, the laborer works as his +whims dictate. This forces the estate manager to cater to his workers, +and to build up an organization that will hold together.</p> + +<p>As an example of the working of the latter system, this outline—by John +A. Fowler, United States trade commissioner—of the organization of a +leading estate in Java will indicate the general practise in vogue:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The manager of this estate has had full control for twenty years +and knows the "adat" (tribal customs) of his people and the +individual peculiarities of the leaders. This estate has been +described as having one of the most perfect estate organizations in +Java. It consists of two divisions of 3,449 bouws (about 6,048 +acres in all), of which 2,500 bouws are in rubber and coffee and +550 in sisal; the remainder includes rice fields, timber, +nurseries, bamboo, teak, pastures, villages, roads, canals, etc.</p> + +<p class="quot">The foreign staff is under the supervision of a general manager, +and consists of the following personnel: A chief garden assistant +of section 1, who has under him four section assistants and a +native staff; a chief garden assistant of section 2, who has under +him three section assistants, an apprentice assistant, and a native +staff; a chief factory assistant, who has under him an assistant +machinist, an apprentice assistant, and a native staff; and, +finally, a bookkeeper. The term "garden" means the area under +cultivation.</p> + +<p class="quot">The bookkeeper, a man of mixed blood, handles all the general +accounting, accumulating the reports sent in by the various +assistants. The two chief garden assistants are responsible to the +manager for all work outside the factory except the construction of +new buildings, which is in charge of the chief factory assistant. +The two divisions of the estate are subdivided into seven +agricultural sections, each section being in full charge of an +assistant. A section may include coffee, rubber, sisal, teak, +bamboo, a coagulation station and nurseries. The assistant's duties +include the supervision of road building and repairs, building +repairs, transportation, paying the labor, and the supervision of +section accounts.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PREPARING_JAVA_COFFEE_FOR_MARKET" id="PREPARING_JAVA_COFFEE_FOR_MARKET"></a> +<img src="images/image233.jpg" width="500" height="325" alt="Open-air Drying Grounds on a West Java Estate" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Open-air Drying Grounds on a West Java Estate</span><br /> +<small>The beans are being turned by native Sudanese men and women</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image234.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="Interior of a Modern Coffee Factory in East Java" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Modern Coffee Factory in East Java</span><br /> +<small>Showing pulping machinery and fermentation tanks</small><br /> +PREPARING JAVA COFFEE FOR THE MARKET</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p class="quot">The factory includes a water-power plant delivering, through an +American water wheel and by cable, 250 horse-power to the main +shafting, an auxiliary steam plant of 150 horse-power as a reserve, +a rubber mill, a coffee mill, three sisal-stripping machines, +smoke-houses, drying fields and houses for sisal, drying floors and +houses for coffee, sorting rooms, blacksmith shop, machine shop, +brass-fitting foundry, packing houses, warehouses, and other +equipment. The factory is in charge of a first assistant, who is a +machinist, with a European staff consisting of a machinist and an +apprentice assistant.</p> + +<p class="quot">The chief garden assistant is paid 350 to 400 florins, and the +garden assistants start at 200 florins per month, with graduated +yearly increases up to 300 florins per month (florin=$0.40). The +chief factory assistant receives 300 florins, and the machinist and +bookkeeper 250 florins each.</p> + +<p class="quot">The mandoer in charge of the air and kiln drying of coffee gets 25 +florins per month, and the mandoer at the coffee mill 20 florins. A +woman mandoer in charge of the coffee sorters receives 0.50 florin +per day and 0.01 florin each for sewing the bags. This woman +supervises all the sorters, fixes their status, and inspects their +work. Unskilled labor (male) receives 0.40 florin per day in the +coffee sheds, and the women sorters are paid 0.50 florin per picul +of 136 pounds, measured before sorting. These women are graded into +three classes—those who can sort 1 picul in a day, those who can +sort three-fourths of a picul, and those who can sort but one-half +of a picul in a day. Some of these women become very expert in +sorting, and the quality of the output of a factory is largely +dependent on an ample supply of expert sorters. Many years are +required to develop an adequate personnel for this department.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Transport_in_Java" id="Coffee_Transport_in_Java"></a> +<img src="images/image235.jpg" width="350" height="266" alt="Coffee Transport in Java" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Transport in Java</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="EIFFEL_AND_WOOLWORTH_TOWERS_IN_COFFEE" id="EIFFEL_AND_WOOLWORTH_TOWERS_IN_COFFEE"></a><br /><br /> +<img src="images/diagram2.jpg" width="500" height="553" alt="THE WORLD'S COFFEE TOWER COMPARED WITH THE EIFFEL AND WOOLWORTH TOWERS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE WORLD'S COFFEE TOWER COMPARED WITH THE EIFFEL AND WOOLWORTH TOWERS</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The Woolworth Building, the world's loftiest office structure is 792 +feet high from street to top of tower; its main section of 151 by 196 +feet stretches up 386 feet, and its volume equals a total of 13,110,942 +cubic feet. But a tower made of the year's supply of bags of green +coffee (132 pounds each) would equal 73,649,115 cubic feet, or nearly +six times the bulk of the Woolworth Building. In the same proportions it +would rise 1,386 feet, with the lower section 260 by 340 feet and 670 +feet high. Its dimensions would be nearly double those of the Woolworth +Building in every direction. And the Eiffel Tower, reaching up 1,000 +feet toward the sky would be lost in a tower made of a year's bags of +coffee. Such a tower would stand 1,425 feet high on a base area of 230 +feet square, the size of the Eiffel's first floor.</small></p> +</div> + + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a><span class="smcap">CHAPTER XXII</span></h2> + +<h3>THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>A statistical study of world production of coffee by +countries—Per capita figures of the leading consuming +countries—Coffee-consumption figures compared with tea-consumption +figures in the United States and the United Kingdom—Three +centuries of coffee trading—Coffee drinking in the United States, +past and present—Reviewing the 1921 trade in the United States</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> world's yearly production of coffee is on the average considerably +more than one million tons. If this were all made up into the refreshing +drink we get at our breakfast tables, there would be enough to supply +every inhabitant of the earth with some sixty cups a year, representing +a total of more than ninety billion cups. In terms of pounds the annual +world output amounts to about two and a quarter billions—an amount so +large that if it were done up in the familiar one-pound paper packages; +and if these packages were laid end to end in a row; they would form a +line long enough to reach to the moon. If this average yearly production +were left in the sacks in which the coffee is shipped, the total of +17,500,000 would be enough to form a broad six-foot pavement reaching +entirely across the United States, upon which a man could walk steadily +for more than five months at the rate of twenty miles a day. This vast +amount of coffee comes very largely from the western hemisphere; and +about three-fourths of it, from a single country. The production, +shipment, and preparation of this coffee, directly and indirectly +support millions of workers; and many countries are entirely dependent +on it for their prosperity and economic well-being.</p> + +<p>During the crop year that ended June 30, 1921, this million-ton average +was considerably exceeded, though it did not approach the record yield +of all time in the crop year 1906–07, when the total amounted to almost +24,000,000 sacks; or, in round numbers, 3,000,000,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>As indicated by the Statistical Record table, on page 274, Brazil +produces more than all the rest of the world put together. Coffee +growing, however, is general throughout tropical countries, and in most +of them constitutes one of the leading industries. Yet in most cases, +the actual production of these countries can only be estimated, as +accurate figures, showing the exact output, are seldom kept. But the +contribution which each country makes to the total world traffic in +coffee can be determined by its export figures, which are obtainable in +reasonably accurate and up-to-date form. The table on page 276 gives the +coffee export figures, in pounds, for practically every country that +produces coffee for sale outside its own borders. Figures are given for +the latest available year, and also for the average of the last five +years for which statistics are to be obtained. The figures are taken +from official statistics, from the publications of the International +Institute of Agriculture of Rome, and from other authoritative sources.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Statistical Record for Thirty-eight Years"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='9'><span class="smcap">Statistical Record for Thirty-eight Years</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td class='tdcbb' colspan='3'><i>Crops</i></td> + <td class='tdcbb' colspan='3'><i>Deliveries</i></td> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'> </td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr6'> + <td align='center'>Fiscal Year<br />(July 1 to June 30)</td> + <td align='center'>Rio and<br />Santos<br />(Bags)[I]</td> + <td align='center'>Other<br />Countries<br />(Bags)</td> + <td align='center'>Total<br />(Bags)</td> + <td align='center'>Europe<br />(Bags)</td> + <td align='center'>United<br />States<br />(Bags)</td> + <td align='center'>Total<br />(Bags)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Visible<br />Supply<br />July 1.</i><br />(Bags)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Quotations</i>,<br /><i>Rio No. 7</i><br /><i>New York</i>,<br /><i>July 1.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1883–84</td> + <td align='right'>5,047,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,526,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,573,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,774,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,635,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,409,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1884–85</td> + <td align='right'>6,206,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,004,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,210,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,388,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,169,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,557,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,398,000</td> + <td align='right'>8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1885–86</td> + <td align='right'>5,565,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,505,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,070,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,198,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,938,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,136,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,051,000</td> + <td align='right'>7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1886–87</td> + <td align='right'>6,078,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,106,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,184,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,363,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,672,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,035,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,985,000</td> + <td align='right'>8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1887–88</td> + <td align='right'>3,033,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,214,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,247,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,888,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,164,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,052,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,134,000</td> + <td align='right'>16<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1888–89</td> + <td align='right'>6,827,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,672,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,499,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,589,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,659,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,249,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,329,000</td> + <td align='right'>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1889–90</td> + <td align='right'>4,260,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,965,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,225,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,716,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,704,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,420,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,579,000</td> + <td align='right'>14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1890–91</td> + <td align='right'>5,358,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,886,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,244,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,046,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,673,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,719,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,384,000</td> + <td align='right'>17<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1891–92</td> + <td align='right'>7,397,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,453,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,850,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,392,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,412,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,804,000</td> + <td align='right'>1,909,000</td> + <td align='right'>17<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1892–93</td> + <td align='right'>6,203,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,887,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,090,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,457,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,389,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,945,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,955,000</td> + <td align='right'>17<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1893–94</td> + <td align='right'>4,309,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,307,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,616,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,272,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,298,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,570,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,100,000</td> + <td align='right'>16<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1894–95</td> + <td align='right'>6,695,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,069,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,764,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,816,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,396,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,212,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,146,000</td> + <td align='right'>16<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1895–96</td> + <td align='right'>5,476,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,901,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,377,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,803,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,339,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,142,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,115,000</td> + <td align='right'>15<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1896–97</td> + <td align='right'>8,680,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,238,000</td> + <td align='right'>13,918,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,155,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,080,000</td> + <td align='right'>12,244,000</td> + <td align='right'>2,588,000</td> + <td align='right'>13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1897–98</td> + <td align='right'>10,462,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,596,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,058,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,535,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,036,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,571,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,975,000</td> + <td align='right'>7<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1898–99</td> + <td align='right'>8,771,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,985,000</td> + <td align='right'>13,756,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,798,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,682,000</td> + <td align='right'>13,480,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,435,000</td> + <td align='right'>6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1899–00</td> + <td align='right'>8,959,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,842,000</td> + <td align='right'>13,801,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,937,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,035,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,972,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,200,000</td> + <td align='right'>6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1900–01</td> + <td align='right'>10,927,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,173,000</td> + <td align='right'>15,100,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,486,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,843,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,329,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,840,000</td> + <td align='right'>8<span class="above">15</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1901–02</td> + <td align='right'>15,439,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,296,000</td> + <td align='right'>19,735,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,853,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,663,000</td> + <td align='right'>15,516,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,867,000</td> + <td align='right'>6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1902–03</td> + <td align='right'>12,324,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,340,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,664,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,118,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,847,000</td> + <td align='right'>15,966,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,261,000</td> + <td align='right'>5<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1903–04</td> + <td align='right'>10,408,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,575,000</td> + <td align='right'>15,983,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,280,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,853,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,133,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,900,000</td> + <td align='right'>5<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1904–05</td> + <td align='right'>9,968,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,480,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,448,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,475,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,687,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,163,000</td> + <td align='right'>12,361,000</td> + <td align='right'>7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1905–06</td> + <td align='right'>10,227,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,565,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,792,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,934,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,806,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,741,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,265,000</td> + <td align='right'>7<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1906–07</td> + <td align='right'>19,654,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,160,000</td> + <td align='right'>23,814,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,502,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,042,000</td> + <td align='right'>17,544,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,636,000</td> + <td align='right'>7<span class="above">15</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1907–08</td> + <td align='right'>10,283,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,551,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,834,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,481,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,043,000</td> + <td align='right'>17,525,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,400,000</td> + <td align='right'>6<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1908–09</td> + <td align='right'>12,419,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,499,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,918,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,129,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,519,000</td> + <td align='right'>18,649,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,126,000</td> + <td align='right'>6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1909–10</td> + <td align='right'>14,944,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,181,000</td> + <td align='right'>19,125,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,811,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,287,000</td> + <td align='right'>18,098,000</td> + <td align='right'>12,841,000</td> + <td align='right'>7<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1910–11</td> + <td align='right'>10,548,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,976,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,524,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,492,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,015,000</td> + <td align='right'>17,507,000</td> + <td align='right'>13,719,000</td> + <td align='right'>8<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1911–12</td> + <td align='right'>12,491,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,918,000</td> + <td align='right'>17,409,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,712,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,762,000</td> + <td align='right'>17,474,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,070,000</td> + <td align='right'>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1912–13</td> + <td align='right'>11,458,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,915,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,373,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,144,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,675,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,820,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,048,000</td> + <td align='right'>14<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1913–14</td> + <td align='right'>13,816,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,796,000</td> + <td align='right'>19,612,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,027,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,545,000</td> + <td align='right'>18,573,000</td> + <td align='right'>10,285,000</td> + <td align='right'>9<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1914–15</td> + <td align='right'>12,867,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,019,000</td> + <td align='right'>17,886,000</td> + <td align='right'>13,368,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,010,000</td> + <td align='right'>21,378,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,302,000</td> + <td align='right'>8<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1915–16</td> + <td align='right'>14,992,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,764,000</td> + <td align='right'>19,756,000</td> + <td align='right'>11,050,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,834,000</td> + <td align='right'>19,884,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,523,000</td> + <td align='right'>7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1916–17</td> + <td align='right'>12,112,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,579,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,691,000</td> + <td align='right'>5,171,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,046,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,217,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,328,000</td> + <td align='right'>9<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1917–18</td> + <td align='right'>15,127,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,720,000</td> + <td align='right'>18,847,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,209,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,624,000</td> + <td align='right'>14,833,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,793,000</td> + <td align='right'>9<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1918–19</td> + <td align='right'>9,140,000</td> + <td align='right'>4,500,000</td> + <td align='right'>13,640,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,073,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,994,000</td> + <td align='right'>15,067,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,783,000</td> + <td align='right'>8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1919–20</td> + <td align='right'>6,700,000</td> + <td align='right'>8,463,000</td> + <td align='right'>15,163,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,047,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,683,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,730,000</td> + <td align='right'>7,173,000</td> + <td align='right'>22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1920–21</td> + <td align='right'>13,816,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,467,000</td> + <td align='right'>20,283,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,397,000</td> + <td align='right'>9,701,000</td> + <td align='right'>16,099,000</td> + <td align='right'>6,909,000</td> + <td align='right'>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[I] 1 Bag=132.27 lbs.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="WORLDS_COFFEE_CUP_AND_LARGEST_SHIP" id="WORLDS_COFFEE_CUP_AND_LARGEST_SHIP"></a> +<img src="images/diagram3.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="THE WORLD'S COFFEE CUP AND THE WORLD'S LARGEST SHIP" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE WORLD'S COFFEE CUP AND THE WORLD'S LARGEST SHIP</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The statistical sharks talk of the 17,566,000 bags, or 2,318,712,000 +pounds of coffee that the world drinks every year; but how many really +appreciate what those huge figures mean? For instance, computing 40 cups +of beverage to the pound, there are more than 90,000,000,000 cups drunk +annually, or enough to fill a gigantic cup 4,000 feet in diameter and 40 +feet deep, on which the "Majestic," the world's largest ship, would +appear floating approximately as shown in the drawing.</small></p> +</div> + +<p>For the most part, these figures of exportation are the only ones +available to indicate the actual coffee production in the countries +named. The following additional data, however, will serve to show the +extent to which the coffee-raising industry has developed in most of +these countries, and in a few places of minor importance not named in +the table:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brazil.</span> The coffee industry of Brazil, which has furnished seventy +percent of the world's coffee during the last ten years, has developed +in a century and a half. Brazilian soil first made the acquaintance of +the coffee plant at Pará in 1723. A small export trade to Europe had +developed by 1770, the year when the first plantation was established in +the state of Rio de Janeiro, and from which the country's great industry +really dates. Development at first was apparently slow, as no exports +are recorded until the beginning of the nineteenth century; so that the +history of Brazil's coffee trade is a matter entirely of the nineteenth +and twentieth centuries. Once started, however, the new line of export +made rapid progress. In 1800, the amount of coffee exported was 1720 +pounds, contained in thirteen bags. Twenty years later, 12,896,000 +pounds were shipped, the number of bags being 97,498. Ten years later, +in 1830, this amount had increased to 64,051,000 pounds; and in 1840, to +137,300,000 pounds. In 1852–53, the receipts for shipment at the ports +were double that amount, 284,592,000 pounds; in 1860–61 they were +420,420,000 pounds; in 1870–71 they had increased to 427,416,000 pounds; +in 1880–81 they were 764,945,000 pounds; in 1890–91, 739,654,000 pounds; +and at the beginning of this century, 1900–01, they were 1,504,424,000 +pounds, having passed the one billion-pound mark in 1896–97. The highest +point of coffee receipts in the country's history was reached in 1906–07 +with 2,699,644,694 pounds; and since that year, the amount has staid at +about one and one-half billion pounds. Further expansion in the last +fifteen years has been closely regulated to prevent overproduction.</p> + +<p> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Exports of Coffee from the Coffee-Producing Countries of the World"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Exports of Coffee from the Coffee-Producing Countries of the World</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'><i>Country</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Five-Year Average<br />Pounds</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>South America:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Brazil</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>1,524,382,650</td> + <td align='right'>1,469,949,180</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Colombia</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>190,961,953[c]</td> + <td align='right'>172,862,121</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Venezuela</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>73,726,632</td> + <td align='right'>110,174,946</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Guiana, Br.</td> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>267,344</td> + <td align='right'>257,152</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Guiana, Fr.</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>1,100</td> + <td align='right'>970</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Guiana, D.</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>3,856</td> + <td align='right'>923,644[d]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Ecuador</td> + <td align='center'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>3,729,413</td> + <td align='right'>5,843,033</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Peru</td> + <td align='center'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>370,655</td> + <td align='right'>455,212</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>Central America:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Salvador</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>82,864,668</td> + <td align='right'>78,953,339</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Nicaragua</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>15,345,398</td> + <td align='right'>23,243,865</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Costa Rica</td> + <td align='center'>1921[a]</td> + <td align='right'>29,401,683</td> + <td align='right'>28,667,262</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Guatemala</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>94,205,569</td> + <td align='right'>88,213,080</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Honduras</td> + <td align='center'>1920[b]</td> + <td align='right'>1,091,977</td> + <td align='right'>646,574</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mexico</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>30,172,065</td> + <td align='right'>47,555,514[d]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>West Indies:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Haiti</td> + <td align='center'>1920[b]</td> + <td align='right'>61,970,694[e]</td> + <td align='right'>54,308,959[d]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Dominican Republic</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>1,361,666</td> + <td align='right'>3,497,866</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Jamaica</td> + <td align='center'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>8,246,672</td> + <td align='right'>7,918,781</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Porto Rico</td> + <td align='center'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>29,967,879[f]</td> + <td align='right'>30,033,471[d][f]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Trinidad & Tobago</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>73,201</td> + <td align='right'>19,639</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Martinique</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>10,358</td> + <td align='right'>17,219</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Guadeloupe</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>2,144,855</td> + <td align='right'>1,594,146</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dutch East Indies</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>99,020,453[i]</td> + <td align='right'>103,701,297[h]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>Pacific Islands:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Br. North Borneo</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>1,984</td> + <td align='right'>6,618</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>New Caledonia</td> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>1,248,024</td> + <td align='right'>784,176</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>New Hebrides</td> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>625,224</td> + <td align='right'>608,410[g]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Hawaii</td> + <td align='center'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>4,979,121[f]</td> + <td align='right'>4,244,479[d][f]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Réunion</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>3,527</td> + <td align='right'>26,455</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>Asia:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Aden (Arabia)</td> + <td align='center'>1921[b]</td> + <td align='right'>9,463,104</td> + <td align='right'>10,837,893</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Br. India</td> + <td align='center'>1920[b]</td> + <td align='right'>30,526,832</td> + <td align='right'>23,767,744</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>French Indo-China</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>79,145</td> + <td align='right'>516,978</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>Africa:</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Eritrea</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>728,840</td> + <td align='right'>315,698</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Somaliland, Fr.</td> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>11,222,736</td> + <td align='right'>9,321,930</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Somaliland, Br.</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>440,272</td> + <td align='right'>233,908</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Somaliland, It.</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>3,747</td> + <td align='right'>3,306</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Abyssinia</td> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>17,324,223</td> + <td align='right'>12,744,406</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>German East Africa (former)</td> + <td align='center'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>2,334,450</td> + <td align='right'>2,649,047[d]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Br. East African Protectorate</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>18,735,572</td> + <td align='right'>8,397,541</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Uganda</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>9,999,845</td> + <td align='right'>5,076,091</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Nyasaland</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>122,796</td> + <td align='right'>92,593</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Mayotte (including Comoro Is.)</td> + <td align='center'>1914</td> + <td align='right'>3,306</td> + <td align='right'>660</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Madagascar</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>707,676</td> + <td align='right'>981,047</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Angola</td> + <td align='center'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>10,655,934</td> + <td align='right'>10,459,724</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Belgian Congo</td> + <td align='center'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>347,588</td> + <td align='right'>186,432[h]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Fr. Equatorial Africa</td> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>48,060</td> + <td align='right'>47,046</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Nigeria</td> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>3,527</td> + <td align='right'>19,180</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Ivory Coast</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>66,358</td> + <td align='right'>49,162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Gold Coast</td> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>660</td> + <td align='right'>220</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>French Guinea</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>1,320</td> + <td align='right'>1,320</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Spanish Guinea</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>8,150</td> + <td align='right'>3,968[h]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>St. Thomas & Prince's Is.</td> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>484,350</td> + <td align='right'>1,125,448</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Liberia</td> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>761,300</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Cape Verde Islands</td> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>1,442,910</td> + <td align='right'>1,100,095</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[a] Crop year. [b] Fiscal year. [c] Including small proportion of unhusked coffee. +[d] Four-year average. [e] Not including 6,322,167 pounds "triage" or waste coffee. +[f] Including shipments to continental United States. [g] Two-year average. +[h] Three-year average. [i] Java and Madura only</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p><p>It is estimated that the area in the coffee-growing section suitable +for coffee raising covers 1,158,000 square miles, or more than one-third +the area of continental United States. The state of São Paulo is the +chief producing state, and supplies practically half the world's annual +output. Most of this São Paulo coffee is exported through the port of +Santos, which is consequently the leading coffee port of the world. +Besides Santos, the ports of Rio de Janeiro and Victoria are of much +importance in the coffee trade, although some twenty or thirty million +pounds are exported each year through the port of Bahia, and smaller +amounts through various other ports. The crop year of Brazil runs from +July 1 to June 30, the heaviest receipts for shipment coming as a rule +in the months of August, September, and October of each year. One-third +of the season's crop is usually received at ports of shipment before the +last of October, sometimes as early as the latter part of September; +one-half comes in by the middle or last of November; and two-thirds is +usually received, by the end of January.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Exports_1850_1920" id="Coffee_Exports_1850_1920"></a> +<img src="images/chart1.jpg" width="350" height="443" alt="Coffee Exports, 1850–1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">No. 1—<span class="smcap">Coffee Exports, 1850–1920</span></span><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>This diagram shows the exports of the principal coffee-producing +countries, omitting Brazil</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Exports_1916_1920" id="Coffee_Exports_1916_1920"></a><br /> +<img src="images/chart2.jpg" width="350" height="575" alt="No. 21—1 Coffee Exports, 1916–1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">No. 21—1 <span class="smcap">Coffee Exports, 1916–1920</span></span><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>This diagram shows the exports of the leading coffee countries (except +Brazil) in a period covering most of the World War</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venezuela.</span> The coffee plant was introduced into Venezuela in 1784, being +brought from Martinique; and the first shipment abroad, consisting of +233 bags, was made five years later. By 1830–31, production had +increased to 25,454,000 pounds; and in the next twenty years, it more +than trebled, amounting to 83,717,000 pounds in 1850–51. Since then, +however, the increase has been much more gradual. In 1881–82, 94,369,000 +pounds were produced; and about the same amount, 95,170,000 pounds, in +1889–90. Twentieth-century production has apparently exceeded the +hundred-million mark on the average, although there are no definite +statistics beyond export figures. These showed 86,950,000 pounds sent +abroad in 1904–05; 103,453,000 pounds in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> 1908–09; and 88,155,000 pounds +in 1918; the trade in the last-named year being cut down by war +conditions. In 1919, the extraordinary amount of 179,414,815 pounds was +exported, the high figure being due to the release of coffee stored from +previous years. It has been estimated that domestic consumption of +coffee would amount to a maximum of 25,000,000 pounds yearly, but may be +much less than that. The United States and France have in the past been +Venezuela's best customers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Colombia.</span> Prior to 1912, the total production of coffee in Colombia was +around 80,000,000 pounds annually, of which some 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 +pounds were consumed in the country itself. But in the last decade +production has been advancing rapidly, and the present production is the +heaviest in the history of the country. The industry has practically +grown up in the last seventy years, the exports for the decade 1852–53 +to 1861–62 averaging only about 940,000 pounds; in the decade following, +about 5,700,000 pounds; and, in the ten years from 1872–73 to 1881–82, +about 12,600,000 pounds, according to an unofficial compilation. +Exportations had advanced to about 47,000,000 pounds by 1895; and to +80,000,000 pounds by 1906. As large quantities of Colombian coffee are +shipped out through Venezuela, and because of the lack of detailed +statistics in Colombia, the actual exportation each year is not easy to +determine; but the following figures, obtained by a trade commissioner +of the United States, may be taken as a fairly accurate estimate of +exports from 1906 to 1918:</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Columbian Coffee Exports"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Columbian Coffee Exports</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='right'><i>Sacks (138 lbs.)</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1906</td> + <td align='right'>605,705</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1907</td> + <td align='right'>541,300</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1908</td> + <td align='right'>577,900</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1909</td> + <td align='right'>673,350</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1910</td> + <td align='right'>543,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1911</td> + <td align='right'>601,600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1912</td> + <td align='right'>888,800</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>972,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1914</td> + <td align='right'>983,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1915</td> + <td align='right'>1,074,600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>1,153,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>1,093,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>1,102,000</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Brazil_Coffee_Exports_1850_1920" id="Brazil_Coffee_Exports_1850_1920"></a> +<img src="images/chart3.jpg" width="350" height="453" alt="No. 3—Brazil's Coffee Exports, 1850–1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">No. 3—<span class="smcap">Brazil's Coffee Exports, 1850–1920</span></span><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Diagram based on 5-year averages with quantities given in millions of +pounds</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ecuador.</span> Annual production in Ecuador runs from 3,000,000 to 8,000,000 +pounds, most of which is exported. The greater part of the production is +sent to Chile and the United States. Production has shown only a gradual +increase since the middle of the nineteenth century, when planters began +to give some attention to coffee cultivation. Exports were about 87,000 +pounds in 1855; 296,000 pounds in 1870; and 985,000 pounds in 1877. By +the beginning of the present century, production had reached 6,204,000 +pounds; in 1905, it was estimated at 4,861,000 pounds; and in 1910, at +8,682,000 pounds. Exports in 1912 were 6,101,700 pounds; and 7,671,000 +pounds in 1918; but there was a falling off to 3,729,000 pounds in 1919. +Several years ago it was estimated that the coffee trees numbered +8,000,000, planted on 32,000 acres.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Peru.</span> Coffee is one of the minor products of Peru, and the country does +not occupy a place of importance in the international coffee trade. The +larger part of the production is apparently consumed in the country +itself. Export figures indicate that the industry is steadily declining. +Exports amounted to 2,267,000 pounds in 1905; to 1,618,000 pounds in +1908; and in the five years ending with 1918, exports averaged only +529,000 pounds; while figures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> for 1919 show that in that year they fell +still lower, to 370,000 pounds. Production is mainly in the coast lands.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British Guiana.</span> The Guianas are the site of the first coffee planting on +the continent of South America; and according to some accounts, the +first in the New World. The plants were brought first into Dutch Guiana, +but there was no planting in what is now British Guiana (then a Dutch +colony) until 1752. Twenty-six years later, 6,041,000 pounds were sent +to Amsterdam from the two ports of Demarara and Berbice; and after the +colony fell into the hands of the English in 1796, cultivation continued +to increase. Exports amounted to 10,845,000 pounds in 1803; and to more +than 22,000,000 pounds in 1810. Then there was a falling off, and the +production in 1828 was 8,893,500 pounds and 3,308,000 pounds in 1836. In +1849 British Guiana exported only 109,600 pounds. For a long period +thereafter there was little production, and practically no exportation; +exports in 1907, for instance, amounting to only 160 pounds. With the +next year, however, a revival of exportation began, and it has continued +to grow since then. In 1908, exports were 88,700 pounds; and for the +succeeding years, up to 1917, the following amounts are recorded: 1909, +96,952 pounds; 1910, 108,378 pounds; 1911, 136,420 pounds; 1912, 144,845 +pounds; 1913, 89,376 pounds; 1914, 238,767 pounds; 1915, 172,326 pounds; +1916, 501,183 pounds; 1917, 267,344 pounds. In the last-named year 4,953 +acres were in coffee plantations.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">French Guiana.</span> This colony raises a small amount of coffee for local +consumption, and exports a few hundred pounds; but it is really an +importing and not an exporting colony. Coffee cultivation was never of +much importance, although in 1775 some 72,000 pounds were exported. One +hundred and eighty thousand pounds were harvested in 1860; and 132,000 +pounds in 1870, mostly for local consumption.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dutch Guiana.</span> Regular shipments of coffee from Dutch Guiana have been +made for two centuries, beginning—a few years after the plant was +introduced—with a shipment of 6,461 pounds to the mother country in +1723. Seven years later, 472,000 pounds were shipped; and in 1732–33 +exportation reached 1,232,000 pounds. Exports were averaging 16,900,000 +pounds a year by 1760; and reached almost 20,600,000 pounds in 1777. At +the beginning of the nineteenth century, they amounted to about +17,000,000 pounds; but a few years later fell off to some 7,000,000 +pounds, where they remained until about 1840; after which they began +again to decline. Exportation had practically ceased by 1875, only 1,420 +pounds going out of the country, although cultivation still continued, +as evidenced by a production of 82,357 pounds in that year. In 1890, +production was only 15,736 pounds, and exports only 476 pounds; but +since then there has been a considerable increase. In 1900, production +amounted to 433,000 pounds, and exports to 424,000 pounds. In 1908, +1,108,000 pounds were grown, of which 310,000 pounds were sent abroad; +and in 1909, the figures were 552,000 pounds produced and 405,000 pounds +exported. No figures are available for production in recent years; but +the exportation of 1,600,000 pounds in 1917 indicates that plantings +have been steadily growing.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other South American Countries.</span> Of the other South American countries, +Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay are coffee-importing countries; and the +coffee-raising industry of Paraguay, although more or less promising, +has yet to be developed. In Argentina, a few hundred acres in the +sub-tropical provinces of the north have been planted to coffee; but +coffee-growing will always necessarily remain a very minor industry. +Many attempts have been made to establish the industry in Paraguay, +where favorable conditions obtain, but only a few planters have met with +success. Their product has all been consumed locally. Bolivia has much +land suitable for coffee raising; and it is estimated that production +has reached as high as 1,500,000 pounds a year, but transportation +conditions are such as to hold back development for an indefinite time. +Small amounts are now exported to Chile.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salvador.</span> Coffee was introduced into Salvador in 1852, and immediately +began to spread over the country. Exports were valued at more than +$100,000 in 1865; and by 1874–75 the amount exported had reached +8,500,000 pounds. The first large plantation was established in 1876; +and since then planting has continued, until now practically all the +available coffee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> land has been taken up. The area in plantations has +been estimated at 166,000 acres, and the annual production at 50,000,000 +to 75,000,000 pounds, of which some 5,000,000 pounds are consumed in the +country. Since the beginning of the present century, exports have in +general shown a considerable increase, the figures for 1901 being +50,101,000 pounds; for 1905, 64,480,000 pounds; for 1910, 62,764,000 +pounds; for 1915, 67,130,000 pounds; and for 1920, 82,864,000 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guatemala.</span> Cultivation of coffee in Guatamala became of importance +between 1860 and 1870. In 1860, exports were only about 140,000 pounds; +by 1863, they had increased to about 1,800,000 pounds; and by 1870, to +7,590,000 pounds. In 1880–81, they amounted to 28,976,000 pounds; and in +1883–84, to 40,406,000 pounds. Twenty years later, they had doubled. In +recent years, exports have ranged between 75,000,000 and 100,000,000 +pounds; the years from 1909 to 1918 showing the following results, +according to a consular report:</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Guatemala's Coffee Exports"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Guatemala's Coffee Exports</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Cleaned</i><br />(pounds)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Unshelled</i><br />(pounds)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1900</td> + <td align='right'>92,639,800</td> + <td align='right'>23,654,600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1910</td> + <td align='right'>50,717,600</td> + <td align='right'>19,671,700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1911</td> + <td align='right'>60,689,500</td> + <td align='right'>20,959,500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1912</td> + <td align='right'>14,329,800</td> + <td align='right'>60,837,500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>70,749,100</td> + <td align='right'>20,980,700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1914</td> + <td align='right'>71,136,800</td> + <td align='right'>14,999,600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1915</td> + <td align='right'>69,649,500</td> + <td align='right'>9,892,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>85,057,000</td> + <td align='right'>3,015,800</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>89,259,600</td> + <td align='right'>1,410,200</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>77,842,800</td> + <td align='right'>511,500</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> Coffee raising in Costa Rica dates from 1779, when the plant +was introduced from Cuba. By 1845, the industry had grown sufficiently +to permit an exportation of 7,823,000 pounds; and twenty years later, +11,143,000 pounds were shipped. Thereafter, production increased +rapidly; so that in 1874, the total exports were 32,670,000 pounds, and +in 1884 they were more than 36,000,000 pounds. In recent years, the +average production has been around 35,000,000 pounds. For the crop years +1916–17 to 1920–21 exports have been:</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Costa Rica's Coffee Exports"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Costa Rica's Coffee Exports</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Pounds</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1916–17</td> + <td align='center'>27,044,550</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1917–18</td> + <td align='center'>25,246,715</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1918–19</td> + <td align='center'>30,784,184</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1919–20</td> + <td align='center'>30,860,634</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1920–21</td> + <td align='center'>29,401,683</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nicaragua.</span> Production of coffee in Nicaragua began between 1860 and +1870; and in 1875, the yield was estimated at 1,650,000 pounds. By +1879–80, this had increased to 3,579,000 pounds; and by 1889–90, to +8,533,000 pounds. In 1890–91 production was 11,540,000 pounds; and in +1907–08 it was estimated at more than 20,000,000 pounds. Ten years +later, 25,000,000 pounds were produced; and the crop of 1918–19 was +estimated at about 30,000,000 pounds. Lack of transportation, and excess +of political troubles, have been important factors in holding back +development.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Honduras.</span> The coffee of Honduras is of very good quality; but production +is small, and the country is not an important factor in international +trade. Exports usually run less than 1,000,000 pounds. The chief +obstacle to expansion is said to be lack of transportation facilities.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British Honduras.</span> This colony grows a little coffee for its own use, but +imports most of what it needs. Production had reached almost 50,000 +pounds in 1904; but the present average is only about 10,000 pounds, +raised on scattering trees over about 1,000 acres.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panama.</span> A small amount of coffee, of which occasionally as much as +200,000 or 250,000 pounds a year are exported, is raised in the uplands +of Panama, or is gathered from wild trees. The industry is not of great +importance, and the country imports considerable supplies, mostly from +the United States.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mexico.</span> A very good grade of coffee is produced in Mexico; and it is +said that there is sufficient area of good coffee land to take care of +the demand of the world outside of that supplied by Brazil. Production, +however, is limited, and to a large extent goes to satisfy home needs, +leaving only about 50,000,000 pounds for export. In spite of much +government encouragement in past years, coffee cultivation has not made +rapid progress, when we remember that the country became acquainted with +the plant as early as 1790. Not until about 1870 did the country begin +to become important in the list of coffee-exporters; but by 1878–79, +shipments amounted to about 12,000,000 pounds. This steadily increased +to 29,400,000 pounds in 1891–92. Exports in recent years have averaged +about 50,000,000 pounds; but in 1918 were only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> 30,000,000. Production +has fluctuated greatly. In the years preceding the troubled +revolutionary period, the total output was estimated as follows: 1907, +45,000,000 pounds; 1908, 42,000,000 pounds; 1909, 81,000,000 pounds; +1910, 70,000,000 pounds. In the ten years preceding 1907, production +dropped as low as 22,000,000 pounds in 1902; and rose to 88,500,000 +pounds in 1905. Next to the United States, Germany was the chief buyer +of Mexican coffee before the war; although France and Great Britain also +took several million pounds each.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haiti.</span> For well over a century Haiti has been shipping tens of millions +of pounds of coffee annually; and the product is the mainstay of the +country's economic life. In all that time, however, shipments have +maintained much the same level. The country has been a coffee producer +from the early years of the eighteenth century, when the plants began to +spread from the original sprigs in Guiana or Martinique. After half a +century of growth, exports had risen to 88,360,000 pounds in 1789–90, a +mark that has never again been reached. Since then, exports have ranged +between 40,000,000 and 80,000,000 pounds, keeping close to the lower +mark in recent years because of European conditions. They were +38,000,000 pounds in 1856; 55,750,000 pounds in 1866; and 52,300,000 +pounds in 1876. They had reached 84,028,000 pounds in 1887–88; but fell +back to 67,437,000 pounds in 1897–98; and ten years later, were +63,848,000 pounds. In 1917–18, they were only about two-thirds that +amount, or 42,100,000 pounds. Some 8,000,000 pounds are consumed yearly +in the country itself. The coffee plantations cover about 125,000 acres.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dominican Republic.</span> Coffee production in the Dominican Republic ranges +between 1,000,000 and 5,000,000 pounds, exports in recent years +averaging about 3,500,000 pounds. The quality of the coffee is good; but +the plantations are not well cared for. Until fifty years ago, the +industry was in a state of decline from a condition of former +importance; but it was revived, and by 1881 it supplied 1,400,000 pounds +for export. The amount was 1,480,000 pounds in 1888; 3,950,000 pounds in +1900; 1,540,000 pounds in 1909; and 4,870,000 pounds in 1919. Blight, +and disturbed political conditions, have hampered development. In normal +times, Europe takes most of the export.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jamaica.</span> Jamaica began to raise coffee about 1730; and from that time on +there was a steady but slow increase in production. Shipments amounted +to about 60,000 pounds in 1752, and to about 1,800,000 pounds in 1775. +At the beginning of the new century, in 1804, exports of 22,000,000 +pounds are recorded; and in 1814 the figure was 34,045,000 pounds. Then +exports gradually fell off, and in 1861 were only 6,700,000 pounds. They +were 10,350,000 pounds in 1874; and since then, have not varied much +from 9,000,000 or 10,000,000 pounds a year. They were 9,363,000 pounds +in 1900; 7,885,000 pounds in 1909; and 8,246,000 pounds in 1919. The +acreage in coffee remains fairly constant, being 24,865 in 1900; 22,275 +in 1911; and 20,280 in 1917. It is said that there are 80,000 acres of +good coffee land still uncultivated.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porto Rico.</span> The cultivation of coffee in Porto Rico dates back to the +middle of the eighteenth century; but exportation does not seem to have +been much more than a million pounds a year until the first years of the +nineteenth century. Between 1837 and 1840, the average exportation was +about 10,000,000 pounds; and by 1865, this had risen to 24,000,000 +pounds. Ten years later, it was 25,700,000 pounds. In recent years, it +has averaged about 37,000,000 pounds; the 1921 figure, including +shipments to continental United States, being 29,968,000 pounds. +Production since 1881 has been between 30,000,000 and 50,000,000 pounds; +the heaviest being in 1896 when the total output was 62,628,337 +pounds—the largest figure in the island's history. The industry was +greatly damaged by a disastrous storm in 1900, and was also adversely +affected by the European War, as a large part of Porto Rico's crop goes +to Europe. Porto Rican coffee has not been popular in the United States, +which takes only limited amounts. Cuba is one of the island's best +customers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guadeloupe.</span> Coffee production in Guadeloupe reached its highest point in +the latter part of the eighteenth century, when more than 8,000,000 +pounds were raised. The figure was about 6,000,000 in 1808; but the +output declined during the succeeding decades, and forty years later was +only 375,000 pounds. The amount produced in 1885 was 986,000 pounds; +and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> there has been a gradual increase, so that the crop has been large +enough to permit the exportation of 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 pounds, or +more, since the beginning of the present century. Exports in 1901 were +1,449,000 pounds; in 1908, 2,266,000 pounds; and in 1918, 2,144,000 +pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other West Indian Islands.</span> Some little coffee is gathered for home +consumption in many other West Indian islands, but little is exported. +The island of Martinique, which is said to have seen the introduction of +the coffee plant into the western hemisphere, does not now raise enough +for its own use. Cuba was formerly one of the important centers of +production; but for various reasons the industry declined, and for many +years the country has imported most of its coffee supply. A century ago, +the plantations numbered 2,067; and the annual exportation amounted to +50,000,000 pounds. When the island became independent, steps were taken +to revive coffee planting; and in 1907 there were 1,411 plantations and +3,662,850 trees, producing 6,595,700 pounds of coffee. The Cubans, +however, now find it convenient to obtain their coffee from the +neighboring island of Porto Rico and from other sources; and +importations have remained around 20,000,000 pounds a year. In Trinidad +and Tobago, exports have reached as high as 1,000,000 pounds a year; but +in recent times they have fallen off heavily. St. Vincent exported 485 +pounds in 1917, and Grenada, 251 pounds in 1916. The Leeward Islands +exported 1,415 pounds in 1917, and 2,946 pounds in 1916, the acreage +being 274, the same as for many years past.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arabia.</span> The home of the famous Mocha coffee still produces considerable +quantities of that variety, although the output, comparatively speaking, +is not large. The chief district is the vilayet of Yemen; and the +product reaches the outside world mainly through the port of Aden, +although before the war much of this coffee was exported through +Hodeida. The port of Massowah, in the last two or three years, has been +drawing some of the supply of Mocha for export. No statistics are +available to show the production of Mocha coffee; but an estimate made +by the oldest coffee merchant in Aden places the average annual output +at 45,000 bags of 176 pounds each, or 7,920,000 pounds. Although this is +the only district in the world that can produce the particular grade of +coffee known as Mocha, there is little systematic cultivation, and large +areas of good coffee land are planted to other crops to provide food for +the natives. When transportation facilities are provided, so that this +food can be imported, it is predicted that the output of Mocha coffee +will be doubled.</p> + +<p>Aden is a great transhipping port for coffee from Asia and Africa, and +more than half its exports are re-exports from points outside of Arabia. +The following figures will show the proportion of Arabian coffee coming +into Aden for export as compared with that from other producing +sections:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Aden's Coffee Receipts for Re-Export"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Aden's Coffee Receipts for Re-Export</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Imports<br />from</i></td> + <td align='center'>1916–17<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1917–18<br />Pounds</td> + <td align='center'>1918–19<br />Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Abyssinia (via Jibuti)</td> + <td align='right'>4,529,280</td> + <td align='right'>6,174,896</td> + <td align='right'>4,337,760</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mocha and Ghizan</td> + <td align='right'>3,555,104</td> + <td align='right'>6,562,752</td> + <td align='right'>3,075,024</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Somaliland (British)</td> + <td align='right'>672,224</td> + <td align='right'>396,592</td> + <td align='right'>245,840</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Straits Settlements</td> + <td align='right'>394,128</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Zanzibar and Pemba</td> + <td align='right'>92,512</td> + <td align='right'>795,312</td> + <td align='right'>764,288</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>All other countries</td> + <td align='right'>162,064</td> + <td align='right'>307,104</td> + <td align='right'>323,616</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>9,405,312</td> + <td align='right'>14,236,656</td> + <td align='right'>8,746,528</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">British India.</span> Cultivation of coffee was begun systematically in India +in 1840; and twenty years later, the country exported about 5,860,000 +pounds. For the next eight years the exports remained at about that +figure; but in 1859 they amounted to 11,690,000 pounds; and by 1864 they +had doubled, rising in that year to 26,745,000 pounds. They have +continued at between 20,000,000 and 60,000,000 pounds ever since, +reaching their highest point in 1872 with 56,817,000 pounds. In recent +years, production and exportation have declined; the exports in 1920 +being only 30,526,832 pounds. The area under coffee has been between +200,000 and 300,000 acres for fifty years or more, reaching its highest +point in 1896, with 303,944 acres. Recently the area has been slowly +decreasing.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ceylon.</span> The island of Ceylon was formerly one of the important producers +of coffee; and the industry was a flourishing one until about 1869, when +a disease appeared that in ten or fifteen years practically ruined the +plantations. Production has gone on since then, but at a steadily +declining rate. In late years, the island has not produced enough for +its own use, and is now ranked as an importer rather than as an +exporter. It is said that systematic cultivation was carried on in +Ceylon by the Dutch as early as 1690; and shipments of 10,000 to 90,000 +pounds a year<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> were made all through the eighteenth century, exports in +one year, 1741, going as high as 370,000 pounds. The English took the +island in 1795, and thirty years later, they began to expand +cultivation. Exports had risen to 12,400,000 pounds in 1836; and they +continued to increase to a high point of 118,160,000 pounds in 1870; but +in the next thirty years they declined, until they were only 1,147,000 +pounds in 1900. The total acreage in coffee at one time reached as high +as 340,000; but as the coffee trees were affected by the leaf disease, +this land was turned to tea; and in 1917 there were only 810 acres left +in coffee.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dutch East Indies.</span> The year 1699 saw the importation from the Malabar +coast of India to Java of the coffee plants which were destined to be +the progenitors of the tens of millions of trees that have made the +Dutch East Indies famous for two hundred years. Twelve years afterward, +the first trickle of the stream of coffee that has continued to flow +ever since found its way from Java to Holland, in a shipment of 894 +pounds. About 216,000 pounds were exported in 1721; and soon thereafter, +shipments rose into the millions of pounds.</p> + +<p>From 1721 to 1730 the Netherlands East India Co. marketed 25,048,000 +pounds of Java coffee in Holland; and in the decade following, +36,845,000 pounds. Shipments from Java continued at about the latter +rate until the close of the century, although in the ten years 1771–80 +they reached a total of 51,319,000 pounds. The total sales of Java +coffee in Holland for the century were somewhat more than a quarter of a +billion pounds, which represented pretty closely the amount produced.</p> + +<p>With the beginning of the nineteenth century, coffee production soon +became much heavier; and in 1825 Java exported, of her own production, +some 36,500,000 pounds, besides 1,360,000 pounds brought from +neighboring islands to which the cultivation had spread. In 1855, the +amount was 168,100,000 pounds of Java coffee, and 4,080,000 pounds of +coffee from the other islands. This is the highest record for the +half-century following the beginning of the regular reports of exports +in 1825. From 1875 to 1879 the average annual yield was 152,184,000 +pounds. In 1900, production in Java was 84,184,000 pounds; in 1910, it +was 31,552,000 pounds, and in 1915 it had jumped to 73,984,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>On the west coast of Sumatra coffee was regularly cultivated, according +to one account, as early as 1783; but it was not until about 1800, that +exportation began, with about 270,000 pounds. By 1840, exports were +averaging 11,000,000 to 12,250,000 pounds per year. Official records of +production date from 1852, in which year the figures were 16,714,000 +pounds. Five years later the recorded yield was 25,960,000 pounds, the +high-water mark of Sumatra production. The total output in 1860 was +21,400,000 pounds; and 22,275,000 pounds in 1870. The average from 1875 +to 1879 was 17,408,000 pounds; and from 1895 to 1899, it was 7,589,000 +pounds. The yield was 5,576,000 pounds in 1900; 1,360,000 in 1910; and +7,752,000 in 1915.</p> + +<p>In Celebes, the first plants were set out about 1750; but seventy years +later production was only some 10,000 pounds. This soon increased to +half a million pounds; and from 1835 to 1852 the yield ran between +340,000 and 1,768,000 pounds. From 1875 to 1879, production averaged +2,176,000 pounds; from 1885 to 1889, 2,747,000 pounds; and from 1895 to +1899, 707,000 pounds. In 1900, it was 680,000 pounds; in 1910, 272,000 +pounds; and in 1915, 272,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>Planting under government control, largely with forced labor, has been +the special feature of coffee cultivation in the Dutch East Indies. At +first the government exercised what was practically a monopoly; but +private planting was more and more permitted; and in the latter part of +the nineteenth century, the amount of coffee produced on private +plantations exceeded that raised by the government. The government has +now entirely given up the business of coffee production.</p> + +<p>The total production of coffee in Java, Sumatra, and Celebes, in 1920, +in piculs of 136 pounds, was as follows:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Dutch East Indies' Coffee Production"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Dutch East Indies' Coffee Production</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Kind of Coffee</i></td> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Quantity Produced in</i></td> + <td align='center'> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='center'>Java</td> + <td align='center'>Sumatra</td> + <td align='center'>Celebes<br />and Bali</td> + <td align='right'>Total</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='center'>(piculs)</td> + <td align='center'>(piculs)</td> + <td align='center'>(piculs)</td> + <td align='center'>(piculs)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Liberica</td> + <td align='right'>14,972</td> + <td align='right'>6,243</td> + <td align='right'>2,074</td> + <td align='right'>23,289</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Java</td> + <td align='right'>16,312</td> + <td align='right'>24,291</td> + <td align='right'>70,621</td> + <td align='right'>111,224</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Robusta</td> + <td align='right'>411,235</td> + <td align='right'>256,645</td> + <td align='right'>4,998</td> + <td align='right'>672,878</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>442,519</td> + <td align='right'>287,179</td> + <td align='right'>77,693</td> + <td align='right'>807,391</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Straits Settlements.</span> Trade in coffee is a transhipping trade, Singapore +acting as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> clearing center for large quantities of coffee from the +neighboring islands. In 1920, the imports were 25,914,267 pounds; and +the exports, 26,856,000 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Federated Malay States.</span> The acreage in coffee in the Federated Malay +States is steadily declining. In 1903, coffee plantations covered 22,700 +acres; in 1913, 7,695 acres; and in 1916, 4,312 acres. There was +formerly a considerable export; but apparently local production is now +required for home consumption, as in 1920 exports were practically +nothing, and about 9,800 pounds were imported.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British North Borneo.</span> Total exports of coffee have reached as high as +50,000 pounds, which was the figure in 1904; but they are much less now; +being 5,973 pounds in 1915; 15,109 pounds in 1916; and 1,980 pounds in +1918.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sarawak.</span> Previous to 1912, the exportation of coffee from Sarawak, was +20,000 to 45,000 pounds annually. In 1912, a coffee estate of 300 acres +was abandoned, and since that time there have been no exports.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Philippines.</span> Coffee raising was formerly one of the chief industries of +the Philippines; but it has now greatly declined, partly because of the +blight. Exports reached their highest point in 1883, when 16,805,000 +pounds were shipped. Since then, they have fallen off steadily to +nothing; and the islands are now importers, although still producing +considerable for their own use. The area still under cultivation in 1920 +was 2,700 acres; and the production in that year was given as 2,710,000 +pounds, as compared with 1,580,000 pounds in 1919, and an average of +1,500,000 pounds for the previous five years.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guam.</span> Coffee is a common plant on the island but is not systematically +cultivated. There is no exportation, but a Navy Department report says +that the possible export is not less than seventy-five tons annually.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hawaii.</span> A certain amount of coffee has been produced in the Hawaiian +Islands for many years, exports being recorded as 49,000 pounds in 1861; +as 452,000 pounds in 1870; and as 143,000 pounds in 1877. The trees grow +on all the islands; but nearly all the coffee produced is raised on +Hawaii. The trees are not carefully cultivated; but the coffee has an +excellent flavor. The amount of land planted to coffee is about 6,000 +acres. The exports go mostly to continental United States. The exports +are increasing, the figures up to 1909 ranging usually between 1,000,000 +and 2,000,000 pounds, and now usually running between 2,000,000 and +5,000,000 pounds. Including shipments to continental United States, +Hawaii exported 5,775,825 pounds in 1918; 3,649,672 pounds in 1919; +2,573,300 pounds in 1920; and 4,979,121 pounds in 1921.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Australia.</span> Queensland is the only state of the Commonwealth in which +coffee growing has been at all extensively tried; and here the results +have, up to the present time, been far from satisfactory. The total area +devoted to this crop reached its highest point in the season 1901–02 +when an area of 547 acres was recorded. The area then continuously +declined to 1906–07, when it was as low as 256 acres. In subsequent +seasons the area fluctuated somewhat; but, on the whole, with a downward +tendency. In 1919–20, only 24 productive acres were recorded, with a +yield of 16,101 pounds. The country is now listed among the consuming +rather than the producing countries.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abyssinia.</span> This country, usually credited with being the original home +of the coffee plant, still has, in its southern part, vast forests of +wild coffee whose extent is unknown, but whose total production is +believed to be immense. It is of inferior grade, and reaches the market +as "Abyssinian" coffee. There is also a large district of coffee +plantations producing a very good grade called "Harari", which is +considered almost, if not quite, the equal of the Arabian Mocha. This is +usually shipped to Aden for re-export. Abyssinia's coffee reaches the +outside world through three different gateways; and as the neighboring +countries, through which the produce passes, also produce coffee, no +accurate statistics are available to show the country's annual export. +The total probably ranges from 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 pounds a year. +Coffee was shipped from Abyssinia to the extent of 6,773,800 pounds in +1914, over the Franco-Ethiopian railroad; 10,054,000 pounds in 1915; and +9,064,000 pounds in 1916. Export figures of the port of Massowah include +a large amount of Abyssinian coffee, but the proportion is unknown. At +this port 108,680 pounds of coffee were exported in 1914; and 1,221,880 +pounds in 1915. Abyssinian coffee exported by way of the Sudan amounted +to 232,616 pounds in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> 1914; to 140,461 pounds in 1915; and to 4,164,600 +pounds in 1916.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British East African Protectorate.</span> The acreage in coffee has greatly +increased in recent years. It was estimated at 1,000 acres in 1911; and +by 1916, it had grown to 22,200 acres. Production, as shown by the +exports, has likewise increased greatly; and exports in recent years +have averaged about 8,000,000 pounds a year. They were 10,984,000 pounds +in 1917; and were 18,735,000 pounds in 1918.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Uganda Protectorate.</span> The acreage in coffee has been steadily increasing, +as shown by the following figures: 1910, 697 acres; 1914, 19,278 acres; +1916, 23,857 acres; 1917, 22,745 acres. In 1909, 33,440 pounds of coffee +were produced; and by 1918, this had grown to 10,000,000 pounds. The +average for the five years, 1914–18, was 5,076,000 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nyasaland Protectorate.</span> Twenty-five years ago, this colony exported +coffee in amounts ranging from 300,000 to more than 2,000,000 pounds. +Production has now so declined, that only 122,000 pounds were exported +in 1918; and the average for recent years has been about 92,000 pounds. +The acreage in bearing in 1903 was 8,234; and in 1917 it was 1,237.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nigeria.</span> Production has been falling off in recent years. Exports were +35,000 pounds in 1896; 57,000 pounds in 1901; and 70,000 pounds in 1909. +In 1916 and 1917, however, they were only about 3,000 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gold Coast.</span> This colony formerly produced considerable coffee, exporting +142,000 pounds in 1896. There have been no exports in recent years, +except about 440 pounds in 1916, and 660 pounds in 1917.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Somaliland Protectorate.</span> Exports of coffee were more than 7,500,000 +pounds in 1897, indicating a very extensive production. But since then, +there has been a steady decline; and in 1918 only about 440,000 pounds +were shipped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Somali Coast (French).</span> Exports of coffee from this colony amounted to +more than 5,000,000 pounds in 1902; and since then, they have remained +fairly steadily at that figure, showing considerable increase in late +years. Total exports in 1917 were 11,200,000 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Italian Somaliland.</span> Some coffee appears to be grown in this colony; but +exports have been inconsiderable for many years.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sierra Leone.</span> Production has been steadily declining for twenty years. +Exports were 33,376 pounds in 1903; 17,096 pounds in 1913; and 8,228 +pounds in 1917.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mauritius.</span> In former times this island was an important coffee producer, +exports in the early part of the nineteenth century running as high as +600,000 pounds. Today there is practically no export, and only about 30 +acres are in bearing, producing 4,000 to 8,000 pounds a year.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Réunion.</span> This island also was once a notable grower of coffee. A century +ago, production was estimated as high as 10,000,000 pounds; and this +rate of output continued well through the nineteenth century. In the +present century, production has fallen off; and only about 530,000 +pounds were exported in 1909. The decrease has continued, so that the +average in recent years has been only about 25,000 pounds.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Consumption</i></p> + +<p>Of the million or more tons of coffee produced in the world each year, +practically all—with the exception of that which is used in the +coffee-growing countries themselves—is consumed by the United States +and western Europe, the British dominions, and the non-producing +countries of South America. Over that vast stretch of territory +beginning with western Russia, and extending over almost the whole of +Asia, coffee is very little known. In the consuming regions mentioned, +moreover, consumption is concentrated in a few countries, which together +account for some ninety percent of all the coffee that enters the +world's markets. These are, the United States, which now takes more than +one-half, and Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Holland, Belgium, +Switzerland, and Scandinavia.</p> + +<p>The United Kingdom stands out conspicuously among the nations of western +Europe as a small consumer of coffee, the per capita consumption in that +country being only about two-thirds of a pound each year. France and +Germany are by far the biggest coffee buyers of Europe so far as actual +quantity is concerned; although some of the other countries mentioned +drink much more coffee in proportion to the population. The +Mediterranean countries and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> Balkans are of only secondary +importance as coffee drinkers. Among the British dominions, the Union of +South Africa takes much the largest amount, doubtless because of the +Dutch element in its population; while Canada, Australia, and New +Zealand show the influence of the mother country, consumption per head +in the last two being no greater than in England.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Worlds_Coffee_Consumption_1850_1920" id="Worlds_Coffee_Consumption_1850_1920"></a> +<img src="images/chart4.jpg" width="350" height="360" alt="No. 4—World's Coffee Consumption, 1850–1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">No. 4—<span class="smcap">World's Coffee Consumption, 1850–1920</span></span><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Diagram showing the relationship between the leading coffee-consuming +countries</small></p> +</div> + +<p>In South America, Brazil, Bolivia, and all the countries to the north, +are coffee producers. Of the southern countries, Argentina is the chief +coffee buyer, with Chile second. In the western hemisphere, however, the +largest per capita coffee consumer is the island of Cuba, which raises +some coffee of its own and imports heavily from its neighbors.</p> + +<p>The list of coffee-consuming countries includes practically all those +that do not raise coffee, and also a few that have some coffee +plantations, but do not grow enough for their own use. These countries +are listed on page 287. Consumption figures can be determined with fair +accuracy by the import figures; although in some countries, where there +is a considerable transit trade, it is necessary to deduct export from +import figures to obtain actual consumption figures. The import figures +given are the latest available for each country named.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Imports_1916_1920" id="Coffee_Imports_1916_1920"></a> +<img src="images/chart5.jpg" width="350" height="595" alt="No. 5—Coffee Imports, 1916–1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">No. 5—<span class="smcap">Coffee Imports, 1916–1920</span></span><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>In this diagram a comparison is drawn between the coffee imports of the +leading consuming countries over a critical 5-year period</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="General Coffee Consumption Table"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">General Coffee Consumption Table</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Country</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Imports</i><br />(pounds)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Exports</i><br />(pounds)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Consumption</i><br />(pounds)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>1,345,366,943[k]</td> + <td align='right'>41,813,197[k]</td> + <td align='right'>1,303,553,746</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canada</td> + <td align='right'>1921[l]</td> + <td align='right'>17,517,353</td> + <td align='right'>20,349</td> + <td align='right'>17,497,004</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Newfoundland</td> + <td align='right'>1920[l]</td> + <td align='right'>46,813[m]</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>46,813</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United Kingdom</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>34,363,728[m]</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>34,360,128</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>322,419,884</td> + <td align='right'>1,154,769</td> + <td align='right'>321,265,115</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Spain</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>48,518,854</td> + <td align='right'>5,033</td> + <td align='right'>48,513,821</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Portugal</td> + <td align='right'>1919[j]</td> + <td align='right'>6,926,575</td> + <td align='right'>1,258,271</td> + <td align='right'>5,668,304</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>105,365,586</td> + <td align='right'>21,541,049</td> + <td align='right'>83,824,537</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Holland</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>135,566,943</td> + <td align='right'>66,567,702</td> + <td align='right'>69,999,241</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Denmark</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>46,571,954</td> + <td align='right'>3,449,537</td> + <td align='right'>43,122,417</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Norway</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>29,835,544</td> + <td align='right'>169,921</td> + <td align='right'>29,665,623</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sweden</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>89,660,766</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>89,660,766</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Finland</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>27,968,355</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>27,968,355</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Russia</td> + <td align='right'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>9,801,014</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>9,801,014</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Austria-Hungary<br />(former)</td> + <td align='right'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>17,966,167</td> + <td align='right'>56,217</td> + <td align='right'>17,909,950</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Austria</td> + <td align='right'>1921[n]</td> + <td align='right'>5,128,781</td> + <td align='right'>79,365</td> + <td align='right'>5,049,416</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany (former)</td> + <td align='right'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>371,130,520</td> + <td align='right'>1,783,521</td> + <td align='right'>369,346,999</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany (present)</td> + <td align='right'>1921[o]</td> + <td align='right'>167,675,258</td> + <td align='right'>210,535</td> + <td align='right'>167,464,723</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Poland</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>7,612,526</td> + <td align='right'>26,781</td> + <td align='right'>7,585,745</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bulgaria</td> + <td align='right'>1914</td> + <td align='right'>1,300,493</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>1,300,493</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Rumania</td> + <td align='right'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>5,134,198</td> + <td align='right'>66,757</td> + <td align='right'>5,067,441</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Greece</td> + <td align='right'>1920[p]</td> + <td align='right'>13,118,626</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>13,118,626</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Switzerland</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>31,582,879</td> + <td align='right'>47,619</td> + <td align='right'>31,535,260</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>66,509,255</td> + <td align='right'>14,330</td> + <td align='right'>66,494,925</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Algeria</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>17,273,041</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>17,273,041</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tunis</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>3,458,018</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>3,458,018</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Egypt</td> + <td align='right'>1921[j]</td> + <td align='right'>20,939,542</td> + <td align='right'>218,938</td> + <td align='right'>20,720,604</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Union of S. Africa</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>28,752,538</td> + <td align='right'>954,181[q]</td> + <td align='right'>27,798,357</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Northern Rhodesia</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>43,880</td> + <td align='right'>8,263</td> + <td align='right'>35,617</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Southern Rhodesia</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>325,900</td> + <td align='right'>10,064</td> + <td align='right'>315,836</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mozambique</td> + <td align='right'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>111,614</td> + <td align='right'>78,973</td> + <td align='right'>32,641</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ceylon</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>1,853,537</td> + <td align='right'>2,240</td> + <td align='right'>1,851,297</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>China</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>613,217</td> + <td align='right'>297,663</td> + <td align='right'>315,554</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Japan</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>684,826</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>684,826</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Philippines</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>3,475,530</td> + <td align='right'>26</td> + <td align='right'>3,475,504</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canary Islands</td> + <td align='right'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>529,104</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>529,104</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cyprus</td> + <td align='right'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>451,880</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>451,880</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Australia</td> + <td align='right'>1920[l]</td> + <td align='right'>2,502,429</td> + <td align='right'>263,430[r]</td> + <td align='right'>2,238,999</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>New Zealand</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>304,737</td> + <td align='right'>21,104</td> + <td align='right'>283,633</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td align='right'>1920[l]</td> + <td align='right'>39,983,001</td> + <td align='right'>1,305</td> + <td align='right'>39,981,696</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Martinique</td> + <td align='right'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>335,099</td> + <td align='right'>10,362</td> + <td align='right'>324,737</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Panama</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>216,923</td> + <td align='right'>518</td> + <td align='right'>216,405</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Argentina</td> + <td align='right'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>37,541,020</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>37,541,020</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Chile</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>12,357,929</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>12,357,929</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Uruguay</td> + <td align='right'>1921[p]</td> + <td align='right'>4,896,507</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>4,896,507</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Paraguay</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>262,737</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'>262,737</td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[j] Preliminary figures.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[k] Figures are for continental U.S. Imports include both foreign coffee +and coffee from our Island possessions. Exports Include both foreign and +domestic exports from continental U.S. and also exports to our island +possessions.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[l] Fiscal year.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[m] Entered for home consumption.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[n] First six months. Imports in 1920 were 6,042,808 pounds; exports +93,034 pounds.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[o] Eight months, May-December.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[p] First eleven months.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[q] Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 48,463 pounds.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[r] Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 208,445 pounds.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p><p>On account of the very wide fluctuations in imports during the war and +the period following the war, per capita figures of consumption are of +only relative value, as they have naturally changed radically in recent +years. For the most part, however, the trade has about swung back to +normal; and per capita figures based on the amounts retained for +consumption, as given in the General Coffee Consumption Table, are +fairly close to those for the years before the war. As per capita +calculations must take into account population as well as amounts of +coffee consumed; and as population figures are usually estimates, the +results arrived at by different authorities are likely to vary slightly, +although usually they are not far apart. In figuring the per capita +amounts in the table on page 288, latest available estimates of +population have been used. The figures show that the following are the +ten leading countries in the per capita consumption of coffee in pounds:</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Ten Leading Countries in the Per Capita in Coffee Consumption"> +<tr> + <td align='right'>1.</td> + <td align='left'>Sweden</td> + <td class='tdlpr2'>15.25</td> + <td align='right'>6.</td> + <td align='left'>Norway</td> + <td align='right'>10.95</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right'>2.</td> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td class='tdlpr2'>13.79</td> + <td align='right'>7.</td> + <td align='left'>Holland</td> + <td align='right'>10.22</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right'>3.</td> + <td align='left'>Denmark</td> + <td class='tdlpr2'>13.19</td> + <td align='right'>8.</td> + <td align='left'>Finland</td> + <td align='right'>8.25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right'>4.</td> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td class='tdlpr2'>12.09</td> + <td align='right'>9.</td> + <td align='left'>Switzerland</td> + <td align='right'>8.17</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right'>5.</td> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td class='tdlpr2'>11.06</td> + <td align='right'>10.</td> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>7.74</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The per capita consumption of the most important coffee-consuming +countries, based on the large table, is given with the 1913 per capita +figures for comparison:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Per Capita Coffee Consumption Table"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Per Capita Coffee Consumption Table</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Country</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Pds., 1913</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United States</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>12.09</td> + <td align='right'>8.90[t]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canada</td> + <td align='right'>1921[s]</td> + <td align='right'>1.93</td> + <td align='right'>2.17[u]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Newfoundland</td> + <td align='right'>1920[s]</td> + <td align='right'>0.19</td> + <td align='right'>0.19[t]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>United Kingdom</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>0.72</td> + <td align='right'>0.61[t]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>7.74</td> + <td align='right'>6.41</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Spain</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>2.33</td> + <td align='right'>1.64</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Portugal</td> + <td align='right'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>0.86</td> + <td align='right'>1.16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>11.06</td> + <td align='right'>12.27</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Holland</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>10.22</td> + <td align='right'>18.80</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Denmark</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>13.19</td> + <td align='right'>12.85</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Norway</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>10.95</td> + <td align='right'>12.29</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sweden</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>15.25</td> + <td align='right'>13.41</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Finland</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>8.25</td> + <td align='right'>8.85</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Russia</td> + <td align='right'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>0.05</td> + <td align='right'>0.16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Austria-Hungary</td> + <td align='right'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>0.34</td> + <td align='right'>2.54</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>4.10</td> + <td align='right'>5.43</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Roumania</td> + <td align='right'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>0.29</td> + <td align='right'>1.04</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Greece</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>2.97</td> + <td align='right'>1.19</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Switzerland</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>8.17</td> + <td align='right'>6.48</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Italy</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>1.84</td> + <td align='right'>1.79</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Egypt</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>1.53</td> + <td align='right'>1.15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Union of So. Africa</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>3.80[v]</td> + <td align='right'>4.19[v]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ceylon</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>0.43</td> + <td align='right'>0.36</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>China</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>0.001</td> + <td align='right'>0.01</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Japan</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>0.01</td> + <td align='right'>0.004</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td align='right'>1920[s]</td> + <td align='right'>13.79</td> + <td align='right'>10.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Argentina</td> + <td align='right'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>4.40</td> + <td align='right'>3.74</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Chile</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>3.06</td> + <td align='right'>3.04</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Uruguay</td> + <td align='right'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>3.61</td> + <td align='right'>[w]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Paraguay</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>0.26</td> + <td align='right'>[w]</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Australia</td> + <td align='right'>1920[s]</td> + <td align='right'>0.42</td> + <td align='right'>0.64</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>New Zealand</td> + <td align='right'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>0.24</td> + <td align='right'>0.29</td> +</tr> +</table></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[s] Fiscal year.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[t] Fiscal year 1913.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[u] Fiscal year ending March 31, 1914.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[v] Including both white and colored population.</p> + +<p class="quot1">[w] Not available.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Tea and Coffee in England and the U. S</i>.</p> + +<p>The rise of the United States as a coffee consumer in the last century +and a quarter has been marked, not only by steadily increased imports as +the population of the country increased, but also by a steady growth in +per capita consumption, showing that the beverage has been continually +advancing in favor with the American people. Today it stands at +practically its highest point, each individual man, woman, and child +having more than 12 pounds a year, enough for almost 500 cups, allotted +to him as his portion. This is four times as much as it was a hundred +years ago; and more than twice as much as it was in the years +immediately following the Civil War. In general it is fifty percent more +than the average in the twenty years preceding 1897, in which year a new +high level of coffee consumption was apparently established, the per +capita figure for that year being 10.12 pounds, which has been +approximately the average since then.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="World_Trend_of_Consumption_of_Tea_and_Coffee_1860_1820" id="World_Trend_of_Consumption_of_Tea_and_Coffee_1860_1820"></a> +<img src="images/chart6.jpg" width="350" height="667" alt="No. 6—World's Consumption of Tea and Coffee" title="" /> +<span class="caption">No. 6—<span class="smcap">World's Consumption of Tea and Coffee</span></span><br /> +<p class="center"><small>Diagram showing their relationship, 1860–1920</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /><a name="Coffee_Map_of_the_World" id="Coffee_Map_of_the_World"></a><a href="images/map2a.jpg"> +<img src="images/map2b.jpg" width="600" height="312" alt="Coffee Map of the World" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Map of the World</span><br /> +<small>(Click on image for larger view)</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Since the advent of country-wide prohibition in the United States on +July 1, 1919, about two pounds more coffee per person, or 80 to 100 +cups, have been consumed than before. Part of this increase is doubtless +to be charged to prohibition; but it is yet too early to judge fairly as +to the exact effect of "bone-dry" legislation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> on coffee drinking. The +continued growth in the use of coffee in the United States has been in +decided contrast to the per capita consumption of tea, which is less now +than half a century ago.</p> + +<p>In the United Kingdom, the reverse condition prevails. Tea drinking +there steadily maintains a popularity which it has enjoyed for +centuries; while coffee apparently makes no advance in favor. In this +respect, the country is sharply distinguished from its neighbors of +western Europe, in many of which coffee drinking has been much heavier, +considering the population, even than in the United States. The contrast +between the tastes of the two countries in beverages is shown clearly by +the per capita figures of tea and coffee consumption for half a century, +as they appear in the table, next column.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Tea and Coffee Consumption Per Capita"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Tea and Coffee Consumption Per Capita</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>United States</i></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>United Kingdom</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'>Coffee<br />pounds</td> + <td align='center'>Tea<br />pounds</td> + <td align='center'>Coffee<br />pounds</td> + <td align='center'>Tea<br />pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1866</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.96</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.17</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.02</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.42</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1867</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.01</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.09</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.04</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.68</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1868</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.52</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.96</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.52</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1869</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.45</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.08</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.94</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.63</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1870</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.98</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.81</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1871</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.91</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.14</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.97</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.92</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1872</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.28</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.46</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.98</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.01</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1873</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.87</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.53</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.99</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.11</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1874</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.59</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.27</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.96</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.23</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1875</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.08</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.44</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.98</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.44</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1876</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.33</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.35</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.99</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1877</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.94</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.23</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.96</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.52</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1878</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.24</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.33</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.97</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.66</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1879</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.42</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.21</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.99</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.68</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1880</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.78</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.39</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.92</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.57</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1881</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.25</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.54</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.89</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.58</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1882</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.47</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.89</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.69</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1883</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.91</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.89</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.82</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1884</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.26</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.09</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.90</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.90</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1885</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.60</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.18</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.91</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.06</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1886</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.36</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.37</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.87</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.92</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1887</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.53</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.49</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.02</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1888</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.81</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.49</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.83</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.03</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1889</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.16</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.25</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.76</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.99</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1890</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.77</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.32</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.75</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.17</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1891</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.94</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.28</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.76</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.36</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1892</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.59</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.36</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.74</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.43</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1893</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.23</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.32</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.69</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.40</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1894</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.01</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.34</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.68</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.51</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1895</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.24</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.39</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.70</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.65</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1896</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.08</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.32</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.69</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.75</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1897</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>10.04</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.56</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.68</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.79</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1898</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.59</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.93</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.68</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.83</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1899</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>10.72</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.97</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.71</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.95</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1900</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.84</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.09</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.71</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.07</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1901</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>10.43</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.12</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.76</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1902</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>13.32</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.92</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.68</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.07</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1903</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>10.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.27</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.71</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.04</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1904</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.67</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.31</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.68</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.02</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1905</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.98</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.19</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.67</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.02</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1906</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.72</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.06</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.66</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.22</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1907</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.15</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.96</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.67</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.26</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1908</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.82</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.03</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.66</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.24</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1909</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.43</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.24</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.67</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.37</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1910</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.33</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.89</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.65</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.39</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1911</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.29</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.05</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.62</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.47</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1912</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.26</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.04</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.61</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.49</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1913</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.90</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.96</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.61</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.68</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1914</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>10.14</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.91</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.63</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.89</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1915</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>10.62</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.91</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.71</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.87</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1916</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.07</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.66</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.56</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1917</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>12.38</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.99</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.02</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.03</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1918</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>10.43</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.40</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.19</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6.75</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1919</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.13</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.87</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.76</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.43</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1920</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>12.78</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.84</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>.74</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.51</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">Figures for all except most recent years are taken +from the <i>Statistical Abstract</i> publications of +the two countries. For the United States the figures +given apply to fiscal years ending June 30, and for +the United Kingdom to calendar years. +</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Consumption in Europe</i></p> + +<p>On the continent of Europe, however, coffee enjoys much the same sort of +popularity that it does in the United States. The leading continental +coffee ports are Hamburg, Bremen, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, +Antwerp, Havre, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Trieste; and the nationalities +of these ports indicate pretty well the countries that consume the most +coffee. The northern ports are transhipping points for large quantities +of coffee going to the Scandinavian countries, as well as importing +ports for their own countries; and these countries have been among the +leading coffee drinkers, per head of population, for many decades. +Norway, for instance, in 1876 was consuming about 8.8 pounds of coffee +per person; Sweden, 5 pounds; and Denmark, 5.2 pounds. The per capita +consumption of various other countries at about the same period, 1875 to +1880, has been estimated as follows: Holland, 17.6 pounds; Belgium, 9.1 +pounds; Germany, 5.1 pounds; Austria-Hungary, 2.2 pounds; Switzerland, +6.6 pounds; Prance, 3 pounds; Spain, 0.2 pounds; Portugal, 0.7 pounds; +and Greece, 1.6 pounds.</p> + +<p>Today, the leading country of the world in point of per capita +consumption is Sweden (15.25 pounds); but Holland held that position for +a long while. During the World War the disturbance of trade currents, +and the high price of coffee, greatly reduced the amount of coffee +drinking; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> the Dutch took to drinking tea in considerable +quantities.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">France.</span> Second only to the United States, in the total amount of coffee +consumed, is France; although that country before the war occupied third +place, being passed by Germany. Havre is one of the great coffee ports +of Europe; and has a coffee exchange organized in 1882, only a short +time after the Exchange in New York began operations. France draws on +all the large producing regions for her coffee; but is especially +prominent in the trade in the West Indies and the countries around the +Caribbean Sea. Imports in 1921 (preliminary) amounted to 322,419,884 +pounds; exports to 1,154,769 pounds; and net consumption, to 321,265,115 +pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germany.</span> Hamburg is one of the world's important coffee ports; and in +normal times coffee is brought there in vast amounts, not only for +shipment into the interior of Germany, but also for transhipment to +Scandinavia, Finland and Russia. Up to the outbreak of the war, Germany +was the chief coffee-drinking country of Europe. During the blockade, +the Germans resorted to substitutes; and after the war because of high +prices, there was still some consumption of them. German coffee imports +since the war have not quite climbed back to their former high mark; and +the per capita consumption, judged by these figures is still somewhat +low. Importations amounted to 90,602,000 pounds in 1920. The amount of +total imports was 371,130,520 pounds in 1913; total exports, 1,783,521 +pounds; and net imports, 369,346,999 pounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Netherlands.</span> Netherlands is one of the oldest coffee countries of +Europe, and for centuries has been a great transhipping agent, +distributing coffee from her East Indian possessions and from America +among her northern neighbors. Before sending these coffee shipments +along, however, she kept back enough plentifully to supply her own +people, so that for many years before the war she led the world in per +capita consumption. As far back as 1867–76, coffee consumption was +averaging more than 13 pounds per capita. In the year before the war, +the average was 18.8 pounds. The blockade, and other abnormal conditions +during the war, threw the trade off; and it is still sub-normal. In 1920 +the net imports were about 96,000,000 pounds, which would give a per +capita consumption of about 14 pounds if it all went into consumption. +But part of it was probably stored for later exportation, as indicated +by the figures for 1921, which show heavy exports and a consequent lower +figure for consumption. Eighty percent of the Netherlands coffee trade +is handled through Amsterdam.</p> + +<p>Consumption of coffee is now slowly going back to normal, but the change +in source of imports—which before the war came largely from Brazil but +which war conditions turned heavily toward the East Indies—is still in +evidence. Per capita consumption of coffee in Holland up to the outbreak +of the war was as follows:</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee Consumption Per Capita in Holland"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Consumption Per Capita in Holland</span> +</td></tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='right'><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='right'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='right'><i>Pounds</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1847–56</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.6</td> + <td align='right'>1907</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>14.9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1857–66</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.1</td> + <td align='right'>1908</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>14.3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1867–76</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>13.3</td> + <td align='right'>1909</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>16.7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1877–86</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>16.7</td> + <td align='right'>1910</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>15.7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1887–96</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>12.8</td> + <td align='right'>1911</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>15.8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1897–1906</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>16.7</td> + <td align='right'>1912</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>12.3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1906</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>17.2</td> + <td align='right'>1913</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>18.8</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other Countries of Europe.</span> Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are all heavy +coffee drinkers. In 1921 Sweden had the highest per capita consumption +in the world, 15.25 pounds. Before the war, these three countries each +consumed about as much per capita as the United States does today, 12 to +13 pounds. The 1921 imports for consumption<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> were as follows: +Denmark, 43,122,417 pounds; Norway, 29,665,623 pounds; Sweden, +89,660,766 pounds. Austria-Hungary was formerly an important buyer of +coffee, large quantities coming into the country yearly through Trieste. +Imports in 1913 totaled 130,951,000 pounds; and in 1912, 124,527,000 +pounds. In 1917 the war cut down the total to 17,910,000 pounds net +consumption. Finland shares with her neighbors of the Baltic a strong +taste for coffee, importing, in 1921, 27,968,000 pounds, about 8.25 +pounds per capita. In the same year, Belgium had a net importation of +83,824,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>Spain, in 1920, consumed 48,513,821 pounds. Portugal, in 1919, imported +6,926,575 pounds; and exported 1,258,271 pounds, leaving 5,668,304 +pounds for home consumption. Coffee is not especially popular in the +Balkan States and Italy; importations into the last-named country in +1920 amounting to 66,494,925 pounds net. Switzerland is a steady coffee +drinker, consuming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> 31,535,260 pounds in 1921. Russia was never fond of +coffee; and her total imports in 1917, according to a compilation made +under Soviet auspices, were only 4,464,000 pounds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Meeting_of_Amsterdam_Coffee_Brokers_1820" id="Meeting_of_Amsterdam_Coffee_Brokers_1820"></a> +<img src="images/image236.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="A Meeting of the Coffee Brokers of Amsterdam, 1820" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Meeting of the Coffee Brokers of Amsterdam, 1820</span><br /> +<small>Reproduced from an old print</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other Countries.</span> The Union of South Africa, in 1920, imported 27,798,000 +pounds net, or about 3.8 pounds per capita. Cuba purchased 39,981,696 +pounds in the fiscal year 1920; Argentina, 37,541,000 pounds in 1919; +Chile, 12,358,000 pounds in 1920; Australia, 2,239,000 pounds in 1920; +and New Zealand, 283,633 pounds in that year.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Three Centuries of Coffee Trading</i></p> + +<p>The story of the development of the world's coffee trade is a story of +about three centuries. When Columbus sailed for the new world, the +coffee plant was unknown even as near its original home as his native +Italy. In its probable birthplace in southern Abyssinia, the natives had +enjoyed its use for a long time, and it had spread to southwestern +Arabia; but the Mediterranean knew nothing of it until after the +beginning of the sixteenth century. It then crept slowly along the coast +of Asia Minor, through Syria, Damascus, and Aleppo, until it reached +Constantinople about 1554. It became very popular; coffee houses were +opened, and the first of many controversies arose. But coffee made its +way against all opposition, and soon was firmly established in Turkish +territory.</p> + +<p>In those deliberate times, the next step westward, from Asia to Europe, +was not taken for more than fifty years. In general, its introduction +and establishment in Europe occupied the whole of the seventeenth +century.</p> + +<p>The greatest pioneering work in coffee trading was done by the +Netherlands East India Company, which began operations in 1602. The +enterprise not only promoted the spread of coffee growing in two +hemispheres; but it was active also in introducing the sale of the +product in many European countries.</p> + +<p>Coffee reached Venice about 1615, and Marseilles about 1644. The French +began importing coffee in commercial quantities in 1660. The Dutch began +to import Mocha coffee regularly at Amsterdam in 1663; and by 1679 the +French had developed a considerable trade in the berry between the +Levant and the cities of Lyons and Marseilles. Meanwhile, the coffee +drink had become fashionable in Paris, partly through its use by the +Turkish ambassador, and the first Parisian <i>café</i> was opened in 1672. It +is significant of its steady popularity since then that the name <i>café</i>, +which is both French and Spanish for coffee, has come to mean a general +eating or drinking place.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="BILL_OF_PUBLIC_SALE_OF_COFFEE_1790" id="BILL_OF_PUBLIC_SALE_OF_COFFEE_1790"></a> +<img src="images/image237.jpg" width="450" height="937" alt="BILL OF PUBLIC SALE OF COFFEE, ETC., 1790" title="" /> +<span class="caption">BILL OF PUBLIC SALE OF COFFEE, ETC., 1790</span><br /> +<small>Reproduction of an advertisement by the Dutch East India Company</small> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p><p>Active trading in coffee began in Germany about 1670, and in Sweden +about 1674.</p> + +<p>Trading in coffee in England followed swiftly upon the heels of the +opening of the first coffee house in London in 1652. By 1700, the trade +included not only exporting and importing merchants, but wholesale and +retail dealers; the latter succeeding the apothecaries who, up to then, +had enjoyed a kind of monopoly of the business.</p> + +<p>Trade and literary authorities<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> on coffee trading tell us that in +the early days of the eighteenth century the chief supplies of coffee +for England and western Europe came from the East Indies and Arabia. The +Arabian, or—as it was more generally known—Turkey berry, was bought +first-hand by Turkish merchants, who were accustomed to travel inland in +Arabia Felix, and to contract with native growers.</p> + +<p>It was moved thence by camel transport through Judea to Grand Cairo, +<i>via</i> Suez, to be transhipped down the Nile to Alexandria, then the +great shipping port for Asia and Europe. By 1722, 60,000 to 70,000 bales +of Turkish (Arabian) coffee a year were being received in England, the +sale price at Grand Cairo being fixed by the Bashaw, who "valorized" it +according to the supply. "Indian" coffee, which was also grown in +Arabia, was brought to Bettelfukere (Beit-el-fakih) in the mountains of +southwestern Arabia, where English, Dutch, and French factors went to +buy it and to transport it on camels to Moco (Mocha), whence it was +shipped to Europe around the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>In the beginning, "Indian" coffee was inferior to Turkish coffee; +because it was the refuse, or what remained after the Turkish merchants +had taken the best. But after the European merchants began to make their +own purchases at Bettelfukere, the character of the "Indian" product as +sold in the London and other European markets was vastly improved. +Doubtless the long journey in sailing vessels over tropic seas made for +better quality. It was estimated that Arabia in this way exported about +a million bushels a year of "Turkish" and "Indian" coffee.</p> + +<p>The coffee houses became the gathering places for wits, fashionable +people, and brilliant and scholarly men, to whom they afforded +opportunity for endless gossip and discussion. It was only natural that +the lively interchange of ideas at these public clubs should generate +liberal and radical opinions, and that the constituted authorities +should look askance at them. Indeed the consumption of coffee has been +curiously associated with movements of political protest in its whole +history, at least up to the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>Coffee has promoted clear thinking and right living wherever introduced. +It has gone hand in hand with the world's onward march toward democracy.</p> + +<p>As already told in this work, royal orders closed the coffee houses for +short periods in Constantinople and in London; Germany required a +license for the sale of the beverage; the French Revolution was fomented +in coffee-house meetings; and the real cradle of American liberty is +said to have been a coffee house in New York. It is interesting also to +note that, while the consumption of coffee has been attended by these +agitations for greater liberty for three centuries, its production for +three centuries, in the Dutch East Indies, in the West Indies, and in +Brazil, was very largely in the hands of slaves or of forced labor.</p> + +<p>Since the spread of the use of coffee to western Europe in the +seventeenth century, the development of the trade has been marked, +broadly speaking, by two features: (1) the shifting of the weight of +production, first to the West Indies, then to the East Indies, and then +to Brazil; and (2) the rise of the United States as the chief coffee +consumer of the world. Until the close of the seventeenth century, the +little district in Arabia, whence the coffee beans had first made their +way to Europe, continued to supply the whole world's trade. But sprigs +of coffee trees were beginning to go out from Arabia to other promising +lands, both eastward and westward. As previously related, the year 1699 +was an important one in the history of this expansion, as it was then +that the Dutch successfully introduced the coffee plant from Arabia into +Java. This started a Far Eastern industry, whose importance continues to +this day, and also caused the mother country, Holland, to take up the +rôle of one of the leading coffee traders of the world,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> which she still +holds. Holland, in fact, took to coffee from the very first. It is +claimed that the first samples were introduced into that country from +Mocha in 1616—long before the beans were known in England or +France—and that by 1663, regular shipments were being made. Soon after +the coffee culture became firmly established in Java, regular shipments +to the mother country began, the first of these being a consignment of +894 pounds in 1711. Under the auspices of the Netherlands East India Co. +the system of cultivating coffee by forced labor was begun in the East +Indian colonies. It flourished until well into the nineteenth century. +One result of this colonial production of coffee was to make Holland the +leading coffee consumer per capita of the world, consumption in 1913, as +recorded on page 290, having reached as high as 18.8 pounds. It has long +been one of the leading coffee traders, importing and exporting in +normal times before the war between 150,000,000 and 300,000,000 pounds a +year.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Production_of_Coffee_by_Continents" id="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Production_of_Coffee_by_Continents"></a> +<img src="images/chart7.jpg" width="350" height="366" alt="Pre-War Average Annual Production of Coffee by Continents" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pre-War Average Annual Production of Coffee by Continents</span><br /> +<small>Fiscal years: 1910–1914<br /> +Total pounds: 2,311,917,200</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The introduction of the coffee plant into the new world took place +between 1715 and 1723. It quickly spread to the islands and the mainland +washed by the Caribbean. The latter part of the eighteenth century saw +tens of millions of pounds of coffee being shipped yearly to the mother +countries of western Europe; and for decades, the two great coffee trade +currents of the world continued to run from the West Indies to France, +England, Holland, and Germany; and from the Dutch East Indies to +Holland. These currents continued to flow until the disruption of world +trade-routes by the World War; but they had been pushed into positions +of secondary importance by the establishing of two new currents, running +respectively from Brazil to Europe, and from Brazil to the United +States, which constituted the nineteenth century's contribution to the +history of the world's coffee trade.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Production_of_Coffee_by_Countries" id="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Production_of_Coffee_by_Countries"></a> +<img src="images/chart8.jpg" width="350" height="366" alt="Pre-War Average Annual Production of Coffee by Countries" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pre-War Average Annual Production of Coffee by Countries</span><br /> +<small>Fiscal years: 1910–1914<br /> +Total pounds: 2,311,917,200</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The chief feature of the twentieth century's developments has been the +passing by the United States of the half-way mark in world consumption; +this country, since the second year of the World War, having taken more +than all the rest of the world put together. The world's chief coffee +"stream," so to speak, is now from Santos and Rio de Janeiro to New +York, other lesser streams being from these ports to Havre, Antwerp, +Amsterdam, and (in normal times) Hamburg; and from Java to Amsterdam and +Rotterdam. It is said that a movement, fostered by Belgium and Brazil, +is under way to have Antwerp succeed Hamburg as a coffee port.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p><p>The rise of Brazil to the place of all-important source of the world's +coffee was entirely a nineteenth century development. When the coffee +tree found its true home in southern Brazil in 1770, it began at once to +spread widely over the area of excellent soil; but there was little +exportation for thirty or forty years. By the middle of the nineteenth +century Brazil was contributing twice as much to the world's commerce as +her nearest competitor, the Dutch East Indies, exports in 1852–53 being +2,353,563 bags from Brazil and 1,190,543 bags from the Dutch East +Indies. The world's total that year was 4,567,000 bags, so that +Brazilian coffee represented about one-half of the total. This +proportion was roughly maintained during the latter half of the +nineteenth century, but has gradually increased since then to its +present three-fourths.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Imports_of_Coffee_into_U_S_by_Continents" id="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Imports_of_Coffee_into_U_S_by_Continents"></a> +<img src="images/chart9.jpg" width="350" height="366" alt="Pre-War Average Annual Imports of Coffee into the United States by Continents" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pre-War Average Annual Imports of Coffee into the United States by Continents</span><br /> +<small>Fiscal years: 1910–1914<br /> +Total pounds: 899,339,327</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The most important single event in the history of Brazilian production +was the carrying out of the valorization scheme, by which the State of +São Paulo, in 1906 and 1907, purchased 8,474,623 bags of coffee, and +stored it in Santos, in New York, and in certain European ports, in +order to stabilize the price in the face of very heavy production. At +the same time, a law was passed limiting the exports to 10,000,000 bags +per year. This law has since been repealed. The story of valorization is +told more fully in chapter XXXI. The coffee thus purchased by the state +was placed in the hands of an international committee, which fed it into +the world's markets at the rate of several hundred thousand bags a year. +Good prices were realized for all coffee sold; and the plan was +successful, not only financially, but in the achievement of its main +object, the prevention of the ruin of planters through overproduction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Imports_of_Coffee_into_U_S_by_Countries" id="Pre-War_Average_Annual_Imports_of_Coffee_into_U_S_by_Countries"></a> +<img src="images/chart10.jpg" width="350" height="366" alt="Pre-War Average Annual Imports of Coffee into the United States by Countries" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pre-War Average Annual Imports of Coffee into the United States by Countries</span><br /> +<small>Fiscal years: 1910–1914<br /> +Total pounds: 899,339,327</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Another valorization campaign was launched by Brazil in 1918, and a +third in 1921. Early in 1918, the São Paulo government bought about +3,000,000 bags. Subsequent events caused a sharp advance in prices, and +at one time it was said that the holdings showed a profit of +$60,000,000. The Brazil federal government appointed an official +director of valorization, Count Alexandre Siciliano. A federal loan of +£9,000,000, with 4,535,000 bags of valorized coffee as collateral, was +placed in London and New York in May, 1922.</p> + +<p>European consumption during the last century has been marked by the +growth of imports into France and Germany; these being the two leading +coffee drinkers of the world, aside from the United States. Germany held +the lead in European consumption during the whole of the nineteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +century, and also in this century until all imports were stopped by the +Allied navies; although, in actual imports, Holland for many years +showed higher figures. Both Holland and England have acted as +distributers, re-exporting each year most of the coffee which entered +their ports. In the last half-century, the chief consumers, in the order +named, have been Germany, France, Holland, Austria-Hungary, and Belgium. +However, with the removal of the duty on coffee in the last-named +country in 1904, imports trebled; and Belgium took third place. The +table at the top of this page shows the general trend of the trade for +the last seventy years.</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" summary="Trend of European Coffee Consumption For Seventy Years"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Trend of European Coffee Consumption For Seventy Years</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td class='tdcpr2'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Germany</i><br />(pounds)</td> + <td align='center'><i>France</i><br />(pounds)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Holland</i><br />(pounds)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Aus.-Hung.</i><br />(pounds)</td> + <td align='center'><i>Belgium</i><br />(pounds)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr2'>1853</td> + <td align='right'>104,049,000</td> + <td align='right'>48,095,000</td> + <td align='right'>46,162,000</td> + <td align='right'>44,716,000</td> + <td align='right'>41,270,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr2'>1863</td> + <td align='right'>146,969,000</td> + <td align='right'>87,524,000</td> + <td align='right'>30,299,000</td> + <td align='right'>44,966,000</td> + <td align='right'>39,305,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr2'>1873</td> + <td align='right'>215,822,000</td> + <td align='right'>98,841,000</td> + <td align='right'>79,562,000</td> + <td align='right'>71,111,000</td> + <td align='right'>49,874,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr2'>1883</td> + <td align='right'>251,706,000</td> + <td align='right'>150,468,000</td> + <td align='right'>130,380,000</td> + <td align='right'>74,145,000</td> + <td align='right'>62,846,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr2'>1893</td> + <td align='right'>269,381,000</td> + <td align='right'>152,203,000</td> + <td align='right'>75,562,000</td> + <td align='right'>79,438,000</td> + <td align='right'>52,046,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr2'>1903</td> + <td align='right'>403,070,000</td> + <td align='right'>246,122,000</td> + <td align='right'>78,328,000</td> + <td align='right'>104,200,000</td> + <td align='right'>51,859,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr2'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>369,347,000</td> + <td align='right'>254,102,000</td> + <td align='right'>116,749,000</td> + <td align='right'>130,951,000</td> + <td align='right'>93,250,000</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Most of the coffee for these countries has for many years been supplied +by Brazil, even Holland bringing in several times as much from Brazil as +from the Dutch East Indies. Special features of the European trade have +been the organization, in 1873, and successful operation, in Germany, of +the world's first international syndicate to control the coffee trade; +and the opening of coffee exchanges in Havre in 1882, in Amsterdam and +Hamburg, in 1887: in Antwerp, London, and Rotterdam, in 1890; and in +Trieste in 1905.</p> + +<p>The advance of coffee consumption in the United States, the chief +coffee-consuming country in the world, has taken place through about the +same period as the advance of production in Brazil, the chief producing +country; but it has been far less rapid. From 1790 to 1800, coffee +imports for consumption ranged from 3,500,000 to 32,000,000 pounds. The +figures in the next column show the net importations of coffee into this +country since the beginning of the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>The chief source of supply, of course, has been Brazil; and the +commercial and economic ties created by this immense coffee traffic has +knit the two countries closely together. Brazil is probably more +friendly to the United States than any other South American country, as +shown by her action in following this country into the World War against +Germany. She also grants the United States certain tariff preferentials +as a recognition of the continued policy of this country of admitting +coffee free of duty. The chief port of entry of coffee into the United +States is New York, which for decades has recorded entries amounting +from sixty to ninety percent of the country's total. Since 1902, New +Orleans has shown a big advance, and in 1910 imported some thirty-five +percent of the total. The only other port of importance is San +Francisco, where imports have been increasing in recent years because of +the growth of the trade in Central American coffee.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" summary="Coffee Imports, United States, for 120 Years"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Coffee Imports, United States, for 120 Years</span><br /> + <i>Net Imports</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td class='tdcpr2'>Year</td> + <td align='center'>Pounds</td> + <td class='center'>Year</td> + <td align='center'>Pounds</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1800[x]</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>8,792,472</td> + <td align='center'>1906</td> + <td align='right'>804,808,594</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1811[x]</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>19,801,230</td> + <td align='center'>1907</td> + <td align='right'>935,678,412</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1821[x]</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>11,886,063</td> + <td align='center'>1908</td> + <td align='right'>850,982,919</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1830[x]</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>38,363,687</td> + <td align='center'>1909</td> + <td align='right'>1,006,975,047</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1840[x]</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>86,297,761</td> + <td align='center'>1910</td> + <td align='right'>813,442,972</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1850</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>129,791,466</td> + <td align='center'>1911</td> + <td align='right'>869,489,902</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1860</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>182,049,527</td> + <td align='center'>1912</td> + <td align='right'>880,838,776</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1870</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>231,173,574</td> + <td align='center'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>859,166,618</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1880</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>440,128,838</td> + <td align='center'>1914</td> + <td align='right'>991,953,821</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1890</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>490,161,900</td> + <td align='center'>1915</td> + <td align='right'>1,051,716,023</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1900</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>748,800,771</td> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>1,131,730,672</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1901</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>809,036,029</td> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>1,267,975,290</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1902</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1,056,541,637</td> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>1,083,480,622</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1903</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>867,385,063</td> + <td align='center'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>968,297,668</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1904</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>960,878,977</td> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>1,364,252,073</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdcpr15'>1905</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>991,160,207</td> + <td align='center'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>1,309,010,452</td> +</tr> +</table></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[x] Fiscal year ending Sept. 30; all other years end June 30.</p></div> + +<p>Throughout the century and a third of steady increase of importations of +coffee, Congress has for the most part permitted its free entry; as a +rule, resorting to taxation of "the poor man's breakfast cup" only when +in need of revenue for war purposes. At times, the free entry has been +qualified; but for the most part, coffee has been free from the burden +of customs tariff.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p><p>The country's coffee trade before the Civil War was without special +incident; but since that time, the continued growth has brought about +manipulations that have often resulted in highly dramatic crises; +organizations to exercise some sort of regulation in the trade; the +development of a trade in substitutes; the advance of the sale of +branded package coffee; the institution of large advertising campaigns; +and other interesting features. These are treated more in detail in +chapters that follow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Pre-War_Chart_of_Coffee_Imports" id="Pre-War_Chart_of_Coffee_Imports"></a> +<img src="images/chart11.jpg" width="350" height="519" alt="Pre-War Chart of Coffee Imports" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pre-War Chart of Coffee Imports</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Quantity and value of net imports of coffee into the United States for +the fiscal years 1851 to 1914 in five-year averages. Solid line +represents quantity, figures in million pounds on left side. Dotted line +represents value, figures in million dollars on right side</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Drinking in the United States</i></p> + +<p>Is the United States using more coffee than formerly, allowing for the +increase in population? Of course there are sporadic increases, in +particular years and groups of years, and they may indicate to the +casual observer that our coffee drinking is mounting rapidly. And then +there is the steadily growing import figure, double what it was within +the memory of a man still young.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Pre-War_Consumption_and_Price_Chart" id="Pre-War_Consumption_and_Price_Chart"></a> +<img src="images/chart12.jpg" width="350" height="470" alt="Pre-War Consumption and Price Chart" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pre-War Consumption and Price Chart</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Import price and per capita consumption of coffee in the United States +for the fiscal years 1851 to 1914, in five-year averages. Solid line +represents import price per pound. Dotted line represents per capita +consumption</small></p> +</div> + +<p>But the apparent growth in any given year is a matter of comparison with +a nearby year, and there are declines as well as jumps; and, as for the +gradual growth, it must always be remembered that, according to the +Census Bureau, some 1,400,000 more people are born into this country +every year, or enter its ports, than are removed by death or emigration. +At the present rate this increase would account for about 17,000,000 +pounds more coffee each year than was consumed in the year before.</p> + +<p>The question is: Do Mr. Citizen, or Mrs. Citizen, or the little Citizens +growing up into the coffee-drinking age, pass his or her or their +respective cups along for a second pouring where they used to be +satisfied with one, or do they take a cup in the evening as well as in +the morning, or do they perhaps have it served to them at an afternoon +reception where they used to get something else? In other words, is the +coffee habit becoming more intensive as well as more extensive?</p> + +<p>There are plenty of very good reasons why it should have become so in +the last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> twenty-five or thirty years; for the improvements in +distributing, packing, and preparing coffee have been many and notable. +It is a far cry these days from the times when the housewife snatched a +couple of minutes amid a hundred other kitchen duties to set a pan over +the fire to roast a handful of green coffee beans, and then took two or +three more minutes to pound or grind the crudely roasted product into +coarse granules for boiling.</p> + +<p>For a good many years, the keenest wits of the coffee merchants, not +only of the United States but of Europe as well, have been at work to +refine the beverage as it comes to the consumer's cup; and their success +has been striking. Now the consumer can have his favorite brand not only +roasted but packed air-tight to preserve its flavor; and made up, +moreover, of growths brought from the four corners of the earth and +blended to suit the most exacting taste. He can buy it already ground, +or he can have it in the form of a soluble powder; he can even get it +with the caffein element ninety-nine percent removed. It is preserved +for his use in paper or tin or fiber boxes, with wrappings whose +attractive designs seem to add something in themselves to the quality. +Instead of the old coffee pot, black with long service, he has modern +shining percolators and filtration devices; with a new one coming out +every little while, to challenge even these. Last but not least, he is +being educated to make it properly—tuition free.</p> + +<p>It would be surprising, with these and dozens of other refinements, if a +far better average cup of coffee were not produced than was served forty +years ago, and if the coffee drinker did not show his appreciation by +coming back for more.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, the figures show that he does come back for more. +We do not refer to the figures of the last two years, which indeed are +higher than those for many preceding years, but to the only averages +that are of much significance in this connection; namely, those for +periods of years going back half a century or more. Five-year averages +back to the Civil War show increasing per capita consumption for +continental United States (see table).</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Five-Year Per Capita Consumption Figures"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Five-Year Per Capita Consumption Figures</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Five-year<br />Period</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Per capita<br /></i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Five-year<br />Period</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Per capita<br /></i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1867–71</td> + <td align='center'>6.38</td> + <td align='center'>1897–1901</td> + <td align='center'>10.52</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1872–76</td> + <td align='center'>7.03</td> + <td class='tdlpr1'>1902–06</td> + <td align='center'>11.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1877–81</td> + <td align='center'>7.53</td> + <td class='tdlpr1'>1907–11</td> + <td align='center'>10.21</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1882–86</td> + <td align='center'>9.09</td> + <td class='tdlpr1'>1912–16</td> + <td align='center'>10.02</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1887–91</td> + <td align='center'>8.07</td> + <td class='tdlpr1'>1917–21</td> + <td align='center'>11.39</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1892–96</td> + <td align='center'>8.63</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It will be seen that the gain has been a decided one, fairly steady, but +not exactly uniform. In the fifty years, John Doe has not quite come to +the point where he hands up his cup for a second helping and keeps a +meaningful silence. Instead, he stipulates, "Don't fill it quite full; +fill it about five-sixths as full as it was before." That is a +substantial gain, and one that the next fifty years can hardly be +expected to duplicate, in spite of the efforts of our coffee +advertisers, our inventors, and our vigorous importers and roasters.</p> + +<p>The most striking feature of this fifty-year growth was the big step +upward in 1897, when the per capita rose two pounds over the year before +and established an average that has been pretty well maintained since. +Something of the sort may have taken place again in 1920, when there was +a three-pound jump over the year before. It will be interesting to see +whether this is merely a jump or a permanent rise; whether our coffee +trade has climbed to a hilltop or a plateau.</p> + +<p>In this connection it should be noted that the government's per capita +coffee figures apply only to continental United States, and that in +computing them all the various items of trade of the non-contiguous +possessions (not counting the Philippines, whose statistics are kept +entirely separate from those of the United States proper) are carefully +taken into account.</p> + +<p>But for the benefit of students of coffee figures it should be added +that this method does not result in a final figure except for one year +in ten. The reason is that between censuses the population of the +country is determined only by estimates; and these estimates (by the +U.S. Bureau of the Census) are based on the average increase in the +preceding census decade. The increase between 1910 and 1920, for +instance, is divided by 120, the number of months in the period, and +this average monthly increase is assumed to be the same as that of the +current year and of other years following 1920. Until new figures are +obtained in 1930, the monthly increase will continue to be estimated at +the same rate as the increase from 1910 to 1920, or about 118,000.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> This +figure will be used in computing the per capita coffee consumption. But +when the 1930 figures are in, it may be found that the estimates were +too low or too high, and the per capita figures for all intervening +years will accordingly be subject to revision. This will not amount to +much, probably five-hundredths of a pound at most; but it is evident +that between 1920 and 1930 all per capita consumption figures issued by +the government are to be considered as provisional to that extent at +least.</p> + +<p>In the 1920 <i>Statistical Abstract</i> the government has revised its per +capita coffee and tea figures to conform to actual instead of estimated +population figures between 1910 and 1920, with the result that these +figures are slightly different from those published in previous editions +of the <i>Abstract</i>. Figures from 1890 to 1910 have also been slightly +changed, as they were originally computed by using population figures as +of June 1, whereas it is desirable to have computations based on July 1 +estimates to make them conform to present per capita figures.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Reviewing the 1921 Trade in the United States</i></p> + +<p>According to the latest available foreign trade summaries issued by the +government, the United States bought more coffee in 1921 than in any +previous calendar year of our history, although the total imports did +not quite reach the highest fiscal-year mark. Our purchases passed the +1920 mark by more than 40,000,000 pounds and were higher than those of +two years ago by 3,500,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>But this record was made only in actual amounts shipped, as the value of +imported coffee was far below that of immediately preceding years. +Coffee values, however, fell off less than the average values for all +imports, the decrease for coffee being forty-three percent and for the +country's total imports fifty-two percent.</p> + +<p>Exports of coffee were somewhat less in quantity than in 1920, and about +the same as in 1919; although the value, like that of imports, was +considerably less than in either previous year.</p> + +<p>Re-exports of foreign coffee were considerably below the 1920 mark, in +both quantity and value, and indeed were less than in several years. The +amount of tea re-exported to foreign countries was only about half that +shipped out in 1920, showing a continuation of the tendency of the +United States to discontinue its services as a middleman, which raised +the through traffic in tea several million pounds during the dislocation +of shipping.</p> + +<p>Actual figures of amounts and values of gross coffee imports for the +three calendar years, 1919–1921, have been as follows:</p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Gross Coffee Imports for Three Calendar Year"> +<tr> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Value</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpr2'>1921</td> + <td align='center'>1,340,979,776</td> + <td align='center'>$142,808,719</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpr2'>1920</td> + <td align='center'>1,297,439,310</td> + <td align='center'>252,450,651</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpr2'>1919</td> + <td align='center'>1,337,564,067</td> + <td align='center'>261,270,106</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This represents a gain of three and three-tenths percent over 1920 in +quantity and of only about one-fifth of one percent over 1919. The +decrease in value in 1921 was forty-three percent from the figures for +1920 and forty-five percent from those of 1919.</p> + +<p>Domestic exports of coffee, mostly from Hawaii and Porto Rico, amounted +to 34,572,967 pounds valued at $5,895,606, as compared with 36,757,443 +pounds valued at $9,803,574 in the calendar year 1920, or a decrease of +six percent in quantity and forty percent in value. In 1919 domestic +exports were 34,351,554 pounds, having a value of $8,816,581, +practically the same in quantity, but showing a falling off of +thirty-three percent in value.</p> + +<p>Re-exports of foreign coffee amounted to 36,804,684 pounds in 1921, +having a value of $3,911,847, a decline of twenty-five percent from the +49,144,691 pounds of 1920 and of fifty-four percent from the 81,129,691 +pounds of 1919; whereas in point of value there was a decrease of +fifty-six percent from 1920, which was $9,037,882, and of eighty-eight +percent from that of 1919, which was $16,815,468.</p> + +<p>The average value per pound of the imported coffee, according to these +figures, works out at little more than half that of either 1920 or 1919, +illustrating the precipitate drop of prices when the depression came on. +The pound value in 1921 was 10.6c.; for 1920, 19.4c.; and for 1919, +19.5c. These values are derived from the valuations placed on shipments +at the point of export, the "foreign valuation" for which the much +discussed "American valuation" is proposed as a substitute. They +accordingly do not take into account costs of freight, insurance, etc.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that the average valuation of 10.6c. a pound +for coffee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> shipped during the calendar year is a substantial drop from +the 13.12c. a pound that was the average for the fiscal year 1921, +showing that the decline in values continued during the last half of the +calendar year.</p> + +<p>Coffee imports in 1921 continued to run in about the same well-worn +channels as in previous years, according to the figures showing the +trade with the producing countries. The United States, as heretofore, +drew almost its whole supply from its neighbors on this side of the +globe; the countries to the south furnishing ninety-seven percent of the +total entering our ports. The three chief countries of South America +contributed eighty-five percent; and the share of Brazil alone was +sixty-two and five-tenths percent.</p> + +<p>Brazil's progress to her normal pre-war position in our coffee trade is +rather slow, although she continues to show a gain in percentage each +year. Formerly we obtained seventy percent to seventy-five percent of +our coffee from that country; but war conditions, diverting nearly all +of Central America's production to our ports, reduced the proportion to +almost half. In 1919 this had risen to fifty-nine percent, in 1920 it +was somewhat over sixty percent, and in 1921 it attained a mark of +sixty-two and five-tenths percent. The actual amount shipped, which was +839,212,388 pounds having a value of $77,186,271, was about seven +percent higher than in 1920, which was 785,810,689 pounds valued at +$148,793,593; and about the same percent higher than that of +1919—787,312,293 pounds valued at $160,038,196. Although the actual +poundage showed an increase, it will be noted that the value fell off +almost one-half as compared with 1920, and more than one-half as +compared with the year before.</p> + +<p>The real feature of the year, and perhaps the most interesting +development in the coffee trade of this country in recent years, is the +steady advance of Colombian coffee.</p> + +<p>In the year before the war, we obtained from our nearest South American +neighbor 87,176,477 pounds of coffee valued at $11,381,675, which was +about ten percent of our total imports. In 1919, the first year after +the war, this amount was almost doubled, being 150,483,853 pounds with a +value of $30,425,162. In 1920, there was a further increase to +194,682,616 pounds valued at $41,557,669, and in 1921 the high mark of +249,123,356 pounds valued at $37,322,305 was reached. This was a gain of +twenty-eight percent over 1920 shipments; and, although the value was +less than in the year before, the decrease was only ten percent in a +year when the average fall in value was forty-three percent.</p> + +<p>It will be news to many people interested in the coffee trade that the +value of Colombian coffee now imported into the United States is almost +half the value of the Brazilian coffee—$37,000,000 as compared with +$77,000,000. The number of pounds imported is a little less than +one-third the Brazilian contribution; but at the present rate of +increase, it will pass the half mark in a few years.</p> + +<p>Colombia and Venezuela together now supply considerably more than half +as much coffee as Brazil in value, and more than one-third as much in +quantity. The average value of Colombian coffee in 1921 was about +fifteen cents a pound, as compared with eleven cents for Venezuelan, +nine cents for Brazilian, ten cents for Central American, and ten and +six-tenths cents for total coffee imports.</p> + +<p>Shipments from Venezuela showed a drop in quantity of nine percent as +compared with 1920 imports, being 59,783,303 pounds valued at +$6,798,709; in 1920 they were 65,970,954 pounds valued at $13,802,995; +and in 1919, they were 109,777,831 pounds valued at $23,163,071.</p> + +<p>The figures relating to imports from Central America are of interest as +showing to what extent we are continuing to hold the trade of the war +years, when nearly all coffee shipped from that region came to the +United States. Although there has probably been a considerable swing +back to the trade with Europe, the 1921 figures show that a large +percent of the trade that this country gained during the war is being +retained. Imports in 1921 were considerably lower than in 1920 or in +1919, but were still more than three times as heavy as in 1913, the last +year of normal trade.</p> + +<p>The displacement of Central America's trade by the war, and the extent +to which it has so far returned to old channels, are illustrated in the +table of Imports into the United States from Central America in the last +nine years on page 301.</p> + +<p>As Germany was very prominent in pre-war trade, it is likely that more +and more coffee will be diverted from the United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> States as German +imports gradually increase to their old level.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="2" summary="Five-Year Per Capita Consumption Figures"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Imports Into the United States from<br />Central America</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>Year</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Value</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>36,326,440</td> + <td align='right'>$4,635,359</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1914</td> + <td align='right'>44,896,856</td> + <td align='right'>5,465,893</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1915</td> + <td align='right'>71,361,288</td> + <td align='right'>8,093,532</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>111,259,125</td> + <td align='right'>12,775,921</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>148,031,640</td> + <td align='right'>15,751,761</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>195,259,628</td> + <td align='right'>19,234,198</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1919</td> + <td align='right'>131,638,695</td> + <td align='right'>19,375,179</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1920</td> + <td align='right'>159,204,341</td> + <td align='right'>30,388,567</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>1921</td> + <td align='right'>118,607,382</td> + <td align='right'>12,308,250</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Imports from Mexico in 1921 were greater by thirty-eight percent than in +1920, but were less than in 1919, and were still much below the normal +trade before the war. The total was 26,895,034 pounds having a value of +$3,475,122, as compared with 19,519,865 pounds valued at $3,873,217 in +the year before, and with 29,567,469 pounds valued at $5,434,884 in +1919. The imports in 1913 were more than 40,000,000 pounds, in 1914 more +than 43,000,000 pounds, and in 1915 more than 52,000,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>West Indian coffees showed a gradual settling back to pre-war figures, +which ranged from 3,000,000 to 12,000,000 pounds annually, but which in +1918, the last year of the war, leaped to 52,000,000 pounds. In 1919 +they amounted to 42,013,841 pounds valued at $7,575,051; and in 1920, +fell to 29,204,674 pounds valued at $5,711,993. In 1921 they continued +to drop, the total being 15,398,073 pounds valued at $1,518,784, a +decrease of forty-seven and three-tenths percent in quantity.</p> + +<p>The year under review showed practically a return to normal for +importations from Aden, which up to 1917 ran about 3,000,000 pounds a +year. In that year the full effects of the war were felt in the Aden +district, and shipments of coffee to this country dropped to 187,817 +pounds. They rose to 432,000 pounds in 1918; and in 1919, to 681,290 +pounds valued at $141,391. In 1920 there was a further rise to 889,633 +pounds valued at $200,505; and in 1921 they amounted to 2,799,824 pounds +valued at $476,672. But this trade is of little importance compared with +that of the producing countries of this hemisphere, being less than one +percent of our total imports.</p> + +<p>Imports from the Dutch East Indies continued to decline, being +fifty-five percent less than in 1920. The total of 12,438,016 pounds, +however, valued at $1,771,602, is still two or three times the normal +pre-war importations.</p> + +<p>Exports of coffee in 1921—33,389,805 pounds of green coffee valued at +$5,590,318 and 1,183,162 pounds of roasted valued at $305,288—were +about the same as those of the year before in quantity, although much +lower in value. The 1920 shipments were 34,785,574 pounds valued at +$9,223,966 of green coffee and 1,971,869 pounds of roasted valued at +$579,608.</p> + +<p>In the re-export trade, shipments of coffee were lower than in several +years, total amounts for 1921, 1920, and 1919 being 36,804,684 pounds, +49,144,091 pounds, and 81,129,641 pounds, and total values $3,911,847, +$9,037,882, and $16,815,468.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Percentage of Total Coffee Imports Into United States"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='9'><span class="smcap">Percentage of Total Coffee Imports Into United States</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td class='tdcbb' colspan='2'>1919</td> + <td class='tdcbb' colspan='2'>1920</td> + <td class='tdcbb' colspan='2'>1921</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Percentage of<br />increase (+) or<br /> + decrease (-) of<br />1921 imports<br />compared</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><i>From</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Quantity</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Value</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Quantity</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Value</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Quantity</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Value</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Quantity</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Value</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Central America</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7.40</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>12.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>12.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.60</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-25.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-50.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mexico</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.40</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>+37.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-10.30</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>West Indies</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.90</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-47.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-73.40</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Brazil</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>58.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>61.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>60.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>58.90</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>62.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>54.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>+6.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-48.10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Colombia</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11.60</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>15.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>16.40</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>18.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>26.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>+28.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-10.20</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Venezuela</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8.90</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.40</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-9.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-50.70</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aden</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>0.05</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>0.05</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>0.07</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>0.08</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>0.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>0.30</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>214.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>+137.70</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dutch East Indies</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3.80</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.10</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>0.90</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.20</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-55.70</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-65.40</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other countries</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.45</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.95</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.23</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.52</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.60</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.60</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>——</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>——</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>100.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>100.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>100.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>100.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>100.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>100.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>+3.40</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>-43.40</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Re-exports to France fell off from 16,760,977 pounds in 1920 to +11,429,952 in 1921. Mexico took 3,236,245 pounds as compared with +9,892,639 in the previous year, and Cuba also reduced her purchases from +6,319,105 pounds to 2,831,109. Shipments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> to Denmark, 4,099,403 pounds, +were practically the same as in 1920, 3,951,166 pounds, as were also +those to Germany, 3,200,158 pounds as compared with 2,917,773 in 1920.</p> + +<p>In the trade of the two coffee-exporting possessions of the United +States, Hawaii and Porto Rico, the 1921 figures show a considerable +increase in shipments from Hawaii to continental United States and to +foreign countries, while exports from Porto Rico fell off slightly.</p> + +<p>Hawaii in 1921 sent 803,905 pounds valued at $123,347 to foreign +countries, which compared with 687,597 pounds valued at $200,180 in the +year before, and 4,183,046 valued at $650,036 to continental United +States, as against 1,885,703 pounds valued at $476,033 in the previous +year.</p> + +<p>Porto Rico's crop, as usual, furnished the bulk of the domestic exports +of the United States to foreign countries—29,546,348 pounds valued at +$5,027,741, as against 1920 exports of 31,321,415 pounds valued at +$8,455,908. Shipments from Porto Rico to continental United States +amounted to 211,531 pounds valued at $35,780, as against 418,127 pounds +valued at $118,663 in 1920.</p> + +<p>Following are the figures of re-exports of coffee by countries in the +calendar year 1921:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Re-Exports of Coffee from United States, 1921"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Re-Exports of Coffee from United States, 1921</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td class='tdlpl1'><i>Country</i></td> + <td class='tdrpr1'><i>Pounds</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Belgium</td> + <td align='right'>2,717,949</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Denmark</td> + <td align='right'>4,099,403</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>France</td> + <td align='right'>11,429,952</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Germany</td> + <td align='right'>3,200,158</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Greece</td> + <td align='right'>539,933</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Netherlands</td> + <td align='right'>920,855</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Norway</td> + <td align='right'>237,155</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sweden</td> + <td align='right'>1,935,641</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canada</td> + <td align='right'>1,037,628</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mexico</td> + <td align='right'>3,236,245</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cuba</td> + <td align='right'>2,831,109</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other Countries</td> + <td align='right'>4,618,656</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right' colspan='2'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>36,804,684</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Per capita consumption of coffee in continental United States showed a +slight increase during the calendar year 1921 over that of 1920, the +figure being 12.09 pounds as against 11.70 for the previous year. This +calendar-year figure compares with the fiscal-year figure of 12.21 +pounds, indicating that imports during the last half of 1920 were +somewhat heavier than during the last half of 1921.</p> + +<p>The various items for the two calendar years 1920 and 1921 are shown as +follows:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Various Items for Two Calendar Years 1920 and 1921"> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'><i>1921<br />Calendar year<br />(pounds)</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>1920<br />Calendar year<br />(pounds)</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(a) Total imports into U.S.</td> + <td align='right'>1,340,979,776</td> + <td align='right'>1,297,439,310</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(b) Imports into non-contiguous territory from foreign countries</td> + <td align='right'>7,410</td> + <td align='right'>27</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr7'> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr8'> + <td class='tdlpl2'>(c) (a) minus (b)</td> + <td align='right'>1,340,972,366</td> + <td align='right'>1,297,439,283</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(d) Total exports from U.S.</td> + <td align='right'>34,572,967</td> + <td align='right'>36,757,443</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(e) Exports from non-contiguous territory to foreign countries</td> + <td align='right'>30,363,098</td> + <td align='right'>32,028,832</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr7'> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr8'> + <td class='tdlpl2'>(f) (d) minus (e)</td> + <td align='right'>4,209,869</td> + <td align='right'>4,728,611</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(g) Total re-exports from U.S.</td> + <td align='right'>36,804,684</td> + <td align='right'>49,144,691</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(h) Re-exports from non-contiguous territory to foreign countries</td> + <td align='right'>——</td> + <td align='right'>20,008</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr7'> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr8'> + <td class='tdlpl2'>(i) (g) minus (h)</td> + <td align='right'>36,804,684</td> + <td align='right'>49,124,683</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(j) Imports into continental U.S. from non-contiguous territory</td> + <td align='right'>4,394,577</td> + <td align='right'>2,303,830</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>(k) Exports to non-contiguous territory from continental U.S.</td> + <td align='right'>798,644</td> + <td align='right'>972,303</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr7'> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> + <td align='right'>——————</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr8'> + <td class='tdlpl2'>(l) (j) minus (k)</td> + <td align='right'>3,595,933</td> + <td align='right'>1,331,527</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Net consumption, continental U.S.: (c) minus (f) minus (i) plus (l)</td> + <td align='right'>1,303,553,746</td> + <td align='right'>1,244,917,516</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Population, July 1</td> + <td align='right'>107,833,279</td> + <td align='right'>106,418,170</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Per capita consumption, 1921</td> + <td align='right'>12.09</td> + <td align='right'>11.70</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"><br /><br /> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXIII" id="Chapter_XXIII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXIII</span></h2> + +<h3>HOW GREEN COFFEES ARE BOUGHT AND SOLD</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Buying coffee in the producing countries—Transporting coffee to +the consuming markets—Some record coffee cargoes shipped to the +United States—Transport over seas—Java coffee "ex-sailing +vessels"—Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San +Francisco—The coffee exchanges of Europe and the United +States—Commission men and brokers—Trade and exchange contracts +for delivery—Important rulings affecting coffee trading—Some well +known green coffee marks</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">I</span><span class="caps">n</span> moving green coffee from the plantations to the consuming countries, +the shipments pass through much the same trade channels as other +foreign-grown food products. In general, the coffee goes from planter to +trader in the shipping ports; thence to the exporter, who sells it to an +importer in the consuming country; he in turn passing it on, to a +roaster, to be prepared for consumption. The system varies in some +respects in the different countries, according to the development of +economic and transportation methods; but, broadly considered, this is +the general method.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Buying Coffee in the Producing Countries</i></p> + +<p>The marketing of coffee begins when the berries are swept up from the +drying patios, put in gunny sacks, and sent to the ports of export to be +sampled and shipped. In Brazil, four-wheeled wagons drawn by six mules, +or two-wheeled carts carry it to the nearest railroad or river.</p> + +<p>Brazil, as the world's largest producer of coffee, has the most highly +developed buying system. Coffee cultivation has been the chief +agricultural pursuit in that country for many years; and large amounts +of government and private capital have been invested in growing, +transportation, storage, and ship-loading facilities, particularly in +the state of São Paulo.</p> + +<p>The usual method in Brazil is for the <i>fazendeiro</i> (coffee-grower) or +the <i>commisario</i> (commission merchant) to load his shipments of coffee +at an interior railroad station. If his consignee is in Santos, he +generally deposits the bill of lading with a bank and draws a draft, +usually payable after thirty days, against the consignee. When the +consignee accepts the draft, he receives the bill of lading, and is then +permitted to put the coffee in a warehouse.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Storing at Santos</i></p> + +<p>At Santos most of the storing is done in the steel warehouses of the +City Dock Company, a private corporation whose warehouses extend for +three miles along the waterfront at one end of the town. Railroad +switches lead to these warehouses, so that the coffee is brought to +storage in the same cars in which it was originally loaded up-country. +The warehouses are leased by <i>commisarios</i>. There are also many old +warehouses, built of wood, still operated in Santos, and to these the +coffee is transferred from the railroad station either by mule carts or +by automobile trucks.</p> + +<p>At the receiving warehouses, samples of each bag are taken; the tester, +or sampler, standing at the door with a sharp tool, resembling a +cheese-tester, which he thrusts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> into the center of the bag as the men +pass him with the bags of coffee on their heads, removing a double +handful of the contents. The samples are divided into two parts; one for +the seller, and one that the <i>commisario</i> retains until he has sold the +consignment of coffee covered by that particular lot of samples.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Last_Sample_Before_Export_Santos" id="Last_Sample_Before_Export_Santos"></a> +<img src="images/image238.jpg" width="300" height="343" alt="The Last Sample Before Export, Santos" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Last Sample Before Export, Santos</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Disappearing Ensaccador</i></p> + +<p>In the old days it was the custom every morning for the <i>ensaccadores</i>, +or baggers, and the exporters or their brokers, to visit the +<i>commisarios'</i> warehouses and to bargain for lots of coffee made up by +the <i>commisario</i>.</p> + +<p>In the Santos market, until recent years, the <i>ensaccador</i>, or +coffee-bagger, often stood between the <i>commisario</i> and exporter. When +American importing houses began to establish their own buying offices in +the Brazilian ports (about 1910) to deal direct with the <i>fazendeiro</i> +and the <i>commisario</i>, the gradual elimination of the <i>ensaccador</i> was +begun. Today he has entirely disappeared from the Santos market, and is +disappearing from Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and Victoria.</p> + +<p>Coffee reaches Santos in a mixed condition; that is, it has not been +graded, or separated according to its various qualities. This is the +work of the <i>commisario</i>, who puts each shipment into "lots" in new +"official" bags, each of which bears a mark stating that the contents +are São Paulo growth. If the coffee is offered for sale by the owner, +the <i>commisario</i> will then put it on the "street," the section of Santos +given over to coffee trading.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Stamping_Bags_for_Export" id="Stamping_Bags_for_Export"></a> +<img src="images/image239.jpg" width="300" height="346" alt="Stamping Bags for Export, Santos" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Stamping Bags for Export, Santos</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The <i>commisario</i> works with samples of the coffee he has to offer and +only puts out one set at a time. He names his "asking" price, known +locally as the <i>pedido</i>, which is the maximum rate he expects to get, +but seldom receives. A set of samples may be shown to twenty-five or +thirty exporting houses in a day, one at a time. When the sample is in +the hands of a firm for consideration, no other exporter has the right +to buy the lot even at the <i>pedido</i> price, and the <i>commisario</i> can not +accept other offers until he has refused the bid. On the other hand, if +a house refuses to give up the samples, it is understood that it is +willing to pay the <i>pedido</i> price. The firm first offering a price +acceptable to the <i>commisario's</i> broker gets the lot, even though other +houses have offered the same price.</p> + +<p>When a lot is sold, the samples are turned over to the successful +bidder, and he then asks the <i>commisario</i> for larger samples for +comparison with the first set.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Commisarios Make as High as Nine Percent</i></p> + +<p>Having sold the coffee of a given planter, the <i>commisario</i> often gets +as much as nine percent for his share of the transaction. Unless the +bags have been furnished to the planter at a good rental, the coffee +must be transferred to the <i>commisario's</i> bags; and for this the planter +pays a commission.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="PREPARING_BRAZIL_COFFEE_FOR_EXPORT" id="PREPARING_BRAZIL_COFFEE_FOR_EXPORT"></a> +<img src="images/image240.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="Coffee From the Fazendas Is Delivered at the Commissarios' Warehouses in Rio" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee From the Fazendas Is Delivered at the Commissarios' Warehouses in Rio</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image241.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Interior of a Santos Cleaning and Grading Warehouse" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Santos Cleaning and Grading Warehouse</span><br /> +PREPARING BRAZIL COFFEE FOR EXPORT</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Grading_Coffee_at_Santos" id="Grading_Coffee_at_Santos"></a><br /> +<img src="images/image242.jpg" width="300" height="261" alt="Grading Coffee at Santos" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Grading Coffee at Santos</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Formerly the coffee, being rebagged by the <i>ensaccador</i>, was manipulated +in what is called ligas; that is, mixing several neutral grades from +various lots to create an artificial grade; or, more properly speaking, +a "type," desirable for trading on the New York market.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Grading and Testing in Brazil</i></p> + +<p>Having bought a lot of coffee, the exporter's next step is to grade and +to test it. Grading is generally done in the morning and late afternoon, +the hours from one to half-past four being devoted to making offers. The +afternoon grading is done by sight. The morning examinations are more +thorough, some progressive exporting houses even cup-testing the +samples. Samples are compared with house standards, and with the +requirements that have been cabled from the home office in the consuming +country. Some of the coffee is roasted to obtain a standard by which all +"chops" (varieties) are then graded and marked according to +quality—fine, good, fair, or poor. Quality is further classified by the +numerals from two to eight, which standards have been established on the +New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and are described farther on in this +chapter. Some traders also use the terms large or small bean; fair, +good, or poor roasters; soft or hard bean; light or dark; and similar +descriptive terms.</p> + +<p>When a lot is ready for shipment overseas, the <i>commisario</i> stamps each +bag with his identifying mark, to which the buyer or exporter adds his +brand. If the <i>commisario</i> is ordered before eleven in the morning to +ship a lot of coffee, he must be paid before three in the afternoon of +the same day; if he receives the order after eleven, payment need not be +made before three in the afternoon of the following day. Generally the +terms of sale are full settlement in thirty days, less discount at the +rate of six percent per annum for the unexpired time, if paid before the +period of grace is up.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Dispatching and Capitazias</i></p> + +<p>The exporter collects his money by drawing a draft against his client on +deposit of bill of lading, cashing the draft through an exchange broker +who deducts his brokerage fee. The exporter must obtain a consular +invoice, a shipping permit from both federal and state authorities, and +pay an export tax, before the coffee goes aboard the ship. This process +is known as "dispatching," while the dock company's charges are known as +<i>capitazias</i>.</p> + +<p>In practically all coffee-growing sections the small planter is helped +financially by the owners of processing plants or by the exporting +firms. The larger planters may even obtain advances on their crops from +the importing houses in New York, Havre, Hamburg, or other foreign +centers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="The_Test_by_The_Cups_Santos" id="The_Test_by_The_Cups_Santos"></a> +<img src="images/image243.jpg" width="300" height="253" alt="The Test by Cups, Santos" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Test by Cups, Santos</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Exchange at Santos</i></p> + +<p>A new coffee exchange began business at Santos on May 1, 1917, sitting +with the Coffee Brokers Board of Control. This Board consists of five +coffee brokers, four elected annually at a general meeting of the +brokers of Santos, and one chosen annually by the president of the state +of São Paulo. Among the duties of the Board are the classification and +valuation of coffee, adjustment of differences, etc.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="NEW_YORK_COFFEE_IMPORTERS_WAREHOUSE_SANTOS" id="NEW_YORK_COFFEE_IMPORTERS_WAREHOUSE_SANTOS"></a> +<img src="images/image244.jpg" width="500" height="324" alt="Where Coffees Are Sight-Graded Before Being Submitted to Cup Tests" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Where Coffees Are Sight-Graded Before Being Submitted to Cup Tests</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image245.jpg" width="500" height="343" alt="Hand & Rand Building: First Floor, Storage; Second Floor, Offices" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hand & Rand Building: First Floor, Storage; Second Floor, Offices</span><br /> +NEW YORK COFFEE IMPORTERS' MODEL ESTABLISHMENT AT SANTOS</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><br /><a name="Pack-Mule_Transport_in_Venezuela" id="Pack-Mule_Transport_in_Venezuela"></a> +<img src="images/image246.jpg" width="300" height="234" alt="Pack-Mule Transport in Venezuela" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pack-Mule Transport in Venezuela</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Transporting Coffee to Points of Export</i></p> + +<p>Transportation methods from plantation to shipside naturally vary with +local topographical and economic conditions. In Venezuela, the bulk of +the coffee is transported by pack-mule from the plantations and shipping +towns to the head of the railroad system, and thence by rail to the +Catatumbo River, where it is carried in small steamers down the river +and across Lake Maracaibo to the city of Maracaibo. In Colombia, coffee +is sent down the Magdalena River aboard small steamers direct to the +seaboard. In Central America, transportation is one of the most serious +problems facing the grower. The roads are poor, and in the rainy season +are sometimes deep with mud; so much so that it may require a week to +drive a wagon-load of coffee to the railroad or the river shipping +point.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee-Carrying_Cart_Guatemala" id="Coffee-Carrying_Cart_Guatemala"></a> +<img src="images/image248.jpg" width="300" height="235" alt="Coffee-Carrying Cart, Guatemala" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee-Carrying Cart, Guatemala</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Buying Coffee in Abyssinia</i></p> + +<p>Coffee is generally grown in Abyssinia by small farmers, who mostly +finance themselves and sell the crop to native brokers, who in turn sell +it to representatives of foreign houses in the larger trading centers. +Trading methods between farmer and broker are not much more than the old +system of barter. In the southwestern section, where the Abyssinian +coffee grows wild, transport to the nearest trading center is by mule +train, and not infrequently by camel back. In the Harar district, the +women of the farmers living near Harar the market center, carry the +coffee in long shallow baskets on their heads to the native brokers. In +the more remote places the coffee farmer waits for the broker to call on +him. From the town of Harar the coffee is transported by mule or camel +train to Dire-Daoua, whence it is shipped by rail to Jibuti, to be sent +by direct steamers to Europe, or across the Gulf of Aden to Aden in +Arabia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Pack_Oxen_Fording_Stream_Colombia" id="Pack_Oxen_Fording_Stream_Colombia"></a> +<img src="images/image247.jpg" width="300" height="271" alt="Coffee-Laden Oxen Fording Stream, Colombia" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee-Laden Oxen Fording Stream, Colombia</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Ten different languages are spoken in Harar. In order successfully to +engage in the coffee business there, it is necessary either to become +proficient in all these tongues, or to engage some one who is.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_TRANSPORT_MEXICO_AND_SOUTH_AMERICA" id="COFFEE_TRANSPORT_MEXICO_AND_SOUTH_AMERICA"></a> +<img src="images/image249.jpg" width="500" height="150" alt="Transporting Coffee by Muleback in the City of Cucuta, Colombia" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Transporting Coffee by Muleback in the City of Cucuta, Colombia</span></span> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Schooner and Steamer"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image250.jpg" width="250" height="162" alt="Schooner from Encontrados to Maracaibo" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">Schooner from Encontrados to Maracaibo</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/image251.jpg" width="250" height="164" alt="One of the lake and river steamers" title="" /> +<span class="caption">One of the lake and river steamers</span> +</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Cargo Carriers That Operate on Lake Maracaibo and Tributary Rivers</span></span></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image252.jpg" width="500" height="217" alt="Donkey Transport Train for Coffee in Mexico" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Donkey Transport Train for Coffee in Mexico</span><br /> +COFFEE TRANSPORT IN MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p><p>When the coffee is brought, partially cleaned, into Harar by donkey or +mule train, it is first taken to the open air custom-house (coffee +exchange) in the center of the town, where a ten-percent duty (in +coffee) is exacted by the local government, and one Abyssinian dollar +(fifty cents) is added for every thirty-seven and a half pounds, this +latter being Ras Makonnen's share. As soon as the native dealer has +released to him what remains of his shipment, he takes it out of the +custom-house enclosure and disposes of it through the native brokers, +who have their little "office" booths stretching in a long line up the +street just outside the custom-house entrance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Donkey_Coffee_Transport_at_Harar" id="Donkey_Coffee_Transport_at_Harar"></a> +<img src="images/image253.jpg" width="300" height="195" alt="Donkey Coffee Transport on the Way from Harar to Dire-Daoua" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Donkey Coffee Transport on the Way from Harar to Dire-Daoua</span></span> +</div> + +<p>There, a brokerage charge of one piaster per bag is paid by the buyer, +and the coffee then becomes the property of the European merchant. In +some cases it is put through a further cleaning process; but usually it +is shipped to Jibuti or Aden uncleaned. Arriving at Jibuti, there is a +one-percent ad valorem duty to pay. At Aden, there is another tax of one +anna (two cents) to be paid to the British authorities.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Camels_at_Harar" id="Coffee_Camels_at_Harar"></a> +<img src="images/image254.jpg" width="300" height="265" alt="Coffee Camels in the Custom-House, Harar" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Camels in the Custom-House, Harar</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Since 1914, however, Abyssinian coffee has been exported largely through +the Sudan, a much shorter and less expensive trip than that to Adis +Abeba and Jibuti. Now the coffee is carried by pack-train to Gambela on +the Sobat River; and thence by river steamer to Khartoum, where it is +loaded on railroad trains and sent to Port Sudan on the Red Sea.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Buying Coffee in Arabia</i></p> + +<p>Most of the coffee in Arabia is grown in almost inaccessible mountain +valleys by native Arabs, and is transported by camel caravan to Aden or +Hodeida, where it is sold to agents of foreign importing houses. Mocha, +once the principal exporting city for coffee, was abandoned as a coffee +port early in the nineteenth century, chiefly because of the difficulty +of keeping the roadstead of the harbor free from sandbars.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Selling_Coffee_by_Tapping_Hands" id="Selling_Coffee_by_Tapping_Hands"></a> +<img src="images/image255.jpg" width="300" height="206" alt="Selling Coffee at Aden by Tapping Hands Under Cover" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Selling Coffee at Aden by Tapping Hands Under Cover</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In Aden there is a kind of open-air coffee "exchange" (as in Harar) +where the camel trains unload their coffee from the interior. The +European coffee merchant does not frequent it, but is represented by +native brokers, through whom all coffee business is transacted. This +native broker is an important person, and one of the most picturesque +characters in Aden. He receives a commission of one and a half percent +from both buyer and seller. Certain grades of coffee are purchasable +only in Maria Theresa dollars; so a knowledge of exchange values is +essential to the broker's calling.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PACKING_AND_TRANSPORTING_COFFEE_ADEN" id="PACKING_AND_TRANSPORTING_COFFEE_ADEN"></a> +<img src="images/image256.jpg" width="500" height="716" alt="PACKING AND TRANSPORTING COFFEE AT ADEN" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PACKING AND TRANSPORTING COFFEE AT ADEN</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p><p>In making coffee sales, the negotiations between buyer and seller are +carried on by means of finger taps under a handkerchief. The would-be +purchaser reaches out his hand to the seller under cover of the cloth +and makes his bid in the palm of the seller's hand by tapping his +fingers. The code is well understood by both. Its advantage lies in the +fact that a possible purchaser is enabled to make his bid in the +presence of other buyers without the latter knowing what he is offering.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Buying Coffee in Netherlands India</i></p> + +<p>In the Dutch East Indies cultivation of <i>Coffea arabica</i> has diminished, +the decay of the industry beginning when Brazil and Central America +became the dominant factors in the green market. Not so many years ago +coffee growing and coffee trading were virtually government monopolies. +Under government control each native family was required to keep from +six hundred to a thousand coffee trees in bearing, and to sell +two-fifths of the crop to the government. It was also compulsory to +deliver the coffee cleaned and sorted to the official godowns, and to +sell the crop at fixed prices—nine to twelve florins per picul previous +to 1874, although forty to fifty florins were offered in the open +market. Later, the price was advanced; until about 1900 the government +paid fifteen florins per picul for coffee in parchment. All government +coffee was sold at public auction in Batavia and Padang, these sales +being held four times a year in Batavia and three times a year in +Padang.</p> + +<p>Coffee from private estates, not under government control and operated +by European corporations or individuals, has now succeeded the +government monopoly coffee. Private-estate crops are sold by public +tender, usually on or about January 28 of each year. If the owners do +not get the price they desire in Batavia or Padang, the coffee is sent +to Amsterdam for disposal. Some coffees always are sent to Holland; +because the directors of the company get a commission on all sales +there, and also because the coffees are prepared especially for the +Dutch market. The Hollander wants his coffee blue-green in color.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Coffee_Camel_Train_at_Hodeida" id="Coffee_Camel_Train_at_Hodeida"></a> +<img src="images/image257.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Coffee Camel Train Arriving at the Hodeida Custom-House from the Interior of Yemen" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Camel Train Arriving at the Hodeida Custom-House from the Interior of Yemen</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="METHODS_OF_LOADING_COFFEE_SANTOS" id="METHODS_OF_LOADING_COFFEE_SANTOS"></a> +<img src="images/image258.jpg" width="500" height="317" alt="Loading by the Old-Style Hand-Labor Method" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Loading by the Old-Style Hand-Labor Method</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image259.jpg" width="500" height="301" alt="Here the Automatic Belt Pours Into the Hold a Continuous Stream of Bags of Coffee" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Here the Automatic Belt Pours Into the Hold a Continuous Stream of Bags of Coffee</span><br /> +OLD AND NEW METHODS OF LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Loading Coffee at Santos</i></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Freighter_Cauca_River_Colombia" id="Coffee_Freighter_Cauca_River_Colombia"></a> +<img src="images/image260.jpg" width="300" height="207" alt="A Coffee Freighter on the Cauca River, Colombia" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Coffee Freighter on the Cauca River, Colombia</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In Brazil, when the coffee has been rebagged and marked by both the +<i>commisario</i> and the exporter, the coffee is again sampled. These +samples are compared with those by which the purchase was made; and if +right, the bags are turned over to the dock-master, who sets his +laborers to work loading ship. Two methods are used at Santos. The old +familiar style of hand labor is still in evidence—men of all +nationalities, but largely Spaniards and Portuguese, take the bags on +their heads and carry them in single file up the gangplanks and into the +hold of the ship. The dock company, however, operates a huge automatic +loading machine, or belt, which saves a great deal of time and labor. In +other Brazilian ports all loading is done by manual labor.</p> + +<p>Recently, at the suggestion of the Commercial Association of Santos, the +minister of transport of São Paulo ordered that coffees destined for +legitimate traders should be transported during four days of the week, +and those of a speculative nature during the remaining two days. A +premium of as much as five milreis a bag has been paid by speculators in +order to obtain immediate transport.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Shipping Coffee from Colombia</i></p> + +<p>As Colombia ranks next to Brazil in coffee, a brief description of its +transportation methods, which are unique, should be of interest to +coffee shippers. A goodly portion of Colombia's coffee exports comes +from the district around the little city of Cucuta, whose official name +is San José de Cucuta. It is the capital of North Santander, is situated +in a beautiful valley of the Colombian Andes mountains that is watered +by several rivers, and is only about a half-hour's ride by motor from +the Venezuelan frontier.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Steamers_on_the_Magdalena" id="Coffee_Steamers_on_the_Magdalena"></a> +<img src="images/image261.jpg" width="300" height="211" alt="Coffee Steamers on the Magdalena, Colombia" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Steamers on the Magdalena, Colombia</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Due to its geographical position, Cucuta serves as the most convenient +inland port and commercial center for most of the department of North +Santander. For the same reason, it is forced to depend on Maracaibo as +its seaport, even though the Venezuelan government has a number of +annoying laws controlling the commerce thus conducted. The Colombian +ports of Baranquilla and Cartagena on the Atlantic are too distant from +Cucuta to be available; and a large part of the traffic would have to be +done on mule-back across one of the most formidable ranges of the +Colombian Andes, involving high cost and delay in transportation. Yet +its frontier position makes it possible for Cucuta to have important +commercial relations with the neighboring republic of Venezuela, and to +enjoy exceptional privileges from the Colombian central government.</p> + +<p>A cargo of coffee leaving Cucuta has to go through the following steps +on its way to a foreign market:</p> + +<p>1. From Cucuta, it travels thirty-five miles by railroad to Puerto +Villamizar, a Colombian river port on the Zulia river.</p> + +<p>2. At Puerto Villamizar it is loaded into small, flat-bottomed, steel +lighters that are taken to Puerto Encontrados by man power. Puerto +Encontrados, belonging to Venezuela, is on the Catatumbo river; and the +trip from Villamizar takes from two to four days, depending on the depth +of water in the river. During high water, river steamers are also used, +and make the trip in less than a day.</p> + +<p>3. At Encontrados the cargo is loaded on river steamboats more or less +of the Mississippi river type, which take it to Maracaibo, Venezuela. +Coffee is also carried to Maracaibo by small sailing vessels.</p> + +<p>4. At Maracaibo it is taken by ocean vessel, which either carries it +direct to New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> York or to Curaçao, Dutch West Indies, where it is +transhipped to steamers plying between New York and Curaçao. It is +obvious that the many transhipments that coffee coming from Cucuta has +to undergo greatly retard its arrival at a foreign port; and a cargo +sometimes takes a month or more to reach New York.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="Loading_Heavy_Cargo_on_Santa_Cecilia" id="Loading_Heavy_Cargo_on_Santa_Cecilia"></a> +<img src="images/image262.jpg" width="500" height="305" alt="Old and New Methods Employed in Loading Heavy Cargo on the Santa Cecilia" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Old and New Methods Employed in Loading Heavy Cargo on the Santa Cecilia</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee from Cucuta is stored in the Venezuelan custom-house, from which +it must be shipped for export within forty-five days, or the shipper +runs the risk of having it declared by the Venezuelan government for +<i>consumo</i> (home consumption) at a prohibitory tariff. Arrangements can +be made at considerable cost to have the coffee taken to a private +warehouse; but it is no longer possible to make up the chops in +Maracaibo, as was done formerly with all the Cucutas. The Venezuelan +customs will not even allow the Maracaibo forwarding agent the same +chops, as a general rule. Special permission must be obtained to change +any bags that are stained or damaged. Schooners from Curaçao have, in +the past, carried a great deal of the Colombian coffee to Curaçao.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Port Handling Charges in Brazil</i></p> + +<p>It is almost impossible to list all the various charges for the handling +of coffee at the port of shipment in Brazil, the figures not being +accessible to outsiders. Some figures, such as warehouse charges and +various forms of tax, are obtainable, however. For every bag of coffee +which is in warehouse over forty-eight hours from the time of its +arrival from the railroad there is a charge of two hundred reis (about +five cents). In São Paulo there is an export tax of nine percent ad +valorem levied by the state, and in Rio the state tax is eight and a +half percent. Then there is a surtax of five francs per bag in Santos, +and of three francs in Rio, which goes toward defraying the expenses of +valorization. For every bag of coffee that passes over the dock the dock +company charges one hundred reis (about two and a half cents).</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Record Coffee Cargoes</i></p> + +<p>With its superior loading and shipping facilities Brazil has been able +to send extraordinarily large cargoes of coffee to the United States +since the development of large modern freight-carrying steamships. While +75,000 or 90,000 bag cargoes were of common occurrence just prior to the +outbreak of the World War, several shipments of more than 100,000 bags +were made in the years 1915, 1916, and 1917. Up to January, 1919, the +record was held by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> steamship Bjornstjerne Bjornson which unloaded +136,424 bags at New York on November 17, 1915. Other shipments of more +than 100,000 bags were by the Rossetti (December, 1900), 125,918 bags; +the Wascana (March 3, 1915), 108,781 bags; the Wagama (October, 1916), +105,650 bags; the American (October 23, 1916), 124,212 bags; the Santa +Cecilia (November 2, 1916), 105,500 bags, and the Dakotan (January 6, +1917), which carried 136,387 bags.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Transport Overseas</i></p> + +<p>To bring green coffee to the consuming markets, both steamships and +sailing vessels are used, although the latter have almost wholly given +way to the speedier and more capacious modern steamers. Because of its +large consumption, a constant stream of vessels is always on the way to +the markets of the United States. The majority of these unload at New +York, which in 1920 received about fifty-nine percent of all the coffee +imported into this country. New Orleans came next, with about +twenty-five percent; and San Francisco third, with about twelve percent.</p> + +<p>The approximate time consumed in transporting green coffee overseas from +the principal producing countries to the United States by freight +steamships is shown in the table in the next column.</p> + +<p>In some cases, that of Guadeloupe, for instance, the vessels stop at a +number of ports, and this lengthens the time. This is also true of +vessels running on the west coast of Central America and of those from +Aden.</p> + +<p>During the World War, one shipment of Timor coffee consumed three and a +half years coming from Java to New York. It was aboard the German +steamship Brisbane, which cleared from Batavia, July 4, 1914, and +fearing capture, took refuge in Goa, Portuguese India, where it lay +until Portugal joined the Allies. Then the Portuguese seized the vessel, +and turned it over to the British, who moved it to Bombay. Here the +cargo was finally transhipped to the City of Adelaide, reaching New York +in January, 1918, three and a half years after the coffee left Batavia.</p> + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Transportation Time for Coffee"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='6'><span class="smcap">Transportation Time for Coffee[J]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left' colspan='4'>Rio de Janeiro to New York</td> + <td align='right'>11 to 16</td> + <td align='right'>days</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Santos</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>14 to 18</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bahia</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>17</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Victoria</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>19</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Maracaibo</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Puerto Cabello </td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>La Guaira</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>8</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Costa Rica</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Salvador</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>18</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mexico</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>9</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>Guatemala<br />(Puerto<br />Barrios)</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>11</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Colombia</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Haiti</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>7</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Porto Rico</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>5</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Guadeloupe</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>Hawaii<br />(via P.C.)</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>28</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>Java<br />(via Suez)</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>30</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>Sumatra<br />(via Suez)</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>30</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>Singapore<br />(via Suez)</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>35</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>India<br />(via Suez)</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>35</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>Aden<br />(via Suez)</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>"</td> + <td align='right'>45</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Porto Rico</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>New Orleans</td> + <td align='right'>7</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Guadeloupe</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Haiti</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>7</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Guatemala</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>8</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Colombia</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>6</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mexico</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>4</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Salvador</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>15</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Guatemala</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>San Francisco</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Costa Rica</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>18</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Salvador</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>14</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mexico</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>8</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hawaii</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>8</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Singapore</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>30</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>India</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>33</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +</table></div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="quot1">[J] The American Legion and the Southern Cross, of the Munson Line, make +the journey from Rio de Janeiro to New York in eleven days. These are +freight-and-passenger vessels, and have carried as many as 5,000 bags of +coffee at one time.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Java Coffee "Ex-Sailing Ships"</i></p> + +<p>Up to 1915 it was the custom to ship considerable Java coffee to New +York in slow-going sailing vessels of the type in favor a hundred years +ago. Java coffees "ex-sailing ships" always commanded a premium because +of the natural sweating they experienced in transit. Attempts to imitate +this natural sweating process by steam-heating the coffees that reached +New York by the faster-going steamship lines, and interference therewith +by the pure-food authorities, caused a falling off in the demand for +"light," "brown," or "extra brown" Dutch East Indian growths; and +gradually the picturesque sailing vessels were seen no more in New York +harbor. At the end they were mostly Norwegian barks of the type of the +Gaa Paa.</p> + +<p>It usually took from four to five months to make the trip from Padang or +Batavia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> to New York. Crossing the Equator twice, first in the Indian +Ocean, then in the South Atlantic, the trip was more than equal to +circumnavigating the earth in our latitude. In the hold of the vessel +the cargo underwent a sweating that gave to the coffee a rare shade of +color and that, in the opinion of coffee experts, greatly enhanced its +flavor and body. The captain always received a handsome gratuity if the +coffee turned "extra brown."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Unloading_Java_Coffee_from_Sailing_Vessel" id="Unloading_Java_Coffee_from_Sailing_Vessel"></a> +<img src="images/image263.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Unloading Java Coffee from a Sailing Vessel at a Brooklyn Dock" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Unloading Java Coffee from a Sailing Vessel at a Brooklyn Dock</span><br /> +<small>The ship is the Gaa Paa, which made the voyage from Padang in five months in 1912</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The demand for sweated, or brown, Javas probably had its origin in the +good old days when the American housewife bought her coffee green and +roasted it herself in a skillet over a quick fire. Coffee slightly brown +was looked upon with favor; for every good housewife in those days knew +that green coffee changed its color in aging, and that of course aged +coffee was best.</p> + +<p>And so it came about that Java coffees were preferably shipped in +slow-going Dutch sailing vessels, because it was desirable to have a +long voyage under the hot tropical sun suitably to sweat the coffee on +its way to market and to have it a handsome brown on arrival. The +sweating frequently produced a musty flavor which, if not too +pronounced, was highly prized by experts. When the ship left Padang or +Batavia the hatches were battened down, not to be opened again until New +York harbor was reached.</p> + +<p>Many of the old-style Dutch sailing vessels were built somewhat after +the pattern of the Goed Vrouw, which Irving tells us was a hundred feet +long, a hundred feet wide, and a hundred feet high. Sometimes she sailed +forward, sometimes backward, and sometimes sideways. After dark, the +lights were put out, all sail was taken in, and all hands turned in for +the night.</p> + +<p>The last of the coffee-carrying sailing vessels to reach the United +States was the bark Padang, which arrived in New York on Christmas day, +1914.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="RECEIVING_PIERS_FOR_COFFEE_NEW_YORK" id="RECEIVING_PIERS_FOR_COFFEE_NEW_YORK"></a> +<img src="images/image264.jpg" width="500" height="272" alt="The Bush Terminal System of Docks and Warehouses" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Bush Terminal System of Docks and Warehouses</span><br /> +<small>Much of the green coffee received in New York is discharged and stored +here, at one of the most modern waterfront and terminal developments in +the world</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image265.jpg" width="500" height="359" alt="Airplane View of New York Dock Company's Piers and Warehouses" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Airplane View of New York Dock Company's Piers and Warehouses</span><br /> +<small>This is the Fulton Street section of the Brooklyn waterfront, where more +than half the coffee received in New York is unloaded. The storage +warehouses are to be seen back of the piers</small><br /><br /> +RECEIVING PIERS FOR COFFEE AT NEW YORK</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Handling Coffee at New York</i></p> + +<p>The handling of the cargoes of coffee when they arrive at their +destination is a source of wonder to the layman. There is probably no +better place to study the handling of coffee than in New York City—the +world's largest coffee center. Millions of bags of coffee pass into +consumption every year through its docks, and scarcely a day goes by +when there are not one or more ships discharging coffee upon the docks +lining the Brooklyn shore, the center of the coffee-warehouse district +for New York. In 1921, the New York Dock Company alone had 159 bonded +warehouses with a storage capacity of some 65,000,000 cubic feet; and 34 +piers, the longest measuring 1,193 feet and containing more than 175,000 +square feet. These piers have a total deck space of sixty-one and a half +acres. The wharfage distance is more than nine and a third miles. More +than twenty steamship lines berth their vessels there regularly, and +many of them are coffee ships. The warehouses have direct connections +with all the principal railway trunk lines running into the New York +district; and the whole property of the company stretches along the +waterfront opposite lower Manhattan for about two and one-half miles.</p> + +<p>Although coffee is admitted to the United States free of duty, it is +subject to practically the same formalities as dutiable goods. Before +the cargo can be "broken out," a government permit to "land and deliver" +must be placed in the hands of the customs inspector on the dock. This +done, the ship's samples, which consist of the samples sent by the +exporter to the importer, are taken to the United States appraiser's +office for inspection, and are then delivered to the importer's +representative. Meanwhile the shipping documents covering the cargo, +including bills of lading and consular invoices, have been sent to the +post office for delivery to banks and bankers' agents, who check and +deliver them to the customs officers for entry. The government requires +that this entry shall be made within forty-eight hours of the vessel's +arrival, else the cargo will be stored in a United States bonded +warehouse under what is known as "general order" which makes the +consignee liable for storage and cartage charges.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="Unloading_Coffee_Covered_Pier_New_York" id="Unloading_Coffee_Covered_Pier_New_York"></a> +<img src="images/image266.jpg" width="500" height="314" alt="Unloading Coffee at One of the Covered Piers of the New York Dock Company" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Unloading Coffee at One of the Covered Piers of the New York Dock Company</span></span> +</div> + +<p>When a coffee ship arrives in New York, not much time is lost in +discharging the cargo. As soon as the vessel is securely moored to the +pier, and the government's permission to "land and deliver" is secured, +the hatches are removed, the coffee is hauled out of the hold by block +and tackle and swung off in slings to the pier, where dock laborers +carry the bags to their proper places. If each cargo consisted of one +consignment to a single importer, and contained only one variety of +coffee, unloading would be a comparatively simple affair. In general +practise, however, the cargoes consist of a large number of consignments +and a variety of grades, necessitating a careful sorting as unloading +progresses. Accordingly, even before the unloading begins, the dock is +chalked off into squares, each square having a number, or symbol, +representing a particular consignment. As the bags come up out of the +hold, the foreman of the laborers, who has a key to the brand marks on +the bags, indicates where each bag is to be placed. Coffee to be +reshipped, either by lighter or rail, is heaped in piles by itself until +loaded on to the lighters or freight cars.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="RECEIVING_AND_STORING_COFFEE_NEW_YORK" id="RECEIVING_AND_STORING_COFFEE_NEW_YORK"></a> +<img src="images/image267.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Storing Coffee by Marks and Chops" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Storing Coffee by Marks and Chops</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image268.jpg" width="500" height="316" alt="Hoisting Coffee into the Storage Warehouses Adjoining the Brooklyn Piers" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hoisting Coffee into the Storage Warehouses Adjoining the Brooklyn Piers</span><br /> +RECEIVING AND STORING COFFEE AT NEW YORK</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p><p>The next step is to transfer the cargo to the warehouse, and to +separate each consignment according to the various kinds of coffee +making up the invoices. When the importer gives his orders to store, he +sends also a list of the different kinds of coffees in his consignment, +called "chops" by the trade, with directions how to divide the shipment. +To do this, the floor of the warehouse is chalked off into squares, as +was done on the dock; but now the numbers, or symbols, in each space +indicate the chops in each invoice, or consignment.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Tester and Loading"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Tester_at_Work_Bush_Terminal_New_York" id="Tester_at_Work_Bush_Terminal_New_York"></a> +<img src="images/image269.jpg" width="300" height="346" alt="Tester at Work, Bush Terminal, New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tester at Work, Bush Terminal, New York</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Loading_Lighters_Bush_Docks_New_York" id="Loading_Lighters_Bush_Docks_New_York"></a> +<img src="images/image270.jpg" width="300" height="341" alt="Loading Lighters, Bush Docks, New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Loading Lighters, Bush Docks, New York</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The importer naturally is eager to sample the newly arrived coffee. +Sampling is generally done by trained warehouse employees, who are +equipped with coffee triers, sampling instruments resembling +apple-corers, which they thrust into the bags. The instrument is hollow, +and the coffee flows into the hand of the sampler, who places each +sample in a paper bag which is marked to indicate the chop. The total +sample of each chop usually consists of about ten pounds of coffee, +which the importer compares with the exporter's sample.</p> + +<p>When sampling for trade delivery, about two-thirds of the bags in a chop +are tried. But when sampling for delivery on Coffee Exchange contract, +every bag must be tested, and care taken that each chop is uniform in +color, kind, and quality. Coffee for Exchange delivery must be stored in +a warehouse licensed by the Exchange; and the warehouseman is +responsible for the uniformity of grade of each chop.</p> + +<p>When approximately ninety percent of the cargo has been unloaded and +stored, the warehouse issues what has become known as the "last bag +notice." In the majority of cases the coffee has been sold before +arrival; and on receipt of the last bag notice, the importer can +transfer ownership of the coffee and save interest.</p> + +<p>In a cargo of 75,000 to 100,000 bags of coffee that have been hurriedly +loaded in the producing country and unloaded at destination in equal +haste, a small portion of the cargo is almost certain to be damaged. +Generally the damage is slight. If a bag is torn or stained, the coffee +is placed in a new bag. If the contents have become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> mildewed, the +damaged portion is taken to a warehouse for reconditioning; while the +sound coffee is thoroughly aired to remove the odor and is then placed +in a clean bag. The reconditioned lot is put into a separate package and +forwarded to the buyer with a "reconditioning statement" that shows what +has been done.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="The_New_Terminal_System_on_Staten_Island" id="The_New_Terminal_System_on_Staten_Island"></a> +<img src="images/image271.jpg" width="500" height="130" alt="The New Terminal System on Staten Island" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The New Terminal System on Staten Island</span></span> +</div> + +<p>On the left are three piers of the Pouch Terminal at Clifton; on the +right, four of the American Dock Terminal at Tompkinsville; and between +these are thirteen piers of the new Municipal Terminal]</p> + +<p>Bags that have become torn in transit, and parts of their contents +spilled, are called "slacks." These are weighed as they arrive on the +dock by a licensed public weigher; and a sufficient quantity of the +coffee remaining on the floor of the ship's hold is put into the bag to +make it of the proper weight. The expense of reconditioning and +rebagging is generally borne by the marine insurance companies. When the +entire cargo is unloaded, and the slacks and bad-order bags are weighed +and marked, the warehouseman tallies up the records of his clerks, and +renders a corrected chop list to the consignee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Motor_Tractor_Bush_Piers" id="Motor_Tractor_Bush_Piers"></a> +<img src="images/image272.jpg" width="500" height="303" alt="Motor Tractor Moving Coffee at the Bush Terminal Docks, Brooklyn" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Motor Tractor Moving Coffee at the Bush Terminal Docks, Brooklyn</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Electric Tractors and Trailers</i></p> + +<p>Another district along the water front of Brooklyn where coffee is +discharged in large quantities is that between Thirty-third and +Forty-fourth Streets, south Brooklyn, occupied by the Bush Terminal +Stores. This plant is laid out with railroad spurs on every pier, so +that its own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> transfer cars, or the cars of the railroads running out of +New York, can be run into the sheds of the docks where coffee is being +discharged from the ships. The methods employed by the Bush Terminal are +similar to those just described, except that all the coffee is handled +by electrically-manipulated cars or trucks, in some instances the +powerful little tractors hauling many "trailers" to various parts of the +yards.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Handling Charges at New York</i></p> + +<p>Before the World War, it cost approximately one-half cent a bag to +handle green coffee from the vessel to warehouse and in storage in New +York. The rate advanced nearly one hundred percent in the latter part of +1919, then dropped slightly, although it is still (1922) above the +pre-war price. Other handling charges are shown in the following +tabulation:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Coffee Handling Charges at New York"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Coffee Handling Charges at New York</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td class='tdlpl1'> </td> + <td align='center'>Pre-war prices<br />Cents per bag<br />(132 lbs.)</td> + <td align='center'>Present prices<br />Cents per bag<br />(132 lbs.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Storage</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>3 to 4</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>5 to 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Labor</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>3 to 4</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>5 to 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sampling for damage</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>1</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Cleaning</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>35</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>20</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dumping and mixing</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>10</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dumping and airing</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>10</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Shoveling and airing</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>10</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Transferring coffee from floor to floor</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>4</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Marking</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>1</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Labor at vessel</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>$9 per M</td> + <td align='center'>$12.50 to $15 per M</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The warehousemen in 1919 charged four cents per bag for loading into +railroad cars. This charge was discontinued in 1921. The cost of +weighing increased from two and one-half cents per bag in 1914 to four +and one-half cents in 1919, and then dropped to the present price of +three to three and one-half cents. Other handling charges at the port of +New York are:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Other Handling Charges, 1922"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Other Handling Charges, 1922</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='center'>Cents per bag<br />(132 lbs.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Drawing samples, each 10 lbs</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>17 to 20</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Grading for variation</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Matching in</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Reducing or evening off slack</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Transferring to new bag</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Trucking to weigher in store</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Collecting and preparing sweepings</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Delivering sample below Canal Street</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>75</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Each additional sample</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>10 to 15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>New bags</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Old bags</td> + <td class='tdlpl25'>6</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Unloading_Coffee_with_Modern_Conveyor" id="Unloading_Coffee_with_Modern_Conveyor"></a> +<img src="images/image273.jpg" width="300" height="341" alt="Unloading Coffee with Modern Conveyor, New Orleans" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Unloading Coffee with Modern Conveyor, New Orleans</span></span> +</div> + +<p>A plan intended to cut down handling costs in New York, and to expedite +deliveries, was inaugurated by the National Coffee Roasters Association +at the beginning of 1920. The Association formed a freight-forwarding +bureau, and invited members to have their coffee shipments handled +through the bureau. The charges for forwarding direct importations are +two cents per bag. Cartage charges vary from six to eighteen cents per +hundred pounds. Claims are handled without charge.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Seven Stages of Transportation</i></p> + +<p>The foregoing story has taken the reader through the seven most direct +routes that lead from the plantation to the roaster: first, from the +patio to the railroad or river; then to the city of export; into the +warehouses there; then into the steamers; out of them, and upon the +wharf at the port of destination; from the wharf into the warehouses; +and, finally, from the warehouses to the roasting rooms. It will be +understood that in some instances where the plantation is hidden away in +the mountains, it is necessary to relay the coffee; and again, at this +end, the coffee is very often transhipped. In such cases, more handlings +are required.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE-HANDLING_NEW_ORLEANS_PIERS" id="COFFEE-HANDLING_NEW_ORLEANS_PIERS"></a> +<img src="images/image274.jpg" width="500" height="308" alt="Unloading a Coffee Ship by Block and Tackle at the Port of New Orleans" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Unloading a Coffee Ship by Block and Tackle at the Port of New Orleans</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image275.jpg" width="500" height="303" alt="In Foreground—Loading Coffee by Means of an Automatic Traveling-Belt Conveyor, on Government Barges for St. Louis" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">In Foreground—Loading Coffee by Means of an Automatic Traveling-Belt Conveyor, on Government Barges for St. Louis</span><br /> +COFFEE-HANDLING SCENES ON THE WHARVES AT NEW ORLEANS</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Handling Coffee at New Orleans</i></p> + +<p>Coffee ships are unloaded in New Orleans, the second coffee port in the +United States, in about the same general manner as in New York, with the +important exception that the block-and-tackle system for transferring +the bags from the ship to the dock has been largely supplanted by the +automatic traveling-belt conveyor system. Another notable feature is New +Orleans' steel-roofed piers, whereon the coffee can be stored until +ready for shipment to the interior. Because of the class of +labor—mostly negro—employed in unloading ships, New Orleans has found +it expedient to retain the old flag system to indicate the part of the +pier where each mark of coffee is to be piled as taken from the vessel. +These little flags vary in shape, color and printed pattern, each +representing a particular lot of coffee, and they are firmly fixed at +the part of the pier where those bags should be stacked. Trained +checkers read the marks on the bags as the laborers carry them past, and +tell the carrier where the bag should be placed. To the illiterate +laborers the checker's cries of "blue check," "green ball," "red heart," +"black hand," and the like, are more understandable than such +indications as letters or numbers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="Coffee_In_Steel-Covered_Sheds_New_Orleans" id="Coffee_In_Steel-Covered_Sheds_New_Orleans"></a> +<img src="images/image276.jpg" width="500" height="285" alt="Showing How Coffee Is Stored Under Steel-Covered Sheds at New Orleans" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Showing How Coffee Is Stored Under Steel-Covered Sheds at New Orleans</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Handling Coffee at San Francisco</i></p> + +<p>San Francisco ranks third in the list of United States coffee ports, +having received its greatest development in the four years of the World +War, when the flow of Central American coffees was largely diverted from +Hamburg to the Californian port. In the course of these four years, the +annual volume of coffee imports increased from some 380,000 bags to more +than 1,000,000 bags in 1918. The bulk of these importations came from +Central America, though some came from Hawaii, India, and Brazil and +other South American countries. Because of its improved unloading and +distributing facilities, San Francisco claims to be able to handle a +cargo of coffee more rapidly than either New York or New Orleans.</p> + +<p>Handling Central American coffees in San Francisco is distinctly +different from the business in Brazil. In order to secure the Central +American planter's crops, the importers find it necessary to finance his +operations to a large extent. Consequently, the Central American trade +is not a simple matter of buying and selling, but an intricate financial +operation on the part of the San Francisco importers. Practically all +the coffee coming in is either on consignment, or is already sold to +established coffee-importing houses. Brokers do not deal direct with the +exporters; and practically none of the roasters now import direct.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="UNLOADING_AND_STORING_COFFEE_SAN_FRANCISCO" id="UNLOADING_AND_STORING_COFFEE_SAN_FRANCISCO"></a> +<img src="images/image277.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="Discharging Coffee From a Steamer Just Arrived From Central America" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Discharging Coffee From a Steamer Just Arrived From Central America</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image278.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="How a Large Cargo of Coffee Is Handled on the Pier As It Is Unloaded From the Ship" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">How a Large Cargo of Coffee Is Handled on the Pier As It Is Unloaded From the Ship</span><br /> +UNLOADING AND STORING COFFEE AT SAN FRANCISCO</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p><p>In recent years San Francisco has adopted the practise of buying a +large part of her coffee on the "to arrive" basis; that is the purchase +has been made before the coffee is shipped from the producing country, +or while in transit. This practise applies, of course, only to well +known marks and standard grades. Coffee that has not been sold before +arrival in San Francisco is generally sampled on the docks during +unloading, although this is sometimes postponed until the consignment is +in the warehouse. It is then graded and priced, and is offered for sale +by samples through brokers.</p> + +<p>San Francisco is better equipped with modern unloading machinery and +other apparatus than either New Orleans or New York, even more liberal +use being made there than in New Orleans of the automatic-belt conveyors +both for transferring the bags from the ships to the docks and for +stacking them in high tiers on the pier. Another notable feature of the +modern coffee docks is that the newer ones are of steel and concrete +and, as in New Orleans, are covered to protect the coffee from wind and +storm.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Europe's Great Coffee Markets</i></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Modern_Device_for_Handling_Green_Coffee" id="Modern_Device_for_Handling_Green_Coffee"></a> +<img src="images/image279.jpg" width="300" height="394" alt="One of the Modern Devices Used in San Francisco for Handling Green Coffee" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">One of the Modern Devices Used in San Francisco for Handling Green Coffee</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Europe has three great coffee-trading markets—Havre, Hamburg, and +Antwerp. Rotterdam and Amsterdam are also important coffee centers, but +rank far below the others named. In point of volume of stocks, Havre led +the world before the war; while in respect to commercial transactions, +it ranked second, with New York first. In pre-war days, the largest part +of the world's visible supply of coffee was stored in the Havre bonded +warehouses, being available for shipment to any part of Europe on short +notice, or even to the United States in emergencies. Even during the +World War, this French port remained a powerful factor in international +coffee trading. Coffee trading in Havre, both exchange and "spot" +transactions, follows about the same general lines as in New York and +the other great coffee markets. Coffee "futures" are dealt in on the +Havre Bourse.</p> + +<p>Green coffee is sold in London by auction in Mincing Lane. On arrival, +it is stored in bonded warehouses, and is released for domestic use only +when customs duty at the rate of four and one-half pence per pound has +been paid. The bulk of the coffee comes in parchment on consignment; and +before sale, it must be hulled and sorted in the milling establishments, +most of which are on the banks of the Thames.</p> + +<p>The auctions are held four times a week, usually on Tuesday, Wednesday, +Thursday, and Friday. The sales are advertised in the market +papers—chief among which is the <i>Public Ledger</i>—and also by the +auctioneers, who issue catalogs of their offerings. A few hours before +the beginning of the sale, samples are laid out for inspection by +prospective buyers, who may cup-test them if they desire. The actual +selling is done by competitive cash bidding, the highest bidder becoming +the owner. Two classes of brokers do the bidding, one for home trade and +the other for exporters.</p> + +<p>Home trade takes about a tenth of the coffee, the remainder being sold +for export. If the coffee is bought for re-export, it can be transferred +to the shipping port, still in bond, and shipped out of the country +without paying duty. During the World War, auctions were held about +twice a week; but after the signing of the armistice in November 1918, +the London traders resumed the four times a week practise.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="HANDLING_GREEN_COFFEE_AT_EUROPEAN_PORTS" id="HANDLING_GREEN_COFFEE_AT_EUROPEAN_PORTS"></a> +<img src="images/image280.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="Coffee Auction Samples on Display at Amsterdam" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Auction Samples on Display at Amsterdam</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image281.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="Green Coffee Stored on the Docks at Havre, France" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Green Coffee Stored on the Docks at Havre, France</span><br /> +HANDLING GREEN COFFEE AT TWO EUROPEAN PORTS</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 425px;"><a name="New_York_Coffee_and_Sugar_Exchange" id="New_York_Coffee_and_Sugar_Exchange"></a> +<img src="images/image282.jpg" width="300" height="794" alt="New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The building fronts on Hanover Square and extends through to Beaver +Street. The exchange rooms are indicated by the arched windows on the +second floor. The rest of the building is devoted to offices. The +exchange was founded in 1881, and was the first national coffee trading +organization in the world.</small></p> +</div> + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Exchanges and Trading Methods</i></p> + +<p>Green-coffee buyers in the large importing centers of the United States +and Europe recognize two distinct markets in their operations. One of +these is called the "spot" market; because the importers, brokers, +jobbers, and roasters trading there deal in actual coffee in warehouses +in the consuming country. In New York the spot market is located in the +district of lower Wall Street, which includes a block or two each side +on Front and Water Streets. Here, coffee importers, coffee roasters, +coffee dealers, and coffee brokers conduct their "street" sales.</p> + +<p>The other market is designated as the "futures" market; and the trading +is not concerned with actual coffee, but with the purchase or sale of +contracts for future delivery of coffee that may still be on the trees +in the producing country. Futures, or "options" as they are frequently +called, are dealt in only on a coffee exchange. The principal exchanges +are in New York, Havre, and Hamburg. New Orleans and San Francisco +exchange dealers trade on their local boards of trade.</p> + +<p>Coffee-exchange contracts are dealt in just like stocks and bonds. They +are settled by the payment of the difference, or "margin"; and the +option of delivering actual coffee is seldom exercised. Generally, the +operations are either in the nature of ordinary speculation on margin or +for the legitimate purpose of effecting "hedges" against holdings or +short sales of actual coffees.</p> + +<p>The New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange—the most important in the world, +because of the volume of its business—deals in all coffees from North, +South, and Central America, the West Indies and the East Indies (except +those of the Robusta variety) and uses Type No. 7 as the basis for all +Exchange quotations. All other types are judged in relation to it. In +determining the number of a type, the coffee is graded by the number of +imperfections contained in it.</p> + +<p>These imperfections are black beans, broken beans, shells, immature +beans ("quakers"), stones, and pods. For counting the imperfections, the +black bean has been taken as the basis unit, and all imperfections, no +matter what they may be, are calculated in terms of black beans, +according<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> to a scale, which is practically as follows:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Black-Bean Scale"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Black-Bean Scale</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'>3 shells equal</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='center'>black</td> + <td align='center'>bean</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>5 "quakers" equal</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>5 broken beans equal</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1 pod equals</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1 medium size stone equals</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>2 small stones equal</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1 large stone equals</td> + <td align='right'>2 to 3</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Coffee_Section_Coffee_and_Sugar_Exchange" id="Coffee_Section_Coffee_and_Sugar_Exchange"></a> +<img src="images/image283.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt="The Coffee Pit in the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Coffee Pit in the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange</span></span> +</div> + +<p>By this scale a coffee containing no imperfections would be classified +as Type No. 1. The test is made on one-pound samples. If a sample shows +six black beans, or equivalent imperfections, it is graded as No. 2; if +thirteen black beans, as No. 3; if twenty-nine black beans, as No. 4; if +sixty black beans, as No. 5; if one hundred and ten black beans, as No. +6, and if more than one hundred and ten black beans, as No. 7 or No. 8. +These two are graded by comparison with recognized exchange types. +Coffees grading lower than No. 8 are not admissible to this country.</p> + +<p>The quotation relationship of other types with the basic Rio No. 7 is +shown in the table below.</p> + +<p>By this scale one can determine that when Rio No. 7 is quoted at 17.10, +Rio No. 2 is 18.60, Santos No. 3, 19.10, and Bogota No. 5, 18.10. The +quotations are on the pound and cents basis.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="SCALE OF QUOTATION RELATIONSHIP"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'>SCALE OF QUOTATION RELATIONSHIP</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Brazilian Coffee—Not Santos</span></td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Santos Coffee</span></td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Other Kinds—Not Brazilian</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Type</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Type</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>Type</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 1—180 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 1—260 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 1—300 points above</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 2—150 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 2—230 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 2—250 points above</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 3—120 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 3—200 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 3—200 points above</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 4— 90 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 4—150 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 4—150 points above</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 5— 60 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 5—100 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 5—100 points above</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 6— 30 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 6— 50 points above</td> + <td align='left'>No. 6— 50 points above</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 7—Basis</td> + <td align='left'>No. 7—Basis</td> + <td align='left'>No. 7—Basis</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>No. 8— 50 points below</td> + <td align='left'>No. 8— 50 points below</td> + <td align='left'>No. 8— 50 points below</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><small>A point is the hundredth part of a cent</small></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In the spot market, a trader may also buy or sell coffee "to arrive"; +that is, a consignment that is aboard ship on the way to the market. +Coffee is shipped to New York<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> either on a consignment basis and sold +for a commission, or it may have been bought in the shipping port and be +already the property of an importer. When shipped on consignment, a +wholesaler usually buys on the in-store contract, which provides that +the purchaser must take delivery at the warehouse, though he is +generally given a month's storage privilege before removal of the +coffee. The practise among New York importers at present is to buy +coffee on either the basis of F.O.B. delivery steamer at loading port, +or delivery C. & F. (cost and freight), or C.I.F. (cost, insurance, and +freight), port of destination. Payment is made by letter of credit drawn +on a New York or London bank, entitling the exporter to draw at ninety +days' sight against the shipping documents, so that the shipment will be +in the hands of the purchaser long before the draft is made. Frequently +a jobber acts as his own importer of Brazil coffee, buying direct from +the exporter without utilizing the agency of a broker or a regular +importing firm.</p> + +<p>Brazil coffee is bought with the stipulation that differences between +samples and the coffee actually delivered may be adjusted either on +"Brazil grading," "half difference," or "full difference"; and with the +further provision that, if the delivery is a full type higher or lower +than specified in the contract, the entire shipment may be rejected. +Under the "Brazil grading" provision, the buyer must accept delivery if +the coffee is better than the next lower type, even though not up to the +type ordered; and if the coffee is of a higher type than contracted for, +he need not pay premium for it. In buying on the "half difference" or +"full difference" basis, the buyer is entitled to payment for half the +difference or the full difference, respectively, for any undergrading, +or must pay the seller accordingly if there is any overgrading. When a +buyer specifies special features of description, in addition to type, +some sellers protect themselves against claims for difference on this +score by inserting in the contract a clause to the effect that the +description is given in good faith, but is not guaranteed by the seller.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="BLACKBOARDS_COFFEE_EXCHANGE" id="BLACKBOARDS_COFFEE_EXCHANGE"></a> +<img src="images/image284.jpg" width="500" height="298" alt="TWO OF THE COFFEE EXCHANGE BLACKBOARDS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">TWO OF THE COFFEE EXCHANGE BLACKBOARDS</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The one on the right is a record of transactions in the coffee pit. As +soon as a trade is made, it is noted in the proper column on the lower +part, the entry showing the time of the transaction, the number of +"250-pound bag lots," and the price. The left-hand board gives Santos +and Rio future quotations. For a detailed description of these and other +exchange quotation boards, <a href="#Page_457">see page 457</a></small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>How the New York Exchange Functions</i></p> + +<p>When the New York Coffee Exchange was incorporated in 1881, its charter +stated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> its purposes to be "to provide, regulate and maintain a suitable +building, room or rooms for the purchase and sales of coffees and other +similar grocery articles in the city of New York, to adjust +controversies between members, to inculcate and establish just and +equitable principles in the trade, to establish and maintain uniformity +in its rules, regulations and usages, to adopt standards of +classification, to acquire, preserve and disseminate useful and valuable +business information, and generally to promote the above mentioned trade +in the city of New York, increase its amount, and augment the facilities +with which it may be conducted."</p> + +<p>In the promotion of trade at New York the Exchange has been highly +successful. From time to time it has been criticized; and, more than +once, coffee traders in the East and in the West have raised a question +as to its value to non-speculating members. There are those who believe +it serves a useful purpose, and others who call it a huge pool room. To +say that, on the whole, it is not of benefit to the trade would be +untrue. As one of its champions pointed out in 1914, when it shut down +for a period of four months on account of the World War:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The ability to discount the future is a necessity, and demands the +facilities that a unit of centralization like the Exchange affords. +There is no difference between a purchase of coffee and one of a +future month on options.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The experience gained here and abroad demonstrates that any check +placed upon such dealings is detrimental, with far-reaching effects +upon the whole body of the trade. Unquestionably the Exchange is a +powerful factor as a regulator of extremes in the market.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The experience gained in Germany, where an embargo was placed upon +transactions in futures, is illuminating. The disastrous effects +were so plain that the authorities were forced to abandon their +objections and permit a resumption of the business along the old +lines.</p> + +<p class="quot1">But a good thing can be abused, and the opportunity to gamble in +options availed of by so many is the increment that disturbs the +legitimacy of the market and creates the opposition to the whole +proposition. When the Exchange is ready to insist that every +transaction in futures must be a legitimate one, and that every +trader under its jurisdiction using the facilities of the Exchange +is made to realize that any operations that are purely of a +gambling nature will subject him to severe discipline, then the +Coffee Exchange will begin to stem the tide of an ever-growing +opposition by the general public.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Afloat_Blackboard" id="Coffee_Afloat_Blackboard"></a> +<img src="images/image285.jpg" width="350" height="375" alt="The "Coffee Afloat" Blackboard" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The "Coffee Afloat" Blackboard</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The New York State legislative committee on speculations in securities +and commodities had the following to say on the Coffee Exchange in its +report to Governor Charles E. Hughes in 1909:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">It [the Coffee Exchange] was established in order to supply a daily +market where coffee could be bought and sold and to fix quotations +therefor, in distinction from the former method of alternate glut +and scarcity, with wide variations in price—in short, to create +stability and certainty in trading in an important article of +commerce. This it has accomplished; and it has made New York the +most important primary coffee market in the United States. But +there has been recently introduced a non-commercial factor known as +"valorization," a governmental scheme of Brazil, by which the +public treasury has assumed to purchase and hold a certain +percentage of the coffee grown there, in order to prevent a decline +of the price. This has created abnormal conditions in the coffee +trade.</p> + +<p class="quot1">All transactions must be reported by the seller to the +superintendent of the Exchange, with an exact statement of the time +and terms of delivery. The record shows that the average annual +sales in the past five years have been in excess of 16,000,000 bags +of 130 pounds each.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Contracts may be transferred or offset by voluntary clearings by +groups of members. There is no general clearing system.<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a> There +is a commendable rule providing that, in case of a "corner," the +officials may fix a settlement price for contracts to avoid +disastrous failures.</p></div> + +<p>The original initiation fee was $250. Seats on the Exchange once sold +for as low as $110. In January, 1916, there was a sale at $3,000; in +October, 1916, there was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> a sale for $5,000; in April, 1921, three seats +were sold for $5,500 each; but the record price of $8,600 was paid in +1919. Seats are now (1922) worth about $6,000.</p> + +<p>The Exchange includes in its membership 323 brokers, importers, dealers, +and roasters. Membership is passed upon by a committee on membership; +but any one twenty-one years old, resident or non-resident, of good +character and commercial standing, is eligible when proposed and +seconded by Exchange members. The committee refers the application with +its recommendation to the board of managers, which takes a ballot. The +adverse vote of one-third of all votes cast rejects.</p> + +<p>The Exchange elects annually a president, a vice-president, and a +treasurer, who perform the usual duties of Exchange officers. The real +governing body is the board of managers, consisting of the president, +vice-president, treasurer, and twelve other members. This governing +board, meeting monthly, appoints the necessary subordinate officers and +employees, and fixes their compensation, and may "summon before them any +officer or member for any purpose whatsoever." It appoints the secretary +of the Exchange from among its own number, a superintendent of the +Exchange, and the numerous committees which are in active charge of +specified activities. It also licenses the necessary coffee graders, +warehousemen, weighmasters, and samplers of the Exchange.</p> + +<p>A brief discussion of the duties of the superintendent and the various +committees will help to explain the methods of the Exchange market. The +superintendent, under the direction of the board of managers, has charge +of the details of its work and of that of the various committees. He +keeps all the books and documents of the Exchange; collects and pays +over to the treasurer all moneys due the Exchange not otherwise provided +for; receives, deposits, and pays over all margins on coffee contracts; +has active charge of the Exchange rooms and the bulletin board; and +manages and appoints, with the consent of the board of managers, the +assistants needed to perform the details of the work under his charge.</p> + +<p>One of the functions of the Exchange is to grade and to classify coffee, +in which it takes every possible precaution. The rules provide for eight +standard grades; and only licensed graders are permitted to pass upon +the product handled on the Exchange. There are twenty-five of these +graders; one of whom is appointed as a supervisor of types, to provide +fresh standards and to "maintain them as nearly as possible on an +equality." When these standards are approved by the board and the +Exchange, they remain in force for a year.</p> + +<p>When coffee is received at a licensed warehouse, two official graders +are chosen, one by the buyer and one by the seller. These graders +receive four cents a bag if employed by a member; and eight cents a bag, +if employed by a non-member.</p> + +<p>If the graders disagree, their differences are referred to the board of +coffee arbitrators, consisting of ten experts appointed by the board of +managers. The superintendent selects by lot three of these arbitrators, +who decide on the basis of the samples submitted, but will not make a +decision lowering the grade below that of the lowest submitted nor +higher than the highest. If the disputants do not change the grading to +come within the arbitrators' findings, the samples are sent to the +entire board of arbitrators, exclusive of those who may have been the +original graders, and final decision is made by majority vote. As soon +as the coffee is graded, a certificate is issued stating the grades, and +bearing the signatures of the superintendent and graders. This +certificate is conclusive evidence of the grade as far as the parties +involved are concerned, for the subsequent twelve months. The buyer +receives the original, and the seller a duplicate.</p> + +<p>The rules provide that weights decided upon at the initial delivery are +good during the life of the grading certificate for re-delivery, with +definite allowances to the receiver, on re-delivery, of a quarter of a +pound a bag a month, instead of having to re-weigh and re-sample for +every separate delivery, as formerly.</p> + +<p>As claims and trade controversies occasionally arise, the Exchange has +provided means for their peaceful settlement. The board of managers +elects annually an arbitration committee of five members, who swear to +decide disputes fairly. This is the only committee on the Exchange that +has power to adjudicate disputes between members and non-members; and +its services must be sought by the disputants, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> must agree to abide +by its decision. An adjudication committee of seven is annually chosen +from the membership by the managers, to adjust all claims and +controversies between members arising out of any merchandise +transaction, "if notice in writing of such claim or controversy, and of +the intention to demand an adjudication thereon, be served by either +party thereto within ten days from the ascertainment thereof."</p> + +<p>Within three days of the serving of this notice, each disputant selects +an Exchange member as his adjudicator; and these two name the third, who +must be a member of the adjudicating committee. Even this decision may +be appealed to the board of managers, which, if it finds the grounds of +appeal good (as decided by majority vote), appoints an appeal committee +of five, of whom three must be members of the board. This last +committee's decision is final. No new testimony bearing on the case may +be introduced after the case has been closed by the adjudicators. +Arbitration is voluntary with both parties; while adjudication is +compulsory upon the application of either.</p> + +<p>Another committee of trade importance is the spot quotation committee of +five Exchange members. Each day at two o'clock, except on Saturday, when +it meets at 11:45, this committee by a majority vote establishes the +official daily market quotation of No. 7 coffee. There is likewise a +committee on quotations of futures. This committee of five meets daily +"immediately after the first call and at the close of the Exchange and +reports to the superintendent the tone and price of the contract market, +to be posted on the blackboard and transmitted to other Exchanges and +commercial bodies."</p> + +<p>A committee of five on trade and statistics has the important function +of reporting to the board as to regulations for the "purchase, sale, +transportation and custody of merchandise," and it attempts to establish +uniformity in such matters between different markets. It has charge also +of "all matters pertaining to the supply of newspapers, market reports, +telegraphic and statistical information for the use of the Exchange. In +the early 80's the Exchange abolished the old method of keeping coffee +statistics, and the basis then adopted has since been accepted by all +the large coffee markets of the world."</p> + +<p>The minimum rates of commission on coffee "per contract of 250 bags, for +members of the Exchange residing in the United States, are based upon a +price" as follows, quoting from the Exchange bylaws adopted June 8, +1920:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Coffee Exchange Commission Rates"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><span class="smcap">Coffee Exchange Commission Rates</span><br /> + (Per contract of 250 bags)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='center'>Commission<br />for buying<br />or selling</td> + <td align='center'>Floor<br />brokerage<br />for buying<br />or selling</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Below 10 cents</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>$6.25</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>$1.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10 cents up to 19.99 cents</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>7.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>1.75</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>20 cents and above</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>10.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr2'>2.00</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">For non-members residing within the United States, double the above +rates of commission shall be charged.</p> + +<p class="quot1">For members and non-members residing outside of the United States a +commission of $2.50 shall be charged in addition to the above +rates.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Whenever before thirty minutes after the close of the exchange a +member gives to another member for clearance purchases and sales of +contracts corresponding in all respects except as to price, made +during the day by himself or for his account <i>when present on the +floor</i> of the Exchange, a charge for each contract shall be made +equal to the corresponding floor brokerage rate for buying and +selling, in addition to any floor brokerage incurred.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Members procuring business for other members may, by agreement, be +entitled to one-half the commission rates for non-members +prescribed in this Section, less the corresponding brokerage +charge, whether paid or not.</p> + +<p class="quot1">When a transferable notice is given or received by a customer in +fulfillment of a contract the brokerage in that case shall be not +less than one-half of the corresponding buying or selling +commission prescribed in Section 103.</p></div> + +<p>Other committees are the finance committee (two) to audit bills and +claims against the Exchange, to direct deposits and investments, and to +audit the monthly and yearly accounts of the treasurer; a law committee +(three), to deal with matters of legislation; a membership and floor +committee (five); and a nominating committee (five). Organized as above +outlined, and with a well established code of trade rules, the Exchange +annually transacts a large number of sales in a business-like way.</p> + +<p>There is considerable trading in future contracts; and a standard form +has been adopted by the Exchange. No future contracts are valid unless +they are made in the following form:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Brazilian Coffee—Not Santos</span></p> +<p class="quot1"> +<span style="margin-left: 7.5em;">Office of _____________</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 6em;">New York__________ 19__</span><br /> +Sold for M_______________________<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">To M_______________________</span><br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">Thirty-two thousand five hundred pounds in about 250 bags coffee, +growth of North, South<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> or Central America, West Indies or East +Indies, excepting coffee known as "Robusta," and also any coffee of +new or unknown growth, deliverable from licensed warehouse in the +port of New York, between the first and last days of ________ next, +inclusive. The delivery within such time to be at seller's option, +upon a notice to buyer of either five, six or seven days, as may be +prescribed by the trade rules. The coffee to be of any grade, from +No. 8 to No. 1 inclusive (no coffee to grade below No. 8) provided +the average grade of Brazilian coffees shall not be above No. 3. +Nothing in this contract, however, shall be construed as +prohibiting a delivery averaging above No. 3 at the No. 3 grade. At +the rate of __________ cents per pound for No. 7, with additions or +deductions for other grades according to the rates of the New York +Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc., existing on the afternoon of the +day previous to the date of the notice of delivery. Either party to +have the right to call for margins as the variations of the market +for like deliveries may warrant, which margins shall be kept good.</p> + +<p class="quot1">This contract is made in view of, and in all respect subject to the +rules and conditions established by the New York Coffee and Sugar +Exchange, Inc., and in full accordance with section 102 of the +bylaws.</p> + +<p class="quot1"> +_____________________________</p> +<p class="quot1">Brokers + +</p></div> + +<p>Across the face is the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">For and in consideration of one dollar to __________________ in +hand paid, receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, ______________ +accept this contract with all its obligations and conditions.</p></div> + +<p class="quot1">All deliveries on such future contracts must be made from licensed +warehouses. There is a separate "to arrive contract"; but this likewise +requires delivery at a licensed warehouse, unless the buyer and the +seller have a mutual understanding to deliver the coffee from dock or +ex-ship. Margins to protect the contract may be called for by either +party. The largest deposit for margins was made in 1904, when +$22,661,710 was deposited with the superintendent as required by the +Exchange rules.</p> + +<p>The basic grade in a future sale is No. 7; but variations are provided +as follows: 30 points for Rio, Victoria, and Bahia of all grades between +7 and 1, and of 50 points between 7 and 8; 50 points is allowed on +Santos and all other coffees except between grades 1 and 2 and 2 and 3 +Santos, which are allowed 30 points. Thus the buyer and the seller when +entering upon a transaction know exactly what the difference will be +between the standard No. 7 and the coffee that can be delivered. The +right to deliver any grade in a future transaction has done much to +lessen the probability of corners in coffee; but this protection is +further given by the stringent rule that the maximum fluctuations on the +Exchange can be only two cents a pound on coffee in one day and one cent +on sugar. If greater changes should threaten, the Exchange operations +would automatically cease.</p> + +<p>False or fictitious sales are prohibited, and all contracts must be +reported to the superintendent. All contracts are binding and call for +actual delivery.</p> + +<p>The future contract, besides being used for the delivery of coffee +during stated months in the future at a given price, is also used for +hedging purposes. As in the grain and cotton markets, dealers protect +themselves against price fluctuations by hedging in the future market. +Importers, for instance, when purchasing coffee abroad, frequently sell +an equal amount for future delivery on the Exchange. When the time for +delivery arrives, it is simply a question of calculation of the market +conditions whether it is more advantageous to repurchase the sales made +as a hedge, or as a kind of insurance to protect themselves against +loss, and free the coffee so engaged, or to make delivery of the coffee +as it comes in.</p> + +<p>The board of managers has power to close the Exchange or to suspend +trading on such days or parts of days as would in their judgment be for +the Exchange's best interest.</p> + +<p>The Clearing Association is a recent outgrowth of the Exchange, and is +composed exclusively of Exchange members. Every member has to bring his +contracts up to market closing every night, either by making a deposit +with the Association to cover his balances, or by withdrawing in case he +should be over. Members deposit $15,000 at the time of joining as a +guaranty fund; and if the surplus is not sufficient to take care of +balances, the bylaws provide for the levying of assessments.</p> + +<p>The daily quotations on the coffee exchanges of New York, Havre, and +(before the war) of Hamburg, determined to a large extent the price of +green coffee the world over. The prices prevailing on the New York +Coffee and Sugar Exchange are studied by coffee traders in all +countries, the fluctuations being reflected in foreign markets as the +reports come from the United States. Quotations are cabled from one +great market to another; and as each must heed those of the others to +some extent, the coffee trade thus obtains a world<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> price, and the +effect on supply and demand is universal rather than local, as would be +the case if quotations were not exchanged.</p> + +<p>In 1921 the Exchange adopted an amendment to the trade rules, and +abolished the one day transferable notice for both coffee and sugar.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Foreign Coffee Quotations</i></p> + +<p>Brazil coffee cable quotations are the market prices, in Rio or Santos, +of ten kilograms of coffee, the price being stated in milreis, the +monetary unit of Brazil money. The basic grade of coffee at Rio is the +No. 7 of the New York Coffee Exchange; and at Santos, the international +standard of good average ("g. a.") Santos. One kilogram (often written +kilo, or abbreviated to K.) is equal to two and one-fifth pounds; and +the ten-kilogram standard of quantity is, therefore, equivalent to +twenty-two pounds, or just one-sixth of a standard Brazil bag.</p> + +<p>The money value is not so simple, since Brazilian paper currency is +unstable; and the milreis quotation means nothing unless it is +considered in connection with the rate of exchange for the same day, +i.e., the current gold value of the milreis. This gold value is always +given with the daily quotations from Brazil, and is expressed in British +pence. The par value of the milreis (1000 reis) is 54.6 cents (gold) of +United States money; but its present actual value is only about 15 +cents, and it has been as low as 11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> cents. Our dollar sign is used +to denote milreis, placing it after the whole number, and before the +fractional part expressed in one-thousandths. Thus, 8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> milreis would +be written 8$250 RS.</p> + +<p>Suppose, for example, a Rio quotation is given at 8$400, with exchange +at 7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> d. This means that 22 pounds of coffee have a gold value of 63 +British pence (8.4 × 7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> = 63.0), or <span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">3</span>, as the Englishman would +write it, which is equal to $1.27<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>, making the coffee worth 5.8 cents +per pound. Of course the person familiar with Brazil quotations will not +need to make this reduction to the pound-cent term in order to +understand the figures. They will have a proper relative meaning to him +in their original form; and it must not be overlooked that it is in this +form only that they express correctly the value of the coffee in Brazil. +It may make a great difference to the Brazilian planter or exporter +whether an increased gold value of his coffee arises through a higher +milreis bid or an appreciated exchange, simply on account of local +currency considerations. That is to say, the purchasing power of a +milreis in Brazil will not necessarily vary exactly as the rate of +exchange on London.</p> + +<p>London quotations are made in shillings and pence, on one hundred-weight +(cwt) of coffee. This "cwt" is not 100 pounds but 112 pounds, one +twentieth of the English ton (our long ton) of 2,240 pounds. And in all +English coffee statistics the coffee quantities are expressed in this +ton. A London quotation of 30/9 (30 shillings and 9 pence) for example, +is equivalent to $7.44 for 112 pounds of coffee, or 6.64 cents per pound +at the normal rate of exchange, $4.80 to $4.86 the pound sterling.</p> + +<p>At Havre, the coffee price is given in francs, on a quantity of 50 +kilograms. This is 110 pounds and almost as much, therefore, as the +British cwt. In normal times the franc is equal to 19.3 cents. A French +quotation of 37<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>, for instance, means, therefore, $7.19 for 110 +pounds of coffee, or 6.53 cents per pound.</p> + +<p>The Hamburg quotation (formerly from Brazil per fifty kilos) is made on +one pound German, equal to <span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> kilogram, and is expressed in pfennigs. +One pfennig is one-hundredth of a mark, and the mark once was equal to +23.8 cents. A German quotation of, say, 31, means, therefore, 7.38 cents +(31 × .238 = 7.378) for 1.1 pounds, or 6.71 cents per pound.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Three Kinds of Brokers</i></p> + +<p>In the coffee trade there are three kinds of brokers—floor, spot, and +cost and freight.</p> + +<p>Floor brokers are those who buy and sell options on the Coffee Exchange +for a fixed consideration per lot of 250 bags. The coffee commission +rate put into effect June 8, 1920, for round term (buying and selling) +by the New York Coffee Exchange was as follows:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Commission Rate on 250 Bags"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'><span class="smcap">Commission Rate on 250 Bags</span><br /> + (For Round Term—Buying and Selling)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'>Up to 9.99c<br />per lb.</td> + <td align='center'>10c to 19.99c<br />per lb.</td> + <td align='center'>20c & up<br />per lb.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Members</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>$12.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>$15.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>$20.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Non-members</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>25.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>30.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>40.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Foreign members</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>17.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>20.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>25.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Foreign non-members</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>30.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>35.00</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>45.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Floor brokerage—Buying or selling</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.50</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1.75</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2.00</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There is at present (1922) a stamp tax of two cents on each hundred +dollars value, or fraction thereof, figured on each separate lot.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="TYPICAL_COFFEE_SCENES_IN_COSTA_RICA" id="TYPICAL_COFFEE_SCENES_IN_COSTA_RICA"></a> +<img src="images/plate12a.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="Sun-Curing the Washed Green Beans on Cement Drying Patios" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sun-Curing the Washed Green Beans on Cement Drying Patios</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate12b.jpg" width="500" height="298" alt="Near View of Heavily Laden Trees Ready for the Pickers" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Near View of Heavily Laden Trees Ready for the Pickers</span><br /> +TYPICAL COFFEE SCENES IN COSTA RICA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span></p><p>Spot brokers are those who deal in actual coffee, selling from jobber +to jobber, or representing out-of-town houses; the seller paying a +commission of about fifteen cents a bag in small lots, and half of one +percent in large lots.</p> + +<p>Cost and freight brokers represent Brazilian accounts, and generally +receive a brokerage of one and one-quarter percent. On out-of-town +business, they usually split the commission with the out-of-town or +"local" brokers. The out-of-town brokers sometimes, however, deal direct +with the importer. All brokers except floor brokers are sometimes called +"street brokers." Most of the large New York, New Orleans, and San +Francisco brokerage houses also do a commission business, handling one +or more Brazilian or other coffee-producing-country accounts.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Important Rulings Affecting Coffee Trading</i></p> + +<p>The United States have no coffee law as they have a tea law—prescribing +"purity, quality and fitness for consumption"—but buyers and sellers of +green coffees are required to observe certain well defined federal rules +and regulations relating specifically to coffee. Up to the year 1906, +when the Pure Food and Drugs Act became law, the green coffee trade was +practically unhampered; and several irregularities developed, calling +into existence federal laws that were designed to protect the consumer +against trade abuses, and at the same time to raise the standards of +coffee trading.</p> + +<p>Under these regulations it is illegal to import into this country a +coffee that grades below a No. 8 Exchange type, which generally contains +a large proportion of sour or damaged beans, known in the trade as +"black jack," or damaged coffee, as found in "skimmings." "Black jack" +is a term applied to coffee that has turned black during the process of +curing, or in the hold of a ship during transportation; or it may be due +to a blighting disease.</p> + +<p>Another ruling is intended to prevent the sale of artificially "sweated" +coffee, which has been submitted to a steaming process to give the beans +the extra-brown appearance of high grade East Indian and Mocha coffees +which have been naturally "sweated" in the holds of sailing vessels +during the long journey to American ports. Up to the time that the Pure +Food and Drugs Act went into effect, artificial "sweating" was resorted +to by some coffee firms; and out of that practise grew a suit<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> that +resulted in a federal court decision sustaining the Pure Food Act, and +classifying the practise as adulteration and misbranding.</p> + +<p>The Act also is intended to prevent the sale of coffees under trade +names that do not properly belong to them. For example, only coffees +grown on the island of Java can properly be labeled and sold as Javas; +coffees from Sumatra, Timor, etc., must be sold under their respective +names. Food Inspection Decision No. 82, which limited the use of the +term Java to coffee grown on the island of Java, was sustained in a +service and regulatory announcement issued in January, 1916. Likewise +the name Mocha may be used only for coffees of Arabia. Before the +pure-food law was enacted, it was frequently the custom to mix Bourbon +Santos with Mocha and to sell the blend as Mocha. Also, Abyssinian +coffees were generally known in the trade as Longberry Mocha, or just +straight Mocha; and Sumatra growths were practically always sold as +Javas. Traders used the names of Mocha and Java because of the high +value placed upon these coffees by consumers, who, before Brazil +dominated the market, had practically no other names for coffee.</p> + +<p>One of the most celebrated coffee cases under the Pure Food Act was +tried in Chicago, February, 1912. The question was, whether in view of +the long-standing trade custom, it was still proper to call an +Abyssinian coffee (Longberry Mocha) Mocha. The defendant was charged +with misbranding, because he sold as Java and Mocha a coffee containing +Abyssinian coffee. The court decided that the product should be called +Abyssinian Mocha;<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> but since then, general acceptance has obtained +of the government's viewpoint as expressed in F.I.D. No. 91, which was +that only coffee grown in the province of Yemen in Arabia could properly +be known as Mocha coffee.</p> + +<p>Another important ruling, concerning coffee buyers and sellers, +prohibits the importation of green coffees coated with lead chromate, +Prussian blue, and other substances, to give the beans a more stylish +appearance than they have normally. Such "polished" coffees find great +favor in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> European markets, but are now denied admittance here.</p> + +<p>The Board of Food and Drug Inspection decided in 1910 against a trade +custom that had prevailed until then of calling Minãs coffee Santos when +shipped through Santos, instead of Rio.<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a></p> + +<p>For years a practise obtained of rebagging certain Central American +growths in New York. In this way Bucaramangas frequently were +transformed into Bogotas, Rios became Santos, Bahias and Victorias were +sold as Rios, and the misbranding of peaberry was quite common. A +celebrated case grew out of an attempt by a New York coffee importer and +broker to continue one of these practises after the Pure Food Act made +it a criminal offense. The defendants, who were found guilty of +conspiracy, and who were fined three thousand dollars each, mixed, +re-packed and sold under the name P.A.L. Bogota, a well known Colombian +mark, eighty-four bags of washed Caracas coffee.<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a></p> + +<p>After an exchange of views with the United States Board of Food and Drug +Inspection, the New York Coffee Exchange decided that, after June 1, +1912, it would abolish all grades of coffee under the Exchange type No. +8.</p> + +<p>The practise in Holland of grading Santos coffees—by selecting beans +most like Java beans, and polishing and coloring them to add +verisimilitude—known as "manipulated Java," became such a nuisance in +1912 that United States consuls refused to certify invoices to the +United States unless accompanied by a declaration that the produce was +"pure Java, neither mixed with other kinds nor counterfeited."</p> + +<p>The United States Bureau of Chemistry ruled in February, 1921, that +<i>Coffea robusta</i> could not be sold as Java coffee, or under any form of +labeling which tended either directly or indirectly to create the +impression that it was <i>Coffea arabica</i>, so long and favorably known as +Java coffee. This was in line with the Department of Agriculture's +previous definition that coffee was the seed of the <i>Coffea arabica</i> or +<i>Coffea liberica</i>, and that Java coffee was <i>Coffea arabica</i> from Java. +<i>Coffea robusta</i> was barred from deliveries on the New York Coffee +Exchange in 1912.</p> + +<p>During the greater part of the year 1918, the United States government +assumed virtually full control of coffee trading. It was a war-time +measure, and was intended to prevent speculation in coffee contracts and +freight rates, to cut down the number of vessels carrying coffee to this +country so as to provide more ships for transporting food and soldiers +to Europe, and to put the coffee merchants on rations during the stress +of war. On February 4, 1918, importers and dealers were placed under +license; and two days later, rules were issued through the Food +Administration fixing the maximum price for coffee for the spot month in +the "futures" markets at eight and a half cents, prohibiting dealers +from taking more than normal pre-war profits, or holding supplies in +excess of ninety days' requirements, and greatly limiting resales. On +May 8, the United States Shipping Board fixed the "official" freight +rate from Rio de Janeiro to New York at one dollar and fifty cents per +bag, which, without control, had risen to as high as four dollars and +more, as compared with the ordinary rate of thirty-five cents before the +war. On January 12, 1919, two months after the armistice was signed, the +rules were withdrawn, and the coffee trade was left to carry on its +business under its own direction.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Well Known Green Coffee Marks</i></p> + +<p>Practically every bag of good quality green coffee is imprinted with a +brand which indicates by whom it was shipped. These imprints are known +in the trade as "green coffee marks." Many of them, through long usage, +have become celebrated in international trade. One of the most famous +was HLOG. This stood for "Heaven's Light Our Guide," and was owned by +John O'Donohue's Sons. For many years it was used on Mocha coffee, but +it is now out of existence. Other well-known Mocha marks are M R +(Maurice Ries) with the figure of a camel, a star, or deer's head +between the letters; L F or L B (Livierato Frères); C F or C B +(Caracanda Frères).</p> + +<p>Bogota marks includes PAL (in triangle) Bogota (P.A. Lopez & Co.); +Camelia; Pinzon & Co.; Salazar; AOL (in triangle) Bogota; and Carmencita +Manizales Excelso (Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.).</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="WELL_KNOWN_GREEN-COFFEE_MARKS" id="WELL_KNOWN_GREEN-COFFEE_MARKS"></a> +<img src="images/image286.jpg" width="500" height="714" alt="SOME WELL KNOWN GREEN-COFFEE MARKS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SOME WELL KNOWN GREEN-COFFEE MARKS</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p><p>Among the best known Medellin marks are FAC & H (F.A. Correa & Sons): +PEC & C (Pedro Estrado Co.); LMT & C (Louis M. Torro & Co.); A & C (A. +Angel & Co.); E C S Medellin Excelso (Eppens, Smith Co.); Balzacbro +Medellin Excelso (Balzac Bros.); La Rambla (Banco Lopez); and Don Carlos +Medellin Excelso (Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.).</p> + +<p>Caracas marks show J P P & H (Juan Pablo Perez & Sons); HLB & C (H.L. +Boulton & Co.); FST & C (Filipe S. Toledo & Co.); JLG (J.L. Garrondona); +and many others. Kolster (Kolster & Co.) is a well known Puerto Cabello +mark.</p> + +<p>Maracaibos bear numerous marks, chief among which are: M & C (Menda & +Co.); Cogollo (Cogollo & Co.); Fossi (Fossi & Co.); B M & C (Breur. +Moller & Co.); B & C (Blohm & Co.); FST & C (Filipe S. Toledo & Co.); V +D R & C (Van Dessel, Rodo & Co.); and J E C & C over R G E (J.E. Carret +& Co.).</p> + +<p>A prominent Mexican mark is P A N (Rafael del Castillo & Co.).</p> + +<p>Brazil coffee is usually marked merely with the initials of the firm or +bank financing the shipment. Some representative Brazilian marks are: +Aronco (in rectangle) Brazil; J A & Co (in rectangle) Brazil Rosebud; J +A & Co (in rectangle) Brazil Bourbona—all used by J. Aron & Company; S +S C (in circle) Rio; S S C (in triangle) Santos; both used by +Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.; Sions M/M Bourbns (Sion & Co.); and +Nossack V S S C (in swastika), used by Nossack & Co.</p> + +<p>There are hundreds of other marks. In most countries they change so +often that one rarely stands out above the rest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXIV" id="Chapter_XXIV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXIV</span></h2> + +<h3>GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the +leading coffees of commerce, with a "Complete Reference Table of +the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World"—Appearance, +aroma, and flavor in cup-testing—How experts test coffee—A +typical sample-roasting and cup-testing outfit</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">M</span><span class="caps">ore</span> than a hundred different kinds of coffee are bought and sold in the +United States. All of them belong to the same botanical genus, and +practically all to the same species, the <i>Coffea arabica</i>; but each has +distinguishing characteristics which determine its commercial value in +the eyes of the importers, roasters, and distributers.</p> + +<p>The American trade deals almost exclusively in <i>Coffea arabica</i>, +although in the latter years of the World War increasing quantities of +<i>robusta</i> and <i>liberica</i> growths were imported, largely because of the +scarcity of Brazilian stocks and the improvement in the preparation +methods, especially in the case of <i>robustas</i>. Considerable quantities +of <i>robusta</i> grades were sold in the United States before 1912, but +trading in them fell off when the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange +prohibited their delivery on Exchange contracts after March 1, 1912.</p> + +<p>All coffees used in the United States are divided into two general +groups, Brazils and Milds. Brazils comprise those coffees grown in São +Paulo, Minãs Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Victoria, and other +Brazilian states. The Milds include all coffees grown elsewhere. In 1921 +Brazils made up about three-fourths of the world's total consumption. +They are regarded by American traders as the "price" coffees, while +Milds are considered as the "quality" grades.</p> + +<p>Brazil coffees are classified into four great groups, which bear the +names of the ports through which they are exported; Santos, Rio, +Victoria, and Bahia. Santos coffee is grown principally in the state of +São Paulo; Rio, in the state of Rio de Janeiro and the state of Minãs +Geraes; Victoria, in the state of Espirito Santo; and Bahia in the state +of Bahia. All of these groups are further subdivided according to their +bean characteristics and the districts in which they are produced.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Brazil Coffee Characteristics</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Santos.</span> Santos coffees, considered as a whole, have the distinction of +being the best grown in Brazil. Rios rank next, Victorias coming third +in favor, and Bahias fourth. Of the Santos growths the best is that +known in the trade as Bourbon, produced by trees grown from Mocha seed +(<i>Coffea arabica</i>) brought originally from the French island colony of +Bourbon (now Réunion) in the Indian Ocean. The true Bourbon is obtained +from the first few crops of Mocha seed. After the third or fourth year +of bearing, the fruit gradually changes in form, yielding in the sixth +year the flat-shaped beans which are sold under the trade name of Flat +Bean Santos. By that time, the coffee has lost most of its Bourbon +characteristics. The true Bourbon of the first and second crops is a +small bean, and resembles the Mocha, but makes a much handsomer roast +with fewer "quakers".<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> The Bourbons grown in the Campinas district often +have a red center.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Coffee_Map_of_Brazil" id="Coffee_Map_of_Brazil"></a><a href="images/map3a.jpg"> +<img src="images/map3.jpg" width="600" height="458" alt="Coffee Map of Brazil" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Coffee Map of Brazil</i><br /> +<small><i>Showing the Principal Coffee-Producing States and Shipping Ports</i><br /> +Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>As regards flavor, a good Bourbon Santos is considered the best coffee +for its price, and is the most satisfactory low-cost blending coffee to +be obtained. It is used with practically any of the high-priced coffees +to reduce the cost of the blend. When properly made, this coffee +produces a drink that is smooth and palatable, without tang or special +character, and is suitable to the average taste. When aged, Bourbon +Santos decreases in acidity, and increases somewhat in size of bean.</p> + +<p>The Santos coffee described as Flat Bean usually has a smooth surface, +varying in size from small to large bean, and in color from a pale +yellow to a pale green. The cup has a good and smooth body of neutral +character, and the bean can be used straight or in a blend with +practically any Mild coffee.</p> + +<p>Another Santos growth, known in the trade as Harsh Santos, grows near +the boundary between São Paulo and Minãs Geraes. It often has some of +the Rio characteristics, and commands a lower price than other Santos +coffees.</p> + +<p>Some trade authorities are of the opinion that Santos coffees are an +exception to the rule that most green coffees improve with age. They +argue that careful cup-testing will reveal that a new crop Santos is to +be preferred to an old crop.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rios.</span> Rio coffee is not generally liked in the United States, though in +former years it had some following even in the better trade. The demand +for all grades of Rios has been decreasing, Santos taking their place in +the United States. Rio coffee has a peculiar, rank flavor. It has a +heavy, pungent, and harsh taste which traders do not consider of value +either in straight coffee or in blends. However, its low price +recommends it to some packers, and it is often found in the cheapest +brands of package coffees and also in many compounds. In color, the bean +runs from light green to dark green; but when it is stored for any +length of time—a common practise in the past—the color changes to a +golden yellow; and the coffee is then known as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> golden Rio. The bean +also expands with age.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Bourbon_Santos_Beans_Roasted" id="Bourbon_Santos_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image287.jpg" width="300" height="331" alt="Bourbon Santos Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bourbon Santos Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div> + +<p>All Rio coffee is described by the name Rio; but the American trade +recognizes eight different grades, designated by numerals from one to +eight. These grades are determined by standards adopted by the New York +Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and are classified by the number of +imperfections found in the chops exported. No. 1 Rio contains no +imperfections, such as black beans, shells, stones, broken beans, pods +or immature beans ("quakers"). Such a chop is rarely found. No. 2 has +six imperfections. No. 3 has thirteen. No. 4 has twenty-nine, No. 5 has +sixty, No. 6 has one hundred and ten, No. 7 has two hundred, and No. 8 +has about four hundred, although on the Exchange these last two are +graded by standard types.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Flat_and_Bourbon_Santos_Beans_Roasted" id="Flat_and_Bourbon_Santos_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image288.jpg" width="300" height="295" alt="Flat and Bourbon Santos Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Flat and Bourbon Santos Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Victorias.</span> Up to about the year 1917, Victoria coffees were held in even +less favor by American traders than were Rios. As a rule the bean was +large and punky, of a dark brown or dingy color, and its flavor was +described as muddy. Then, the coffee growers began to introduce modern +machinery for handling the crops, with the result that the character of +the produce has been much improved, and the demand for it has been +steadily growing. Many roasters who formerly used Rios straight for +their lower grades, have changed to Victorias, not only to improve the +appearance of the roast, but to soften the harsh drinking qualities of +the low-grade Rios.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Rio_Beans_Roasted" id="Rio_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image289.jpg" width="300" height="295" alt="Rio Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rio Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bahias.</span> Until recent years Bahia coffee has been decidedly unpopular in +the United States, largely because of its peculiar smoky flavor, due to +drying the coffee by means of wood fires, instead of by the usual sun +method. This practise has been abandoned; Bahia coffee has shown a +marked improvement in quality; and importations into the United States +have increased. The Bahia coffee produced in the Chapada district is +considered to be the best of the group. The bean is light-colored and of +fair size. Other types are Caravella and Nazareth, both of which are +below the standards demanded by the majority of the American trade.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Coffee_Map_of_Satildeo_Paulo_Minatildes_and_Rio" id="Coffee_Map_of_Satildeo_Paulo_Minatildes_and_Rio"></a><a href="images/map4.jpg"> +<img src="images/map4a.jpg" width="600" height="455" alt="Coffee Map of São Paulo, Minãs, and Rio" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Coffee Map of São Paulo, Minãs, and Rio</i></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Maragogipe.</span> This is a variety of <i>Coffea arabica</i> first observed +growing near the town of Maragogipe on All Saints Bay, county of +Maragogipe, Bahia, Brazil, where it is called <i>Coffea indigena</i>. The +green bean is of huge size, and varies in color from green to dingy +brown. It is the largest of all coffee beans, and makes an elephantine +roast, free from quakers, but woody and generally disagreeable in the +cup. However, Dr. P.J.S. Cramer of the Netherlands government's +experimental garden in Bangelan, Java, regards it very highly, referring +to it as "the finest coffee known", and as having "a highly developed, +splendid flavor." This coffee is now found in practically all the +producing countries, and shows the characteristics of the other coffees +produced in the same soil.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Characteristics of Mild Coffees</i></p> + +<p>Among the Mild coffees there is a much greater variation in +characteristics than is found among the Brazilian growths. This is due +to the differences in climate, altitude, and soil, as well as in the +cultural, processing, storage, and transportation methods employed in +the widely separated countries in which Milds are produced.</p> + +<p>Mild coffees generally have more body, more acidity, and a much finer +aroma than Brazils; and from the standpoint of quality they are far more +desirable in the cup. As a rule they have also better appearance, or +"style", both in the green and in the roast, due to the fact that +greater care is exercised in picking and preparing the higher grades. +Milds are important for blending purposes, most of them possessing +distinctive individual characteristics, which increase their value as +blending coffees.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Not All Coffees Improve with Age</i></p> + +<p>Although it has long been held that green coffee improves with age, and +there is little doubt that this is true in so far as roasting merits are +concerned; the question has been raised among coffee experts as to +whether age improves the drinking qualities of all coffees alike.</p> + +<p>Rio coffees should improve with age, as they are naturally strong and +earthy. Age might be expected to soften and to mellow them and others +having like characteristics. If, however, the coffee is mild in cup +quality in the first instance, then it may be asked if age does not +weaken it so that in time it must become quite insipid. Several years +ago, a New York coffee expert pointed out that this was what happened to +Santos coffees. The new crop, he said, was always a more pleasant and +enjoyable drink than the old crop, because it was a more pronounced mild +coffee in the cup.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mexicans.</span> Considering those coffees grown nearest the American market +first, we come to the coffees of Mexico. All coffees grown in this +republic are known as Mexicans. They are further divided according to +the states and districts in which they are produced, and as to whether +they are prepared according to the wet or the dry method. The types best +known in the American market are Coatepec, Huatusco, Orizaba, Cordoba, +Oaxaca, and Jalapa. The lesser known are the Uruapan, Michoacan, Colima, +Chiapas, Triunfo, Tapachula, Sierra, Tabasco, Tampico, and +Coatzacoalcos. Some of these are rarely seen in the markets of the +United States.</p> + +<p>The coffee most cultivated in Mexico is supposed to have come from Mocha +seed. Of this species is the Oaxaca coffee, which is valued because of +its sharp acidity and excellent flavor, two qualities that make it +desirable for blending. The bean of the Sierra Oaxaca (common unwashed) +is not large, nor is the appearance stylish. The Pluma Oaxaca (washed) +coffee, however, is a fancy bean and good for blending purposes.</p> + +<p>Coatepec coffees are among the finest grown in Mexico, and take rank +with the world's best grades. They are quite acidy, but have a desirable +flavor; and when blended with coffees like Bourbon Santos, make a +satisfactory cup.</p> + +<p>The Orizaba, Huatusco, and Jalapa growths resemble Coatepecs, of which +they are neighbors in the state of Vera Cruz. They are thin in body but +are stylish roasters, and have a good cup qualities. As a class they do +not possess the heavy body and acidity of genuine Coatepecs. Some +Huatuscos are exceptions. Orizaba is superior to Jalapa. Chiapas and +Tapachula coffees are generally more like Guatemalan growths than any +others produced in Mexico, which is natural in view of the proximity of +the districts to the northern boundary of Guatemala. The Sierra, +Tampico, Tabasco, and Coatzacoalcos coffees are uncertain in quality; +mostly they are low grade, some of them frequently possessing a groundy, +flat, or Rioy flavor.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Mild_Coffee_Map_No_1" id="Mild_Coffee_Map_No_1"></a><a href="images/map5.jpg"> +<img src="images/map5a.jpg" width="600" height="373" alt="Mild Coffee Map—No. 1" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Mild Coffee Map—No. 1</i><br /> +<small><i>Showing the Mild Coffee-Producing Countries of the Western Hemisphere</i><br /> +Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p><p>Cordoba coffees lack the acidity and tang of the Oaxacas, but make a +handsome roast. They are considered too neutral to form the basis of a +blend, but can be used to balance the tang of other grades.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Central Americans.</span> Central American coffee is the general trade name +applied to the growths produced in Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, +Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, the countries comprising Central +America.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guatemala.</span> This country sends the largest quantity to the United States, +and also produces the best average grades of the Central American +districts. Guatemalas are mostly washed and are very stylish. The bean +has a waxy, bluish color. It splits open when roasting and shows a white +center. Low-grown Guatemalas are thin in the cup, but the coffees grown +in the mountainous districts of Cobán and Antigua are quite acidy and +heavy in body. Some Cobáns border on bitterness because of the extreme +acidity. The Antiguas are medium, flinty beans; while Cobáns are larger. +Both grades are spicy and aromatic in the cup, and are particularly good +blenders. Properly roasted to a light cinnamon color, and blended with a +high-grade combination, Cobáns make one of the most serviceable coffees +on the American market.</p> + +<p>Guatemalas are generally classified as noted in the Complete Reference +Table.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Mexican and Guatemala Beans"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Mexican_Beans_Roasted" id="Mexican_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image290.jpg" width="300" height="298" alt="Mexican Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mexican Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Guatemala_Beans_Roasted" id="Guatemala_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image291.jpg" width="300" height="309" alt="Guatemala Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Guatemala Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Honduras.</span> While the upland coffee of Honduras is of good quality, the +general run of the country's production seldom brings as high a price as +Santos of equal grade. Nearly all Honduras coffee consists of small, +round berries, bluish green in color. Very little of this growth comes +to the United States; the bulk of the exports going to Europe, where it +commands a high price, especially in France.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salvador.</span> Salvador coffee is inferior to Guatemala's product, grade for +grade. Only a small proportion is washed; and the bulk of the crops is +"naturals"; that is, unwashed. The bean is large and of fair average +roast. The washed grades are fancy roasters, with very thin cup. The +largest part of the production goes to Europe; some twenty-five percent +of the exports are brought into the United States through San Francisco.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nicaragua.</span> The ordinary run of Nicaragua coffee (the naturals) is looked +upon in the United States as being of low quality, though the washed +coffees from the Matagalpa district have plenty of acid in the cup and +usually are fine roasters. Matagalpa beans are large and blue-tinged. +Germany, Great Britain, and France take about all the Honduras coffee +exported, only about six percent of the total coming to the United +States. These coffees are described more in detail in the Complete +Reference Table.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> Good grades of Costa Rican coffee, such as are grown in the +Cartago, San José, Alajuela, and Grecia districts at high altitudes, are +highly esteemed by blenders. They are characterized by their fine +flavor, rich body, and sharp acidity. It is frequently declared that +some of these coffees are often acidy enough to sour cream if used +straight. Due to careless methods of handling, sour or "hidey" beans are +sometimes found in chops of Costa Ricans from the lowlands.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panama.</span> Panama grows coffee only for domestic use, and consequently it +is little known in foreign markets. The bean is of average size and +tends toward green in color. In the cup it has a heavy body and a strong +flavor. The coffee grown in Boquette Valley is considered to be of fine +quality, due no doubt to the care given in cultivation by the American +and English planters there.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>South America</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Colombians.</span> Colombia produces some of the world's finest coffees, of +which the best known are Medellins, Manizales, Bogotas, Bucaramangas, +Tolimas, and Cucutas. Old-crop Colombians of the higher grades, when +mellowed with age, have many of the characteristics of the best East +Indian coffees, and in style and cup are difficult to distinguish from +the Mandhelings and the Ankolas of Sumatra. Such coffees are scarce on +the American market, practically all the shipments coming to the United +States being new crop and lacking some of the qualities of the mellowed +beans. Compared with Santos coffee, good grade Colombians give +one-fourth more liquor to a given strength with better flavor and aroma. +They are classed and graded as noted in the Complete Reference Table.</p> + +<p>Medellins are a fancy mountain-grown coffee, and are esteemed for their +good qualities. The beans vary in size, and the color ranges from light +to dark green, making a rather rough roast. In the cup they have a fine, +rich, distinctive flavor, and in the American grading are regarded as +the best of the Colombian commercial growths.</p> + +<p>Manizales rank next to Medellins, and have nearly the same +characteristics.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Bogota_Colombia_Beans_Roasted" id="Bogota_Colombia_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image292.jpg" width="300" height="287" alt="Bogota (Colombia) Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bogota (Colombia) Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Bogotas of good grade are noted for their acidity, body, and flavor. +When the acidity is tempered with age, the coffee can be drunk +"straight" which can not be done with many other growths. The Bogota +green bean ranges from a blue-green bean to a fancy yellow. It is long, +and generally has a sharp turn in one end of the center stripe. It is a +smooth roaster, and has a rich mellow flavor.</p> + +<p>Bucaramangas, grown in the district of that name, are regarded favorably +in the American markets as good commercial coffees for blending +purposes; the naturals have heavy body, but lack acidity and decided +flavor, and are much used to give "back-bone" to blends. The fancies +sometimes push the superior East Indian growths hard for first place.</p> + +<p>Tolimas are considered a good grade average coffee, and are +characterized by a fair-sized bean, attractive style, and good cup +quality.</p> + +<p>Cucuta coffees, though grown in Colombia, are generally classified among +the Maracaibos of Venezuela, because they are mostly shipped from that +port. They are described, accordingly, with the Venezuelan coffees.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Venezuela.</span> The coffees of Venezuela are generally grouped under the +heads of Caracas, Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo, the names of the ports +through which they are exported. Each group is further subdivided by the +names of the districts in which the principal plantations lie. La Guaira +coffee includes that produced in the vicinity of Caracas and Cumana.</p> + +<p>Caracas coffee is one of the best known in the American market. The +washed Caracas is in steady demand in France<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> and Spain. The bean is +bluish in color, somewhat short, and of a uniform size. The liquor has a +rather light body. Some light-blue washed Caracas coffees are very +desirable, and have a peculiar flavor that is quite pleasant to the +educated palate. Caracas chops rarely hold their style for any length of +time, as the owners usually are not willing to dry properly and +thoroughly before milling. When, however, the price is right, American +buyers will use some Caracas chops instead of Bogotas. At equal prices +the latter have the preference, as they have more body in the cup. +Puerto Cabello and Cumana coffees are valued just below Caracas. They +are grown at a lower altitude, and are somewhat inferior in flavor.</p> + +<p>Not less than one-third of Puerto Cabello coffees come across the +thirty-mile gulf to the westward from the port of Tucacas, in a little +steamer called the Barquisimento, which is famous all along the coast as +the "cocktail shaker." C.H. Stewart<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> solemnly asserts that "Barky" +can do the "shimmy" when lying at anchor in quiet waters.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Maracaibo_Beans_Roasted" id="Maracaibo_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image293.jpg" width="300" height="293" alt="Maracaibo Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Maracaibo Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Merida and Tachira coffees are considered the best of the Maracaibo +grades, Tovars and Trujillos being classed as lower in trade value. +Though Cucuta coffee is grown in the Colombian district of that name, it +is largely shipped through Maracaibo; and hence is classed among the +Maracaibo types. It ranks with Meridas and fine grade Boconos, and +somewhat resembles the Java bean in form and roast, but is decidedly +different in the cup. Washed Cucutas are noted for their large size, +roughness, and waxy color. They make a good-appearing roast, splitting +open, and showing irregular white centers. New-crop beans are sometimes +sharply acid, though they mellow with age and gain in body.</p> + +<p>Until recent years, Tachira coffee was always sold as Cucuta; but now +there is a tendency to ship it under the name Tachira-Venezuela, while +true Cucuta is marked Cucuta-Colombia. Tachiras closely resemble the +true Cucutas, grade for grade. Up to about 1905 the coffees grown near +Salazar, in Colombia, came to market under the name of Salazar; but +since then, they have been included among the Cucuta grades and are sold +under that name.</p> + +<p>The state of Tachira lies next to the Colombian boundary, and its +mountains produce much fine washed coffee. This has size and fair style, +as a rule, but does not possess cup qualities to make it much sought. It +ages well and, being of good body, the old crops, other things being +equal, frequently bring a tidy premium.</p> + +<p>The Rubio section of Tachira produces the best of its washed coffees. +Here are several of the largest and best-equipped estates in all +Venezuela. Washed when fresh, the coffees from these estates are usually +sold somewhat under the fancy Caracas; but the trillados of the Tachira +rank with the best of the country, owing to their large bean, solid +color, and good quality. They roast well, and cup with good body, though +not much character. Good Tachira trillados are sold on the same basis as +the Cucutas, which they resemble.</p> + +<p>The Meridas are raised at higher altitudes than Cucutas, and good grades +are sought for their peculiarly delicate flavor—which is neither acidy +nor bitter—and heavy body. They rank as the best by far of the +Maracaibo type. The bean is high-grown, of medium size, and roundish. It +is well knit, and brings the highest price while it still holds its +bluish style, as it then retains its delicate aroma and character. The +trillados of Merida run unevenly.</p> + +<p>Tovars rank between Trujillos and Tachiras. They are fair to good body +without acidity; make a duller roast than Cucutas,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> but contain fewer +quakers. They are used for blending with Bourbon Santos. Boconos are +light in color and body. They are of two classes; one a round, small to +medium, bean; and the other larger and softer. Their flavor is rather +neutral, and they are frequently used as fillers in blends. Trujillos +lack acidity and make a dull, rough roast, unless aged. They are blended +with Bourbon Santos to make a low-priced palatable coffee. Some coffees +of merit are produced at Santa Ana, Monte Carmelo, and Bocono in +Trujillo.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Other South American Countries</i></p> + +<p>The coffees from other South American countries, even where there is an +appreciable production, are not important factors in international +trade. The coffee of Ecuador, shipped through the port of Guayaquil, +goes mostly to Chile, a comparatively small quantity being exported to +the United States. The bean is small to medium in size, pea-green in +color, and not desirable in the cup. The coffee is about equal to +low-grade Brazil, and is used principally as a filler. Peru produces an +ever-lessening quantity of coffee, the bulk of the exports in pre-war +years going to Germany, Chile, and the United Kingdom. It is a +low-altitude growth, and is considered poor grade. The bean ranges from +medium to bold in size, and from bluish to yellow in color. Bolivia is +an unimportant factor in the international coffee trade, most of its +exports going to Chile. The chief variety produced is called the Yunga, +which is considered to be of superior quality; but only a small quantity +is grown. Guiana's coffee trade is insignificant. The three best-known +types are the Surinam, Demerara, and Cayenne, named after the ports +through which they are shipped.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The West Indies</i></p> + +<p>Coffee either is, or can be, grown practically everywhere in the West +Indies; but the chief producing districts are found on the islands of +Porto Rico, Haiti (and Santo Domingo), Jamaica, Guadeloupe, and Curaçao. +Coffees coming from these islands are generally known by the name of the +country of production, and may be further identified by the names of the +districts in which they are grown.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porto Rico.</span> Since the United States took possession of Porto Rico, soil +experts have endeavored to raise the quality of the coffee grown there, +especially the lower grades, which had peculiarly wild characteristics. +Today, the superior grades of Porto Rican coffees rank among the best +growths known to the trade. The bean is large, uniform, and stylish; +ranging in color from a light gray-blue to a dark green-blue. Some of +these are artificially colored for foreign markets. The coffee roasts +well, and has a heavy body, similar to the fanciest Mexicans and +Colombians. Its cup is not as rich, but it makes a good blend. Porto +Rican coffees command a higher price in France than in the United +States, which accounts for the larger proportion of exports to Europe, +excepting when the French market was cut off during the World War.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jamaica.</span> Jamaica produces two distinct types of coffee, the highland and +the lowland growths. Among the first-named is the celebrated Blue +Mountain coffee, which has a well developed pale blue-green bean that +makes a good-appearing roast and a pleasantly aromatic cup. It is +frequently compared with the fancy Cobáns of Guatemala. The lowland +coffee is a poorer grade, and consists largely of a mixture of different +growths produced on the plains. It is a fair-sized bean, green to yellow +in the "natural", and blue-green when washed. In the cup it has a grassy +flavor, but is flat when drunk with cream. It is used chiefly as a +filler in blends, and for French roasts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Haiti and Santo Domingo.</span> The coffees of these two republics have like +characteristics, being grown on the same island and in about the same +climatic and soil conditions. Careless cultivation and preparation +methods are responsible for the generally poor quality of these coffees. +When properly grown and cured, they rank well with high-grade washed +varieties, and have a rich, fairly acid flavor in the cup. The bean is +blue-green, and makes a handsome roast.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Guadeloupe.</span> Guadeloupe coffee is distinguishable by its green, long, and +slightly thick bean, covered by a pellicle of whitish silvery color, +which separates from the bean in the roast. It has excellent cup +qualities.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Martinique.</span> This island formerly produced a coffee closely resembling +the Guadeloupe; but no coffee is now grown there, though some Guadeloupe +growths are shipped from Martinique, and bear its name.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Other West Indian Islands.</span> Among the other West Indian islands +producing small quantities of coffee are Cuba, Trinidad, Dominica, +Barbados, and Curaçao. The growths are generally good quality, bearing a +close resemblance to one another. In the past, Cuba produced a fine +grade; but the industry is now practically extinct.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Asia</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arabia.</span> For many generations Mocha coffee has been recognized throughout +the world as the best coffee obtainable; and until the pure food law +went into effect in the United States, other high-grade coffees were +frequently sold by American firms under the name of Mocha. Now, only +coffees grown in Arabia are entitled to that valuable trade name. They +grow in a small area in the mountainous regions of the southwestern +portion of the Arabian peninsula, in the province of Yemen, and are +known locally by the names of the districts in which they are produced. +Commercially they are graded as follows: Mocha Extra, for all extra +qualities; Mocha No. 1, consisting of only perfect berries; No. 1-A, +containing some dust, but otherwise free of imperfections; No. 2, +showing a few broken beans and quakers; No. 3, having a heavier +percentage of brokens and quakers and also some dust.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Mocha_Beans_Roasted" id="Mocha_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image294.jpg" width="300" height="298" alt="Mocha Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Mocha Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Mocha beans are very small, hard, roundish, and irregular in form and +size. In color, they shade from olive green to pale yellow, the bulk +being olive green. The roast is poor and uneven; but the coffee's +virtues are shown in the cup. It has a distinctive winy flavor, and is +heavy with acidity—two qualities which make a straight Mocha brew +especially valuable as an after-dinner coffee, and also esteemed for +blending with fancy, mild, washed types, particularly East Indian +growths.</p> + +<p>As in other countries, the coffees grown on the highlands in Yemen are +better than the lowland growths. As a rule, the low altitude bean is +larger and more oblong than that grown in the highlands, due to its +quicker development in the regions where the rainfall, though not great, +is more abundant.</p> + +<p>While Mocha coffees are known commercially by grade numbers, the +planters and Arabian traders also designate them by the name of the +district or province in which each is grown. Among the better grades +thus labeled are, the Yaffey, the Anezi, the Mattari, the Sanani, the +Sharki, and the Haimi-Harazi. For the poorer grades, these names are +used: Remi, Bourai, Shami, Yemeni, and Maidi. Of these varieties, the +Mattari, a hard and regular bean, pale yellow in color, commands the +highest price, with the Yaffey a close second. Harazi coffee heads the +market for quantity coupled with general average of quality.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indian and Ceylon.</span> Coffees from India and Ceylon are marketed almost +exclusively in London, little reaching the American trade. Of the Indian +growths, Malabars, grown on the western slope of the Ghaut mountains, +are classed commercially as the best. The bean is rather small and +blue-green in color. In the cup it has a distinctive strong flavor and +deep color. Mysore coffee ranks next in favor on the English market. It +is mountain grown, and the bean is large and blue-green in color. +Tellicherry is another good grade coffee, closely resembling Malabar. +Coorg (Kurg) coffee is an inferior growth. It is lowland type, and in +the cup is thin and flat. The bean is large and flat, and tends toward +dark green in color. Travancore is another lowland growth, ranking about +with Coorg, and has the same general characteristics. <a href="#COMPLETE_REFERENCE_TABLE">See the Complete +Reference Table for details.</a></p> + +<p>Ceylon, although it once was one of the world's most important +producers, has been losing ground as a coffee-producing country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> since +1890. Ceylon coffees are classified commercially as "native", +"plantation", and "mountain". The native is a poor-grade, lowland +growth, with large flat bean and low cup quality. The plantation, so +named because more carefully cultivated on highland plantations, is a +stylish roaster, and gives a rich flavor and strong fragrance in the +cup. The mountain, grown at high altitudes, is a small, steel-blue bean, +and is considered by British traders as equal to the best varieties +grown anywhere. It was formerly shipped to Aden to be mixed with Mocha.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Coffee_Map_of_Africa_and_Arabia" id="Coffee_Map_of_Africa_and_Arabia"></a><a href="images/map6.jpg"> +<img src="images/map6a.jpg" width="600" height="636" alt="Coffee Map of Africa and Arabia" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption">Coffee Map of Africa and Arabia<br /> +<small><i>Showing the Principal Coffee-Producing Countries on the Continent and Adjacent Islands.</i><br /> +Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">French Indo-china.</span> The coffee of French Indo-China is highly prized in +France, where the bulk of the exports goes. The coffee tree grows well +in the provinces of Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin-China. Tonkin is +the largest producer, and grows the best varieties. In the cup, Tonkin +coffee is thought by French traders to compare favorably with Mocha. Of +the several varieties of <i>Coffea arabica</i> grown in Indo-China, the +<i>Grand Bourbon</i>, <i>Bourbon rond</i>, and the <i>Bourbon Le Roy</i>, are the best +known. The first-named is a large bean of good quality; the second is a +small, round bean of superior grade; and the third is a still smaller +bean of fair cup quality.</p> + + +<div class='center'><a name="PRINCIPAL_VARIETIES_OF_GREEN_COFFEE_BEANS_NATURAL_SIZE_AND_COLOR" id="PRINCIPAL_VARIETIES_OF_GREEN_COFFEE_BEANS_NATURAL_SIZE_AND_COLOR"></a> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Green Coffee Bean Varieties"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13a.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="JAVA (Washed)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">JAVA<br />(Washed)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13b.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="SUMATRA (Mandheling)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SUMATRA<br />(Mandheling)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13c.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="ARABIAN (Mocha)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ARABIAN<br />(Mocha)</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13d.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="COLOMBIAN (Bogota)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COLOMBIAN<br />(Bogota)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13e.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="GUATEMALA (Washed)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">GUATEMALA<br />(Washed)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13f.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="MEXICAN (Washed)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MEXICAN<br />(Washed)</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13g.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="COSTA RICA (Washed)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COSTA RICA<br />(Washed)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13h.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="SANTOS (Peaberry)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SANTOS<br />(Peaberry)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13i.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="VENEZUELA (Maracaibo)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">VENEZUELA<br />(Maracaibo)</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13j.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="SANTOS (Flat Bean)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SANTOS<br />(Flat Bean)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13k.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="SANTOS (Bourbon)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">SANTOS<br />(Bourbon)</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/plate13l.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="RIO (Natural)" title="" /> +<span class="caption">RIO<br />(Natural)</span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> +<p class="center">PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF GREEN COFFEE BEANS,<br /> NATURAL SIZE AND COLOR</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Africa</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Abyssinia.</span> The coffee grown in Abyssinia is classified commercially into +two varieties: Harari, which is grown principally in the district around +Harar; and Abyssinian, produced mainly in the provinces of Kaffa, +Sidamo, and Guma. Harari coffee is the fruit of cultivated trees; while +Abyssinian comes from wild trees. The first-named produces a long and +well-shaped berry, and is often referred to as Longberry Harari. The +bean is larger than the Mocha, but similar in general appearance. Its +color shades from blue-green to yellow. Good grades of Harari have cup +characteristics resembling Mocha, and by some are preferred to Mocha, +because of their winier cup flavor. The Abyssinian coffee is considered +much inferior to Harari; and chops generally contain many imperfections. +The bean is dark gray in color. Little Abyssinian coffee comes to the +United States.</p> + +<p>Many other African countries produce coffee; but little of it ever +reaches the North American market. Uganda, in British East Africa, grows +a good grade of <i>robusta</i> coffee which is valued on the London market. +Liberian coffee, grown on the west coast, used to be mixed with Bourbon +Santos to some extent; but it is generally considered low grade, +although it makes a handsome, elephantine roast. The product of Guinea +is a very small bean, half-way between a peaberry and a flat bean, and +has a dingy brown color. It is considered worthless as a drink. A +medium-sized, strong-flavored bean that is rich in the cup, is grown in +the African Congo district. In Angola a fair quantity of coffee is +produced. In the cup it has a strong and pungent flavor, but lacks +smoothness and aroma. Zanzibar produces a pleasing coffee in very +limited quantities. The bean is medium size, and regular in shape. +Mozambique's coffee is greenish in color, of medium size, and mellow. +The production is small. Madagascar produces an insignificant quantity +for export, although the coffee is considered fair average, with rich +flavor, and considerable fragrance. Bourbon coffee, grown on the island +of Réunion, commands a high price in the French market, where +practically all exports go. It is a small, flinty bean, and gives a rich +cup and fragrance.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Washed_Java_Beans_Roasted" id="Washed_Java_Beans_Roasted"></a> +<img src="images/image295.jpg" width="300" height="301" alt="Washed Java Beans—Roasted" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Washed Java Beans—Roasted</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>East Indian Islands</i></p> + +<p>Some of the coffees from the East Indian islands rank among the best in +the world, particularly those from Sumatra. East India coffees are +distinguished by their smooth, heavy body in the cup, the fancy grades +giving an almost syrupy richness.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Java.</span> Java coffees are generally of a smaller bean than those from +Sumatra, and are not considered as high grade. The bulk of the new-crop +growths have a grassy flavor which most people find unpleasant when +drunk straight. Under the old culture system, coffee was bought by the +government, and held in godowns from two to three years, until it had +become mellow with age. In late years, this system has been abandoned; +and the planters now sell their product as they please, and in most +cases without mellowing, excepting as they age during the long sea +voyage from Batavia to destination. Before the advent of large fleets of +steamers in the East Indian trade, the coffee was brought to America in +sailing vessels that required from three to four months for the trip. +During the voyage, the coffee went through a sweating process which +turned the beans from a light green to a dark brown, and considerably +enhanced their cup values. The sweating was due to the coffee being +loaded while moist, and then practically sealed in the vessel's hold +during all its trip through the tropical seas. As a consequence, the +cargo steamed and foamed; and as a rule, part of the coffee became +moldy, the damage seldom extending more than an inch or two into the +mats. Sweated coffees commanded from three to five cents more than those +that came in "pale".</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Mild_Coffee_Map_No_2" id="Mild_Coffee_Map_No_2"></a><a href="images/map7.jpg"> +<img src="images/map7a.jpg" width="600" height="376" alt="Mild Coffee Map—No. 2" title="" /></a> +<span class="caption"><i>Mild Coffee Map—No. 2</i><br /> +<small><i>Showing the Mild Coffee-Producing Countries of Asia, Netherlands India, and Australasia</i><br /> +Copyright, 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p><p>Before the Java coffee trade began to decline in the latter part of the +nineteenth century, <i>Coffea arabica</i> was grown abundantly throughout the +island. Each residency had numerous estates, and their names were given +to the coffees produced. The best coffees came from Preanger, Cheribon, +Buitenzorg, and Batavia, ranking in merit in the order named. All Java +coffees are known commercially either as private growth, or as blue bean +washed, the former being cured by either the washing or the dry hulling +method, while the latter are washed. Private growths are usually a pale +yellow, the bean being short and round and slightly convex. It makes a +handsome even roast, showing a full white stripe. The washed variety is +a pale blue-green, the bean closely resembling the private growth in +form and roast. These coffees have a distinctive character in the cup +that is much different from any other coffee grown. Their liquor is +thin.</p> + +<p>All the better known coffees of Java, which are designated by the +districts in which they are grown, are listed in the Complete Reference +Table. Coffee from few of the many districts comes to the North American +market. Among those that are sold in the United States are the Kadoe and +Semarang, both of which are small, yellowish green; and the Malang, a +green, hard bean which makes a better roast than Kadoe and Semarang, but +is inferior to them in the cup.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sumatra.</span> Sumatra has the reputation of producing some of the finest and +highest-priced coffees in the world, such as Mandheling, Ankola, Ayer +Bangies, Padang Interior, and Palembang. Mandheling coffee is a large, +brownish bean which roasts dull, but is generally free from quakers. It +is very heavy in body, and has a unique flavor that easily distinguishes +it from any other growth. The Ankola bean is shorter and +better-appearing than Mandheling, but otherwise bears a close +resemblance. Its flavor is only slightly under Mandheling; and, like +that coffee, is recommended for blending with the best grades of Mocha. +While the Ayer Bangies bean is somewhat larger than the other two just +mentioned, it is not so dark brown in color, and is not quite so heavy +in body; the flavor is very delicate. These three growths are known in +the trade as the "Fancies" and are considered the best of Sumatra's +production.</p> + +<p>The Sumatra coffee best known to the American trade is the Padang +Interior, which is shipped through the port of Padang on Sumatra's west +coast. The bean is irregular in form and color, and makes a dull roast. +However, the flavor is good, although it lacks the richness of the +Fancies. Another celebrated coffee grown on the west coast is the Boekit +Gompong, grown on the estate of that name near Padang. It is a +high-grade coffee, making a handsome roast, and possessing a delicate +flavor. The foregoing coffees are produced on what were formerly termed +government estates, and during the heyday of government control were +sold by auction and came mostly to the United States.</p> + +<p>Among the private estate coffees, Corinchies take first rank for +quality, some traders saying that they are the best in international +commerce. They closely resemble Ankolas, but range a cent or two lower +in price. Next in order of merit is Timor coffee, grown on the island of +that name. It is not as attractive in appearance, roast, or cup quality +as the Corinchie. A grade below Timors is Boengie coffee, which is +seldom seen on the North American market. Kroe coffee is better known +and more widely used in the United States. The bean is large, but has an +attractive appearance. Kroes are of heavy body, of somewhat groundy +flavor when new crop, and are good roasters and blenders. Other East +Indian coffees are Teagals, Balis, and Macassars, all of which are +second-rate growths as compared with the bulk of Sumatras, grade for +grade. The Macassars are produced in the district of that name on island +of Celebes. The best coffee grown in Celebes comes from the province of +Menado, and is known by that name. It is thought to be of a superior +quality, and commands a high price in Europe.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Pacific Islands</i></p> + +<p>The Philippine Islands have not figured in international coffee trade +since 1892, although in preceding years the Philippines exported several +million pounds of an average good grade of coffee. While coffee is one +of the shade trees used by householders in Guam, none of the fruit is +exported. Coffee production is an unimportant industry in Samoa, +Australia, New Guinea,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> New Caledonia, and other Pacific islands, and +none is grown for export.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hawaii.</span> Since the beginning of the twentieth century the Hawaiian +islands have taken a position of increasing importance, shipping some +two million pounds of good quality coffee to the United States, their +biggest customer. Coffee grows to some extent on all the islands of the +group, but fully ninety-five percent is raised in the districts of Kona, +Puna, and Hamakua on the main island of Hawaii. All Hawaiian coffee is +high grade; and is generally large bean, blue-green in color when new +crop, and yellow-brown when aged. It makes a handsome roast, and has a +fine flavor that is smooth and not too acid. It blends well with any +high-grade mild coffee. Kona coffee, grown in the district of that name, +commands the highest price. Old-crop Kona coffee is said by some trade +authorities to be equal to either Mocha or Old Government Java.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Appearance, Aroma, and Flavor in Cup-Testing</i></p> + +<p>Before the beginning of the twentieth century, practically all the +coffees bought and sold in the United States were judged for merit +simply by the appearance of the green or of the roasted bean. Since that +time, the importance of testing the drinking qualities has become +generally recognized; and today every progressive coffee buyer has his +sample-roasting and testing outfit with which to carry out painstaking +cup tests. Both buyers and sellers use the cup test, the former to +determine the merits of the coffee he is buying, and the latter to +ascertain the proper value of the chop under consideration. Frequently a +test is made to fix the relative desirability of various growths +considered as a whole, using composite samples that are supposed to give +representation to an entire crop.</p> + +<p>The first step in testing coffee is to compare the appearance of the +green bean of a chop with a sample of known standard value for that +particular kind of coffee. The next step is to compare the appearance +when roasted. Then comes the appearance and aroma test, when it is +ground; and finally, the most difficult of all, the trial of the flavor +and aroma of the liquid.</p> + +<p>Naturally the tester gives much care to proper roasting of the samples +to be examined. He recognizes several different kinds of roasts which he +terms the light, the medium, the dark, the Italian, and the French +roasts, all of which vary in the shadings of color, and each of which +gives a different taste in the cup. The careful tester watches the roast +closely to see whether the beans acquire a dull or bright finish, and to +note also if there are many quakers, or off-color beans. When the proper +roasting point is reached, he smells the beans while still hot to +determine their aroma. In some growths and grades, he will frequently +smell of them as they cool off, because the character changes as the +heat leaves them, as in the case of many Maracaibo grades.</p> + +<p>After roasting, the actual cup-testing begins. Two methods are employed, +the blind cup test, in which there is no clue to the identity of the +kind of coffee in the cup; and the open test, in which the tester knows +beforehand the particular coffee he is to examine. The former is most +generally employed by buyers and sellers; although a large number of +experts who do not let their knowledge interfere with their judgment, +use the open method.</p> + +<p>In both systems the amount of ground coffee placed in the cup is +carefully weighed so that the strength will be standard. Generally, the +cups are marked on the bottom for identification after the examination. +Before pouring on the hot water to make the brew, the aroma of the +freshly ground coffee is carefully noted to see if it is up to standard. +In pouring the water, care is exercised to keep the temperature constant +in the cups, so that the strength in all will be equal. When the water +is poured directly on the grounds, a crust or scum is formed. Before +this crust breaks, the tester sniffs the aroma given off; this is called +the wet-smell, or crust, test, and is considered of great importance.</p> + +<p>Of course, the taste of the brew is the most important test. Equal +amounts of coffee are sipped from each cup, the tester holding each sip +in his mouth only long enough to get the full strength of the flavor. He +spits out the coffee into a large brass cuspidor which is designed for +the purpose. The expert never swallows the liquor.</p> + +<p>Cup-testing calls for keenly developed senses of sight, smell, and +taste, and the faculty for remembering delicate shadings in each sense. +By sight, the coffee man judges the size, shape, and color of the green +and roasted bean, which are important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> factors in determining commercial +values. He can tell also whether the coffee is of the washed or unwashed +variety, and whether it contains many imperfections such as quakers, +pods, stones, brokens, off-colored beans, and the like. By his sense of +smell of the roast and of the brew, he gauges the strength of the aroma, +which also enters into the valuation calculation. His palate tells him +many things about a coffee brew—if the drink has body and is smooth, +rich, acidy, or mellow; if it is winy, neutral, harsh, or Rioy; if it is +musty, groundy, woody, or grassy; or if it is rank, hidey (sour), muddy, +or bitter. These are trade designations of the different shades of +flavor to be found in the various coffees coming to the North American +market; and each has an influence on the price at which they will be +sold.</p> + +<p>The up-to-date cup-tester requires special equipment to get the best +results. A typical installation consists of a gas sample-roasting +outfit, employing at least a single cylinder holding about six ounces of +coffee, and perhaps a battery of a dozen or more; an electric grinding +mill; a testing table, with a top that can be revolved by hand; a pair +of accurately adjusted balance scales; one or more brass kettles; a gas +stove for heating water; sample pans; many china or glass cups; silver +spoons; and a brass cuspidor that stands waist high and is shaped like +an hour glass.</p> + +<p>Since the World War, there have been some notable changes in the buying +of coffees, particularly in European markets. For example, the old idea +of buying fancy coffees at fancy prices is probably gone for good in +Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Sample-Roasting_and_Cup-Testing_Outfit" id="Sample-Roasting_and_Cup-Testing_Outfit"></a> +<img src="images/image296.jpg" width="500" height="345" alt="Typical Sample-Roasting and Cup-Testing Outfit" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Typical Sample-Roasting and Cup-Testing Outfit</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>In the middle of the picture is a standard revolving table (3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> feet +in diameter), with scale mounted over the center, and with a "Mitchell +Tray" for holding one cup independent of the table-top movement. There +are two cuspidors, a double kettle outfit, a 6-cylinder sample roaster +and a motor-driven sample grinder; also a set of sample separator sieves +in the overhead rack, a bag sampler (lying on the lower shelf of the +counter), and some coffee crushers (one on the end of the counter and +one on the revolving table)</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p> +<div class='table2'><br /><a name="COMPLETE_REFERENCE_TABLE" id="COMPLETE_REFERENCE_TABLE"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE"> +<tr> + <td align='center' width="15%"> </td> + <td align='center' width="15%"> </td> + <td align='center' width="20%"> </td> + <td align='center' width="25%"> </td> + <td align='center' width="25%"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><big>COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE</big><br /> + OF<br />THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF COFFEE GROWN IN THE WORLD<br /> + <i>Together with Their Trade Values and Cup Characteristics</i><br /> + <i>t</i>, indicates town or trading center; <i>m n</i>, market name; <i>d</i>, district + or state.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr2'> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>Grand Division</i></td> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>Country</i></td> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>Shipping Ports</i></td> + <td class='tdcbr'><i>State, or District,<br />Market Names and<br />Gradings</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Trade Values and Cup Characteristics</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='17'>North America</td> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='17'>Mexico</td> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='6'>Vera Cruz<br /> on Gulf of Mex.</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mexicans</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Mexicans are mild or mellow. The green beans + are greenish to yellow (when aged) and of large size. The washed coffees + make a handsome roast, showing pronounced white central stripe. + In the cup they have a full rich body, fine acidity, and a wonderful + <i>bouquet</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Vera Cruz, <i>d</i><br /> + Coatepec, <i>m n</i><br /> + (pro., co-at-e-pec)</td> + <td align='left'>Acid, of excellent heavy and rich flavor;fine for blending.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Huatusco, <i>t</i><br />(pro., wha-toos-co)</td> + <td align='left'>Fine appearing washed coffee; next to Coatepec for acid and + blending qualities.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Orizaba, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Regarded as next to Huatusco; good cup quality.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Jalapa, <i>t</i><br />(pro., ha-lap-a)</td> + <td align='left'>Stylish roaster; frequently light body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Cordoba, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Neutral, smooth in flavor, without acid tang; good body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Puerto Mexico<br /> on Gulf of Mex.</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Tabasco, <i>d</i> & <i>m n</i><br /> + Coatzacoalcos, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Of uncertain character; many of them Rioy, flat, and groundy. + Unsatisfactory in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='2'>Salina Cruz<br /> on Pacific<br /> + Coatzacoalcos<br /> (Puerto Mexico)<br /> + on Gulf of Mex.</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Chiapas, <i>d</i><br /> + Soconusco, <i>t, m n</i><br /> + or<br /> + Tapachula, <i>t, m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Resembles Guatemala coffees; smooth in character, and without decided tang.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Oaxaca, <i>d, m n</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + (pr., wah-hock-ah)<br /> + Sierra Oaxaca<br /> + (common-unwashed)<br /> + Pluma Oaxaca<br /> + (hidalgo-washed)</td> + <td align='left'>Small bean; excellent quality, sharply acid, fine flavor, but not stylish in + appearance. The Pluma is a very fancy bean coffee, also acid and fine + for blending.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Acapulco<br /> on Pacific</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Guerrero, <i>d</i><br /> + Sierra, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Inferior in quality; low growth and woody.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Manzanillo<br /> on Pacific</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Michoacan, <i>d</i><br /> + Unrapan, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>A superior coffee, but not produced in commercial quantity.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Do.</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Colima, <i>d, m n</i> & <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Very like Uruapan.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> + Vera Cruz</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Puebla, <i>d</i><br /> + Sierra, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Low-grade mountain coffee.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='2'>Tampico</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Tamaulipas, <i>d</i><br /> + Tampico, <i>m n</i> & <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>An inferior grade.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl2bb'>Tepic<br /> + Tampico, <i>m n</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'>So called "Mexican Mocha." Raised for local consumption. Not + a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Classes for all Mexicans</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr4'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdcbb' colspan='2'>1. Commons (customary or natural). + 2. Washed (W.I.P.) + 3. Caracolillo (peaberry.)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='18'>Central America</td> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='5'>Guatemala</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Puerto Barrios and Livingston<br /> on Caribbean</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Guatemala</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Guatemalas are mild or mellow and mostly washed. + The green beans are greenish to yellow (when aged), and of + large size. The mountain-grown coffees make a handsome roast, + are of full heavy body and excellent cup quality. The + lower-altitude coffees are light in cup, but flavory.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ocos, Champerico, and San José<br /> on Pacific</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Cobán, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Waxy, bluish bean; handsome uniform roast with white center. Heavy + body, fine acidity.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Belize<br /> (Br. Honduras)</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1bb'>Alta Verapaz, <i>d</i><br /> Sehenaju, <i>t</i><br /> + Antigua, <i>d</i><br />Costa Cuca, <i>d</i><br />Costa Grande, <i>d</i><br /> + Barberena, <i>d</i><br />Tumbador, <i>d</i><br />Costa de Cucho, <i>d</i><br /> + Chicacao Xolhuitz, <i>d</i><br />Pochuta Malacatan, <i>d</i><br /> + San Marcos, <i>d</i><br />Chuva, <i>d</i><br />Escuintla, <i>d</i><br /> + San Vincente, <i>d</i><br />Pacaya, <i>d</i><br />Moran, <i>d</i><br /> + Amatitlan, <i>d</i><br />Palmar, <i>d</i><br />Motagua, <i>d</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Gray-blue bean; fine mellow flavor. See Belize. Medium flinty + bean; lighter in body; flavory, acid.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Classes for All Guatemalas</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbb' colspan='2'>Most Guatemalas are washed and may be classified as + follows:<br /><br /> 1. Small flinty bean, extremely acid and flavory, + produced in the highest altitudes of the Antigua, Moran, and + Amatitlan districts.<br /><br />2. Waxy, bluish bean, flinty, + but large roast; heavy body with fine acidity. Produced in the + mountainous regions of the Cobán, Costa Cuca, Tumbador, + and Chuva districts.<br /><br />3. Waxy, bluish bean, handsome + uniform roast, heavy-bodied but non-acid coffees produced + in almost every district of the republic at an altiture of from + 2,000 to 3,000 feet.<br /><br />4. Stylish, green bean, + handsome large uniform roast, very white center, mild cupping + coffees produced practically everywhere in the republic at + an altitude of from 1,500 to 2,500 feet.<br /><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> + 5. The lower altitudes of the various districts produce either + medium bean, neutral cupping, colory coffees, or the Bourbon + type of small bean, greenish coffee.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>British Honduras</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Belize</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Belize, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A Cobán coffee from the Honduras Alta Verapaz district in Guatemala.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Honduras</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Trujillo and Puerto Cortés<br /> + on Caribbean<br /><br /> + Amapala<br /> on Pacific</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Honduras<br /> Santa Barbara, <i>d</i><br /> + Copan, <i>d</i><br /> + Cortez, <i>d</i><br /> La Paz, <i>d</i><br /> + Choluteca, <i>d</i><br /> El Paraiso, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Honduras coffees are small, rounded, and bluish-green. + They are of a hard flinty character; make a fair roast and are neutral in + flavor. While the upland grades are of good quality, the run of the + country's production seldom brings as high a price as Santos of equal grade.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Salvador</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Acajutla<br /> + La Union<br /> + La Libertad</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Salvador<br /> Usulutan, <i>d</i><br /> + La Libertad, <i>d</i><br /> + Santa Ana, <i>d</i><br /> Santa Tecla, <i>d</i><br /> + La Paz, <i>d</i><br /> Ahuachapan, <i>d</i><br /> + Juayua, <i>d</i><br /> Santiago de Maria, <i>d</i><br /> + Sonsonate, <i>d</i><br /> San Miguel, <i>d</i><br /> + San Salvador, <i>d</i><br /> San Vincente, <i>d</i><br /> + Cuscatlan, <i>d</i><br /> Morazan, <i>d</i><br /> + Cabanas, <i>d</i><br /> Chalatenango, <i>d</i><br /> + La Union, <i>d</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: Salvador's coffees are mostly inferior in quality to + those of Guatemala. The bulk of the crop is natural unwashed. Green + beans are smooth and handsome and make a cinnamon roast. Flavor is + neutral. Useful as a filler. The washed coffee is a fancy roaster, + with a very thin cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Classes and Gradings for All Salvadors: Washed</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='left' colspan='2'>1. Flinty, colory, greenish to bluish bean, fine white + centered roasters, extremely stylish coffees with full-bodied cup + <br /><br />2. Grayish green to bluish green neutral-cupping coffees.<br /><br /></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Unwashed</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbb' colspan='2'>1. Screened, large bean, fine roaster.<br /><br /> + 2. Average run, unscreened, so-called Current Unwashed. All + unwashed coffees vary greatly in cup merit, much the same as + with Santos coffees.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='2'>Nicaragua</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Corinto<br /> + on Pacific</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Nicaragua</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The washed coffees of Nicaragua have merit, and are + fine roasters; but the naturals, comprising the bulk of the crop, + are of ordinary quality.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>San Juan del<br />Norte (Greytown)<br /> + on Caribbean</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2bb'>Matagalpa, <i>d</i><br /> Jinotega, <i>d</i><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> + Los Pueblos, <i>d</i><br />Los Altos, <i>d</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Large, handsome, blue, washed bean making fancy roast with plenty + of acid in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Classes for All Nicaraguas</i>:</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbb' colspan='2'>1. Large, handsome, pale greenish to blue, washed coffee + of the Matagalpa district, often showing fancy roast and acidly full-bodied cup.<br /><br /> + 2. Washed coffees of the lower regions; small in size, but greenish, colory, fine roasters + and neutral cupping.<br /><br />3. Unwashed coffee (bulk of the + output) the merit of which depends entirely on the respective crop. Often a large + proportion of the crop is mild cupping and as desirable as any + other unwashed coffee; while another crop may produce a large + quantity of Rio-flavored coffees.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Costa Rica</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Puerto Limon<br /> + on Caribbean<br /> + Punta Arenas<br /> on Pacific</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Costa Rica<br /> Cartago, <i>d</i><br /> + San José <i>d</i><br /> + Alajuela, <i>d</i><br /> Grecia, <i>d</i><br /> + Tres Rios, <i>d</i><br /> Heredia, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The high-altitude coffees of Costa Rica are + blue-greenish, large, rich in body, of fine, mild flavor, sharply acid, + and superior for blending purposes. These coffees are famous + for their fine preparation and careful screening. The lower regions + produce coffees of more neutral-cupping qualities.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Panama</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Panama City</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Panama<br /> Chiriqui, <i>d</i><br /> + Boquete, <i>m n</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: The green bean is of average size, greenish in + color. In the cup it has a heavy body and a strong flavor. + Grown chiefly for domestic consumption. Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='7'>West Indies<br /> (Greater Antilles)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cuba</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Havana<br />Santiago</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cuba<br /> Oriente, <i>d</i><br /> + Guatanamo, <i>t</i><br /> + Santa Clara, <i>d</i><br /> + Pinar del Rio <i>d</i><br /> + Vuelta Abaja <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Cuban coffee is of good quality. The bean is of + medium size, light green, and makes a uniform roast. The flavor + resembles the fine washed coffees of Santo Domingo. Not commercially important.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Haiti</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Port au Prince<br />Cap Haitien</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Haiti<br /> St. Marc, <i>d</i><br /> + Gonaive, <i>d</i><br /> + Cap Haitien, <i>d</i><br /> + Jacmel, <i>d</i><br /> + Les Cayes, <i>d</i><br /> + Jeremie, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The Haitian washed coffee is a blue bean and makes an + attractive roast. It has a rich, fairly acid, mildly-sweet flavor; of average + quality. The naturals are used extensively for French roasts.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santo Domingo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santo Domingo<br />Porto Plata</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santo Domingo<br /> Cape, <i>m</i> <i>n</i><br /> + Mocha, <i>d</i><br /> + Santiago, <i>d</i><br /> + Porto Plata, <i>d</i><br /> + Bani, <i>d</i><br /> + Barahona, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Santo Domingo coffee is a large, flat, pointed, + greenish-yellow bean. The high-grown washed is of good body and fair + flavor. The low grade is strong, approaching Rio in flavor. The natural + coffees are used extensively for French roasts.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Jamaica (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Kingston</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Jamaica<br /> Classes:<br /> + Blue Mountain<br /> + (high-grown)<br /> + Settlers'<br /> + (ordinary, or plain-grown)<br /></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Jamaica coffee is bluish-green when washed, and green + to yellow when patio-dried. The washed high-grown makes a fancy + roast, and is rich, full and mellow in the cup. The ordinary plain-grown makes + a bright roast, and has a fairly good cup quality. The naturals are + used extensively for French roasts.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Porto Rico (U.S.)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>San Juan<br />Ponce<br />Mayaguez<br />Arecibo<br />Aguadilla</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Porto Rico<br /> Sierra Luquillo, <i>m n</i><br /> + Yauco, <i>d, t</i> & <i>m n</i><br /> + Ciales, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Cayey, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Utuado, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Lares, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Moca, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Adjuntas, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Las Larias, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Maricao, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + San Sebastian, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Mayaguez, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Ponce, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: Porto Rico coffee is a large, handsome, washed + bean, light gray-blue to dark greenish blue in color, and makes + a fancy roast without quakers. Strong or heavy body; peculiar + flavor similar to a washed Caracas, but smoother.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Classes for All Porto Ricos</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbb' colspan='2'>Caracolillo, a round bean peaberry; Primero, a superior + grade of good size and color, usually hand-picked; Segundo, second + grade, inferior to Primero in size and color; Trillo, lowest grade, sold + locally.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl1bb' rowspan='4'>(Lesser Antilles)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>British West Indies<br />Antigua<br />Dominica<br /> + Barbados<br />Trinidad<br />Tobago</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Saint John<br />Portsmouth<br />Bridgetown<br /> + Port of Spain<br />Scarborough</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Antigua<br />Dominica (Soufrière)<br /> + Barbados<br />Trinidad<br />Tobago</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: While the quantity grown is small, the coffee is of good + quality, and includes ten different varieties. That grown in Barbados + is similar to that of Martinique, but a larger bean. This group is not an + important commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Guadeloupe<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> + (French)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Pointe-à-Pitre</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Guadeloupe<br /> Classes:<br /> + 1. Bonifieur, or Café Lustre<br /> + (glossy)<br /> + 2. Habitant, or Café plus Pellicule<br /> + (with pellicles)<br /></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The Guadeloupe coffee bean is glossy, hard, long, and + has an even green color, somewhat grayish. It is of excellent quality. + The Saints Bean is superior. The Ordinary is a smaller, rounder, curved bean. + Guadeloupe coffees are mostly sold as Martinique.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Martinique<br /> (French)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Fort-de-France</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Martinique<br /> Grades:<br /> + Fine Green<br /> + Common Green<br /> + Good Commercial<br /> + Common "<br /> + Picked "<br /> + Common</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The Martinique bean is green, long, somewhat thick, and + is usually shipped in the silver skin. It is of fine quality, but commercially + unimportant. Guadeloupe coffees are not infrequently sold as Martinique.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Curaçao<br /> (Dutch)</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Willemstad </td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Curaçao</td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: The Curaçao coffee bean is small, of light + color and flavor. It makes a bright cinnamon roast; useful as a filler.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='57'>South America</td> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='15'>Colombia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Puerto Colombia<br /> (Savanilla)<br /> + Barranquilla<br />Cartagena<br />Santa Marta<br /> + on Atlantic<br /><br />Buenaventura<br />Tumaco<br /> + on the Pacific</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Colombians, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The Colombian coffee bean is greenish, yellow, and brown, + depending on age, and is rich and mild in the cup. The fancy grades compare favorably + with the world's best growths. They produce one-quarter more liquor of + given strength than Santos coffees, and possess much finer flavor and aroma.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Antioquia, <i>d</i><br /> Medellin, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Light to dark green; handsome roasters; not as smooth as some Central + American types, but best of Colombians; fine flavor and body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Caldas, <i>d</i><br /> Manizales, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Similar to Medellins in cup quality, but not as heavy-bodied or as acid.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Jerico</td> + <td align='left'>A favorably regarded Colombian.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Magdalena, <i>d</i><br /> Santa Marta, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Full, solid, blue, washed bean, making a fancy roast, but too acid to be used straight.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Cundinamarca, <i>d</i><br /> Bogota, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>The green bean is blue-green to fancy yellow and Java brown, depending on + age; long, with a sharp turn in one end of the center stripe. It makes + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> + a smooth roast. The fancy has a rich, mellow flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Cauca, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Sometimes sold as imitation Bogota or Bucaramanga; but + inferior in appearance, roast, and drink.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Santander, <i>d</i><br /> Bucaramanga, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Large bean, spongy and open, making a dull Java-style roast. The naturals + lack acidity and flavor; but have a heavy body. The fancies are almost + the equals of fine Javas and Sumatras.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Cucuta, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Attractive in style and cup. (See Venezuela.)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Ocana, <i>t</i><br />Savanilla, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Sometimes sold as an imitation Bogota or Bucaramanga; but + inferior in appearance and cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1bb'>Tolima, <i>d</i><br /> Ibague, <i>t</i><br /> + Honda, <i>t</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Fair size bean, attractive in style and cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Classes for All Colombians</i>:</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='left' colspan='2'>Café Trillado (natural or sun dried), Café Lavado (washed).</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><br /><i>Gradings for All Colombians</i>:</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbb' colspan='2'>Excelso (excellent), fantasia (excelso and extra), extra (extra), + primera (first), segunda (second), caracol (peaberry), monstruo (large + and deformed), consumo (defective), pasilla (siftings).</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='15'>Venezuela</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>La Guaira<br />Puerto Cabello<br />Maracaibo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Venezuela</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The coffee of Venezuela is greenish-yellow to yellow; large + bean, ranging next to Santos in quality and price. It is mild or mellow in the cup. + The unwashed, or <i>trillado</i>, comprises the bulk of the crop.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Caracas, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Short, bluish bean, uniform in color, and making a light cinnamon roast, but + containing quakers. The natural has a fair cup quality. The washed gives + the best results in roast and cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Puerto Cabello, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>The washed is a handsome bean, but inferior in flavor to Caracas. The + unwashed is flinty; fair roast, no special merit in cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Cumana, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Valued just below Caracas.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Coro, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Valued a trifle below Rio of the same grade.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Trujillo, <i>d</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A low grade, making a dull rough roast.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Santa Ana</td> + <td align='left'>Light in color and body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Monte Carmelo</td> + <td align='left'>Light in color and body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Bocono</td> + <td align='left'>Light in color and body; neutral flavor. Two classes.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Merida, <i>d</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>The best of the Maracaibos. The washed makes a good roast, and has a + peculiar delicate flavor much prized by experts. It ranks among the world's best.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Tovar, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Ranks between Trujillos and Tachiras. Fair to good body; without + acidity. Used as filler in blends.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Tachira, <i>m</i> <i>n</i><br />(San Cristobal)</td> + <td align='left'>Formerly sold as Cucuta, to which it is nearest in quality, appearance, and flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Cucuta, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i><br />Salazar, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Grown in Colombia. Resembles Java bean in form and roast. The natural makes + a full roast. The washed is a stylish, large bean, a beautiful roaster, splitting + open with irregular white center; sharply acid in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Angostura</td> + <td align='left'>A small bean, light in color and body, without much weight or character.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Carupano</td> + <td align='left'>A low grade valued at about the same as a Brazil coffee of similar grade.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>British Guiana</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Georgetown</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Demerara, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>French Guiana<br />(Cayenne)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cayenne</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Cayenne, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Similar to Martinique. The production is limited and commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='20'>Brazil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Brazils, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The coffees of Brazil, which are generally known in the trade + as "Brazils" (to distinguish them from "Milds," the higher grades), are the "price" + coffees of the world. Brazil produces about 70% of the world's supply.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Santos</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>São Paulo, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>The largest coffee district, producing between 50% and 60% + of the world's supply.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Classes:<br /> Bourbon Santos, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small bean, resembling Mocha, but making a handsomer roast with fewer quakers. + In color it varies from dark to light green, and from yellow to a pale + straw, often with a red center. True Bourbons are first crop beans. In the + cup they are smooth and palatable without tang.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Flat Bean Santos, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Smooth surface, small to large, pale green and greenish-yellow to + pale yellow. It is a sixth year crop of Bourbon Santos. Good full smooth + body. Used straight and in combination with all milds.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Mocha-Seed Santos, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A grade of Bourbon designed as a substitute for true Mocha on the + European markets.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2bb'>Campinas, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'>The oldest coffee district in São Paulo. There are 136 others.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Gradings for All São Paulo</i>:</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbbpl2'>1—Fine<br />2—Superior<br />3—Good</td> + <td class='tdlbbpl2'>4—Regular<br />5—Ordinary<br />6—Escalba</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Rio de Janeriro</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1bb'>Minãs Geraes Rio, <i>m n</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Various shades of green, medium to large. Peculiar pungent flavor and aroma.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Gradings for All Rios</i>:<br />(N.Y. Coffee Exchange)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>1—No imperfections<br />2—6 imperfections<br />3—13 imperfections<br /> + 4—20 imperfections<br />5—60 imperfections</td> + <td class='tdlpl2'>6—110 imperfections<br />7—About 200 imperfections<br />8—About 400 imperfections</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'>(On Havre Exchange)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbbpl2' colspan='2'>Washed—Inferior and ordinary<br /> + Unwashed—Superior, 1st good, 1st regular, 1st ordinary, 2nd good, 2nd ordinary.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Victoria<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Espirito Santo <i>d</i><br /> Victoria, <i>t</i><br /> + Capitania, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Large, dingy-green or brown bean making a roast free from quakers but but muddy in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Bahia</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Bahia, <i>d, t</i>, & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Low grade, having a peculiar smoky flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Chapada, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Light-colored, fair-sized bean; attractive roast, but no cup character.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Caravellas, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Similar to Chapada.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Nazareth, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small bean, fair roast, undesirable cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Maragogipe, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A variety of <i>Coffea arabica</i>; large bean, elephantine roast, woody in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ceará</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Ceará, <i>t</i><br />Cuaruaru, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small, flinty, green bean; value like Santos of the same grade.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ecuador</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Guayaquil</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ecuador</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The Ecuador coffee bean is small, pea-green + in color, and not high grade. It resembles Ceará, + and when old makes a bright roast. It is poor in cup quality and useful + only as a filler. Not an important commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Peru</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Callao<br />Mollendo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Peru<br /> Choquisongo, <i>d</i><br /> + Cajamarca, <i>d</i><br /> + Perene, <i>d</i><br /> + Paucartambo, <i>d</i><br /> + Chauchamayo, <i>d</i><br /> + Huanuaco, <i>d</i><br /> + Pacasmayo, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The green coffee bean of Peru ranges from medium to bold in + size, and from bluish to yellow in color. The highland variety has been + compared with the high-grade Mexicans, but the lowland growths are + not favorably regarded. Unimportant commercially.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Bolivia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Bolivia<br /> La Paz, <i>d</i><br /> + Apolobamba, <i>t</i><br /> + Yungas, <i>m n</i><br /> + Cochabamba, <i>d</i><br /> + Santa Cruz, <i>d</i><br /> + Sara<br /> + Velasco<br /> + Chiquitos<br /> + Cordillera<br /> + El Beni, <i>d</i><br /> + Chuquisca, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Bolivia's coffee, though of superior quality and + sometimes compared favorably with Arabian growths, is an unimportant + factor in international coffee trading.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Argentina</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Argentina<br /> Salta, <i>d</i><br /> + Jujuy, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Argentina's coffee is grown chiefly for home + consumption. Unimportant commercially.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Paraguay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbrb'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Paraguay<br /> Altos, <i>d</i><br /> + Asuncion, <i>d</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: Paraguay's coffee is all marketed in Asuncion, where it + is sold as Brazilian coffee. It is commercially important.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='42'>Asia</td> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='16'>Arabia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Aden<br />Hodeida<br />Maidi<br />Leheya</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mocha</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Arabian, or Mocha, beans are very small, hard, round + irregular in form and size; in color, olive green shading off to pale yellow. + The roast is poor and irregular. In the cup they have a unique acid + character, heavy body; in flavor, smooth and delicious.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Yemen<br /> Marttari, <i>d</i><br /> + (Mohtari)</td> + <td align='left'>From the Beni-Mattar country; the best; a yellow-green translucent bean.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Yaffey, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>From the Yaffey country near Taiz; second best.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Sharki, <i>d</i><br />(Shergi)</td> + <td align='left'>A long light yellow bean, from the east, "Esh Shark" a superior Mocha with a rich full body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Sanani, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>From the Sanaa region; a green bean. A grade lower than Sharki.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Haimi-Harazi, <i>d</i><br />(Hemi or Heimah)</td> + <td align='left'>A quality green bean from a mountain near Mattari.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Anezi, <i>d</i><br />(Anisi)</td> + <td align='left'>From the El Anz country. Pale yellow and very hard.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Sharsh, <i>d</i><br />Menakha, <i>d</i><br />Hifash, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Superior qualities of the above due to different methods of curing.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Remi, <i>d</i><br />(Reimah)</td> + <td align='left'>A poorer grade, reddish bean, from Djebel Remi.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Bourai, <i>d</i><br />(Bura)</td> + <td align='left'>A poorer grade from Djebel Boura.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Shami, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>A poorer grade from the north; Esh Sham.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Yemeni, <i>d</i><br />(Taizi)</td> + <td align='left'>A poorer grade from the south; El Yemen.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Maidi, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>A poorer grade from the port of Maidi.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Abyssinia<br /> (Africa)</td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Formerly known as Longberry Mocha, but still shipped through Aden <i>via</i> + Jibuti. See Africa—Abyssinia.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Gradings for All Mochas</i>:</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbb' colspan='2'>Mocha Extra—For all extra qualities as Yaffey, Anezi, Matari, Sharki. Mocha + No. 1—For Anezi, Matari, Sharki; only perfect berries. No. 1A, same as + No. 1, but with some dust. Mocha No. 2—Some broken and quakers. Mocha No. + 3—Broken, quakers and dust. Magrache—Triage or screenings.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='15'>India</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Madras<br />Calicut<br />Mangalore<br />Tellicherry<br /> + Tuticorin<br />Bombay</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Indias, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The Indian coffee bean is small to large and blue-green in + color. In the cup it has a distinctive strong flavor and deep color.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Mysore, <i>d</i><br /> Mysore, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Mountain-grown, large, blue-green bean, heavy body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Madras, <i>d</i><br /> Malabar, <i>m n</i><br />(Wynaad)</td> + <td align='left'>Small bean, solid and meaty; handsome roast, peculiar rich flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Nilgiri, <i>d</i><br /> Nilgiris, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small to large bean with slight acidity in the cup; plantation Ceylon character.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Madura, <i>d</i><br />(Palni Hills)</td> + <td align='left'>No marked characteristics.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Salem, <i>d</i><br />(Shevaroys)</td> + <td align='left'>Same as Nilgiris.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Coimbatore, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Same as Nilgiris.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Tellicherry, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>A good grade resembling Malabar; somewhat similar Nilgiris.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Coorg (or Kurg), <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>A large, flat, dark green bean, thin in the cup; a lowland variety.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Travancore, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Similar to Nilgiris.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Cochin, <i>d</i><br /> Cochin, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A native cherry.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Bombay, <i>d</i><br /> Kanara</td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Bengal, <i>d</i><br /> Chittagong</td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Assam</td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>South Sylhet</td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Burma</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Rangoon</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Burma<br /> Tavoy, <i>d</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Large spongy bean; grassy cup. Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><i>Classes for All Indias</i>:</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbb' colspan='2'>1—Native cherry (sun dried and then hulled)<br /> + 2—Plantation (washed)<br /> + Sizes: Nos. 1, 2 and 3; Peaberry and Triage</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ceylon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Colombo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ceylon<br /> Gampola, <i>d</i><br /> + Dumbara, <i>d</i><br /> + Kotmale, <i>d</i><br /> Pussellawa, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Ceylon's coffees are no longer the commercial factor + they were before the coffee blight practically destroyed the industry. Those + left, however, still retain much of their original character, the + hill-grown washed being unique in appearance and flavor. In the old + days they were classed as native, or plain-grown, plantation, mountain, and + Liberian.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Malay States<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='6'>Penang<br /> (Georgetown)<br />Singapore</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Straits Liberian, <i>m n</i><br />Straits Robusta, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The coffee from the Malay States is mostly Liberian and Robusta and is + not important commercially, although the Robusta variety promises to become + an important factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Perak, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Most important of the Federated States coffees.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Selangor, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Native state coffee.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Negri-Sembilan, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Nine states. Federation district coffees.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Bali, <i>d</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>From the island in Netherlands East Indies<br /> + (<a href="#Page_374">See p. 374.</a>)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Timor, <i>d</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>From the island in Netherlands East Indies<br /> + (<a href="#Page_374">See p. 374.</a>)</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>French Indo-China</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Haiphong</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Indo-China, <i>m n</i><br /> Tonkin<br /> + Annam<br /> Cambodia<br /> + Cochin-China</td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: The coffees of French Indo-China, while comparatively new, + give promise; but as yet are not commercially important. The original arabica + plantings have been succeeded by liberica and robusta growths.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='68'>Malay Archipelago</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Sunda Islands</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>East Indies, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Included in this group are the best-known coffees + from Sumatra, Java, Timor, Celebes, etc.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='31'>Netherlands East Indies<br />Sumatra</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Padang<br />Kroe (West Coast)<br />Batavia (Java)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Sumatra</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Included among the coffees of Sumatra are several that + are conceded to be the finest the world produces. The green beans are + large, uniform, and vary in color from pale straw to deep mahogany. They have + a smooth, heavy body, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span> + fancies possessing an almost syrupy richness. They are graded as Private + Estate (washed or dry hulled) and Blue Bean (washed).</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Padang, <i>d</i> & <i>t</i><br /> + Mandheling, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>"The best coffee in the world"; also the highest priced. Formerly a + Government coffee. Yellow to brown, large-sized bean; dully roast, but + free from quakers. It is of heavy body, exquisite flavor and aroma.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Ankola, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Government coffee. Large fat bean, making a dull roast. Second only + to Mandhelings; it has a heavy body and rich, musty flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Siboga, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A harder bean Ankola; sometimes called Private Estate Ankola.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Ayer Bangies, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Government coffee. Large even bean, with Mandheling and + Ankola; of a delicate flavor but not much body.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Corinchie, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a native cultivation. The bean is large, handsome, brown in + color. It makes an attractive roast. Good body, plenty of bitter acid, + delicious flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Interior, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly all Government coffee. The true type of Old Government + Java. Poor roast, good cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Painan</td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Government coffee. Mixed green and brown beans; poor + roast. Heavy body, pungent flavor. Grades next to Inferior.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Liberian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly all Government coffee. <i>Coffea liberica.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Kroe, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a native cultivated coffee. Large even bean, fine roast, heavy + body, somewhat groundy flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Lahat, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Former native cultivation. Smaller than Kroe; good roaster, flat cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Palembang, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Former Private Estates. Smaller than the Padang bean; light color, strong cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Indrapoera, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Former Private Estates. An inferior grade of Sumatra.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Benkoelen, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a native cultivation. Good roast and cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Libaya, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a native cultivation.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Boekit Gompong, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate. A perfect coffee, of heavier + body than Mandheling, good roast; very delicate flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Kagoe Kaleh, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Batang Baros, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Telok Goenoeng, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Aker Gedang, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate. Small bean, good roast, fine flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Soerian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate. Large bean, fine roast, good cup. Ranks next to Boekit Gompong.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Liki, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate. Fine roast, light cup. It ranks next to Soerian.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Loebor Sampir, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Soengei, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Landei, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Ramboetan, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Gadoeng Batoe, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Merapi, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate. Large bean, good roast, good cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Si Barasap, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Laboe Raya, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly a Private Estate. Large bean, good roast, good cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Balawan-Deli<br />Panai</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>East Coast<br /> + Deli, <i>d</i><br /> + Bintangmariah, <i>d</i><br /> + Oelakmedan, <i>d</i><br /> + Panai, <i>d</i><br /></td> + <td align='left'>These coffees are comparatively new. They partake of the qualities common to + the general run of Sumatras without distinguishing characteristics.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='26'>Java<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Batavia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Java, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Java coffees do not compare with Sumatras in quality. They are + smaller in the bean, with a grassy flavor in the cup. Blue to pale + yellow, short round bean. The washed makes a good smooth roast, light in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Preager, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Best of the Java growths.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Cheribon, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Ranks next to Preanger.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Kadoe, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small yellowish-green shelly bean; light in cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Semarang, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Ranks next to Kadoe in roast and cup quality.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Malang, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Hard green bean; better roaster than the above, but inferior in cup quality.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Bantam, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Medium-sized yellowish bean.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Buitenzorg, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>One of the best of the Javas.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Krawang, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Irregular bean; fair roaster; fair cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Tegal, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>One of the best of the Java growths.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Banjoemas, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Medium-sized bean; creamy and fragrant in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Pekalongan, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>With characteristics like Pasuruan.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Baquilan, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>No marked characteristics.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Japara, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Bean light in weight and color; cup neutral.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Surakarta, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Large bean, handsome roast, creamy body, aromatic flavor in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Jokjakarta, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Similar to Surakarta.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Madiun, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Yellow bean, light in weight and body, but good cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Rembang, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Similar to Kadoe.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Surabaya, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Similar to Kadoe.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Kediri, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small hard bean; good drinker.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Pasurauan, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Brown, uniform bean; fragrant in cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Probolingo, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small hard bean: poor roast.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Bejreki, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Bold yellow bean; full body and flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Banjoewangi, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Heavy bean; rich flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Pamanukin, <i>t</i> & <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A Liberian growth.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Robusta, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small, yellowish-green, round bean; quality approximately that + of middling Arabian, ranking a little under good average Santos. Natural, + poor roast. Washed, good roast. Fair cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Bali (Dutch)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Singaraja (Boeleleng)</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Bali, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Fair-size bean of little merit. Poor roast.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Timor (Dutch & Portuguese)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Kupang</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Timor, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Medium bean of good quality.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='5'>Celebes (Dutch)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Celebes, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: With the exception of the Minahassa product, the coffees grown + in the Celebes have little merit and are of inconsiderable importance.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Menado</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Minahassa, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Large, deep-yellow bean, making a handsome roast, and having an aromatic cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Macassar</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Boengie, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Inferior in appearance, but fair roast and cup quality.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Bonthain</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Bontbain, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Medium, flat, reddish bean, poor roast; undesirable cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Sindjai, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Not commercially important.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Moluccas (Dutch)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Ternate</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Boengie, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Superior to the Java <i>arabica</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Borneo<br /> British North<br /> + Sarawak<br /> Dutch</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Sandakan<br />Kuching<br />Banjermasin</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Borneo, <i>m</i> <i>n</i><br />Borneo, <i>m</i> <i>n</i><br />Borneo, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The coffees of Borneo are mostly Liberian + growths and are not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>New Guinea <br /> (Dutch)</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Ternate<br /> (Moluccas)<br />Dorey</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2bb'>New Guinea, <i>m</i> <i>n</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: These coffees are of the mild variety, but the production is + commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='5'>Melanesia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>New Caledonia<br /> (France)<br /><br /> + New Hebrides<br /> (Great Britain<br /> + and France)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Noumea</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>New Caledonia<br /> La Foa</td> + <td align='left'>A fair Robusta coffee, but commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Efate</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Vila</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>New Hebrides</td> + <td align='left'>A fair coffee, but not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Samoan Islands<br /> Tutuila<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Pago Pago (U.S.)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Samoa</td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Fiji (British)<br /> Vita Levu</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Suva</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Fiji</td> + <td align='left'>Medium-sized green bean; grassy cup. Not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Tonga (Friendly Islands)<br /> Tongatabu</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Nukualofa</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Tonga</td> + <td class='tdlbb'>For local consumption only.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='5'>Philippine Islands<br />(U.S.)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Luzon</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Manila</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Manila<br /> La Laguna, <i>d</i> + <br /> Batangas, <i>d</i> + <br /> Cavite, <i>d</i> + <br /> Benguet, <i>d</i> + <br /> Lepanto, <i>d</i> + <br /> Bontoc, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Manila, or Philippine, coffee is not an important trade factor. The + bean is medium size, grayish-green in color, having fine aroma and excellent flavor. + It compares favorably with Costa Rica and Guatemala.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Panay</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Iloilo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Panay</td> + <td align='left'>No marked characteristics.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cebu</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cebu</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Cebu</td> + <td align='left'>No marked characteristics.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Palawan</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Puerto Princessa</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Palawan</td> + <td align='left'>No marked characteristics.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Mindanao</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Zamboanga</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Zamboanga</td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Large bean; thin liquor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Marianas or Ladrone<br />Islands</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Guam (U.S.)</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Apra</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Guam</td> + <td class='tdlbb'>No production for export.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='9'>Oceania Polynesia</td> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='8'>Hawaiian Islands<br /> (U.S.)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Manila</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Honolulu (Oahua)<br />Hilo<br />Kailua</td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Hawaiian coffee is a large bean, blue-green to + yellow-brown in color; handsome roaster, fine smooth flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Kona, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Large, blue, flinty bean, mildly acid; striking character.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Puna, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Quality good but quantity small.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Olaa, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Quality good but quantity small.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Hamakua, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Quality good but quantity small.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Maui, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Production small.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Oahu, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Production small.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Kauai, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Production small.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Society Islands<br /> (French)</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Papeete</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Tahiti</td> + <td class='tdlbb'>A fair coffee, but not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Australia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Queensland</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Cairns<br />Mackay<br />Brisbane</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Queensland<br /> Mackay, <i>d</i></td> + <td class='tdlbb'><i>In general</i>: The coffee is from Ceylon or Coorg seed and is for + local consumption. Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb' rowspan='36'>Africa</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Egypt</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Alexandria</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Egyptian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: Coffees from the upper Nile region, Kaffa Land, + Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and Nubia are generally spoken of as + Egyptians. They have some Mocha characteristics, but are not important + commercially.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='2'>Anglo-Egyptian<br /> Sudan</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Suakin<br />Alexandria<br /> (Egypt)</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Nubian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Small, flinty, pale-green, oval bean; heavy body; rich flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Berber, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Some superior drinking coffees come from this district.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Eritrea (Italy)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Massowah</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Abyssinian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>The coffee is of the but the output is not an important trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Somaliland<br /> French</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Jibuti</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Harar, <i>d, t</i><br /> Abyssinian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>These coffees are not grown in French Somaliland, but come from Abyssinia + to Jibuti and Aden for export to Europe and America. See Abyssinia.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>British</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Berbera<br />Zeila</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Harar, <i>d, t</i><br /> Abyssinian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Grown, as above, in Abyssinia.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Italian</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mukdishu</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Benadir, <i>d, & m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Abyssinian type, but not an important trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='7'>Abyssinia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Jibuti<br /> (French Somaliland)<br />Zeila</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Harar, <i>d, t</i><br /> Abyssinian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The Harari coffee is more carefully cultivated and cured than the + Abyssinian, which is its inferior.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Berbera<br /> (British Somaliland)<br />Massowah (Eritrea)<br />Aden (Arabia)</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Harar, <i>d, t</i><br /> Harari, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>The original Mocha Longberry. Large, long blue-green to yellow bean. + (Graded No. 1 or No. 2, according to size) roasting with few quakers, + similar to Mocha, having an excellent flavor but not quite so delicate.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Dire-Daoua, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Railway trading center for Harari and Abyssinian coffees.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Abyssinia<br /> Kaffa, <i>d</i> + <br /> (Gomara)</td> + <td align='left'>The native coffee grown wild in this district has little commercial importance. The + bean is dark gray, and it has a groundy flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Bonga, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Trading center for Abyssinia.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Jimma, <i>d</i><br /> Jiren, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Trading center for Abyssinia.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Shoa, <i>d</i><br /> Adis-Abeba, <i>t</i></td> + <td align='left'>Mostly Abyssinian growths are exported from this trading center to + Harar or Dire-Daoua.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Kenya Colony<br /> (Formerly British + <br /> East Africa)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mombasa</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Nairobi, <i>d & t</i><br /> Kikuyu + <br /> Kyambu</td> + <td align='left'>Having Mysore characteristics with a touch of Mocha flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Uganda Protectorate<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mombasa</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Uganda<br /> Bunganda, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Greenish-gray to light-brown Robusta. Poor to fairly good liquor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Zanzibar Protectorate<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Zanzibar</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Zanzibar</td> + <td align='left'>Medium-sized bean; full body, pleasing flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Tanganyika Territory<br /> (Formerly German<br /> East Africa)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Dar-es-Salaam</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>East Africa, <i>m n</i><br /> or + <br /> Tanganyika, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Nyasaland Protectorate<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Chinde<br /> (Portuguese East Africa)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Nyasaland<br /> Shire Highlands, <i>d</i> + <br /> Blantyre, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'>Some high-grown and of fine quality. Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Rhodesia<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Beira<br /> (Portuguese East Africa)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Rhodesia</td> + <td align='left'>For local consumption. Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Portuguese East Africa</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mozambique</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Mozambique</td> + <td align='left'>Medium-sized greenish bean, heavy body; mild and mellow in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Natal<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Durban</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Natal</td> + <td align='left'>Large, light-brown Liberian growth. Not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr' rowspan='2'>AngolaNigeria(Portugal)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Loanda</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Angola</td> + <td align='left'>Medium-size bean, brownish color, strong in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'> </td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Encoje, <i>d</i>, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Light weight, dark brown Robusta; strong in the cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Belgian Congo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Banana</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'> Congo, <i>m n</i><br />Equator, <i>d</i><br /> + Aruwimi, <i>d</i><br />Bangala, <i>d</i><br />Lake Leopold, <i>d</i></td> + <td align='left'><i>In general</i>: The coffees of the Belgian Congo are mostly Liberian and + Robusta growths. There is produced a medium-sized bean, making a handsome + roast and having a rich cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>French Congo</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Loango<br />Libreville</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl1'>Loango, <i>d</i>, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Formerly Encoje from Angola. Inferior to Liberian.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Nigeria<br /> (British)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Lagos</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Nigeria</td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Gold Coast<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Accra</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Gold Coast</td> + <td align='left'>Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Liberia</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Monrovia</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Liberian, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Large, brown bean; big, handsome roaster; strong in cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Sierra Leone<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Freetown</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Sierra Leone</td> + <td align='left'><i>C. stenophylla</i>, a native growth. Not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>French Guinea</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Konakry</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Guinea, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Portuguese Guinea</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Bissao</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Guinea, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Commercially unimportant.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Comoro Islands<br /> (French)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Maroni</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Comoro, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>A wild natural caffein-free coffee (<i>C. humboltiana</i>); + also found in Madagascar. Not a commercial factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Madagascar<br /> (French)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Tamatave</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>Madagascar</td> + <td align='left'>Light-green <i>liberica</i> and <i>robusta</i> bean; full rich flavor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbr'>Réunion, formerly<br /> Bourbon (French)</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>St. Denis</td> + <td class='tdlbrpl2'>Bourbon, <i>m n</i></td> + <td align='left'>Nearest to Mocha in character (q. v.). Round and pointed bean, pale green + or pale yellow. Not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Mauritius<br /> (British)</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Port Louis</td> + <td class='tdlbrb'>Mauritius</td> + <td class='tdlbb'>Similar to Bourbon. Medium light green, full body, mild and + mellow flavor. Not a trade factor.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"><br /><br /> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXV" id="Chapter_XXV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXV</span></h2> + +<h3>FACTORY PREPARATION OF ROASTED COFFEE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Coffee roasting as a business—Wholesale coffee-roasting +machinery—Separating, milling, and mixing or blending green +coffee, and roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity—Facts +about coffee roasting—Cost of roasting—Green-coffee shrinkage +table—"Dry" and "wet" roasts—On roasting coffee efficiently—A +typical coal roaster—Cooling and stoning—Finishing or +glazing—Blending roasted coffees—Blends for restaurants—Grinding +and packaging—Coffee additions and fillers—Treated coffees, and +dry extracts</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> coffee bean is not ready for beverage purposes until it has been +properly "manufactured", that is, roasted, or "cooked". Only in this way +can all the stimulating, flavoring, and aromatic principles concealed in +the minute cells of the bean be extracted at one time. An infusion from +green coffee has a decidedly unpleasant taste and hardly any color. +Likewise, an underdone roast has a disagreeable "grassy" flavor; while +an overdone roast gives a charred taste that is unpalatable to the +average citizen of the United States.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Roasting as a Business</i></p> + +<p>In spite of the generally admitted fact that freshly roasted coffee +makes the best infusion, most of the coffee used today is not roasted at +or near the place where it is brewed, but in factories that are provided +with special equipment for the roasting of coffee in a wholesale way. +The reasons for this are various, partly relating to the mere economy of +buying and manufacturing on a large scale, and partly relating to the +trained skill that is needed both for selecting suitable green coffees +to make a satisfactory blend, and for the roasting work itself. The +proportion of consumers (including restaurants and hotels) who roast +their own coffee is so small as to be negligible, at least in the United +States. The average person who buys coffee today, for brewing use, never +sees green coffee at all, unless as an "educational exhibit" in some +dealer's display window.</p> + +<p>The reasons just mentioned, which have made coffee roasting a real +business, all tend, of course, to make the roasting establishments of +large size; but this tendency is offset by the problem of distributing +the roasting coffee so that it will reach the ultimate consumer in good +condition. Roasting enterprises on a comparatively small scale (not by +consumers, but by sufficiently expert dealers) would probably be much +more numerous on account of the "fresh-roast" argument, except for the +fact that coffee-roasting machines can not be installed so easily as the +grinding mills, meat-choppers, and slicing machines, that find extended +use in small stores. The steam, smoke, and chaff given off by the coffee +as it is roasted must be disposed of by an outdoor connection, without +annoying the neighbors or creating a fire hazard.</p> + +<p>From these general remarks, it can easily be seen that the size of +individual roasting establishments will vary greatly, according to the +skill of the proprietor in meeting the disadvantages of working on +either the smallest or the largest scale. A wholesale plant may be +considered to be one in which coffee is roasted in batches of one bag or +more at a time; and with this definition, nearly all the roasting in the +United States is done in a wholesale way.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="MODERN_GAS_COFFEE-ROASTING_PLANT" id="MODERN_GAS_COFFEE-ROASTING_PLANT"></a> +<img src="images/image297.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="A MODERN GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT WITH A CAPACITY OF 1,000 BAGS A DAY" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A MODERN GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT WITH A CAPACITY OF 1,000 BAGS A DAY</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>General view of the roasting room of the Jewel Tea Co., Hoboken, N.J. +The equipment consists of twelve Jubilee gas machines in four groups; +each group having a smoke-suction fan, and a drag conveyor over the +three feed hoppers. To the left is a line of flexible-arm cooler cars.</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span></p><p>For many years the regular factory machines have been of a size +suitable for roasting two bags of coffee at a time; but roasters of +larger size have recently come into considerable use.</p> + +<p>Plants treating from fifty to a hundred and fifty bags per day are the +most common; but the daily capacity runs up to a thousand bags or more. +The minimum cost of equipping a plant is somewhere between five thousand +dollars and ten thousand dollars. The individual machines are of +standard construction; but the arrangement in a particular building, +especially for the larger plants, is worked out with great care and with +numerous special features, so that the goods can be handled from start +to finish with minimum expense for floor space, labor, power, etc.</p> + +<p>The practical coffee roaster locates his roasting room in the top floor +of his factory building, where light and ventilation are generally best. +He usually has a large skylight in the roof, directly over the roasting +equipment. In addition to the advantage as regards good light and the +convenient discharge of smoke, steam, and odors, through the roof, the +top-story location makes it possible to send the roasted coffee by +gravity through the various bins which may be needed in connection with +subsequent operations, such as grinding, and for temporary storage +before the final packaging and shipping.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Wholesale Coffee-Roasting Machinery</i></p> + +<p>The indispensable coffee operations are roasting and cooling; and in +practically all United States plants the cooling is followed by +"stoning". This is an air-suction operation that effects, aided by +gravity, the removal of any stones or other hard material that would +damage the grinding mill. The best commercial cleaning and grading of +the green coffee has usually left in every bag a few small stones. These +can be got rid of better after the coffee is roasted; because it is then +not only lighter, but more bulky.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Plan_Milling-Machine_Connections" id="Plan_Milling-Machine_Connections"></a> +<img src="images/diagram4.jpg" width="500" height="432" alt="Milling-Machine Connections for a Two-Roaster Plant" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Milling-Machine Connections for a Two-Roaster Plant</span><br /> +<small>Besides these three operations of roasting, cooling, and stoning, the +plant may have machinery for treating the coffee both before it is +roasted and after it leaves the stoner.</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /><a name="SIXTEEN-CYLINDER_COAL_ROASTING_PLANT" id="SIXTEEN-CYLINDER_COAL_ROASTING_PLANT"></a> +<img src="images/image298.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="A SIXTEEN-CYLINDER COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORK FACTORY" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">A SIXTEEN-CYLINDER COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORK FACTORY<br /> +<small>This is a view of the roasting room of B. Fischer & Co. and shows a +battery of Burns coal roasters</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span></p><p>Treatment of the green coffee in roasting establishments is of less +importance now than in years gone by; first, because most coffees now +come to market more perfectly graded and cleaned than formerly; and +second, because the whole-bean appearance of the coffee has become of +less account, as wholesale grinding operations have increased. +Nevertheless, many plants consider it highly important to have a +separator for grading the coffee closely as regards the size of the +beans—and particularly for the separation of round beans, or +"peaberry"—as well as milling machinery for making the coffee as clean +as possible before it is roasted. One green coffee operation that has +lost none of its old-time importance, but on the contrary is more needed +as the plants increase in size, is the mixing of different varieties of +coffee—in proportions that have been decided on by sample tests—so as +to get a uniform blend.</p> + +<p>The mixer does not blend the various coffees any more surely than a good +roaster cylinder will do it, but treats batches of much larger size. +This means saving a great amount of labor that would be necessary for +putting the desired quantity of component coffees into each individual +roaster.</p> + +<p>A proper installation of green coffee machinery requires various bins of +ample capacity, and bucket elevators by which the coffee can be sent +without manual labor from one operation to another. In modern plants, +all the bins and elevators are constructed of metal. The separator, with +its bins and elevator, may be installed independently of the rest of the +plant, the graded coffee being all bagged up again and treated as new +raw stock—some of it to be held for later use, or perhaps sold again +unroasted. The milling machine and the mixer, however, are usually so +placed and connected that the coffee can be sent from one to the other, +and to the roaster feed hoppers, without any manual labor.</p> + +<p>When the roaster sells his product in package form ready for the +consumer, he will have a packaging department in which are grinding, +weighing, labeling, and packing machines and equipment. In some of the +more progressive plants, particularly in the United States, all the +packing units are incorporated in one machine, so that the different +steps in the work are carried on automatically and in one continuous +operation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="Plan_Green-Coffee-Mixer_Connections" id="Plan_Green-Coffee-Mixer_Connections"></a> +<img src="images/diagram5.jpg" width="350" height="522" alt="Green-Coffee-Mixer Connections" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Green-Coffee-Mixer Connections</span></span> +<p><small>To operate at full capacity, without using the story above as well as +below the mixer, requires a bucket elevator and three bins, each holding +a full mixing batch. The above diagram explains this setting. The mixed +coffee in the discharge bin is either drawn out into bags or sent by an +elevator to a milling machine or direct to the coffee roasters. A batch +ready for mixing can always be accumulated in the feed bin while the +previous batch is being mixed or discharged.</small></p> + +<p><small>The fan is usually hung to the ceiling over the mixer as indicated, and +connected to the suction box by a 1-in. round pipe. The fan outlet can +be carried directly out-of-doors; but the dusty discharge is +objectionable in most installations, and this pipe is usually carried to +a dust collector from the top of which the roof outlet is connected.</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The efficient roaster-executive equips his entire plant with approved +labor-saving devices. In the better establishments, the coffee is +carried along by mechanical conveyors through all the operations from +the first cleaning machine to the final packaging.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Separating</i></p> + +<p>As already mentioned, a machine frequently found in wholesale plants is +the separator, or grader. This apparatus, which is the same in principle +in all countries, but varies in size and form according to local +requirements, consists of a series of perforated screens. The +perforations differ in size; and as the coffee is shaken on them, the +small beans drop through the holes, the larger ones passing across the +screen and dropping into a receptacle or chute ready for the next +operation. The screens are made to grade the beans into large and small +peaberry; large, medium, and small flat beans; brokens; and other +commercial sizes. The average separator will grade fifteen to twenty +bags of coffee in an hour.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><a name="GREEN-COFFEE_SEPARATING_AND_MILLING_MACHINES" id="GREEN-COFFEE_SEPARATING_AND_MILLING_MACHINES"></a> +<table border="0" width="100%" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Green-Coffee Separating and Milling Machines"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/image299.jpg" width="300" height="380" alt="Green-coffee-milling machine" title="" /><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Green-coffee-milling machine having a capacity of forty +bags of green coffee per hour; with sifter, feed-pipe suction, and a +final separate suction at the discharge hopper</small></p> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> +<img src="images/image300.jpg" width="300" height="398" alt="Green-coffee separator" title="" /><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>Green-coffee separator without fan; with feed elevator, +discharge chutes, and motor drive. View of right-hand side and feed end</small></p> +</div></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'> +GREEN-COFFEE SEPARATING AND MILLING MACHINES</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Milling</i></p> + +<p>Milling machines, for cleaning the green coffee, operate on practically +the same principle the world over, varying in capacity and details of +construction. A popular type used in the United States has two metal +cylinders, one set within the other, and revolving in opposite +directions. The inner cylinder is ribbed with flanges, and the outer one +is lined with wire cloth. As these cylinders revolve, the beans pass +between them rubbing against themselves and the rough sides of the +cylinders. This action serves to remove dirt and other foreign matter +that may be clinging to the beans, and also gives them an attractive +polish. An exhaust fan sucks away the dirt milled off in the process. +This type of machine will mill about forty bags of green coffee in an +hour.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Mixing or Blending Green Coffee</i></p> + +<p>Most roasters blend the different types of coffee while green. Some +blend them after they have been roasted separately. When blended before +roasting, the coffees are mixed by a machine built especially for that +purpose. The mixing machine in general use in all countries consists of +a large metal cylinder which, in wholesale operations, is revolved by +the factory's general power plant or by a separate motor. The cylinder +is equipped on the inside with sets of reverse-screw mixing flanges that +tumble the beans around until they are thoroughly blended; and there is +usually a fan attachment to remove dust. This operation serves also to +smooth down and to polish the surfaces of the beans, which adds to the +style of the coffee when roasted. The average blending machine will mix +from ten to twenty bags of coffee at a time. The actual mixing requires +less than five minutes, but a longer period is needed for feeding and +discharging. This is the last of the so-called "green-coffee +operations". The next step is roasting.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Roasting by Coal, Coke, Gas, and Electricity</i></p> + +<p>Coffee is roasted commercially in cylinder or ball receptacles revolving +in heated chambers, the degree of heat reaching about 420° Fahr. The +cylinder type of roaster is invariably used in the United States; while +both the cylinder and the ball types are popular in England, France, +Germany, Holland, and other foreign countries.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="English_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant" id="English_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant"></a> +<img src="images/image301.jpg" width="500" height="265" alt="An English Four-Machine Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An English Four-Machine Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant</span><br /> +<small>The equipment includes three Morewood indirect-flame, and one quick +direct-flame machines</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Each roasterman has his own opinion about the fuel that gives the best +result, and throughout the world the choice lies between anthracite +coal, coke, and gas; though<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> hard wood is frequently used in countries +where other fuels are not available or not economical. Electric heat has +been tried for commercial roasting in Germany (1906), in England (1909), +and in the United States (1918); but the experimenters have always found +the cost of electric fuel to be prohibitive in competition with coal and +gas. An electric roaster was demonstrated at the Food Conservation Show +in New York, in 1918, at a time when the federal government was urging +the necessity of conserving coal as a war economy measure. The inventor +claimed that his machine would reduce roasting cost, improve the flavor +and the aroma, and maintain a constant and easily controlled heat. He +declared also that when roasted in his devices, less coffee was required +for brewing.</p> + +<p>An expert coffee-roasting-machinery man who has been working on the +development of a practical electric roaster says that if it were +possible to bake the coffee in an oven, just as the baker does his +bread, the fuel cost would then compare favorably with that of gas or +coal. It is because the heat chamber must have an exhaust to release the +chaff and smoke that the use of electricity to replace the heat loss +proves prohibitive when compared with coal or gas.</p> + +<p>In all types of coal and coke burning roasters, the cylinders are heated +by a fire underneath; while in gas roasters, the flame may be underneath +or within the cylinder itself. Roasters in which the heat is within the +cylinder are known as direct-flame or inner-heated machines. All three +systems are used in the United States and Europe.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Facts About Coffee Roasting</i></p> + +<p>The modern commercial roasting outfit is as near fool-proof as human +genius has been able to devise. The more advanced types are almost +automatic in operation, and are designed to insure uniformity of roasts. +In such machines the green coffee is conveyed to the roasting cylinder +by means of bucket elevators, which pour the beans into a feed hopper. +From the feed hopper, the coffee is dumped through the opening in the +front head-piece into the cylinder. The cylinder is perforated, and has +inside flanges which keep tossing the coffee about while the cylinder +revolves, so that the coffee will not burn during the roasting process.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="German_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant" id="German_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant"></a> +<img src="images/image302.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="German Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant Equipped with Ideal-Rapid Machines" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">German Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant Equipped with Ideal-Rapid Machines</span></span> +</div> + +<p>To roast coffee by coal or coke usually requires from twenty-five to +thirty minutes, depending on the moisture-content of the beans; whether +they are spongy or flinty; whether a light, medium, or dark<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> roast is +desired; and on the skill of the operator. Gas roasting requires from +fifteen to twenty minutes. The quicker the roast, the better the coffee, +is the opinion of many trade leaders, one of whom<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is a growing belief that in roasts of short duration the largest +percentage of the aromatic properties is retained. A slow roast has +the effect of baking and does not give full development; also, slow +roasts seldom produce bright roasts, and they usually make the +coffee hard instead of brittle, even when the color standard has +been attained.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="French_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant" id="French_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant"></a> +<img src="images/image303.jpg" width="500" height="266" alt="French Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant Equipped with Moderne Machines" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">French Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant Equipped with Moderne Machines</span></span> +</div> + +<p>While coffees of widely varying degrees of moisture require somewhat +different treatment, the consensus of opinion is that the best results +are obtained from a slow fire at the beginning, until some of the +moisture has been driven off, when the stronger application of heat may +be given for development. An intense heat in the beginning often results +in "tipping", or charring, the little germ at the end, the most +sensitive part of the bean.</p> + +<p>Scorched beans have been caught at some point in the cylinder, often in +a bent flange. Burning on one face, sometimes called "kissing the +cheeks", is caused by the too rapid revolution of the cylinder, so that +some of the coffee "carries over". In the best practise, crowding of +cylinders is avoided; many roasters making it a rule not to exceed +ninety percent of the rated capacity of the cylinder.</p> + +<p>Those operating gas roasters may effect a fuel economy by running a low +grade coffee in the cylinder after the last roast has been drawn and the +gas extinguished; five minutes' revolution absorbs the heat and drives +off a proportion of moisture. The coffee, which may then be left in the +cylinder, requires less time and fuel in the morning, and the roast is +finished while the cylinder is warming up. Double roasting brightens a +roast, but is a detriment to the cup quality. A dull roasting coffee may +be improved by revolving the green coffee in a cylinder without heat for +twenty minutes, which has the effect of milling.</p> + +<p>The use of a small amount of water upon roasts gives better control by +checking the roast at the proper point—the crucial time of its greatest +heat; also, it swells and brightens the coffee, and tends to close the +outer pores. While the addition of water is open to abuse, few roasters +have soaked their coffees enough to offset the natural shrinkage as much +as three or four percent. Such practise would result greatly to the +detriment of the cup quality.</p> + +<p>There is no universal standard for the degree to which coffee should be +roasted. In the United States, there are demands for all degrees; from +the light roast, in favor in England, to the extremely dark roast in +vogue in France, Italy, Brazil,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> Turkey, and in the producing countries. +The North American trade recognizes these different roasts: light, +cinnamon, medium, high, city, full city, French, and Italian. The city +roast is a dark bean, while full city is a few degrees darker. In the +French roast, the bean is cooked until the natural oil appears on the +surface; and in the Italian, it is roasted to the point of actual +carbonization, so that it can be easily powdered. Germany likes a roast +similar to the French type; while Scandinavia prefers the high Italian +roast.</p> + +<p>In the United States, the lighter roast is favored on the Pacific coast; +the darkest, in the South; and a medium-colored roast, in the Eastern +states. The cinnamon roast is most favored by the trade in Boston.</p> + +<p>While coffee roasting in the United States usually takes from fifteen to +thirty minutes, depending on the fuel and the machine employed, +manufacturers of gas machines on the German market claim to roast it in +superior fashion in from three and a half to ten minutes.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a> This +subject is discussed more in detail in chapter XXXIV.</p> + +<p>Coffee loses weight during the roasting process, the loss varying +according to the degree of roasting and the nature of the bean. Coffee +roasters figure, however, that the average loss is sixteen percent of +the weight of the green bean. It has been estimated that one hundred +pounds of coffee in the cherry produces twenty-five pounds in the +parchment; that one hundred pounds in parchment produces eighty-four +pounds of cleaned coffee; and that one hundred pounds of cleaned coffee +produces eighty-four pounds roasted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Jumbo_Coffee_Roaster_Arbuckle_Plant" id="Jumbo_Coffee_Roaster_Arbuckle_Plant"></a> +<img src="images/image304.jpg" width="500" height="379" alt="Jumbo Coffee Roaster, in the Arbuckle Coffee-Roasting Plant, New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Jumbo Coffee Roaster, in the Arbuckle Coffee-Roasting Plant, New York</span></span><br /> +<p class="hang2"><small>There are four of these machines. The cylinders are twelve feet in +diameter, six feet deep, and can roast 5,000 pounds of coffee every +half-hour. The hard-coal brick furnace is seen at the left, from which a +blower forces the heated air through a pipe into the revolving cylinder +of coffee. The coffee is fed from above and is emptied into the cooling +pans beneath</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Roasting_Plant_of_Reid_Murdoch_Co" id="Roasting_Plant_of_Reid_Murdoch_Co"></a> +<img src="images/image305.jpg" width="500" height="293" alt="An Eight-Cylinder Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Eight-Cylinder Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant</span><br /> +<small>A view of Reid, Murdoch & Co.'s roasting room, Chicago, equipped with +Monitor machines</small></span> +</div> + +<p>During the roasting process the coffee undergoes a great chemical +change. After it has been in the cylinder a short time, the color of the +bean becomes a yellowish brown, which gradually deepens as it cooks. +Likewise, as the beans become heated, they shrivel up until about half +done, or at the "developing" point. At this stage, they begin to swell, +and then "pop open", increasing fifty percent in bulk.<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> This is when +the experienced roasterman turns on all the heat he can command to +finish the roasting as quickly as possible.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>"Dry" and "Wet" Roasts</i></p> + +<p>At frequent intervals, he thrusts his "trier"—an instrument shaped +somewhat like an elongated spoon—into the cylinder, and takes out a +sample of coffee to compare with his type sample. When the coffee is +done, he shuts off the heat and checks the cooking by reducing the +temperature of the coffee and of the cylinder as quickly as can be done. +In the wet roast method he will spray the coffee, while the cylinder is +still revolving, with three to four quarts of water to every 130 pounds +of coffee. In the dry method he depends altogether upon his cooling +apparatus.</p> + +<p>Roasters generally are not in favor of the excessive watering of coffee +in and after the roasting process for the purpose of reducing shrinkage. +"Heading" the coffee, or checking the roast before turning it out of the +roasting cylinder, is quite another matter and is considered legitimate. +Where coffees are watered in the cylinder at the close of the roast to +reduce the shrinkage, it is possible to get back only about four percent +of the shrinkage by such treatment and the practise is frowned upon by +the best roasters.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, water is turned into the roasting cylinder to quench +the roast. The amount varies with the style of machine, whether gas or +coal. Usually the water turns to steam, and the result is not an +absorption of the water but a momentary checking of the roast with a +tendency to swell and to brighten the coffee. This is, comparatively +speaking, a "dry roast", but not an absolutely dry roast. It is doubtful +if more than one percent of American coffee roasters employ an +absolutely "dry" roast—it does not give satisfactory results. The word +has been abused for advertising purposes. Of course, a dry roasted +coffee is a better article for making a satisfactory beverage than one +that has been soaked with water; but the word "dry" must be given a +definite meaning, which the trade generally will agree to uphold, if it +is to have any real meaning or value to the consumer. Until some +standard for roasted coffee shall be established, it is to be feared the +term "dry roast" will continue to be used for coffee roasted by almost +any other process.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="COMPLETE_GAS_COFFEE-PLANT_INSTALLATION" id="COMPLETE_GAS_COFFEE-PLANT_INSTALLATION"></a> +<img src="images/image306.jpg" width="500" height="326" alt="Upper-Story View of a Jubilee Plant, Showing Roaster, Cooler, and Stoner Equipment" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Upper-Story View of a Jubilee Plant, Showing Roaster, Cooler, and Stoner Equipment</span><br /> +<small>The parts under roasting-room floor are shown in the illustration below</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image307.jpg" width="500" height="352" alt="Lower-Story View of the Same Plant from About the Same Angle" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lower-Story View of the Same Plant from About the Same Angle</span><br /> +<small>Showing connection from floor hopper to stoner on the left, and +suspended bucket-elevator boot with four-bag dump hopper on the right</small><br /> +COMPLETE GAS COFFEE-PLANT INSTALLATION</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p><p>The Bureau of Chemistry held a hearing in 1914 at Washington, at which +the question of a ruling on watering coffees was discussed. The trade +was well represented, but no agreement was reached. It was deemed +inadvisable to make a definite rule on the watering of coffee; because +the water content can not be controlled, as the bean starts to absorb +moisture as soon as it leaves the roaster.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>On Roasting Coffee Efficiently</i></p> + +<p>A.L. Burns, New York, is well qualified to speak on this subject. He +says:</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Burns_Jubilee_Gas_Roaster" id="Burns_Jubilee_Gas_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image308.jpg" width="300" height="456" alt="Burns Jubilee Gas Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns Jubilee Gas Roaster</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Roasting coffee is not so difficult a matter as is often claimed by +operators and "experts" who seek thus to magnify their importance; +but it is nevertheless a process about which a great deal may be +learned in the school of practical experience. With one of our +modern machines anybody with ordinary intelligence and nerve can +take off a roast after one trial which would pass muster in many +establishments, but that same person applying himself to the +roasting job for a week will either be turning out vastly better +roasts or will have demonstrated that he never can excel as a +roasterman.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Modern coffee roasting machines provide for easy control of the +heat (from coal, coke, or gas fuel), for constantly mixing the +coffee in such a manner that the heat is transmitted uniformly to +the entire batch, for carrying away all steam and smoke rapidly, +for easy testing of the progress of the roast, and for immediate +discharge when desired. The operator's problem therefore is the +regulation of the heat and deciding just when the desired roasting +has been accomplished.</p> + +<p class="quot1">If all coffees were alike, roasting would soon be almost automatic. +In some plants most of the work is on one uniform grade or blend. +But coffees which vary greatly in moisture-content, in flinty or +spongy nature, and in various other characteristics, will puzzle +the operator until he establishes a personal acquaintance with them +in various combinations in repeated roasting operations. The +roasterman therefore must be able to observe closely, to draw +sensible conclusions, and to remember what he learns. Roasting +coffee is work of a sort which anybody can do, which a few people +can do really well, and no one so well but that further improvement +is possible.</p> + +<p class="quot1">There is no absolute standard of what the best roasting results +are. Some dealers want the coffee beans swelled up to the bursting +point, while others would object to so showy a development. Some +care nothing at all about appearance as compared with cup value, +while others insist on a bright style even at some sacrifice of +quality. Business judgment must decide what goods can be sold most +profitably.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The loss of coffee in weight in the roasting operation, or +shrinkage as it is called, is a matter which offers opportunities +for false claims of advantage in roasting processes. Anybody can +see that if just as good roasted coffee could be produced with a +lessened shrinkage there would be a chance for a decided increase +in profits. It is a sort of finding-money proposition which always +turns out to be too good to be true. The purpose of roasting coffee +is to produce an article entirely different from green coffee, +which is accomplished mainly by driving out moisture. If coffee is +roasted thoroughly, inside as well as outside, so as to give the +greatest roasted coffee value, it must sustain a proper loss in +weight which there is no legitimate way to avoid. The amount of +shrinkage varies a great deal with the kind of coffee and its age, +also with the kind of roasting desired.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Adding a little water to the coffee at the end of the operation has +the advantage of checking the roast at the desired point and +helping to swell and brighten the coffee, but it is a practice +which is sometimes abused by soaking the coffee with water so as to +reduce the shrinkage. This is done either dishonestly, to steal +coffee which belongs to somebody else, or foolishly; for the +heavier coffee has a lessened cup value which more than +counterbalances the apparent gain.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>A Typical Coal Roaster</i></p> + +<p>A typical United States coal roaster is shown in the accompanying cut. +It is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> latest form of that type of Burns machine which requires a +brickwork setting. The picture shows the roaster ready to operate, +except for smoke pipe and power connections.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Burns_Coal_Roaster" id="Burns_Coal_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image309.jpg" width="300" height="350" alt="Burns Coal Roaster with Brickwork Setting" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns Coal Roaster with Brickwork Setting</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The front of the machine shown has a cast-iron plate having brackets +which support the cylinder front bearing, and double fire doors below +for the furnace and the ash pit. The movable part of the roaster is +hidden by the front head, a heavy casting which stands still except when +moved by hand through a half-turn for feeding and discharging.</p> + +<p>The cylinder is driven by gears at the back, revolving constantly at +uniform speed. The inside of the cylinder is arranged with +reverse-spiral flanges which mix the coffee perfectly and make uneven +roasting impossible; and they discharge promptly every grain of coffee +when the front-head opening is turned to the lower position. The roaster +is generally operated with coal fuel, but can be used with gas by +installing a suitable burner under the cylinder.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Open_Perforated_Cylinder_with_Flexible_Back_Head" id="Open_Perforated_Cylinder_with_Flexible_Back_Head"></a> +<img src="images/image310.jpg" width="500" height="133" alt="Open Perforated Cylinder with Flexible Back Head" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Open Perforated Cylinder with Flexible Back Head</span></span> +</div> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Cost Card for Roasters"> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='8'><span class="smcap">Cost Card for Roasters</span><br /> +<small><i>Showing the value added to the cost of green coffee by roasting</i></small><br /> +<small>By A.C. Aborn</small><br /> +<small><span class="smcap">Basis</span>: 16 percent Shrinkage.<br /> +<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> cent a pound for Roasting.</small></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='8'> <i>G</i> = Cost Green, Cents per Lb.<br /> + <i>R</i> = Cost Roasted, Cents per Lb.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'><i>G</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>R</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>G</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>R</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>G</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>R</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>G</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>R</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5</td> + <td align='left'> 6.85</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12</td> + <td align='left'>15.18</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19</td> + <td align='left'>23.51</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26</td> + <td align='left'>31.85</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 6.99</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>15.33</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>23.66</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>31.99</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 7.14</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>15.48</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>23.81</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>32.14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 7.29</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>15.63</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>23.96</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>32.29</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 7.44</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>15.77</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>24.11</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>32.44</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 7.59</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>15.92</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>24.26</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>32.59</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 7.74</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>16.07</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>24.40</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>32.74</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 5<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 7.89</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>12<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>16.22</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>19<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>24.55</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>26<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>32.89</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr9'> + <td align='left'> 6</td> + <td align='left'> 8.04</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13</td> + <td align='left'>16.37</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20</td> + <td align='left'>24.70</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27</td> + <td align='left'>33.04</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 8.19</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>16.52</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>24.85</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>33.18</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 8.33</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>16.67</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>25.00</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>33.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 6<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 8.48</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>16.82</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>25.15</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>33.48</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 8.63</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>16.97</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>25.30</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>33.63</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 6<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 8.78</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>17.11</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>25.45</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>33.78</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 6<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 8.93</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>17.26</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>25.60</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>33.93</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 6<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 9.08</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>13<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>17.41</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>20<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>25.75</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>27<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>34.08</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr9'> + <td align='left'> 7</td> + <td align='left'> 9.23</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14</td> + <td align='left'>17.56</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21</td> + <td align='left'>25.89</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28</td> + <td align='left'>34.23</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 9.37</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>17.71</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>26.04</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>34.38</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 9.52</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>17.86</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>26.19</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>34.52</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 7<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 9.67</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>18.01</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>26.34</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>34.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 9.82</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>18.15</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>26.49</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>34.82</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 7<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'> 9.97</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>18.30</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>26.64</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>34.97</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 7<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>10.12</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>18.45</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>26.79</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>35.12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 7<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>10.27</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>14<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>18.60</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>21<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>26.93</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>28<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>35.27</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr9'> + <td align='left'> 8</td> + <td align='left'>10.42</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15</td> + <td align='left'>18.75</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22</td> + <td align='left'>27.08</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29</td> + <td align='left'>35.42</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>10.57</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>18.90</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>27.23</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>35.57</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>10.71</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>19.05</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>27.38</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>35.71</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 8<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>10.86</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>19.20</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>27.53</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>35.86</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>11.01</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>19.35</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>27.68</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>36.01</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 8<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>11.16</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>19.49</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>27.83</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>36.16</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 8<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>11.31</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>19.64</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>27.98</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>36.31</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 8<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>11.46</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>15<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>19.79</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>22<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>28.13</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>29<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>36.46</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr9'> + <td align='left'> 9</td> + <td align='left'>11.61</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16</td> + <td align='left'>19.94</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23</td> + <td align='left'>28.27</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>30</td> + <td align='left'>36.61</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 9<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>11.76</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>20.09</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>28.42</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>30<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>36.76</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 9<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>11.90</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>20.24</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>28.57</td> +<td class='tdlpl1'>30<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>36.90</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 9<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>12.05</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>20.39</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>28.72</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>30<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>37.05</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 9<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>12.20</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>20.54</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>28.87</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>30<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>37.20</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 9<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>12.35</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>20.68</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>29.02</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>30<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>37.35</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 9<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>12.50</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>20.83</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>29.17</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>30<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>37.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> 9<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>12.65</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>16<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>20.98</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>23<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>29.32</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>30<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>37.65</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr9'> + <td align='left'>10</td> + <td align='left'>12.80</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17</td> + <td align='left'>21.13</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24</td> + <td align='left'>29.46</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31</td> + <td align='left'>37.80</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>12.95</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>21.28</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>29.61</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>37.95</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>13.10</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>21.43</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>29.76</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>38.10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>13.24</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>21.58</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>29.91</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>38.24</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>13.39</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>21.73</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>30.06</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>38.39</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>13.54</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>21.87</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>30.21</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>38.54</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>13.69</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>22.02</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>30.36</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>38.69</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>10<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>13.84</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>17<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>22.17</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>24<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>30.51</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>31<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>38.84</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr9'> + <td align='left'>11</td> + <td align='left'>13.99</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18</td> + <td align='left'>22.32</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25</td> + <td align='left'>30.65</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32</td> + <td align='left'>38.90</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>14.14</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>22.47</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>30.80</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>39.14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>14.29</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>22.62</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>30.95</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>39.29</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>11<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>14.43</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>22.77</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>31.10</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>39.43</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>14.58</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>22.92</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>31.25</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>39.58</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>11<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>14.73</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>23.07</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>31.40</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>39.73</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>11<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>14.88</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>23.21</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>31.55</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>39.88</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>11<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>15.03</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>18<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>23.36</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>25<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>31.70</td> + <td class='tdlpl1'>32<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='left'>40.03</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span></p> +<div class='table4'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="A GREEN COFFEE SHRINKAGE TABLE"> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='21'><big>FACTORY PREPARATION</big><br /> +<big>A GREEN COFFEE SHRINKAGE TABLE</big><br /> +<i>Showing shrinkage in roasting of raw coffee in quantities from sixty pounds up to<br /> +three hundred pounds, and at six different shrinkage percentages<br /> +Compiled by R.C. Wilhelm, New York</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr2'> + <td class='tdrbr'>RAW</td> + <td align='center'>12%</td> + <td align='center'>13%</td> + <td align='center'>14%</td> + <td align='center'>15%</td> + <td align='center'>16%</td> + <td class='tdcbr'>17%</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>RAW</td> + <td align='center'>12%</td> + <td align='center'>13%</td> + <td align='center'>14%</td> + <td align='center'>15%</td> + <td align='center'>16%</td> + <td class='tdcbr'>17%</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>RAW</td> + <td align='center'>12%</td> + <td align='center'>13%</td> + <td align='center'>14%</td> + <td align='center'>15%</td> + <td align='center'>16%</td> + <td align='center'>17%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 60</td> + <td align='left'> 52<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 52<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 51<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 51</td> + <td align='left'> 50<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 49<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>140</td> + <td align='left'>123<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>121<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>120<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>119</td> + <td align='left'>117<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>116<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>220</td> + <td align='left'>193<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>191<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>189<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>187</td> + <td align='left'>184<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>182<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 61</td> + <td align='left'> 53<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 53</td> + <td align='left'> 52<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 51<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 51<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 50<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>141</td> + <td align='left'>124</td> + <td align='left'>122<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>121<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>119<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>118<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>117</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>221</td> + <td align='left'>194<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>192<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>190</td> + <td align='left'>187<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>185<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>183<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 62</td> + <td align='left'> 54<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 54</td> + <td align='left'> 53<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 52<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 52</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 51<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>142</td> + <td align='left'>125</td> + <td align='left'>123<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>122</td> + <td align='left'>120<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>119<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>117<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>222</td> + <td align='left'>195<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>193<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>191</td> + <td align='left'>188<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>186<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>184<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 63</td> + <td align='left'> 55<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 54<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 54</td> + <td align='left'> 53<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 53</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 52<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>143</td> + <td align='left'>125<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>124<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>123</td> + <td align='left'>121<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>120</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>118<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>223</td> + <td align='left'>196<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>194</td> + <td align='left'>191<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>189<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>187<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>185</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 64</td> + <td align='left'> 56<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 55<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 55</td> + <td align='left'> 54<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 53<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 53</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>144</td> + <td align='left'>126<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>125<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>123<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>122<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>121</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>119<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>224</td> + <td align='left'>197</td> + <td align='left'>195</td> + <td align='left'>192<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>190<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>188<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>186</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 65</td> + <td align='left'> 57<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 56<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 56</td> + <td align='left'> 55<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 54<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 54</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>145</td> + <td align='left'>127<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>126<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>124<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>123<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>121<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>120<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>225</td> + <td align='left'>198</td> + <td align='left'>195<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>193<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>191<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>189</td> + <td align='left'>186<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 66</td> + <td align='left'> 58</td> + <td align='left'> 57<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 56<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 56</td> + <td align='left'> 55<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 54<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>146</td> + <td align='left'>128<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>127</td> + <td align='left'>125<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>124</td> + <td align='left'>122<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>121<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>226</td> + <td align='left'>199</td> + <td align='left'>196<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>194<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>192</td> + <td align='left'>189<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>187<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 67</td> + <td align='left'> 59</td> + <td align='left'> 58<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 57<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 57</td> + <td align='left'> 56<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 55<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>147</td> + <td align='left'>129<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>128</td> + <td align='left'>126<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>125</td> + <td align='left'>123<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>122</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>227</td> + <td align='left'>199<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>197<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>195<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>193</td> + <td align='left'>190<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>188<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 68</td> + <td align='left'> 59<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 59<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 58<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 57<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 57</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 56<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>148</td> + <td align='left'>130<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>128<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>127<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>125<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>124<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>122<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>228</td> + <td align='left'>200<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>198<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>196</td> + <td align='left'>193<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>191<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>189<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 69</td> + <td align='left'> 60<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 60</td> + <td align='left'> 59<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 58<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 58</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 57<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>149</td> + <td align='left'>131</td> + <td align='left'>129<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>128<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>126<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>125<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>123<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>229</td> + <td align='left'>201<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>199<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>197</td> + <td align='left'>194<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>192<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>190</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 70</td> + <td align='left'> 61<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 61</td> + <td align='left'> 60<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 59<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 58<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 58</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>150</td> + <td align='left'>132</td> + <td align='left'>130<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>129</td> + <td align='left'>127<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>126</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>124<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>230</td> + <td align='left'>202<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>200</td> + <td align='left'>198</td> + <td align='left'>195<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>193<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>191</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 71</td> + <td align='left'> 62<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 61<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 61</td> + <td align='left'> 60<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 59<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 59</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>151</td> + <td align='left'>133</td> + <td align='left'>131<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>129<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>128<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>126<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>125<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>231</td> + <td align='left'>203<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>201</td> + <td align='left'>198<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>196<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>194<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>192</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 72</td> + <td align='left'> 63<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 62<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 62</td> + <td align='left'> 61</td> + <td align='left'> 60<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 59<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>152</td> + <td align='left'>133<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>132<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>130<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>129<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>127<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>126<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>232</td> + <td align='left'>204</td> + <td align='left'>202</td> + <td align='left'>199<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>197</td> + <td align='left'>195</td> + <td align='left'>192<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 73</td> + <td align='left'> 64<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 63<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 62<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 62</td> + <td align='left'> 61<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 60<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>153</td> + <td align='left'>134<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>133</td> + <td align='left'>131<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>130</td> + <td align='left'>128<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>127</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>233</td> + <td align='left'>205</td> + <td align='left'>202<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>200<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>198</td> + <td align='left'>195<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>193<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 74</td> + <td align='left'> 65</td> + <td align='left'> 64<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 63<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 63</td> + <td align='left'> 62<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 61<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>154</td> + <td align='left'>135<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>134</td> + <td align='left'>132<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>131</td> + <td align='left'>129<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>127<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>234</td> + <td align='left'>206</td> + <td align='left'>203<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>201</td> + <td align='left'>199</td> + <td align='left'>196<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>194</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 75</td> + <td align='left'> 66</td> + <td align='left'> 65<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 64<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 63<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 63</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 62<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>155</td> + <td align='left'>136<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>134<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>133<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>131<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>130<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>128<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>235</td> + <td align='left'>206<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>204<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>202</td> + <td align='left'>199<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>197<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>195</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 76</td> + <td align='left'> 67</td> + <td align='left'> 66</td> + <td align='left'> 65<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 64<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 63<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 63</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>156</td> + <td align='left'>137<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>135<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>134<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>132<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>131</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>129<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>236</td> + <td align='left'>207<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>205</td> + <td align='left'>203</td> + <td align='left'>200<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>198</td> + <td align='left'>196</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 77</td> + <td align='left'> 67<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 67</td> + <td align='left'> 66<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 65<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 64<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 64</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>157</td> + <td align='left'>138<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>136<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>135</td> + <td align='left'>133<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>132</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>130<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>237</td> + <td align='left'>208<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>206<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>203<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>201<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>199</td> + <td align='left'>196<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 78</td> + <td align='left'> 68<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 68</td> + <td align='left'> 67</td> + <td align='left'> 66<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 65<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 64<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>158</td> + <td align='left'>139</td> + <td align='left'>137<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>136</td> + <td align='left'>134<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>132<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>131<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>238</td> + <td align='left'>209<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>207</td> + <td align='left'>204<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>202<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>200</td> + <td align='left'>197<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 79</td> + <td align='left'> 69<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 68<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 68</td> + <td align='left'> 67<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 66<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 65<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>159</td> + <td align='left'>140</td> + <td align='left'>138<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>136<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>135<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>133<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>132</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>239</td> + <td align='left'>210<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>208</td> + <td align='left'>205<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>203<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>200<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>198<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 80</td> + <td align='left'> 70<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 69<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 68<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 68</td> + <td align='left'> 67<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 66<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>160</td> + <td align='left'>140<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>139<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>137<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>136</td> + <td align='left'>134<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>132<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>240</td> + <td align='left'>211</td> + <td align='left'>208<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>206<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>204</td> + <td align='left'>201<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>199</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 81</td> + <td align='left'> 71<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 70<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 69<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 69</td> + <td align='left'> 68</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 67<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>161</td> + <td align='left'>141<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>140</td> + <td align='left'>138<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>136<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>135<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>133<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>241</td> + <td align='left'>212</td> + <td align='left'>209<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>207<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>204<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>202<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>200</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 82</td> + <td align='left'> 72<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 71<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 70<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 69<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 69</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 68</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>162</td> + <td align='left'>142<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>141</td> + <td align='left'>139<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>137<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>136</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>134<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>242</td> + <td align='left'>213</td> + <td align='left'>210<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>208</td> + <td align='left'>205<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>203</td> + <td align='left'>201</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 83</td> + <td align='left'> 73</td> + <td align='left'> 72<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 71<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 70<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 69<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 69</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>163</td> + <td align='left'>143<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>141<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>140<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>138<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>137</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>135<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>243</td> + <td align='left'>213<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>211<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>209</td> + <td align='left'>206<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>204</td> + <td align='left'>201<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 84</td> + <td align='left'> 74</td> + <td align='left'> 73<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 72<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 71<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 70<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 69<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>164</td> + <td align='left'>144<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>142<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>141</td> + <td align='left'>139<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>137<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>136</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>244</td> + <td align='left'>214<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>212<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>210</td> + <td align='left'>207<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>205</td> + <td align='left'>202<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 85</td> + <td align='left'> 74<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 74</td> + <td align='left'> 73<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 72<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 71<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 70<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>165</td> + <td align='left'>145<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>143<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>142</td> + <td align='left'>140<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>138<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>137</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>245</td> + <td align='left'>215<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>213</td> + <td align='left'>210<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>208<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>205<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>203<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 86</td> + <td align='left'> 75<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 74<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> </td> + <td align='left'> 74</td> + <td align='left'> 73<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 72<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 71<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>166</td> + <td align='left'>146</td> + <td align='left'>144<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>142<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>141</td> + <td align='left'>139<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>137<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>246</td> + <td align='left'>216<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>214</td> + <td align='left'>211<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>209</td> + <td align='left'>206<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>204</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 87</td> + <td align='left'> 76<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 75<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 75</td> + <td align='left'> 74</td> + <td align='left'> 73<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 72<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>167</td> + <td align='left'>147</td> + <td align='left'>145<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>143<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>142</td> + <td align='left'>140<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>138<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>247</td> + <td align='left'>217<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>215</td> + <td align='left'>212<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>210</td> + <td align='left'>207<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>205</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 88</td> + <td align='left'> 77<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 76<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 75<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 74<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 73<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 73</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>168</td> + <td align='left'>147<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>146<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>144<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>142<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>141</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>139<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>248</td> + <td align='left'>218</td> + <td align='left'>216</td> + <td align='left'>213</td> + <td align='left'>211</td> + <td align='left'>208</td> + <td align='left'>206</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 89</td> + <td align='left'> 78<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 77<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 76<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 75<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 74<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 74</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>169</td> + <td align='left'>148<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>147</td> + <td align='left'>145<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>143<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>142</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>140<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>249</td> + <td align='left'>219</td> + <td align='left'>216<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>214<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>211<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>209<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>207</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 90</td> + <td align='left'> 79<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 78<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 77<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 76<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 75<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 75</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>170</td> + <td align='left'>149<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>148</td> + <td align='left'>146<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>144<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>142<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>141</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>250</td> + <td align='left'>220</td> + <td align='left'>217<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>215</td> + <td align='left'>212<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>210</td> + <td align='left'>207<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 91</td> + <td align='left'> 80<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 79<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 78<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 77<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 76<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 75<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>171</td> + <td align='left'>150<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>148<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>147</td> + <td align='left'>145<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>143<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>142</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>251</td> + <td align='left'>221</td> + <td align='left'>218<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>215<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>213<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>210<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>208<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 92</td> + <td align='left'> 81</td> + <td align='left'> 80</td> + <td align='left'> 79<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 78<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 77<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 76<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>172</td> + <td align='left'>151<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>149<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>148</td> + <td align='left'>146<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>144<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>142<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>252</td> + <td align='left'>222</td> + <td align='left'>219</td> + <td align='left'>216<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>214</td> + <td align='left'>212</td> + <td align='left'>209</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 93</td> + <td align='left'> 82</td> + <td align='left'> 81</td> + <td align='left'> 80</td> + <td align='left'> 79</td> + <td align='left'> 78<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 77<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>173</td> + <td align='left'>152<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>150<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>148<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>147</td> + <td align='left'>145<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>143<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>253</td> + <td align='left'>222<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>220</td> + <td align='left'>217<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>215</td> + <td align='left'>212<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>210</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 94</td> + <td align='left'> 82<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 81<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 80<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 80</td> + <td align='left'> 79</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 78</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>174</td> + <td align='left'>153</td> + <td align='left'>151<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>149<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>148</td> + <td align='left'>146<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>144<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>254</td> + <td align='left'>223<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>221</td> + <td align='left'>218<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>216</td> + <td align='left'>213<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>211</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 95</td> + <td align='left'> 83<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 82<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 81<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 80<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 79<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 79</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>175</td> + <td align='left'>154</td> + <td align='left'>152<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>150<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>148<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>147</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>145<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>255</td> + <td align='left'>224<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>222</td> + <td align='left'>219<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>216<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>214<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>211<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 96</td> + <td align='left'> 84<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 83<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 82<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 81<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 80<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 79<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>176</td> + <td align='left'>155</td> + <td align='left'>153</td> + <td align='left'>151<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>149<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>147<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>146</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>256</td> + <td align='left'>225</td> + <td align='left'>223</td> + <td align='left'>220</td> + <td align='left'>218</td> + <td align='left'>215</td> + <td align='left'>212</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 97</td> + <td align='left'> 85<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 84<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 83<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 82<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 81<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 80<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>177</td> + <td align='left'>155<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>154</td> + <td align='left'>152<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>150<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>148<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>147</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>257</td> + <td align='left'>226</td> + <td align='left'>223<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>221</td> + <td align='left'>218<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>216</td> + <td align='left'>213</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 98</td> + <td align='left'> 86<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 85<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 84<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 83<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 82<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 81<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>178</td> + <td align='left'>156<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>154<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>153</td> + <td align='left'>151<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>149<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>147<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>258</td> + <td align='left'>227</td> + <td align='left'>224<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>222</td> + <td align='left'>219<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>216<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>214</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'> 99</td> + <td align='left'> 87<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 86<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 85<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 84<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 83<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 82<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>179</td> + <td align='left'>157<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>155<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>154</td> + <td align='left'>152<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>150<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>148<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>259</td> + <td align='left'>228</td> + <td align='left'>225<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>222<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>220<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>217<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>215</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>100</td> + <td align='left'> 88</td> + <td align='left'> 87</td> + <td align='left'> 86</td> + <td align='left'> 85</td> + <td align='left'> 84</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 83</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>180</td> + <td align='left'>158<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>156<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>154<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>153</td> + <td align='left'>151<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>149<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>260</td> + <td align='left'>229</td> + <td align='left'>226</td> + <td align='left'>224</td> + <td align='left'>221</td> + <td align='left'>218</td> + <td align='left'>216</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>101</td> + <td align='left'> 89</td> + <td align='left'> 87<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 86<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 85<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 84<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 83<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>181</td> + <td align='left'>159<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>157<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>155<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>153<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>152</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>150<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>261</td> + <td align='left'>229<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>227</td> + <td align='left'>225</td> + <td align='left'>222</td> + <td align='left'>219</td> + <td align='left'>216<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>102</td> + <td align='left'> 89<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 88<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 87<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 86<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 85<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 84<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>182</td> + <td align='left'>160<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>158<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>156<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>154<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>153</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>151</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>262</td> + <td align='left'>230<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>228</td> + <td align='left'>225<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>222<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>220</td> + <td align='left'>217<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>103</td> + <td align='left'> 90<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 89<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 88<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 87<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 86<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 85<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>183</td> + <td align='left'>161</td> + <td align='left'>159<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>157<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>155<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>153<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>152</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>263</td> + <td align='left'>231<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>229</td> + <td align='left'>226<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>223<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>221</td> + <td align='left'>218<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>104</td> + <td align='left'> 91<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 90<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 89<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 88<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 87<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 86<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>184</td> + <td align='left'>162</td> + <td align='left'>160</td> + <td align='left'>158<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>156<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>154<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>152<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>264</td> + <td align='left'>232</td> + <td align='left'>230</td> + <td align='left'>227</td> + <td align='left'>224</td> + <td align='left'>222</td> + <td align='left'>219</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>105</td> + <td align='left'> 92<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 91<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 90<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 89<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 88<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 87<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>185</td> + <td align='left'>162<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>161</td> + <td align='left'>159</td> + <td align='left'>157<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>155<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>153<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>265</td> + <td align='left'>233</td> + <td align='left'>230<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>228</td> + <td align='left'>225</td> + <td align='left'>222<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>220</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>106</td> + <td align='left'> 93<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 92<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 91<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 90<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 89</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 88</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>186</td> + <td align='left'>163<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>161<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>160</td> + <td align='left'>158</td> + <td align='left'>156<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>154<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>266</td> + <td align='left'>234</td> + <td align='left'>231<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>228<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>226</td> + <td align='left'>223<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>220<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>107</td> + <td align='left'> 94<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 93<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 92</td> + <td align='left'> 91</td> + <td align='left'> 90</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 88<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>187</td> + <td align='left'>164<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>162<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>160<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>159</td> + <td align='left'>157</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>155<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>267</td> + <td align='left'>235</td> + <td align='left'>232<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>229<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>227</td> + <td align='left'>224<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>221<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>108</td> + <td align='left'> 95</td> + <td align='left'> 94</td> + <td align='left'> 93</td> + <td align='left'> 91<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 90<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 89<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>188</td> + <td align='left'>165<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>163<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>161<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>160</td> + <td align='left'>158</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>156</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>268</td> + <td align='left'>236</td> + <td align='left'>233</td> + <td align='left'>230<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>228</td> + <td align='left'>225</td> + <td align='left'>222</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>109</td> + <td align='left'> 96</td> + <td align='left'> 95</td> + <td align='left'> 93<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 92<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 91<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 90<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>189</td> + <td align='left'>166<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>164<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>162<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>160<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>156<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>156<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>269</td> + <td align='left'>236<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>234</td> + <td align='left'>231<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>228<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>226</td> + <td align='left'>223<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>110</td> + <td align='left'> 96<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 95<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 94<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 93<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 92<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 91<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>190</td> + <td align='left'>167<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>165<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>163<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>161<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>159<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>157<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>270</td> + <td align='left'>237<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>235</td> + <td align='left'>232</td> + <td align='left'>229<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>226<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>224</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>111</td> + <td align='left'> 97<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 96<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 95<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 94<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 93<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 92<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>191</td> + <td align='left'>168</td> + <td align='left'>166<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>164<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>162<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>160<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>158<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>271</td> + <td align='left'>238<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>235<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>233</td> + <td align='left'>230<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>227<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>225</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>112</td> + <td align='left'> 98<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 97<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 96<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 95<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 94<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 93</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>192</td> + <td align='left'>169</td> + <td align='left'>167</td> + <td align='left'>165</td> + <td align='left'>163<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>161<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>159<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>272</td> + <td align='left'>239</td> + <td align='left'>237</td> + <td align='left'>234</td> + <td align='left'>231</td> + <td align='left'>228</td> + <td align='left'>226</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>113</td> + <td align='left'> 99<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 98<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 97<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 96</td> + <td align='left'> 95</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 93<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>193</td> + <td align='left'>169<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>168</td> + <td align='left'>166</td> + <td align='left'>164</td> + <td align='left'>162</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>160<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>273</td> + <td align='left'>240</td> + <td align='left'>237<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>234<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>232</td> + <td align='left'>229</td> + <td align='left'>226<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>114</td> + <td align='left'>100<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 99<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 98</td> + <td align='left'> 97</td> + <td align='left'> 95<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 94<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>194</td> + <td align='left'>170<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>168<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>166<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>165</td> + <td align='left'>163</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>161</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>274</td> + <td align='left'>241</td> + <td align='left'>238<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>235<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>233</td> + <td align='left'>230</td> + <td align='left'>227<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>115</td> + <td align='left'>101<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>100<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 99</td> + <td align='left'> 97<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 96<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 95<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>195</td> + <td align='left'>171<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>169<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>167<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>165<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>163<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>161<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>275</td> + <td align='left'>242</td> + <td align='left'>239<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>236<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>233<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>231</td> + <td align='left'>228<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>116</td> + <td align='left'>102</td> + <td align='left'>101</td> + <td align='left'> 99<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 98<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 97<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 96<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>196</td> + <td align='left'>172<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>170<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>168<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>166<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>164<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>162<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>276</td> + <td align='left'>243</td> + <td align='left'>240</td> + <td align='left'>237<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>234<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>232</td> + <td align='left'>229</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>117</td> + <td align='left'>103</td> + <td align='left'>101<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>100<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 99<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'> 98<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 97</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>197</td> + <td align='left'>173<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>171<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>169<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>167<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>165<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>163<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>277</td> + <td align='left'>243<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>241</td> + <td align='left'>238<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>235<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>232<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>230</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>118</td> + <td align='left'>103<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>102<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>101<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>100<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'> 99</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 98</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>198</td> + <td align='left'>174<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>172<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>170<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>168<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>166<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>164<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>278</td> + <td align='left'>244<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>242</td> + <td align='left'>239</td> + <td align='left'>236<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>233<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>230<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>119</td> + <td align='left'>104<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>103<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>102<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>101</td> + <td align='left'>100</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 98<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>199</td> + <td align='left'>175</td> + <td align='left'>173<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>171<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>169<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>167<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>165<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>279</td> + <td align='left'>245<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>243</td> + <td align='left'>240</td> + <td align='left'>237</td> + <td align='left'>234<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>231<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>120</td> + <td align='left'>105<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>104<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>103</td> + <td align='left'>102</td> + <td align='left'>101</td> + <td class='tdlbr'> 99<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>200</td> + <td align='left'>176</td> + <td align='left'>174</td> + <td align='left'>172</td> + <td align='left'>170</td> + <td align='left'>168</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>166</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>280</td> + <td align='left'>246<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>243<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>241</td> + <td align='left'>238</td> + <td align='left'>235<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>232<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>121</td> + <td align='left'>106<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>105<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>104</td> + <td align='left'>102<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>101<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>100<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>201</td> + <td align='left'>177</td> + <td align='left'>174<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>173</td> + <td align='left'>170<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>168<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>166<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>281</td> + <td align='left'>247<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>244<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>241<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>238<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>236</td> + <td align='left'>233<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>122</td> + <td align='left'>107<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>106</td> + <td align='left'>105</td> + <td align='left'>103<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>102<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>101<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>202</td> + <td align='left'>177<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>175<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>173<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>171<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>169<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>167<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>282</td> + <td align='left'>248</td> + <td align='left'>245<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>242<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>239<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>237</td> + <td align='left'>234</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>123</td> + <td align='left'>108<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>107</td> + <td align='left'>105<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>104<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>103<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>102</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>203</td> + <td align='left'>178<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>176<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>174<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>172<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>170<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>168<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>283</td> + <td align='left'>249</td> + <td align='left'>246<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>243<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>240<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>237<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>235</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>124</td> + <td align='left'>109</td> + <td align='left'>108</td> + <td align='left'>106<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>105<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>104</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>103</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>204</td> + <td align='left'>179<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>177<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>175<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>173<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>171<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>169<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>284</td> + <td align='left'>250</td> + <td align='left'>247</td> + <td align='left'>244</td> + <td align='left'>241<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>238<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>235<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>125</td> + <td align='left'>110</td> + <td align='left'>108<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>107<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>106<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>105</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>103<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>205</td> + <td align='left'>180<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>178<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>176<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>174<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>172<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>170<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>285</td> + <td align='left'>250<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>248</td> + <td align='left'>245</td> + <td align='left'>242<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>239<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>236<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>126</td> + <td align='left'>111</td> + <td align='left'>109<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>108</td> + <td align='left'>107</td> + <td align='left'>106</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>104<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>206</td> + <td align='left'>181<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>179<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>177<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>175</td> + <td align='left'>173</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>171</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>286</td> + <td align='left'>251<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>249</td> + <td align='left'>246</td> + <td align='left'>243</td> + <td align='left'>240</td> + <td align='left'>237<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>127</td> + <td align='left'>111<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>110<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>109<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>108</td> + <td align='left'>106<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>105<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>207</td> + <td align='left'>182<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>180</td> + <td align='left'>178</td> + <td align='left'>176</td> + <td align='left'>174</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>171<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>287</td> + <td align='left'>252<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>249<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>246<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>244</td> + <td align='left'>241</td> + <td align='left'>238<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>128</td> + <td align='left'>112<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>111<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>110</td> + <td align='left'>109</td> + <td align='left'>107<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>106</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>208</td> + <td align='left'>183</td> + <td align='left'>181</td> + <td align='left'>179</td> + <td align='left'>176<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>174<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>172<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>288</td> + <td align='left'>253<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>250<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>247<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>245</td> + <td align='left'>242</td> + <td align='left'>239</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>129</td> + <td align='left'>113<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>112<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>111</td> + <td align='left'>109<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>108<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>107</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>209</td> + <td align='left'>184</td> + <td align='left'>181<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>179<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>177<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>175<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>173<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>289</td> + <td align='left'>254<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>251<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>248<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>245<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>242<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>239<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>130</td> + <td align='left'>114<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>113</td> + <td align='left'>112</td> + <td align='left'>110<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>109</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>108</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>210</td> + <td align='left'>184<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>182<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>180<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>178<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>176<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>174<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>290</td> + <td align='left'>255</td> + <td align='left'>252<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>249<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>246<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>243<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>240<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>131</td> + <td align='left'>115<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>114</td> + <td align='left'>112<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>111<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>110</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>108<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>211</td> + <td align='left'>185<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>183<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>181<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>179<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>177<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>175<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>291</td> + <td align='left'>256</td> + <td align='left'>253<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>250<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>247<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>244<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>241<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>132</td> + <td align='left'>116</td> + <td align='left'>115</td> + <td align='left'>113<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>112</td> + <td align='left'>111</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>109<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>212</td> + <td align='left'>186<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>184<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>182<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>180<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>178</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>176</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>292</td> + <td align='left'>257</td> + <td align='left'>254</td> + <td align='left'>251</td> + <td align='left'>248</td> + <td align='left'>245<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>242<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>133</td> + <td align='left'>117</td> + <td align='left'>115<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>114<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>113</td> + <td align='left'>111<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>110<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>213</td> + <td align='left'>187<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>185<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>183<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>181</td> + <td align='left'>179</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>176<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>293</td> + <td align='left'>257<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>255</td> + <td align='left'>252</td> + <td align='left'>249</td> + <td align='left'>246<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>243<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>134</td> + <td align='left'>118</td> + <td align='left'>116<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>115<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>114</td> + <td align='left'>112<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>111</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>214</td> + <td align='left'>188<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>186<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>184</td> + <td align='left'>182</td> + <td align='left'>179<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>177<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>294</td> + <td align='left'>258<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>256</td> + <td align='left'>253</td> + <td align='left'>250</td> + <td align='left'>247</td> + <td align='left'>244</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>135</td> + <td align='left'>118<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>117<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>116</td> + <td align='left'>114<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>113<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>112</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>215</td> + <td align='left'>189<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>187</td> + <td align='left'>185</td> + <td align='left'>182<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>180<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>178<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>295</td> + <td align='left'>259<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>256<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>253<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>250<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>247<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>244<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>136</td> + <td align='left'>119<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>118<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>117</td> + <td align='left'>115<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>114</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>113</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>216</td> + <td align='left'>190</td> + <td align='left'>188</td> + <td align='left'>185<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>183<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>181<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>179<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>296</td> + <td align='left'>260<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>257<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>254<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>251<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>248<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>245<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>137</td> + <td align='left'>120<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>119<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>117<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>116<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>115</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>113<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>217</td> + <td align='left'>191</td> + <td align='left'>188<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>186<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>184<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>182<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>180</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>297</td> + <td align='left'>261<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>258<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>255<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>252<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>249<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>246<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>138</td> + <td align='left'>121<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>120</td> + <td align='left'>118<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>117<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>116</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>114<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>218</td> + <td align='left'>191<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>189<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>187<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>185<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>183</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>181</td> + <td class='tdrbr'>298</td> + <td align='left'>262</td> + <td align='left'>259<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>256<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>253<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>250<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>247<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td class='tdrbr'>139</td> + <td align='left'>122<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>121</td> + <td align='left'>119<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>118<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>116<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdlbr'>115<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>219</td> + <td align='left'>192<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>190<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='left'>188<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>186<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>184</td> + <td class='tdlbr'>181<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td class='tdrbr'>299</td> + <td align='left'>263</td> + <td align='left'>260</td> + <td align='left'>257<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>254<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>251<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='left'>248<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span></p> +<div class='center'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Roasters"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Trying_the_Roast" id="Trying_the_Roast"></a> +<img src="images/image311.jpg" width="300" height="408" alt="Trying the Roast" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Trying the Roast</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Monitor_Gas_Roaster" id="Monitor_Gas_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image312.jpg" width="300" height="344" alt="Monitor Gas Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Monitor Gas Roaster</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Cooling and Stoning</i></p> + +<p>"Coffee which leaves the roaster beautifully uniform in appearance", +says A.L. Burns, "may lose all uniformity by delayed or inadequate +cooling. Separated beans of coffee will cool off by themselves; but when +heaped together, the inner part of the mass will get hotter and even +take fire.... Coffee must be spread over a considerable surface, or all +kept moving, and have at the same time a lot of air forced through it. +Otherwise, there will be some darkening and over-development of part of +the coffee, and a loss of the uniformity which is the first requirement +of good roasting."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="A_Group_of_Roasting-Room_Accessories" id="A_Group_of_Roasting-Room_Accessories"></a> +<img src="images/image313.jpg" width="500" height="260" alt="A Group of Roasting-Room Accessories" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Group of Roasting-Room Accessories</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The cooling apparatus consists of a movable, box-like metal car which +can be brought up to the front of the roaster to the revolving +cylinders. The car has a perforated false bottom, to which is attached a +powerful exhaust-fan system that sucks the heat out of the coffee. In +large plants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> utilizing two or more floors, the tilting-type cooling +car is favored. This car permits instant discharge through an opening in +the floor into a receiving tank suspended from the ceiling below and +connected with the stoning apparatus. Recently, a flexible-arm cooler +has been invented that provides full fan suction to a cooler car at all +points in its track travel from the roaster to the emptying position.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Dumping_the_Roast" id="Dumping_the_Roast"></a> +<img src="images/image314.jpg" width="500" height="326" alt="Dumping the Roast in a Coal Roasting Plant" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dumping the Roast in a Coal Roasting Plant</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The roasted coffee is being turned into the cooling car, equipped with a +swinging "flexarm" that keeps it always in connection with a suspended +header pipe; the cooling being started as soon as the coffee leaves the +roaster. The cooled coffee, by tipping the box, goes into a floor +hopper</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The stoner, an essential part of the modern roasting plant, has for its +function the removal of stones and other foreign matter of which the +green-coffee operations have failed to get rid. The stoner is usually +built in direct combination with the cooling equipment, and does its +work by means of a gravity separation in an upward-moving column of air. +The coffee passes into the suction boot of the stoner, either directly +from the cooler box or from a floor hopper into which the cooler dumps, +and is carried up the stoner pipe, or "riser", by an air current of +ample power which can be accurately regulated. This insures the carrying +up of coffee only, the stones remaining at the bottom of the machine and +being dumped at intervals into a pan underneath. The coffee, passing up +the riser pipe, is delivered into a large "stoner hopper" which is +usually hung to the ceiling of the roasting room. The correct +construction of this hopper is of great importance, as the coffee must +be deposited completely without breakage, and the air must pass on +through the suction fan carrying nothing except bits of loose chaff.</p> + +<p>A different type of cooler is in the form of an upright cylinder, +consisting of two metal perforated drums, one set within the other. The +inner drum is sufficiently small to allow the coffee to move freely +between the drums. Inside the smaller one is an exhaust pipe which draws +the heat and chaff out of the coffee. This device is recommended for use +only in connection with wet roasted coffee.</p> + +<p>Still another type consists of a single perforated cylinder set +horizontal with the floor, and revolving alongside of an exhaust box +which sucks out the heat and chaff as the coffee is tumbled about in the +cylinder. A rocking type, that is not generally employed, is constructed +on the principle of the screen used by housebuilders to separate coarse +sand from the fine, and is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> pivoted at the middle so that it can be +rocked end to end.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="A_Four-Bag_Coffee_Finisher" id="A_Four-Bag_Coffee_Finisher"></a> +<img src="images/image315.jpg" width="300" height="318" alt="A Four-Bag Coffee Finisher" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Four-Bag Coffee Finisher</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Finishing or Glazing</i></p> + +<p>Finishing whole-bean roasted coffee, by giving it a friction polish +while it is still moist, using a glaze solution or water only, is a +practise not harmful if the proper solutions are employed. Roasted +coffee dulls in ordinary handling, and it is claimed that coating not +only improves its appearance, but serves also to preserve the natural +flavor and aroma of the bean. A machine having flat-sided wooden +cylinders with ventilated heads, and operated two-thirds full of coffee +so as to get an effective rolling motion, is generally employed. +Coatings composed of sugar and eggs are popular, but their use should be +stated on the label.</p> + +<p>Coffee roasters are divided on this question of coffee-coating. The best +thought of the trade is undoubtedly opposed to the practise when it is +done to conceal inferiority or abnormally to reduce shrinkage. Some New +York coffee roasters, who made a thorough investigation of the matter, +found coating coffee with a wholesome material not injurious and the +coated coffee better in the cup. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley found, in the +celebrated Ohio case against Arbuckle Brothers, that coating coffee with +sugar and eggs produced beneficial results, and that the coating +preserved the bean. The Bureau of Chemistry has never issued any ruling +on the subject of coating coffee.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Blending Roasted Coffee</i></p> + +<p>After cooling and stoning, unless it is to be polished or glazed, the +coffee is ready for grinding and packing if it has been blended in the +green state. Otherwise, the next step will be to mix the different +varieties before grinding, although some packers blend the different +kinds after they have been ground. To mix whole-bean roasted coffee +without hurting its appearance is rather difficult, and there is no +regular machine for such work.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Burns_Sample-Coffee_Roaster" id="Burns_Sample-Coffee_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image316.jpg" width="300" height="435" alt="Burns Sample-Coffee Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns Sample-Coffee Roaster</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Rarely is a single kind of coffee drunk straight. The common practise in +all countries is to mix different varieties having opposing +characteristics so as to obtain a smoother beverage. This is called +blending, a process that has attained the standing of an art in the +United States. Most package coffees are blends. In addition to other +qualities, the practical coffee blender must have a natural aptitude for +the work. He must also have long experience before he becomes +proficient, and must be acquainted with the different properties of all +the coffees grown, or at least of those that come to his market. +Furthermore, he must know the variations in characteristics of current +crops; for in most coffees no two crops are equal in trade values. +Innumerable blends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> are possible with more than a hundred different +coffees to draw upon.</p> + +<p>A blend may consist of two or more kinds of coffee, but the general +practise is to employ several kinds; so that, if at any time one can not +be obtained, its absence from the blend will not be so noticeable as +would be the case if only two or three kinds were used.</p> + +<p>In blending coffees, consideration is given first to the shades of +flavor in the cup and next to price. The blender describes flavors as, +acidy, bitter, smooth, neutral, flat, wild, grassy, groundy, sour, +fermented, and hidey; and he mixes the coffees accordingly to obtain the +desired taste in the cup. Naturally the wild, sour, groundy, fermented, +and hidey kinds are avoided as much as possible. Coffees with a Rio +flavor are used only in the cheaper blends.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, a properly balanced blend should have a full rich +body as a basis; and to this should be added a growth to give it some +acid character, and one to give it increased aroma.</p> + +<p>Personal preference is the determining factor in making up a blend. Some +blenders prefer a coffee with plenty of acid taste; while others choose +the non-acid cup. For the first-named kind, the blender will mix +together the coffees that have an acidy characteristic; while for a +non-acidy blend, he will mix an acidy growth with one having a neutral +flavor.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Lambert_Coal_Coffee-Roasting_Outfit" id="Lambert_Coal_Coffee-Roasting_Outfit"></a> +<img src="images/image317.jpg" width="500" height="415" alt="Lambert Economic Coffee-Roasting Outfit for Coal Fire" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lambert Economic Coffee-Roasting Outfit for Coal Fire</span></span> +</div> + +<p>This is a self-contained plant for one or two bags, and comprises a +roaster, rotary cooler, elevator feed hopper, electric motor, and +stoning and chaffing attachments. It may be equipped for gas]</p> + +<p>Coffees can be divided into four great classes, the neutral-flavored, +the sweet, the acidy, and the bitter. All East Indian coffees, except +Ceylons, Malabars, and the other Hindoostan growths, are classified as +bitter, as are old brown Bucaramangas, brown Bogotas, and brown Santos. +The acid coffees are generally the new-crop washed varieties of the +western hemisphere, such as Mexicans, Costa Ricas, Bogotas, Caracas, +Guatemalas, Santos, etc. However, the acidity may be toned down by age<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> +so that they become sweet or sweet-bitter. Red Santos is generally a +sweet coffee, and is prized by blenders. High-grade washed Santo Domingo +and Haiti coffees are sweet both when new crop and when aged.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Challenge_Pulverizer" id="Challenge_Pulverizer"></a> +<img src="images/image318.jpg" width="300" height="342" alt="Challenge Pulverizer" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Challenge Pulverizer</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Practical coffee blenders do not mix two new-crop acid coffees, or two +old-crop bitter kinds, unless their bitterness or acidity is +counteracted by coffees with opposite flavors. One blender insists that +every blend should contain three coffees.</p> + +<p>Some Bourbon and flat-beaned Santos coffees are better when new, and +some are better when old; but a blend of fine old-crop coffee with a +snappy new-crop coffee gives a better result than either separately. A +new-crop Bourbon and an old yellow flat bean make a better blend than a +new-crop flat bean and an old-crop Bourbon. Probably the very best +result in a low-priced blend may be obtained by using one-half old-crop +Bourbon Santos with one-half new-crop Haiti or Santo Domingo of the +cheaper grades.</p> + +<p>Typical low-priced coffee blends in the United States may be made up of +a good Santos, possibly a Bourbon, and some low-cost Mexican, Central +American, Colombian, or Venezuelan coffee, the Santos counteracting +these acidy Milds.</p> + +<p>Going next higher in the scale of price, fancy old Bourbon Santos is +used with one-third fancy old Cucuta or a good Trujillo.</p> + +<p>For a blend costing about five cents more a pound retail, one-third +fancy old Cucuta or Merida is blended with fancy old Bourbon Santos.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Granulating and Grinding Machines"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Monitor_Coffee-Granulating_Machine" id="Monitor_Coffee-Granulating_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image322.jpg" width="300" height="369" alt="Monitor Coffee-Granulating Machine" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Monitor Coffee-Granulating Machine</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coles_No_22_Grinding_Mill" id="Coles_No_22_Grinding_Mill"></a> +<img src="images/image319.jpg" width="300" height="494" alt="Coles No. 22 Grinding Mill" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coles No. 22 Grinding Mill</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The highest-priced blend may contain two-thirds of a fine private estate +Sumatra and one-third Mocha or Longberry Harari.</p> + +<p>Alfred W. McCann, while advertising manager for Francis H. Leggett & +Co., New York, in 1910, evolved a new coffee distinction based on the +argument that certain coffees like Mochas, Mexicans, Bourbons, and Costa +Ricas were developed in the cup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> through the action on them of cream or +milk; while others, such as Bogotas, Javas, Maracaibos, etc., flattened +out when cream or milk was added. He argued, accordingly, that breakfast +coffees should be made up from the former, but that the latter should +not be used except for after-dinner coffees, to be drunk black.<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a> +William B. Harris, then coffee expert for the United States Department +of Agriculture, took issue with Mr. McCann, claiming that if a coffee is +watery and lacks body, it will not take kindly to milk or cream, not +because the chemical action of milk or cream flattens it out, but +because there is nothing there in the first place. The strength of the +brew being equal, all coffees will take cream or milk, Mr. Harris +held.<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="More Grinders"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Burns_No_12_Grinding_Mill" id="Burns_No_12_Grinding_Mill"></a> +<img src="images/image320.jpg" width="300" height="420" alt="Burns No. 12 Grinding Mill" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns No. 12 Grinding Mill</span><br /> +<small>Designed for hotel and restaurant trade</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Monitor_Steel-Cut_Grinder_Separator_Etc" id="Monitor_Steel-Cut_Grinder_Separator_Etc"></a> +<img src="images/image321.jpg" width="300" height="329" alt="Monitor Steel-Cut Grinder, Separator, and Chaffer" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Monitor Steel-Cut Grinder, Separator, and Chaffer</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>M.J. McGarty said in 1915 that he had tried out many coffees in the cup, +and could not see that adding milk made any difference. However, he +found that sometimes a line of coffees will contain a sample that +flattens out at the drinking point (the point where the boiling water +has cooled to permit of its being drunk); and he thought this was what +Mr. McCann had in mind, as, by adding milk to such a coffee, it was +brought back to the drinking point. In other words, it was Mr. McGarty's +opinion that, in blending coffees, those coffees which hold their own +from the start, or boiling point, until they become cold, or even +improve right through, are more desirable for blending purposes; and +that those that are best at the drinking point should be given the +preference.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a></p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Blends for Restaurants</i></p> + +<p>William B. Harris<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> believes that the coffee of prime importance in +preparing restaurant blends is Bogota. He advises the use of a +full-bodied Bogota and an acid Bourbon Santos in the proportion of +three-fourths Bogota to one-fourth Santos. Blends may also be made up +from combinations of Bogota, Mexicans, and Guatemalas.</p> + +<p>According to Mr. Harris, the average blend of good coffee when made up, +two and one-half pounds of coffee to five gallons of water, will produce +a liquor of good color and strength. For many hotels, however, this may +not answer, as it is not heavy enough. More coffee must then be used, or +ten percent of chicory added. A blend with chicory can be made by using +two-thirds Bogota, one-third Bourbon Santos,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> and ten percent chicory. +No steward, hotel man, or restaurant man should, however, advertise +"coffee" on his menu, and then serve a drink employing chicory; because, +while there is no federal law against such a practise, there are state +laws against it. Chicory is all right in its place; and many prefer a +drink made from coffee and chicory; but such a drink can not properly be +called coffee.</p> + +<p>Hotel men should purchase their coffee in the bean, and do their own +grinding. Then they need never have cause to complain that their coffee +man deceived them, or that some salesman misled them. The hotel steward +wishing to furnish his patrons with a heavy-bodied coffee, particularly +a black after-dinner coffee, <i>without chicory</i>, will use three, four, or +even four and one-half pounds of ground coffee to five gallons of water.</p> + +<p>With so wide a choice of coffees to choose from, a coffee blender can +make up many combinations to meet the demands of his trade. Probably no +two blenders use exactly the same varieties in exactly the same +proportions to make up a blend to sell at the same price. However, they +all follow the same general principles laid down in the foregoing flavor +classification of the world's coffees.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Johnson_Carton-Filling_Weighing_and_Sealing_Machine" id="Johnson_Carton-Filling_Weighing_and_Sealing_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image323.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="Johnson Carton-Filling, Weighing, and Sealing Machine" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Johnson Carton-Filling, Weighing, and Sealing Machine</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Grinding and Packaging Coffee</i></p> + +<p>Unless the coffee is to be sold in the bean, it is sent to the grinding +and packing department, to be further prepared for the consumer. Since +the federal food law has been in effect, the public has gained +confidence in ground and bean coffee in packages; and today a large part +of the coffee consumed in the United States is sold in one and two pound +cartons and cans, already blended and ready for brewing.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Ideal_Steel-Cut_Mill" id="Ideal_Steel-Cut_Mill"></a> +<img src="images/image324.jpg" width="300" height="392" alt="The Ideal Steel-Cut Mill" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Ideal Steel-Cut Mill</span></span> +</div> + +<p>A progressive coffee-packing house may have three different styles of +grinding machines; one called the granulator for turning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span> out the +so-called "steel-cut" coffee; the second, a pulverizer for making a +really fine grind; and the third, a grinding mill for general factory +work and producing a medium-ground coffee.</p> + +<p>Commercial coffee-grinding machines are alike in principle in all +countries, the beans being crushed or broken between toothed or +corrugated metal or stone members, one revolving and the other being +stationary. While all grinding machines are alike in principle, they may +vary in capacity and design. The average granulator will turn out about +five hundred pounds of "steel-cut" coffee in an hour; the pulverizer, +from seventy-five to two hundred pounds; and the average grinding mill +from five hundred to six hundred pounds. Some types of grinding machines +have chaff-removing attachments to remove, by air suction, the chaff +from the coffee as it is being ground.</p> + +<p>A large number of trade terms for designating different grinds of coffee +are used in the United States, some of them meaning the same thing, +while similar names are sometimes contradictory. A canvass of the +leading American coffee packers in 1917<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> discovered that there were +fifteen terms in use, and that there were thirty-four different meanings +attached to them. For the term "fine" there were five different +definitions; "medium" had five; "coarse", seven; "pulverized", four; +"steel-cut", seven; "ground", two; "powdered", one; "percolator", two; +"steel-cut-chaff-removed", one; "Turkish ground", one; while +"granulated", "Greek ground", "extra fine", "standard", and "regular" +were not defined.</p> + +<p>The term "steel-cut" is generally understood to mean that in the +grinding process the chaff has been removed and an approximate +uniformity of granules has been obtained by sifting. The term does not +necessarily mean that the grinding mills have steel burrs. In fact, most +firms employ burrs made of cast-iron or of a composition metal known as +"burr metal", because of its combined hardness and toughness.</p> + +<p>The "steel-cut" idea is another of those sophistries for which American +advertising methods have been largely responsible in the development of +the package-coffee business in the United States. The term "steel-cut" +lost all its value as an advertising catchword for the original user +when every other dealer began to use it, no matter how the ground coffee +was produced. When the public has been taught that coffee should be +"steel-cut", it is hard to sell it ground coffee unless it is called +"steel-cut"; although a truer education of the consumer would have +caused him to insist on buying whole bean coffee to be ground at home.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="Smyser_Package-Making-and-Filling_Machine" id="Smyser_Package-Making-and-Filling_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image325.jpg" width="500" height="189" alt="Smyser Package-Making-and-Filling Machine at the Arbuckle Plant, New York" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Smyser Package-Making-and-Filling Machine at the Arbuckle Plant, New York</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This machine was invented by Henry E. Smyser of Philadelphia, who +secured the first patent in 1880, but it has been much improved by the +Arbuckle engineers. The half shown on the left makes the one-pound paper +bags complete, including the separate lining of parchment, fills the +bag, automatically inserts a premium list at the same time, packs it +down, seals it, and delivers it on a short conveyor to the other half +(shown on the right) where the package is wrapped in the outside +glassine paper and pushed out on a table for the girls to put into +shipping cases</small></p> +</div> + +<p>"Steel-cut" coffee, that is, a medium-ground coffee with the chaff blown +out, does not compare in cup test with coffee that has been more +scientifically ground and not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> given the chaff removal treatment that is +largely associated in the public mind with the idea of the steel-cut +process.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Automatic_Coffee-packing_Machine" id="Automatic_Coffee-packing_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image326.jpg" width="500" height="220" alt="Machine for Automatically Packing Coffee in Cartons" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Machine for Automatically Packing Coffee in Cartons</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Five distinct operations are performed by the units comprising this +Pneumatic installation, viz., carton-feeding, bottom-sealing, lining, +weighing and top-sealing</small></p> +</div> + +<p>According to the results of the trade canvass previously referred to, it +would appear that the terms most suited to convey the right idea of the +different grades of grinding, and likely to be acceptable to the +greatest number, would be "coarse" (for boiling, and including all the +coarser grades); "medium" (for coffee made in the ordinary pot, +including the so-called "steel-cut"); "fine" (like granulated sugar, and +used for percolators); "very fine" (like cornmeal, and used for drip or +filtration methods); "powdered" (like flour, and used for Turkish +coffee).</p> + +<p>Coffee begins to lose its strength immediately after roasting, the rate +of loss increasing rapidly after grinding. In a test carried out by a +Michigan coffee packer,<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> it was discovered that a mixture of a very +fine with a coarse grind gives the best results in the cup. It was also +determined that coarse ground coffee loses its strength more rapidly +than the medium ground; while the latter deteriorates more quickly than +a fine ground; and so on, down the scale. His conclusions were that the +most satisfactory grind for putting into packages that are likely to +stand for some time before being consumed is a mixture consisting of +about ninety percent finely ground coffee and ten percent coarse. His +theory is that the fine grind supplies sufficiently high body +extraction; the coarse, the needful flavor and aroma. On this irregular +grind a United States patent (No. 14,520) has been granted, in which the +inventor claims that the ninety percent of fine eliminates the +interstices—that allow too free ventilation in a coarse ground +coffee—and consequently prevents the loss of the highly volatile +constituents of the ten percent of coarse-ground particles, and at the +same time gives a full-body extraction.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Making and Filling Containers</i></p> + +<p>As stated before, a large proportion of the coffee sold in the United +States is put up into packages, ready for brewing. Such containers are +grouped under the name of the material of which they are made; such as +tin, fiber, cardboard, paper, wood, and combinations of these materials, +such as a fiber can with tin top and bottom. Generally, coffee +containers are lined with chemically treated paper or foil to keep in +the aroma and flavor, and to keep out moisture and contaminating odors.</p> + +<p>As the package business grew in the United States, the machinery +manufacturers kept pace; until now there are machines that, in one +continuous operation, open up a "flat" paper carton, seal the bottom +fold, line the carton with a protecting paper, weigh the coffee as it +comes down from an overhead hopper into the carton, fold the top and +seal it, and then wrap the whole package in a waxed or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> paraffined +paper, delivering the package ready for shipment without having been +touched by a human hand from the first operation to the last. Such a +machine can put out fifteen to eighteen thousand packages a day.</p> + +<p>Another type of machine automatically manufactures two and three-ply +paper cans such as are used widely for cereal packages. It winds the +ribbons of heavy paper in a spiral shape, automatically gluing the +papers together to make a can that will not permit its contents to leak +out. The machine turns out its product in long cylinders, like mailing +tubes, which are cut into the desired lengths to make the cans. The +paper or tin tops and bottoms are stamped out on a punch press.</p> + +<p>Coffee cans are generally filled by hand; that is, the can is placed +under the spout of an automatic filling and weighing machine by an +operator who slips on the cover when the can is properly filled. The +weighing machine has a hopper which lets the coffee down into a device +that gauges the correct amount, say a pound or two pounds, and then +pours it into the can. The machine weighs the can and its contents, and +if they do not show the exact predetermined weight, the device +automatically operates to supply the necessary quantity. After weighing, +the can is carried on a traveling belt to the labeling machine, where +the label is automatically applied and glued. Then the can is put +through a drying compartment to make the label stick quickly.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Complete_Coffee-Cartoning_Outfit" id="Complete_Coffee-Cartoning_Outfit"></a> +<img src="images/image327.jpg" width="500" height="396" alt="Complete Coffee-Cartoning Outfit in Operation" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Complete Coffee-Cartoning Outfit in Operation</span><br /> +<small>The girl is feeding the "flats" into an Improved Johnson bottom-sealer. +The carton travels to a Scott weigher on the right and thence to the +top-sealer on the left</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Paper bags are filled much the same way as the tin and the fiber cans. +In fact, some packers fill their paper and fiber cartons by the same +system; although the tendency among the largest companies is to instal +the complete automatic packaging equipment, because of its speed and +economy in packaging. Frequently, the weighing machines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> are used in +filling wooden and fiber drums holding twenty-five, fifty, and one +hundred pounds of coffee, to be sold in bulk to the retailer.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Automatic_Coffee-Weighing_Machines" id="Automatic_Coffee-Weighing_Machines"></a> +<img src="images/image328.jpg" width="500" height="237" alt="Three Types of Automatic Coffee-Weighing Machines" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Three Types of Automatic Coffee-Weighing Machines</span><br /> +<small>Left—Duplex net weigher. Center—Pneumatic cross-weight machine. +Right—Scott net weigher</small></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Additions and Fillers</i></p> + +<p>In all large coffee-consuming countries, coffee additions and fillers +have always been used. Large numbers of French, Italian, Dutch, and +German consumers insist on having chicory with their coffee, just as do +many Southerners in the United States.</p> + +<p>The chief commercial reason for using coffee additions and fillers is to +keep down the cost of blends. For this purpose, chicory and many kinds +of cooked cereals are most generally used; while frequently roasted and +ground peas, beans, and other vegetables that will not impair the flavor +or aroma of the brew, are employed in foreign countries. Before +Parliament passed the Adulterant Act, some British coffee men used as +fillers cacao husks, acorns, figs, and lupins, in addition to chicory +and the other favorite fillers.</p> + +<p>Up to the year 1907, when the United States Food and Drugs Act became +effective, chicory and cereal additions were widely used by coffee +packers and retailers in this country. With the enforcement of the law +requiring the label of a package to state when a filler is employed, the +use of additions gradually fell off in most sections.</p> + +<p>In botanical description and chemical composition chicory, the most +favored addition, has no relationship with coffee. When roasted and +ground, it resembles coffee in appearance; but it has an entirely +different flavor. However, many coffee-drinkers prefer their beverage +when this alien flavor has been added to it.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Treated Coffees and Dry Extracts</i></p> + +<p>The manufacture of prepared, or refined, coffees has become an important +branch of the business in the United States and Europe. Prepared coffees +can be divided into two general groups: treated coffees, from which the +caffein has been removed to some degree; and dry coffee extracts +(soluble coffee), which are readily dissolved in a cup of hot or cold +water.</p> + +<p>To decaffeinate coffee, the most common practise is to make the green +beans soft by steaming under pressure, and then to apply benzol or +chloroform or alcohol to the softened coffee to dissolve and to extract +the caffein. Afterward, the extracting solvents are driven out of the +coffee by re-steaming. However, chemists have not yet been able to expel +all the caffein in treating coffee commercially, the best efforts +resulting in from 0.3 to 0.07 percent remaining. After treatment, the +coffee beans are then roasted, packed, and sold like ordinary coffee.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><a name="UNITS_IN_MANUFACTURE_OF_SOLUBLE_COFFEE" id="UNITS_IN_MANUFACTURE_OF_SOLUBLE_COFFEE"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Units Used in the Manufacture of Soluble Coffee"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image329.jpg" width="300" height="326" alt="Vacuum Drum Drier" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Vacuum Drum Drier</span></span> +<p><small>Vacuum drum drier, No. 1 size; diameter of drum, 12 inches; length, 20 +inches; used for converting coffee extract and other liquids into dry +powder form. This is the smallest size, and was developed for drying +smaller quantities of liquids than could be handled economically in the +larger sizes. To provide accessibility of the interior for cleansing, +the outer casing may be moved back on the track of the bedplate (as +shown in the cut), so that free access may be had to the drum and +interior of the casing.</small></p> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image330.jpg" width="300" height="350" alt="Rapid-Circulation Evaporator" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rapid-Circulation Evaporator</span></span> +<p><small>Used to concentrate coffee extracts and other liquids. The tubes are +easily reached through the open door for cleansing. Interior of the +vapor body is reached through a manhole.</small></p> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image331.jpg" width="300" height="272" alt="Rear View of Drum Drier" title="" /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Rear View of Drum Drier</span></span> +<small>Vacuum drum dryer. No. 1 size; rear view, showing outer casing rolled +back from the drum.</small></p> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image332.jpg" width="300" height="332" alt="Cross-Section of Vacuum Drier" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cross-Section of Vacuum Drier</span></span> +<p><small>This shows the interior arrangement and principle of operation. The +drawing represents a larger size than the photograph, and while the +arrangement of some parts is slightly different, the principle of +operation is the same.</small></p> +</div></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'> +UNITS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SOLUBLE COFFEE</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p><p>In manufacturing dry coffee extract in the form of a powder that is +readily soluble in water, the general method is to extract the drinking +properties from ground roasted coffee by means of water, and to +evaporate the resulting liquid until only the coffee powder is left. +Several methods have been developed and patented to prevent the valuable +flavor elements from being evaporated with the water.</p> + +<p>A typical dry-coffee-extract-making equipment consists of a battery of +percolators, or "leachers", a vacuum evaporating device, and a vacuum +drier. The leachers do not differ materially from the ordinary +restaurant percolators, a battery usually including from three to seven +units, each charge of water going through all the percolations. The +resulting heavy liquid then goes to the evaporator to be concentrated +into a thick liquor. The evaporator consists of a horizontal cylindrical +vapor compartment connected with an inclined cylindrical steam chest in +which are numerous tubes, or flues, that occupy almost the whole chest. +These tubes are heated by steam. The coffee liquor is passed through the +tubes at high speed and thrown with great force against a baffle plate +at the opening to the vapor chest. The vapor passes around the baffle +plate to a separator. The liquor drops to the lower part of the +steam-chest (which is free from tubes), and is ready to be drawn out for +the next process, the drying.</p> + +<p>At this stage, the extract is a heavily concentrated syrup and is ready +to be converted into powder. This is done in the vacuum drier, which +consists of a hollow revolving drum surrounded by a tightly sealed +cast-iron casing. The drum is heated by steam injected into its +interior, and is revolved in a high vacuum. In operation, a coating of +coffee liquor is applied automatically, by means of a special device, to +the outside of the drum. The liquor is taken by gravity from the +reservoir containing the liquid supply and is forced upward by means of +a pump into the liquid supply pan, directly under the drum, with +sufficient pressure to cause the liquid to adhere to the drum, the +excess liquor overflowing from the pan into the reservoir. The coating +on the drum is controlled or regulated by a spreader. The heat and the +vacuum reduce the extract to a dry powder in less than one revolution of +the drum. As the drum completes three-quarters of a turn, a scraper +knife removes the coffee powder, which is delivered to a receiver below +the drum. Modern vacuum-drum driers have a capacity of from twenty-five +to five hundred pounds of dry soluble coffee per hour.</p> + +<p>C.W. Trigg and W.A. Hamor were granted a patent in the United States in +1919 on a new process for making an aromatized coffee extract. In this +process, the caffeol of the coffee is volatilized and is then brought +into contact with an absorbing medium such as is used in the extraction +of perfumes. The absorbing medium is then treated with a solvent of the +caffeol, and the solution is separated from the petrolatum. Then the +coffee solution is concentrated to an extract by evaporation; after +which, the extract and the caffeol are combined into a soluble coffee. +Five additional patents were granted on this same process in 1921.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXVI" id="Chapter_XXVI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXVI</span></h2> + +<h3>WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING OF COFFEE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>How coffees are sold at wholesale—The wholesale salesman's place +in merchandising—Some coffee costs analyzed—Handy coffee-selling +chart—Terms and credits—About package coffees—Various types of +coffee containers—Coffee package labels—Coffee package +economies—Practical grocer helps—Coffee sampling—Premium method +of sales promotion</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">C</span><span class="caps">offee</span> is sold at wholesale in the United States chiefly by about 4,000 +wholesale grocers, who handle also many other items of food; and by +roasters, who make a specialty of preparing the green coffee for +consumption, and who feature either bulk or trade-marked package goods.</p> + +<p>Much the largest proportion of the wholesale coffee trade today is made +up of roasted coffees, though some wholesalers still sell the green bean +to retail distributers who do their own roasting. Most of the roasted +coffee sold is ground; although in some parts of the United States there +is at present a growing consumer demand for coffee in the bean. Of the +coffee sold in trade-marked packages in 1919 in the United States, about +seventy-five percent was ground ready for brewing.</p> + +<p>The larger wholesale houses generally confine their operations to the +section of the country in which they are located, but some of the +biggest coffee-packing firms seek national distribution. In both cases, +branch houses are usually established at strategic points to facilitate +the serving of retail customers with freshly roasted coffee at all +times.</p> + +<p>In recent years, too, it has become a general practise for the home +offices, or main headquarters, to advertise their product in magazines, +newspapers, street cars, and by mail and on billboards; while the +branches solicit trade in their territories by means of traveling +salesmen, local newspaper advertisements, booklets, circulars, and +demonstrations at food shows.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Wholesale Salesman</i></p> + +<p>The traveling salesman is probably the most effective agency in securing +the retailer's orders for coffee. A good coffee salesman not only sells +coffee, but he teaches his customer how he can best build up and hold +his coffee trade. He acquaints the retailer with all the talking points +about the coffee he handles, how to feature it in store displays and +advertisements, how to stage demonstrations and to work up special +sales.</p> + +<p>If he is a <i>good</i> salesman, he does not permit the merchant to buy more +coffee than he can dispose of while it is still fresh. And he shows the +dealer the folly of handling too many brands of package coffees. If he +sells coffee in bulk, the efficient salesman has also a sound working +knowledge of blending principles, and is able to suggest the kinds of +coffee to blend to suit the particular requirements of each grocer's +trade. In short, he takes an intelligent interest in his customer's +business, and co-operates with him in building up a local coffee trade.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Coffee Costs Analyzed</i></p> + +<p>In estimating the price at which he must sell his coffee to make a fair +profit, the wholesale coffee merchant has many items<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> of expense to +consider. To the cost of the green coffee he must add: the cost of +transportation to his plant; the loss in shrinkage in roasting, which +ranges from fifteen to twenty percent; packaging costs, if he is a +packer; the items of expense in doing business, such as wages and +salaries, advertising, buying and selling, freight, express, warehouse +and cartage, postage and office supplies, telephone and telegraph, +credit and collection; and the fixed overhead charges for interest, +heat, light, power, insurance, taxes, repairs, equipment, depreciation, +losses from bad debts, and miscellaneous items.<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> The average loss +for bad debts among grocers in 1916 was 0.03 percent of the total sales, +according to the director of business research, Harvard University, who +estimated also that the common figure for credit and collection expense +was 0.06 percent. The total cost of doing business has been estimated as +ranging between twelve and twenty percent of the total annual sales, so +that a bag of green coffee costing $16 in New York or New Orleans costs +the coffee packer in the Middle West from $22.33 to $24.56, according to +the expense of carrying on his business.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Terms and Credits</i></p> + +<p>Wholesale coffee trade contract terms and credits are not dissimilar +from those in other lines of commerce. The wholesaler helps the retailer +finance his business to the extent of granting him thirty to sixty days +in which to pay his bill, offering him a cash discount if the invoice is +paid within ten days of date of sale. Until recent years, these terms +were frequently abused, the customer demanding much longer credits and +often taking a ten-day cash discount after thirty or more days had +elapsed. This abuse was particularly prevalent from 1907 to 1913, when +coffee prices were low and competition was especially keen.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a> In +addition, the retailers often demanded special deliveries of supplies, +which added to the wholesalers' costs; and some retailers refused to pay +the cost of cartage from the cars to their stores.</p> + +<p>With the coming of high prices after the close of the World War, the +wholesalers showed a tendency to tighten up their credit and discount +terms, the National Coffee Roasters Association especially recommending +thirty days' credit, or at most sixty days, and a maximum cash discount +rate of two percent.</p> + +<p>Another trade abuse which has been corrected almost altogether was the +practise of "selling coffee to be billed as shipped"; that is, the +wholesaler held coffee on order, and billed only when delivered, even +though several weeks or months had passed before shipment.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>About Package Coffees</i></p> + +<p>Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the sale of coffee in +packages has increased steadily until now (1922) this form of +distribution competes strongly with bulk coffee sales. While bulk coffee +is still preferred in some eastern sections of the United States, coffee +packers are making deep inroads there, to the extent that practically +all high and medium grade retailers feature package coffees, either +under their own brand name, or that of a coffee specialty house.</p> + +<p>The prime requisite for success in any package coffee is the composition +of the blend. One of the leaders in the field, which we will call Y, is +said to be composed of Bogota, Bourbon Santos, and Mexican. In March, +1922, it was being sold at retail in New York for 42 cents. A competing +brand, which we will call Z, is said to be a blend of Bogota and Bourbon +Santos. It was being sold at retail in New York, at the same period for +the same price. Simultaneously, in the retail stores of a well known +chain system, a bulk blend composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos and +forty percent Bogota was to be had loose for 29 cents.</p> + +<p>The second important factor that contributes to package coffee success +is the container. It must be of such a character as will best preserve +the freshness—the flavor and the aroma of the coffee—until it reaches +the consumer.</p> + +<p>Package coffee has not yet won universal favor. Some of the arguments +used against it are: that the price is generally higher than the same +grade in bulk; that it leads to price-cutting by stores that can afford +to sell it at about cost as a leader for other articles; that the margin +of profit is frequently too close for some retailers: that when the +market advances, some packers change their blends to keep down cost and +to maintain the advertised price; and that, when packed ground, there is +a rapid loss of flavor, aroma, and strength.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COAL_ROASTING_PLANT_NEW_YORK" id="COAL_ROASTING_PLANT_NEW_YORK"></a> +<img src="images/plate14.jpg" width="500" height="312" alt="COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORK FACTORY" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORK FACTORY<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Roasted Beans Have Just Been Dumped into the Cooler Box</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span></p> +<div class='table4'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Coffee-Selling Chart"> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='17'><big><span class="smcap">Coffee-Selling Chart</span></big><br /> +<span class="smcap">By A.J. Dannemiller</span><br /> + +Showing Prices to Be Obtained to Realize Certain Percents <i>on Sales</i> of Roasted Coffee</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr6'> + <td align='left'><i>Cost Roasted<br />& Packed</i></td> + <td align='right'>10%</td> + <td align='right'>11%</td> + <td align='right'>12%</td> + <td align='right'>13%</td> + <td align='right'>14%</td> + <td align='right'>15%</td> + <td align='right'>16%</td> + <td align='right'>17%</td> + <td align='right'>18%</td> + <td align='right'>19%</td> + <td align='right'>20%</td> + <td align='right'>21%</td> + <td align='right'>22%</td> + <td align='right'>23%</td> + <td align='right'>24%</td> + <td align='right'>25%</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>4</td> + <td align='right'>4.44</td> + <td align='right'>4.50</td> + <td align='right'>4.55</td> + <td align='right'>4.61</td> + <td align='right'>4.67</td> + <td align='right'>4.72</td> + <td align='right'>4.77</td> + <td align='right'>4.82</td> + <td align='right'>4.88</td> + <td align='right'>4.94</td> + <td align='right'>5.00</td> + <td align='right'>5.07</td> + <td align='right'>5.13</td> + <td align='right'>5.20</td> + <td align='right'>5.26</td> + <td align='right'>5.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>4<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>5.00</td> + <td align='right'>5.06</td> + <td align='right'>5.12</td> + <td align='right'>5.18</td> + <td align='right'>5.24</td> + <td align='right'>5.30</td> + <td align='right'>5.36</td> + <td align='right'>5.43</td> + <td align='right'>5.49</td> + <td align='right'>5.57</td> + <td align='right'>5.63</td> + <td align='right'>5.70</td> + <td align='right'>5.77</td> + <td align='right'>5.84</td> + <td align='right'>5.91</td> + <td align='right'>6.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>5</td> + <td align='right'>5.55</td> + <td align='right'>5.62</td> + <td align='right'>5.68</td> + <td align='right'>5.75</td> + <td align='right'>5.82</td> + <td align='right'>5.89</td> + <td align='right'>5.96</td> + <td align='right'>6.03</td> + <td align='right'>6.10</td> + <td align='right'>6.18</td> + <td align='right'>6.25</td> + <td align='right'>6.33</td> + <td align='right'>6.42</td> + <td align='right'>6.50</td> + <td align='right'>6.55</td> + <td align='right'>6.68</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>5<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>6.11</td> + <td align='right'>6.18</td> + <td align='right'>6.25</td> + <td align='right'>6.33</td> + <td align='right'>6.41</td> + <td align='right'>6.49</td> + <td align='right'>6.57</td> + <td align='right'>6.65</td> + <td align='right'>6.72</td> + <td align='right'>6.80</td> + <td align='right'>6.88</td> + <td align='right'>6.97</td> + <td align='right'>7.06</td> + <td align='right'>7.15</td> + <td align='right'>7.24</td> + <td align='right'>7.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>6</td> + <td align='right'>6.67</td> + <td align='right'>6.74</td> + <td align='right'>6.81</td> + <td align='right'>6.89</td> + <td align='right'>6.97</td> + <td align='right'>7.06</td> + <td align='right'>7.15</td> + <td align='right'>7.24</td> + <td align='right'>7.33</td> + <td align='right'>7.42</td> + <td align='right'>7.50</td> + <td align='right'>7.60</td> + <td align='right'>7.70</td> + <td align='right'>7.80</td> + <td align='right'>7.90</td> + <td align='right'>8.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>7.23</td> + <td align='right'>7.31</td> + <td align='right'>7.38</td> + <td align='right'>7.47</td> + <td align='right'>7.55</td> + <td align='right'>7.84</td> + <td align='right'>7.74</td> + <td align='right'>7.84</td> + <td align='right'>7.94</td> + <td align='right'>8.03</td> + <td align='right'>8.13</td> + <td align='right'>8.24</td> + <td align='right'>8.33</td> + <td align='right'>8.45</td> + <td align='right'>8.56</td> + <td align='right'>8.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>7</td> + <td align='right'>7.78</td> + <td align='right'>7.87</td> + <td align='right'>7.95</td> + <td align='right'>8.05</td> + <td align='right'>8.15</td> + <td align='right'>8.25</td> + <td align='right'>8.35</td> + <td align='right'>8.45</td> + <td align='right'>8.54</td> + <td align='right'>8.65</td> + <td align='right'>8.75</td> + <td align='right'>8.86</td> + <td align='right'>8.96</td> + <td align='right'>9.09</td> + <td align='right'>9.21</td> + <td align='right'>9.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>7<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>8.34</td> + <td align='right'>8.43</td> + <td align='right'>8.52</td> + <td align='right'>8.62</td> + <td align='right'>8.72</td> + <td align='right'>8.83</td> + <td align='right'>8.93</td> + <td align='right'>9.04</td> + <td align='right'>9.15</td> + <td align='right'>9.26</td> + <td align='right'>9.30</td> + <td align='right'>9.50</td> + <td align='right'>9.63</td> + <td align='right'>9.75</td> + <td align='right'>9.87</td> + <td align='right'>10.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>8</td> + <td align='right'>8.89</td> + <td align='right'>8.99</td> + <td align='right'>9.09</td> + <td align='right'>9.20</td> + <td align='right'>9.31</td> + <td align='right'>9.42</td> + <td align='right'>9.53</td> + <td align='right'>9.65</td> + <td align='right'>9.76</td> + <td align='right'>9.88</td> + <td align='right'>10.00</td> + <td align='right'>10.13</td> + <td align='right'>10.26</td> + <td align='right'>10.39</td> + <td align='right'>10.53</td> + <td align='right'>10.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>8<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>9.45</td> + <td align='right'>9.55</td> + <td align='right'>9.66</td> + <td align='right'>9.77</td> + <td align='right'>9.87</td> + <td align='right'>9.99</td> + <td align='right'>10.12</td> + <td align='right'>10.25</td> + <td align='right'>10.37</td> + <td align='right'>10.40</td> + <td align='right'>10.63</td> + <td align='right'>10.76</td> + <td align='right'>10.90</td> + <td align='right'>11.04</td> + <td align='right'>11.19</td> + <td align='right'>11.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>9</td> + <td align='right'>10.00</td> + <td align='right'>10.12</td> + <td align='right'>10.23</td> + <td align='right'>10.35</td> + <td align='right'>10.47</td> + <td align='right'>10.59</td> + <td align='right'>10.72</td> + <td align='right'>10.85</td> + <td align='right'>10.98</td> + <td align='right'>11.12</td> + <td align='right'>11.25</td> + <td align='right'>11.40</td> + <td align='right'>11.54</td> + <td align='right'>11.70</td> + <td align='right'>11.85</td> + <td align='right'>12.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>9<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>10.56</td> + <td align='right'>10.68</td> + <td align='right'>10.80</td> + <td align='right'>10.92</td> + <td align='right'>11.04</td> + <td align='right'>11.17</td> + <td align='right'>11.31</td> + <td align='right'>11.45</td> + <td align='right'>11.59</td> + <td align='right'>11.73</td> + <td align='right'>11.88</td> + <td align='right'>12.03</td> + <td align='right'>12.18</td> + <td align='right'>12.34</td> + <td align='right'>12.51</td> + <td align='right'>12.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>10</td> + <td align='right'>11.11</td> + <td align='right'>11.24</td> + <td align='right'>11.37</td> + <td align='right'>11.49</td> + <td align='right'>11.63</td> + <td align='right'>11.77</td> + <td align='right'>11.90</td> + <td align='right'>12.05</td> + <td align='right'>12.20</td> + <td align='right'>12.34</td> + <td align='right'>12.50</td> + <td align='right'>12.66</td> + <td align='right'>12.82</td> + <td align='right'>12.98</td> + <td align='right'>13.16</td> + <td align='right'>13.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>10<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>11.66</td> + <td align='right'>11.81</td> + <td align='right'>11.93</td> + <td align='right'>12.07</td> + <td align='right'>12.21</td> + <td align='right'>12.36</td> + <td align='right'>12.49</td> + <td align='right'>12.65</td> + <td align='right'>12.81</td> + <td align='right'>12.95</td> + <td align='right'>13.12</td> + <td align='right'>13.29</td> + <td align='right'>13.46</td> + <td align='right'>13.63</td> + <td align='right'>13.81</td> + <td align='right'>14.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>11</td> + <td align='right'>12.22</td> + <td align='right'>12.37</td> + <td align='right'>12.50</td> + <td align='right'>12.64</td> + <td align='right'>12.85</td> + <td align='right'>12.95</td> + <td align='right'>13.08</td> + <td align='right'>13.26</td> + <td align='right'>13.43</td> + <td align='right'>13.57</td> + <td align='right'>13.75</td> + <td align='right'>13.93</td> + <td align='right'>14.10</td> + <td align='right'>14.28</td> + <td align='right'>14.47</td> + <td align='right'>14.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>11<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>12.77</td> + <td align='right'>12.93</td> + <td align='right'>13.07</td> + <td align='right'>13.21</td> + <td align='right'>13.37</td> + <td align='right'>13.54</td> + <td align='right'>13.68</td> + <td align='right'>13.86</td> + <td align='right'>14.03</td> + <td align='right'>14.19</td> + <td align='right'>14.38</td> + <td align='right'>14.56</td> + <td align='right'>14.74</td> + <td align='right'>14.93</td> + <td align='right'>15.13</td> + <td align='right'>15.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>12</td> + <td align='right'>13.33</td> + <td align='right'>13.49</td> + <td align='right'>13.64</td> + <td align='right'>13.79</td> + <td align='right'>13.95</td> + <td align='right'>14.12</td> + <td align='right'>14.28</td> + <td align='right'>14.46</td> + <td align='right'>14.65</td> + <td align='right'>14.81</td> + <td align='right'>15.00</td> + <td align='right'>15.19</td> + <td align='right'>15.38</td> + <td align='right'>15.58</td> + <td align='right'>15.79</td> + <td align='right'>16.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>12<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>13.89</td> + <td align='right'>14.05</td> + <td align='right'>14.21</td> + <td align='right'>14.37</td> + <td align='right'>14.53</td> + <td align='right'>14.71</td> + <td align='right'>14.88</td> + <td align='right'>15.06</td> + <td align='right'>15.24</td> + <td align='right'>15.43</td> + <td align='right'>15.63</td> + <td align='right'>15.83</td> + <td align='right'>16.02</td> + <td align='right'>16.23</td> + <td align='right'>16.45</td> + <td align='right'>16.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>13</td> + <td align='right'>14.44</td> + <td align='right'>14.62</td> + <td align='right'>14.78</td> + <td align='right'>14.93</td> + <td align='right'>15.11</td> + <td align='right'>15.30</td> + <td align='right'>15.47</td> + <td align='right'>15.66</td> + <td align='right'>15.85</td> + <td align='right'>16.05</td> + <td align='right'>16.25</td> + <td align='right'>16.45</td> + <td align='right'>16.67</td> + <td align='right'>16.87</td> + <td align='right'>17.10</td> + <td align='right'>17.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>13<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>15.00</td> + <td align='right'>15.18</td> + <td align='right'>15.33</td> + <td align='right'>15.51</td> + <td align='right'>15.69</td> + <td align='right'>15.88</td> + <td align='right'>16.07</td> + <td align='right'>16.27</td> + <td align='right'>16.46</td> + <td align='right'>16.67</td> + <td align='right'>16.88</td> + <td align='right'>17.08</td> + <td align='right'>17.31</td> + <td align='right'>17.53</td> + <td align='right'>17.76</td> + <td align='right'>18.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>14</td> + <td align='right'>15.55</td> + <td align='right'>15.73</td> + <td align='right'>15.90</td> + <td align='right'>16.08</td> + <td align='right'>16.28</td> + <td align='right'>16.48</td> + <td align='right'>16.67</td> + <td align='right'>16.84</td> + <td align='right'>17.07</td> + <td align='right'>17.28</td> + <td align='right'>17.50</td> + <td align='right'>17.72</td> + <td align='right'>17.95</td> + <td align='right'>18.17</td> + <td align='right'>18.40</td> + <td align='right'>18.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>14<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>16.11</td> + <td align='right'>16.29</td> + <td align='right'>16.48</td> + <td align='right'>16.65</td> + <td align='right'>16.86</td> + <td align='right'>17.05</td> + <td align='right'>17.26</td> + <td align='right'>17.47</td> + <td align='right'>17.68</td> + <td align='right'>17.90</td> + <td align='right'>18.13</td> + <td align='right'>18.35</td> + <td align='right'>18.59</td> + <td align='right'>18.83</td> + <td align='right'>19.07</td> + <td align='right'>19.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>15</td> + <td align='right'>16.66</td> + <td align='right'>16.85</td> + <td align='right'>17.05</td> + <td align='right'>17.23</td> + <td align='right'>17.44</td> + <td align='right'>17.65</td> + <td align='right'>17.85</td> + <td align='right'>18.07</td> + <td align='right'>18.29</td> + <td align='right'>18.51</td> + <td align='right'>18.75</td> + <td align='right'>18.98</td> + <td align='right'>19.23</td> + <td align='right'>19.48</td> + <td align='right'>19.74</td> + <td align='right'>20.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>15<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>17.23</td> + <td align='right'>17.43</td> + <td align='right'>17.61</td> + <td align='right'>17.80</td> +<td align='right'>18.03</td> + <td align='right'>18.22</td> + <td align='right'>18.45</td> + <td align='right'>18.67</td> + <td align='right'>18.90</td> + <td align='right'>19.13</td> + <td align='right'>19.38</td> + <td align='right'>19.61</td> + <td align='right'>19.87</td> + <td align='right'>20.12</td> + <td align='right'>20.39</td> + <td align='right'>20.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>16</td> + <td align='right'>17.78</td> + <td align='right'>17.98</td> + <td align='right'>18.18</td> + <td align='right'>18.38</td> + <td align='right'>18.60</td> + <td align='right'>18.83</td> + <td align='right'>19.05</td> + <td align='right'>19.28</td> + <td align='right'>19.51</td> + <td align='right'>19.75</td> + <td align='right'>20.00</td> + <td align='right'>20.25</td> + <td align='right'>20.51</td> + <td align='right'>20.77</td> + <td align='right'>21.05</td> + <td align='right'>21.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>16<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>18.33</td> + <td align='right'>18.54</td> + <td align='right'>18.75</td> + <td align='right'>18.97</td> + <td align='right'>19.18</td> + <td align='right'>19.41</td> + <td align='right'>19.64</td> + <td align='right'>19.88</td> + <td align='right'>20.12</td> + <td align='right'>20.38</td> + <td align='right'>20.63</td> + <td align='right'>20.88</td> + <td align='right'>21.16</td> + <td align='right'>21.42</td> + <td align='right'>21.70</td> + <td align='right'>22.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>17</td> + <td align='right'>18.89</td> + <td align='right'>19.10</td> + <td align='right'>19.33</td> + <td align='right'>19.52</td> + <td align='right'>19.76</td> + <td align='right'>20.01</td> + <td align='right'>20.24</td> + <td align='right'>20.48</td> + <td align='right'>20.73</td> + <td align='right'>21.99</td> + <td align='right'>21.25</td> + <td align='right'>21.51</td> + <td align='right'>21.78</td> + <td align='right'>22.07</td> + <td align='right'>22.36</td> + <td align='right'>22.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>17<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>19.44</td> + <td align='right'>19.66</td> + <td align='right'>19.89</td> + <td align='right'>20.10</td> + <td align='right'>20.35</td> + <td align='right'>20.59</td> + <td align='right'>20.83</td> + <td align='right'>21.08</td> + <td align='right'>21.34</td> + <td align='right'>21.60</td> + <td align='right'>22.88</td> + <td align='right'>22.15</td> + <td align='right'>22.43</td> + <td align='right'>22.72</td> + <td align='right'>23.03</td> + <td align='right'>23.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>18</td> + <td align='right'>20.00</td> + <td align='right'>20.22</td> + <td align='right'>20.45</td> + <td align='right'>20.67</td> + <td align='right'>20.93</td> + <td align='right'>21.18</td> + <td align='right'>21.43</td> + <td align='right'>21.69</td> + <td align='right'>21.95</td> + <td align='right'>22.22</td> + <td align='right'>22.50</td> + <td align='right'>22.78</td> + <td align='right'>23.05</td> + <td align='right'>23.37</td> + <td align='right'>23.68</td> + <td align='right'>24.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>18<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>20.55</td> + <td align='right'>20.79</td> + <td align='right'>21.02</td> + <td align='right'>21.24</td> + <td align='right'>21.51</td> + <td align='right'>21.77</td> + <td align='right'>22.02</td> + <td align='right'>22.29</td> + <td align='right'>22.56</td> + <td align='right'>22.84</td> + <td align='right'>23.13</td> + <td align='right'>23.42</td> + <td align='right'>23.70</td> + <td align='right'>24.02</td> + <td align='right'>24.34</td> + <td align='right'>24.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>19</td> + <td align='right'>21.11</td> + <td align='right'>21.35</td> + <td align='right'>21.59</td> + <td align='right'>21.84</td> + <td align='right'>22.09</td> + <td align='right'>22.36</td> + <td align='right'>22.62</td> + <td align='right'>22.90</td> + <td align='right'>23.17</td> + <td align='right'>23.45</td> + <td align='right'>23.75</td> + <td align='right'>24.05</td> + <td align='right'>24.34</td> + <td align='right'>24.67</td> + <td align='right'>25.00</td> + <td align='right'>25.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>19<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>21.66</td> + <td align='right'>21.91</td> + <td align='right'>22.16</td> + <td align='right'>22.41</td> + <td align='right'>22.68</td> + <td align='right'>22.95</td> + <td align='right'>23.21</td> + <td align='right'>23.50</td> + <td align='right'>23.78</td> + <td align='right'>24.07</td> + <td align='right'>24.38</td> + <td align='right'>24.68</td> + <td align='right'>24.99</td> + <td align='right'>25.32</td> + <td align='right'>25.66</td> + <td align='right'>26.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>20</td> + <td align='right'>22.22</td> + <td align='right'>22.47</td> + <td align='right'>22.73</td> + <td align='right'>22.99</td> + <td align='right'>23.25</td> + <td align='right'>23.54</td> + <td align='right'>23.81</td> + <td align='right'>24.11</td> + <td align='right'>24.39</td> + <td align='right'>24.68</td> + <td align='right'>25.00</td> + <td align='right'>25.31</td> + <td align='right'>25.64</td> + <td align='right'>25.97</td> + <td align='right'>26.32</td> + <td align='right'>26.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>20<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>22.77</td> + <td align='right'>23.03</td> + <td align='right'>23.30</td> + <td align='right'>23.55</td> + <td align='right'>23.83</td> + <td align='right'>24.14</td> + <td align='right'>24.40</td> + <td align='right'>24.70</td> + <td align='right'>25.00</td> + <td align='right'>25.30</td> + <td align='right'>25.63</td> + <td align='right'>25.94</td> + <td align='right'>26.28</td> + <td align='right'>26.61</td> + <td align='right'>26.97</td> + <td align='right'>27.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>21</td> + <td align='right'>23.33</td> + <td align='right'>23.60</td> + <td align='right'>23.87</td> + <td align='right'>24.14</td> + <td align='right'>24.42</td> + <td align='right'>24.70</td> + <td align='right'>25.00</td> + <td align='right'>25.30</td> + <td align='right'>25.62</td> + <td align='right'>25.92</td> + <td align='right'>26.25</td> + <td align='right'>26.58</td> + <td align='right'>26.92</td> + <td align='right'>27.26</td> + <td align='right'>27.63</td> + <td align='right'>28.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>21<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>23.88</td> + <td align='right'>24.16</td> + <td align='right'>24.43</td> + <td align='right'>24.71</td> + <td align='right'>25.00</td> + <td align='right'>25.29</td> + <td align='right'>25.59</td> + <td align='right'>25.90</td> + <td align='right'>26.22</td> + <td align='right'>26.54</td> + <td align='right'>26.88</td> + <td align='right'>27.22</td> + <td align='right'>27.56</td> + <td align='right'>27.91</td> + <td align='right'>28.28</td> + <td align='right'>28.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>22</td> + <td align='right'>24.44</td> + <td align='right'>24.72</td> + <td align='right'>25.00</td> + <td align='right'>25.28</td> + <td align='right'>25.58</td> + <td align='right'>25.92</td> + <td align='right'>26.19</td> + <td align='right'>26.51</td> + <td align='right'>26.83</td> + <td align='right'>27.16</td> + <td align='right'>27.50</td> + <td align='right'>27.86</td> + <td align='right'>28.10</td> + <td align='right'>28.56</td> + <td align='right'>28.94</td> + <td align='right'>29.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>24.99</td> + <td align='right'>25.29</td> + <td align='right'>25.57</td> + <td align='right'>25.85</td> + <td align='right'>26.16</td> + <td align='right'>26.47</td> + <td align='right'>26.78</td> + <td align='right'>27.12</td> + <td align='right'>27.44</td> + <td align='right'>27.78</td> + <td align='right'>28.13</td> + <td align='right'>28.48</td> + <td align='right'>28.85</td> + <td align='right'>29.22</td> + <td align='right'>29.61</td> + <td align='right'>30.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>23</td> + <td align='right'>25.55</td> + <td align='right'>25.85</td> + <td align='right'>26.14</td> + <td align='right'>26.42</td> + <td align='right'>26.74</td> + <td align='right'>27.06</td> + <td align='right'>27.38</td> + <td align='right'>27.71</td> + <td align='right'>28.06</td> + <td align='right'>28.38</td> + <td align='right'>28.75</td> + <td align='right'>29.11</td> + <td align='right'>29.48</td> + <td align='right'>29.86</td> + <td align='right'>30.26</td> + <td align='right'>30.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>23<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>26.11</td> + <td align='right'>26.41</td> + <td align='right'>26.70</td> + <td align='right'>27.00</td> + <td align='right'>27.32</td> + <td align='right'>27.66</td> + <td align='right'>27.97</td> + <td align='right'>28.32</td> + <td align='right'>28.66</td> + <td align='right'>29.00</td> + <td align='right'>29.38</td> + <td align='right'>29.76</td> + <td align='right'>30.12</td> + <td align='right'>30.51</td> + <td align='right'>30.92</td> + <td align='right'>31.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>24</td> + <td align='right'>26.67</td> + <td align='right'>26.97</td> + <td align='right'>27.26</td> + <td align='right'>27.58</td> + <td align='right'>27.90</td> + <td align='right'>28.24</td> + <td align='right'>28.57</td> + <td align='right'>28.92</td> + <td align='right'>29.27</td> + <td align='right'>29.62</td> + <td align='right'>30.00</td> + <td align='right'>30.38</td> + <td align='right'>30.77</td> + <td align='right'>31.17</td> + <td align='right'>31.58</td> + <td align='right'>32.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>24<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='right'>27.22</td> + <td align='right'>27.54</td> + <td align='right'>27.84</td> + <td align='right'>28.15</td> + <td align='right'>28.49</td> + <td align='right'>28.83</td> + <td align='right'>29.16</td> + <td align='right'>29.52</td> + <td align='right'>29.88</td> + <td align='right'>30.24</td> + <td align='right'>30.63</td> + <td align='right'>31.02</td> + <td align='right'>31.41</td> + <td align='right'>31.81</td> + <td align='right'>32.24</td> + <td align='right'>32.67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>25</td> + <td align='right'>27.78</td> + <td align='right'>28.09</td> + <td align='right'>28.41</td> + <td align='right'>28.73</td> + <td align='right'>29.07</td> + <td align='right'>29.41</td> + <td align='right'>29.76</td> + <td align='right'>30.12</td> + <td align='right'>30.49</td> + <td align='right'>30.86</td> + <td align='right'>31.25</td> + <td align='right'>31.65</td> + <td align='right'>32.05</td> + <td align='right'>32.47</td> + <td align='right'>32.90</td> + <td align='right'>33.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' colspan='17'><p class='hang'><span class="smcap">Note, for Example</span>: Coffee costing 13.50 per 100 pounds + (see first column), to realize 17% <i>on sales</i>, must bring + 16.27; which really represents 21% <i>on cost</i></p></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Friends of package coffees point to the saving in time in handling in +the store; to the fact that the contents of a package are not +contaminated by odors or dirt; that the blends are prepared by experts +and are always uniform; that the coffee is always properly roasted; and, +in the case of package ground coffee, properly ground; that the brand +names are widely and consistently advertised; and that the retailer has +the benefit of the packer's co-operation in building up sales campaigns, +by means of booklets and local advertising.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Various Types of Coffee Containers</i></p> + +<p>Five types of containers are used for packing coffee, namely, cardboard +cartons, paper bags, fiber or paper cans, tin cans, and composite (tin +and fiber) cans and packages. Fiber packages include paraffin-lined as +well as those that have been chemically treated with other water-proof +and flavor-retaining substances.</p> + +<p>The carton is popular, because it takes up less room in storage and in +shipment to the packing plant, and also because the label can be printed +directly on the package. Another economy feature is its adaptability to +the automatic packaging machine, which transforms it from a flat sheet +into a wrapped and sealed package of coffee. Moisture-proof and +flavor-retaining inner liners and outside wrappers are generally used to +prevent rapid deterioration of the coffee's strength and aroma.</p> + +<p>Paper bags are the least expensive containers to be obtained; and when +lined with foil or prepared paper, they are considered to be +satisfactory. Like the carton, the label can be printed directly on the +bag. They also lend themselves to close packing in shipping cases.</p> + +<p>Another popular type of container is the paper, or fiber, can which is +made of fiber board with a slip cover. Fiber cans are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> also made with +tin tops and bottoms, the metal parts supplying a measure of rigidity to +the package. These composite packages are made round, square, oblong, or +cylindrical.</p> + +<p>Paraffined containers are characterized by an outer covering of glossy +paraffin, and are made in various shapes. In some makes, the paraffin is +forced into the pores of the paper base, making for added +flavor-retaining and moisture-proof properties. In this type of package +the label may also be printed direct on the package.</p> + +<p>In recent years, vacuum packed coffee has won great favor, first in the +West and latterly in the East. Tin cans are used. Vacuum sealing +machines close the containers at the rate of forty to fifty a minute. +Private tests by responsible coffee men are said to have shown that +coffee in the bean or ground, when vacuum packed, retains its freshness +for a longer period than when packed by any other method.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Labels</i></p> + +<p>Coffee packers must give due attention to certain well defined laws +bearing on package labels. Before the Federal Pure Food Act went into +effect on January 1, 1907, many coffee labels bore the magic names of +"Mocha" and "Java," when in fact neither of those two celebrated coffees +were used in the blend. Even mixtures containing a large percentage of +chicory, or other addition, were labeled "Pure Mocha and Java Coffee." +The enactment of the pure food law ended this practise, making it +compulsory that the label should state either the actual coffees used in +the blend, or a brand name, together with the name of either the packer +or the distributer. When chicory or other addition is used, the fact +must be stated in clear type directly following the brand name. The +reading matter on the label should contain facts only, and should not +bear extravagant claims of superior quality or of methods of preparing +or packing that have not been followed.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Packaging Economies</i></p> + +<p>During the United States' participation in the World War, tin became +practically unobtainable, and coffee packers turned to paper and fiber +containers as substitutes in packaging nearly all grades. In this war +period, commercial economy became a fetish in the business world; and +coffee packers worked to save not only material, but shipping space, +labor, and time. Paper and fiber containers proved to be not only +practical but economical packages. Because of their war-time experience, +many packers changed permanently to square and oblong containers. They +found these containers could be packed "solid" in shipping cases, +leaving no unfilled space between packages as is the case with +cylindrical cans; also, smaller shipping cases could be used. As a +further measure of economy, several packers changed from the square +"knocked-down" paper or fiber carton to the oblong carton that is made +up, filled, and sealed by automatic machinery from a flat, printed sheet +of cardboard. This type of container is generally lined or wrapped with +a moisture-proof and flavor-retaining paper.</p> + +<p>There has been a tendency in recent years to standardize coffee packages +as a means of working out packaging and shipping economies. One of the +leading American proponents<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a> of standardization said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">One of the first arguments raised against standardization is that +it eliminates individuality, and individuality is one of the big +guns covering the front line trenches in the war of competition. +The folly of recommending that every one-pound coffee carton, for +instance, should be of exactly the same size and shape is +immediately apparent; but let us not confuse such unification with +standardization.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Assuming that a pound of coffee may be safely contained in +seventy-two cubic inches, we find that a carton three inches thick +by four inches wide by six inches high will serve our purpose; and, +as an illustration of extremes, a carton three inches thick by +three inches wide by eight inches high, or one [carton] two inches +thick by six inches wide by six inches high, will each have exactly +the same cubical contents. In fact, there is an almost infinite +variety of combinations of dimensions which will contain +substantially seventy-two cubic inches.</p></div> + +<p>As an example of how coffee packages can be standardized this authority +cites the following sizes of flat-sheet containers and their respective +dimensions and capacities:</p> + + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="6" summary="Flat-Sheet Containers"> +<tr class='tr6'> + <td align='center'>Size</td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Thick and Wide</span><br />Inches</td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">High</span><br />Inches</td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Contents</span><br />Cubic Ins.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'>1 lb.</td> + <td align='center'>2<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span> by 4<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='center'>6<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='center'>73.83</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> lb.</td> + <td align='center'>2<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> by 3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='center'>5<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span></td> + <td align='center'>36.91</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'><span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> lb.</td> + <td align='center'>1<span class="above">9</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span> by 2<span class="above">5</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span></td> + <td align='center'>4<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span></td> + <td align='center'>18.46</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="TYPES_OF_COFFEE_CONTAINERS" id="TYPES_OF_COFFEE_CONTAINERS"></a> +<img src="images/image333.jpg" width="500" height="589" alt="VARIOUS TYPES OF COFFEE CONTAINERS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">VARIOUS TYPES OF COFFEE CONTAINERS</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">This Group of Leading Trade-Marked Coffees Illustrates the Wide Variance +in Styles of Containers Used by Coffee-Roasters. The Packages Shown Are +as Follows:</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—Double carton. 2, 3—Cartons. 4—Fiber sides, tin top and bottom, +friction cover. 5—Vacuum tin can. 6—Fancy paper bag. +7—Machine-wrapped paper package. 8—Fancy paper bag. 9—Carton with +patented opening and closing device. 10—Wrapped paper package. 11—Tin +can with slip cover. 12—All-fiber can with slip cover. 13—Tin can with +slip cover. 14—Lithographed tin can with friction cover. 15, 16—Tin +cans with slip covers. 17—Squat tin can. 18—Napa-can. 19, 20, +21—Vacuum tin cans.</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p><p>The advantages claimed for these packages are that each is well +proportioned and makes a good selling appearance; each bears a direct +relation to the other two; and all may be handled with uniformly good +results on the same set of standardized packaging machinery. One size of +shipping case, instead of three, may be used to hold exactly the same +number of pounds of coffee, regardless of whether shipped in one-pound, +half-pound, or quarter-pound cartons. For smaller dealer assortments, +any two, or all three sizes also exactly fit the following standard +shipping cases:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<small>For 36 lbs., 13<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>" by 16<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>" by 12<span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span>" high<br /> +For 54 lbs., 13<span class="above">7</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>" by 16<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>" by 19<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">8</span>" high</small> +</p> + +<p>This standardization of packages and shipping containers results in a +lower cost of containers and a smaller stock to carry, with attendant +reductions in details in purchasing and billing departments, in +inventories, and in many other overhead expense factors.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Practical Grocer Helps</i></p> + +<p>Wholesale coffee merchandising does not properly end with the delivery +of a shipment of coffee to a retailer. The progressive wholesaler knows +that it is to his best interest to help that grocer sell his coffee as +quickly as possible; to make a good profit on a quick turn-over; and to +dispose of it before the coffee has deteriorated.</p> + +<p>Practical co-operation between wholesaler and retailer is one of the +most important factors in coffee merchandising. In these days of keen +and unremitting competition, neither agency can stand alone for long. +The progressive wholesaler does not sell a retailer a poorer quality of +coffee for any particular grade than his trade calls for, and he does +not load him up with more than can be disposed of while still fresh. He +gauges the capacity and facilities of each retail customer, and then +gives him practical help to keep the stock moving.</p> + +<p>The packer of branded coffees helps by advertising to the consumer in +magazines and newspapers, always featuring the name of his brands; and +he supplies the grocer with educational pamphlets and booklets on the +growing, preparation, and merits of coffee in general, with an added +fillip about the desirability of his particular brand. Through his +salesmen the packer shows the grocer how to display the coffee on the +counter and in the window, and often supplies him with placards and +cut-outs featuring his brand. He co-operates in staging special coffee +demonstrations in the store; instructs the retailer in the importance of +teaching his clerks how to talk and to sell coffee intelligently; and +how to prepare advertising copy for his local newspaper, so as to get +the fullest measure of profit from the wholesaler's national or +sectional advertising.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Sampling</i></p> + +<p>The sampling method of creating a demand for merchandise has been tried +in the wholesale coffee trade, only to be abandoned by the majority of +packers. With other and more satisfactory ways of creating consumer +interest, promiscuous sampling was found to be too expensive, in view of +the comparatively small returns. One indictment against sampling is that +it does not make any more impression on the average person than does an +advertisement that appears only once, and is then abandoned. Wideawake +merchants have learned that the public's memory is exceedingly short; +and that they must keep "hammering" with advertisements to establish and +to maintain a demand for their products.</p> + +<p>It would seem that the logical place for sampling is in the retailer's +store, especially in connection with demonstrations. Many progressive +grocers stimulate interest in their coffees by serving, on special +demonstration days, small cups of freshly brewed coffee, giving the +customer a small sample of the brand or blend used, to be taken home to +see if the same pleasing results can be obtained there also. Generally +this form of sampling, when properly conducted, has shown a larger +percentage of returns than any other method.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Premium Method of Sales Promotion</i></p> + +<p>For many years, the premium method of sales promotion has been an +important factor in wholesale coffee merchandising, as well as in retail +distribution. The premium system has been characterized as a form of +advertising; and many coffee packers and wholesalers prefer to spend +their advertising appropriations in that way rather than in transitory +printed advertisements in newspapers and general magazines.</p> + +<p>While certain forms of the system have been legislated out of existence +in some states, friends of the plan claim that it is a true +profit-sharing method which "blesses both him that gives and him that +takes"; and that it is an advanced and legitimate means of promoting +business, when properly conducted. They assert that it is a system of +sales promotion whereby the advertising<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> expense, plus a large +percentage of the profits of the business stimulated thereby, is +automatically returned to the dealer buyer, without increasing cost or +lowering the quality of the product so advertised; that it eliminates +advertising waste by producing a given volume of sales for a given +expenditure of money; that it reduces the cost of advertising by +prompting a continuous series of purchases at one advertising expense; +that it promotes cash payments and discourages credit business. Premium +users claim that the force of a printed advertisement is often spent in +stimulating the first purchase; while to secure a premium, the purchaser +must continue to buy the commodity carrying the premium, or trade with +the giver of the premium until merchandise of a stipulated value or +quantity has been purchased.</p> + +<p>In general practise, the premium-giving coffee packer or wholesaler may +either offer the retailer an inducement in the form of a desirable store +fixture, household article, or item for his personal use; or he may +offer it to the consumer through the retailer.</p> + +<p>The methods of giving the premium are numerous. To the retailer he may +give the article outright with each purchase of a stipulated quantity of +his coffee; or he may offer it as a prize to the retail distributer +selling the most coffee in a certain period in a specified territory. +Frequently the premium is of such value that the wholesaler can not give +it with any quantity of coffee a distributer can dispose of in a short +time; so he issues coupons or certificates with each purchase, +permitting the retailer to redeem the premium when he has saved the +required number. Or, the retailer may get the premium with the first +purchase by paying the difference in cash.</p> + +<p>In giving premiums to consumers, the wholesaler follows the same general +plan used with retailers, except that in most cases the coupons are +packed with the coffee and are redeemable at the retailer's store. +Sometimes, however, the consumer sends the coupons or certificates to +the wholesaler, getting the premium direct from him. In another phase of +the premium system, the retailer works independently of the wholesaler, +buying and giving away his own premiums to promote or to hold trade for +his store. This phase is explained in the chapter on retail coffee +merchandising.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /><a name="FRESH_ROASTED-COFFEE_IDEA_IN_RETAILING" id="FRESH_ROASTED-COFFEE_IDEA_IN_RETAILING"></a> +<img src="images/image334.jpg" width="500" height="310" alt="Luhrs, of Poughkeepsie, N.Y., Features Freshly Roasted Coffee in His Window" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Luhrs, of Poughkeepsie, N.Y., Features Freshly Roasted Coffee in His Window</span><br /> +<small>Smoke from the roasters is blown into street through the coffee pot +hanging over the door</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image335.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="Johnson, of Red Oak, Iowa, Roasts Before the Customer" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Johnson, of Red Oak, Iowa, Roasts Before the Customer</span><br /> +<small>Showing a Royal roasting and grinding equipment</small><br /> +FRESH ROASTED-COFFEE IDEA IN RETAIL MERCHANDISING</span> +</div> + + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXVII" id="Chapter_XXVII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXVII</span></h2> + +<h3>RETAIL MERCHANDISING OF ROASTED COFFEE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>How coffees are sold at retail—The place of the grocer, the tea +and coffee dealer, the chain store, and the wagon-route distributer +in the scheme of distribution—Starting in the retail coffee +business—Small roasters for retail dealers—Model coffee +departments—Creating a coffee trade—Meeting +competition—Splitting nickels—Figuring costs and profits—A +credit policy for retailers—Premiums</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">C</span><span class="caps">offee</span> is sold at retail in the United States through seven distinct +channels of trade; the independent retail grocers (about 350,000) +handling about forty percent of the 1,300,000,000 pounds sold annually; +and the other sixty percent being sold by chain stores, mail-order +houses, house-to-house wagon-route distributers, specialty tea and +coffee stores, department stores, and drug stores. Since the beginning +of the twentieth century, the independent grocers' monopoly in retail +coffee-merchandising has been dwindling at a rate that has seriously +alarmed those interests and their friends.</p> + +<p>B.C. Casanas of New Orleans, addressing a convention of the National +Association of Retail Grocers in the United States, in 1916, said that +the wholesale coffee roasters of the country had invested in their +business $60,000,000; and that $135,000,000 worth of roasted coffee was +sold by them every year.</p> + +<p>Considering the methods of merchandising, the seven retail distributing +agencies may be grouped into three distinct classes. The first class +would comprise the independent grocer, the chain store, the department +store, the drug store, and the specialty store, all of which maintain +stores where the consumer comes to buy. The second class takes in the +mail-order house, which solicits orders and delivers its coffee by mail, +and sometimes by freight or express. The third class covers the +wagon-route dealer, who goes from house to house seeking trade, and +delivers his coffee on order at regular periods direct to the consumer +in the home. As an inducement to contracting for large quantities to be +delivered in weekly or bi-weekly periods, the house-to-house dealer +generally gives some household article, or the like, as a premium to +establish good-will and to retain the trade of his customers.</p> + +<p>New impetus was given to the method of selling coffee by mail when the +parcel post system was adopted by the federal government in 1912; and +since then this plan has become an important factor in retail +coffee-merchandising. Generally, the mail-order houses confine their +sales efforts to agricultural districts and small towns, soliciting +trade by catalogs, by circular letters, and by advertisements in local +newspapers, and in magazines which circulate chiefly among dwellers in +rural districts.</p> + +<p>The majority of wagon-route distributers depend upon the lure of their +premiums, and on personal calls, to develop and to hold their coffee +trade. The leading wagon-route companies, sometimes called "premium +houses", maintain offices and plants in large cities adjacent to the +territories to which they confine their sales efforts. At strategic +points, they have district agents<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> who engage the wagon men that do the +actual soliciting of orders and that deliver the coffee. All wagon-route +companies handle other products besides coffee, specializing in tea, +spices, extracts, and such household goods as soap, perfumes, and other +toilet requisites that promise a quick sale and frequent re-orders. Some +of their competitors complain that they handle only the more profitable +lines, leaving the independent local grocer to supply the housekeeper +with the items on which the margin of profit is comparatively small.</p> + +<p>Wagon-route coffee-retailing began to make itself felt seriously about +the year 1900. At first, the premiums usually consisted of a cup and +saucer with the first order, the customer being led to continue buying +until at least a full set of dishes had been acquired. Later, the range +of premiums was expanded; until today the wagon man offers several +hundred different articles that can be used in the home or for personal +wear or adornment. Practically all the leading wagon-route concerns +favor the advance premium method; that is, a special canvasser induces a +consumer to contract for a large quantity of coffee and other products +in return for receiving the premium at once, though the coffee is +delivered only as the customer wants it, generally two pounds every two +weeks. The wagon man delivers the coffee, and is usually held +responsible for the customer fulfilling the agreement, and is expected +to secure repeat orders with other premiums.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Premium_Tea_and_Coffee_Dealers_Display" id="Premium_Tea_and_Coffee_Dealers_Display"></a> +<img src="images/image336.jpg" width="500" height="364" alt="A Premium Tea and Coffee Dealer's Display Room" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Premium Tea and Coffee Dealer's Display Room</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This is the headquarters store of the Geo. F. Hellick Co., Easton, Pa., +a successful wagon coffee distributer. The premium merchandise is shown +in the foreground: the sales counter, coffee mill, and display of teas, +coffees, extracts, spices, etc., being in the right background</small></p> +</div> + +<p>The importance of the wagon-route plan of coffee-retailing is shown by +the fact that in 1921 there were six hundred houses of this kind in the +United States; and it was estimated that they distributed eight percent +of the total amount of the coffee consumed in the country. The biggest +company was capitalized at $16,000,000, and operated eleven hundred +wagons. Most of the wagon-route concerns were operating in the central +states, practically one-third of them covering the states of Illinois, +Wisconsin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> Indiana, and Iowa. Pennsylvania is also a wagon-route-dealer +center.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Chain-Store_Interior" id="Chain-Store_Interior"></a> +<img src="images/image337.jpg" width="500" height="301" alt="Typical Chain-Store Interior Equipment" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Typical Chain-Store Interior Equipment</span><br /> +<small>This is the Atlantic & Pacific Co.'s store in Rhinebeck, New York. There +are nearly 5,000 other stores like it in the United States</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The premium wagon-route distributers have an organization called the +National Retail Tea and Coffee Merchants' Association. It is composed of +126 members—all of whom use premiums—who operate over two thousand +wagons. The largest single wagon-route operator is the Jewel Tea Company +of Chicago. The members of this organization claimed to have served more +than 2,000,000 families in 1920.</p> + +<p>In the chain-store system of merchandising we see the opposite extreme +of coffee retailing. The wagon-route man features his delivery service; +while in the chain-store plan, all customers must pay cash and carry +home their parcels. Though the earliest established chain stores gave +premiums, the practise has now been generally abandoned. Roasting, +blending, and packing coffee in a large central plant, the chain-store +operator advertises that he can sell coffee at a price lower than his +competitors. As a rule, only one grade of coffee is offered for sale. +While it is generally a good medium value, many consumers prefer better +quality and go to the independent grocer for it. Others patronize the +grocer because of his convenient delivery service, and because he gives +credit on purchases. Chain-store organizations seem to be growing +rapidly, however; the largest of the chains, the Great Atlantic & +Pacific Tea Co., reporting in 1921 that it had nearly five thousand +branches throughout the country, which sell 40,000,000 pounds of coffee +annually. This chain has a capitalization of $12,000,000, and in 1920 +sold $225,000,000 worth of groceries, as compared with $154,718,124 in +the preceding year. This company opens about five hundred new stores +every year.</p> + +<p>The chain-store men are organized in the National Chain Store Grocers +Association, having thirty members, representing 12,000 stores, +operating in eighteen states. It is estimated that there are fifty +responsible chain-store grocery organizations in the United States, +representing about 30,000 stores. The chain-store grocer turns his stock +over from twelve to twenty-five times a year, sells for cash, makes no +deliveries, and claims to save the consumer an average of fifteen +percent in buying. These stores do business on a net margin not +exceeding three percent on sales, as against the average retail grocer's +thirty percent, while their average gross cost of doing business has +been stated as between thirteen and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> one-half percent (lowest) and +eighteen and one-half percent (highest).</p> + +<p>According to Alfred H. Beckmann, secretary-treasurer of the National +Chain Store Grocers' Association,<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a> "Public appreciation of the chain +grocery store is rapidly growing. Ten years ago it was estimated that +chain stores in what is known as the Metropolitan district of New York +did about 12<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> percent of the volume of business in their line, while +today it is estimated at about fifty percent".</p> + +<p>It is estimated that the fifty-odd chain store organizations in the +United States distribute through their 30,000 stores 270,000,000 pounds +of coffee a year, or about twenty percent of the total amount consumed +in the United States.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Starting in the Retail Coffee Business</i></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Familiar_A_P_Store_Front" id="Familiar_A_P_Store_Front"></a> +<img src="images/image338.jpg" width="300" height="229" alt="The Familiar A & P Store Front" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Familiar A & P Store Front</span></span> +</div> + +<p>When taking up the retail merchandising of coffee, the practical grocer +learns all he can about the popular grades to be had in the principal +markets, and how the coffees are grown, roasted, blended, and ground. He +also ascertains the best methods of brewing, testing out each grade and +kind on his own table, if he does not have testing facilities in his +store. He studies the relative trade values of different varieties of +coffee, and the requirements of his particular clientèle.</p> + +<p>An interesting analysis of some 250 grocery stores in the United +States<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> made in 1919, showed that twenty-nine percent of the dealers +bought all their coffee from wholesale grocers, forty-eight percent +exclusively from roasters and specialty wholesalers, ten percent got +over one-half of their coffee from wholesale grocers, and thirteen +percent bought less than one-half from the wholesale grocery houses.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Layout_for_Coffee_and_Tea_Department" id="Layout_for_Coffee_and_Tea_Department"></a> +<img src="images/diagram6.jpg" width="300" height="311" alt="Layout for Coffee and Tea Department" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Layout for Coffee and Tea Department</span></span> +</div> + +<p>There are two fundamental plans on which a retailer builds a successful +coffee business—by buying coffee already roasted, and by buying it +green and roasting it in the store. Each plan has its advantages; but +its practicability depends upon conditions in different localities.</p> + +<p>Beyond acquiring a general talking knowledge about coffees, the retailer +buying his stocks roasted in bulk or package form does not generally +need the intimate knowledge of his goods required by the grocer who +roasts his own coffee. If he grinds the coffee for his customers he must +know the type of grind best suited to the way the coffee is to be +brewed, and must be able to tell the best brewing method.</p> + +<p>The practical grocer who makes up his own blend is acquainted with +blending principles and methods. "While he can not expect to be as +expert as the large wholesale blender, he should know that green coffees +are generally classified by blenders in five great divisions; (1) +Brazils, including Santos, Bourbon and flat bean, Rios, Victorias, and +Bahias; (2) Washed milds, embracing, as of the most commercial value, +Bogotas, Bucaramangas, Guatemalas, Mexicans, Costa Ricans, Maracaibos, +and Meridas; (3) Unwashed milds, such as Maracaibos, Bucaramangas, La +Guairas, and Mexicans; (4) Javas, Sumatras, and Padangs; (5) Mocha, and +Harari."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="SPECIALIST_IDEA_IN_COFFEE_MERCHANDISING" id="SPECIALIST_IDEA_IN_COFFEE_MERCHANDISING"></a> +<img src="images/image339.jpg" width="500" height="304" alt="One of the Retail Coffee-Roasting Stations in Southern California" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">One of the Retail Coffee-Roasting Stations in Southern California</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image340.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="Close-up of the Miniature Manufacturing Plant, Showing the Roasting and Grinding Equipment" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Close-up of the Miniature Manufacturing Plant, Showing the Roasting and Grinding Equipment</span><br /> +APPLYING THE SPECIALIST IDEA TO COFFEE MERCHANDISING</span> +</div> + +<p>The Pacific Stores Co., Los Angeles, cutting out deliveries, premiums, +and solicitors, has built up a business of more than 100 bags of coffee +daily, selling direct to the consumer in a chain of 100 booths patterned +after the country-roadside gasoline stations; each one having its own +roaster]</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Monitor_Gas_Roaster_Cooler_and_Stoner" id="Monitor_Gas_Roaster_Cooler_and_Stoner"></a> +<img src="images/image341.jpg" width="300" height="277" alt="Self-Contained Monitor Gas Roaster, Cooler, and Stoner" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Self-Contained Monitor Gas Roaster, Cooler, and Stoner</span></span> +</div> + +<p>It has been found by experience that a good assortment for the average +retailer to carry consists of Santos, because of price; a natural +unwashed Maracaibo or Bucaramanga, because of full body and general +blending values; and a washed coffee, preferably a Bogota, which gives +quality and character to a blend. In stocking up with these coffees, the +practical merchant avoids Santos with a strong or Rioy flavor, bitter or +"hidey" Maracaibos, and acidy or thin Bogotas.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a></p> + +<p>A grocer equipped with these coffees has the Santos for his low-priced +seller. For his medium grade he blends Santos and Maracaibo, +half-and-half. The next higher grade is made up of one-third each of the +three coffees; while the best blend consists either of half-and-half +Bogota and Maracaibo, or three-quarters Bogota and one-quarter +Maracaibo.</p> + +<p>The chief advantage of these three coffees is that they blend well in +any way they are mixed; and the dealer with a little experience, and +working with the two necessary ideas in mind—satisfactory coffee and +price—can make up various combinations.</p> + +<p>In view of the fact that the United States imports coffee from more than +a hundred different sections of the world, and that there are wide +variations in flavor among the coffees produced in each of the hundred, +it is easy to understand that the blender has an almost unlimited supply +from which to make up a blend with a distinctive individuality. +Practically all coffee importers, and most wholesalers, are thoroughly +acquainted with the relative trade values of the different coffees, and +help their customers make up desirable blends.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Small Roasters for Retail Dealers</i></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Royal_Gas_Coffee_Roaster_for_Retail_Stores" id="Royal_Gas_Coffee_Roaster_for_Retail_Stores"></a> +<img src="images/image342.jpg" width="300" height="311" alt="Royal Gas Coffee Roaster for Retail Stores" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Royal Gas Coffee Roaster for Retail Stores</span></span> +</div> + +<p>While the wholesale coffee roaster is obliged to instal a large and +somewhat complex equipment, the retailer must use a small, compact, +self-contained unit that does not take up much space in his store, and +that is easily operated. Retail roasting machines are constructed on the +same general principle as the wholesale roaster. The roasting cylinder +is generally revolved by electric power, and the heat is derived from +gas or gasoline fuel. Cooling is by air suction in a box attached to the +roaster. The capacities of the machines range from ten to three hundred +pounds, the operating cost running from approximately eight cents per +hundred pounds for gas fuel and ten cents for electric power. The +roasters cost from three hundred dollars for the smaller sizes, to +fifteen hundred for the one-bag type; and to two thousand or three +thousand dollars for the two-bag type.</p> + +<p>One coffee-roaster-machinery manufacturer has recently brought out a +gas-fired, electrically operated fifty-pound miniature coffee-roasting +plant designed for retail stores, which comprises a roaster, a rotary +cooler, and a stoning device, that sells for six hundred and fifty +dollars.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span></p><p>Retail coffee roasting is similar to the wholesale operation. When the +cylinder has become heated, the green coffee is run in and allowed to +roast in the revolving cylinder for about half an hour. If the coffee is +the average green kind, the full heat may be applied at once; but if old +and dry, a lesser degree is used. When the roast begins to snap, the +flame is turned lower to allow the beans to cook through evenly; and +when nearly done, it is almost extinguished. During the operation, the +roasterman, who may be the proprietor or a clerk delegated to the work, +frequently "samples" the coffee by taking out a small quantity with his +"trier" and comparing the color of the roast with a type sample. When +the colors match exactly, the coffee is dumped automatically into the +cooler box just below the cylinder opening; and when sufficiently cooled +off, is ready for grinding to order.</p> + +<p>A large number of retailers roast coffee in their stores; and the most +successful find that besides being able to make a feature of freshly +roasted coffee, they can save money and increase their sales. One +progressive grocer found that he was able to get eighty-eight pounds of +roasted coffee out of one hundred pounds of green coffee, as compared +with the wholesaler's eighty-four pounds; that he could buy green coffee +at a closer price than roasted; and that it cost him less for labor, +fuel, overhead, and similar items, than it did the wholesale roaster to +turn out a roast.<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a></p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Burns and Lambert Roasters"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Burns_Half-Bag_Gas_Roasting_Cooling_and_Stoner" id="Burns_Half-Bag_Gas_Roasting_Cooling_and_Stoner"></a> +<img src="images/image343.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="Burns Half-Bag Gas Roasting, Cooling, and Stoning Outfit" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns Half-Bag Gas Roasting, Cooling, and Stoning Outfit</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Lambert_Jr_Gas_Roasting_Outfit_for_Retailers" id="Lambert_Jr_Gas_Roasting_Outfit_for_Retailers"></a> +<img src="images/image344.jpg" width="300" height="476" alt="Lambert Junior Gas Roasting, Cooling, and Stoning Outfit for Retail Stores (Capacity fifty pounds)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lambert Junior Gas Roasting, Cooling, and Stoning Outfit for Retail Stores</span><br /> +(Capacity fifty pounds)</span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>A chain of coffee specialty stores in which the coffee is roasted fresh +every day was started in California about the year 1916; and according +to reports, it met with almost instant success. In this system, the +proprietor buys the green coffee in large quantities, and it is roasted +in each of his specialty stores, which are located in public markets, +store windows, and alongside heavily traveled highways. The roasting +machinery is invariably set up in front of the store where passers-by +can easily see it in operation—and also smell the coffee roasting. Four +years after starting the first store, there were fifty in operation +along the Pacific Coast, doing an annual business of about $600,000, +some units taking in more than $7,000 a month.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Model Coffee Departments</i></p> + +<p>Authorities generally agree that a well laid out coffee department not +only increases a grocer's coffee business, but speeds up sales in other +departments as well. Coffee lovers, and they are legion in the United +States, are inclined to "shop around" for a coffee that suits their +taste; and when they have found the store that sells it, they buy their +other groceries there also. Another argument advanced in favor of a +coffee department is that coffee pays more money into the retailer's +cash drawer than any other grocery item.<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a></p> + +<p>Most successful retail coffee merchandisers establish the coffee +department near the entrance to the store, where it can be seen through +a window by passers-by, especially if there is an ornamental roasting +and grinding equipment. It has been found that a department situated at +the left of the entrance is almost certain to draw attention because +people are inclined to glance in that direction first. Some merchants, +having the space, erect attractive booths, designed somewhat like the +familiar food-show booths, directly in front of the door, after the +fashion of department stores when holding a special sale on a certain +article. Such a booth is generally used for demonstration purposes, and +is decorated with signs and possibly with bunting. A permanent +department is usually less ornamental, but still attractive. In telling +how he made a success of his department, one American grocer said that +he was careful that his fixtures were not so ornamental as to draw +attention from the goods. While the decorations were always attractive, +they were subordinated sufficiently to form a background for his coffee +display.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Faulder_and_Simplex_Gas_Roasters" id="Faulder_and_Simplex_Gas_Roasters"></a> +<img src="images/image345.jpg" width="500" height="359" alt="Faulder and Simplex Gas Roasters in an English Factory" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Faulder and Simplex Gas Roasters in an English Factory</span><br /> +<small>The Faulder (on the left) is a 28-lb. indirect machine and the Simplex +(also 28 lbs. capacity) is of the direct-flame, quick-roaster type</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The most popular layout is the conventional counter system behind which +the clerk stands to serve the customer on the other side. There are many +advocates of the counter that is built into the shelving, believing that +the closer the customers are brought to the coffee, the more they will +be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> inclined to buy. This system also makes for cleanliness, doing away +with the possibility of the runway behind the counter becoming a +catch-all for dirt, torn paper, bits of wood, and the like.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Roasters_Used_in_Paris_Shops" id="Coffee_Roasters_Used_in_Paris_Shops"></a> +<img src="images/image346.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="Illustrating the Coffee Roasters Used by the Shop-Keepers of France" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Illustrating the Coffee Roasters Used by the Shop-Keepers of France</span><br /> +<small>These machines are of the ball-cylinder type, and use gas as fuel; the +cylinder is revolved by electric power. Invariably they stand where they +can be seen from the street</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The modern coffee department has counters divided into compartments +having glass fronts. This type serves both as a storage place for coffee +and for display purposes. The top of the counter is used for wrapping up +parcels, etc., and also for displaying bulk and package coffees. In the +well regulated store, the counter top is never used for storage, all +stock being kept on shelves or in the counter's compartments. Good +merchants find that cleanliness pays; and that a "littered up" store +drives away desirable custom. The wise proprietor never allows a clerk +to weigh out coffee after handling cheese, onions, and other odorous +articles, without first thoroughly washing his hands. He knows that few +food products in his store will more quickly absorb undesirable odors +and flavors than coffee; and consequently he is careful to protect his +coffee from contamination. In the better stores, the proprietor will +either take charge of the coffee department himself, or will delegate a +competent man who will do nothing else.</p> + +<p>The wide-awake retail coffee roaster always features his roasting +machine, which is generally highly ornamental and draws attention even +when not in use. Some progressive merchants plan to roast coffee at noon +time and at night, when homeward-bound passers-by are hungry and are +particularly susceptible to the pungent aroma of roasting coffee. It is +a quite common plan for the retail roaster to arrange the exhaust of the +machine so that the full strength of the odor is blown into the street.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Creating a Coffee Trade</i></p> + +<p>Because of steady sales and quick profits, there is keener competition +in retail coffee-merchandising than in other food products. But, all +things being equal, any intelligent person can create and hold a +profitable trade if he follows approved business methods—and works. The +best practise among coffee merchants shows that the prime essential is +good coffee, freshly roasted and ground. After that comes intelligent +and unremitting sales-promotion work.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Small_German_Roasters" id="Small_German_Roasters"></a> +<img src="images/image347.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="Small German Roasters" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Small German Roasters</span><br /> +<small>On the left is a hand roaster for wood or coal fuel; on the right is a +gas machine.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The many ingenious trade-building plans worked out successfully by +grocers in all parts of the country are too numerous to describe in a +book of this character; but the methods cited in the following, all of +which have been tested in actual working conditions, will serve to +indicate the fundamentals of good retail coffee-sales promotion.</p> + +<p>Among the chief sales-winning methods are demonstrations in the store, +at local food shows, and at church socials, picnics or functions, +judicious sampling either in person or by mail, personal canvassing from +house to house, circularizing by mail, linking up window displays with +current happenings, local newspaper and outdoor poster advertising, and +selling coffee by telephone. Most of the foregoing plans are worked +intermittently. The telephone, however, is a most important sales factor +and should be employed constantly and consistently.<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> Many successful +stores consider the telephone, properly used, the greatest single +sales-help in retail coffee-merchandising.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Popular_French_Retail_Roaster" id="Popular_French_Retail_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image348.jpg" width="300" height="307" alt="Popular French Retail Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Popular French Retail Roaster</span><br /> +<small>Employing coal, charcoal, or wood fuel</small></span> +</div> + +<p>One grocer had such faith in this method that he paid half the annual +telephone rental for a large number of his best-paying customers. +Another large merchandiser put in an individual telephone for each of +his salesmen, who called up his regular customers each day to suggest +articles for that day's order, always of course mentioning their +"superior brand of coffee." Telephoning is the next step to personal +contact; and if tactfully done, is considered to be even more +advantageous, because of the time it saves both the customer and the +store keeper.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Uno_Cabinet_Gas_Roaster_and_Cooler" id="Uno_Cabinet_Gas_Roaster_and_Cooler"></a> +<img src="images/image349.jpg" width="300" height="459" alt="Uno Cabinet Gas Roaster with Cooling Unit" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Uno Cabinet Gas Roaster with Cooling Unit</span><br /> +<small>A popular English type</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee demonstrations in stores are easily arranged, in most cases. The +main consideration is fresh coffee of good quality served daintily and +hot. Lacking a coffee urn, some grocers make their brews in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> large-size +home-service coffee-making devices. Those most advanced in the correct +method of brewing use the drip process. It is generally agreed that +demonstrations should not be held too often. They not only cut into +profits, but lose much of their advertising value. Food-show +demonstrations require more elaborate equipment, consisting of a +decorated booth, educational booklets, posters, and exhibits of +different kinds of coffee, both green and roasted, whole bean and +ground. Generally, coffee packers co-operate with retail demonstrators +by supplying gratis the coffee to be brewed, if the names of their +brands are suitably displayed. They supply also posters, signs, samples, +and booklets for free distribution.</p> + +<p>Window displays form one of the best means of advertising at the command +of the average grocer, and one of the least expensive. A popular coffee +display consists of a series of educational "windows," starting with +green beans in the bags in which they are shipped from the growing +country. Generally the bags, mats, or bundles are obtained from the +wholesale house, and are filled almost to the top with some inexpensive +stuffing, the green coffee being spread over the top to give the +appearance of a full bag. Pictures showing how the coffee is grown, +harvested, prepared, and shipped, are frequently used in such a display. +The next exhibit consists of whole roasted coffee spread thickly over +the window floor to create the impression of bulk, accompanied by a few +pans of green coffee by way of contrast, and with pictures showing +scenes in coffee roasting plants. A barrel, lined with blue paper, and +lying on its side with roasted coffee beans spilling out, serves as a +centerpiece for such a display. Following this, comes a coffee package +window, accompanied by pictures showing how coffee is roasted, ground, +and packed. This completes the series; but there are many variations +that have proved successful as trade builders.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Educational_Window_Exhibit" id="Educational_Window_Exhibit"></a> +<img src="images/image350.jpg" width="500" height="410" alt="Educational Window Exhibit" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Educational Window Exhibit</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This window won first prize for the western district in the $2,000 +window-trimming contest of National Coffee Week in 1920. Action was +furnished by a small electric pump, which kept a steady stream of coffee +flowing from a coffee pot into the coffee cup</small></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Meeting Competition</i></p> + +<p>Since the advent of the wagon-route distributer and the chain store, the +independent retail grocer has been faced with the problem of how to +regain at least a fair measure of the coffee trade he has lost. The +grocer is not only concerned about his profits on coffee sales, but on +other goods as well; for a trade investigation has shown that a large +percentage of the regular customers of the retailer are held to the +store by their purchases of coffee and tea. This means that if coffees +and teas are bought from the wagon-route distributer and the chain +store, the balance of a family's order is "shopped around."</p> + +<p>To meet this competition, the best authorities agree that the +independent grocer should feature coffee in every practical way, such as +soliciting coffee trade from each customer that enters the store; give +up offering coffee on a price basis, and make up his own blends from +good quality growths; perhaps make up his own brand and push it at every +opportunity; display coffee artistically, with frequent changes of +layouts; and have occasional store demonstrations. He should see that +the coffee is roasted properly, and that it is always fresh; that the +selling effort is not expended on the lowest-priced blend, but on a +grade that can be recommended for cup merit. This should be a leader, +but a lower-price coffee could be carried to suit the trade that buys on +price. Persistent efforts should be made to educate the last-named class +of customers to use the better grades, which in the end are cheaper and +give better satisfaction. In short, the grocer should work consistently +to establish a vogue for his leader blend on the basis of merit.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Better-Class_American_Grocery_Interior" id="Better-Class_American_Grocery_Interior"></a> +<img src="images/image351.jpg" width="500" height="349" alt="A Better-Class American Grocery Interior" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Better-Class American Grocery Interior</span><br /> +<small>Showing the coffee bins in orderly array, and the electric coffee grinder</small></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Profits and Costs</i></p> + +<p>Because of its influence on other grocery items, coffee can often be +sold at a close margin of profit, particularly if a competitor's store +or wagons are cutting into a grocer's neighborhood trade. Twenty-five +percent is recommended as a reasonable gross profit on coffee in most +cases, although some grocers make less, and not a few make more; the +range being usually from twenty to thirty-nine percent. The independent +dealer should meet chain-store<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> competition in coffee on a price basis, +making a special on a superior grade and figuring to get not more than +three cents profit per pound, like his competitor. A bag of roasted +coffee will bring back three dollars gain, and the cash to pay for +another—and the grocer has kept his customers, ninety percent of whom, +theoretically, will have bought their other food supplies from him. As a +matter of fact, in the last year of the World War retailers showed a +tendency to demand cash on sales of all grocery items. This practise +reduces the cost of operation and allows the storekeeper to reduce his +prices. A large number of grocers charge a small percentage of the total +sale for credit privileges, and five or ten cents for each delivery +below a certain total value of the purchase price of the articles to be +delivered. As a result, they have been able to meet chain-store +competition. Collective buying has also been a factor in offsetting the +inroads of the "chains."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Prize-Winning_Window_Display" id="Prize-Winning_Window_Display"></a> +<img src="images/image352.jpg" width="500" height="388" alt="A Prize-Winning Window Display" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Prize-Winning Window Display</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>This unusual display of coffee-flavored eatables won first prize for the +southern district in the National Coffee Week window-trimming contest. +The cakes, pies, tarts, and other pastries which constituted the main +feature rested in a bed of green coffee. The customer's interest was +cleverly attracted to the dealer's brand by a pyramid of large coffee +cans in the center background and by two miniature dining-room sets.</small></p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Splitting Nickels</i></p> + +<p>One of the reasons advanced for the loss of coffee trade by retail +grocers is that they price their blends in "round numbers", that is 20, +25, 30, or 40 cents; while their competitors "split nickels", selling +their product at 18, 23, 28, or 38 cents.</p> + +<p>Most of the retail enterprises in other lines of trade have built up +their business on the penny-change plan; and many coffee men believe +this should become the universal merchandising method among retail +distributers of coffee.<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a></p> + +<p>One of the leading advocates of "splitting nickels" has worked out a +chart to show how coffee should be priced to make predetermined profits. +(See next page.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span></p> +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="4" summary="Table Showing Profit Percentage on Sales"> +<tr> +<td align='center' colspan='17'><big><span class="smcap">Table Showing Profit Percentage on Sales</span></big><br /> +</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr6'> + <td align='left'>If Your<br />Coffee</td> + <td align='center' colspan='9'>And You Sell At</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>Costs</td> + <td align='right'>25c.</td> + <td align='right'>26c.</td> + <td align='right'>27c.</td> + <td align='right'>28c.</td> + <td align='right'>29c.</td> + <td align='right'>30c.</td> + <td align='right'>31c.</td> + <td align='right'>32c.</td> + <td align='right'>33c.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>20c.</td> + <td align='right'>20%</td> + <td align='right'>23%</td> + <td align='right'>26%</td> + <td align='right'>28%</td> + <td align='right'>31%</td> + <td align='right'>33%</td> + <td align='right'>35%</td> + <td align='right'>37%</td> + <td align='right'>39%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>20<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'>18%</td> + <td align='right'>21%</td> + <td align='right'>24%</td> + <td align='right'>26%</td> + <td align='right'>29%</td> + <td align='right'>31%</td> + <td align='right'>33%</td> + <td align='right'>35%</td> + <td align='right'>37%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>21c.</td> + <td align='right'>16%</td> + <td align='right'>19%</td> + <td align='right'>22%</td> + <td align='right'>25%</td> + <td align='right'>27%</td> + <td align='right'>30%</td> + <td align='right'>32%</td> + <td align='right'>34%</td> + <td align='right'>36%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>21<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'>14%</td> + <td align='right'>17%</td> + <td align='right'>20%</td> + <td align='right'>23%</td> + <td align='right'>25%</td> + <td align='right'>28%</td> + <td align='right'>30%</td> + <td align='right'>32%</td> + <td align='right'>34%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>22c.</td> + <td align='right'>12%</td> + <td align='right'>15%</td> + <td align='right'>18%</td> + <td align='right'>21%</td> + <td align='right'>24%</td> + <td align='right'>26%</td> + <td align='right'>29%</td> + <td align='right'>31%</td> + <td align='right'>33%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>22<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'>10%</td> + <td align='right'>13%</td> + <td align='right'>16%</td> + <td align='right'>19%</td> + <td align='right'>22%</td> + <td align='right'>25%</td> + <td align='right'>27%</td> + <td align='right'>29%</td> + <td align='right'>31%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>23c.</td> + <td align='right'> 8%</td> + <td align='right'>11%</td> + <td align='right'>14%</td> + <td align='right'>17%</td> + <td align='right'>20%</td> + <td align='right'>23%</td> + <td align='right'>25%</td> + <td align='right'>28%</td> + <td align='right'>30%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>23<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'> 6%</td> + <td align='right'> 9%</td> + <td align='right'>13%</td> + <td align='right'>16%</td> + <td align='right'>19%</td> + <td align='right'>21%</td> + <td align='right'>24%</td> + <td align='right'>26%</td> + <td align='right'>28%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>24c.</td> + <td align='right'> 4%</td> + <td align='right'> 7%</td> + <td align='right'>11%</td> + <td align='right'>14%</td> + <td align='right'>17%</td> + <td align='right'>20%</td> + <td align='right'>22%</td> + <td align='right'>25%</td> + <td align='right'>27%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>24<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'> 2%</td> + <td align='right'> 5%</td> + <td align='right'> 9%</td> + <td align='right'>12%</td> + <td align='right'>15%</td> + <td align='right'>18%</td> + <td align='right'>21%</td> + <td align='right'>23%</td> + <td align='right'>25%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>25c.</td> + <td align='right'> 0%</td> + <td align='right'> 3%</td> + <td align='right'> 7%</td> + <td align='right'>10%</td> + <td align='right'>13%</td> + <td align='right'>16%</td> + <td align='right'>19%</td> + <td align='right'>21%</td> + <td align='right'>24%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>25<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> 2%</td> + <td align='right'> 5%</td> + <td align='right'> 8%</td> + <td align='right'>12%</td> + <td align='right'>15%</td> + <td align='right'>17%</td> + <td align='right'>20%</td> + <td align='right'>22%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>26c.</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> 0%</td> + <td align='right'> 3%</td> + <td align='right'> 7%</td> + <td align='right'>10%</td> + <td align='right'>13%</td> + <td align='right'>16%</td> + <td align='right'>18%</td> + <td align='right'>21%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>26<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> 1%</td> + <td align='right'> 5%</td> + <td align='right'> 8%</td> + <td align='right'>11%</td> + <td align='right'>14%</td> + <td align='right'>17%</td> + <td align='right'>19%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>27c.</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> 0%</td> + <td align='right'> 3%</td> + <td align='right'> 6%</td> + <td align='right'>10%</td> + <td align='right'>12%</td> + <td align='right'>15%</td> + <td align='right'>18%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>27<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span>c.</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> 1%</td> + <td align='right'> 5%</td> + <td align='right'> 8%</td> + <td align='right'>11%</td> + <td align='right'>14%</td> + <td align='right'>16%</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='left'>28c.</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='right'> 0%</td> + <td align='right'> 3%</td> + <td align='right'> 6%</td> + <td align='right'> 9%</td> + <td align='right'>12%</td> + <td align='right'>15%</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Figuring Costs and Profits</i></p> + +<p>While the cost of conducting a retail grocery business naturally varies +according to local conditions and the size of the enterprise, an +investigation among some 250 stores in small and large cities made in +1919 by the Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University, showed that +the average cost was fourteen percent; that the net profit averaged two +and three-tenths percent; and that stock was turned about seven times a +year. Gross profits ran from ten and one-half percent to twenty-six and +four-one-hundredths percent of the net sales, the most typical figure +being sixteen and nine-tenths percent. Sales cost formed the largest +single item of expense, varying from three and forty-one hundredths to +nine and ninety-four hundredths percent, with the bulk of figures +showing around one and eight-tenths percent.</p> + +<p>According to advanced business practise the cost of doing business +should be based on these fourteen points:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">1. Charge interest on the net amount of the total investment at the +beginning of the business year, exclusive of real estate.</p> + +<p class="quot1">2. Charge rental on real estate or buildings at a rate equal to +that which would be received if renting or leasing to others.</p> + +<p class="quot1">3. Charge, in addition to what is paid for hired help, an amount +equal to what the proprietor's services would be worth to others; +also treat in like manner the services of any member of the family +employed in the business and not on the regular payroll.</p> + +<p class="quot1">4. Charge depreciation on all goods carried over on which a less +price may have to be made because of damage or any other cause.</p> + +<p class="quot1">5. Charge depreciation on buildings, tools, fixtures, or anything +else suffering from age or wear and tear.</p> + +<p class="quot1">6. Charge donations and subscriptions paid.</p> + +<p class="quot1">7. Charge all fixed expenses, such as taxes, insurance, water, +lights, fuel, etc.</p> + +<p class="quot1">8. Charge all incidental expenses, such as drayage, postage, office +supplies, livery expenses of horses and wagons, telegrams and +telephones, advertising, canvassing, etc.</p> + +<p class="quot1">9. Charge losses of every character, including goods stolen, or +sent out and not charged, allowances made customers, all debts, +etc.</p> + +<p class="quot1">10. Charge collection expense.</p> + +<p class="quot1">11. Charge any other expense not enumerated above.</p> + +<p class="quot1">12. When it is ascertained what the sum of all the foregoing items +amounts to, prove it by the books, which will give the total +expense for the year; divide this figure by the total of sales, and +it will show the percent which it has cost to do business.</p> + +<p class="quot1">13. Take this percent and deduct it from the price of any article +sold, then subtract from the remainder what it cost (invoice price +and freight), and the result will show the net profit or loss on +the article.</p> + +<p class="quot1">14. Go over the selling prices of the various articles and see what +are profits; then get busy in putting your selling figures on a +profitable basis and talk it over with your competitor as well.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>A Credit Policy for Retailers</i></p> + +<p>While the minor factors governing a credit policy for retailers vary +with local conditions, the fundamental principles are alike everywhere, +and should have the thoughtful consideration of all retail distributers +of coffee. After a retail grocery store experience of twenty-five years, +a past president of the National Association of Retail Grocers of the +United States<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a> found that a grocer should insist upon references and +a thorough investigation of every new applicant for credit, refusing the +privilege when the prospective customer hesitates to give the needed +information; that he should arrange a date for periodical payments, +explaining that this is necessary so that the storekeeper can arrange to +meet his own bills, which will enable him to discount his invoices and +to sell his goods cheaper; that statements of accounts should be sent +out promptly and never a few days late; that he should insist on payment +in full when due, requesting the customer to call if an extension of +time is asked; that he should not let the customers decide when they +will pay bills, bearing in mind that the possible loss of a few +customers who do not pay promptly is offset by the advantages of cash +when promised; that he should never abandon the hope of collecting an +old account, but should try the method of sending statements only to the +surest customers, sending a clerk for the collection of all other +accounts; that he should personally examine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> all uncollected accounts +every month, insisting on a reason for failure to pay; that he should +study his customers and not trust those who give a bad impression; that +he should have the courage to say "No" when necessary; not to be +satisfied with merely a financial rating on a credit applicant, but to +ascertain his general reputation and character; and to help to eliminate +the "dead beats" by giving careful attention to all requests received +from other retailers for credit information.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Premiums for Retailers</i></p> + +<p>House-to-house dealers are the largest users of premiums among coffee +distributers. Most of them operate under what is known as the +advance-premium method.</p> + +<p>The plan followed by house-to-house dealers until about 1910 was to +issue checks redeemable in premiums after a certain amount of tea, +coffee, or other products had been purchased. This practise has not been +entirely abandoned; but in most instances, the premium is now handed to +the consumer in advance of the initial purchase, in consideration of the +buyer's promise to use a stipulated quantity of tea, coffee, or other +merchandise. The driver of the wagon generally carries a portfolio +illustrating numerous premium items redeemable through the purchase of +varying amounts of merchandise.</p> + +<p>Many retail coffee stores also employ premiums, using both the old-style +and "advance" methods. This type of store, however, is being supplanted +by the chain grocery store.</p> + +<p>Some independent retail grocers use premiums to a limited extent. These +usually carry a small line of premiums, featuring a piece of +kitchenware, or other inexpensive item, with bulk coffee.</p> + +<p>It is significant that one of the largest chain-store organizations in +the United States—the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company—uses few +premiums today, although its business was founded on the premium idea.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Americanized_English_Grocers_Shop" id="Americanized_English_Grocers_Shop"></a> +<img src="images/image353.jpg" width="500" height="278" alt="An Americanized English Grocer's Shop" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Americanized English Grocer's Shop</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Ernest Carter's store at St. Albans, England, operated under the name of +Thomas Oakley & Co., has a distinctly American atmosphere, accounted for +by the fact that the fittings were supplied by an American manufacturer, +the Walker Bin Co., of Penn Yan, N.Y. The tea and coffee department is +shown in the foreground. The coffee is roasted in the window</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Trading stamps, which are sold to grocers and other merchants by firms +making a specialty of this form of premium-giving are little used +nowadays. The average retail grocer is antagonistic to trading stamps, +as a result of the methods of certain unscrupulous stamp-dealers. +Legislation against trading stamps is in effect in many states.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="FAMOUS_COFFEE_PACKAGES" id="FAMOUS_COFFEE_PACKAGES"></a> +<img src="images/image354.jpg" width="500" height="704" alt="SOME PACKAGE COFFEES THAT ADVERTISING HAS MADE FAMOUS" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">SOME PACKAGE COFFEES THAT ADVERTISING HAS MADE FAMOUS</span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXVIII" id="Chapter_XXVIII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXVIII</span></h2> + +<h3>A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE ADVERTISING</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Early coffee advertising—The first coffee advertisement in 1587 +was frank propaganda for the legitimate use of coffee—The first +printed advertisement in English—The first newspaper +advertisement—Early advertisements in colonial America—Evolution +of advertising—Package coffee advertising—Advertising to the +trade—Advertising by means of newspapers, magazines, billboards, +electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and by +samples—Advertising for retailers—Advertising by government +propaganda—The Joint Coffee Trade publicity campaign in the United +States—Coffee advertising efficiency</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">I</span><span class="caps">n</span> a work of this character the chapter on advertising must of necessity +be in story form. It may tell what has been accomplished in advertising +coffee, and perhaps point the way to greater achievement. In so far as +possible, the story is supplemented by illustrations, which here tell +the story even better than words.</p> + +<p>Advertising to the trade or the consumer calls for expert advice. There +are successful trade journalists who are competent to supply such +advertising counsel; and new-comers in the field should consult them +first. These men are in the best position to suggest the means for +successful accomplishment. They know the men who are best qualified to +render assistance for all media, and are glad to recommend those who can +be most helpful.</p> + +<p>Jarvis A. Wood has said that advertising is causing another to know, to +remember, and to do. If we agree with this excellent definition, then +the first coffee advertisers were the early physicians and writers who +told their fellows something about the berry and the beverage made from +it.</p> + +<p>Rhazes and Avicenna told the story in Latin, and appear to have +recommended a coffee decoction as a stomachic, as far back as the tenth +century. Many other early physicians refer to it. Thus it was that +coffee was solemnly introduced to the consumer as a medicine. The first +step made by the berry from the cabinets of the curious, where it was +known as an exotic seed, was into the apothecaries' shops, where it was +sold and advertised as a drug. Next, the coffee drink was advertised and +sold by lemonade venders; then by the proprietors of the coffee houses +and cafés; and finally the coffee merchant sold and advertised the green +and roasted bean.</p> + +<p>Rauwolf told the Germans about it in 1582; Abd-al-Kâdir wrote his famous +<i>Argument in favor of the legitimate use of coffee</i> in Arabic about +1587; Alpini carried the news to Italy in 1592; English travelers wrote +about the beverage in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; French +Orientalists described it about the same time; and America learned about +it long before the green beans were offered for sale in Boston in 1670.</p> + +<p>Because of its frank propaganda character, Abd-al-Kâdir's manuscript may +rightly be called the earliest advertisement for coffee. The author was +a lawyer-theologian, a follower of Mahomet, and as such was eager to +convince his contemporaries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> that coffee drinking was not incompatible +with the prophet's law.</p> + +<p>Soon the news of the day became the advertising of the morrow. In 1652 +appeared the first printed advertisement for coffee in English. It was +in the form of a shop-bill, or handbill, issued by Pasqua Rosée from the +first London coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill; and the +original is preserved in the British Museum.</p> + +<p>It is pictured on page 55, chapter X, and is worthy of close +examination. It reads:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center">The Vertue of the <i>COFFEE</i> Drink</p> + +<p class="quot1">First publiquely made and sold in England, by <i>Pasqua Rosée</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The Grain or Berry called <i>Coffee</i>, groweth upon little Trees, only +in the <i>Deserts of Arabia</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is brought from thence, and drunk generally throughout all the +Grand Seigniors Dominions.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is a simple innocent thing, composed into a Drink, by being +dryed in an Oven, and ground to Powder, and boiled up with Spring +water, and about half a pint of it to be drunk, fasting an hour +before, and not Eating an hour after, and to be taken as hot as +possibly can be endured; the which will never fetch the skin off +the mouth, or raise any Blisters, by reason of that Heat.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The Turks drink at meals and other times, is usually <i>Water</i>, and +their Dyet consists much of <i>Fruit</i>, the <i>Crudities</i> whereof are +very much corrected by this Drink.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The quality of this Drink is cold and Dry; and though it be a +Dryer, yet It neither <i>heats</i>, nor <i>inflames</i> more then <i>hot +Posset</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It so closeth the Orifice of the Stomack, and fortifies the heat +within, that it's very good to help digestion, and therefore of +great use to be taken about 3 or 4 a Clock afternoon, as well as in +the morning.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It much quickens the <i>Spirits</i>, and makes the Heart <i>Lightsome</i>. It +is good against sore Eys, and the better if you hold your Head over +it, and take in the Steem that way.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It suppresseth Fumes exceedingly, and therefore good against the +<i>Head-ach</i>, and will very much stop any <i>Defluxion of Rheums</i>, that +distil from the <i>Head</i> upon the <i>Stomack</i>, and so prevent and help +<i>Consumptions</i>; and the <i>Cough of the Lungs</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is excellent to prevent and cure the <i>Dropsy</i>, <i>Gout</i>, and +<i>Scurvy</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is known by experience to be better than any other Drying Drink +for <i>People in years</i>, or <i>Children</i> that have any <i>running humors</i> +upon them, as the <i>Kings Evil</i>,&c.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is very good to prevent <i>Mis-carryings</i> in <i>Child-bearing +Women</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is a most excellent Remedy against the <i>Spleen</i>, <i>Hypocondriack +Winds</i>, or the like.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It will prevent <i>Drowsiness</i>, and make one fit for business, if one +have occasion to <i>Watch</i>; and therefore you are not to Drink of it +<i>after Supper</i>, unless you intend to be watchful, for it will +hinder sleep for 3 or 4 hours.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><i>It is observed that in Turkey, where this is generally drunk, that +they are not trobled with the Stone, Gout, Dropsie, or Scurvey, and +that their Skins are exceedingly cleer and white.</i></p> + +<p class="quot1">It is neither <i>Laxative</i> nor <i>Restringent</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Made and sold in St. <i>Michaels Alley</i> in <i>Cornhill</i>, by Pasqua +Rosée, at the Signe of his own Head.</p></div> + +<p>The noteworthy thing about this advertisement is, that in comparison +with the best copy of today, it has high merit. For this early +advertisement seems to have embodied in it superbly well those +qualifications which modern advertising experts agree are essential +requirements for success—measured in terms of sales to the consumer. We +shall return to it later.</p> + +<p>The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appeared in the form of a +"reader" in the issue of <i>The Publick Adviser</i>, London, for the week of +Tuesday, May 19, to Tuesday, May 26, 1657. <i>The Publick Adviser</i> was a +weekly pamphlet partaking of the nature of a commercial news-letter. The +advertisement was sandwiched between a reader advertising a doctor of +physick and one for an "artificer," the latter being a ladies' +hair-dresser. It was as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">In <i>Bartholomew</i> Lane on the back side of the Old Exchange, the +drink called <i>Coffee</i>, (which is a very wholesom and Physical drink, +having many excellent vertues, closes the Orifice of the Stomack, +fortifies the heat within, helpeth Digestion, quickneth the +Spirits, maketh the heart lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, +Coughs, or Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Dropsie, Gout, +Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others is to be sold both in the +morning, and at three of the clock in the afternoon.)</p></div> + +<p>About the time that Pascal opened the first coffee house in Paris in +1672, the Paris shop-keepers began to advertise coffee by broadsides. A +good example is the following,<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a> the text of which closely resembles +the original by Pasqua Rosée:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1"><i>The most excellent Virtue of the Berry called</i> Coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><i>Coffee</i> is a Berry which only grows in the desert of <i>Arabia</i>, +from whence it is transported into all the Dominions of the Grand +Seigniour, which being drunk dries up all the cold and moist +humours, disperses the wind, fortifies the Liver, eases the dropsie +by its purifying quality, 'tis a Sovereign medicine against the +itch, and corruptions of the blood, refreshes the heart, and the +vital beating thereof, it relieves those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> that have pains in their +Stomach, and cannot eat; It is good also against the indispositions +of the brain, cold, moist, and heavy, the steam which rises out of +it is good against the <i>Rheums</i> of the eyes, and drumming in the +ears: 'Tis excellent also against the shortness of the breath, +against <i>Rheums</i> which trouble the Liver, and the pains of the +Spleen; It is an extraordinary ease against the Worms: After having +eat or drunk too much: Nothing is better for those that eat much +Fruit.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The daily use hereof in a little while will manifest the aforesaid +effect to those, that being indisposed shall use it from time to +time.</p></div> + +<p>The following are typical London trade advertisements of 1662 and 1663. +The first is from the <i>Kingdom's Intelligencer</i> of June 5, 1662, and +reads as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">At the Exchange Ally from Cornhill into Lumber Street neer the +Conduit, at the Musick-Room belonging to the Palsgrave's Hall, is +sold by retayle the right coffee powder; likewise that termed the +Turkey Berry, well cleansed at 30d. per pound ... the East India +berry (so called) of the best sorts at 20d. per pound, of which at +present in divers places there is very bad, which the ignorant for +cheapness do buy, and is the chief cause of the now bad coffee +drunk in many plaies (sic).</p></div> + +<p>The <i>Intelligencer</i> for December 21, 1663, contained the following +advertisement:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">There is a Parcel of Coffee-Berry to be put to publique sale upon +Wednesday, the 23, instant, at 6 a clock in the evening at the +Globe Coffee-house at the end of St. Bartholomew Lane, over against +the North Gate of the Royall Exchange.... And if any desire to be +further informed they may repair to Mr. Brigg, Publique Notary at +the said Globe Coffee-house.</p></div> + +<p>Dufour's treatise on <i>The Manner of Making Coffee, Tea and Chocolate</i>, +published in Lyons, 1684, was generally regarded as propaganda for the +beverage; and, indeed, it proved an excellent advertisement, being +quickly translated into English and several other languages.</p> + +<p>In 1691 we find advertised in the <i>Livre Commode</i> of Paris a portable +coffee-making outfit to fit the pocket.</p> + +<p>The first coffee periodical, <i>The New and Curious Coffee House</i>, was +issued at Leipzig by Theophilo Georgi in 1707, being a kind of house +organ for what was, perhaps, the first kaffee-klatsch; the +publisher-proprietor, however, admitted that the idea of making his +coffee salon a resort for the literati was obtained from Italy.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="First_Coffee_Advertisement_in_US" id="First_Coffee_Advertisement_in_US"></a> +<img src="images/image355.jpg" width="300" height="359" alt="First Newspaper Advertisement Solely for coffee in the United States" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">First Newspaper Advertisement Solely for coffee in the United States</span><br /> +<small><i>New York Daily Advertiser</i>, February 9, 1790</small></span> +</div> + +<p>In chapter X we have described a number of broadsides, handbills, and +pamphlets having to do with the introduction of the coffee drink into +London between 1652 and 1675. The advertising student would do well to +refer to them because they serve to show how completely the true merits +of the beverage were lost sight of by those who urged its more fantastic +claims. It is interesting to note, however, that this early copy was of +a high order of typographical excellence; indeed, the display letter +used for the word coffee is often like that found in copy in the United +States two hundred and fifty years after. Also, it should be noted that +"apt 'illustration's' artful aid" was first employed in 1674. Again, +note this curious contrast. Two hundred and sixty-nine years ago all the +resources of advertising were being laid under contribution to make +propaganda for coffee as the great <i>cure</i> for many ailments of which +nowadays the enemies of coffee would have us believe coffee is the +cause! Those who have possessed themselves of the facts about coffee +know that both arguments are equally fantastic.</p> + +<p>Coffee was mentioned in shop-keepers' announcements appearing in the +<i>Boston News Letter</i> as early as 1714, and in other newspapers of the +colonies during the eighteenth century, usually being offered for sale +at retail with strange companions. In 1748 "tea, coffee, indigo, +nutmegs, sugar, etc.," were advertised for sale at a shop in Dock +Square, Boston. The following<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> advertisement from the <i>Columbian +Centinel</i>, Boston, April 26, 1794, is typical:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center">GROCERIES AT NO. 44 <i>CORNHILL</i><br />Norton and Holyoke</p> +<p class="noin">Respectfully +inform their friends and the publick, that they have for sale, at +their Shop, No. 44 <i>Cornhill</i>, formerly the Post-Office.</p> + +<p class="center">A GENERAL ASSORTMENT OF GROCERIES</p> <p class="noin">among which are the following +articles: Teas, Spices, Coffee, Cotton, Indigo, Starch, Chocolate, +Raisins, Figs, Almonds, and Olives; West India Rum, best French +Brandy, excellent Cherry Wine, pure as imported, etc., etc., all +which they will sell as low as any store in Boston.</p> + +<p class="noin"><i>Any article not liked will be taken again, and the money +returned.</i></p></div> + +<p>It appears that the first advertisement dealing with coffee alone was +published in the <i>New York Daily Advertiser</i> for February 9, 1790; and +this was primarily an advertisement of a wholesale coffee roasting +factory rather than an advertisement of coffee per se.</p> + +<p>This advertisement, and a later one published in Loudon's <i>New York +Packet</i> for January 1, 1791, also of a coffee manufactory, are +reproduced herewith.</p> + +<p>Not until package coffee began to come into vogue in the sixties was +there any change in the stereotyped business-card form followed by all +dealers in coffee. And even then the monotony was varied only by +inserting the brand name, such as "Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java +Coffee. Put up only by Lewis A. Osborn"; "Government coffee in tin foil +pound papers put out by Taber & Place's Rubia Mills."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Evolution of Coffee Advertising</i></p> + +<p>Real progress in coffee advertising, as in publicity for other lines of +trade and industry, began in the United States. Here too, it has been +brought to its lowest degradation and to its highest efficiency. The +entire process has taken something less than fifty years.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Advertisement_in_1790" id="Coffee_Advertisement_in_1790"></a> +<img src="images/image356.jpg" width="300" height="875" alt="Early Coffee Advertising in United States" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early Coffee Advertising in United States</span><br /> +<small>Printed in the <i>New York Packet</i>, January 1, 1791</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The first step forward was the picture handbill. The handbill, or +dodger, had been common enough in England and on the Continent, where, +for upward of two hundred years it had served as an advertising medium, +in company with the more robust broadside, and in competition with the +pamphlet and newspaper. It remained for America, however, to glorify the +handbill by means of colored pictures; and one of the earliest and best +specimens of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> picture handbill is the Arbuckle circular here +illustrated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="First_Colored_Handbill_For_Package_Coffee" id="First_Colored_Handbill_For_Package_Coffee"></a> +<img src="images/image357.jpg" width="300" height="444" alt="First Handbill In Colors For Package Coffee About 1872" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">First Handbill In Colors For Package Coffee About 1872</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Soon the handbill copy began to appear in the newspapers, but mostly +without the illustrations. Later newspaper developments were to +introduce more of the picture element, decorative border, and design. +The ideas of European artists were freely drawn upon, but put to so +utilitarian uses that their originators would scarce have recognized +them.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Ladies Home Journal</i> for December, 1888, the Great London Tea +Company, Boston, an early mail-order house, advertised, "We have made a +specialty since 1877 of giving premiums to those who buy tea and coffee +in large quantities." In the same issue, there was an advertisement of +Seal Brand and Crusade Brand coffee by Chase & Sanborn, Boston. Dilworth +Bros., Pittsburgh, were also among the early users of magazine space.</p> + +<p>The menace of the cereal coffee-substitute evil had grown to such +proportions at the beginning of the twentieth century, that the coffee +men began to be concerned about it. Misleading and untruthful +"substitute" copy was freely accepted by nearly all media. The package +labels were as bad, if not worse. With the advent of the pure food law +of 1906, the cereal label abuse was reformed; but not until the "truth +in advertising" movement became a power to be reckoned with, nearly ten +years later, were the coffee men granted a substantial measure of +protection in the magazines and newspapers. Meanwhile, many coffee men, +lacking organization and a knowledge of the facts about coffee, +unwittingly played into the hands of the substitute-fakers by publishing +unfortunate defensive copy which made confusion worse confounded in the +consumer's mind.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Reverse_Side_Of_Colored_Handbill" id="Reverse_Side_Of_Colored_Handbill"></a> +<img src="images/image358.jpg" width="300" height="531" alt="Reverse Side Of The Arbuckle Handbill (In Colors) of 1872" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Reverse Side Of The Arbuckle Handbill<br /> (In Colors) of 1872</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="ST_LOUIS_HANDBILL_OF_1854" id="ST_LOUIS_HANDBILL_OF_1854"></a> +<img src="images/image359.jpg" width="500" height="679" alt="A ST. LOUIS HANDBILL OF 1854" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A ST. LOUIS HANDBILL OF 1854</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span></p><p>At one time there were nearly one hundred coffee-substitute concerns +engaged in a bitter, untruthful campaign directed against coffee. The +most conspicuous offender employed the principle of auto-suggestion and +found a goodly number of pseudo-physicians and bright advertising minds +that were quite willing to prostitute their finest talents to aid him in +attacking an honorable business.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Advertising-Card_Copy_1873" id="Advertising-Card_Copy_1873"></a> +<img src="images/image360.jpg" width="300" height="477" alt="Advertising-Card Copy, 1873" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Advertising-Card Copy, 1873</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In one year $1,765,000 was spent in traducing the national beverage. The +burden of the cereal-faker's song was that coffee was the cause of all +the ills that flesh is heir to, and that by stopping its use for ten +days and substituting his panacea, these ills would vanish.</p> + +<p>Of course, there were many people (but they were the minority) who knew +that the caffein content of coffee was a pure, safe stimulant that did +not destroy the nerve cells like such false stimulants as alcohol, +morphine, etc.; and that while too much could be ingested from abuse of +any beverage containing it, nature always effected a cure when the abuse +was stopped.</p> + +<p>However, there was undoubtedly created in the public mind a suspicion, +that threatened to develop into a prejudice, and that affected otherwise +sane and normal people, that perhaps coffee was not good for them.</p> + +<p>Then came the winter of the coffee men's discontent. Floundering about +in a veritable slough of cereal slush, without secure foothold or a true +sense of direction, coffee advertising went miserably astray when its +writers began to assure the public that <i>their</i> brands were guiltless of +the crimes charged in the cereal men's indictment. In this, of course, +they unwittingly aided and abetted the cereal fakers. For example, one +roaster-packer advertised, "The harmful ingredient in coffee is the +tannin-bearing chaff, which our roasting and grinding process completely +removes." Scientific research has since proved the fallacy of this idea.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Handbill_Copy_of_the_Seventies" id="Handbill_Copy_of_the_Seventies"></a> +<img src="images/image361.jpg" width="300" height="537" alt="Handbill Copy of the Seventies" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Handbill Copy of the Seventies</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><br /><a name="Box-End_Sticker_1833" id="Box-End_Sticker_1833"></a> +<img src="images/image362.jpg" width="300" height="243" alt="Box-End Sticker, 1833" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Box-End Sticker, 1833</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Another roaster said, "if coffee works havoc with your nerves and +digestion, it is because you are not using a fresh roasted, thoroughly +cleaned, correctly cured coffee. Our method of preparing gives you the +strength and aroma without its nerve-destroying qualities." A well known +coffee packer advertised, "Our coffee is free from the dust and bitter +tannin—the only injurious property in coffee." Still another packer +informed the consumer that "by a very special steel cutting process" he +sliced the coffee beans "so that the little cells containing the +volatile oil (the food product) are not broken."</p> + +<p>A prominent Chicago packer put out a new brand of coffee which he +claimed was "non-intoxicating," "poisonless," and the "only pure +coffee." A New Yorker, not to be out-done, brought out a coffee that he +said contained all the stimulative properties of the original coffee +berries, but with every trace of acid removed, every undesirable element +eliminated. "Also," he added for good measure, "this coffee may be used +freely without harming the digestive organs or impairing the nervous +system."</p> + +<p>And one package-coffee man became so exercised over cereal competition +that he brought out a <i>grain</i> "coffee" of his own, which he actually +advertised as "the nearest approach to coffee ever put on the market, +having all the merits without any objectionable features, strengthening +without stimulating, satisfying without shattering the nerves."</p> + +<p>And so history again repeated itself in America. Five hundred years +after the first religious persecution of the drink in Arabia, we find it +being persecuted by commercial zealots in the United States. And even in +the house of its friends, coffee was being stabbed in the back. The +coffee merchants themselves presented the spectacle of "knocking" it by +inference and innuendo.</p> + +<p>Something had to be done. As cereal drinks, standing on their own feet, +the coffee "substitutes" would have attracted little notice. It was only +by trading on the allegation that they were <i>substitutes for coffee</i> +that they made any headway. The original offender sold his product as +"coffee," which was an untruth, as he later admitted there was not a +bean of coffee in it. He boldly advertised: "Blank coffee for persons +who can't digest ordinary coffee."</p> + +<p>When it became no longer possible to perpetrate an untruth on the +package label, there still remained the newspapers and billboards. For +years before fake-advertising laws and an outraged public opinion made +recourse to these no longer possible, it was a common practise to use +the newspapers and billboards to promote the idea that here was a +different coffee; and in this way to create a demand for a package, +which, when purchased, was found to tell a different story.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Chase_Sanborn_Advertisement" id="Chase_Sanborn_Advertisement"></a> +<img src="images/image363.jpg" width="350" height="316" alt="A Chase & Sanborn Advertisement, 1888" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Chase & Sanborn Advertisement, 1888</span><br /> +<small>As printed in <i>Harper's</i> and <i>Scribner's Magazines</i></small></span> +</div> + +<p>As late as 1911, one of our most respected New York dailies was carrying +an advertisement calling the product "coffee," although<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> fairness +demands it be recorded that the coffee part of the announcement was +stricken out when <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i> called the +attention of the publisher to its misleading character. This trade +paper, from its start, had been urging the coffee men to organize for +defense. The agitation bore fruit at last, first in the starting of the +National Coffee Roasters Association, and later in the inception of the +movement that resulted in the international advertising campaign for +coffee now in progress in the United States.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the cereal coffee-substitute had been thoroughly discredited +by governmental analysis, although even today newspaper publishers are +to be found here and there who are willing to "take a chance" with +public opinion and who will admit to their advertising columns such +misleading statements for the substitute, as "it has a coffee-like +flavor."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="A_Goldberg_Cartoon_1910" id="A_Goldberg_Cartoon_1910"></a> +<img src="images/image364.jpg" width="350" height="426" alt="A Goldberg Cartoon, 1910" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Goldberg Cartoon, 1910</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><br /><a name="Copy_Used_by_Chase_and_Sanborn_1900" id="Copy_Used_by_Chase_and_Sanborn_1900"></a> +<img src="images/image365.jpg" width="350" height="348" alt="Newspaper Copy Used by Chase and Sanborn About 1900" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Newspaper Copy Used by Chase and Sanborn About 1900</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In the United States today, coffee advertising has reached a high plane +of copy excellence. Our coffee advertisers lead all nations. The +educational work started by <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i>, fostered +by the National Coffee Roasters Association, and developed by the Joint +Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, has laid low many of the bugaboos +raised by the cereal sinners. The coffee men, however, have left +considerable room for improvement. There are still some who are given to +making exaggerated claims in their publicity, who make reflections upon +competitors in a way to destroy public confidence in coffee, and who +display an ignorance of, or a lack of confidence in, their product by +continuing to claim that their brands do not contain what they assert +are injurious or worthless constituents. It is to be hoped that in time +these abuses will yield to the further enlightening influence of the +trade press, and of the organizations that are continually working for +trade betterment.</p> + +<p>Before the international coffee campaign started in 1919, the National +Coffee Roasters Association promoted two national coffee weeks, one in +1914 and another in 1915, wherein excellent groundwork was done for the +big joint coffee trade propaganda that followed. Some original research +also was done along lines of proper grinding and correct coffee brewing. +A better-coffee-making committee, under the direction of Edward Aborn of +New York, rendered yeoman's service to the cause. Much educational work +was done in schools and colleges, among newspaper editors, and in the +trade. This campaign was the first co-operative publicity for coffee. +Among other things, it put a nation-wide emphasis on iced coffee as a +delectable summer drink and, for the first time, stressed the correct +making of the beverage by drip and filtration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> methods instead of by +boiling, which had long been one of the most crying evils of the +business.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Chart_Advertising_of_Coffee_and_Coffee_Substitutes_1911_20" id="Chart_Advertising_of_Coffee_and_Coffee_Substitutes_1911_20"></a> +<img src="images/chart13.jpg" width="500" height="354" alt="Chart Showing Money Spent on Advertising Coffee and Substitutes" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Chart Showing Money Spent on Advertising Coffee and Substitutes</span><br /> +<small>Only advertisements printed in magazines and periodicals are considered in making this calculation</small></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Package Coffee Advertising</i></p> + +<p>Coffee advertising began to take on a distinctive character with the +introduction of Ariosa by John Arbuckle in 1873. Some of the early +publicity for this pioneer package coffee appears typographically crude, +judged by modern standards; but the copy itself has all the needful +punch, and many of the arguments are just as applicable today as they +were a half-century ago. Take the handbill copy illustrated. It was done +in three colors, and the argument was new and most convincing. The +reverse side copy is also extremely effective. Note the expert-roaster +argument and coffee-making directions; some of these may still be found +in current coffee advertising.</p> + +<p>Most of the original Arbuckle advertising was by means of circulars or +broadsides, although some newspaper space was employed. Premiums were +first used by John Arbuckle as an advertising sales adjunct, and they +proved a big factor in putting Ariosa on the map. Mr. Arbuckle created +the kind of word-of-mouth publicity for his goods that is the most +difficult achievement in the business of advertising. It caused so deep +and lasting an impression, that in some sections it has persisted +through at least five decades. The advertising moral is: Get people to +<i>talk</i> your brand.</p> + +<p>Since the death of its founder, the Arbuckle copy has been changed to +fit modern conditions. That it has kept pace with all the forward +movements in business and advertising is evident from the specimens +which help to illustrate this chapter. A significant change is to be +noted in the fact that, for the first time in its history, "the greatest +coffee business in the world" has adopted a policy of advertising to the +trade as well as to the consumer, thus giving its publicity a well +rounded character which it formerly lacked.</p> + +<p>The evolution of other notable package coffees is also shown by +illustration. Several concerns blazed new trails that have since been +picked up and followed by competing brands.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Charts_Per_Capita_Consumption_and_Coffee_and_Substitute_Advertising" id="Charts_Per_Capita_Consumption_and_Coffee_and_Substitute_Advertising"></a> +<img src="images/chart14.jpg" width="500" height="371" alt="Charts Showing Per Capita Consumption and Coffee and Substitute Advertising" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Charts Showing Per Capita Consumption and Coffee and Substitute Advertising</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Among the many long-established advertised package-coffee successes may +be mentioned:</p> + +<p>Arbuckle's Yuban and Ariosa; McLaughlin's XXXX; Chase & Sanborn's Seal +Brand; Dwinell-Wright's White House; Weir's Red Ribbon; B. Fischer & +Company's Hotel Astor; Brownell & Field's Autocrat; Bour's Old Master; +Scull's Boscul; Seeman Brothers' White Rose; Blanke's Faust; Baker's +Barrington Hall; Woolson Spice Company's Golden Sun; International +Coffee Company's Old Homestead; Kroneberger's Old Reserve; Western +Grocer Company's Chocolate Cream; Leggett's Nabob; Clossett & Dever's +Golden West; R.C. Williams' Royal Scarlet; Merchants Coffee Company's +Alameda; Widlar Company's C.W. brand; Meyer Bros.' Old Judge; Nash-Smith +Tea and Coffee Company's Wedding Breakfast; J.A. Folger & Company's +Golden Gate; Ennis Hanley Blackburn Coffee Company's Golden Wedding; +M.J. Brandenstein & Company's M.J.B.; Hills Brothers' Red Can, the Young +& Griffin Coffee Company's Franco-American, and the Cheek-Neal Coffee +Company's Maxwell House.</p> + +<p>It was estimated that the amount of money spent by the larger coffee +roasters upon all forms of publicity in the United States in 1920 was +about $3,000,000.</p> + +<p>Charts prepared by Charles Coolidge Parlin of the division of commercial +research of the Curtis Publishing Company, and checked by the +Publishers' Information Bureau, show the advertising for coffee and for +coffee substitutes in thirty leading publications from 1911 to 1920; and +compare the advertising for coffee and coffee substitutes in 1920 with a +chart of per capita consumption. It should be noted that the figures +exclude all other forms of advertising, such as newspapers, +bill-posting, street-car signs, electric signs, and so forth.</p> + +<p>Experience has proven that a package coffee, to be successful, must have +back of it expert knowledge on buying, blending, roasting, and packing, +as well as an efficient sales force. These things are essential: (1) a +quality product; (2) a good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span> trade-mark name and label; (3) an efficient +package. With these, an intelligently planned and carefully executed +advertising and sales campaign will spell success. Such a campaign +comprehends advertising directed to the dealer and to the consumer. It +may include all the approved forms of publicity, such as newspapers, +magazines, billboards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, +and samples. One phase of trade advertising which should not be +overlooked is dealer helps. The extent to which the roaster-packer, or +the promoter of a new package coffee, should utilize the various +advertising media or go into dealer helps must, of course, depend upon +the size of the advertising appropriation.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="An_Effective_Cut-Out" id="An_Effective_Cut-Out"></a> +<img src="images/image366.jpg" width="300" height="644" alt="An Effective Cut-Out" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Effective Cut-Out</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Many roaster-packers supply grocers handling their coffee with dealer +helps in the shape of weather-proof metal signs for outside display, +display racks, store and window display signs, cut-outs, blotters, +consumer booklets, newspaper electros, stereopticon slides, moving +pictures, demonstrations, samples, etc. Dealer selling schemes based on +points have also been found helpful in promoting sales.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Advertising to the Trade</i></p> + +<p>Until a comparatively recent date, the green coffee importer, selling +the roasting trade, has not realized the need of advertising. He has +inclined to the belief that he did not need to advertise, because, in +most instances, green coffee is not sold by the mark; and, to a certain +extent, price has been the determining factor.</p> + +<p>During late years, however, many green coffee firms have come to realize +that there is a good-will element that enters into the equation which +can be fostered by the intelligent use of advertising space in the +coffee roaster's trade journal. Also, a few importers are now featuring +trade marks in their advertising, thus building up a tangible trade-mark +asset in addition to good will.</p> + +<p>For a number of years the green coffee trade used the business card type +of advertisement; but some are now utilizing a more up-to-date style of +copy, as typified by the advertisements of Leon Israel & Brothers and +W.R. Grace & Company. Specimens of other green coffee advertising of the +better kind are here reproduced.</p> + +<p>Advertising campaigns in behalf of package coffees can not be fully +effective without the proper use of trade publications. Advertising in +the dealer's paper has many advantages. It is good missionary work for +the salesman. It creates confidence in the mind of the dealer. It is an +excellent means for demonstrating to the retailer that he is being +considered in the scheme of distribution—that no attempt is being made +to force the goods upon him through consumer advertising alone. +Trade-paper advertising also offers the packer the opportunity to +acquaint the dealer with the selling points in favor of the brand +advertised, thus saving the time of the salesman. An increasing number +of coffee packers are now using the advertising columns of trade papers, +and some typical advertisements are reproduced herewith.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Advertising by Various Mediums</i></p> + +<p>Billboard and other outdoor advertising, also car cards, are being used +to a considerable extent for coffee publicity. Painted outdoor signs +have been the back-bone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span> of one middle-west roaster's campaign for a +number of years. Both car cards and billboards are growing in popularity +because they enable the coffee packer to reproduce his package in its +natural colors and permit also of striking displays. Such firms as +Arbuckle Brothers, New York; Dayton Spice Mills, Dayton, Ohio; W.F. +MCLaughlin & Company, Chicago; the Puhl-Webb Company, Chicago; the Bour +Company, Toledo; B. Fischer & Company, New York; and the Cheek-Neal +Coffee Company, Nashville and New York, are consistent users of this +character of advertising. Electric signs also have proved effective for +coffee advertising. Reproductions of some characteristic outdoor and +car-card advertisements are to be found in these pages.</p> + +<p>Motion pictures are a comparatively new development in coffee +advertising. One of the first coffee roasters to adopt this plan of +publicity was S.H. Holstad & Company, Minneapolis. The film used +depicted the cultivation and preparation of coffee for the market, also +the complete roasting and packaging operations. The A.J. Deer Company, +manufacturers of coffee mills and roasters, Hornell, N.Y., was another +pioneer in the use of coffee films. Jabez Burns & Sons, coffee-machinery +manufacturers, followed with an educational coffee picture. The National +Packaging Machinery Company, of Boston, is another concern that has +utilized films for advertising purposes, showing its machines in +operation in a coffee-packing plant. Many roasters made use of the +coffee film produced by the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee.</p> + +<p>In using advertising films, it is customary for the roaster to arrange +for a showing at one or more theaters. The advertising in the local +papers features the coffee brands, also the name of the local dealer, +the latter being furnished with tickets which he distributes among his +retail customers. There are several concerns making a business of +supplying commercial films and of getting distribution for them.</p> + +<p>Another form of theater publicity is that of the advertising +slide—stereopticon views thrown upon the screen between feature +pictures. Many packers find these are effective for cultivating the +dealer, it being customary to show the brand name, together with that of +the local distributer.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Advertising for Retailers</i></p> + +<p>When retailers analyze the people to whom they sell coffee, they usually +find three types. First, there is the woman who thinks she is an expert +judge of coffee, but who is unable to find anything to suit her +cultivated taste. Then there is the new housewife, possibly a bride of a +few months, who knows very little about coffee, but wants to find a good +blend that both she and her husband will like. The third is the most +acceptable class, the satisfied people who have found coffee that +delights them, day after day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="How_Coffee_is_Advertised_to_the_Trade" id="How_Coffee_is_Advertised_to_the_Trade"></a> +<img src="images/image367.jpg" width="500" height="241" alt="How Coffee is Advertised to the Trade" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">How Coffee is Advertised to the Trade</span><br /> +<small>Left to right, good examples of green coffee publicity—center, well-arranged package-coffee copy</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span></p><p>W. Harry Longe, a Texas retailer, has prepared the following "ready +made" copy appeals for the three classes. To "Mrs. +Know-it-all-about-Coffee," this style has been found effective:</p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="1" width="40%" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="3" summary="IMPROVE THE COFFEE AND YOU IMPROVE THE MEAL"> +<tr> + <td align='left'><p class="center">IMPROVE THE COFFEE AND YOU IMPROVE THE MEAL</p> + +<p>The corner of the table that holds the coffee urn is the balancing point +of your dinner. If the coffee is a "little off" for some reason or +other—probably it's the coffee's own fault—things don't seem +as good as they might; but when it is "up to taste" the meal is a +pleasure from start to finish. If the "balancing point" is giving you +trouble, let <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> Coffee properly regulate it for you. 35 cents, +three pounds for $1.</p> + +<p class="center">ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY</p></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>For the good lady who is anxious to find a suitable blend of coffee, and +who desires information, this is a good appeal:</p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="1" width="40%" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="3" summary="A SUCCESSFUL SELECTION"> +<tr> + <td align='left'><p class="center">A SUCCESSFUL SELECTION</p> + +<p>Of the coffee that goes into the every-morning cup will arrive on the +day when <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> is first purchased. Many homes have been without such +a success now for a long time, but, of course, they didn't know of <span class="smcap">Any +Blend</span>—and even now it is hard to really know <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> till you +try it. That is why we seem to insist that you ask for an introduction +by ordering a pound.</p> + +<p class="center">ANY BLEND TEA & COFFEE COMPANY</p></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Taking both classes and dealing with them alike:</p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="1" width="40%" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="3" summary="BLENDED TO BALANCE"> +<tr> + <td align='left'><p class="center">"BLENDED TO BALANCE"</p> + +<p>Is a good descriptive phrase of <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> coffee, for care is taken +in the preparation that the strength does not overpower the flavor. +The aim of the blender is to get an acceptable and delightful +drinking quality. He has been more than successful, as you will see +when you try <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span>, 35 cents, three pounds for $1.</p> + +<p class="center">ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY</p></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The satisfied class, of course, is not averse to making a change, and it +is well, occasionally, for the dealer to let his own satisfied customers +know he still believes in his goods. The argument might take this form:</p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="1" width="40%" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="3" summary="A SERVICE THAT SAVES"> +<tr> + <td align='left'><p class="center">A SERVICE THAT SAVES</p> + +<p>Is the serving of <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span>, when coffee is desired. <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> +saves many things. It saves worry, for it is always uniform in +flavor and strength. It saves time, for when you order <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> we +grind it just as fine or just as coarse as your percolator or pot +demands. <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> also saves expense, because there is no waste, +as you know just how much to use, every time, to make a certain +number of cups. 35 cents, three pounds for $1.</p> + +<p class="center">ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY</p></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Again, possible new customers may listen to this appeal:</p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="1" width="40%" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="3" summary="TO PROVE YOUR APPROVAL"> +<tr> + <td align='left'><p class="center">TO PROVE YOUR APPROVAL</p> + +<p>Of <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> coffee, you are asked to try just one pound. We know +you will like it, for it is blended and roasted and ground as an +exceptional coffee should be, with the care that a good coffee +demands. Prove to yourself that you approve of this method of +preparing coffee. 35 cents, three pounds for $1.</p> + +<p class="center">ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY</p></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In some households the cook is permitted to do the ordering, and usually +the cook does not read the daily papers with an eye for coffee ads. To +reach this individual through her mistress:</p> + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="1" width="40%" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="3" summary="CAN YOU NAME YOUR COFFEE?"> +<tr> + <td align='left'><p class="center">CAN YOU NAME YOUR COFFEE?</p> + +<p>Or is it one of those many unknown brands that comes from the store +at the order of your cook? Let the cook do the ordering, for you +are lucky if you have one you can rely upon, but tell her you +prefer <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span> to the No-Name Blend you may now be using. <span class="smcap">Any +Blend</span> has one distinct advantage over all others; It Is freshly +roasted. Tell the kitchen-lady, now, to order <span class="smcap">Any Blend</span>.</p> + +<p class="center">ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY</p></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Advertising by Government Propaganda</i></p> + +<p>Advertising coffee by government propaganda has been indulged in with +more or less success by the British government in behalf of certain of +its colonial possessions; by the French and the Dutch; by Porto Rico, +Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Brazil. The markets most cultivated have been +Italy, France, England, Russia, Japan, and the United States.</p> + +<p>Great Britain began the development of coffee cultivation in its +colonies in 1730. Parliament first reduced the inland duties. In many +ways it has since sought to encourage British-grown coffee, building up +a favoritism for it that is still reflected in Mincing Lane quotations. +The Netherlands government did the same thing for Java and Sumatra; and +France rendered a similar service to her own colonies.</p> + +<p>Since Porto Rico became a part of the United States, several attempts +have been made by the island government and the planters to popularize +Porto Rico coffee in the United States. Scott Truxtun opened a +government agency in New York in 1905. Acting upon the counsel and +advice of the author, he prosecuted for several years a vigorous +campaign in behalf of the Porto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> Rico Planters' Protective Association. +The method followed for coffee was to appoint official brokers, and to +certify the genuineness of the product. Owing to insufficient funds and +the number of different products for which publicity was sought, the +coffee campaign was only moderately successful.</p> + +<p>Mortimer Remington, formerly with the J. Walter Thompson Company, a New +York advertising agency, was appointed in 1912 commercial agent for the +Porto Rico Association, composed of island producers and merchants. Some +effective advertising in behalf of Porto Rico coffee was done in the +metropolitan district, where a number of high-class grocers were +prevailed upon to stock the product, which was packed under seal of the +association. As before, however, the other products handled—including +cigars, grape-fruit, pineapples, etc.—handicapped the work on coffee, +and the enterprise was abandoned. Subsequent efforts by the Washington +government to assist the Porto Ricans in evolving a practical plan to +extend their coffee market in the United States came to naught because +of too much "politics."</p> + +<p>Beginning with the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco in 1915, +the government of Guatemala started a propaganda for its coffee in the +United States; as the European market, which had up till then absorbed +seventy-five percent of its product, was closed to it, owing to the +World War. E.H. O'Brien, a coffee broker of San Francisco, directed the +publicity. Some full pages were used in newspapers, but the main efforts +were directed at the coffee-roasting trade. The campaign, so far as it +went, was highly successful.</p> + +<p>Costa Rica also gave special encouragement to coffee-trade interests +that offered to expand the United States market for Costa Rica coffee +during the World War.</p> + +<p>For many years Colombia has been talking of making propaganda here for +its coffee, but thus far nothing of a constructive character has been +done.</p> + +<p>São Paulo began in 1908 to make propaganda for its coffee by subsidizing +companies and individuals in consuming countries to promote consumption +of the Brazil product. A contract was entered into between the state of +São Paulo and the coffee firms of E. Johnston & Company and Joseph +Travers & Son, of London, to exploit Brazil coffee in the United +Kingdom. Similar contracts were made with coffee firms in other European +countries, notably in Italy and France. The subsidies were for five +years and took the form of cash and coffee. The English company was +known as the "State of São Paulo (Brazil) Pure Coffee Company, Ltd." +Fifty thousand pounds sterling was granted this enterprise, which +roasted and packed a brand known as "Fazenda;" promoted demonstrations +at grocers' expositions; and advertised in somewhat limited fashion. The +general effect upon the consumption of coffee in England was negligible, +however, although at one time some five thousand grocers were said to +have stocked the Fazenda brand. A feature of this propaganda was the use +of the Tricolator (an American device since better known in the United +States) to insure correct making of the beverage, Brazil also made +propaganda for its coffee in Japan, in 1915, as part of certain +undertakings involving the immigration of Japanese laborers to Brazil.</p> + +<p>The Comité Français du Café was formed in Paris in July, 1921, to +co-operate with Brazil in an enterprise designed to increase the +consumption of coffee in France.</p> + +<p>The chief fault in most of the coffee propagandas here and abroad has +been the doubtful practise of subsidizing particular coffee concerns +instead of spending the funds in a manner designed to distribute the +benefits among the trade as a whole. This mistake, and local politics in +the producing countries, have made for ultimate failure. A notable +exception is the latest propaganda for Brazil coffee in the United +States, where all the various interests, the the São Paulo government, +the growers, exporters, importers, roasters, jobbers, and dealers, have +co-operated in a plan of campaign to advertise coffee <i>per se</i>, and not +to secure special privilege to any individual, house, or group.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Campaign</i></p> + +<p>Twenty years ago the author began an agitation for co-operative +advertising, by the coffee trade. He suggested as a slogan, "Tell the +truth about coffee;" and it is gratifying to find that many of his +original ideas have been embodied in the present joint coffee trade +publicity campaign, now in its fourth year.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Menezes_Th_Langgaard_de" id="Menezes_Th_Langgaard_de"></a> +<img src="images/portrait2.jpg" width="300" height="408" alt="Theodore Langgaard de Menezes" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Theodore Langgaard de Menezes</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The coffee roasters at first were slow to respond to the co-operative +advertising suggestion, because in those days competition was more +unenlightened than now, and therefore more ruthless. It needed +organization to bring the trade to a better understanding of the +benefits certain to be shared by all when their individual interests +were pooled in a common cause. Leaders of the best thought in the trade, +however, were quick to realize that only by united effort was it +possible to achieve real progress; and when it was suggested that the +first step was to organize the roasting trade, the idea took so firm a +hold that it only needed some one to start it to bring together in one +combination the keenest minds in the business.</p> + +<p>The coffee roasters organized their national association in 1911. The +author of this work urged that co-operative advertising based upon +scientific research should be done by the roasters themselves +independently of the growers; but it was found impracticable to unite +diverging interests on such an issue, and so the leaders of the movement +bent all their energies toward promoting a campaign that would be backed +jointly by growers and distributers, since both would receive equal +benefit from any resulting increase in consumption. Brazil, the source +of nearly three-quarters of the world's coffee, was the logical ally; +and an appeal was made to the planters of that country. A party of ten +leading United States roasters and importers visited Brazil in 1912 at +the invitation of the federal government.</p> + +<p>In Brazil, as in the United States, progress resulted from organization. +The planters of the state of São Paulo, who produce more than one-half +of all coffee used in the United States, were the first to appreciate +the propaganda idea. After their attempts to interest the national +government failed, the São Paulo coffee men founded the <i>Sociedade +Promotora da Defesa do café</i> (Society to Promote the Defense of Coffee), +and persuaded their state legislature to pass a law taxing every bag of +coffee shipped from the plantations of that state in a period of four +years. This tax, amounting to one hundred reis per bag of 132 pounds, or +about two and one-half cents United States money at even exchange rates, +is collected by the railroads from the shippers, and turned over to the +<i>Sociedade</i>.</p> + +<p>The Brazilian Society sent to the United States a special envoy, +Theodore Langgaard de Menezes, to conclude arrangements; and on March 4, +1918, in New York, the pact was signed whereby São Paulo was to +contribute to the publicity campaign in the United States approximately +$960,000 at the rate of $240,000 a year for four years; and the members +of the trade in the United States were to contribute altogether +$150,000<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a>. The success of the negotiations was due to the skilful +management of Ross W. Weir in the United States, and to the superior +salesmanship of Louis R. Gray, the Arbuckle representative in Brazil.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="portrait3" id="portrait3"></a> +<img src="images/portrait3.jpg" width="500" height="700" alt="JOINT COFFEE TRADE PUBLICITY COMMITTEE IN UNITED STATES" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption">JOINT COFFEE TRADE PUBLICITY COMMITTEE IN UNITED STATES</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span></p><p>Supervision of the advertising in the United States was delegated to +five men, representing both the importing and roasting branches of the +trade, and designated as the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee of +the United States. Three of these committeemen, Ross W. Weir, of New +York; F.J. Ach, of Dayton, Ohio; and George S. Wright, of Boston, are +roasters; and two, William Bayne, Jr., and C.H. Stoffregen, both of New +York, are importers and jobbers, or green-coffee men. The committee +organized with Mr. Weir as chairman, Mr. Wright as treasurer, and Mr. +Stoffregen as secretary. At the invitation of the committee, C.W. Brand +of Cleveland, then president of the National Coffee Roasters +Association, attended committee meetings, and assisted in determining +the policies of the campaign. Headquarters were established at 74 Wall +Street, in the heart of the New York coffee district, with Felix Coste +as secretary-manager, and Allan P. Ames as publicity director. N.W. Ayer +& Son, advertising agents of Philadelphia, who had engineered the plan +of campaign from the start of the movement in the National Coffee +Roasters Association, handle the advertising account.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Chart_Plan_of_Advertising_Campaign" id="Chart_Plan_of_Advertising_Campaign"></a> +<img src="images/chart15.jpg" width="500" height="467" alt="Chart Showing Plan of Advertising Campaign" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Chart Showing Plan of Advertising Campaign</span></span> +</div> + +<p>São Paulo's contribution to the advertising fund is sent in monthly +instalments to the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee under an +agreement that it shall be expended only for magazine and newspaper +space.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="MAGAZINE_AND_NEWSPAPER_COPY_1919" id="MAGAZINE_AND_NEWSPAPER_COPY_1919"></a> +<img src="images/image368.jpg" width="500" height="671" alt="JOINT-COMMITTEE MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER COPY, 1919" title="" /> +<span class="caption">JOINT-COMMITTEE MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER COPY, 1919</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="COPY_THAT_STRESSED_HEALTHFULNESS_OF_COFFEE_1919_1920" id="COPY_THAT_STRESSED_HEALTHFULNESS_OF_COFFEE_1919_1920"></a> +<img src="images/image369.jpg" width="500" height="706" alt="COPY THAT STRESSED THE HEALTHFULNESS OF COFFEE, 1919–1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COPY THAT STRESSED THE HEALTHFULNESS OF COFFEE, 1919–1920</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span></p><p>Supplementing this Brazilian contribution, is the fund raised by +voluntary subscriptions from the coffee trade of the United States on +the basis of one cent per bag handled annually. This American fund is +used for the expenses of administration, for educational advertising +outside of magazine and newspaper space, and for various kinds of trade +promotion and dealer stimulation.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Joint_Committees_House_Organ" id="Joint_Committees_House_Organ"></a> +<img src="images/image370.jpg" width="350" height="435" alt="The Joint Committee's House Organ" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Joint Committee's House Organ</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The first advertising appeared in April, 1919, in 306 leading newspapers +in 182 large cities, with a total circulation of more than 16,000,000. +The cities chosen represented all the centers of wholesale coffee +distribution.</p> + +<p>Magazine advertising began in June of the same year, using twenty-one +periodicals, all of national circulation. This list has been changed +from time to time to meet the special needs of the campaign.</p> + +<p>More than fifty grocery-trade magazines have carried the committee's +dealer advertising, although not all of these have been used +continuously. Every part of the country was represented on the +trade-paper list.</p> + +<p>Full pages have been run each month in nine of the leading national +medical journals. These advertisements were written by a physician of +national reputation. Under the caption, "The Case for Coffee," these +advertisements have discussed the properties of coffee from the +physiological standpoint, and have asked the doctors to judge it fairly.</p> + +<p>From the start the committee's advertising has been broadly educational. +The properties of coffee have been discussed; charges against coffee +have been answered. The housekeeper has been told how to get the best +results from the coffee she buys; hotel and restaurant proprietors have +been reminded that many of them owe their prosperity largely to a +reputation for serving good coffee; new uses have been exploited for +coffee, as a flavoring agent for desserts and other sweets; employers +have been taught the important service good coffee may render in +increasing the comfort and efficiency of their working forces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Introductory_Medical-Journal_Copy" id="Introductory_Medical-Journal_Copy"></a> +<img src="images/image371.jpg" width="350" height="499" alt="Introductory Medical-Journal Copy" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Introductory Medical-Journal Copy</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Magazine and newspaper advertising is only the nucleus of the campaign. +The effect of such "white space" publicity is increased by simultaneous +efforts to "merchandise" the campaign, to stimulate the interest of the +wholesale and retail trade, to encourage private-brand advertising, and +to reach the consumer by other kinds of publicity recognized as +essential factors in a well rounded national advertising effort. These +activities may be summarized as follows:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="TELLING_THE_DOCTORS_THE_TRUTH_1920" id="TELLING_THE_DOCTORS_THE_TRUTH_1920"></a> +<img src="images/image372.jpg" width="500" height="704" alt="TELLING THE DOCTORS THE TRUTH ABOUT COFFEE, 1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">TELLING THE DOCTORS THE TRUTH ABOUT COFFEE, 1920</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Information Service.</span> This department answers inquiries and supplies +material for household editors, and for newspaper and magazine writers. +Through a national clipping service, it keeps in touch with all +published matter relating to coffee. Its special duty is to answer +attacks on coffee and the coffee trade. Merchants and dealers make it a +practise, when they find misleading articles or editorials in their +local newspapers, to send clippings to the committee's headquarters to +be handled there as the situation warrants.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scientific Coffee Research.</span> Twenty-two thousand, five hundred dollars of +the American fund have been appropriated thus far for scientific coffee +research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The reports of +this research will be distributed to the coffee trade throughout the +country, and should prove valuable in all branches of coffee +merchandising. The findings will be distributed by the committee to +schools and colleges, and to consumers through national advertising.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Joint_Committees_Attractive_Booklets" id="Joint_Committees_Attractive_Booklets"></a> +<img src="images/image373.jpg" width="500" height="447" alt="Some of the Joint Committee's Attractive Booklets" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Some of the Joint Committee's Attractive Booklets</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Coffee Club.</span> This organization was established for the purpose of +educating the consumer through constructive team work by the roasters' +and jobbers' salesman and the retail dealer. Under this plan, the +committee has distributed 50,000 transparent signs for dealers' windows, +and 5,000 bronze coffee-club buttons for coffee salesmen. By reference +to the Coffee Club in national magazine and newspaper advertising, the +retailer is given a chance to tie up with the campaign. Membership in +the club is limited to those who are contributing to the publicity fund, +and to their salesmen and customers. The club publishes a monthly +bulletin in newspaper form, giving the news of the campaign. This has a +circulation of 27,000 among wholesalers, salesman, and dealers.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="MORE_MEDICAL_JOURNAL_COPY_1920" id="MORE_MEDICAL_JOURNAL_COPY_1920"></a> +<img src="images/image374.jpg" width="500" height="712" alt="MORE MEDICAL JOURNAL COPY, 1920" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MORE MEDICAL JOURNAL COPY, 1920</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Booklets.</span> The committee has published six booklets, which have reached +a total circulation of more than one and a half million copies. These +booklets are sold at cost to the coffee trade. The committee reports +that, on an average, one hundred requests for them are received daily at +its office from consumers in different parts of the country, and that +the booklets are the means of a constant campaign of education in +American homes and schools.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brand Advertising.</span> The committee is constantly making efforts to +increase the amount of private advertising by coffee roasters, and it +estimates that brand advertising has increased at least three hundred +percent since the national campaign began. Reproductions of the +committee's advertisements, proofs of advertising electrotypes, and copy +suggestions are circulated in advance to all roasters and to a large +number of retailers, by means of the monthly organ, <i>The Coffee Club</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Coffee Week.</span> During the week of March 29 to April 4, 1920, the committee +organized and financed the third national coffee week, which was +observed by retailers throughout the country. The feature of this week +was a window-trimming contest for which prizes of $2,000 were +distributed among several hundred grocers. The contest resulted in +displays of coffee in nearly 10,000 grocery windows, and greatly +increased the sale and consumption of coffee during this period.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Motion Pictures.</span> The United States fund financed the production and +distribution of a coffee motion picture, 128 prints of which were sold +to roasters, who exhibited them throughout the country. This picture was +shown during coffee week to more than six hundred theater audiences, and +it remains in the possession of the trade as an active advertising +medium.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Magazine_and_Newspaper_Copy_1921" id="Magazine_and_Newspaper_Copy_1921"></a> +<img src="images/image375.jpg" width="500" height="349" alt="Specimens of the 1921 Magazine and Newspaper Copy" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Specimens of the 1921 Magazine and Newspaper Copy</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="EDUCATING_THE_DOCTOR_1922" id="EDUCATING_THE_DOCTOR_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image376.jpg" width="500" height="681" alt="EDUCATING THE DOCTOR IN THE FACTS ABOUT COFFEE, 1922" title="" /> +<span class="caption">EDUCATING THE DOCTOR IN THE FACTS ABOUT COFFEE, 1922</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">New Uses for Coffee.</span> An important factor in increasing consumption has +been the promotion of new uses for coffee. In winter, this has taken the +form or recipes and suggestions for coffee as a flavoring agent; and in +warm weather, there has been a publicity drive for iced coffee.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Propaganda Results</i></p> + +<p>The joint coffee trade publicity campaign is progressive. New features +are being developed, and plans are laid well in advance. It is expected +that the reports of the scientific research will furnish fresh material +for both direct and indirect advertising.</p> + +<p>One of the interesting prospects is a school exhibit, demand for which +has been revealed by requests from a large number of teachers, +principals, and school superintendents. Efforts to increase the +popularity of a product as widely used as coffee suggest almost +unlimited opportunities.</p> + +<p>The campaign has brought into co-operation producers in one country, and +manufacturers and distributers in another country, several thousand +miles apart. Its international character, and also the fact that it +deals with a product of almost universal use, may account for the +attention this campaign has received, not only in the United States, but +in every country where advertising is a business factor.</p> + +<p>This kind of coffee publicity has given the consumer a better knowledge +of coffee, and broken down much of the prejudice against coffee that +rested upon popular misunderstanding of its physiological effects.</p> + +<p>As best evidence of its sincere wish to give the public the whole truth +about coffee, the committee points to the fact that a portion of its +funds is being used to finance the scientific investigation at the +Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</p> + +<p>Felix Coste, the secretary-manager of the campaign, spends much of his +time traveling about the country and addressing gatherings of coffee +wholesalers and dealers. By this means, and by continuous +circularization and correspondence, the trade is kept constantly in +touch with the developments of the campaign.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Magazine_and_Newspaper_Copy_1922" id="Magazine_and_Newspaper_Copy_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image377.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Magazine and Newspaper Advertising Copy, Spring of 1922" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Magazine and Newspaper Advertising Copy, Spring of 1922</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /><a name="CHART_PRIVATE_BRAND_ADVERTISING_IN_1921" id="CHART_PRIVATE_BRAND_ADVERTISING_IN_1921"></a> +<img src="images/chart16.jpg" width="600" height="426" alt="PRIVATE BRAND COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1921" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PRIVATE BRAND COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1921<br /> +Report from 77 Advertisers</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span></p><p>Although Brazil is the only coffee-producing country at present +co-operating, the advertising has treated all coffees alike. Efforts are +being made to have the coffee growers of other countries contribute on a +basis proportionate to the benefit they derive. Support from all the +coffee countries on the same scale as that on which the producers of São +Paulo are contributing would almost double the size of the fund.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Specimen_of_Early_Yuban_Copy" id="Specimen_of_Early_Yuban_Copy"></a> +<img src="images/image378.jpg" width="350" height="465" alt="Specimen of Early Yuban Copy" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Specimen of Early Yuban Copy</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Advertising Efficiency</i></p> + +<p>Reverting to the original advertisement for coffee in English, when we +compare it with the latest examples of advertising art, it is of the +same order of merit. But Pasqua Rosée had no advertising experts to +advise him and no precedents to follow. Pasqua Rosée was a native of +Smyrna, who was brought to London by a Mr. Edwards, a dealer in Turkish +merchandise, to whom he acted as a sort of personal servant. One of his +principal duties was the preparation of Mr. Edwards' morning drink of +Turkish coffee.</p> + +<p>"But the novelty thereof," history tells us, "drawing too much company +to him, he [Mr. Edwards] allowed his said servant, with another of his +son-in-law, to sell it publicly." So it came about that Pasqua Rosée set +up a coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill.</p> + +<p>And since Pasqua Rosée's idea, naturally, was to acquaint the London +public with the virtues and delectable qualities of the product of which +his prospective customers were naturally uniformed, he put into his +advertisement those facts and arguments which he felt would be most +likely to attract attention, to excite interest, and to convince. If the +reader will glance at Rosée's advertisement, which is reproduced on page +55, he will be struck with the well-nigh irresistible charm of his +unaffected, straightforward bid for patronage. Having no advertising +fetishes to warp his judgment, he told an interesting story in a natural +manner, carrying conviction. It matters not that some of the virtues +attributed to the drink have since been disallowed. He believed them to +be true. Few there were in those days who knew the real "truth about +coffee."</p> + +<p>Even his typography, unstudied from the standpoint of modern "display," +is attractive, appropriate, and exceedingly pleasant to the eye. And +since at that time there was no cereal substitute or other bugaboos to +contend against, and to hinder him from doing the simple, obvious thing +in advertising, he did that very thing—and did it exceedingly well.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Historical_Association_in_Advertising" id="Historical_Association_in_Advertising"></a> +<img src="images/image379.jpg" width="350" height="479" alt="Historical Association in Advertising" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Historical Association in Advertising</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /><a name="PACKAGE-COFFEE_ADVERTISING_IN_1922" id="PACKAGE-COFFEE_ADVERTISING_IN_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image380.jpg" width="600" height="750" alt="PACKAGE-COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1922" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PACKAGE-COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1922<br /> +<small>Specimens of newspaper copy used by some of the most enterprising +package-coffee advertisers, East and West</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span></p><p>In fact, in the historic advertisement, Pasqua Rosée set an example and +established a copy standard which had a very beneficial effect on all +the coffee advertising of that early date. This will be evident from a +glance at the accompanying exhibits of other early advertisements. It +was not until the days of so-called "modern" advertising that coffee +publicity reached low-water mark in efficiency and value. In these dark +days most coffee advertisers ignored the principles discovered and +applied in other lines of grocery merchandising. Instead of telling +their public how good their product was, they actually followed the +opposite course, and warned the public against the dangers of coffee +drinking! Instead of saying to the public, "Coffee has many virtues, and +our brand is one of the best examples," their text said in effect, +"Coffee has many deleterious properties; some, or most, of which have +been eliminated in our particular brand."</p> + +<p>They were, for the most part, apostles of negation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="the_Social-Distinction_Argument" id="the_Social-Distinction_Argument"></a> +<img src="images/image381.jpg" width="350" height="481" alt="Emphasizing the Social-Distinction Argument" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Emphasizing the Social-Distinction Argument</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Drawing_Upon_History_for_Atmosphere" id="Drawing_Upon_History_for_Atmosphere"></a> +<img src="images/image382.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="Drawing Upon History for Social-Intercourse Atmosphere" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Drawing Upon History for Social-Intercourse Atmosphere</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Hopeful signs, however, are multiplying that this condition of things in +the coffee industry has passed, and that the practise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> of telling the +coffee story with certitude will soon become general.</p> + +<p>We may well applaud the publicity work of all coffee advertisers who +follow where Pasqua Rosée led—those who tell the public how good coffee +is to drink and how much good it does you if you drink it. Considering +the advertising and typographical resources available to the modern +advertiser, it certainly should be possible for this message to be +conveyed to the public with at least some of the charm of the first +coffee message.</p> + +<p>One of the most notable examples of how to advertise coffee well is that +set by Yuban coffee. Unquestionably, Yuban is doing in a thoroughly +up-to-date and appropriate fashion what Pasqua Rosée started out to do +in 1652.</p> + +<p>The effect on those who give only a superficial glance at a Yuban +advertisement is to arouse a keen desire to enjoy a cup of Yuban coffee. +To induce such a state of mind is, of course, the object of all good +advertising.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="An_impressive_electric_sign_Chicago" id="An_impressive_electric_sign_Chicago"></a> +<img src="images/image383.jpg" width="500" height="348" alt="An Electric Sign that Impressed Chicago" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Electric Sign that Impressed Chicago</span><br /> +<small>There were 4,000 bulbs in this advertisement, which measured 50 x 55 +feet. The rental was $3,500 a month</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Yuban advertisements have utilized two vital principles in influencing +the minds of consumers. In the first place, they have made a cup of +coffee seem to be a very delectable drink. In the second place, they +have made the serving of a cup of coffee seem to be of the greatest +social value.</p> + +<p>One does not see in a Yuban advertisement any reference to the "removal +of caffein", or to Yuban's "freedom from defects common to other +coffees." There is no reference to the ill effects of drinking ordinary +coffee. Yuban wastes no valuable space in unselling coffee. Instead, the +whole intent, effectively carried out, is to paint an enticing picture +by descriptive phraseology, typographic "manner", and illustrative +treatment.</p> + +<p>Until Yuban came, those of us in the coffee trade who had given the +matter thought had often wondered why, with the wealth of material +available to writers of coffee advertisements, so little had been done +to make the product alluring—why so little had been done to give +atmosphere to the product. So many interesting things may be said about +the history of coffee; the spread of the industry through various +countries; how Brazil came to be the coffee-producing country of the +world; how coffee is cultivated, harvested, and shipped; how it is +stored, roasted, handled, delivered—in short, the entire process by +which coffee reaches the breakfast table from the plantations of the +tropics. Yuban made effective use of this material.</p> + +<p>Simply to tell these things in an interesting, natural, convincing way +makes coffee appear as a healthful, delicious drink; whereas the +negative, defensive sort of advertising, that plays into the hands of +the substitutes, puts coffee in the wrong light.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="HOW_COFFEE_IS_ADVERTISED_OUTDOORS" id="HOW_COFFEE_IS_ADVERTISED_OUTDOORS"></a> +<img src="images/image384.jpg" width="500" height="696" alt="HOW THREE WELL KNOWN BRANDS OF COFFEE HAVE BEEN ADVERTISED OUTDOORS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">HOW THREE WELL KNOWN BRANDS OF COFFEE HAVE BEEN ADVERTISED OUTDOORS</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="ATTRACTIVE_CAR_CARDS_SPRING_OF_1922" id="ATTRACTIVE_CAR_CARDS_SPRING_OF_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image385.jpg" width="500" height="696" alt="ATTENTION-ATTRACTING CAR CARDS, SPRING OF 1922" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ATTENTION-ATTRACTING CAR CARDS, SPRING OF 1922</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Effective_Iced-Coffee_Copy" id="Effective_Iced-Coffee_Copy"></a> +<img src="images/image386.jpg" width="500" height="139" alt="Effective Iced-Coffee Copy—Adaptable for Any Brand" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Effective Iced-Coffee Copy—Adaptable for Any Brand</span></span> +</div> + +<p>When one reads Yuban advertisements, they are seen to be an entirely +acceptable and appropriate presentation of coffee merit and thoroughly +in accord with the principles of good advertising, as exemplified in all +other lines of trade. The wonder grows why so many coffee advertisers +have been content to remain in the defensive, controversial position +into which the alarmist coffee-substitute advertising has jockeyed them.</p> + +<p>The Yuban advertisements are not without their faults; errors of +historical facts can be found in them; definitions are sometimes mixed; +some of the drawings might be better; but, in the main, the copy is +convincing and praiseworthy.</p> + +<p>In Yuban advertisements the things that have been so long left undone +have now been done in a masterful way. If we refer to the accompanying +illustrations, we can see how effectively the public is being led to +realize and believe in:</p> + +<p>1. The intrinsic desirability of coffee—the actual pleasure to be +derived from the act of partaking of it.</p> + +<p>2. That it is delightful medium for social intercourse—part of the +essential equipment for an intimate chat or more general assemblage of +friends.</p> + +<p>3. That its proper service is a badge of social distinction—the mark of +a successful hostess.</p> + +<p>These three thoughts, dominant in Yuban advertising, should be woven +into the fabric of all coffee advertising. For with these three +thoughts, Arbuckle Brothers have blazed the trail for the right thing in +coffee advertising.</p> + +<p>The Yuban case has been so largely dwelt upon here because it sets so +bright and shining an example. Much that is praiseworthy in it and more +along the same lines is true of White House, Hotel Astor, and Seal +Brand; but the copy shown will illustrate this better than any comment.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="European_Advertising_Novelty_New_York" id="European_Advertising_Novelty_New_York"></a> +<img src="images/image387.jpg" width="500" height="264" alt="European Advertising Novelty in New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">European Advertising Novelty in New York</span><br /> +<small>The absence of visible wheels aroused much curiosity in this slow-moving vehicle</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="COENTIES_SLIP_IN_THE_DAYS_OF_SAILING_VESSELS" id="COENTIES_SLIP_IN_THE_DAYS_OF_SAILING_VESSELS"></a> +<img src="images/image388.jpg" width="500" height="327" alt="COENTIES SLIP, NEW YORK, IN THE DAYS OF SAILING VESSELS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COENTIES SLIP, NEW YORK, IN THE DAYS OF SAILING VESSELS<br /> +<small>Many coffee ships from the West Indies, Arabia and the Dutch East Indies +unloaded their cargoes here—From a copper-plate etching by F. Lee +Hunter</small></span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXIX" id="Chapter_XXIX"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXIX</span></h2> + +<h3>THE COFFEE TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston—Some early +sales—Taxes imposed by Congress in war and peace—The first coffee +plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-grinder, and coffee-pot +patents—Early trade marks for coffee—Beginnings of the coffee +urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee +business—Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting +establishments in the trade from the eighteenth century to the +twentieth</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">I</span><span class="caps">t</span> appears from the best evidence obtainable that the coffee trade of +the United States was started by a woman, one Dorothy Jones of Boston. +At least, Dorothy Jones was the first person in the colonies to whom a +license was issued, in 1670, to sell coffee. It is not clear whether she +sold the product in the green bean, roasted, "garbled" (ground), or +"ungarbled".</p> + +<p>Soon after the introduction of the coffee drink into the New England, +New York, and Pennsylvania colonies, trading began in the raw product. +William Penn bought his green coffee supplies in the New York market in +1683, paying for them at the rate of $4.68 a pound. Benjamin Franklin +engaged in the retail coffee business in Philadelphia, in 1740, as a +kind of side line to his printing business.</p> + +<p>"Tea, coffee, indigo, nutmegs, sugar etc." were being advertised for +sale in 1748 at a shop in Boston, "under the vendue-room in +Dock-Square." Coffee was also to be had in that year at the shop of +Ebenezer Lowell in King Street, and at the Sign of the Four Sugar Loaves +near the head of Long Wharf.</p> + +<p>During the sway of the coffee houses, coffee fell from $4.68 a pound to +40 cents a pound in 1750, and to 22 cents a pound just before the +Revolution. As the war came on, however, dealers began to force up +prices on a dwindling market. The situation became so serious that in +January, 1776, the Philadelphia Commission of Inspection issued a +fair-price list, setting an arbitrary price of eleven pence per pound on +coffee in bag lots. Persons found violating this price were to be +"exposed to public view as sordid vultures preying on the vitals of the +country."</p> + +<p>Despite this threat, J. Peters in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, wrote to a +Philadelphia friend, "I cannot purchase any coffee without taking, too, +one bill a tierce of Claret & Sour, and at £6.8 per gall.... I have been +trying day for day, & never could get a grain of Coffee so as to sell it +at the limited price these six weeks. It may be bought, but at 25/ per +lb."</p> + +<p>The important part played by the coffee houses of colonial America, +beginning with the establishment of the London coffee house in Boston, +in 1689, the King's Arms in New York in 1696, and Ye coffee house in +Philadelphia in 1700, has been related.</p> + +<p>"Females" of ye olde Boston, staging in 1777 a "coffee party" which +rivaled in a small way the famous Tea Party in 1773, personally +chastised a profiteer hoarder of foodstuffs, and confiscated some of his +stock, according to a letter from Abigail Adams to her distinguished +husband, later second president of the United States.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span></p><p>Writing at Boston, under date of July 31, 1777, Abigail wrote to John, +then attending the Continental Congress at Philadelphia:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">There is a great scarcity of sugar and coffee, articles which the +female part of the state is very loath to give up, especially +whilst they consider the great scarcity occasioned by the merchants +having secreted a large quantity. It is rumored that an eminent +stingy merchant, who is a bachelor, had a hogshead of coffee in his +store, which he refused to sell under 6 shillings per pound.</p> + +<p class="quot1">A number of females—some say a hundred, some say more—assembled +with a cart and trunk, marched down to the warehouse, and demanded +the keys.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Upon his finding no quarter, he delivered the keys, and they then +opened the warehouse, hoisted out the coffee themselves, put it +into a trunk, and drove off. A large concourse of men stood amazed, +silent spectators of the whole transaction.</p></div> + +<p>In 1783–84 the Congress of the United States considered the imposition +of a duty on "seven classes of goods consumed by the rich or in general +use; liquors, sugars, teas, coffees, cocoa, molasses and pepper; the tax +to be determined by the yearly imports."</p> + +<p>At that time there was being imported twelve times as much Bohea tea as +of all others, but tea consumption was only one-twelfth pound per +capita. Total tea imports were 325,000 pounds. "Low as was the +importation of tea", says John Bach McMaster, "that of coffee was lower +still by a third. Indeed, it was scarcely used outside of the great +cities." The average annual coffee imports at that period were 200.000 +pounds.</p> + +<p>Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts introduced chicory into the United +States in 1785.</p> + +<p>The first import duty, of two and one-half cents a pound, was levied on +coffee by the United States in 1789. The principal sources of supply up +to that time were the Dutch East Indies, Arabia, Haiti, and Jamaica; and +most of the business was in the hands of Dutch and English traders.</p> + +<p>What is thought to be the first wholesale coffee-roasting plant in +America began operations at 4 Great Dock (now Pearl) Street, New York, +early in 1790. In that same year the first American advertisement for +coffee appeared in the <i>New York Daily Advertiser</i>. A second "coffee +manufactory" started up at 232 Queen (also Pearl) Street, New York, late +in 1790.</p> + +<p>In the same year, 1790, the government increased the import duty on +coffee to four cents a pound. In 1794 the tax was raised to five cents a +pound.</p> + +<p>In George Washington's household account book for 1793 appears an entry +showing a purchase of coffee from Benjamin Dorsay, a Philadelphia +grocer, for eight dollars. The quantity is not given.</p> + +<p>About 1804 Captain Joseph Ropes in the ship Recovery, of Salem, Mass., +brought from Mocha the first cargo of coffee and other East Indian +produce in an American bottom.</p> + +<p>The first cargo of Brazil coffee, consisting of 1,522 bags, was received +at Salem, Mass., per ship Marquis de Someruelas in 1809. Brazil's total +production that year was less than 30,000 bags; but by 1871 more than +2,000,000 bags were exported.</p> + +<p>Java coffee could be bought on the Amsterdam market in 1810 for 42 to 46 +cents. By 1812, there had been an advance to $1.08 per pound. Holland, +not Brazil, ruled the world's coffee markets in those days.</p> + +<p>When the war of 1812 made necessary more revenue, imports of coffee were +taxed ten cents a pound. A war-time fever of speculation in tea and +coffee followed, and by 1814 prices to the consumer had advanced to such +an extent (coffee was 45 cents a pound) that the citizens of +Philadelphia formed a non-consumption association, each member pledging +himself "not to pay more than 25 cents a pound for coffee and not to +consume tea that wasn't already in the country."</p> + +<p>The coffee duty was reduced in 1816 to five cents a pound; in 1830, to +two cents; in 1831, to one cent; and in 1832 coffee was placed on the +free list. It remained there until 1861, when a duty of four cents a +pound was again imposed as a war-revenue measure. This was increased to +five cents in 1862. It was reduced to three cents in 1871; and the duty +was repealed in 1872. Coffee has remained on the free list ever since.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of machinery required in the coffee business began in +the eighteenth century. The first coffee-grinder patent in the United +States was issued to Thomas Bruff, Sr., in 1798. The first United States +patent on an improvement on a roaster was issued to Peregrine Williamson +of Baltimore in 1820. The first United<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span> States patent on a +coffee-plantation machine, a coffee huller, was granted to Nathan Reed +of Belfast, Me., in 1822. The first United States coffee-maker patent +was issued to Lewis Martelley of New York, in 1825.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="First_US_Coffee-Grinder_Patent" id="First_US_Coffee-Grinder_Patent"></a> +<img src="images/image389.jpg" width="300" height="278" alt="First United States Coffee-Grinder Patent" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">First United States Coffee-Grinder Patent</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Charles Parker, of Meriden, Conn., began work on the original Parker +coffee mill in 1828.</p> + +<p>A complete English coffee roasting and grinding plant was installed in +New York City by James Wild in 1833–34.</p> + +<p>About 1840, Central America began making shipments of coffee to the +United States.</p> + +<p>James Carter, of Boston, was granted (1846) a United States patent on an +improved form of cylindrical coffee roaster, which subsequently was +largely adopted by the trade in the United States, being popularly known +as the Carter "pull-out".</p> + +<p>The Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. of Buffalo began in 1857 the +manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. Marcus Mason invented his +first pulper in 1860; but the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery +under the firm name of Marcus Mason & Co. did not begin in the United +States until 1873.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Carters_Pull-Out_Roaster_Patent" id="Carters_Pull-Out_Roaster_Patent"></a> +<img src="images/image390.jpg" width="350" height="452" alt="Carter's Pull-Out Roaster Patent" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Carter's Pull-Out Roaster Patent</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The first paper-bag factory in the United States to make bags for loose +coffee, began operations in Brooklyn in 1862.</p> + +<p>The first ground-coffee package was put on the New York market about +1860–63 by Lewis A. Osborn. It was known as Osborn's Celebrated Prepared +Java Coffee and was later exploited by Thomas Reid as Osborn's Old +Government Java.</p> + +<p>In 1864, Jabez Burns was granted a patent on the Burns roaster which was +to revolutionize the coffee-roasting business.</p> + +<p>In 1865, John Arbuckle brought out in Pittsburgh the first roasted +coffee in individual packages "like peanuts", the forerunner of the +Ariosa package.</p> + +<p>In 1869, B.G. Arnold started the first big speculation in coffee and for +ten years thereafter he was absolute dictator of the American coffee +trade.</p> + +<p>In 1869, three United States patents on a copper coffee urn lined with +block tin were granted to Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet of New York.</p> + +<p>In 1870, John Gulick Baker, one of the founders of the Enterprise +Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania, was granted a United States +patent on a coffee grinder which subsequently became one of the most +popular store mills.</p> + +<p>The first trade mark registered for coffee or coffee essence bears the +number 425, with date August 22, 1871, first use 1870, and is in the +name of Butler, Earhart & Co., Columbus, Ohio. The words "essence of +coffee" appeared on the label. The next coffee mark was registered by +Butler, Earhart & Co., October 3, 1871, number 455, first use, 1870. It +consists of the word<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span> "Buckeye" with a branch of the buckeye +(horse-chestnut) tree.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="First_Registered_Trade_Mark_for_Coffee" id="First_Registered_Trade_Mark_for_Coffee"></a> +<img src="images/image391.jpg" width="350" height="642" alt="First Registered Trade Mark for Coffee, 1871" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">First Registered Trade Mark for Coffee, 1871</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The next registration for coffee was in the name of John Ashcroft of +Brooklyn. It is numbered 533, and the date is November 28, 1871. It +consists of an anchor and chain enclosing a star. Ashcroft registered +also a design of a coffee pot with the words "Mocha Steam", January 2, +1872.</p> + +<p>Today there are nearly three thousand registered trade-mark names used +for coffee on file in the United States Patent Office in Washington.</p> + +<p>In 1873, Ariosa, the first successful national brand of package coffee, +was launched in Pittsburg by John Arbuckle.</p> + +<p>In the same year, 1873, the first United States patent on a coffee +substitute was issued to E. Dugdale of Griffin, Ga.</p> + +<p>In 1878, Chase & Sanborn, the Boston coffee roasters, were the first to +pack and to ship roasted coffee in sealed cans. A lead seal was used for +the large packages of bulk coffee; the smaller sizes being sealed by the +label, which was made to cover the body of the can and to reach up over +the slip cover, so as to make a sealed package, to open which the label +must be broken.</p> + +<p>In 1878, Jabez Burns, the coffee-machinery man, founded the <i>Spice +Mill</i>, the first publication in America devoted to the coffee and spice +trades.</p> + +<p>In 1879, Charles Halstead brought out the first metal coffee pot with a +china interior.</p> + +<p>In 1880, Henry E. Smyser, of Philadelphia, invented a +package-making-and-filling machine for coffee, the forerunner of the +weighing-and-packing machine, the control of which later on by John +Arbuckle led to the coffee-sugar war with the Havemeyers. Smyser was +superintendent at the plant of the Weikel & Smith Spice Company, +Philadelphia. Other patents on weighing and package-making machines were +granted him in 1884, 1888, and 1891. In 1892, he began to assign his +patents to Arbuckle Brothers, some fifteen in all being granted him from +1892 to 1898. He died in 1899.</p> + +<p>The year 1880 was notable for the many failures in the American coffee +trade, as a result of syndicate planting and speculative buying of +coffees in Brazil, Mexico, and Central America.</p> + +<p>In 1881, Steele & Price, of Chicago, were the first to introduce to the +trade all-paper cans, made of strawboard, for coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1881, the New York Coffee Exchange was incorporated, beginning +business the year following at Beaver and Pearl Streets. In 1885, the +property of the Exchange was transferred to the Coffee Exchange of the +City of New York, incorporated by special charter.</p> + +<p>In 1884, the Chicago Liquid Sack Company brought out the first +combination paper and tin-end containers for coffee.</p> + +<p>The year 1887–88 was marked by a big boom in coffee, the total sales on +the Coffee Exchange amounting to 47,868,750 bags. Between July 1886 and +June 1887 prices advanced 1,485 points.</p> + +<p>In 1888, the Engelberg Huller Company of Syracuse, New York, began the +manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Original_Arbuckle_Coffee_Packages" id="Original_Arbuckle_Coffee_Packages"></a> +<img src="images/image392.jpg" width="300" height="280" alt="The Original Arbuckle Coffee Packages" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Original Arbuckle Coffee Packages</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1891, the New England Automatic Weighing Machine Company, Boston, +Mass. began the manufacture of machines to weigh coffee into cartons and +other packages; and in 1894, installed in the Chase & Sanborn plant at +Boston the first automatic weighing machine in the coffee trade. The New +England concern was subsequently (1901) succeeded by the Automatic +Weighing Machine Company of Newark, N.J.</p> + +<p>In 1893, the first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America +(Tupholme's English machine) was installed by F.T. Holmes at the plant +of the Potter-Parlin Company, New York.</p> + +<p>In 1893, Cirilo Mingo, of New Orleans, was granted a United States +patent on a method of aging green coffee to give it the characteristics +of green coffee stored in a confined space for a long period. The +operation consisted in placing layers of green coffee between dry and +wet empty coffee bags, and permitting the beans to absorb eight to ten +percent of the moisture in a period extending from six to sixteen hours. +This was one of the earliest efforts to mature and age green coffee in +the United States.</p> + +<p>In 1894, the business of the Pneumatic Scale Corporation, Norfolk Downs, +Mass., had its start in Quincy, Mass. where the first pneumatic weighing +machine was installed by the Purity Dried Fruits Cleansing Company. In +1895, the Electric Scale Company was organized to build the machines, +the subsequent development of this line of packaging machinery for +coffee being directed by the Pneumatic Scale Corporation, Ltd., which +succeeded it.</p> + +<p>In 1895, Adolph Kraut introduced the German-made grease-proof lined +paper bags for coffee to the American coffee trade. That same year, +Thomas M. Royal, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture in the United +States of a fancy duplex-lined paper bag for coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1896, natural gas was first used in the United States as a fuel for +roasting coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1897, Joseph Lambert, Vermont, first introduced to the coffee trade a +self-contained coffee roasting outfit without the brick setting required +until then.</p> + +<p>In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania was the +first regularly to employ an electric motor to drive a coffee mill.</p> + +<p>The overproduction of coffee began to be so serious a question by 1898, +that J.D. Olavarria, a distinguished Venzuelan, proposed a plan for the +restriction of coffee cultivation and the regulation of coffee exports +from countries suffering from overproduction. In this same year, the +bears forced Rio 7's down to four and one-half cents on the New York +Coffee Exchange.</p> + +<p>In 1898, Edward Norton, of New York, was granted a United States patent +on a vacuum process for canning foods, subsequently applied to coffee. +Others followed. Hills Brothers, of San Francisco, were the first to +pack coffee in a vacuum, under the Norton patents, in 1900. M.J. +Brandenstein & Company, of San Francisco, began to pack coffee in vacuum +cans in 1914. Vacuum sealing machines to pack coffee under the Norton +patents are now made by the Perfect Vacuum Canning Company of New York.</p> + +<p>About 1899, Dr. Sartori Kato of Tokio, who had invented a soluble tea in +Japan, came to Chicago and produced a soluble coffee (introduced to the +consumer in 1901) on which he was granted a patent in 1903. In 1906, G. +Washington of New York, an American chemist living in Guatemala City, +produced a refined soluble coffee which was put on the United States +market three years later. The full story of soluble coffee in America is +told in <a href="#Chapter_XXXI">chapter XXXI</a>. (<a href="#Page_538">See page 538</a>.)</p> + +<p>The first gear-driven electric coffee mill was introduced to the trade +by the Enterprise Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania in 1900.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span></p><p>In 1901, there appeared in New York the first issue of <i>The Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal</i>, devoted to the interests of the tea and coffee +trades.</p> + +<p>In 1900–01, Santos permanently displaced Rio as the world's largest +source of supply.</p> + +<p>In 1901, the American Can Company began the manufacture and sale of tin +coffee cans in the United States. In this year Landers, Frary & Clark's +Universal coffee percolator was granted a United States patent; and +Joseph Lambert, of Marshall, Mich., brought out one of the earliest +machines to employ gas as a fuel for the indirect roasting of coffee. It +was in 1901, also, that F.T. Holmes joined the Huntley Manufacturing +Company, of Silver Creek, N.Y., which began to build the Monitor +gas-fired direct-flame coffee roasters.</p> + +<p>In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Company (Braun Company, successor) and +Henry Troemner, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture and sale of +gear-driven electric coffee grinders.</p> + +<p>As a result of the agitation for some way to deal with the +overproduction of coffee, the Pan-American Congress, meeting in Mexico +City in 1902, called an international coffee congress for New York in +the fall of that same year. It met from October 1 to October 30; but at +the close, the problem seemed no nearer solution than at the beginning. +In 1906, Brazil produced its record-breaking crop of 20,000,000 bags, +and the state of São Paulo inaugurated a plan to valorize coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1902, the first fancy duplex paper bag made by machinery from a roll +of paper was produced by the Union Bag & Paper Corporation. It was of +sulphite fiber inside, and glassine outside; a style afterward reversed, +so as to have the glassine the inner tube.</p> + +<p>In 1902, the Jagenberg Machine Company, Inc. (absorbed by the Pneumatic +Scale Corporation in 1921) began the introduction to the trade of the +United States of a line of German-made automatic packaging-and-labeling +machines for coffee. Subsequently, the Johnson Automatic Sealer Company, +Battle Creek, Mich., became well known as manufacturers of a line of +automatic adjustable carton-sealing, wax-wrapping machines, package +conveyors, and automatic scales. Among other automatic weighers that +have figured in the development of the coffee business, mention should +be made of The National Packaging Machinery Company's Scott machine, of +E.D. Anderson's Triumph, and of Hoepner's Unit System.</p> + +<p>In 1903, as a result of overproduction in Brazil, Santos 4's dropped to +three and fifty-five hundredths cents on the New York Coffee Exchange, +the lowest price ever recorded for coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1903, also, there was granted the first United States patent on an +electric coffee-roaster, the patentee being George C. Lester of New +York.</p> + +<p>In 1904, green coffee prices on the New York Coffee Exchange were forced +up to eleven and eighty-five hundredths cents by a speculative clique +led by D.J. Sully.</p> + +<p>In 1905, the A.J. Deer Co., Buffalo, N. Y. (now of Hornell, N.Y.) began +the sale of its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers on the +instalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling coffee +mills through hardware jobbers.</p> + +<p>In 1905, F.A. Cauchois introduced to the trade his Private Estate coffee +maker, a filtration device employing Japanese filter paper. Finley +Acker, of Philadelphia, obtained a patent the same year on a +side-perforation percolator employing "porous or bibulous paper" as a +filtering medium.</p> + +<p>In 1906, H.D. Kelly, of Kansas City, was granted a United States patent +on an urn coffee machine employing a coffee extractor in which the +ground coffee was continually agitated before percolation by a vacuum +process.</p> + +<p>In 1907, P.E. Edtbauer (Mrs. E. Edtbauer), of Chicago, was granted a +United States patent on a duplex automatic weighing machine, the first +simple, fast, accurate and moderate-priced machine for weighing coffee. +Eight others followed up to 1920.</p> + +<p>In 1907, the new Pure Food and Drugs Act came into force in the United +States, making it obligatory to label all coffees correctly and causing +many trade practises to be altered or thrown into the discard. The most +important rulings that followed are referred to in more detail in +chapter XXIII, telling how green coffees are bought and sold.</p> + +<p>In 1908, the Porto Rico coffee planters, presented a memorial to the +Congress asking for a protective tariff of six cents a pound on all +foreign coffees. Hawaii and the Philippines, also were to have +benefited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span> by the protection asked for. The Congress failed to grant the +planters' prayer. This appeal for protection was repeated in 1921, when +the Congress was asked to place a duty of five cents a pound on all +foreign coffees.</p> + +<p>In 1908, J.C. Prims, of Battle Creek, Mich. was granted a United States +patent on a corrugated cylinder improvement for a gas and coal coffee +roaster of fifty to one hundred and thirty pounds capacity designed for +retail stores. This machine was acquired the year following by the A.J. +Deer Company, and was re-introduced to the trade as the Royal roaster.</p> + +<p>In 1908, Brazil's valorization-of-coffee enterprise was saved from +disaster by a combination of bankers and the Brazil Government. A loan +of $75,000,000 was placed, through Hermann Sielcken of New York, with +banking houses in England, Germany, France, Belgium, and America. The +complete story of this undertaking is told in chapter XXXI.</p> + +<p>In 1909, Ludwig Roselius brought to America from Germany the +caffein-free coffee which for several years had been manufactured and +sold in Bremen under the Myer, Roselius, and Wimmer patent. In 1910, the +product was first sold here by Merck & Company under the name of Dekafa, +later Dekofa, and in 1914, by the Kaffee Hag Corporation as Kaffee Hag.</p> + +<p>In 1911 all-fiber parchment-lined Damptite cans for coffee were +introduced to the trade by the American Can Company.</p> + +<p>As a result of preliminary meetings of Mississippi Valley coffee +roasters held in St. Louis in May and June, 1911, when the Coffee +Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Association was organized, a national +association under the same name was started in Chicago, November 16–17, +1911. The complete story of the growth of this most important coffee +trade organization in the United States is told in the next chapter.</p> + +<p>In 1912, the United States government, after having examined into the +valorization enterprise, brought suit against Hermann Sielcken, <i>et +al.</i>, to force the sale of valorized coffee stocks held in this country +under the valorization agreement.</p> + +<p>In October, 1914, the first national coffee week to advertise coffee was +promoted by the National Coffee Roasters Association.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Merchants Coffee House Memorial</i></p> + +<p>On May 23, 1914, the Lower Wall Street Business Men's Association +unveiled a bronze memorial tablet set in the wall of the nine-story +office building occupied by the Federal Refining Company on the +southeast corner of Wall and Water Streets, the former site of the +Merchants' coffee house. This is the building where <i>The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal</i> had its offices for nine years before moving to 79 Wall +Street.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Merchants_Coffee_House_Tablet" id="Merchants_Coffee_House_Tablet"></a> +<img src="images/image393.jpg" width="350" height="690" alt="Merchants Coffee House Tablet" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Merchants Coffee House Tablet</span><br /> +<small>Bronze marker, placed May 23, 1914, on the building occupying the site +of the old coffee house</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Seth Low, introduced by William Bayne, Jr., president of the Lower Wall +Street Business Men's Association, gave an interesting sketch of the +history of the coffee house. Abram Wakeman, secretary of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span> +association, spoke, followed by Wilberforce Eames, of the American +history division of the New York Public Library.</p> + +<p>After the flag that veiled the memorial tablet had been drawn aside, +attention was called to a bronze chest which was hermetically sealed, +and in which had been placed papers and other documents reflecting the +life of New York today. The chest was given over to the keeping of the +New York Historical Society, with the understanding that it was not to +be opened until 1974, which will be the two-hundredth anniversary of the +union of the Colonies.</p> + +<p>It was from the Merchants' coffee house that the letter of May 23, 1774, +was written in reply to the Committee of Correspondence in Boston. The +letter suggested a "Congress of Deputies" from the Colonies, and called +for a "virtuous and spirited Union." The coffee house is consequently +regarded as the birthplace of the Union.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Recent Activities</i></p> + +<p>A second national coffee week was held in October, 1915, under the +auspices of the National Coffee Roasters' Association.</p> + +<p>In 1916, the Coffee Exchange of the City of New York changed its name to +the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, to admit of sugar trading.</p> + +<p>In 1916, the National Paper Can Company of Milwaukee first introduced to +the trade its new hermetically sealed all-paper can for coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind., was granted two United States +patents on cutting rolls to cut and not grind or crush corn, wheat, or +coffee. This idea was incorporated in the Ideal steel cut coffee mill +subsequently marketed by the B.F. Gump Company, Chicago.</p> + +<p>In 1918, the World War caused the United States government to place +coffee importers, brokers, jobbers, roasters, and wholesalers under a +war-time licensing system to control imports and prices.</p> + +<p>In 1918, John E. King, of Detroit, was granted a United States patent on +an irregular grind of coffee consisting of coarsely grinding ten percent +of the product and finely grinding ninety percent.</p> + +<p>The most notable event of the year 1919 was the inauguration by the +Brazil planters, in co-operation with an American joint coffee trade +publicity committee, of the million-dollar campaign to advertise coffee +in the United States.</p> + +<p>In 1919, as a result of frost damage, and of an orgy of speculation in +Brazil, prices for green coffee on the New York Exchange were forced to +the highest levels since 1870; and a new high record was established for +futures, twenty-four and sixty-five hundredths cents for July contracts.</p> + +<p>In 1919, Floyd W. Robison, of Detroit, was granted a United States +patent on a process for aging green coffee by treating it with +micro-organisms, the product being known as Cultured coffee.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1920, there was held the third national coffee week, +this time under the auspices of the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity +Committee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXX" id="Chapter_XXX"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXX</span></h2> + +<h3>DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS IN THE UNITED +STATES</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>A brief history of the growth of coffee trading—Notable firms and +personalities that have played important parts in green coffee in +the principal coffee centers—Green coffee trade +organizations—Growth of the wholesale coffee-roasting trade, and +names of those who have made history in it—The National Coffee +Roasters Association—Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting +establishments in the United States</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">C</span><span class="caps">offee</span> trading in the American colonies probably had its beginnings +about the middle of the seventeenth century. Tea seems to have preceded +coffee as an article of merchandise. Several merchants in the New +England and New York settlements imported small quantities of coffee +with other foodstuffs toward the close of the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>The early supplies of the green bean were brought from the Dutch East +Indies, Arabia, Haiti, and Jamaica. About 1787, the French opened +Mauritius and Bourbon to American ships, which then began to bring back +coffee and tea to the Atlantic-coast cities. Mocha coffee was being +imported direct in American bottoms about 1804. Coffee from Brazil was +first imported by the United States in 1809. Central America began +shipping coffee to the United States in 1840. The total coffee imports +in 1876 were 339,789,246 pounds, valued at $56,788,997, and received +chiefly from Brazil, Haiti, British and Dutch East Indies, the West +Indies, and Mexico.</p> + +<p>New York early became the leading green-coffee market of the country.</p> + +<p>There was a number of large importing merchants in New York in 1760, +nearly all of whom brought in coffee. Among them were Isaac and Nicholas +Gouverneur, Robert Murray, Walter and Samuel Franklin, John and Henry +Cruger, the Livingstons, the Beekmans, Lott & Low, Philip Cuyler, +Anthony Van Dam, Hugh and Alexander Wallace, Leonard and Anthony +Lispenard, Theophylact Bache, and William Walton.</p> + +<p>Some early green-coffee prices per pound were as follows:</p> + +<p>1683—18s. 9d.; 1743—5s.; 1746—5s.; 1774—9s.; 1781<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a>—96s. O.T.; +1782—2s. 1d. O.T.; 1783—1s.; 1789—10 cents.</p> + +<p>Leading New York coffee importers in 1786 were Henry Sheaff, on the dock +between Burling Slip and the Fly Market; John Rooney, 26 Cherry Street; +William Eccles, 10 Hunters Key; Ludlow & Goold, 47 Wall Street; Scriba, +Schroppel & Starmen, 17 Queen Street; and William Taylor, Crane Wharf.</p> + +<p>The wholesale coffee roaster appeared about 1790; and from that time the +separation between the green-coffee trader and the coffee roaster became +more marked. In 1794 the principal green-coffee importers in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span> New York +were: Lawrence & Van Zandt; D. Smith & Co., 323 Pearl Street; Gilchrist +Dickinson, 17 Taylor's Wharf; Armstrong & Barnewall, 129 Water Street; +William Bowne, 265 Pearl Street; Stephen Cole & Son, 26 Ferry Street; +J.S. De Lessert & Co., 123 Front Street; Joseph Thebaud, 262 Pearl +Street; Nathaniel Cooper & Co., 38 Little Dock Street; Coll. M'Gregor, +28 Wall Street; David Wagstaff, 137 Front Street; Conkling & Lloyd, 15 +Taylor's Wharf; and S.B. Garrick, Westphal & Co., 43 Cherry Street.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Portraits 4-7"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Sielcken_H" id="Sielcken_H"></a> +<img src="images/portrait4.jpg" width="150" height="206" alt="Hermann Sielcken" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Hermann Sielcken</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="BG_Arnold" id="BG_Arnold"></a> +<img src="images/portrait5.jpg" width="150" height="213" alt="B.G. Arnold" title="" /> +<span class="caption">B.G. Arnold</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="FB_Arnold" id="FB_Arnold"></a> +<img src="images/portrait6.jpg" width="150" height="214" alt="F.B. Arnold" title="" /> +<span class="caption">F.B. Arnold</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Joseph_Purcell" id="Joseph_Purcell"></a> +<img src="images/portrait7.jpg" width="150" height="210" alt="Joseph Purcell" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Joseph Purcell</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='4'> +<span class="smcap">Some Departed Dominant Figures in the New York Green Coffee Trade</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The leading New York coffee importers in 1848 were Henry and William +Delafield, 108 Front Street; and Des Arts & Henser, 78 Water Street.</p> + +<p>There were seven leading New York coffee importers in 1854, as follows: +Aymar & Co., 34 South Street; Henry Coit & Son, 43 South Street; Henry +Delafield, 129 Pearl Street; Howland & Aspinwall, 54 South Street; Mason +& Thompson, 33 Pearl Street; J.L. Phipps & Co., 19 Cliff Street; and +Moses Taylor & Co., 44 South Street.</p> + +<p>Following the so-called "consortium" of 1868, the ramifications of which +centered in Frankfort-on-the-Main—its speculations finally ending in +disaster to many—the green-coffee trade was in a precarious condition +until well into the eighties. "Previously," says a contemporary writer, +"it had been the safest and prettiest of all colonial produce."</p> + +<p>About 1868, "iron steamers began to be freely availed of as carriers of +coffee; and later on, the telegraph became a factor, rendering the +business more exciting and expensive".</p> + +<p>Coffee consumption in the United States had, moreover, increased from +one pound per capita in 1790 to nine pounds per capita in 1882.</p> + +<p>1892–93 the biggest figure in the world's coffee trade was George +Kaltenbach, a German living in Paris, whose resources were estimated at +twelve million to fifteen million dollars, and whose holdings at one +time were said to be one million bags. He was reported to have made +$1,500,000 on his coffee corner. In September, 1892, he bested a bull +clique and forced prices down to twelve cents. Aided by three other +European operators, he then started a bull syndicate, and put the price +up to seventeen cents. The story of this corner, and of other notable +coffee booms and panics, is told in more detail in chapter XXXI.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Early Days of the Green Coffee Business</i>.</p> + +<p>For a long time New York was the only important entry port for green +coffee. Before the rise of New Orleans and San Francisco, many inland +coffee roasters and grocers had their own buyers in the New York market. +The coffee district that still clings about lower Wall Street is rich in +memories of by-gone merchants who once were big factors in the trade, +and whose names, in many instances, have been handed down from +generation to generation in the businesses that have survived them.</p> + +<p>Any reference to the early days of the green-coffee importing, jobbing, +and brokerage business in New York would not be complete without mention +of a few of the pioneers:</p> + +<p>P.C. Meehan is eighty-four years old at the time of writing (1922) and +is dean of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span> the New York green-coffee trade. With James H. Briggs he +formed the firm of Briggs & Meehan. This later became Meehan & Schramm, +with Arnold Schramm. The latter withdrew, and the firm became Creighton, +Morrison & Meehan. Finally, Mr. Meehan established the present firm of +P.C. Meehan & Co.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Portraits 8-11"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="James_H_Taylor" id="James_H_Taylor"></a> +<img src="images/portrait8.jpg" width="150" height="212" alt="James H. Taylor" title="" /> +<span class="caption">James H. Taylor</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="H_Simmonds" id="H_Simmonds"></a> +<img src="images/portrait9.jpg" width="150" height="210" alt="H. Simmonds" title="" /> +<span class="caption">H. Simmonds</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Edwin_H_Peck" id="Edwin_H_Peck"></a> +<img src="images/portrait10.jpg" width="150" height="210" alt="Edwin H. Peck" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Edwin H. Peck</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="PC_Meehan" id="PC_Meehan"></a> +<img src="images/portrait11.jpg" width="150" height="214" alt="P.C. Meehan" title="" /> +<span class="caption">P.C. Meehan</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='4'> +<span class="smcap">Their Association with the New York Green Coffee Trade Dates Back Nearly +Fifty Years</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>When Mr. Schramm withdrew from the firm of Meehan & Schramm he founded +the house of Arnold Schramm, Inc. Upon his retirement, this was +succeeded by Sprague & Rhodes, the firm being composed of Benjamin +Rhodes and Irvin A. Sprague.</p> + +<p>Next oldest to P.C. Meehan in the New York green-coffee trade is +Clarence Creighton, who started with Youngs & Amman, later C. Amman & +Co., then Waite, Creighton & Morrison, then Creighton, Morrison & +Meehan. Upon the breaking up of this firm, Mr. Creighton formed a +partnership with James Ashland, under the name of Creighton & Ashland. +He later operated alone, and died August 15, 1922.</p> + +<p>James H. Taylor is another "old-timer" who is still active. He began +with T.T. Barr & Co. Later, with F.T. Sherman, he formed the firm of +Sherman & Taylor. When Mr. Sherman withdrew, the firm became James H. +Taylor & Co. Mr. Taylor is now with Minford, Lueder & Co. He has been +five years president, eleven years treasurer, and twenty-six years on +the board of governors of the New York Coffee Exchange.</p> + +<p>One of the most honored names in the green coffee trade of New York is +that of Peck. Edwin H. Peck began, at the age of seventeen years, with +Hart & Howell, butter and cheese merchants. He then went in the same +business for himself. Four years later, he abandoned this to go into the +coffee brokerage business with his brother, Walter J. Peck. In about +five years, the brothers branched into the coffee importing and jobbing +business under the firm name of Edwin H. Peck & Co. Later it was changed +to the present style of E.H. & W. J. Peck. Since the death of Walter J. +Peck in 1909, Edwin H. has conducted the business. The latter was a +member of the board of governors of the New York Coffee Exchange for +twelve years, and has been an important factor in the upbuilding of that +institution.</p> + +<p>William D. Mackey began with Small Bros. & Co. He then went into +partnership with C.K. Small as Mackey & Small. Later, he formed the firm +of Arnold, Mackey & Co. with Francis B. Arnold. The latter dropped out, +and the firm became Mackey & Co. He is now operating alone. Mr. Mackey +was another of the incorporators of the New York Coffee Exchange.</p> + +<p>Alexander H. Purcell, a brother of Joseph Purcell, entered the employ of +Bowie Dash & Co. as a boy. From there he went to Williams, Russell & +Co., then to the Union Coffee Co., and later to Hard & Rand. He is now +head of the firm of Alex. H. Purcell & Co.</p> + +<p>Robert C. Stewart first became known with Booth & Linsley. He later went +with Joseph J. O'Donohue & Sons, leaving there to establish the present +firm of R.C. Stewart & Co.</p> + +<p>Another old-timer, Joseph D. Pickslay, may be seen at his desk in +Williams, Russell & Co.'s office every day, although Frank Williams, who +began with Winthrop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span> G. Ray & Co., and Frank C. Russell, both of +Williams, Chapin & Russell, and then of Williams, Russell & Co., have +passed on. Fred P. Gordon, now head of Fred P. Gordon & Co., was +formerly with Williams, Russell & Co.</p> + +<p>The Mitchell brothers, William L. and George, forming the firm of +Mitchell Bros., have been familiar Front Street figures for many years.</p> + +<p>A. Wakeman, "the historian of the coffee trade," as he is often called, +began with Olendorf, Case & Gillespie. Later he went with Thompson & +Bowers, and then became a member of the firm of Baiz & Wakeman. He is +now in business alone. For thirty-eight years Mr. Wakeman has been +secretary of the Lower Wall Street Business Men's Association. He is the +author of <i>History and Reminiscences of Lower Wall Street and Vicinity</i>.</p> + +<p>H. Simmonds, of Simmonds & Bayne; later, of Simmonds & Newton; then, of +the Brazil Coffee Co.; and finally, of H. Simmonds & Co., is at the time +of writing one of the oldest coffee merchants on Front Street, having +been in business in Baltimore and New York for more than fifty years. He +has a desk in the office of his son, W. Lee Simmonds, of W. Lee Simmonds +& Co.</p> + +<p>Bayne is another well known Front Street name. The firm of William Bayne +& Co. was established by William Bayne, Sr., in Baltimore. The business +was moved to New York about 1885. The founder's three sons, William, +Jr., Daniel K., and L. P., entered the employ of the firm in Baltimore, +and moved with it to New York.</p> + +<p>Daniel K. Bayne became associated with Henry Sheldon & Co., and later +was a member of Simmonds & Bayne. He then returned to William Bayne & +Co. and was senior partner at the time of his death in 1915. William +Bayne, Jr., for many years one of the governors and a past-president and +vice-president of the New York Coffee Exchange, and his brother, L.P. +Bayne, now conduct the business.</p> + +<p>John T. Foley, now of the Commercial Coffee Co., began with Kirkland +Bros. From there he went to Ezra Wheeler & Co., then to H.W. Banks & +Co., Thompson, Shortridge & Co., and William Hosmer Bennett & Son.</p> + +<p>Joshua Walker formed a partnership with James Stewart as Stewart & +Walker. Since the retirement of Mr. Stewart some years ago, Mr. Walker +has been in business alone.</p> + +<p>Three other veterans of the trade are still in the harness: Louis +Seligsberg, formerly of Wolf & Seligsberg, is now alone; Henry Schaefer +has been at the head of S. Gruner & Co. since the death of Siegfried +Gruner; Col. William P. Roome, who operated for some time as Wm. P. +Roome & Co., is now head of the coffee department of Acker, Merrall & +Condit Co.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Portraits 12-15"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="OG_Kimball" id="OG_Kimball"></a> +<img src="images/portrait12.jpg" width="150" height="210" alt="O.G. Kimball Boston" title="" /> +<span class="caption">O.G. Kimball<br />Boston</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="James_C_Russell" id="James_C_Russell"></a> +<img src="images/portrait13.jpg" width="150" height="204" alt="James C. Russell New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption">James C. Russell<br />New York</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="James_W_Phyfe" id="James_W_Phyfe"></a> +<img src="images/portrait14.jpg" width="150" height="208" alt="James W. Phyfe New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption">James W. Phyfe<br />New York</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="CE_Bickford" id="CE_Bickford"></a> +<img src="images/portrait15.jpg" width="150" height="213" alt="C.E. Bickford San Francisco" title="" /> +<span class="caption">C.E. Bickford<br />San Francisco</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='4'> +<span class="smcap">Green Coffee Trade Builders Who Have Passed on</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Gregory B. Livierato, who founded the business of Livierato Bros. at +Port Said, with branches at Aden and Marseilles, and later at Hodeida +and Harar, entered the green coffee trade of New York in 1855, although +his L F Mocha marks had been introduced here many years before. He +remained here for eighteen years, returned to his home in Cephalonia, +Greece, in 1904,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> and died there in 1905. His nephew, B.A. Livierato, +then assumed charge of the New York coffee business, which in 1913 +became the Livierato-Kidde Co., with B.A. Livierato and Frank Kidde.</p> + +<p>Benjamin Green Arnold, one-time "coffee king," first became well known +as a member of Arnold, Sturgess & Co., afterward B.G. Arnold & Co. Mr. +Arnold was one of the incorporators, and the first president, of the New +York Coffee Exchange. Francis B. Arnold, with Arnold, Sturgess & Co., +later of Arnold, Mackey & Co., afterward Arnold, Dorr & Co., was a son +of Benjamin Greene Arnold; and to him and to Major John R. McNulty +belongs a great part of the credit for the organization of the New York +Coffee Exchange. Major McNulty was with Minford, Thompson & Co., and +then formed the firm of J.R. McNulty & Co.</p> + +<p>Bowie Dash, a member of the famous Arnold-Kimball-Dash triumvirate, +began with Scott & Meiser, later Scott, Meiser & Co., then Scott & Dash, +afterward Scott, Dash & Co., and finally Bowie Dash & Co. Other well +known men with this last company were L.F. Mason, A.C. Foster, S.L. +Swazey, L.J. Purdy, and John B. Overton.</p> + +<p>Then there were: Rufus G. Story; Thomas Minford, Francis Skiddy, and +George J. Nevers, of Skiddy, Minford & Co.; W.D. Thompson, of Minford, +Thompson & Co., later L.W. Minford & Co., afterward Minford, Lueder & +Co., Thompson, Shortridge & Co., later Thompson Bros., then Thompson & +Davis; John Randall, with L.W. Minford & Co., later, with J.C. Runkle & +Co.; Eugene and James O'Sullivan of Eugene O 'Sullivan & Co.</p> + +<p>The following names figured prominently in the trade's early history: +Charles Maguire, of James H. Taylor & Co.; George F. Gilman, organizer +of the Great American Tea Co. and of the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea +Co.; H.W. Banks, of Reeve, Case & Banks, afterward of Stanton, Sheldon & +Co., later Sheldon, Banks & Co., and then of H.W. Banks & Co.; Henry +Sheldon, of Stanton, Sheldon & Co., later Sheldon, Banks & Co.; and then +Henry Sheldon & Co.; William McCready, with Small Bros. & Co., later +with H.W. Banks & Co., and then with B.H. Howell, Son & Co., C.R. +Blakeman, with Gross, March & Co., afterward with Wm. Scott's Sons & +Co.; William Scott, of William Scott & Sons, later Wm. Scott's Sons & +Co., including George W. Vanderhoef, who later succeeded to the business +under the name of George W. Vanderhoef & Co.; Christopher and Leander S. +Risley, of C. Risley & Co.; and Charles Naphew, with C. Risley & Co., +later with Edwin H. Peck & Co.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Portraits 16-19"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="William_Bayne" id="William_Bayne"></a> +<img src="images/portrait16.jpg" width="150" height="219" alt="William Bayne New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption">William Bayne<br />New York</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="George_W_Crossman" id="George_W_Crossman"></a> +<img src="images/portrait17.jpg" width="150" height="225" alt="George W. Crossman New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption">George W. Crossman<br />New York</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="George_Westfeldt" id="George_Westfeldt"></a> +<img src="images/portrait18.jpg" width="150" height="208" alt="George Westfeldt New Orleans" title="" /> +<span class="caption">George Westfeldt<br />New Orleans</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="Wm_H_Bennett" id="Wm_H_Bennett"></a> +<img src="images/portrait19.jpg" width="150" height="183" alt="Wm. H. Bennett New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Wm. H. Bennett<br />New York</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='4'> +<span class="smcap">Their Race Is Run, Their Course Is Done</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Another group of old-timers includes: William Newbold, with Ezra Wheeler +& Co., later alone; Augustus Ireland, with Ezra Wheeler & Co.; J.M. +Edwards, of Edwards & Maddux, later of J.M. Edwards & Co.; Frank M. +Anthony, of J.M. Edwards & Co.; H. Clay Maddux, one of the incorporators +of the New York Coffee Exchange, of Edwards & Maddux; Baron Thomsen, of +Thomsen & Co.; Gustave Amsinck, of G. Amsinck & Co.; James N. Jarvie, +with Small Bros. & Co., later of Arbuckle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span> Bros.; John C. Lloyd, of John +C. Lloyd & Co., afterward with Arbuckle Bros.; John Small, of Smalls & +Bacon, later Small Bros. & Co.; Williamson Bacon, of Smalls & Bacon, +afterward of Williamson Bacon & Co.; C.K. Small, of Mackey & Small, +Anson Wales Hard and George Rand, of Hard & Rand; Joseph Purcell, first +of W.J. Porter & Co., and then of Hard & Rand; Henry F. McCreery, with +O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, later of Hard & Rand; William Sorley and John W. +O'Shaughnessy, of O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, Mr. O'Shaughnessy later +forming John W. O'Shaughnessy & Co., and Mr. Sorley going to Hard & +Rand. Mr. Sorley was one of the incorporators of the New York Coffee +Exchange.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Front_Street_112_New_York_1879" id="Front_Street_112_New_York_1879"></a> +<img src="images/image394.jpg" width="300" height="239" alt="112 Front Street, New York, in 1879" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">112 Front Street, New York, in 1879</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>A group of old-time green coffee men, including R. C. Stewart, J.D. +Pickslay, Frank Williams, Charles P. Chapin, and Fred P. Gordon</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Special mention should be made of: Kirkland & von Sacks; A. Kirkland, +one of the incorporators of the New York Coffee Exchange, with Small +Bros. & Co., then with W.J. Kirkland as Kirkland Bros., and, upon the +dissolution of that firm, with F.H. Leggett & Co.; Thomas Rutter & Co.; +Teacle Wallace Lewis, with Rowland, Humphreys & Co., later head of the +coffee department of Carter, Macy & Co., and still later, head of T.W. +Lewis & Co.; Abraham Sanger, of Sanger, Beers & Fisher, later Sanger & +Wells; J.W. Wilson & Co.; Dykes & Wilson; Peter, John, and Joseph J. +O'Donohue, of John O'Donohue's Sons; Joseph J. O'Donohue & Sons; Otis W. +Booth, of Booth & Linsley; A.G. Hildreth; James H. Kirby, of B.G. Arnold +& Co., later of Kirby, Halstead & Chapin, afterward Kirby & Halstead; +Major Henry D. Tyler; Thomas H. Messenger & Co.; Harvey H. Palmer, of +H.H. Palmer & Co.; B. O. Bowers, of Wilson & Bowers, later Thompson & +Bowers; and August Haeussler, first with C. Risley & Co., then with J. +H. Labaree & Co., and finally with the green coffee department of Geo. +H. McFadden & Brother.</p> + +<p>John Hanley, with Carey & Co., later of Hanley & Kinsella, St. Louis; +Robert C. Hewitt, Jr., who wrote one of the early books on coffee +(<i>Coffee, its History, Cultivation, and Uses</i>, 1872), of Hewitt & Phyfe, +later Jas. W. Phyfe & Co.; James W. Phyfe of Hewitt & Phyfe, later Jas. +W. Phyfe & Co.; Daniel A. Shaw, of Jas. W. Phyfe & Co.; B. Lahey, of +Jas. W. Phyfe & Co.; and Winthrop G. Ray & Co.</p> + +<p>These names, too, will live long in green coffee history: Reid, Murdock +& Fischer, New York and Chicago; Charles A. and Watts Miller, and David +Palmer, of D.J. Ely & Co., formerly D.J. & Z.S. Ely Co., New York and +Baltimore; Harry Miller, with D.J. Ely & Co., later of Miller & +Walbridge; Augustus Walbridge, of Smith & Walbridge, afterward Augustus +M. Walbridge, Inc.; Clarence Smith, of M.V.R. Smith's Sons, later of +Smith & Walbridge; Stevens, Armstrong & Hartshorn, later Stevens & +Armstrong, then Stevens Bros. & Co., and finally Reamer, Turner & Co., +including Abraham Reamer, Sr., and William F. Turner.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="At_87_Wall_Street_NY_Years_Ago" id="At_87_Wall_Street_NY_Years_Ago"></a> +<img src="images/image395.jpg" width="300" height="176" alt="At 87 Wall Street, N.Y., Years Ago" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">At 87 Wall Street, N.Y., Years Ago</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Among the green coffee men in this picture are Clarence Creighton, John +Enright, Chris Arndt, W. Lee Simmonds, John Ashlin, F. Loderose, Julius +Steinwender, and Clinton Whiting</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="WALL_AND_FRONT_STREETS_NEW_YORK_1922" id="WALL_AND_FRONT_STREETS_NEW_YORK_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image396.jpg" width="500" height="670" alt="WALL AND FRONT STREETS, NEW YORK, SPRING OF 1922" title="" /> +<span class="caption">WALL AND FRONT STREETS, NEW YORK, SPRING OF 1922</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Looking up Wall Street from the East River. The first cross street is +Front; beyond are to be seen the Munson, Stock Exchange, and Bankers' +Trust Company's buildings, with Trinity Church marking the Broadway +gateway</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span></p><p>Other familiar old-time names were: George W. Pritchard, of George W. +Pritchard & Sons; Dayton & Co.; Dimond & Lally, later Dimond & Gardes; +Arthur W. Brown; Robert Russell, of Russell & Co.; J. F. Pupke and +Thomas Reid, of Pupke & Reid, later Eppens, Smith & Wiemann, afterward +Eppens, Smith & Co., with William H. and Frederick P. Eppens; Joseph A. +O'Brien, with Pupke & Reid, and later in business for himself; R.P. +McBride, of the Union Pacific Tea Co.; Ripley Ropes; Saportas Bros.; +Mayer Bros. & Co. of Hamburg, with Moses G. Hanauer, manager, and D.K. +Young and Herman Hanauer, salesmen; H.M. Humphreys, with J.W. Doane & +Co., later with Arbuckle Bros.; Henry Nordlinger, of Henry Nordlinger & +Co.; Charles Campbell, of W.R. Grace & Co.; D.A. DeLima, of D.A. & J. +DeLima, later D.A. DeLima & Co.; Henry Kunhardt and George F. Kuhlke, of +Kunhardt & Co.; Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, later Bliss, Dallett & Co., +general managers of the Red D line of steamships; Prendergast Bros.; +W.H. and George W. Crossman, of W.H. Crossman & Bros., later Crossman & +Sielcken, with Hermann Sielcken, afterward Sorenson & Nielson; F. Probst +& Co.; H. H. Swift & Co.; J.L. Phipps & Co.; James Bennett and Joseph +Becker, of Bennett & Becker; and Arnold, Hines & Co. (Diamond A Mocha), +later Arnold, Cheney & Company.</p> + +<p>Honorable mention should be accorded: Samuel Wilde (Old Dutch Mills); +John Phoenix, with Husted, Ferguson & Titus, later of J.W. Phoenix & +Co.; H.K. Thurber, of H.K. & F.B. Thurber & Co.; Michael Barnicle, with +Walter Storm, later Storm, Smith & Co., then Abbey, Freeman & Co., then +with Husted, Wetmore & Titus, and finally alone; August Stumpp, of +August Stumpp & Co.; J.K. and E.B. Place; Beards & Cummings, later +Beards & Cottrell, then S.S. Beard & Co.; Philip and Henry Dater, of +Philip Dater & Co.; Hugh Edwards, of Edwards & Raworth; William Bennett, +of Wm. Hosmer Bennett & Son; Kalman Haas, of Haas Bros.; J.C. Runkle & +Co.; Thomas T. Barr and Fred T. Sherman, of Barr, Lally & Co., later +T.T. Barr & Co.; Henry Hentz & Co.; Elmenhorst & Co.; A.S. Lascelles & +Co.; D. Henderson (Harry) and John Wells, of Wells Bros.; G. Weyl & Co., +later Norton, Weyl & Beven, and then Weyl & Norton; Warren & Co.; J.H. +Labaree & Co.; Schultz & Ruckgaber; Henry Eyre; Rowland, Terry & +Humphreys, later Rowland & Humphreys; Bentley, Benton & Co.; Winter & +Smilie; Weston & Gray; John S. Wright, one of the incorporators of the +New York Coffee Exchange, of Wright, Hard & Co.; Watjen, Toel & Co.; A. +Behrens & Co.; "Steve" Matheson, of S. Matheson, Jr. & Co.; C. Wessels & +Bros., later Wessels, Kulenkampff & Co., and finally Fromm & Co.; Julius +Steinwender, of Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.; Leon Israel, of Leon +Israel & Bros.; Herklotz, Corn & Co.; Ponfold, Schuyler & Co.; Maitland, +Phelps & Co., later Maitland, Coppell & Co.; F.H. Leggett, of F.H. +Leggett & Co.; Carhart & Brother; George W. Flanders, of George W. +Flanders & Co.; Jonas P. O'Brien; George S. Wallen, of George S. Wallen +& Co.; Charles F. Blake, of Blake & Bullard; and Martin J. Glynn, of +McDonald & Glynn, later Martin J. Glynn & Co., who had their office at +Front Street and Old Slip for twenty-five years.</p> + +<p>Three other names closely associated with the early days of the New York +green-coffee trade were: Glover, Force & Co., later Waterbury & Force, +then W.H. Force & Co., and finally W.S. Force & Co., weighers and +forwarders; Daniel Reeve, of Reeve & Van Riper, mixers and hullers; and +John H. Draper & Co., auctioneers.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Growth of the Leading Coffee Ports</i></p> + +<p>Twenty-two years ago, when the century opened, New York passed over her +docks a total of 676,000,000 pounds of coffee, which represented +eighty-six percent of the total for the country. In 1920, juggling the +figures a little, she imported 767,000,000 pounds, which was fifty-nine +percent of the total. While she was thus practically marking time, she +watched New Orleans run wild with an increase from 44,000,000 pounds to +380,000,000 pounds, or 763 percent gain; this meaning also the supplying +of twenty-nine percent of the country's demands instead of five percent, +while San Francisco in the same time jumped from 24,000,000 pounds to +137,000,000 pounds, or 470 percent gain, her share of the total trade +now being ten percent instead of three percent in 1900. These gains, +however, have not all been made at the expense of the city on the +Hudson. In 1900, Baltimore was a close rival of New Orleans and was far +ahead of all other ports except New York; but a decline in her imports +began about 1903, and was so swift, that five years later her imports +were almost negligible.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="FRONT_STREET_NEW_YORKS_GREEN_COFFEE_DISTRICT_IN_1922" id="FRONT_STREET_NEW_YORKS_GREEN_COFFEE_DISTRICT_IN_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image397.jpg" width="500" height="350" alt="Looking South from Wall Street into the Heart of the Green Coffee District" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Looking South from Wall Street into the Heart of the Green Coffee District</span><br /> +<small>On the left-hand corner is Hard & Rand's, opposite Leon Israel & Bros.' +building, and beyond are many other leading green coffee firms.</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image398.jpg" width="500" height="303" alt="Looking North from Wall Street. Here a Few Well Known Coffee Firms Are Located" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Looking North from Wall Street. Here a Few Well Known Coffee Firms Are Located</span><br /> +<small>The trend of the trade is south from Wall St. rather than north</small><br /> +FRONT STREET, NEW YORK'S GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT, IN 1922</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span></p> +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Imports of Coffee at Leading Ports of Entry in the United States"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='5'><span class="smcap">Imports of Coffee at Leading Ports of Entry in the United States</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='center'>New York<br /><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='center'>New Orleans<br /><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='center'>San Francisco<br /><i>Pounds</i></td> + <td align='center'>Total Imports<br /><i>Pounds</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1900</td> + <td align='right'>676,227,269</td> + <td align='right'>44,335,717</td> + <td align='right'>24,562,578</td> + <td align='right'>787,991,911</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1913</td> + <td align='right'>554,571,449</td> + <td align='right'>263,382,962</td> + <td align='right'>36,067,073</td> + <td align='right'>863,130,757</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1914</td> + <td align='right'>633,400,209</td> + <td align='right'>308,008,145</td> + <td align='right'>46,721,824</td> + <td align='right'>1,001,528,317</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1915</td> + <td align='right'>758,160,133</td> + <td align='right'>307,868,932</td> + <td align='right'>45,844,060</td> + <td align='right'>1,118,690,524</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1916</td> + <td align='right'>814,394,074</td> + <td align='right'>308,513,290</td> + <td align='right'>71,346,788</td> + <td align='right'>1,201,104,485</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1917</td> + <td align='right'>932,098,113</td> + <td align='right'>274,989,692</td> + <td align='right'>97,821,069</td> + <td align='right'>1,319,870,802</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1918</td> + <td align='right'>779,025,781</td> + <td align='right'>219,330,461</td> + <td align='right'>134,729,019</td> + <td align='right'>1,143,890,889</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1918[K]</td> + <td align='right'>757,710,001</td> + <td align='right'>146,621,857</td> + <td align='right'>130,178,288</td> + <td align='right'>1,052,201,501</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1919[K]</td> + <td align='right'>804,177,446</td> + <td align='right'>356,608,477</td> + <td align='right'>160,426,467</td> + <td align='right'>1,333,564,067</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1920[K]</td> + <td align='right'>767,242,636</td> + <td align='right'>380,293,701</td> + <td align='right'>137,043,281</td> + <td align='right'>1,297,439,310</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1921[K]</td> + <td align='right'>790,559,919</td> + <td align='right'>331,036,770</td> + <td align='right'>139,069,286</td> + <td align='right'>1,340,979,776</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1"> +[K] Calendar years. All others fiscal years.</p></div> + +<p>New Orleans began her advance at about the same time that Baltimore +began to fall off, so that her rise to a place of importance as a coffee +port has been practically coincident with the twentieth century. Her +first big step upward was in 1901, from 44,000,000 to 72,000,000 pounds, +and was followed by another the next year to 115,000,000. Thereafter +there was a steady gain to 213,000,000 pounds in 1906 and to 301,000,000 +pounds in 1910, and after that wide fluctuations, especially during the +war. In 1918, doubtless because of the draining of shipping to the North +Atlantic service, there was a heavy slump; but immediately after the +war, in the calendar year 1919, there was a big jump to a record mark, +up to that time, of 356,000,000 pounds. This was followed by the record +of 380,000,000 pounds in the calendar year 1920, although the 1921 +figure of 331,036,770 shows a falling off of nearly 50,000,000 pounds.</p> + +<p>San Francisco's growth, on the other hand, is of recent occurrence. The +story is told farther along in this chapter, how the city was definitely +placed on the coffee map by the provision of adequate shipping +facilities to Central America. The outbreak of the war in Europe, +however, which loosened the grip of European nations on the coffee crops +of Central America, was the prime cause of San Francisco's rise in the +coffee world, affording her an opportunity of which she had the +enterprise to take full advantage. In 1913, her imports were only about +36,000,000 pounds, at which mark they had stood for many years. There +was only a slight gain until 1916, when 71,000,000 pounds were recorded; +but this increased to 97,000,000 pounds in 1917, to 134,000,000 pounds +in 1918 (fiscal year), and to 160,000,000 pounds in the calendar year +1919. In 1920, there was a falling off to 137,000,000 pounds, and it may +be that the high figure reached the year before represents about the +maximum that her natural market, the Pacific-coast region, can well +absorb.</p> + +<p>For the benefit of those who like to do their own interpreting of +figures, we present in the table at the top of this page the official +record for recent years.</p> + +<p>The leading importers of Brazil coffee direct to New York and Baltimore +in 1894, as compiled by William H. Force & Co., were as follows. +Included in this list are a number of names well known in the green and +roasted coffee trades of other cities:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Direct Importers of Brazil Coffee"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Direct Importers of Brazil Coffee</span><br /> + <i>New York, 1894</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='right'><i>Bags</i> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Arbuckle Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>688,726</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.H. Crossman & Bro.</td> + <td align='right'>355,864</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hard & Rand.</td> + <td align='right'>345,541</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.F. McLaughlin & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>227,935</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.W. Doane & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>207,170</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Steinwender, Stoffregen Co.</td> + <td align='right'>132,482</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.L. Phipps & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>54,617</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dannemillers & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>49,449</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>E. Levering & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>47,322</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Aug. Stumpp.</td> + <td align='right'>44,959</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Thomson & Taylor Spice Co.</td> + <td align='right'>44,017</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>G. Amsinck & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>38,350</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>E.H. & W.J. Peck.</td> + <td align='right'>33,278</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.H. Labaree & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>32,071</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Fitch & Howland.</td> + <td align='right'>31,515</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co.</td> + <td align='right'>25,951</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>C.D. Lathrop & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>23,263</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Taylor & Levering.</td> + <td align='right'>21,501</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Heinrich Haase.</td> + <td align='right'>18,976</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>William T. Levering.</td> + <td align='right'>18,796</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>T.G. Lurman & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>18,017</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span>Elmenhorst & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>16,221</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sprague, Warner & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>14,856</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sorver, Damon & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>14,675</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sutton & Vansant</td> + <td align='right'>13,957</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>John O'Donohue's Sons</td> + <td align='right'>13,681</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hoffman, Lee & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>13,598</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>S.R. Alexander</td> + <td align='right'>12,805</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co.</td> + <td align='right'>12,719</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Baker & Young</td> + <td align='right'>11,906</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>11,318</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Durand & Kasper Co.</td> + <td align='right'>11,124</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wm. Schotten & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>11,005</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>C.G. Bullard & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>10,653</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>H.W. Banks & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>10,351</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ellis Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>10,282</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Jacob Baiz</td> + <td align='right'>9,146</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>A. Lueder & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>8,492</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>C.F. Pitt & Sons</td> + <td align='right'>8,262</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>G.F. Gillman</td> + <td align='right'>7,927</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bell, Conrad & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>6,528</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>N. Martin & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>6,507</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.B. O'Donohue & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>6,102</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Steele, Wedeles Co.</td> + <td align='right'>5,700</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>G.O. Gordon</td> + <td align='right'>5,550</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sherman Bros. & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>4,998</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>F. MacVeagh & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>4,763</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Benedict & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>4,717</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Chase & Sanborn</td> + <td align='right'>4,505</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>West & Melchers</td> + <td align='right'>4,500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mokaska Mfg. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>4,013</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Haebler & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>4,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Robt. Crooks & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,509</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>M.M. Levy & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,037</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.A. Tolman Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,004</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tracy & Avery Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wells Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>2,800</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kirby, Halsted & Chapin Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,754</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.M. Hoyt Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,252</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Gt. A. & P. Tea Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,250</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Foote & Knevals</td> + <td align='right'>2,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>L.W. Minford & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>1,800</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wm. Bayne & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>1,755</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Indiana Coffee Co.</td> + <td align='right'>1,650</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.K. Carson & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>1,501</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Miller, Smith & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>1,500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Rufus Woods</td> + <td align='right'>1,498</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.G. Flint</td> + <td align='right'>1,345</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Davenport & Morris</td> + <td align='right'>1,250</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canada</td> + <td align='right'>1,140</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Westfeldt Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>1,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Edw. Westen T. & S. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>800</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Corbin, May & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>750</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>F. Cannon & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>618</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Adam Roth Gro. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Scudder, Gale Gro. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.H. Taylor & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wm. B. Willson</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dwinell, Wright & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Swift, Billings & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>New Orleans Coffee Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>B. Fischer & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>401</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Smith & Schipper</td> + <td align='right'>300</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ulman, Lewis & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>281</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ridenour, Baker Gro. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>250</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.H. Minor</td> + <td align='right'>250</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Nave & McCord Merc. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>202</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Skiddy, Minford & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>196</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Rossbach & Bro.</td> + <td align='right'>184</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>L. Wolff</td> + <td align='right'>149</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Reimers & Meyer</td> + <td align='right'>50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.F. Jackson</td> + <td align='right'>5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>2,791,642</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Direct Importers of Brazil Coffee"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Direct Importers of Brazil Coffee</span><br /> + <i>Baltimore, 1894</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='right'><i>Bags</i> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>E. Levering & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>40,965</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>T.G. Lurman & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>29,325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>C.M. Stewart & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>25,499</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Thornton Rollins</td> + <td align='right'>21,436</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>William T. Levering</td> + <td align='right'>15,884</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Steinwender, Stoffregen</td> + <td align='right'>12,852</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.B. Willson</td> + <td align='right'>11,540</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hoffman, Lee & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>8,953</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Rufus Woods</td> + <td align='right'>8,020</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>P.T. George & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>7,463</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Taylor & Levering</td> + <td align='right'>6,440</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Benedict & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>5,434</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Brazil Trading Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,666</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>C.F. Pitt & Sons</td> + <td align='right'>2,505</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.W. Doane & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Enterprise Coffee Co.</td> + <td align='right'>1,811</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>H.M. Wagner & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>504</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>C.D. Lathrop & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>503</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mokaska Manufacturing Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co.</td> + <td align='right'>404</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>G. Amsinck & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>400</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Indiana Coffee Co.</td> + <td align='right'>251</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>206,355</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Early Days of Green Coffee in New Orleans</i></p> + +<p>The history of New Orleans as a coffee port may be considered as +beginning with the transfer of Louisiana by Napoleon Bonaparte to the +United States in 1803. In this year, according to Martin's <i>History of +Louisiana</i>, New Orleans imported 1438 bags of coffee of 132 pounds each. +In the latter part of the eighteenth century, settlers in large numbers +had crossed the Allegheny Mountains from the Atlantic states into the +valley of the Ohio River; and their crops of grain and provisions were +exported by means of cheaply constructed rafts and boats, which were +floated down the river to New Orleans, where they were generally broken +up and sold for use as lumber and firewood—there being, at that time, +no power available for propelling them back against the current of the +river.</p> + +<p>From 1803 until 1820, on account of the difficulty of navigating +upstream, New Orleans imports did not increase as rapidly as exports. In +1814, however, the first crude steamboat had begun to carry freight on +the river; and by 1820, the supremacy of New Orleans as the gateway of +the Mississippi Valley had been for the time established by this new +means of transportation. The coffee-importing business flourished; and, +from its modest beginning in 1803, grew to 531,236 bags in 1857.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span></p><p>By this time, however, New Orleans had begun to feel the competition of +the Erie Canal, and of the systems of east and west railroad lines which +had been in the course of active construction during the preceding +fifteen years. The railroad systems which had as their ports Boston, New +York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, entered upon a desperate war of +freight rates, each in the endeavor to establish the supremacy of its +own port. As the building of railroads had been entirely east and west, +and no large amount of capital had been invested in north and south +lines, much of the business of the valley was diverted to the Atlantic +ports, apparently never to return to New Orleans.</p> + +<p>In 1862, on account of the blockade of the port, not a bag of coffee was +imported through New Orleans, and practically none came in until the +year 1866, when the small amount of 55,000 bags was the total for the +year. At about this time, Boston and Philadelphia became negligible +importing quantities; the business of Baltimore continued to be quite +prosperous; and New York rapidly increased her imports and took the +commanding position.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="In_the_New_Orleans_Coffee_District" id="In_the_New_Orleans_Coffee_District"></a> +<img src="images/image399.jpg" width="300" height="423" alt="In the New Orleans Coffee District" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">In the New Orleans Coffee District</span></span> +</div> + +<p>New Orleans had increased her coffee imports to 250,000 bags in 1871, +and the yearly imports continued at about this figure until the last +decade of the century, when the business began to expand. The imports +had reached a total of 337,000 bags in 1893–1894; and of 373,000 in +1896–97. This was the beginning of a new era, and the coffee business of +New Orleans entered upon the period of its greatest growth. Imports were +514,000 bags in 1900–01, and were slightly more than twice that by +1903–04. In 1909–10 the imports had again doubled, and had reached a +total for the twelve months ending July 1, 1909, of slightly more than +2,000,000 bags; while the figures for the calendar year 1909 totaled +2,500,000 bags.</p> + +<p>Borino & Bro., 77 Gravier Street, were the largest importers of coffee +in New Orleans in 1869. The principal importers in 1880 were P. Poursine +& Co., Westfeldt Bros., Dymond & Gardes, Schmidt & Ziegler, J.L. Phipps +& Co., Geo. O. Gordon & Co., and Smith Bros.</p> + +<p>Shipments were by sailing vessels, a full cargo being about 5000 bags. +Fancy grades, like Golden Rios, washed and peaberries, were shipped in +double bags. Musty coffees were common, and every bag in a cargo was +sampled for must. S. Jackson was first to issue regular manifests. With +the entry of steamers into the coffee transport business, New Orleans +was placed at a disadvantage as steamer rates were about twenty cents a +bag higher to New Orleans than to New York, and imports were limited. +The subsequent revival of the business was due largely to Hard & Rand. +Being unable to obtain steamer rates equal to those quoted in New York, +Hard & Rand chartered steamers for New Orleans; and soon the trade began +to offer cost and freight to New Orleans, and the business grew from +about 350,000 bags of green coffee per annum to 2,500,000 bags.</p> + +<p>One of the best remembered names in the green coffee trade of New +Orleans is that of Charles Dittman (1848–1920), who for nearly fifty +years was one of the leading coffee commission merchants of the country. +Mr. Dittman entered the coffee business with Napier & Co., representing +E. Johnston & Co., of Rio de Janeiro. In 1875, upon the death of Mr. +Napier, the firm changed to Johnston, Gordon & Co., later to G.O. +Gordon, and in 1886 to the Charles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span> Dittmann Co. Since his death in +1920, the business has been continued by F.V. Allain and Charles +Dittmann, Jr.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Green_Coffee_District_New_Orleans" id="Green_Coffee_District_New_Orleans"></a> +<img src="images/image400.jpg" width="500" height="286" alt="A Section of the Green Coffee District of New Orleans" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Section of the Green Coffee District of New Orleans</span><br /> +<small>Most of the buildings shown here are occupied by green coffee importing +houses. The one on the right with the balconies is the old Board of +Trade Building</small></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Green Coffee in San Francisco</i></p> + +<p>In the early days of the green coffee business in San Francisco these +names stood out as most important among the coffee importers: Hellmann +Bros. & Co., Montealegre & Co., E.L.G.S. Steele & Co., and Urruella & +Urioste.</p> + +<p>From their many friends in Central America, they, and others in their +line, obtained small consignments that were bought by the roasters +according to their immediate needs. Often as many as five or six buyers +would share in a parcel of fifty bags, as they were not in the custom of +filling up the larder for days of want. There always seemed to be +sufficient for every one, and bull movements and corners had not then +become the vogue.</p> + +<p>Just as today, the mainstays of the early San Francisco trade were +coffees produced in Costa Rica, Salvador, and Guatemala, although some +were brought from the Colima district of Mexico. The broker had a +comparatively easy job in selling his wares. Samples of the lots would +be given to him in carefully sealed glass bottles, and usually the buyer +would trust his discerning eye to judge correctly the quality of the +goods, not even taking the trouble to uncork the bottle. Size, color, +and imperfections would be his criterion.</p> + +<p>The leading coffee importers at San Francisco in 1875 were B.E. Auger & +Co., 409 Battery; S.A. Carit & Co., 405 Front Street; Hellmann Bros. & +Co., 525 Front Street; Adolphe Low & Co., 208 California Street; S.C. +Merrill & Co., 204 California Street; Parrott & Co., 306 California +Street; and Urruella & Urioste, 405 Front Street.</p> + +<p>The annual consumption of green coffee in San Francisco in the early +eighties was estimated at 100,000 bags.</p> + +<p>A marked change in the coffee business of San Francisco was brought +about by the discovery that the differences in the taste of coffees +could not be accurately detected from their color or from the size of +bean. To Clarence E. Bickford belongs the credit of having discovered +the cup qualities of high-grown Central American coffees. He was +employed at the time by a broker named Hockhofler, and probably did not +realize what far-reaching effect his discovery would have on the future +of San Francisco's coffee trade; but no other factor has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> contributed so +much to its growth. When the roasters began to examine coffees for their +taste, values were of course revolutionized. Antiguas, and other +high-grown coffees, that had theretofore been penalized for the small +size of bean, soon brought a premium, and have ever since been in great +demand. It goes without saying that the new classification was of +material assistance to the roasters in bettering their output, as +blending was then put on a scientific basis.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the nineties San Francisco began to function as a +distributing center, and shipments were made from there to St. Louis and +Cincinnati. The selection of coffees on their cup merit was undoubtedly +a factor of considerable importance in creating new outlets; although it +is generally conceded that the winning personality of C.E. Bickford +helped considerably. Mr. Bickford, by this time, had succeeded his +former employer. He served the trade by living up to the best standards +of business practise until his death in 1908; when the institution he +founded was continued by E.H. O'Brien under the name of C.E. Bickford & +Co.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="California_Street_San_Francisco" id="California_Street_San_Francisco"></a> +<img src="images/image401.jpg" width="300" height="456" alt="California Street, the Coffee-Trading Center of San Francisco" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">California Street, the Coffee-Trading Center of San Francisco</span></span> +</div> + +<p>San Francisco imported 175,293 bags of coffee in 1900. Imports had grown +to 256,183 bags by 1906; and the following were the leading importers, +as taken from a compilation by C.E. Bickford & Co.:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Importers of Coffee by Sea"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Importers of Coffee by Sea</span><br /> + <i>San Francisco, 1906</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='center'> </td> + <td align='right'><i>Bags</i> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Haas Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>38,947</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Otis, McAllister & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>34,342</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Jno. T. Wright</td> + <td align='right'>21,741</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Geo. A. Moore & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>17,851</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Castle Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>17,397</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Lastreto & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>15,609</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bloom Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>14,372</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.R. Grace & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>14,143</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Baruch & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>9,400</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Schwartz Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>7,310</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dieckmann & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>6,981</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>H. Hackfeld & Co., Ltd.</td> + <td align='right'>4,466</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>M.J. Brandenstein & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>4,281</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Urioste & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>4,081</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Goldtree, Liebes & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,962</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.Z. Posadas.</td> + <td align='right'>3,950</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mohns-Frese Com. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,714</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Welch & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,385</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Thannhauser & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>3,328</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>E. Mejia</td> + <td align='right'>2,965</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hind, Rolph & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,814</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hellmann Bros. & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,170</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Parrott & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,137</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.A. Folger & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,094</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>S.L. Jones & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>2,042</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ariza & Lombard</td> + <td align='right'>1,133</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Hamberger-Polhemus Co.</td> + <td align='right'>1,096</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Theo. H. Davies & Co., Ltd.</td> + <td align='right'>955</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Livierato Frères</td> + <td align='right'>927</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>J.D. Spreckels & Bros. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>828</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>McCarthy Bros.</td> + <td align='right'>795</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W. Loaiza & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>642</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wm. Halla</td> + <td align='right'>591</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>H.W. Burmester</td> + <td align='right'>582</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Williams, Dimond & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>399</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>M. Phillips & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>381</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Alexander & Baldwin</td> + <td align='right'>358</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>London, Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd.</td> + <td align='right'>333</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>P.J. Knudsen Co.</td> + <td align='right'>309</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ballou & Cosgrove</td> + <td align='right'>300</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>M. Schweitzer & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>300</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Johnson-Locke Merc. Co.</td> + <td align='right'>270</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>The Lewin-Meyer Co.</td> + <td align='right'>250</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sperry Flour Co.</td> + <td align='right'>231</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Canadian Bank of Commerce</td> + <td align='right'>200</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Porto Rico Coffee Co.</td> + <td align='right'>148</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>McChesney & Sons</td> + <td align='right'>145</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Bowring & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>145</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>China & Java Export Co.</td> + <td align='right'>140</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>John Weissman</td> + <td align='right'>126</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Montealegre & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>120</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>W.H. Miller</td> + <td align='right'>109</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Maldonado & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>105</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>De Fremery & Co.</td> + <td align='right'>100</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Sundries</td> + <td align='right'>683</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>256,183</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="San_Francisco_Coffee_District" id="San_Francisco_Coffee_District"></a> +<img src="images/image402.jpg" width="500" height="369" alt="Bird's Eye View of San Francisco's Coffee District" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bird's Eye View of San Francisco's Coffee District</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The imports of green coffee at San Francisco in 1914–15 amounted to +about 400,000 bags. The beginning of the World War was almost +coincidental with an energetic campaign waged by San Francisco coffee +interests to popularize Central American coffees, and particularly +Guatemalas, in this country. The time was well chosen, as the world's +exposition at San Francisco offered a good opportunity to acquaint the +public with the fine qualities of Guatemala growths. Furthermore, it was +necessary to create new markets for these coffees, which in former years +had been very extensively used in Europe. Figures show that San +Francisco's efforts were crowned with success. In 1916, the importation +increased by fifty percent; and in 1917, importations were double those +of 1915. In 1918, a total of nearly 1,000,000 bags was reached; and this +mark was passed by almost 200,000 in 1919. In 1920, 971,567 bags were +imported.</p> + +<p>The origin of San Francisco's fight for control of Central American +coffee dates back to the years 1908 to 1910, when the German Kosmos Line +was fighting the Pacific Mail for the Central and South American +shipping business. W.R. Grace & Co., at that time, were already the +heaviest shippers of American merchandise to the Latin-American +countries; and while their own steamers were not touching at Central +American ports, they were handling merchandise from the United States +and nitrates from the South American countries in their own bottoms, and +were also engaged as general carriers for that trade. The fight directed +by the Kosmos Line against the Pacific Mail, which at that time was +under the control of the Southern Pacific Company, was accordingly +directed against the Grace interests also, so far as South American +countries were concerned. The fight was long and bitter, and costly to +both sides. At times, the contenders offered to take freight, not only +without charge, but to pay the shipper a premium for the privilege of +carrying his freight.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span></p><p>Differences were finally settled in conference; but the experience +taught the American interests that they could survive in any territory +only if at all times they were able to provide their own cargoes for +their own boats, as had been accomplished with nitrate in South America. +J.H. Rosseter, the Grace manager, who later became well known as +director of operations of the United States Shipping Board during the +war, undertook an extended trip to Central America in 1912 to study the +situation at close range. There was only one product of Central America +that was available in cargo quantities, namely coffee; and naturally his +attention was drawn to the possibility of carrying coffee to San +Francisco to provide return cargoes for ships of the Pacific Mail, or +associated lines, carrying merchandise for the Central American +countries.</p> + +<p>While in Guatemala, Mr. Rosseter outlined a future policy in regard to +Central American coffees; the basis being his firm determination that +coffees grown in Central America, and logically and geographically +tributary to San Francisco distribution, should come to San Francisco in +largely increasing quantities.</p> + +<p>Up to that time San Francisco had received, on an average, only 200,000 +bags of Central American coffee annually for the ten preceding years; +while Europe had received about 1,500,000 bags a year. The quantity +necessary to make San Francisco a factor would call for an importation, +on an average, of 750,000 bags—a quantity almost four times as large as +then established.</p> + +<p>This was an extremely ambitious undertaking, considering the conditions +then prevailing in Central America. European countries were firmly +entrenched in the coffee business in Central America, with Germany +leading in Guatemala, France in Salvador and Nicaragua, England and +France contending for superiority in Costa Rica, and the United States +getting only the leavings.</p> + +<p>The European countries held their position in the Central American +Coffee trade by liberal financing, and a thorough knowledge of the +varying qualities of coffee produced on the different plantations. San +Francisco, the only important port in the United States dealing in +Central American coffees, had neither strong financial entrenchment in +Central America nor expert knowledge of coffee quality. Year after year, +San Francisco merchants had depended on consignments chosen by the +consignors. This rendered quality selection of coffees by the importers +impossible.</p> + +<p>Rosseter, being primarily a steamship man, tackled the proposition from +the standpoint of transportation, figuring that if he could establish +and maintain preferential steamer service to San Francisco, and steady +freight rates, a great step would be accomplished toward the desired +end. This led to his interest in the Pacific Mail Company, of which the +final outcome was his present position as vice-president of the +reorganized Pacific Mail Company. In that capacity he maintained, +practically throughout the entire period of the World War, freight rates +on coffee from Central America to San Francisco that gave that Pacific +port an immediate and definite advantage.</p> + +<p>This gave merchants in San Francisco the chance to build up a steady +trade, and prevented other ports in the United States from entering into +serious competition with San Francisco as a distributing point for +Central American coffees. The view taken by Rosseter was as far-sighted +as it was broad. He argued that with the end of the war there would be +no strength in a scattering distribution of Central American coffees by +New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco; and the only promise of +maintenance of the business for the United States would be in +maintaining unity of distribution in one port of the United States, +namely San Francisco.</p> + +<p>The first year open to European competition after the war showed that +San Francisco was well able to maintain its lead in Central American +coffees. Today, the mortgages formerly held by European merchants on the +native coffee plantations, and the control thereby of the produce of +these plantations, are in the hands of American merchants; and what is +more, out of general merchandising and importing by merchants of San +Francisco there have developed expert coffee departments in all of the +larger houses. The years of the war brought the product of virtually all +plantations in Central America to the intimate knowledge of these expert +coffee departments; and today the advantage that Europe formerly had—of +knowing exactly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span> what a specific plantation produced—is possessed by +San Francisco merchants.</p> + +<p>This is no small advantage when we consider that in Guatemala and Costa +Rica, qualities vary from plantation to plantation, and that often on +adjoining plantations there is from three to five cents a pound +difference in quality, from the standpoint of cup merit.</p> + +<p>One can not buy coffee in Central America as in Brazil, as these +countries are not highly organized commercially, and the importers here +are forced to assume the rôle of the Brazilian <i>commisario</i> and banker. +The crop has to be financed from six to nine months before it is brought +to the port; and the securities covering such advances are at best of +questionable value, on account of political insecurity, and the +ever-threatening earthquakes, and the uncertainty of the elements. +Distribution of the coffee after it has been brought to San Francisco +also involves many difficulties, notwithstanding that the demand is +good. This will be better realized when we consider that the Pacific +coast, from Alaska to Mexico, and eastward as far as the Rocky +Mountains, embraces a population of about 8,000,000, whose annual +consumption is estimated at 400,000 bags; and that, as already stated, +treble that quantity was imported to San Francisco in 1919.</p> + +<p>In 1900, ninety-nine firms were engaged in the green coffee importing +business (some were roasters also) in New York; six in Philadelphia; +twenty-eight in San Francisco; twelve in New Orleans. In 1920, there +were two hundred and sixteen in New York; thirty-one in San Francisco; +fifteen in New Orleans.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Green Coffee Trade Organizations</i></p> + +<p>Previous to the organization of the roasters, the only kind of coffee +organization in this country of more than local importance was the New +York Coffee Exchange, which came into existence in 1881, the +organization meeting being held in the offices of B.G. Arnold & Co., at +166 Pearl Street, New York. The Exchange was incorporated December 7, +1881, the incorporators being Benjamin Green Arnold, Francis B. Arnold, +William D. Mackey, John S. Wright, William Sorley, Joseph A. O'Brien, H. +Clay Maddux, C. McCulloch Beecher, Geo. W. Flanders, and John R. +McNulty. B.G. Arnold was the first president. Soon afterward, rooms were +rented and fitted up for trading purposes at 135 Pearl Street, at the +junction of Beaver and Pearl Streets, and only two blocks away from the +more pretentious structure now housing the Coffee Exchange. Actual +trading operations did not begin until March 7, 1882.</p> + +<p>The New York Coffee Exchange was the world's first coffee-trade +organization of national proportions. Havre's exchange was inaugurated +in 1882, under the name of the Coffee Terminal Market. Five years later, +coffee exchanges were opened in Amsterdam and Hamburg; while the +exchanges of London, Antwerp, and Rotterdam did not come into existence +until the year 1890. The exchange in Trieste, Italy, was organized in +1905; while the Coffee Trade Association of London was started in 1916. +The first exchange in Santos was started in 1914.</p> + +<p>The success of the New York Coffee Exchange led to its imitation in +other coffee ports of the United States. Baltimore started a similar +organization, early in 1883, under the name of the Baltimore Coffee +Exchange; but after a short existence, it petered out. New Orleans +organized a green coffee trading association in 1889, as a coffee +committee of the Board of Trade. It is still active. The Green Coffee +Association of New Orleans, Inc., which is distinct from the Coffee +Committee, was established January 7, 1920. San Francisco did not have a +trading exchange until 1918, in which year the Green Coffee Association +of the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce began operations.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Growth of the Coffee-Roasting Trade</i></p> + +<p>The wholesale coffee roasting business in the United States seems to +have started in the closing years of the eighteenth century. In +February, 1790, a "new coffee manufactory" began business at 4 Great +Dock Street, New York, and the proprietor announced that he had provided +himself at considerable expense with the proper utensils "to burn, grind +and classify coffee on the European plan." He sold the freshly roasted +product "in pots of various sizes from one to twenty weight, well packed +down, either for sea or family use so as to keep good for twelve +months."</p> + +<p>A second roasting plant started up at 232 Queen Street, New York, nearly +opposite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span> the governor's house, toward the close of 1790. This second +coffee roasting plant was known in 1794 as the City Coffee Works. James +Thompson operated a "coffee manufactory" at 25 Thames Street in 1795. In +this year there was also the "Old Ground Coffee Works" in Pearl Street, +formerly Hanover Square, "three doors below the bank at number 110," +operating "two mills, one pair French burr stones" but no orders were +accepted here for less than six pounds, at "two pence advanced from the +roasting loss."</p> + +<p>Other coffee manufactories followed in the large towns of the new +states; and, always, the coffee was treated "on the European plan." This +meant that it was "burnt over a slow coal fire, making every grain a +copper color and ridding it all of dust and chaff." There was usually a +difference in price of three to four pence a pound between the green and +roasted product. Packages of roasted coffee under the half-dozen weight +were sold in New York in 1791 for two shillings and three pence per +pound, allowance being made for grocers at a distance. In those days, +the favorite container was a narrow-mouthed pot or jar of any size. This +was the first crude coffee package. In retailing the product, +cornucopias made of newspapers, or any other convenient wrapping, were +first employed; but, with the introduction of paper bags in the early +sixties, the housekeeper soon became educated to this more sanitary form +of carry package, and its permanence was quickly assured.</p> + +<p>The following were listed in Longworth's <i>Almanack</i> as coffee roasters +in New York in 1805: John Applegate; Cornelius Cooper; Benjamin Cutler, +104 Division Street; George Defendorf, 83 Chapel Street; William Green; +Cornelius Hassey, 14 Augustus Street; Joseph M'Ginley, 28 Moore Street; +John W. Shaw, 43 Oliver Street; John Sweeney, Mulberry Street; Patience +Thompson, 23 Thames Street.</p> + +<p>Elijah Withington came from Boston to New York in 1814. He set up a +coffee roaster in an alley behind the City Hall and engaged a big, +raw-boned Irishman to run it. This was the beginning of a coffee +roasting business that has continued until the present day. Withington +dealt in Padang interiors, Jamaica, and West Indian coffees, and +numbered many society folk among his customers. Withington's business +removed to 7 Dutch Street in 1829: and the firm became Withington & Pine +in 1830.</p> + +<p>The roasted coffee business in New York had grown to such proportions in +1833 and gave such promise, that James Wild considered it a good +investment to bring over from England for his new coffee manufactory in +New York a complete power machinery equipment for roasting and grinding +coffee. There was also an engine to run it. It was set up in Wooster +Street opposite the present Washington Square.</p> + +<p>Samuel Wilde, son of Joseph Wilde, of Dorchester, Mass., came to New +York about 1840 to make his fortune. He was a young man with vision; and +first applied himself with diligence to the hardware and looking-glass +business. When he found that most of his customers were theaters and +saloons, his religious scruples bade him abandon it, which he did.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in 1844, Withington's pioneer roasting enterprise had +admitted Norman Francis and Amos S. Welch as general partners, and +Samuel and Charles C. Colgate as special partners, under the style of +Withington, Francis & Welch. It so continued until 1848, when Samuel +Wilde—who had selected the coffee business as more honorable than the +one in which he started—was admitted, and the firm became Withington & +Wilde.</p> + +<p>Mr. Withington retired in 1851, and Samuel Wilde associated with him in +the business his sons Joseph and Samuel, Jr., the title becoming Samuel +Wilde & Sons. Samuel Wilde, Sr., died in 1862. The title then became +Samuel Wilde's Sons. Joseph Wilde died in 1878, and Samuel Wilde, Jr. in +1890, the business being left to and continuing with a younger brother, +John, from 1878 to 1894, when John's son, Herbert W. Wilde, became a +member of the firm, which continues the old title at 466 Greenwich +Street, as Samuel Wilde's Sons Company, having been incorporated in +1902. John Wilde died in 1914.</p> + +<p>Another grandson of Samuel Wilde is William B. Harris, who engaged in +the coffee roasting business in Front Street from 1904 to 1917. From +1908 to 1918 he acted as coffee expert for the United States Department +of Agriculture. William B. Harris is a son of Samuel L. Harris, who +married a daughter of Samuel Wilde, and who for a number of years was +connected with Samuel Wilde's Sons.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY" id="PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_NEW_YORK_CITY"></a> +<img src="images/image403.jpg" width="500" height="703" alt="PIONEERS IN THE ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS OF NEW YORK CITY" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PIONEERS IN THE ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS OF NEW YORK CITY<br /> +<small>With approximate dates of their entry into the trade</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span></p><p>Although a number of roasters and grinders for family use were patented +in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century, the +coffee merchants depended almost entirely on English manufacturers for +their wholesale equipment until 1846, when James W. Carter of Boston +brought out his "pull-out" roaster. This machine, and others like it, +encouraged the development of the coffee-roasting business, so that when +the Civil War came, coffee manufactories were well scattered over the +country. The demand for something better in coffee-machinery equipment +was answered by Jabez Burns with his machine for filling and discharging +without moving the roasting cylinder from the fire.</p> + +<p>Among the early grocery concerns in New York that were also coffee +roasters were: R.C. Williams & Co., starting as Mott & Williams in 1811, +changing to R.S. Williams & Co. in 1821, to Williams & Potter in 1851, +and to its present title in 1882; Acker, Merrall & Condit Co., founded +in 1820; Park & Tilford, founded in 1840; Austin, Nichols & Co., founded +in 1855; and Francis H. Leggett & Co., founded in 1870.</p> + +<p>There were twenty-one "coffee roasters and spice factors" in New York in +1848. Among them were: Beard & Cummings. 281 Front Street; Henry B. +Blair, 129 Washington Street; Colgate Gilbert, 93 Fulton Street; Wright +Gillies, 236 Washington Street; and Withington, Wilde & Welch, 7 Dutch +Street. In this year, two coffee importers, fourteen tea importers, and +forty-one tea dealers were listed in the <i>City Directory</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>Directory</i> for 1854 listed twenty-seven coffee roasters and spice +factors, among them, in addition to the above, being Peter Haulenbeek, +328 Washington Street; Levi Rowley, 102 West Street; William J. Stitt, +159 Washington Street; and George W. Wright, 79 Front Street. In those +days not all the wholesale coffee factors were roasters; there was much +trade roasting by a few large plants.</p> + +<p>While the coffee-roasting business of Samuel Wilde's Sons appears to be +the oldest in New York, having descended in a practically unbroken line +from 1814, several others continued considerably past the half-century +mark, and among them special mention should be accorded to: Levi +Rowley's Star Mills, dating back to 1823; Beard & Cummings, 1834; Wright +Gillies & Bro., 1840; Loudon & Son, the Metropolitan Mills, 1853; and +the Eppens Smith Co., present day successors of Thomas Reid's Globe +Mills of 1855.</p> + +<p>The Star Mills in Duane Street became a real factor in the wholesale +coffee-roasting business on Manhattan Island about 1823. At a later +date, Levi Rowley secured control, and under his able direction the +business flourished. Benedict & Gaffney bought the Star Mills from +Rowley in 1885. A few years later the firm became Benedict & Thomas, +then Thomas & Turner, and finally the R.G. Thomas Co. R.G. Thomas sold +the equipment in 1920, ending the manufacturing end of the business just +about a century from the time it started. Mr. Thomas is now with Russell +& Co. Before being identified with the Star Mills, he was for twenty +years with Packard & James, 123 Maiden Lane.</p> + +<p>While still a lad of nineteen, Wright Gillies came from a Newburgh farm +in 1838, and obtained a clerkship in a tea store in Chatham Street, now +Chambers and Duane Street. He branched out for himself in the tea and +coffee business at 232 Washington Street in 1840, removing in 1843 to +236, which had a courtyard where he installed a horse-power coffee +roaster. In the same building, over the store, lived Thomas McNell and +his wife. Mr. McNell afterward became a member of the firm of Smith & +McNell, proprietors of the Washington Street hotel and restaurant, for +many years one of New York City's landmarks.</p> + +<p>The coffee business, thus started by Wright Gillies, is still conducted, +as the Gillies Coffee Co., by the same family and at practically the +same location; and it is interesting to note that the roasting room +still has the original arrangement, partly below the street level but +with the machinery in view from the sidewalk. This arrangement was +characteristic of the old roasting establishments.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters" id="Old-Time_New_York_Coffee_Roasters"></a> +<img src="images/image404.jpg" width="500" height="349" alt="Group of Old-Time New York Coffee Roasters, 1892" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Group of Old-Time New York Coffee Roasters, 1892</span><br /> +<small>Standing, left to right, W.H. Eppens, Fred Reid, unknown, Julius A. +Eppens, Fred Eppens. Seated, left to right, John F. Pupke, Thomas Reid, +Henry Mayo, Fred Akers, Alexander Kirkland</small></span> +</div> + +<p>James W. Gillies, a younger brother, came from Newburgh in 1848 to +assist in the enterprise. Young Gillies superintended the horse-power +roaster and drove the light spring delivery cart. Soon the firm became +Wright Gillies & Bro. Fires visited the business in 1849 and in 1858; +but each time it arose the stronger for the experience. Wright Gillies +retired in 1884, and James W. Gillies assumed entire charge under the +name of the Gillies Coffee Co. He continued active until his death in +1899. The business was incorporated by his children under the same name +in 1906.</p> + +<p>Edwin J. Gillies, son of James W. Gillies, started a separate coffee +business at 245 Washington Street, in 1882. In 1883 he admitted as a +partner James H. Schmelzel, a fellow Columbia alumnus. The enterprise +was successful for many years, being incorporated under the title of +Edwin J. Gillies & Co., Inc. It was consolidated in 1915 with the +business of Ross W. Weir & Co., 60 Front Street, Edwin J. Gillies +becoming a vice-president (with L. S. Cooper also vice-president) of the +corporation of Ross W. Weir, Inc.</p> + +<p>Burns & Brown started in the coffee roasting business in 1853 in an old +building at the corner of Washington and Chambers Streets for which they +paid an annual rental of one thousand dollars. This was the beginning of +the Metropolitan Mills, opposite to the present location of Loudon & +Son, 181 Chambers Street, the latest successors to the business. Burns & +Brown continued for two years, when they failed, and Wright Gillies & +Bro. succeeded, and put in Ebenezer Welsh as manager. Later, Wright +Gillies & Co. sold out the plant to Capt. Edward C. Russell, who +associated with him his son-in-law, Edward A. Phelps, Jr. At the +dissolution of this partnership in 1870, the firm became Trusdell & +Phelps. Mr. Phelps succeeded Trusdell, and sold out to Loudon & Stellwag +in 1877. They were succeeded by Loudon & Johnson in 1879, and this firm +continued until 1910, when James D. Johnson retired, and the firm of +Loudon & Son took charge. These were J. Carlyle Loudon and his son, +Howard C. Loudon, who died in 1911. The firm name of Loudon & Son +continues.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span></p><p>One of the most vigorous personalities of the sixties, and one whose +influence extended well into this generation, was Thomas Reid. Born in +Bridgeport, England, he came to the United States as a boy, and started +his business career as a grocer's clerk in Brooklyn. Within three months +after landing, he bought out his employer. He entered the wholesale +coffee-roasting business at 105 Murray Street, New York, in 1855, in +partnership with a Mr. Townsend under the style of the Globe Mills, +which were the predecessors of the Eppens Smith Co. now in Warren +Street. Jabez Burns, inventor of the Burns coffee roaster, before this a +teamster for Henry Blair, was at one time bookkeeper for the Globe +Mills. In 1864, Mr. Burns sold to the Globe Mills the first roasters of +his manufacture—two one-bag, four-foot machines that were given a place +alongside of four of the old-style Carter pull-outs.</p> + +<p>Mr. Townsend died the first year of the Globe Mills' existence; and +Thomas Reid continued without a partner until 1863, when he became +associated with John F. Pupke, as Pupke & Reid. The business was then at +269 Washington Street. Thomas Reid was resourceful and enterprising; +also he had vision. He saw the day of package coffee coming, and nearly +"beat" John Arbuckle to it. As early as 1861 we find him advertising in +the <i>City Directory</i>, "spices put up in every variety of package."</p> + +<p>Lewis A. Osborn, 69 Warren Street, New York, and 81–83 South Water +Street, Chicago, was advertising "Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java +Coffee—put up only by Lewis A. Osborn" in 1863–64. Thomas Reid appears +to have acquired this brand and to have begun its exploitation as +"Osborn's Old Government Java," a ground package coffee, and certainly +one of the earliest package coffees. However, this brand never attained +the national vogue achieved by John Arbuckle's package coffee, which +first appeared in 1865, although the name Ariosa was not given it until +1873.</p> + +<p>Between 1855 and 1865 there were only half-a-dozen wholesale coffee +roasters on Manhattan Island, and Thomas Reid was their leader. Much of +his work was roasting for the trade, and this undoubtedly interfered +with the logical development of his package-coffee ideas.</p> + +<p>The firm became Pupke, Reid & Phelps in 1882. In 1885, it became the +original Eppens-Smith Co.; later, the Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co., and +lastly, the Eppens Smith Co. Thomas Reid was vice-president of the +Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co., and continued in that position until his +death in 1902. Julius Eppens is the present head of the business.</p> + +<p>Other package coffees of the sixties were Government coffee put out by +Taber & Place's Rubia Mills, 353–355 Washington Street, in "tin foil +pound papers," and L. Bruckmann & Co.'s London Club, packed at 107 +Warren Street.</p> + +<p>Another old-time New York coffee-roasting business is that of Samuel S. +Beard & Co. This business was founded in 1834 on Front Street by Eli +Beard (father of Samuel S. Beard,) and W.A. Cummings as Beard & +Cummings. In 1872, the firm moved to Duane Street, where it was joined +by Messrs. S.S. Beard and Cottrell, and the new firm became Beards & +Cottrell. Mr. Cottrell retired in 1883, and the firm became Samuel S. +Beard & Co. Upon the death of S.S. Beard in 1905, James H. Murray, who +had been with the concern for many years, became head of the house. Mr. +Murray died six months later. The business moved in 1913 to 92 Front +Street, where it continues as a stock company, with J.R. Westfal as +manager.</p> + +<p>Austin C. Fitzpatrick, well known among New York coffee roasters, is a +graduate of the Thomas Reid school, having entered the business of this +pioneer roaster in 1865. He was western salesman for Pupke & Reid until +1871, when he became associated with Rufus G. Story under the firm name +of R. G. Story & Co. Later, he formed a partnership with Howard E. Case, +buying out the old house of Beard & Howell. When Mr. Case retired in +1887, the firm became A.C. Fitzpatrick & Co. This title continued for +twelve years, when the Knickerbocker Mills were taken over, and the +business was incorporated as the Knickerbocker Mills Co., with Mr. +Fitzpatrick as president. The Knickerbocker Mills, acquired by the +corporation, had been founded in 1842 and were for more than forty years +at 154–156 Chambers Street. The business is now at 196–198 Chambers +Street.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span></p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Julius_A_Eppens" id="Julius_A_Eppens"></a> +<img src="images/portrait20.jpg" width="300" height="394" alt="Julius A. Eppens, New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Julius A. Eppens, New York</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Many of the pioneers in the coffee roasting business of this country +were men who came from the British Isles and Germany. A notable figure +from the latter country was Benedickt Fischer, who knew coffee in +Germany before coming to New York in his nineteenth year. He started at +323–329 Greenwich Street, near Duane Street, in 1859. His first roaster +was a primitive affair built under the E.J. Hyde patent by the Coffee +Roaster & Mill Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia. It was turned by hand +by Fischer and his helper. This was about 1862. In 1864, the business +required larger quarters, and was removed to the corner of Duane and +Greenwich Streets. A new plant was erected at the corner of Beach and +Greenwich Streets in 1894, and the present plant was erected at the +corner of Franklin and Greenwich Streets in 1906. Upon the death of +Benedickt Fischer in 1903, the business passed under the control of +William H. Fischer, son of Benedickt, and Benedickt's son-in-law, +Charles E. Diefenthaler, for many years associated with the house. At +present, the company is a corporation, with C.E. Diefenthaler, +president; T.F. Diefenthaler, vice-president and treasurer; and T.O. +Budenbach, secretary.</p> + +<p>Bowie Dash, a commanding figure in the New York green coffee trade, +founded the Holland Coffee Co., roasters, in 1885. He placed H. Bartow +in charge. Mr. Dash himself was never active in the affairs of the +company. J. Bowie Dash, son of Bowie Dash, entered the Holland Coffee +Co. as a boy. Bowie Dash died in 1894. Mr. Bartow left The Holland +Coffee Co. in 1897 and J. Bowie Dash became president. He sold the +company in 1917 to S.B. Morrison, who consolidated it with his Esperanza +Coffee Co. The business is still conducted as the Holland Coffee Co., +with Mr. Morrison as president, at 162 Front Street.</p> + +<p>George Fisher was a well known coffee roaster of the sixties. He began +in the old Hope Mills, 71 Fulton Street, and, at the age of thirty, +entered into partnership with D.C. Ripley, establishing the Hudson +Mills. The firm became Sanger, Beers & Fisher in 1868; Mr. Fisher +retired in 1882; and died in 1896.</p> + +<p>Peter Haulenbeek began work as delivery boy in a grocery store. He +entered the coffee business in the sixties in the employ of Wright +Gillies, and went into the wholesale coffee-roasting trade under his own +name at 170 Duane Street in 1876. His son, John W. Haulenbeek, Sr., came +into his father's business in 1887. Peter Haulenbeek died January 15, +1894, and the firm name was changed to John W. Haulenbeek & Co. The +business remained in the same building up to 1916, when it was moved to +its present location at 393 Greenwich Street. John W. Haulenbeek, Jr., +of the third generation, is now active in the business.</p> + +<p>A leading figure in the sixties was James Brown, who started as an +engineer, rose to a partnership, and retired after the Civil War, a +wealthy man. He was a partner with Thomas Reid in the old Globe Mills. +He was also associated with B. Fischer in the firm of Fischer, Kirby & +Brown, and established the firm of Brown & Scott in Duane Street, where +Peter Haulenbeek succeeded to the business. Afterward, he continued in +the firms of Brown & Jones and Bisland & Brown, and died in 1898.</p> + +<p>Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffney was a formidable combination in the +coffee-roasting business in its day. Thomas Van Loan was for thirty +years a partner in the firm of W.J. Stitt & Co. (William J. Stitt was in +business at 173 Washington Street in the fifties). Joseph Maguire was a +practical spice grinder. Hugh Gaffney was with Brown & Scott until the +firm retired in 1879, and for ten years thereafter he traveled for B. +Fischer & Co. Then he became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span> a member of the firm of Benedict & +Gaffney. Ill health caused his temporary retirement; but he returned to +the business in 1897 when he organized the firm of Van Loan, Maguire & +Gaffney. Joseph Maguire died in 1904.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Thomas_Van_Loan" id="Thomas_Van_Loan"></a> +<img src="images/portrait21.jpg" width="300" height="376" alt="Thomas Van Loan, New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Thomas Van Loan, New York</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Gaffney died on March 20, 1912, and the name of the business was +changed to Van Loan & Co., with Thomas Van Loan as the head of the +business, under which name and management it still continues at 64 North +Moore Street.</p> + +<p>O'Donohue is a well known name in the development of both the green and +roasted coffee trade of New York City. John O'Donohue was a leader in +the green coffee business in 1830. It was John O'Donohue's Sons in 1873. +John B. O'Donohue, son of Peter O'Donohue and grandson of the original +John, after leaving John O'Donohue's Sons, formed a partnership with +Robert C. Stewart (the present head of R.C. Stewart & Co.) to engage in +the green coffee jobbing business as O'Donohue & Stewart. This +partnership was dissolved in 1893. For a few years, John O'Donohue was +associated with the coffee-roasting firm of Wing Bros. & Hart. About +1898, he formed the O'Donohue Coffee Co. at 284 Front Street. In 1910, +this was consolidated with the Potter Coffee Co. and Bennett, Sloan & +Co. to form the Potter, Sloan, O'Donohue Co. The firm dissolved in 1915. +Ellis M. Potter came to New York from the Potter-Parlin Spice Mills in +Cincinnati. Mr. O'Donohue died in 1918.</p> + +<p>In the seventies Frederick Akers was proprietor of the oldest and best +known trade roasting establishment in New York. The plant was known as +the Atlas Mills, and was at 17 Jay Street. Mr. Akers died in 1901. The +same year, William J. Morrison and Walter B. Boinest, former employees +of Akers, formed a partnership to carry on the same kind of business at +413 Greenwich Street. It is still at that address under the name of +Morrison & Boinest Co.</p> + +<p>Col. William P. Roome, a Chesterfieldian figure among New York coffee +roasters, came into the trade in 1876, when he established the firm of +William P. Roome & Co., with T.L. Vickers as partner. In the Civil War +that had preceded, young Roome (he was then nineteen) had distinguished +himself as a conspicuous hero of the Sixth Army Corps, having entered +the service as a second lieutenant in the Sixty-fifth New York +Volunteers.</p> + +<p>William P. Roome & Co. first engaged in the importation of tea, but they +added coffee to the business in 1889. Col. Roome disposed of it in 1903 +to assume charge of the tea and coffee department of the Acker, Merrall +& Condit Company, a position which he still holds.</p> + +<p>Frederick A. Cauchois, another picturesque figure among New York coffee +roasters, entered the trade as a clerk in the New York office of Chase & +Sanborn in 1875. After further tutelage under Frank Williams in the +coffee brokerage business, he bought the old Fulton Mills (Colgate +Gilbert & Co., 1848), in Fulton Street, where he did some of the most +original advertising for coffee that the trade has seen. His Private +Estate coffee in little burlap bags, his donkey train that carried the +bags of green coffee through the streets of the metropolis, his system +of delivering fresh coffee daily to the grocery trade, and his Japanese +paper filter device to insure the proper making of the coffee, made him +famous. He brought something of the spirit of the old English coffee +house to America, and incorporated it in Keen's Chop House in New York. +He died in 1918.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span></p><p>The business of Russell & Co. was founded by Robert S. Russell & Frank +Smith at 107 Water Street in 1875. In 1895, S.L. Davis, one of the +present owners, formerly with Merrit & Ronaldson, became a partner. In +1900, Frank C. Russell, son of the senior member, was admitted to a +partnership; and upon the death of his father in 1904, he and Mr. Davis +became owners of the business.</p> + +<p>Ross W. Weir, who, in addition to being a successful New York coffee +roaster, has also attained prominence as president of the National +Coffee Roasters Association and chairman of the Joint Coffee Trade +Publicity Committee, handling the million dollar coffee advertising +campaign, was born in New York in 1859, the son of J.B. Weir, one of the +pioneer forty-niners, who at one time was engaged in the export +commission business in San Francisco.</p> + +<p>Mr. Weir began his business career as a general utility boy in the +jobbing grocery house of S.H. Williamson, 36 Broadway, New York, in +1875. Then he was a clerk for Park & Tilford, office man with Arbuckle +Bros, and with Geo. C. Chase & Co., tea importers, for two years, +afterward being admitted to a junior partnership. In 1886, the firm of +Ross W. Weir & Co. was formed to engage in the roasting of coffee and +importing and jobbing of teas at 105 Front Street. In 1887, the business +was removed to 58–60 Front Street. When the corporation of Ross W. Weir, +Inc. was formed in 1915 to take over the business of E.J. Gillies & Co. +Inc., Mr. Weir became president and treasurer of the combined +organization.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Col_William_P_Roome" id="Col_William_P_Roome"></a> +<img src="images/portrait22.jpg" width="300" height="443" alt="Col. William P. Roome, New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Col. William P. Roome, New York</span></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Pioneer Wholesale Coffee Roasters</i></p> + +<p>A reference to other pioneers in the wholesale coffee-roasting trade may +not be amiss here, even though it involves a repetition of some names +that have been given special mention in the case of New York. In the +list that follows are included the most prominent firms and the best +known names that helped make roasted coffee history in the United States +in the nineteenth century, particularly from 1845 to 1900:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">New York.</span> The most prominent firms in the business in New York in the +sixties were: Thomas Reid & Co., Globe Mills; Geo. A. Merwin & Co.; Levi +Rowley, Star Mills; A.B. Thorn; Fischer & Lehmann, later Fischer & +Thurber, and Fischer, Kirby & Brown; Knickerbocker & Cooke; A.D. +Thurber; Wm. J. Stitt & Co.; Samuel Wilde's Sons.</p> + +<p>In the seventies, in addition to most of the above list, there were: +Pupke & Reid; Arbuckle Bros.; Edward A. Phelps, Jr.; Bonnett, Schenck & +Earle; Fischer & Lansing; J.G. Worth; Jackson & Co.; Charles Conway; +Neidlinger & Schmidt; James L. Arcularius; S.M. Beard, Sons & Co.; H.K. +Thurber & Co.; Wright Gillies & Bro.; Bennett & Becker; Great American +Tea Co.; Brown & Scott.</p> + +<p>Between 1876 and 1900 the following well known names appeared in the +trade: Frederick Akers; Eppens-Smith Co., afterward Eppens, Smith & +Wiemann Co., and later Eppens Smith Co.; B. Fischer & Co.; R.P. McBride; +Fitzpatrick & Case, afterward A.C. Fitzpatrick & Co.; Great Atlantic & +Pacific Tea Co.; Loudon & Johnson; Edwin Scott; Peter Haulenbeek, +afterward Haulenbeek & Mitchell, and Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling Co.; +Joseph Stiner & Co.; Austin, Nichols & Co.; Bennett, Sloan & Co.; +Gillies Coffee Co.; Benedict & Gaffney, afterward Van Loan, Maguire & +Gaffney; Ross W. Weir & Co.; Union Pacific Tea Co.; Hillis Plantation +Co.; Edwin J. Gillies & Co.; Jones Bros.; Holland Coffee Co.; Samuel +Crooks & Co.; Benedict & Thomas.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US" id="PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_NORTH_AND_EAST_US"></a> +<img src="images/image405.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN UNITED STATES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN UNITED STATES</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—W.F. McLaughlin, Chicago; 2—J.G. Flint, Milwaukee; 3—Frank J. +Geiger, Indianapolis; 4—Samuel Mahood, Pittsburgh; 5—Henry A. +Stephens, Cleveland; 6—W.H. Harrison, Cincinnati; 7—Albert A. Sprague, +Chicago; 8—D.Y. Harrison, Cincinnati; 9—William Grossman, Milwaukee; +10—Edward Canby, Dayton; 11—Thomas J. Boardman, Hartford; 12—Francis +Widlar, Cleveland; 13—O.W. Pierce, Sr., Lafayette. Ind.; 14—A.M. +Thomson Chicago; 15—Samuel Young, Pittsburgh; 16—Alvin M. Woolson, +Toledo; 17—Martin Hayward, Boston; 18—George C. Wright, Boston; +19—William Boardman, Hartford; 20—James S. Sanborn, Boston; 21—James +Heekin, Cincinnati; 22—James F. Dwinell, Boston; 23—Caleb Chase, +Boston</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Boston.</span> Among the pioneers in the coffee-roasting business in Boston +were: N. Berry & Sons; Blanchard & Bro.; Carter, Mann & Co.; Noah Davis +& Co.; Dyer & Co.; E. Emerson; Flint Bros. & Co.; J.T. & N. Glines; +Hayward & Co.; Geo. W. Higgins & Co.; Hill, Dwinell & Co.; H.B. Newhall; +Richardson & Lane; N. Robinson & Co.; Russell & Fessenden; Stickney & +Poor; E.H. Swett; the Tremont Coffee & Spice Mills; Swain, Earle & Co.; +and the Martin L. Hall Co.</p> + +<p>Between 1876 and 1900 these names were among those added: Shapleigh +Coffee Co.; Gilman L. Parker; W.S. Quinby & Co.; Thomas Wood & Co.</p> + +<p>Dwinell & Co. and Hayward & Co. both engaged in the coffee roasting +business about 1845. In 1876, they, James F. Dwinell, Martin Hayward, +and his brother-in-law George C. Wright, joined hands under the name of +Dwinell, Hayward & Co. In 1894, Mr. Hayward having previously retired, +the name of the firm was changed to Dwinell, Wright & Co. Mr. Dwinell +died in 1898; and in 1899, Mr. Wright formed a Massachusetts corporation +under the present name, Dwinell-Wright Co. George C. Wright died, 1910, +and his son, George S. Wright, who had been treasurer, became president. +A grandson, Warren M. Wright, and a nephew, G. E. Crampton, together +with R.O. Miller and Charles H. Holland, are active in the present +conduct of the business.</p> + +<p>Caleb Chase with Messrs. Carr and Raymond founded the firm of Carr, +Chase & Raymond at 32 Broad Street in 1864. The name was changed to +Chase, Raymond & Ayer in 1871. James S. Sanborn, who had formerly been +in the coffee and spice trade at Lewiston, Me., with a branch office in +Boston, combined with Caleb Chase to form Chase & Sanborn in 1878. +Charles D. Sias was admitted to the firm in 1882. A Montreal office was +opened in 1884. Charles E. Sanborn, son of James S., was admitted in +1888. James S. Sanborn died in 1903, and Charles E. Sanborn died two +years later. Charles D. Sias died in 1913.</p> + +<p>Swain, Earle & Co. were established about 1868. In the same year, Byron +T. Thayer entered the employ of the firm as a bookkeeper. He was taken +into partnership in 1884, and upon the death of Mr. Earle, became +managing partner. In 1915, he was the sole surviving partner of the +company. He died in the latter part of 1921; and the business was +absorbed by Alexander H. Bill & Co. in January, 1922.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Philadelphia.</span> The following were the most prominent Philadelphia coffee +roasters in 1861: Grever & Bro.; Henry Hinkle; William Johnston; George +Kelly; Thornley & Ryan; Thornley & Bro.; Vankorn, Guggenheimer & Co.; +D.J. Chapman; Bohler & Weikel; Charles Kroberger; and James R. Webb & +Son.</p> + +<p>Later came: Robert J. Rule & Bro.; G. Boyd & Co.; Nutrio Mfg. Co.; C.J. +Fell & Bro.; R.R. & A. Deverall; C. Thomas; William H. Cheetham, Jr.; +Hill & Thornley; George Ogden & Co.; Weikel & Smith; and Alexander +Sheppard.</p> + +<p>Between 1876 and 1900 these names appear; Henry A. Fry & Co.; Robert +Smith & Sons; B.S. Janney, Jr. & Co.; and Weikel & Smith Spice Co.</p> + +<p>Robert Smith came as a country lad to Philadelphia, and drove a wagon +for Jesse Thornley, a coffee roaster. In a few years, he had secured an +interest in the firm; and in 1860, the name was changed to Thornley & +Smith. Mr. Thornley died in 1872, and Mr. Smith bought out the Thornley +interests and traded as Robert Smith until 1889. In that year, he +admitted his eldest son, Robert A. Smith, into the firm, which became +Robert Smith & Son. William T., another son, was admitted in 1889, the +firm name being changed again to Robert Smith & Sons. Robert Smith, Sr., +retired in 1902. In the same year his youngest son, George H. Smith, was +admitted to the firm, and it became Robert Smith's Sons, the active +members being William T. and George H. Smith.</p> + +<p>James R. Webb established the coffee roasting business of James R. Webb +& Son in 1833. It was taken over by Alexander Sheppard in 1870. Later it +became Alex. Sheppard & Sons, Inc. Mr. Sheppard died in 1916, and the +business has been conducted by a corporation in which his four children +are the principal stockholders.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chicago.</span> Some pioneers in the Chicago trade were: Alfred H. Blackall; +Excelsior Mills (Downer & Co.); Huntoon & Towner;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span> W.F. McLaughlin; +Knowles, Cloyes & Co.; Thomson & Taylor; H.F. Griswold; G.M. Hall; John +L. Davies & Co.; Bell, Conrad & Webster; Sprague, Warner & Co.; Lee & +Murbach; A. Stephens & Co.; and Whiting, Goeble & Co.</p> + +<p>In the period between 1876 and 1900 the following became well known: +Sprague, Warner & Griswold; Reid, Murdoch & Fischer; E.B. Millar Spice +Co.; Wm. M. Hoyt Co.; Franklin MacVeagh & Co.; Sherman Bros. & Co.; H.C. +& C. Durand; A.H. Pratt; McNeil & Higgins Co.; J.H. Bell & Co.; J.H. +Conrad & Co.; Steele-Wedeles Co.; Krag-Reynolds Co.; Arbuckle Bros., and +Puhl-Webb Co.</p> + +<p>H.C. Durand organized the wholesale grocery house of Durand & Co. in +1851. Calvin Durand entered the firm in 1879, and the name was changed +to H.C. & C. Durand. Adam J. Kaspar began to work in a retail grocery. +In 1875, he went with the wholesale grocery firm of James Forsythe & Co. +and two years later with H.C. & C. Durand. In 1894, the name was changed +to Durand & Kasper. H.C. Durand died in 1901, and Calvin Durand died in +1911. Durand & Kasper merged, 1921, with Henry Horner & Co. and McNeil & +Higgins into the Wholesale Grocers Corporation.</p> + +<p>Samuel A. Downer founded the Excelsior Mills (Downer & Co.) in 1853. +Sidney O. Blair entered the employ of the company in 1871. E.B. Millar & +Co. took over the business in 1878, incorporating under that name in +1882. Mr. Blair retired in 1913, and W.S. Rice was elected president. He +died in 1918, and Mr. Blair was re-elected president; with W.C. Shope, +vice-president; and C.S. Mauran, secretary and treasurer.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1862, Albert A. Sprague came to Chicago from Vermont. +With Z. B. Stetson he formed the firm of Sprague & Stetson, wholesale +grocers. Mr. Stetson retired the following year, and a new partnership +was formed with Ezra J. Warner, under the name of Sprague & Warner. In +1864, O.S.A. Sprague, a young brother of the senior partner, was +admitted to the firm, which was reorganized under the style of Sprague, +Warner & Co. Under this name it has since continued. About the year +1876, machinery was installed, and the roasting of coffee began. Oscar +Remmer entered the employ of the company in 1878 at the age of 16, and +became manager of the mill department in 1895. In 1912, he was made a +member of the board of directors, and was elected vice-president in +1919. O.S.A. Sprague died in 1909, Ezra J. Warner Sr. in 1910, and +Albert A. Sprague in 1915.</p> + +<p>In 1865, A.M. Thomson, at that time a salesman for A.H. Blackall, owner +of the American Mills, arranged with a Mr. Berg and a Mr. Davis to go in +the coffee-roasting business with him as Berg, Thomson & Davis. After a +year, however, the name became A.M. Thomson. James Thomson, a brother, +came into the firm in 1868, and it was then called A.M. & James Thomson. +A year later, it became A.M. Thomson again. In 1872, immediately after +the fire, Mr. Taylor, a member of the firm of Whiting & Taylor, joined +Mr. Thomson under the firm name of Thomson & Taylor. They continued the +business under this name about ten years, until it was incorporated in +1883 under the name of Thomson & Taylor Spice Co. Among the wholesale +grocers who became stockholders at that time was W.S. Warfield, of +Quincy, Ill., who, in 1901, with his son, John D. Warfield, bought most +of Mr. Thomson's holdings and obtained a controlling interest. The name +was changed in 1920 to the Thomson & Taylor Co.</p> + +<p>William F. McLaughlin founded the firm of W.F. McLaughlin & Co. in 1865. +He died in 1905; and the business was incorporated with his son, George +D., as president, and another son, Frederick, as secretary and +treasurer.</p> + +<p>The Puhl-Webb Company, founded, 1882, as a partnership by Thomas J. Webb +and John Puhl, was incorporated in 1896.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">St. Louis.</span> The following were among the pioneer coffee firms of St. +Louis, dating back to the 1860–70 decade: James H. Forbes; Flint, Evans +& Co.; Wm. Schotten & Co.; Fred W. Meyer; H. & J. Menown; Cavanaugh, +Rearick & Co.; and Frederick A. Churchill & Co.</p> + +<p>From 1876 to 1900 there were added: Nash, Smith & Co.; Fink & Nasse Co.; +Hanley & Kinsella Coffee & Spice Co.; Flugel & Popp; C.F. Blanke Tea & +Coffee Co.; Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.; David G. Evans & Co.; and the +Aroma Coffee & Spice Co.</p> + +<p>David Nicholson established a tea and coffee business under the name of +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span> Franklin Tea Warehouse in 1853. A year later, James H. Forbes, born +in Kinross, Scotland, bought out Nicholson. In 1857, A.E. Forbes, his +son, came into the store after school hours, and was admitted to +partnership in 1870. The retail end of the business was dropped in 1880. +Robert M., the younger son of James H., was taken into the firm a few +years after A.E. Forbes. James H. Forbes died in 1890, and the business +has since been carried on by his sons as the James H. Forbes Tea & +Coffee Co. James H. Forbes installed the first Burns roaster in St. +Louis, and always claimed to have been the first man to roast coffee in +the middle west.</p> + +<p>William Schotten began his roasting business in 1862, although he had +been in the grocery business since 1847. A short time later, a brother, +Christian Schotten, came to the United States from Germany and was +admitted to partnership, the firm becoming William Schotten & Bro. +Christian died in 1866, and a brother-in-law, Henry Verborg, was +admitted, the name being changed to William Schotten & Co. William died +in 1874, and the business devolved upon his eldest son, Hubertus. In +1878, another son, Julius J., was taken in at the age of 17. Hubertus +died in 1897, and Julius became manager and sole proprietor. He died in +1919. Since that time, his son, Jerome J., has carried on the business, +which continues under the name of the Wm. Schotten Coffee Co.</p> + +<p>The firm of David G. Evans & Co. was founded in 1856 by David G. Evans +under the style of Flint, Evans & Co., changed in 1870 to David G. Evans +& Co. David G. Evans died in 1916, and the name of the company was +changed in 1917, to the David G. Evans Coffee Co., with Gwynne Evans, a +son of David G., as president of the corporation.</p> + +<p>The George Nash Grocery Co. bought the Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills from +the estate of Mathew Hunt in 1870. About this time Michael E. Smith, who +had been with the concern for a number of years, was made a partner. The +firm was incorporated in 1887 as the Nash-Smith Tea & Coffee Co. George +Nash, Sr., died in 1910.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cincinnati.</span> Among the pioneer coffee roasters in Cincinnati were: John +C. Appenzeller; Blook & Varwig; J. Brock; Cincinnati Spice Mills; Eagle +Spice Mills; Harrison & Wilson; Parker & Dixon; Kilgour & Taylor; J.M. +Krout; Succop & Lips; and H.R. Droste.</p> + +<p>After the centennial year and previous to 1900, the following names were +added: Potter & Parlin; James Heekin & Co.; Flugel & Popp; Utter, Adams +& Ellen; J. Henry Koenig & Co.; F.W. Hinz; and the Woolson Spice Co.</p> + +<p>D.Y. Harrison, then thirty-five years old, came from Newark, N.J., and +settled in Cincinnati in 1843, opening a coffee roasting business as +Harrison & Wilson. He used an old pull-out roaster with first a negro, +and then a horse-power tread-mill, for power. A few years later, W.H. +Harrison, a son of the founder, was admitted to the firm, the name at +that time being Parker & Harrison. D.Y. Harrison died in 1872. Fire +totally destroyed the plant in 1875. W.H. Harrison then formed a +partnership with J.W. Utter, and started in again. He sold out to his +partner in 1883 and went in business for himself as W.H. Harrison & Co. +D.Y. Harrison is said to have been the first man to roast coffee west of +Pittsburg.</p> + +<p>The Heekin Company was established in 1870 by James Heekin and Barney +Corbett as a partnership under the name of Corbett & Heekin. In a short +time, Corbett died; and the name of the firm was then changed to James +Heekin & Co. Alexander Stuart was admitted to the partnership about +1883, and retired four years later. James J. Heekin, older son of James +Heekin, was admitted to partnership in 1892. Charles Lewis, after twenty +years' experience in the coffee trade in Louisville, Cincinnati, and New +York, was admitted to the firm in 1895. James Heekin died in 1904. Upon +his death, a corporation was formed under the name of the James Heekin +Company, with Charles Lewis as president, continuing until he retired in +1919. In this year a new corporation, called the Heekin Company, was +formed, taking over the business of the James Heekin Co. and the Heekin +Spice Co., the latter having been organized in 1899. James J. Heekin was +chosen president of the new company, with Albert E. Heekin, +vice-president; and Robert E. Heekin, secretary and general manager.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US" id="PIONEER_COFFEE_ROASTERS_OF_THE_SOUTH_AND_WEST_US"></a> +<img src="images/image406.jpg" width="500" height="289" alt="PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN UNITED STATES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN UNITED STATES</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—J.B. Sinnot, New Orleans; 2—Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis; +3—Charles Stoffregen, St. Louis; 4—W.T. Jones, New Orleans; 5—J.A. +Folger. jr., San Francisco; 6—M.E. Smith, St. Louis; 7—A.E. Forbes, +St. Louis; 8—David G. Evans, St. Louis; 9—W.J. Kinsella, St. Louis; +10—James H. Forbes, St. Louis; 11—J.A. Folger, Sr., San Francisco; +12—Joseph Closset, Portland, Ore.; 13—J. Zinsmeister, Louisville; +14—Wm. Schotten, St. Louis; 15—A. Schilling, San Francisco; 16—M.J. +Brandenstein, San Francisco; 17—J.O. Cheek, Nashville; 18—A.H. Devers, +Portland, Ore.</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Louisville.</span> Pioneers in this early center of coffee roasting in the +south were: Thornton & Hawkins; Charles J. Bouche; H.N. Gage; A. +Engelhard; and Jacob Zinsmeister.</p> + +<p>R.J. Thornton & Co. were founded in 1837 by Richard J. Thornton and +Thomas Hawkins, as Thornton & Hawkins. Thornton died in 1860. His +interests remained, but the firm changed to Hawkins & Thornton. Hawkins +died in 1877, and Mrs. Thornton, having purchased the Hawkins interest, +ran the business as R.J. Thornton & Co. until her death in 1885. John +Hayes, her son-in-law, then bought the company; and when he died in +1904, his widow ran the business with Thomas A. Crawford as manager. +Mrs. Hayes, the last of the Thornton family, died in 1919, and her +interests were sold to Crawford and R.H. Dorn, an old employee. The firm +first roasted coffee about 1846. It is interesting to note that the +plant has occupied the present site since its founding, eighty-four +years ago.</p> + +<p>Albert Engelhard, Sr., founded in 1855 a wholesale grocery house which +later became A. Engelhard & Sons, Inc. In 1879, George; in 1882, Victor +H.; and in 1883, Albert, Jr.; all sons of the founder, entered the +business. Upon moving into larger quarters in 1890, all of the sons were +taken in as partners. Albert Engelhard, Sr., retired in 1892, and the +management was assumed by Victor H. The business increased rapidly, and +in 1897 the firm moved to its present location. Incorporated in 1901, +the wholesale grocery end was abandoned in 1903, and the concern became +a strictly coffee, tea, and spice house. Victor H. Engelhard died in +1918; and his sons, Victor, Jr., and R.W. Engelhard, who had been in the +business for several years, assumed active management. Victor Engelhard, +Sr., was prominent in coffee affairs and in the early work of the +National Coffee Roasters Association.</p> + +<p>Jacob Zinsmeister, of J. Zinsmeister & Sons, was another old-time +Louisville coffee man. Before he started roasting, he was a big factor +in the green coffee trade. The business was established in 1866 at New +Albany, Ind., by Frank Zinsmeister, Sr., but was later moved to +Louisville. Jacob Zinsmeister was taken into the business in 1872, and +the name was changed to Frank Zinsmeister & Son. He is still active in +business, although he has turned the management over to his three sons.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">New Orleans.</span> Men and firms active in early coffee roasting in New +Orleans were: Shaw's Louisiana Coffee and Spice Mills; Ruliff, Clark & +Co.; R. Poursini & Co.; and Smith & McKenna.</p> + +<p>Between 1876 and 1900 were added: New Orleans Coffee Co.; Smith Bros. & +Co.; Southern Coffee Polishing Mills; and Cage & Drew.</p> + +<p>Smith Bros. & Co. were organized in 1863 as Smith & McKenna. Mr. McKenna +died in 1872, and the firm name was changed to Smith Bros. & Co. The two +Smith brothers died in 1891, and 1892. About 1900, the name became Smith +Bros. & Co., Ltd., and J.B. Sinnot, who had been employed for a number +of years by the firm, gained control. The company failed in 1913. Mr. +Sinnot then entered the coffee brokerage business, in which he remained +until his death in 1917.</p> + +<p>Born in New Orleans in 1865, Daniel H. Hoffman started work as a sample +clerk in the office of E.P. Cottraux, who was at that time the only +coffee broker in New Orleans. In 1887, Mr. Hoffman started in business +for himself. In 1894, he opened the Southern Coffee Polishing Mills, +which have since become the Southern Coffee Mills, Inc.</p> + +<p>W.T. Jones, for many years in business as a coffee broker in Keokuk, +Iowa, founded the New Orleans Coffee Co. in 1890. He died in 1919.</p> + +<p>R.H. Cage and J.C. Drew organized in 1898 the firm of Cage & Drew. In +1900, they established the Louisiana Coffee Mills, under the name and +style of Cage, Drew & Co., Ltd.</p> + +<p>Ben C. Casanas joined the New Orleans Coffee Co. as a city salesman, and +later became a road salesman. He withdrew in 1901 to organize the +Merchants Coffee Co. of New Orleans, Ltd.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">San Francisco.</span> Pioneer coffee roasters in San Francisco were: J.A. +Folger & Co.; Charles Berhard; H. Gates; D. Ghirardelli & Co.; E. Loeven +& Co.; Marden & Myrick; Maine & Eckerenkotter; G. Venard; and Charles +Zwick.</p> + +<p>Between 1876 and 1900 the following were added: A. Schilling & Co.; W.H. +Miner; Siegfried & Brandenstein; George W. Caswell.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span></p><p>J.A. Folger & Co. were established in 1850 as Wm. H. Bovee & Co. A few +years later, the name became Marden & Folger, Mr. Folger having been +connected with the old firm. In the early sixties the name was changed +to J.A. Folger & Co. Two employees were taken into the firm in 1878. +These were A. Schilling and a Mr. Lamb. The company was now called +Folger, Schilling & Co. This partnership was dissolved in 1881, and the +business continued as J. A. Folger & Co. Mr. Folger died in 1890, and +the firm was then incorporated under the same name.</p> + +<p>Shortly after Folger, Schilling & Co. was dissolved, A. Schilling and +George Volkman formed the firm of A. Schilling & Co. Mr. Schilling began +his career as an office boy with J.A. Folger in 1871.</p> + +<p>M.J. Brandenstein and John C. Siegfried formed a co-partnership under +the name of Siegfried & Brandenstein in 1880. Mr. Brandenstein bought +out his partner in 1894, and took in his brothers, Manfred and Edward, +the firm name becoming M. J. Brandenstein & Co.</p> + +<p>George W. Caswell started in the retail tea and coffee business in San +Francisco under his own name in 1885. In 1898, the business became +wholesale only. It was incorporated in 1901 as the George W. Caswell Co. +The company took over the brands and travelling organization of Lievre, +Frick & Co., which went into a dissolution of partnership in 1902.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Milwaukee.</span> Prominent among early coffee roasters of Milwaukee were: W. & +J. G. Flint; James Ryan & Co.; J.B. Reynolds; Jewett & Sherman; and C.E. +Andrews & Co. Later we find added the Wm. Grossman Co.</p> + +<p>J.G. Flint and Wyman Flint founded the business known as W. & J.G. Flint +in 1858. J.G. Flint bought out his brother in 1880 and continued as the +J.G. Flint Co., owner of the Star Coffee and Spice Mills. He died in +1896. The business was incorporated in 1901 as the J.G. Flint Co., with +W.K. Flint, a son of J.G., as president. The Jewett & Sherman Co. took +control in 1911.</p> + +<p>Professor Milo P. Jewett, Professor S.S. Sherman, and his brother, +William Sherman, founded the firm of Jewett, Sherman & Co. in 1867, and +continued under that name until 1875, when it was incorporated as Jewett +& Sherman Co., with Milo P. Jewett as president, and Henry B. Sherman, +secretary and treasurer. Professor S.S. Sherman and his sons, Fred and +Henry B., sold out their interests in 1878 and formed a new business in +Chicago under the name of Sherman Bros. & Co. William M. Sherman then +became president of Jewett & Sherman Co., and Charles A. Murdock, a +nephew of S.S. and William Sherman, was made secretary and treasurer. +Mr. Murdock withdrew in 1881 and established the C.A. Murdock Mfg. Co. +in Kansas City. In that same year, William H. Sherman, another nephew, +became a stockholder and one of the directors of Jewett & Sherman Co. +Dr. Lewis Sherman succeeded his father as president of the company in +1891, and served in that capacity until his death in 1915, when he was +succeeded by his son, Lewis Sherman, who is president of the company at +the present time (1922). John Horter, who is now secretary, joined the +business in 1877.</p> + +<p>William Grossman started in the wholesale grocery business in 1886. John +and Henry Dahlman were admitted to partnership in 1889. About three +years later, the latter closed out his interests to J.F.W. Imbusch. The +present corporation was established in 1892 as Wm. Grossman & Co. The +firm was incorporated August 1, 1916, as the Wm. Grossman Co., with Wm. +Grossman as president, George A. Grossman as vice-president, and Paul E. +Apel as secretary and treasurer.</p> + +<p>Another old-time coffee man of Milwaukee was Charles A. Clark, who had +been in the coffee business for nearly twenty years before he organized +the present business of Clark & Host Co.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Toledo.</span> The pioneer roasting firms here seem to have been: Warren & +Bedwell; and J.B. Baldy & Co. Later, after 1876, we find added the Bour +Company, and the Woolson Spice Co.</p> + +<p>The latter company was founded in 1882 by A.M. Woolson, who up to that +time had conducted a successful retail grocery business for several +years. The Woolson Spice Co. was sold to H.O. Havemeyer of New York in +1896, the reputed sale price being $2,000,000. A.M. Woolson retired from +business at that time. Upon the death of Mr. Havemeyer, the company +passed into the hands of Hermann Sielcken; and when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span> he died, an +American company secured control.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Ground_Coffee_Price_list_of_1862" id="Ground_Coffee_Price_list_of_1862"></a> +<img src="images/image407.jpg" width="300" height="424" alt="Ground Coffe Price list of 1862" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ground Coffee Price list of 1862</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The Bour Company was incorporated in 1892, following a partnership which +had succeeded to a small business concern under the name of the Eagle +Spice Company. The principal stockholders were: J.M. Bour, F.G. +Kendrick, and Albro Blodgett. Mr. Blodgett bought the Bour interests in +1909 and with S.W. Beckley, who had been sales manager for a number of +years, acquired practically all the other outside interests. The name +was changed in 1921 to the Blodgett-Beckley Co., the officers being +Albro Blodgett, president, S.W. Beckley, vice-president and manager, and +Henry P. Blodgett, secretary and treasurer.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cleveland.</span> Pioneers in Cleveland were: Smith & Curtis; A. Stephens & +Sons; John H. Ganse; and W.D. Drake & Co. In 1870, we find Edwards, +Townsend & Co.; Knight, Eberman & Co.; Talbot, Winslow & Co.; Williams & +Tait; and Lemmon & Son, added.</p> + +<p>Beards & Cummings, coffee roasters of New York City, established a +branch in Cleveland under the management of Alvan Stephens in 1855. +Later, Stephens took over the business for himself and changed the name +to Frisbie & Stephens. In 1861 Alvan's sons, Henry A. and Samuel R., +were admitted and the firm became A. Stephens & Sons. Alvan Stephens +died in 1873, and Samuel moved to Chicago to open a branch. He died in +1878. Henry A. continued the business until 1881, when Francis Widlar +was admitted to partnership, and the name was changed to Stephens & +Widlar. Henry A. Stephens died in 1897, and A.L. Somers, H.H. Hewitt, +and D.D. Hudson, all old employees, were admitted, and the firm name was +changed to F. Widlar & Co. Carl W. Brand, a nephew of Francis Widlar, +joined the company in 1898. Upon the death of his uncle, the business +was incorporated as the Widlar Co., and Mr. Brand became president in +1910.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pittsburgh.</span> Next to New York, Pittsburg was one of the first cities to +forge to the front as a coffee-roasting center. These are the firms that +were among the leaders in the period between 1860 and 1870: Arbuckles & +Co.; W.T. Bown & Bro.; Dilworth Bros.; Rinehart & Stevens; T.C. Jenkins +& Bro.; Carter Bros. & Co.; J.S. Dilworth & Co.; Jesse H. Lippincott; +Shields & Boucher; and Haworth & Dewhurst.</p> + +<p>Samuel Young, Samuel Mahood, and E. B. Mahood formed a partnership as +Young, Mahood & Co. in 1879. E.B. Mahood withdrew in 1890. Samuel Mahood +retired in 1906, and the company was incorporated as the Young-Mahood +Company, with Samuel Young as president, and W. James Mahood as +vice-president and general manager.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Portland, Oregon.</span> Early roasters in the trade of this city were: J.F. +Jones; H. C. Hudson & Co.; Marden & Folger; Verdier & Closset; and +Closset & Devers.</p> + +<p>Joseph and Emile Closset formed a partnership as Closset Bros, in 1880. +A.H. Devers, who had been a salesman with Folger, Schilling & Co., San +Francisco, and later with A. Schilling & Co., bought out Emile Closset +in 1883, and the firm became Closset & Devers. Joseph Closset died in +1915.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Baltimore.</span> Pioneer roasters in Baltimore were: Joseph Braas; Daniel +Many; George Pearson; Sylvester Ruth; and John G. Siegman. These were +quickly followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span> by Barclay & Hasson; Zoller & Little; Benjamin Berry; +Jesse Lazear; and others.</p> + +<p>Later, after 1876, came: E. Levering & Co.; the Enterprise Coffee Co.; +C.D. Kenny; J.W. Laughlin & Co., now Le Morgan Coffee Co.; and the Saxon +Coffee Company.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Detroit.</span> In Detroit in 1860–70 were: Evans & Walker; Farrington, +Campbell & Co.; A.R. & W.F. Linn; J.H. Riggs; and Palmer, Warner & Co. +After 1876 were added Sinclair, Evans & Elliot; Huber & Stendel; and +J.A. Parent & Co.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Other Cities.</span> Names of pioneer roasters of other towns in 1860 and 1870 +were: George Boardman, Albany, N.Y.; Chubuck & Saunders, Binghamton, +N.Y.; George W. Hayward, and P.J. Ferris, Buffalo, N.Y.; Lorimore Bros., +and George R. Forrester, Elmira, N.Y.; Hatch & Jenks, Jamestown, N.Y.; +N.B. Beede, Newburgh, N.Y.; A.F. Booth, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.; Ethridge, +Tuller & Co., Rome, N.Y.; M.N. Van Zandt & Co., L.B. Eddy & Co., and +C.T. Moore, Rochester, N.Y.; Ostrander, Loomis & Co., and Jacob Crouse & +Co., Syracuse, N.Y.; C.H. Garrison, Troy, N.Y.; Hinchman & Howard, and +J. Griffiths & Co., Utica, N.Y.; B.F. Hoopes, Bloomington, Ill.; C.P. +Farrell, and Charles Richards, Peoria, Ill.; Slemmons & Conkling, +Springfield, Ill.; Henry Wales, Bridgeport, Conn.; A.B. Gillett, Wm. +Boardman & Sons, Hartford Steam Coffee & Spice Mills, and Park, Fellowes +& Co., Hartford, Conn.; Benj. Peck & Kellum, and Steele & Emery, New +Haven, Conn.; W.S. Scull & Co., Camden, N.J.; Theo. F. Johnson & Co., +and the Pioneer Mills, Newark, N.J.; Charles A. Dunham, New Brunswick, +N.J.; James Ronan and Wm. Dolton & Co., Trenton, N.J.; Butler, Earhart & +Co., Columbus, Ohio; C.A. Trentman & Bro., and J.D. Beach & Co., Dayton, +Ohio; W. & S. Stevens, and F.C. Dietz, Zanesville, Ohio; J.E. Tone, Des +Moines, Iowa; H.P. Hess, Cornell & Smith, and E. Warne, Easton, Pa.; +E.S. Forster, Erie, Pa.; Haehnlen Bros., Harrisburg, Pa.; D.G. +Yuengling, Pottsville, Pa.; A. G. Zilmore & Co., Scranton, Pa.; Granger +& Co., Titusville, Pa.; Huestis & Hamilton, and B. Trentman & Son, Ft. +Wayne, Ind.; S. Hamill & Co., Keokuk, Ia.; H.H. Lee, and Maguire & +Gillespie, Indianapolis, Ind.; Joseph Strong, Terre Haute, Ind.; Curtis +& Burnham, Leavenworth, Kan.; Yates & Dudley, Lexington, Ky.; A. Turner, +Wheeling, W. Va.; Granger & Hodge, and Nathaniel Crocker, St. Paul, +Minn.; W.W. Totten & Bro., Nashville, Tenn.; Henry Burns, Savannah, Ga.; +A. McFarland, Springfield, Mass.; Alexander Wills & Co., Montreal, +Canada; and Peter Hendershot, St. Catherine, Canada.</p> + +<p>Between 1876 and 1900, many other names came into prominence, and among +them mention should be made of: H. Hulman, Terre Haute, Ind.; A.B. Gates +& Co., and Schnull & Krag, Indianapolis, Ind.; O.W. Pierce Co., and +Geiger-Tinney Co., Lafayette, Ind.; Twitchell, Champlin & Co., Portland, +Me.; Nave-McCord Mfg. Co., Mokaska Mfg. Co., and the Midland Spice Co., +St. Joseph, Mo.; Beaham-Moffatt Mfg. Co., and C.A. Murdock & Co., Kansas +City, Mo.; Clarke Bros. & Co., T. S. Grigor & Co., Consolidated Coffee +Co., and McCord, Brady Co., Omaha, Neb.; Dayton Spice Mills Co., and +Canby, Ach & Canby, Dayton, Ohio; Ohio Coffee & Spice Co., and Butler, +Crawford & Co., Columbus, Ohio; Bacon, Stickney & Co., Albany, N.Y.; +Charles R. Groff Co., St. Paul, Minn.; John G. Schuler, Covington, Ky.; +J.W. Thomas & Son, Nashville, Tenn.; Geo. F. Hanley & Co., Los Angeles, +Cal.; C.S. Morey Mercantile Co., Denver, Col.; and W.G. Lown Coffee Co., +Washington, D.C.</p> + +<p>William Boardman, founder of Wm. Boardman & Sons Co., Hartford, Conn., +began roasting coffee at Wethersfield in 1841 with a hand-power roaster, +using wood for fuel. He moved his plant to Hartford in 1850. In the same +year, his son Thomas J., after serving a fifteen-year apprenticeship in +a country store, entered his father's employ. Three years later, he and +his brother, William F.J. Boardman, were admitted to the firm, the name +being changed to Wm. Boardman & Sons. Howard F. Boardman, a son of +Thomas J., began working in the business in 1880, and was admitted to +partnership in 1888. The same year, the founder died and William F.J. +retired. The business has since been conducted by Thomas J. and Howard +F. Boardman.</p> + +<p>The company was incorporated in 1898, and John Pepion was admitted. The +president of the company, Thomas J. Boardman, is at the time of writing +ninety years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span> old. He still takes a very active interest in the +business, and his "cup sense" is as acute as ever.</p> + +<p>The O.W. Pierce Company, Lafayette, Ind. was founded in 1847 by Oliver +Webster Pierce, Sr. Except for three years in the fifties, when the firm +was known as Reynolds, Hatcher & Pierce, it has been known as the O.W. +Pierce Company since it was established. The company was incorporated in +1905 with O.W. Pierce, Jr. as its head. The senior Mr. Pierce died in +1921. The firm first roasted coffee in 1891. Prior to that time it had +been in the wholesale grocery business.</p> + +<p>The William S. Scull Co., Camden, N.J., was established in 1858 by +William S. Scull, whose father had been in the retail tea and coffee +business. William Scull died in 1916. H. Newmark founded H. Newmark & +Co. in Los Angeles in 1865. He retired in 1886, and Maurice H. Newmark +was made a full partner. The present name is M.A. Newmark & Co.</p> + +<p>In 1868, Major David B. Hamill entered, as junior partner, the firm of +S. Hamill & Co., Keokuk, Iowa, of which his father, Smith Hamill, was +the head. Smith Hamill died in 1890, and David B. became head of the +firm. He died in 1916.</p> + +<p>William Tackaberry was a junior partner in the firm of S. Hamill & Co., +Keokuk, Iowa. He began a business of his own in the same city in 1868. +Ten years later, he moved the company to Sioux City, and continued there +as the Wm. Tackaberry Co.</p> + +<p>Joel O. Cheek began traveling for the wholesale grocery house of Webb, +Hughes & Co., Nashville, Tenn., in 1873. Later, he was admitted to +partnership, the firm becoming Webb, Cheek & Co., and then Cheek, Norton +& Neal. He formed the Nashville Coffee & Mfg. Co., in 1899. It was +merged in 1901 into the Cheek-Neal Coffee Co.</p> + +<p>Jekiel and Isaac E. Tone began the business of Tone Bros. at Des Moines, +Iowa, in March, 1873, with one roaster and one spice mill. The business +was incorporated in 1897. Jekiel Tone died in 1900, and Isaac E. Tone in +1916. The business is now (1922) carried on by W.E. and Jay E. Tone.</p> + +<p>Edward Canby began business in Dayton, Ohio, in 1875, succeeding the +firm of J.D. Beach & Co. He retired in 1886, and the business was left +in charge of Frank L. Canby and P.J. Ach. The latter had entered the +employ of Canby in 1877. He secured an interest in the business in 1882, +and became a partner in 1890. When the company was incorporated as +Canby, Ach & Canby in 1904, he was elected president. Mr. Ach has been +very prominent in the affairs of the National Coffee Roasters +Association since its organization.</p> + +<p>Frank J. Geiger began in the tea, coffee, and spice business in +Lafayette, Ind., under the name of Culver & Geiger. Mr. Culver, who had +never been active, died in 1889, and in 1892 the Geiger-Tinney Company +was formed with F.J. Geiger as president. The plant was moved to +Indianapolis in 1901 with William L. Horn as vice-president, and Henry +C. Tinney as secretary and treasurer. The name was changed to the +Geiger-Fishback Co. in 1912, and Mr. Geiger retired. Frank S. Fishback +acquired all the stock of the company in 1918, and the name was changed +to the Fishback Co. with F.S. Fishback, president; John S. Fishback, +treasurer; and F. C. Fishback, secretary.</p> + +<p>S. Holstad joined the Thomson & Taylor Spice Co of Chicago in 1892. He +left in 1901 and went to Minneapolis, where he became a member of the +firm of Atwood & Hoisted. He withdrew in 1908 to form the firm of S. +Holstad & Co., with Charles Ekelund and Alexander W. Kreiser as +partners. After the withdrawal of Mr. Holstad from Atwood & Holstad, Mr. +Atwood continued as Atwood & Co.</p> + +<p>F.P. Atha began work as a coffee salesman with Holman & Co., Terre +Haute, Ind. He went to San Francisco in 1899 and entered the employ of +J.A. Folger & Co., and introduced Folger products east of the Rockies. +He opened the Kansas City branch in 1907; and a year later, he was +admitted to the firm and made vice-president and general manager.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The National Coffee Roasters Association</i></p> + +<p>The first effort to organize the coffee roasters of the United States +dates back to 1885, when several St. Louis coffee roasters came together +in a kind of gentlemen's agreement not to cut the price of roasting +green coffee, which had declined, owing to ruthless competition, from +$1.00 to 10 cents a bag. The various parties to the agreement posted +$500 checks each as forfeits, not to violate the price as fixed. After +one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span> year, a check was cashed; but the principal claimed his lapse was +clerical and not in violation of the agreement. However, as a result of +the argument that followed, the organization was disbanded.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Organization_Convention_N_C_R_A_1911" id="Organization_Convention_N_C_R_A_1911"></a> +<img src="images/image408.jpg" width="600" height="143" alt="Members of the Organization Convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, St. Louis, May 26, 1911" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Members of the Organization Convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, St. Louis, May 26, 1911</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Reading from left to right: W.B. Johnson, St. Louis; W.T. Jones, New +Orleans; George Schulte, St. Louis; C.F. Blanke, St. Louis; Ben Casanas, +New Orleans; Carl Stoffregen, St. Louis; Edward D. Hanly, Kansas City; +H.C. Grote, St. Louis; James Menown, St. Louis; Frank P. Atha, Kansas +City; Henry Petring, St. Louis; J.M. McFadden, Dubuque, Iowa; Joseph +Maury, Memphis; T.F. Halligan, Davenport; F.J. Ach, Dayton; Carl Brand, +Cleveland; Wm. Fisher, St. Louis; M.H. Gasser, Toledo; Julius J. +Schotten, St. Louis; E.W. Bockman, Paducah, Ky.; Louis Christopherson, +St. Louis; Felix Coste, St. Louis; W.E. Tone, Des Moines; Robert Meyer, +St. Louis; Fred Roth, St. Louis; M.E. Smith. St. Louis; J.B. +Dubrouilett, St. Louis; Floyd Norwine, St. Louis</small></p> +</div> + +<p>As early as 1900, leaders of the trade's best thought began to urge the +need of a national organization among coffee roasters.</p> + +<p>As a result of informal meetings between men like Robert M. Forbes, +Julius J. Schotten, Robert Meyer, and Messrs. Roth and Homeyer, around +the luncheon table in St. Louis, to discuss trade abuses and bring about +better trade co-operation, the subject of a St. Louis organization of +coffee roasters began to be agitated about 1906. It was not until four +years later, however, that the idea took definite form.</p> + +<p>On September 14, 1910, the Traffic Association of St. Louis Coffee +Importers was organized, starting out with a membership of ten firms, +its chief object being to obtain an adjustment of freight rates to and +from St. Louis as advantageous as those prevailing for Chicago and New +York.</p> + +<p>This association—of which Robert Meyer was the first president, and +H.L. Homeyer, vice-president, J.S. Hartman, secretary, and G.H. Petring, +treasurer—was the forerunner of the National Coffee Roasters Traffic +and Pure Food Association organized in 1911 and now known as the +National Coffee Roasters Association.</p> + +<p>At the organization meeting of the national association twenty-six +coffee-roasting establishments in the Mississippi Valley were +represented at the conference held May 26–27 in the Planters Hotel, St. +Louis. The objects of the new body were announced in the constitution, +as:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1"><i>First</i>: To foster and promote a feeling of fellowship and good +will among its members, and on broad and equitable lines to advance +the welfare of the coffee trade and the consumer.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><i>Second</i>: To eliminate or minimize abuses, methods and practises +inimical to the proper conduct of business.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><i>Third</i>: To assist in the enactment and enforcement of uniform pure +food laws which in their operations shall deal justly and equitably +with the rights of the consumer and the trade.</p></div> + +<p>The association started with these officers: Julius J. Schotten, St. +Louis, President; M.H. Gasser, Toledo, vice-president; W.E. Tone, Des +Moines, treasurer, and W.J.H. Bown, St. Louis, secretary.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, as a result of an agitation started by <i>The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span> a meeting of New York and eastern coffee roasters was +called at the Fulton Club, New York, October 27, 1911, to discuss plans +for a national organization. M. H. Gasser attended this meeting, and +told of the plan of the western roasters to organize such an +organization at a meeting called for Chicago the following month. The +promoters of the eastern organization subsequently abandoned their +efforts in favor of the western group.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Robert_Meyer" id="Robert_Meyer"></a> +<img src="images/portrait23.jpg" width="300" height="383" alt="Robert Meyer, St. Louis" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Robert Meyer, St. Louis</span><br /> +<small>First president of the Coffee Roasters' original organization</small></span> +</div> + +<p>At the first convention of the National Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure +Food Association, held in Chicago, November 16–17, 1911, all the +foregoing officers were retained, the office of second vice-president +was created, and Frank R. Seelye was selected to fill it.</p> + +<p>That the organization idea was popular among the roasters was evident +from the fact that at the close of the convention it was announced that +the membership was then seventy-one firms in cities as far east as +Virginia and as far west as Kansas City. The convention demonstrated +that the association was really a national organization, which quieted +suspicions prevalent in some quarters of the trade in the east that it +was chiefly a Mississippi Valley unit.</p> + +<p>The first convention is remembered principally because of Hermann +Sielcken's defense of the Brazil coffee valorization plan, which was +then the big question of the coffee trade. The titles of some of the +other addresses will serve to indicate how the scope of the association +had enlarged since its organization a few months before: "An Attack on +Valorization" by Thomas J. Webb, of Chicago; "Uniform Food Laws", by +W.T. Jones, of New Orleans; "Penny-Change Systems," by R.W. McCreery, of +Marshalltown, Ia; "Traffic and Freight Abuses," by W.E. Tone, of Des +Moines; "Transportation Problems," by Carl H. Stoffregen, St. Louis; +"Coffee Publicity," by F.H. Henrici, of Chicago; "Coffee Roasters' Costs +and Accounting," by F.J. Ach, Chicago. The first convention proved a +success, and attracted attention.</p> + +<p>The second annual convention, held in New York, November 13–15, 1912, +showed that the association had grown to a membership of 135 firms +located in all parts of the country, and that its influence had extended +throughout the whole trade. Valorization continued to be a much +discussed subject. Hermann Sielcken and others again defending it in +speeches; but the majority of the association seemed opposed to the +scheme. Probably the most important feature of the convention was the +report of the committee of nine men who had visited Brazil to +investigate conditions there and to interest the Brazilian coffee +growers in an advertising campaign. An address on this subject was made +by the editor of <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i>, in which he +suggested a plan for propaganda and advocated scientific research to +find out the truth about coffee.</p> + +<p>The election of officers resulted in the selection of F.J. Ach, Dayton, +as president; Frank R. Seelye, Chicago, first vice-president; Ross W. +Weir, New York, second vice-president; and Robert Meyer, St. Louis, +treasurer.</p> + +<p>The 1912 convention changed the name of the association to the National +Coffee Roasters Association, dropping the words "Traffic and Pure Food" +from the original title.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><a name="FORMER_PRESIDENTS_NCRA" id="FORMER_PRESIDENTS_NCRA"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Former Presidents of the NCRA"> + +<tr class='tr6'><td align='right' colspan='2'> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Julius_J_Schotten" id="Julius_J_Schotten"></a> +<img src="images/portrait24.jpg" width="250" height="289" alt="Julius J. Schotten—1911–12" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Julius J. Schotten—1911–12</span></span> +</div></td> + +<td align='left'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="FJ_Ach" id="FJ_Ach"></a> +<img src="images/portrait25.jpg" width="250" height="302" alt="F.J. Ach—1912–14" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">F.J. Ach—1912–14</span></span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Ross_W_Weir" id="Ross_W_Weir"></a> +<img src="images/portrait26.jpg" width="250" height="302" alt="Ross W. Weir—1914–16" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ross W. Weir—1914–16</span></span> +</div></td> + +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 103px;"> +<img src="images/ncra.jpg" width="103" height="98" alt="NCRA Logo" title="" /> +</div></td> + +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Frank_R_Seelye" id="Frank_R_Seelye"></a> +<img src="images/portrait27.jpg" width="250" height="309" alt="Frank R. Seelye—1916–17" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Frank R. Seelye—1916–17</span></span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr class='tr6'><td align='right' colspan='2'> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Ben_C_Casanas" id="Ben_C_Casanas"></a> +<img src="images/portrait28.jpg" width="250" height="298" alt="Ben C. Casanas—1917–18" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ben C. Casanas—1917–18</span></span> +</div></td> + +<td align='left'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Carl_W_Brand" id="Carl_W_Brand"></a> +<img src="images/portrait29.jpg" width="250" height="308" alt="Carl W. Brand—1918–21" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Carl W. Brand—1918–21</span></span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='3'> +FORMER PRESIDENTS, NATIONAL COFFEE ROASTERS ASSOCIATION</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span></p><p>The third convention, which was held November 12–14, 1913, in +Cincinnati, demonstrated that the scope of usefulness of the association +was still growing, as shown by the resolutions which approved better +coffee-making publicity; favored a national coffee day; urged the +appointment of inspectors at ports of entry to prevent the importation +of green coffee under government standard No. 8; condemned the excessive +watering of coffee and all coffee coatings; and provided for the +appointment of an agent to visit Brazil to furnish members with +"reliable" reports on crop flowering.</p> + +<p>F.J. Ach was re-elected president; Ross W. Weir succeeded F.R. Seelye as +first vice-president; W.T. Jones succeeded Mr. Weir as second +vice-president, and Robert Meyer was retained as treasurer.</p> + +<p>Secretary G.W. Toms, who had been appointed in April, 1913, reported +that the association had made a net gain of thirteen members, bringing +the total up to 144.</p> + +<p>The membership of the association had been increased by twenty names +when the fourth annual convention was opened in New Orleans, November +16–19, 1914, making the total 164.</p> + +<p>Better coffee making, roasting economies, a national coffee week, and +improved methods of handling green coffee in ports and warehouses, were +the principal topics considered at the 1914 meeting. As a result of the +discussions, the association went on record in its resolutions as being +against the misbranding of both green and roasted coffee; favored the +creation of a United States board of coffee experts; and the +establishment of an association trade-mark bureau.</p> + +<p>For the ensuing year Ross W. Weir, New York, was chosen president; J.O. +Cheek, Nashville, first vice-president; T.F. Halligan, Davenport, second +vice-president; and W.T. Morley, Worcester, treasurer.</p> + +<p>The decision to get together on a comprehensive national publicity +campaign in the interest of coffee was the outstanding feature of the +fifth annual convention, which was held in St. Louis, November 8–11, +1915, in the same room in the Planters Hotel in which the association +was organized in 1911. From a body of twenty-six roasters, the +association had grown in five years to a membership of 201 firms and +individuals.</p> + +<p>Among the more important things done at this convention was the decision +to undertake a practical publicity plan to advertise coffee; the +adoption of a uniform cost-and-freight contract; the proposal to prepare +educational matter on coffee for the schools; and the recommendation to +employ a chemist to carry on research work. There were spirited +discussions also on gas, coal, and coke as roasting fuels; on the best +way to get retailer co-operation, and whether it was advisable to +continue the national coffee week idea. President Weir, Vice-Presidents +Cheek and Halligan, and Treasurer Morley were re-elected.</p> + +<p>The sixth annual convention, held in Atlantic City, November 14–17, +1916, placed emphasis on research into grinding and brewing; on plans +for doing something practical to help grocers regain their lost coffee +trade; and on an investigation into the scientific costs of roasting. +The admittance of green coffee and allied interests into the association +was also discussed, and it was resolved to make the subject an order of +business for special consideration at the next convention.</p> + +<p>At this meeting Frank R. Seelye, Chicago, was elected president; Ben C. +Casanas, New Orleans, first vice-president; J.M. McFadden, Dubuque, +second vice-president; and M.H. Gasser, Toledo, treasurer. The +membership was reported as being 204, showing a net increase of three +during the year.</p> + +<p>The seventh convention, held in Chicago, November 14–15, 1917, came when +the first movement of American soldiers to European battlefields was +begun, and patriotism was the keynote of the meeting. Because of the +stress of the times, the program was cut to two days, instead of the +three days of former meetings.</p> + +<p>The outstanding features of the convention were: the decision not to +admit green coffee men to the association; the decision to establish a +permanent headquarters; the announcement that Brazil was then collecting +funds for its part in the national advertising campaign; and the +proposal by John E. King, Detroit, that the term "lead number" be used +instead of "caffetannic acid", which he asserted was a misnomer. The +executive committee was authorized to employ a secretary-manager. The +shorter terms and credits idea was endorsed by the association.</p> + +<p>These officers were elected for the next year; Ben C. Casanas, New +Orleans, president;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span> S.H. Holstad, Minneapolis, first vice-president; +Edward Aborn, New York, second vice-president; M.H. Gasser, Toledo, +treasurer.</p> + +<p>The influenza epidemic, which swept the country the latter part of 1918, +caused the postponement of many business and public gatherings, and the +eighth annual roasters convention did not assemble until December 5–6, +in Cleveland—at only ten days' notice. Unlike previous occasions, this +was in reality a combined convention of all roasted and green coffee men +in the trade, both association members and non-members. No regular +program was followed, the meeting being somewhat in the character of a +trade conference.</p> + +<p>The salient features of the convention were the decisions: to double the +annual dues, in order to provide for a paid secretary-manager and to +establish permanent headquarters; to organize a spice grinders' section; +and to ask the government to remove all restrictions on coffee trading. +The Food Administration's coffee regulations came in for severe +criticism.</p> + +<p>The election of officers resulted in Carl W. Brand, Cleveland, becoming +president; Robert M. Forbes, St. Louis, first vice-president; J.A. +Folger, San Francisco, second vice-president; and Lewis Sherman, +Milwaukee, treasurer.</p> + +<p>The ninth convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association was of +greater import to all branches of the coffee trade than any that had +preceded it. The results of the meeting showed the association had gone +far since the organization meeting in St. Louis in 1911. As in 1916, the +convention was held in Atlantic City, November 12–14, 1919, and drew +delegates from as far west as San Francisco and Seattle.</p> + +<p>The most important subjects before the meeting were the reports of the +Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, read by Ross W. Weir, chairman, +and Felix Coste, secretary-manager. The committee had been organized +during the year to carry on the national coffee-advertising campaign, +and announced at the convention its publicity plans for the next year, +which included a national coffee week, a national showing of the +committee's coffee film, and the issuance of several educational +booklets. Other outstanding features included the description of how the +association planned to conduct a research into the cost of doing a +wholesale coffee-roasting business, the investigation to be made by +Columbia University; addresses attacking the meat packers' invasion of +the coffee roasting and distributing field; a paper, and discussions, on +shorter terms and uniform discounts; the recommendation to employ a +traveling field secretary who would hold periodical meetings with local +branches; and the condemnation of guaranteeing prices against decline +and giving advance notices of changes of prices.</p> + +<p>The convention unanimously agreed to the re-election of President Brand, +Vice-Presidents Forbes and Folger, and Treasurer Sherman.</p> + +<p>The tenth annual meeting was held in St. Louis, November 10–12, 1920. +Scientific cost finding, short terms and discounts, the national +advertising campaign, the activities of the N.C.R.A. freight-forwarding +bureau, and laboratory-research were the main topics of this years' +gathering. The membership was reported to be 310. A feature of the +meeting was the first industrial exhibit by twenty-five supply houses. +Among the things accomplished were:</p> + +<p>The recommendation that members co-operate in determining the invisible +supply of coffee in the United States at stated periods; increasing +annual dues from $50 to $60 for members having $50,000 or less +capitalization, and from $100 to $120 for firms having more than $50,000 +capital; restricting membership to purely wholesale coffee roasters and +distributers; and offering co-operation to hotel-men and +restaurant-keepers in standardizing and improving their coffee +beverages.</p> + +<p>The St. Louis meeting was notable in violating association precedent by +unanimously electing Carl W. Brand president for the third consecutive +term. Other officers were: J.A. Folger, San Francisco, first +vice-president, R.O. Miller, Chicago, second vice-president; Charles A. +Clark, Milwaukee, treasurer.</p> + +<p>The eleventh annual meeting, held in New York, November 1–3, 1921, set +the high-water mark of the organization's record of achievement. This +convention took the first definite steps toward the amalgamation of the +green and roasted coffee interests in one association. Brazil sent a +delegation of coffee men to invite a similar delegation to pay a return +visit to Brazil.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[Pg 515]</a></span> It was announced also that São Paulo was about to +double its tax contribution to the national advertising campaign. Among +other things done, were: the appropriation of $1500 to work out a +uniform cost-accounting system for roasters; the recommendation that +coffee importers insist upon the use of American ships by Brazilian +exporters; the formulation of a cost-and-freight arbitration contract +for use with São Paulo exporters; the formation of a new membership +class roasting up to 6000 bags a year; and the decision to make a +national campaign to put the selling of coffee on a uniform thirty-days +credit, two percent cash in ten days basis. Professor S.C. Prescott, +reporting on the research work being done at the Massachusetts Institute +of Technology, said a better brew of coffee could be obtained at a +temperature of 185 degrees than at the boiling point; that glass, china, +or enameled-ware pots were to be preferred, and that the filtration +method is superior to that employed in the pumping percolator.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Joel_O_Cheek" id="Joel_O_Cheek"></a> +<img src="images/portrait30.jpg" width="300" height="437" alt="Joel O. Cheek, Nashville" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Joel O. Cheek, Nashville</span><br /> +<small>President of the National Coffee Roasters Association, 1922</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The Industrial Exposition included displays by twenty-eight +manufacturers of machinery and supplies, and was voted a success. Many +of the exhibits were of a distinctly educational character.</p> + +<p>The following officers were elected for 1921–22: President, Joel O. +Cheek, Nashville, Tenn.; first vice-president, Webster Jones, San +Francisco; second vice-president, Joseph E. Maury, Memphis, Tenn.; +treasurer, Frank Ennis, Kansas City.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Roaster Statistics</i></p> + +<p>As might be expected, considering the leading place that New York holds +as a port of entry for coffee, the roasting and grinding of coffee is +more important in the eastern section of the country than in any other. +But there are many establishments for preparing coffee scattered +throughout the south and the middle west, and the business has grown to +considerable proportions on the Pacific coast. New York state leads in +number of establishments and is followed by Pennsylvania, California, +Missouri, Ohio, and Illinois. The chief southern state is Texas, +followed by Louisiana and Kentucky, although Maryland and Louisiana lead +in value of product. Missouri has more plants than any other state in +the middle west, and is followed by Illinois, though the capital +invested and the value of the output are much greater in the latter than +in the former.</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Coffee and Spice Roasting and Grinding Establishments Census of 1914"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='4'>Coffee and Spice Roasting and Grinding<br /> + Establishments—Census of 1914</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'><i>States</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Number</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Capital</i></td> + <td align='center'><i>Value of product</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Alabama</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8</td> + <td align='right'>$155,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>$331,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>California</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>43</td> + <td align='right'>3,619,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9,584,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Colorado</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9</td> + <td align='right'>445,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,168,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Connecticut</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7</td> + <td align='right'>136,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>435,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Dist. of Col.</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5</td> + <td align='right'>294,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>428,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Florida</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>19</td> + <td align='right'>219,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>697,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Georgia</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6</td> + <td align='right'>80,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>169,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Illinois</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>34</td> + <td align='right'>8,159,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>22,045,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Indiana</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>12</td> + <td align='right'>941,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,790,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Iowa</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>14</td> + <td align='right'>1,752,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3,804,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kansas</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6</td> + <td align='right'>144,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>396,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Kentucky</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>17</td> + <td align='right'>541,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,561,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Louisiana</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>17</td> + <td align='right'>1,657,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4,241,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Maryland</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>14</td> + <td align='right'>1,643,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4,393,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Massachusetts</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>21</td> + <td align='right'>3,678,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8,675,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Michigan</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>16</td> + <td align='right'>502,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,618,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Minnesota</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>11</td> + <td align='right'>1,531,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>4,729,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Mississippi</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>5</td> + <td align='right'>27,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>94,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Missouri</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>37</td> + <td align='right'>6,152,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>14,299,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Nebraska</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6</td> + <td align='right'>405,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,262,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>New Jersey</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>17</td> + <td align='right'>828,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3,451,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>New York</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>136</td> + <td align='right'>9,910,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>31,675,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Ohio</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>35</td> + <td align='right'>6,578,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>13,312,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Oklahoma</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6</td> + <td align='right'>191,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>757,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Oregon</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9</td> + <td align='right'>757,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2,050,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Pennsylvania</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>77</td> + <td align='right'>2,454,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>6,967,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Tennessee</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>7</td> + <td align='right'>465,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,648,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Texas</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>36</td> + <td align='right'>970,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3,326,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Virginia</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>9</td> + <td align='right'>413,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,137,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Washington</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>25</td> + <td align='right'>1,023,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>2,237,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>West Virginia</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>3</td> + <td align='right'>73,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>71,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Wisconsin</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>8</td> + <td align='right'>362,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>809,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Other states</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>21</td> + <td align='right'>492,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>1,590,000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>——</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Total</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>696</td> + <td align='right'>$56,596,000</td> + <td class='tdrpr1'>$150,749,000</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[Pg 516]</a></span></p><p>The distribution of the business of preparing coffee is shown by the +figures of the Census Bureau, which reports for 1914 a total of 696 +establishments under the designation "Coffee and spice, roasting and +grinding." It was found to be necessary to adopt this classification +inasmuch as most establishments handle both coffee and spices. Of the +696, however, 658 had coffee as their principal product, and the figures +may thus be taken as indicating fairly well the general distribution of +the coffee-manufacturing industry. These figures, for the various +states, are shown on page 515.</p> + +<p>Preliminary figures for the 1919 census show that the value of the +product almost doubled in the five years 1914–19, amounting to +$304,740,000 in 1919, while the number of establishments increased from +696 to 794, of which 769 specialize in coffee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[Pg 517]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXXI" id="Chapter_XXXI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXXI</span></h2> + +<h3>SOME BIG MEN AND NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>B.G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the +American "coffee kings"—John Arbuckle, the original package-coffee +man—Jabez Burns, the man who revolutionized the roasted coffee +business by his contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and +writer—Coffee-trade booms and panics—Brazil's first valorization +enterprise—War-time government control of coffee—The story of +soluble coffee</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">I</span><span class="caps">n</span> the history of the coffee trade of the United States, several names +stand out because of sensational accomplishments, and because of notable +contributions made to the development of the industry. In green coffee, +we have B.G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken the last, of the +"coffee kings"; in the roasting business, there was John Arbuckle, the +original national-package-coffee man; and in the coffee-roasting +machinery business, Jabez Burns, inventor, manufacturer, and writer.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The First "Coffee King"</i></p> + +<p>Benjamin Green Arnold came to New York from Rhode Island in 1836 and +took a job as accountant with an east-side grocer. He was thrifty, +industrious, and kept his own counsel. He was a born financial leader. +Fifteen years later he was made a junior partner in the firm. By 1868, +the bookkeeper of 1836 was the head of the business, with a line of +credit amounting to half a million dollars—a notable achievement in +those days.</p> + +<p>Mr. Arnold embarked upon his big speculation in coffee in 1869. For ten +years he maintained his mastery of the market, and in that time amassed +a fortune. It is related that one year's operations of this daring +trader yielded his firm a profit of a million and a quarter of dollars.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Benjamin_Green_Arnold" id="Benjamin_Green_Arnold"></a> +<img src="images/portrait31.jpg" width="300" height="399" alt="Benjamin Green Arnold" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Benjamin Green Arnold</span></span> +</div> + +<p>B.G. Arnold was the first president of the New York Coffee Exchange. He +was one of the founders of the Down Town Association in 1878. The +president of the United States was his friend, and a guest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[Pg 518]</a></span> at his +luxurious home. But the high-price levels to which Arnold had forced the +coffee market started a coffee-planting fever in the countries of +production. Almost before he knew it, there was an overproduction that +swamped the market and forced down prices with so amazing rapidity that +panic seized upon the traders. Few that were caught in that memorable +coffee maelstrom survived financially.</p> + +<p>Arnold himself was a victim, but such was the man's character that his +failure was regarded by many as a public misfortune. Some men differed +with him as to the wisdom of promoting a coffee corner, and protested +that it was against public policy; but Arnold's personal integrity was +never questioned, and his mercantile ability and honorable business +dealings won for him an affectionate regard that continued after his +fortune had been swept away.</p> + +<p>After the collapse of the coffee corner, Mr. Arnold resumed business +with his son, F.B. Arnold. He died in New York, December 10, 1894, in +his eighty-second year. The son died in Rome in 1906. The business which +the father founded, however, continues today as Arnold, Dorr & Co., one +of the most honored and respected names in Front Street.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Hermann Sielcken, the Last Coffee King</i></p> + +<p>If B.G. Arnold was first coffee king, Hermann Sielcken was last, for it +is unlikely that ever again, in the United States, will it be possible +for one man to achieve so absolute a dictatorship of the green coffee +business.</p> + +<p>There never was a coffee romance like that of Hermann Sielcken's. Coming +to America a poor boy in 1869, forty-five years later, he left it many +times a millionaire. For a time, he ruled the coffee markets of the +world with a kind of autocracy such as the trade had never seen before +and probably will not see again. And when, just before the outbreak of +the World War, he returned to Germany for the annual visit to his +Baden-Baden estate, from which he was destined never again to sally +forth to deeds of financial prowess, his subsequent involuntary +retirement found him a huge commercial success, where B.G. Arnold was a +colossal failure. It was the World War and a lingering illness that, at +the end, stopped Hermann Sielcken. But, though he had to admit himself +bested by the fortunes of war, he was still undefeated in the world of +commerce. He died in his native Germany in 1917, the most commanding, +and the most cordially disliked, figure ever produced by the coffee +trade.</p> + +<p>Hermann Sielcken was born in Hamburg in 1847, and so was seventy years +old when he died at Baden-Baden, October 8, 1917. He was the son of a +small baker in Hamburg; and before he was twenty-one, he went to Costa +Rica to work for a German firm there. He did not like Costa Rica, and +within a year he went to San Francisco, where, with a knowledge of +English already acquired, he got a job as a shipping clerk. This was in +1869. A wool concern engaged him as buyer, and for about six years he +covered the territory between the Rockies and the Pacific, buying wool. +On one of these trips he was in a stage-coach wreck in Oregon and nearly +lost his life. He received injuries affecting his back from which he +never fully recovered, and which caused the stooped posture which marked +his carriage through life thereafter. When he recovered, he came to New +York seeking employment, and obtained a clerical position with L. +Strauss & Sons, importers of crockery and glassware. In 1880, married +Josephine Chabert, whose father kept a restaurant in Park Place.</p> + +<p>Sielcken had learned Spanish in Costa Rica, and this knowledge aided him +to a place with W.H. Crossman & Bro. (W.H. and George W. Crossman) +merchandise commission merchants in Broad Street. He was sent to South +America to solicit consignments for the Crossmans, and was surprisingly +successful. For six or eight months every South American mail brought +orders to the house. Then, as the story goes, his reports suddenly +ceased. Weeks and months passed, and the firm heard nothing from him.</p> + +<p>The Crossmans speculated concerning his fate. It was thought he might +have caught a fever and died. It was almost impossible to trace him; at +the same time it distressed them to lose so promising a representative. +Giving up all hope of hearing from him again, they began to look around +for some one to take his place. Then, one morning, he walked into the +office and said, "How do you do?" just as if he had left them only the +evening before. The members of the firm questioned him eagerly. He +answered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span> some of their questions; but most of them he did not. Then he +laid a package on the table.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Hermann_Sielcken" id="Hermann_Sielcken"></a> +<img src="images/portrait32.jpg" width="300" height="395" alt="Hermann Sielcken" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hermann Sielcken</span></span> +</div> + +<p>"Gentlemen", he said, "I have given a large amount of business to you, +far more than you expected, as the result of my trip. I have a lot more +business which I can give to you. It's all in black and white in the +papers in this package. I think any person who has worked as hard as I +have, and so well, deserves a partnership in this firm. If you want +these orders, you may have them. They represent a big profit to you. +Good work deserves proper reward. Look these papers over, and then tell +me if you want me to continue with you as a member of this firm."</p> + +<p>After the Crossmans had looked those papers over they had no doubt of +the advisability of taking Sielcken into partnership. He was admitted as +a junior in 1881–82 and became a full partner in 1885. For more than +twenty years Hermann Sielcken was the human dynamo that pushed the firm +forward into a place of world prominence. He was the best informed man +on coffee in two continents; and when, in 1904, the firm name was +changed to Crossman & Sielcken—W.H. Crossman having died ten years +before—he was well prepared to assert his rights as king of the trade. +He proved his kingship by his masterful handling of valorization three +years later.</p> + +<p>Sielcken was many times credited with working "corners" in coffee; but +he would never admit that a corner was possible in anything that came +out of the ground; and to the end, he was insistent in his denials of +ever having cornered coffee. As a daring trader, he won his spurs in a +sensational tilt with the Arbuckles in the bull campaign of 1887. +Because of this, he became one of the most feared and hated men in the +Coffee Exchange. For a while, coffee did not offer enough play for his +tremendous energy and ambition. He embarked in various +enterprises—among them, the steel industry and railroads. No one was +too big for Sielcken to cross lances with. He bested John W. Gates in a +titanic fight, in American Steel and Wire. He quarreled with E.H. +Harriman and George J. Gould over the possession of the Kansas City, +Pittsburgh, and Gulf Railroad, now known as the Kansas City Southern, +and, backed by a syndicate of Hollanders, obtained control.</p> + +<p>While still busy with the Kansas City Southern enterprise Sielcken began +work on the coffee valorization scheme that he carried to a successful +conclusion in spite of the law of supply and demand and the interference +of the Congress of the United States. Valorization by the São Paulo +government, and by coffee merchants, having proved a failure; Sielcken +showed how it could be done with all the American coffee merchants +eliminated—except himself. In this way, he secured for himself the +opportunity he had long been seeking—the chance to bestride the coffee +trade like a colossus. The story is told farther along in this chapter.</p> + +<p>When his partner, George W. Crossman, died in 1913, it was discovered +that the two men had a remarkable contract. Each had made a will giving +one million dollars to the other. Then Sielcken bought his late +partner's interest in the firm for $5,166,991.</p> + +<p>His first wife having died at Mariahalden, his home in Baden-Baden, +seven years before, Sielcken married at Tessin, Germany, in 1913, Mrs. +Clara Wendroth, a widow with two children, and the daughter of the late +Paul Isenberg, a wealthy sugar planter of the Hawaiian Islands. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span> that +time the coffee king was dividing his time between the Waldorf-Astoria, +New York, which he called his American home, and his wonderful estate in +the fatherland. This latter was a two-hundred-acre private park +containing four villas and a marvelous bath-house for guests besides the +main villa; a rose-garden in which were cultivated one hundred +sixty-eight varieties on some twenty thousand bushes; a special +greenhouse for orchids; and landscaped grounds calling for the service +of six professional gardeners and forty assistants. Here he delighted to +entertain his friends. Frequently, there were fifteen to twenty of them +for dinner on the garden terrace; and, as the moon came up through the +tall hemlocks and shone through the majestic pines brought from Oregon, +a full military band from Heidelberg, adown the hillside among the rose +trees, mingled its music with the dinner discussions. There was nothing +at that dinner table but peace and harmony, although every language in +Europe was spoken; for Sielcken knew them all from his youth. Sometimes +he entertained his guests with stories of his California life, and +sometimes with those of shipwrecks in South America.</p> + +<p>All the post-telegraph boys in Baden knew every foot of the sharply +winding road up the Yburg Strasse to Villa Mariahalden; and the guests +therein have counted more than eighty cables received, and more than +thirty sent in a single day. And those daily cable messages were to and +from all quarters of the globe, and to and from the master, who handled +them all, without even a secretary or typewriter. Nowhere in the entire +establishment was there even an appearance of business, except as the +messages came and went on the highway. Sielcken manifested his greatest +delight in showing his friends his orchids, his roses, his pigeons, his +trout, and his trees.</p> + +<p>Like Napoleon, this merchant prince required only five hours sleep. It +was his custom to go to bed at one and to be up at six. Did he wish to +know anything that the cables did not bring him, he jumped into his +eighty-horse-power Mercedes with a party of guests and was off with the +sunrise, down the Rhine Valley, on his way to Paris or Hamburg; and +before one realized that he was gone, he was back again.</p> + +<p>In 1913, Sielcken admitted to partnership in his firm two employees of +long service, John S. Sorenson and Thorlief S.B. Nielsen. He went to +Germany in 1914, shortly before the beginning of the World War, and +remained at Mariahalden until he died in 1917. Sielcken never would +believe that war was possible until it had actually started. Up to the +last moment in July, 1914, he was cabling his New York partner that +there would probably be no hostilities. He lost a bet of a thousand +pounds made with a visiting Brazilian friend a few days before war was +declared. The guest believed war inevitable and won. A few days before +Sielcken's death the old firm was dissolved under the Trading with the +Enemy Act, being succeeded by the firm of Sorenson & Nielsen. The former +had been with the business thirty-four years, and the latter thirty-two +years. The alien property custodian took over Sielcken's interest for +the duration of the war.</p> + +<p>Rumors in 1915 that the German government was extorting large sums of +money from Sielcken brought denials from his associates here. After the +war, it was confirmed that no such extortions took place.</p> + +<p>Sielcken always claimed American citizenship. There was a widely +circulated story, never proved, that he tore up his citizenship papers +in 1912 when the United States government began its suit to force the +sale of coffee stocks held here under the valorization agreement. The +Supreme Court of California in 1921 decided that he <i>was</i> a citizen, and +his interests and those of his widow, amounting to $4,000,000, held by +the alien property custodian, were thereupon released to his heirs. It +appeared in evidence that he took out his citizenship papers in San +Francisco in 1873–74, but lost them in a shipwreck off the coast of +Brazil in 1876. The San Francisco fire destroyed the other records; but +under act of legislature re-establishing them, the citizenship claim was +declared valid.</p> + +<p>Hermann Sielcken never liked the title of "coffee king." He was once +asked about this appellation, and turned smartly upon the interviewer.</p> + +<p>"Nonsense," he said. "I am no king. I don't like the term, because I +never heard of a 'king' who did not fail."</p> + +<p>Sielcken had no use for titles. T.S.B. Nielsen says that at a dinner +party in Germany<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[Pg 521]</a></span> in 1915 he heard Sielcken explain to a large number of +guests that the United States was the best country because there a man +was appraised at his real value. What he did, and how he lived, +counted—not birth or titles.</p> + +<p>While his greatest achievement was, of course, the valorization +enterprise, he played a not unimportant rôle in the Havemeyer-Arbuckle +sugar-trust fight. He aided the late Henry O. Havemeyer to secure +control of the Woolson Spice Co. of Toledo in 1896, so as to enable the +Havemeyer's to retaliate with Lion brand coffee for the Arbuckles' +entrance into the sugar business. The Woolson Spice Co. sold the Lion +brand in the middle west, and the American Coffee Co. sold it in the +east. That was the beginning of a losing price-war that lasted ten +years. At the end, Sielcken took over the Woolson property at a price +considerably lower than originally paid for it. In 1919, the Woolson +Spice Co. brought suit against the Sielcken estate, alleging a loss of +$932,000 on valorization coffee sold to it by Sielcken just after the +federal government began its suit in 1912 to break up the valorization +pool in the United States. The Woolson Spice Co. paid the "market +price", as did the rest of the buyers of valorization coffee; but it was +charged that Sielcken, as managing partner of Crossman & Sielcken, sold +the coffee to the Woolson Spice Co., of which he was president, "at +artificially enhanced prices and in quantities far in excess of its +legitimate needs, concealing his knowledge that before the plaintiff +could use the coffee, the price would decline." Sielcken collected for +the coffee sold $3,218,666.</p> + +<p>When the United States government crossed lances with Sielcken in 1912 +over the valorization scheme, it looked for a time as if he would be +unhorsed. But men and governments were all the same to Sielcken; and at +the end of the fight it was discovered that not only was he +undefeated—for the government never pressed its suit to conclusion—but +that his prestige as king and master mind of the coffee trade had gained +immeasurably by the adventure.</p> + +<p>Hermann Sielcken typified German efficiency raised to the nth power. He +was a colossus of commerce with the military alertness of a Bismarck. +His mental processes were profound, and his vision was far-reaching. He +was a resourceful trader, an austere friend, a shrewd and uncompromising +foe. Physically, he was a big man with a bull neck and black, piercing +eyes. His policy in coffee was one of blood and iron. He brooked no +interference with his plans, and he was ruthless in his methods of +dealing with men and governments. Usually silent and uncommunicative, +occasionally he exploded under stress; and when he did so, there was no +mincing of words. He knew no fear. Newspaper criticism annoyed him but +little; and he had a kind of contempt for the fourth estate as a whole, +although he knew how to use it when it suited his purpose. He avoided +the limelight, and never courted publicity for himself. Socially he was +a princely host; but few knew him intimately, except perhaps in his +native Germany.</p> + +<p>Sielcken's widow was married in New York, February 11, 1922, to Joseph +M. Schwartz, the Russian baritone of the Chicago Opera Company.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Story of John Arbuckle</i></p> + +<p>John Arbuckle, for nearly fifty years the honored dean of the American +coffee trade, pioneer package-coffee man, some time coffee king, sugar +merchant, philanthropist, and typical American, came from fine, rugged +Scotch stock. He was the son of a well-to-do Scottish woolen-mill owner +in Allegheny, Pa., where he was born, July 11, 1839. He often said he +was raised on skim milk. He received a common school education in +Pittsburgh and Allegheny. He and Henry Phipps, the coke and steel head, +are said to have occupied adjoining desks in one of the public schools, +Andrew Carnegie being at that time in another grade of the same school. +He had a strong bent for science and machinery; and, although he chose +the coffee instead of the steel business for his career, the basis of +his success was invention. He also attended Washington and Jefferson +College at Washington, Pennsylvania.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a></p> + +<p>The Arbuckle business was founded at Pittsburg, in 1859, when Charles +Arbuckle, his uncle Duncan McDonald, and their friend William Roseburg, +organized the wholesale grocery firm of McDonald & Arbuckle. One year +later John Arbuckle, the younger brother of Charles Arbuckle, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[Pg 522]</a></span> +admitted to the firm, and the firm name was changed to McDonald & +Arbuckles. McDonald and Roseburg retired from the firm a few years +later, leaving the business in the hands of the two youthful, hopeful, +and energetic brothers, who under the firm name of Arbuckles & Co., soon +made their firm one of the important wholesale grocery houses in +Pennsylvania. Although little thinking at the time that their greatest +success was to be achieved in coffee, and that a new idea of one of the +partners—that of marketing roasted coffee in original packages—would +make their name familiar in every hamlet in the country, yet the first +two entries in the original day-book of McDonald & Arbuckles record +purchases of coffee.</p> + +<p>Prior to the sixties, coffee was not generally sold roasted or ground, +ready for the coffee pot. Except in the big cities, most housewives +bought their coffee green, and roasted it in their kitchen stoves as +needed. John Arbuckle, having become impressed with the wasteful methods +and unsatisfactory results of this kitchen roasting, had already begun +his studies of roasting and packaging problems, studies that he never +gave up. How, first to roast coffee scientifically, and then to preserve +its freshness in the interval between the roaster and the coffee pot, +continued to be an absorbing study until his death. The range of his +work may be illustrated by reference to his first and his last patents. +In 1868, he patented a process of glazing coffee, which had for its +object the preservation of the flavor and aroma of coffee by sealing the +pores of the coffee bean. Thirty-five years later, he patented a huge +coffee roaster in which, more closely than in any other roaster, he felt +he could approach his ideal of roasting coffee—that ideal being to hold +the coffee beans in suspension in superheated air during the entire +roasting process, and not to allow them to come in contact with a heated +iron surface.</p> + +<p>By 1865, John Arbuckle had satisfied himself that a carefully roasted +coffee, packed while still warm in small individual containers, would +measurably overcome the objections to selling loose coffee in a roasted +state. So in that year (1865), although not without the misgivings of +his elder brother, and even in the face of the ridicule of competitors, +who derided the plan of selling roasted coffee "in little paper bags +like peanuts", Arbuckles & Co. introduced the new idea, namely, roasted +coffee in original packages. The story of the development of that simple +idea, which soon spread from coast to coast, and of how it laid the +foundations of a great fortune, is one of the romances of American +business.</p> + +<p>Although Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java Coffee, a ground-coffee +package, first put on the New York market by Lewis A. Osborn, and later +exploited by Thomas Reid in the early sixties, appears to have been the +original package coffee, much of the fame attached to the name of +Arbuckle comes from its association with the Ariosa coffee package, +which was the first successful national brand of package coffee. It was +launched in 1873. The Ariosa premium list (premiums have been a feature +of the Arbuckle business since 1895) includes a hundred articles. Almost +anything from a pair of suspenders or a toothbrush, to clocks, wringers, +and corsets may be obtained in exchange for Ariosa coupons.</p> + +<p>The common belief that the name Ariosa was made up from the words Rio +and Santos (said to be the component parts of the original blend) is +erroneous. It was arbitrarily coined, though it is not known what +considerations prompted it. One story has it that the "A" stands for +Arbuckle, the "rio" for Rio, and the "sa" for South America.</p> + +<p>Early in the seventies, the great business opportunities of New York +City had attracted the two brothers, and a branch was established in New +York in charge of John Arbuckle, the main business in Pittsburg being +left in the care of his brother Charles. The growth of the New York +branch soon made it necessary for Charles Arbuckle to leave the +Pittsburg business in charge of trusted employees, and to come to New +York. In time, the coffee business of the New York house overshadowed +the grocery lines; and the latter were abandoned there, so that the +entire energy of the firm in New York might be devoted to the coffee +business, which thenceforth was operated under the firm name of Arbuckle +Bros. The Arbuckle coffee business, which began with a single roaster in +1865, had eighty-five machines running in Pittsburg and New York in +1881.</p> + +<p>Charles Arbuckle died in 1891, and John Arbuckle admitted as partners +his nephew,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span> William Arbuckle Jamison, and two employees, William V.R. +Smith and James N. Jarvie, the business continuing under the former name +of Arbuckle Bros. The most important step taken by the firm while thus +constituted was its entrance into the sugar refining business in 1896. +That entrance had to be forced against the bitterest opposition of a +so-called sugar trust, and brought on a "war" signalized by the most +ruthless cutting of prices of both coffee and sugar. This war was costly +to both sides; but when it had ended, Arbuckle Bros. remained unshaken +in the preeminence of their package-coffee business and had acquired +also great publicity and a fine trade in refined sugar.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="John_Arbuckle" id="John_Arbuckle"></a> +<img src="images/portrait33.jpg" width="300" height="392" alt="John Arbuckle" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">John Arbuckle</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Arbuckles were always large consumers of sugar in connection with their +coffee glaze, and having introduced the package sugar idea with their +customers some years before, they at last made up their minds to refine +for their own needs and thus to save the profits paid to "the +Havemeyers". It is generally conceded that John Arbuckle's shrewdness +and business sagacity in having previously acquired the Smyser patents +on a weighing and packing machine, and his control of it, really led to +the coffee-sugar war. "This packing machine", said the <i>Spice Mill</i>, +when Henry E. Smyser died in 1899, "puts him [Smyser] with the greatest +inventors of our day."</p> + +<p>The sugar trust met the Arbuckle challenge by invading the +coffee-roasting field. This they accomplished by securing a controlling +interest for $2,000,000 in one of the largest competing roasting plants +in the country, that of the Woolson Spice Co., of Toledo, Ohio, that had +in the Lion brand, a ready-made package coffee wherewith to fight +Ariosa. The re-organization of the Woolson Spice Co. in 1897, when A. M. +Woolson was relieved of the office of president, disclosed, among +others, the names of Hermann Sielcken in close juxtaposition to that of +H.O. Havemeyer on the board of directors. Both men helped to make +coffee-trade history.</p> + +<p>The trade found the coffee-sugar war the all-absorbing topic for several +years. Hot debates were held on the question as to whether, on one hand, +the Arbuckles had the right to enter the sugar-refining business and, on +the other, as to whether the sugar-trust had a right to retaliate. The +answer seemed to be "yes" in both instances.</p> + +<p>In two years, John Arbuckle's model sugar refinery in Brooklyn was +turning out package sugar at the rate of five thousand barrels a day. +The Woolson Spice Co. was credited with spending unheard-of sums of +money in advertising Lion brand coffee. The eastern newspaper displays +alone exceeded anything ever before attempted in this line. However, +many people are of the opinion that it was a tactical error on the part +of the sugar interests to spend so much money advertising a Rio coffee +in the central and New England states, while John Arbuckle was confining +his activities to the south and the west, where there already existed a +Rio taste among consumers.</p> + +<p>The legal fight which the Arbuckles carried on with the Havemeyers for +the control of the sugar business in this celebrated coffee-sugar war is +said to have cost millions on both sides.</p> + +<p>Eventually, the Havemeyers were glad to be relieved of their coffee +interests, but John Arbuckle continued to sell both coffee and sugar.</p> + +<p>Mr. Arbuckle married Miss Mary Alice Kerr in Pittsburg, in 1868. She +died in 1907. His many charities included boat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[Pg 524]</a></span> trips for children, +luxurious farm vacations for tired wage-earners, boat-raising and +life-saving schemes, a low-priced home for working girls and men on an +old full-rigged ship lying off a New York dock, which he called his +"Deep Sea Hotel," and a vacation enterprise for young men and young +women at New Paltz, N.Y., which was known as the "Mary and John Arbuckle +Farm." A magazine for children, called <i>Sunshine</i>, was another +benevolent enterprise of his.</p> + +<p>When John Arbuckle died at his Brooklyn home, March 27, 1912, he had +been ill only four days. The New York Coffee Exchange closed at two +o'clock the day following, after adopting appropriate resolutions and +appointing a committee to attend the funeral. His estate in New York was +valued at $33,000,000.</p> + +<p>W.V.R. Smith and James N. Jarvie retired from the firm in 1906; and John +Arbuckle and his nephew W.A. Jamison continued it as sole owners and +partners until Mr. Arbuckle's death in 1912. Mr. Arbuckle died childless +and a widower, leaving as his only heirs his two sisters, Mrs. Catherine +Arbuckle Jamison and Miss Christina Arbuckle. Mrs. Jamison is the widow +of the late Robert Jamison, who had been a prominent drygoods merchant +in Pittsburg. William A. Jamison is her eldest and only living son. +Following the death of John Arbuckle, a new partnership was formed in +which Mrs. Jamison, Miss Arbuckle, and Mr. Jamison became the partners +and owners, and that partnership, without change of name, continues. +Probably there is no other mercantile establishment of similar size in +the country that is carried on as a partnership, and none which after +more than sixty years is so exclusively owned by members of the +immediate family of its founders.</p> + +<p>The Arbuckle business, as it is today, is John Arbuckle's best monument. +All that it is he foresaw; for behind those keen, penetrating eyes, +there was wonderful vision. Simple in his tastes; democratic in his +dress, in his habits and his speech; he was one of the most approachable +of our first captains of industry. Many of the younger generation in the +coffee business have found inspiration in contemplating John Arbuckle's +achievements. As represented in what has been called "the world's +greatest coffee business", these include other package coffees, such as +Yuban, Arbuckle's Breakfast, Arbuckle's Drinksum, and Arbuckle's +Certified Java and Mocha. The pioneer Ariosa brand is still being sold; +although it is interesting to note that the demand for ground Ariosa is +increasing, marking the swing of the pendulum of public taste away from +the original bean package to the so-called "steel-cut," or ground, +coffee package. Will it swing back again, some day? Many coffee men +believe it will. If it does, good old Ariosa, with its coating of sugar +and eggs, will no doubt be on the job to meet it.</p> + +<p>Yuban was launched in the fall of 1913. It is a high-grade package +coffee, whereas Ariosa is popular-priced. In addition to the package +coffee business, Arbuckle Bros. have many other activities. They deal in +green coffee as well as roasted coffee in bulk. The wholesale grocery +business in Pittsburg continues under the old name of Arbuckles & Co.; +while in Chicago, Arbuckle Bros. have a branch equipped with a +coffee-roasting-and-packaging plant, also spice-grinding and +extract-manufacturing plants, and do a large business in teas. A branch +in Kansas City distributes the products manufactured in New York and +Chicago. In Brazil, offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro, Santos, +and Victoria, as Arbuckle & Co. In Mexico, Arbuckle Bros. are +established at Jalapa, with branches at Cordoba and Coatepec. In season, +the warehouses and hulling plants at those points employ as many as 650 +hands preparing Mexican coffee for shipment to New York.</p> + +<p>Arbuckle Bros. are direct importers of green coffee on a large scale, +and are known also as heavy buyers "on the street." The roasting +capacity of their Brooklyn plant is from 8,000 to 9,000 bags per day. +The cylinder equipment of twenty-four Burns roasters is supplemented by +four "Jumbo" roasters of Arbuckle build, each capable of roasting +thirty-five bags at one time. The Ariosa package business grew from the +smallest beginnings to more than 800,000 packages per day. Individual +brands have not held their lead of late years; but the volume of +package-coffee business is greater than ever. Many jobbers now pack +brands of their own, besides handling the Arbuckle brands.</p> + +<p>Distribution of roasted coffees outside Chicago and Kansas City is +accomplished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[Pg 525]</a></span> through the medium of more than one hundred stock depots +in as many different cities of the United States.</p> + +<p>To operate the world's greatest coffee business is no small undertaking; +and when this is coupled with an important sugar-refining business and a +waterfront warehouse-and-terminal business, plenty of room is needed. So +we find the plant along the Brooklyn waterfront occupying an area of a +dozen city blocks. An idea of the extent and diversity of the activities +of the plant may be gained from a brief reference to the utilities, and +the trades, and even the professions, that are required to make the +wheels go round.</p> + +<p>To ship more than one hundred cars of coffee and sugar in a single day +calls for shipping facilities that could be had only by organizing a +railroad and waterfront terminal, known as Jay Street Terminal, equipped +with freight station, locomotives, tugboats, steam lighters, car floats, +and barges. City deliveries of coffee and sugar call for a fleet of +thirty-five large motor trucks that are housed in the firm's own garage +and kept in repair in their own shops. Although motor trucks are fast +replacing the faithful horse; and the time will never come again when +Arbuckle Bros. will boast of their stable of nearly two hundred horses +that were generally acknowledged to be the finest string of draft horses +in the city, some fifty or sixty of their faithful animals still are in +harness; and so the stable, with blacksmith shop, harness shop, and +wagon-repair shops, are serving their respective purposes, though on a +reduced scale. A printing shop vibrates with the whirr of mammoth +printing presses turning out thousands upon thousands of coffee-wrappers +and circulars; and doubtless it will be news to many that the first +three-color printing press ever built was expressly designed and built +for Arbuckle Bros. Then there is a sunny first-aid hospital on top of +the Pearl Street warehouse where a physician is ever ready to relieve +sudden illness and accidental injuries. On the eleventh floor there is a +huge dining room where the Brooklyn clerical forces get their noonday +lunches. This feeding of the inner man (and woman) is matched by the +power-house where twenty-six large steam boilers must be fed their quota +of coal. In the winter months, when Warmth must come for the workers as +well as power for the wheels, the coal consumption runs up as high as +four hundred tons per day.</p> + +<p>The barrel factory, with a daily capacity of 6,800 sugar barrels, is +located about a mile away, where barrel staves and heads are received +from the firm's own stave mill in Virginia, made from logs cut on their +own timber lands in Virginia and North Carolina. A more self-contained +plant would be hard to imagine, and so we find that even the last +activity in its operations—that of washing and drying the emptied sugar +bags—is also provided for. That this is "some laundry" goes without +saying, when it is recalled that in the busy sugar season the firm dumps +from eight to ten thousand bags of raw sugar per day, and that these +bags are washed and dried daily as emptied. A huge rotary drier of the +firm's own design does the work of about three miles of clothes lines.</p> + +<p>Even after the coffees have been sold and paid for, there still remains +an important task, and that is to redeem the signature coupons which the +consumers cut from the packages and return for premiums. Lest some +regard this as an insignificant phase of the business, it may be stated +that in a single year the premium department has received over one +hundred and eight million coupons calling for more than four million +premiums. These premiums included 818,928 handkerchiefs; 261,000 pairs +of lace curtains; 238,738 shears; and 185,920 Torrey razors. Finger +rings are perennial favorites, and so insistent is the demand for the +rings offered as premiums, that Arbuckle Bros. are regarded as the +largest distributors of finger rings in the world. One of their premium +rings is a wedding ring; and if all the rings of this pattern serve +their intended purpose, it is estimated that the firm has assisted at +eighty thousand weddings in a year.</p> + +<p>Turning from the utilities at the plant to the trades and professions +represented, other than the trained sugar and coffee workers, the +following are constantly employed: physicians, chemists, mechanical +engineers, civil engineers, electrical engineers, railroad engineers and +brakemen, steamboat captains and engineers, chauffeurs, teamsters, +wagon-makers, harness-makers, machinists, draughtsmen, blacksmiths, +tinsmiths, coppersmiths, coopers, carpenters, masons, painters, +plumbers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[Pg 526]</a></span> riggers, typesetters and pressmen, and last but not least, +the chef and table waiters.</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable things about the growth of this business +enterprise is that it is not the result of buying out, or consolidating +with, competitors; but has resulted from a steady wholesome growth along +conservative business lines. Consolidations are often desirable and +effective; but when a great business has been built without any such +consolidations, the conclusion is inevitable that somewhere in the +establishment there must have been a corresponding amount of wisdom, +foresight, energy, and honorable business dealing. Those were the things +for which John Arbuckle stood firm, and for which he will always be +remembered.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Jabez Burns, Inventor, Manufacturer, Writer</i></p> + +<p>Jabez Burns was a person of real importance to the American coffee trade +from 1864, when he began to manufacture his improved roaster, until his +death, at the age of sixty-two, in 1888. His success depended more on +unusual character than unusual ability, although he was really gifted as +regards mechanical invention. He loved to acquire practical information, +and arrived confidently at common-sense conclusions; and he exercised a +wide and helpful influence, because he liked to give expression to +opinions that he considered sound and useful.</p> + +<p>Mr. Burns was born in London in 1826. The family moved soon after to +Dundee, Scotland, and came to New York in 1844. They were people of +small means and independent thinking. The father, William G. Burns, had +been more interested in the Chartist social movement than in any settled +business activity. An uncle, also named Jabez Burns, became a popular +Baptist preacher in London.</p> + +<p>The first winter in America found youthful Jabez teaching a country +school at Summit, N.J. Then he began in New York (1844–45) as teamster +for Henry Blair, a prosperous coffee merchant who attended a little +"Disciples" church in lower Sixth Avenue where many Scottish families +congregated. There also Burns met Agnes Brown, daughter of a Paisley +weaver, and married her in 1847. A brave young pair they were, who found +all sorts of odd riches—just as if a fast-growing family could somehow +make up for a slow-growing income. There were hopes, too, that the +contrivances Burns kept inventing might bring wealth; and some extra +money did come from the sale of early patents, including one in 1858 for +the Burns Addometer, a primitive adding machine.</p> + +<p>But Mr. Burns had continued regularly in the employ of coffee and spice +firms, and at one time he was bookkeeper for Thomas Reid's Globe Mills. +He advanced slowly, because he lacked real trading talent; but he was +learning all about the handling of goods, from purchase to final +delivery; and when he quit bookkeeping for the old Globe Mills, and +began to build his patent roaster, he could advise clients reliably +about every factory detail.</p> + +<p>He was soon looked on as an authority. He wrote some articles for the +<i>American Grocer</i>, a series on "Food Adulteration" being reprinted; and +in 1878, he began the quarterly publication of his thirty-two-page +<i>Spice Mill</i>, which soon became a monthly, and gained the interested +attention of practically the entire coffee and spice trade.</p> + +<p>Through the columns of this paper, in circulars, by letters, and in a +pocket volume called the <i>Spice Mill Companion</i>, he distributed +information on coffee, spices, and baking powder, and gave valuable +advice to beginners in the coffee-roasting business. Not a few coffee +roasters were started on the way to fortune by the counsel of Jabez +Burns. He died in New York, September 16, 1888.</p> + +<p>Jabez Burns founded the business of Jabez Burns & Sons in 1864, +beginning the manufacture of his patent coffee roaster at 107 Warren +Street, New York. Since then, there have been four removals. In +December, 1908, the business moved to its present uptown location, at +the northwest corner of Eleventh Avenue and Forty-third Street, +occupying a six-story building which was doubled in size in 1917. This +Burns factory has been referred to as "the unique coffee-machinery +workshop", the greatest establishment of its kind in the United States.</p> + +<p>Upon the death of its founder the business was continued; first, as the +firm of Jabez Burns & Sons, composed of his sons, Jabez, Robert, and A. +Lincoln Burns; and later, in 1906, incorporated as Jabez Burns & Sons, +Inc., with Robert Burns as president,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[Pg 527]</a></span> Jabez Burns as vice-president, +and A. Lincoln Burns as secretary and treasurer. Jabez Burns died August +6, 1908. The present officers are: Robert Burns, president; A. Lincoln +Burns, vice-president; William G. Burns, general manager; and C.H. +Maclachlan, secretary and treasurer.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Jabez_Burns" id="Jabez_Burns"></a> +<img src="images/portrait34.jpg" width="300" height="350" alt="Jabez Burns" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Jabez Burns</span></span> +</div> + +<p>A. Lincoln Burns succeeded his father as editor of the <i>Spice Mill</i>. +William H. Ukers was made editor in 1902, and he continued until 1904, +when he left to assume editorial direction of <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal</i>.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee-Trade Booms and Panics</i></p> + +<p>In the last fifty years there have been many spectacular attempts to +corner the coffee market in Europe and the United States. The first +notable occurrence of this kind did not originate in the trade itself. +It took place in 1873, and was known as the "Jay Cooke panic", being +brought about by the famous panic of that name in the stock market.</p> + +<p>As a result of the Jay Cooke failure, it was impossible to obtain money +from the banks. Hence buyers were forced to keep out of the coffee +market; and as a consequence, the price for Rios dropped from +twenty-four cents to fifteen cents in the course of the trading period +of one day<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a>.</p> + +<p>Another interesting development during that year was of foreign origin. +A coffee syndicate was organized in Europe, financed by the powerful +German Trading Company of Frankfort, with agencies in London, Rotterdam, +Antwerp, and Brazil. For more than eight years this proved to be a +highly successful undertaking, largely controlling the principal +producing and consuming markets.</p> + +<p>As far as the American coffee trade is concerned, the first sensational +upheaval took place in 1880–81. This period witnessed the collapse of +the first great coffee trade combination in this country—the so-called +"syndicate", comprising O.G. Kimball, B.G. Arnold, and Bowie Dash, +sometimes known as the "trinity".</p> + +<p>The period of high coffee prices, commencing in 1870, had greatly +stimulated production in many Mild-coffee producing countries, as well +as in Brazil, and as a consequence the syndicate found its burden +becoming extremely heavy early in 1880. In January of that year our +visible supply amounted roughly to 767,000 bags. While this was reduced +to about 740,000 bags in July, the latter likewise proved to be +decidedly burdensome, especially as another liberal crop was beginning +to move in producing countries. The excessive volume of supplies was +especially marked, because distributing trade during the summer was +strikingly dull, as the majority of buyers were holding off, in view of +the prospective liberal new crops. At that time Java coffee was a big +item in American markets, whereas Santos was just about beginning to be +a factor.</p> + +<p>The syndicate found that it had its hands full supporting the Brazil +grades, and hence had to let the Javas go. As a result, the latter, +which had sold at twenty-four and three-quarters cents in January, 1880, +fell to nineteen and one-half cents in July, to eighteen cents in +November and to sixteen cents in December. As a matter of fact, the +syndicate was practically the only buyer of Brazil coffee during the +fall of 1880; and as a consequence, Rios, which had started the year at +fourteen and one-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[Pg 528]</a></span> to sixteen and one-quarter cents, were down to +twelve and three-quarters cents in December, 1880, and had dropped nine +and one-half cents when the break in the market culminated in June, +1881.</p> + +<p>The first whispers of financial troubles growing out of these adverse +conditions were heard in October, 1880; and on the 27th of that month +the first failure was announced—that of C. Risley & Co., with +liabilities placed at $800,000 and assets at $400,000. This firm had +been doing business in the local market for about thirty years. The +efforts of the receivers to dispose of this company's large stock +naturally served to accelerate the decline; and the final impetus came +on December 6, when the New York trade heard of the death, two days +previously, of O.G. Kimball, of Boston, one of the most prominent +merchants there. This precipitated the big crash of December 7, when +B.G. Arnold & Co., the largest New York firm, suspended with estimated +liabilities of $750,000 to $1,000,000. The official statement later +placed the liabilities at $2,157,914, and assets at $1,400,000, of which +$884,198 were secured. Within three days this failure was followed by +the suspension of Bowie Dash & Co., with liabilities estimated at +$1,400,000.</p> + +<p>For weeks thereafter there was virtually no market. With all of these +distress holdings pressing for liquidation, buyers, as was natural, were +extremely timid. In the meantime, the import arrivals showed further +enlargement at various southern ports, as well as at New York. Total +arrivals at this port during 1881 were almost 12,400,000 pounds heavier +than for the preceding year. The growing importance of Santos as a +market factor was demonstrated by the fact that shipments from there in +1881 were 1,198,625 bags, compared with about 628,900 bags in 1876–77. +According to the best informed members of the trade at that time, the +losses sustained by the various firms that were forced to the wall +aggregated between $5,000,000 and $7,000,000.</p> + +<p>The utterly demoralized conditions prevailing while this collapse was in +progress, and the practical elimination of a market in the true sense of +the word, furnished the principal impetus for the organization of the +New York Coffee Exchange. At that time, the Havre market was the only +one with an exchange. The local body was organized in December, 1881, +and started business in March, 1882.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Cable Break of 1884</i></p> + +<p>The second noteworthy movement, embracing an advance of four to four and +one-half cents and a recession of slightly more than three cents, +covered a period of about eight months shortly after the Exchange was +organized. Various local and out-of-town firms were interested in the +bulge which carried Rio coffee in this market from about seven cents in +July, 1883, up to eleven and one-half cents late in November. By the +middle of December, the price had fallen to nine and one-quarter cents, +the final break to eight and one-quarter cents occurring late in March +of the following year. At that time, there was no direct cable +communication with Brazil; and as a result of a temporary break in the +roundabout service by way of Portugal, the New York and Baltimore agents +of the Brazilian syndicate were unable to put up additional margins in +this market, and their accounts were closed out. This happened on a +Saturday; and by the following Monday, partial cable remittances arrived +and all accounts were settled in full with interest from Saturday to +Monday.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Great Boom</i></p> + +<p>What is generally described as "the great boom" of the coffee trade +occurred in 1886–87, and had its inception in unsatisfactory crop news +from Brazil. The crop of 1887–1888, it was estimated, would be extremely +small; and it turned out to be only 3,033,000 bags. These advices and +low estimates led to the formation of a "bull" clique, comprising +operators in New York, Chicago, New Orleans, Brazil, and Europe, who set +a price of twenty-five cents for December contracts as their goal. +Toward the end of June, 1886, when this campaign started, No. 7 Rio in +New York was worth about seven and one-half cents, with June contracts +on the Exchange quoted at seven and sixty-five hundredths cents. With +Brazilian crop news still more discouraging, the advance thereafter was +almost continuous, and on June 1, 1887, December contracts sold at +twenty-two and one-quarter cents—a new high price record, that was not +exceeded for thirty-two years, when twenty-four and sixty-five +hundredths cents were paid for July contracts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[Pg 529]</a></span> in June, 1919. After +reaching twenty-two and one-quarter cents, prices suffered an abrupt +reversal. Ten days later the closing price for December was twenty-one +and four-tenth cents. Then the real crash began. On Saturday, June 11, +the panic started with another claim of cable trouble; and in the short +session, December coffee broke from twenty and fifteen-hundredths to +eighteen and sixty-five hundredths cents, closing at a loss for the day +of 275 points. The first sale of December on Monday was at seventeen and +four-tenths cents, or 125 points lower; and after numerous erratic +variations, the price broke to sixteen cents, a drop of six and +one-quarter cents in less than two weeks. Business on that day was of +enormous volume, in round numbers 412,000 bags; and approximately +$1,500,000 was put up in margins. For the next three days the decline +was temporarily halted, and December, at one time, was up three and +one-quarter cents from the bottom (nineteen and one-quarter cents). On +June 17, another battle commenced, December dropping back to seventeen +cents. Then came a rally to eighteen and one-tenth cents, a drop to +sixteen and one-half cents; another rally to eighteen and one-tenth, +and, on June 24, another break to the previous low level of sixteen +cents for December. This sharp reversal in less than a month was +traceable largely to more favorable news from Brazil, the 1888–89 crop +being estimated at 6,827,000 bags.</p> + +<p>Following a rally to nineteen and six-tenths cents during the next month +(July, 1887), the pendulum again swung downward. The climax came with +the culmination of the "European fiasco" of the spring of 1888. Reports +were received that various European coffee firms had failed; and future +contracts in the American market sold as low as nine cents in March.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>A Famous European Bull Campaign</i></p> + +<p>The next campaign of interest lasted more than two and a half years. In +September, 1891, there was a corner in the local market which forced the +September price up to seventeen and one-quarter cents. George +Kaltenbach, a wealthy speculator living in Paris, combining with three +operators in Havre, Hamburg, and Antwerp, succeeded in breaking the +corner, forcing the price down to ten and eight-tenths cents. They then +changed to the bull side, buying heavily in all markets of the world. +This was continued until early in 1893, bringing the price back to +fifteen cents. Although his associates then returned to the bear side, +Kaltenbach kept on buying; and aided by bad crop reports from Brazil, he +worked the price up as high as seventeen and seven-tenths cents. At one +time it was said that his profits were more than one million dollars. +The collapse of this deal occurred in May, 1893, involving thirty firms +in Hamburg, Havre, and Rotterdam. As Kaltenbach could not keep his large +New York holdings margined, they were thrown on the market, bringing +about a sharp break, and causing the failure of his New York agents, +T.M. Barr & Co.</p> + +<p>The present era of large crops began in 1894, Brazil's production for +1894–95 being placed at 6,695,000 bags. Nevertheless, Guzman Blanco, a +former president of Venezuela, then living in Paris, and said to be +worth about $20,000,000, attempted to run a corner in April, 1895. He +bought 200,000 bags of spot coffee in Havre warehouses and accumulated a +big line of futures in various markets. Assisted by reports of cholera +in Rio and some reduction in Brazilian crops, he enjoyed temporary +success, the price of Rio 7s in New York rising to fifteen and one-half +cents in October, 1895. Thereafter, there was an almost continuous +decline. In the spring of 1898, a vigorous bear campaign was conducted, +largely in the form of market letters; and by November, Rio 7s here had +dropped to four and one-half cents.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Bubonic Plague Boom</i></p> + +<p>The so-called "bubonic plague boom" halted this prolonged downward +movement for a time in 1899–1900. The boom derived its name from the +outbreak of bubonic plague in Brazil, as a result of which the ports of +that country were quarantined. In addition, Brazilian steamers arriving +at New York were placed in quarantine; and the impossibility of +unloading their cargoes caused a temporary shortage. As a result, prices +rose from four and one-quarter cents in September, 1899, to eight and +one-quarter cents in July, 1900. The quarantine being lifted, the bears +again became aggressive; and by April, 1901, they had forced the price +back to five cents.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[Pg 530]</a></span></p><p>There was another short-lived attempt to establish a corner in +September, 1901. Receipts at Rio and Santos had been running light, +encouraging a local clique embracing Skiddy, Minford & Company; W.H. +Crossman & Bro.; and Gruner & Company, to endeavor to gain control. The +arrivals at Brazilian ports suddenly increased to the largest volume +ever known up to that time; and, with vigorous opposition from operators +in Havre, the corner here was speedily broken.</p> + +<p>The opening of the new century witnessed the beginning of another new +coffee era, Santos permanently displacing Rio as the world's largest +source of supply. The figures for 1900–01 were: Santos, 2,945,000 bags; +Rio, 2,413,000 bags.</p> + +<p>Huge crops then became a regular thing in Brazil. That of 1901–02 was +far in excess of estimates, being 15,000,000 bags; while 20,000,000 bags +were produced in 1902–03. As a result, the world's coffee trade became +completely demoralized for the time being. In August, 1902, contracts +for July, 1903, delivery sold at six and one-tenths cents. By June, +1903, they had fallen to three and fifty-five hundredths cents, the +lowest price ever recorded for coffee.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Southern Boom</i></p> + +<p>As is invariably the case when prices reach extreme levels, either high +or low, the pendulum swung back rapidly in the other direction. Based on +the unprecedentedly low prices, the so-called "cotton crowd" started +what was generally known as "the southern boom". Various cotton traders +in New York and the South, under the leadership of D.J. Sully, the +one-time "cotton king", and ably assisted by prominent local coffee +firms, became extremely active on the buying side; and by February, +1904, they had forced the price up to eleven and eighty-five hundredths +cents. This figure, the highest since 1896, was reached on February 2, +which proved to be another day of enormous speculative dealings, +involving roundly 462,000 bags. This marked another turning point; the +three succeeding days of record-breaking operations on the Exchange +witnessing a break of roughly two cents. Mr. Sully went on a vacation on +February 3, and the Sielcken interests sold on a large scale. Business +for that day was placed at 555,000 bags, closing prices being about +one-half cent lower. This brought on enormous liquidation by western +bulls on the following day, approximately 500,000 bags. As a result, +prices lost twenty-five to sixty-five points on a turn-over of about +642,000 bags. All records for business were smashed on the following +day, February 5. The official record was 689,000 bags, but trade +estimates made it more than 1,000,000 bags. On that day, southern +interests liquidated heavily, causing net losses of eighty to ninety +points. Doubtless the break would have been more severe had it not been +for buying by the Sielcken people and several other strong interests at +and below seven and one-quarter cents for September contracts.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Story of Valorization</i></p> + +<p>The valorization, or equalization, of coffee originated in Brazil. When +the original plan was threatened with disaster, Hermann Sielcken stepped +in and saved the Brazil planters from ruin; the Brazil government from +possible revolution; and, incidentally, won for himself and those who +were his partners in the enterprise much unenviable notoriety.</p> + +<p>The principle of valorization is generally conceded to be economically +unsound, because it encourages overproduction. And valorization in +Brazil would have been a failure, had it not been for a fortuitous +combination of short crops, Hermann Sielcken's genius, and the World +War. Because of the lessons learned in this experience, Brazil's +subsequent valorization enterprises have run more smoothly.</p> + +<p>A rapidly increasing world demand, a wonderfully fertile soil, and cheap +labor kept the Brazil coffee industry in a flourishing condition nearly +to the close of 1889. Coffee consumption was increasing, especially in +the United States. By April 1890, the average import price per pound of +Rio No. 7 in this country was nineteen cents; and Brazil was supplying +only about half our needs. Virgin soil was still available in Brazil, +and immigration furnished all the needful labor. Easy profits led to +increased investment and careless methods. Her planters were drunk with +prosperity. For six years, nearly all the three million inhabitants of +São Paulo, Brazil's largest coffee producing state, "entirely gave up +planting corn, rice, beans, everything they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[Pg 531]</a></span> needed. They bought them +because coffee was so immensely profitable that they put all their labor +in coffee."</p> + +<p>Brazil had been going through a period of low exchange. Paper money fell +below par. The exaggerated issues of it, which provoked the collapse of +exchange, suddenly endowed Brazil with an abundant circulation of money. +Production was enormously stimulated. New undertakings sprang up on +every hand. Armies of agricultural laborers were recruited in Europe and +shipped into the coffee districts. And then, to make the story short, +supply passed demand, surplus stocks began to appear, prices began to +fall, and fell until they dropped below the cost of production.</p> + +<p>It was in 1896–97, when the new trees came into bearing by the tens and +hundreds of thousands, that São Paulo's folly began to tell. By October +of that year the price of Rio No. 7 in New York had fallen to about +seven cents. The decline continued, until, in 1903, it hung around five +cents. Then began the winter of São Paulo's discontent. Too late, the +state government tried by taxing new coffee estates, to force the +planters to raise crops to supply their own necessities. The times grew +harder.</p> + +<p>Mortgages held by large coffee houses and bankers were being foreclosed. +The industry was passing into European hands. The smaller planters were +becoming desperate; and desperation is only a step from revolution. The +government of the state of São Paulo knew this; and to save the state, +it finally promised it would buy the next coffee crop, and would hold it +for the planters at such a price as would be necessary to continue the +industry. The protagonists of this plan to valorize coffee were Dr. +Jorge Tibiriçá, Dr. Augusto Ramos, and Dr. Albuquerque Lins.</p> + +<p>During all the period covering São Paulo's rise and fall in coffee, the +financial genius who was to lead her again into the land of plenty had +been quietly acquiring a knowledge of her problems—also, the ability to +make money out of their solution.</p> + +<p>Valorization was undertaken to save the coffee industry. Its intent was +good, even if the theory was bad. The scheme was not new, and there were +no encouraging precedents to augur its success. The situation was +desperate and seemed to justify the trial of a desperate remedy. São +Paulo attempted to carry the load; but her resources were insufficient.</p> + +<p>The bumper world crop of 19,090,000 bags in 1901–02 was followed, in +1906–07, with another extraordinary yield of 24,307,000 bags, of which +Brazil alone produced 20,192,000 bags. To make good its promise to the +planters, ready cash was needed; and so the São Paulo government sent a +special commissioner to Europe to get it. For sixty years the +Rothschilds had acted as Brazil's bankers. The commissioner went to the +Rothschilds first. He was flatly refused. After that, he was turned down +by practically every bank on the continent. It looked as if the bankers +had entered into a gentlemen's agreement to make it unanimous. Then the +commissioner bethought himself of the coffee merchants; and that thought +naturally suggested Hermann Sielcken, who, singularly enough, happened +to be conveniently resting at nearby Baden-Baden. In August, 1906, the +commissioner waited upon Mr. Sielcken and begged his aid.</p> + +<p>It was Sielcken's hour of triumph. For years he had been soliciting +Brazil. Now the tables were turned, and Brazil was asking favors of +Sielcken.</p> + +<p>The rest of the story is best told by Robert Sloss, who wrote it for +<i>World's Work</i> from information furnished by trade authorities—and even +by Mr. Sielcken, himself, in various speeches, newspaper articles, and +on the witness stand. It is presented here with certain minor +corrections by the author:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">"Well, what do you want me to do?" asked Hermann Sielcken of the +commissioner from the state of São Paulo.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"We want you to finance for us five to eight million bags of +coffee," said the commissioner blandly.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Here was an adventure. Here was a proposition to lift bodily out of +the market half as much coffee as the world's total production had +averaged for the ten preceding years when prices had been so low. +Presumably, if this were done, prices would be doubled. But Hermann +Sielcken shook his head.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"No," he said, "there is not the slightest chance for it, not the +slightest." And then he pointed out that there would be "no +financial assistance coming from anywhere" if the São Paulo +planters kept on raising such ridiculously large crops of coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The commissioner assured him that the prospect was for smaller +crops in future. Hermann Sielcken was not so sure about it "At a +price low enough," he mused, "I might be able to raise funds to pay +eighty percent on a value of seven cents a pound for Rio No. 5."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[Pg 532]</a></span></p><p class="quot1">The commissioner was dismayed. His government had already promised +to take coffee from the planters at about a cent a pound above the +market, and the market then stood at nearly eight cents. The +government would have to dig to make up the difference. Hermann +Sielcken's terms were the best that could be got, however, and the +commissioner accepted them.</p> + +<p class="quot1">From that time forth Hermann Sielcken was the head of the movement. +He approached a few large coffee merchants, including his former +rivals, Arbuckle Brothers, and drew up a contract. The merchants +agreed to advance eighty percent of the sum required to buy two +million bags of coffee at seven cents a pound. If the market went +above seven cents, the government was to make no purchases. If it +fell below seven cents, the government was to make good the +difference to the merchants by cable.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Before the season was well advanced the unexpected happened. Brazil +was reaping the largest coffee harvest in the history of the world. +The two million bags of coffee purchased by the government were as +a drop in a bucket. Financed by Hermann Sielcken, Schroeder, the +great London banker, and a few prominent European merchants, the +government was forced to buy almost nine million bags. Toward the +end of 1907, the government had lifted half of the world's visible +supply of coffee, but the market stood only a trifle above six +cents a pound. The government was practically bankrupt.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Hermann Sielcken now enlisted the Rothschilds on his side, and +shifted the financial burden from the shoulders of the coffee +merchants to those of the Paris bankers and their American +associates. Then the Rothschilds imposed their conditions on the +government of Brazil. A national law was passed determining a heavy +penalty for any one who planted a new coffee tree in Brazil. The +government guaranteed that not more than mine million bags of the +next coffee crop and not more than ten million bags of any +succeeding crop should be exported.</p> + +<p class="quot1">By the end of 1911, the coffee market stood well above thirteen +cents. Here was a rise of more than one hundred percent in two +years, more than sixty percent in six months. Evidently, +valorization coffee in the hands of the bankers' committee had +become a gilt-edged security. But how?</p> + +<p class="quot1">During the five crop years since the "plan" was launched on the +heights above Baden, nearly 90,000,000 bags of coffee had been +raised in the world. The bankers' committee still held 5,108,000 +bags of this. At the highest estimate, consumption had exceeded +production by only 4,000,000 bags. Here was a shortage of only a +little more than ten percent in supply as against demand, so far as +crops go. Yet there had been a rise of more than one hundred +percent in two years in the price of coffee on the New York Coffee +Exchange.... Upon the merchant's ability to deliver coffee on the +New York Coffee Exchange depends the price of coffee in the world. +That explains why the bankers' committee from the beginning refused +absolutely to sell valorization coffee on the public exchanges of +the world. In Europe, they put it up at auction; and when it didn't +go, it was bought in for them. In America, they announced in a +printed circular that valorization coffee would be sold only on +condition that the purchaser would not deliver it on the New York +Coffee Exchange.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Hermann Sielcken absolutely refused to sell coffee to the merchants +on the Exchange. Arbuckle Brothers kept on buying coffee heavily, +as if they would corner the market. They resold the coffee, +however, at private sales, exacting a written contract from the +buyer that he would not deliver the coffee on the New York Coffee +Exchange, or resell it to any one that would so deliver it. The +Coffee Exchange began an investigation, but nothing ever came of +it.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Shortly after the valorization committee had apparently cleared up +$25,000,000 in one year, the restriction as to the delivery of +valorization coffee on the New York Coffee Exchange was officially +removed. Yet neither from Hermann Sielcken nor from Arbuckle +Brothers, it is charged, could one buy any coffee to deliver for +that purpose. In 1911, coffee rose to sixteen cents per pound.</p></div> + +<p>At the end, it was found that the committee's holdings had been marketed +at the various sales on a basis, for Santos 4s, from eight and +five-eighths cents minimum, to the final sale here forced by the United +States government, at which time the price realized was sixteen and +three-quarter cents for Santos 4s, and fourteen cents for Rio 7s.</p> + +<p>The one fly in the valorization ointment was Senator G.W. Norris, of +Nebraska, who early in 1911 called for a congressional investigation of +the operations of the valorization syndicate, which he said was costing +the American people $35,000,000 a year. The attorney-general was +instructed to report as to whether or not there was a coffee trust. It +was a leisurely investigation, which encountered many snags placed in +its way by those who believed it would be against international policy +to question too closely the participation of the Brazil government in +the enterprise. Politics played no inconsiderable part in the +investigation, which dragged along until May 18, 1912, when an action +was begun in the Federal District Court for the southern district of New +York, alleging conspiracy in restraint of trade on the part of Hermann +Sielcken; Bruno Schroeder, of J. Henry Schroeder & Co.; Edouard Bunge; +the Vicomte des Touches; Dr. Paulo da Silva Prado; Theodor Wille; the +Société Generale; and the New York Dock Co.; also praying for injunction +and receivership of the valorization coffee then stored in the United +States, and amounting to 746,539 bags. The injunction was denied.</p> + +<p>Immediately thereafter, rumors began to circulate that the government's +coffee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span> suit would never be tried. The Brazilian ambassador threatened +diplomatic interference, and Attorney-General Wickersham let it be known +that a friendly settlement might be effected. Sielcken boldly challenged +the authorities to prosecute the case, and even seemed to invite +criminal proceedings against himself. Saving the government's face, and +Brazil's face, at one and the same time, proved to be a long and tedious +process.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Senator Norris introduced in Congress a bill designed to give +the government power to seize importations of coffee when restraint of +trade was proved. It was vigorously opposed by many prominent +green-coffee men and roasters; but in February, 1913, it became enacted +into a law. It effectively killed all future valorization schemes in so +far as direct participation by this country is concerned.</p> + +<p>About December 1, 1912, Attorney-General Wickersham accepted good-faith +assurances from Mr. Sielcken's attorney—who represented also the Brazil +government—and agreed that if the valorization coffee stored here was +sold to bona-fide purchasers before April 1, 1913, the government's suit +would be dismissed. In May, 1913, the attorney-general of the new Wilson +administration, which came into office in March of that year, issued a +statement saying that, good-faith assurances having been received from +the Brazil government that the understanding was fulfilled in letter and +spirit before the date set by the previous attorney-general, and the +entire amount of coffee disposed of to eighty dealers in thirty-three +cities, the suit would be dismissed.</p> + +<p>In the United States Senate about the same time, Senator Norris renewed +his attack on "the international coffee trust". He charged that the +coffee sale was not as represented, but merely a transfer, and called +upon the Department of Justice for the facts, with names of the alleged +purchasers.</p> + +<p>Attorney-General McReynolds, on May 7, 1913, declined to send to the +Senate the official correspondence in regard to the Brazil +coffee-valorization matter, because it was "incompatible with the public +interests." He did, however, send other papers on the subject. The +secretary of state sent copies of some correspondence; but the documents +were not made public. This ended the matter, although Senator Norris +called for a congressional investigation, charging that the +attorney-general had been handed a "gold brick".</p> + +<p>Sielcken contented himself with remarking that the suit was a mistake in +the first place, and that it was a foregone conclusion the government +would be defeated. Also, he offered $5,000 to any one who could explain +the Norris bill.</p> + +<p>Valorization, then, was started by the state of São Paulo in 1905, when +a law was passed authorizing the state to enter into an agreement with +the other Brazil states and the federal government for the adoption of +measures which would assure the valorization of coffee and facilitate a +propaganda abroad for increased consumption.</p> + +<p>The states of São Paulo, Minãs Geraes, and Rio de Janeiro proposed, +early in 1906, to withdraw from the markets such quantities of coffee as +would keep down exports and maintain profitable prices. The plan +comprehended the interested states borrowing about $75,000,000 from +European and United States bankers with which to buy up the surplus +coffee. To take care of interest and amortization, a tax of three francs +per bag of 132 pounds (about 57 cents) was to be levied on all coffee +exports, collectable at Santos and Rio de Janeiro. Further +coffee-planting was to be checked by enforcing the law which carried a +tax sufficiently high to operate toward restriction.</p> + +<p>When it was understood that Brazil's federal government would not +endorse the plan <i>in toto</i>, it was abandoned by Rio de Janeiro and Minãs +Geraes. However, the state of São Paulo in the course of the next two +years borrowed some $30,000,00 on its own account for valorization +purposes, obtaining half the amount direct from foreign banking +interests, and the remainder, through the Brazilian federal government, +from London sources.</p> + +<p>This first valorization was abandoned in favor of the Sielcken plan, +which the federal government ratified in July, 1908. By this new plan +São Paulo borrowed $75,000,000 from the syndicate composed of American, +English, German, French, and Belgian bankers. Out of this it repaid the +$30,000,000 loan. The 1908 loan was to expire in ten years, in 1919. +Under the plan of the new loan, it was agreed that certain amounts of +the valorized coffee should be stored as collateral in warehouses in +New<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[Pg 534]</a></span> York and Europe in charge of a committee of seven, who were +authorized to sell the coffee in the market in specified quantities and +at prices that would not disturb the price of other coffees. The +composition of the committee was as follows: Dr. Francisco Ferreira +Ramos, of São Paulo and Antwerp; who was succeeded by Dr. Paulo da Silva +Prado; the Vicomte des Touches, of Havre; the Société Generale, of +Paris; the firm of Theodor Wille, of Hamburg; Hermann Sielcken, of New +York; Edouard Bunge, of Antwerp; and Baron Bruno Schroeder, of J. Henry +Schroeder & Co., of London.</p> + +<p>Brazil agreed to purchase 10,000,000 bags and to hold them off the +market until conditions warranted their sale. It was also agreed that +the total exports of unvalorized stocks from Brazil would be restricted +to 10,000,000 bags for 1907–08, and to 10,500,000 bags for 1909–10. In +addition, a surtax of five francs gold per bag (96<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> cents) was placed +on every bag exported to pay carrying charges. The management of the +government's holdings was placed in the hands of the international +committee. This committee issued bonds which were quickly subscribed +for; and because of its efficient handling of its huge holdings, prices +held steady in spite of the record-breaking Brazilian crop of nearly +20,192,000 bags in 1906–07, and a later one in 1909–10 of about +15,000,000 bags. Indeed, there was an advance of about ten dollars a bag +between 1904 and 1911.</p> + +<p>Valorization had the effect of stabilizing the Brazil market, and giving +the planters and allied interests the assistance they needed to ward off +the disaster that threatened them through overproduction. The United +States government action in 1912 forced the sale of the valorized stocks +held in this country, and the Congress passed the law making it +impossible again to offer for sale in America stocks of coffee held +under similar valorization agreements.</p> + +<p>The coffee situation became so serious in 1913, that São Paulo again +entered the money market for another loan, borrowing $37,500,000 through +the good offices of the Brazilian federal government, following this up +two years later with another loan of $21,000,000. According to a +semi-official statement issued in Brazil early in 1919, the status of +valorization at that time was that the first loan of $75,000,000 of +1908, had been entirely liquidated, and the two later loans were greatly +reduced. At the same time, it was announced by the president of the +state of São Paulo that the surtax of five frances would be withdrawn as +soon as the liquidation of the loans had been completed. This surtax, +however, is still in effect. In 1919, the São Paulo government proposed +advancing the <i>pauta</i>, or export duty, very materially. A strong protest +was made by all the exporters; and a compromise was at last effected by +which the proposed increase in the <i>pauta</i> was canceled, and the +existing surtax of five francs per bag continued as an offset.</p> + +<p>The valorization project just described was the second of its kind, a +former attempt having proved a failure. At that time (1870), the +Brazilian government had been a large purchaser of Rio coffee, buying it +in lieu of exchange, as it had large remittances to make. The coffee was +sold through G. Amsinck & Co., and it is believed that heavy losses were +sustained.</p> + +<p>Since the Sielcken valorization enterprise, the Brazilian government has +promoted two more valorizations, one in 1918, another early in 1922.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>War-Time Government Control of Coffee</i></p> + +<p>The board of managers of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc., +had realized, late in 1917, that war-time government control of coffee +trading was likely in view of the government's activities in other +commodities. To guard against the danger of a sudden announcement of +such action, the president of the Exchange was empowered from month to +month, at each meeting of the board, to suspend trading at any time that +conditions warranted; so that, when President Wilson announced, on +January 31, 1918, that all dealers in green coffees were to be licensed, +the Exchange was fully prepared. Trading was suspended pending further +information, and owing to the farsightedness of the board of managers, +all danger of a panic in the market was averted.</p> + +<p>By 1917, the allies had stopped shipments of coffee to Germany through +neighbors who had been her sole source of supply. Stocks in all the +producing countries were accumulating, and São Paulo had embarked on +another valorization scheme to protect her planters. The markets of +Europe were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[Pg 535]</a></span> entirely controlled by the governments; and the United +States was practically the only free and open market. The market here +was steady and without particular animation, and showed none until the +end of November, 1917. At that time, speculation activities, steamer +scarcity, and the steady advance in freights, became decided influences +in the market; and prices began to advance.</p> + +<p>Freights on shipments from Brazil had advanced from one dollar and +twenty cents per bag early in the year to unheard-of prices; and, before +the bubble burst, had reached as high as four dollars per bag. With this +steadily advancing freight, speculation in coffee became more active; +and prices naturally began to rise. The relative cheapness of coffee +compared with all other commodities; the fact that coffee here had shown +very little advance; the prospect of an early peace; the large European +demand to follow; were favorite bull arguments. The market became +excited; speculative buying was general, every one, apparently, wanted +to buy coffee; and twenty cents per pound for Santos 4s in the near +future was a common prediction.</p> + +<p>The United States food administrator had shown his antipathy to +uncontrolled exchange operations by his action on sugar, wheat, corn, +and other commodities, dealt in on the exchanges; consequently, the +proclamation of President Wilson regarding coffee was not a surprise to +those who had been watching the situation closely, especially as on +January 30, 1918 (the day before the proclamation) the president of the +Coffee Exchange was summoned by telegraph to appear in Washington to +discuss ways for a proper control of the article, and the best means to +bring about such control. As a result of this summons, a committee of +the entire trade, representing the Exchange, the green-coffee dealers +and importers, the roasters, and the brokers, was appointed by the +Exchange to confer with the food administrator at once, in order to work +out a plan whereby the business could be kept going. After a long +conference, rules agreed upon were approved that became the basis on +which business was conducted until the withdrawal of all regulations +regarding coffee in January, 1919. Much trade criticism followed the +publication of some of these rules.</p> + +<p>George W. Lawrence, president of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, +was called to Washington on February 28, 1918, to take charge of a newly +created coffee division under Theodore F. Whitmarsh, chief of the +distribution division of the food administration. In this position he +rendered a signal service to the trade and to his country. Although +subjected to a cross-fire of criticism from many green and roasted +coffee interests, he never wavered in the performance of his full duty; +and his good judgment, tact, and loyalty to American ideals, won for him +a high place in the regard of all those who had the best interests of +the country at heart. He was ably assisted in his work by Walter F. +Blake, of Williams, Russell & Company, New York; and by F.T. Nutt, Jr., +treasurer of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange.</p> + +<p>A coffee advisory board was appointed in June 1918, to serve as a +go-between for the trade and the food administration. Those who served +on this committee were: Henry Schaefer, of S. Gruner & Co., New York, +chairman; Carl H. Stoffregen, of Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co., New +York, secretary; and William Bayne, Jr., of William Bayne & Co., New +York; S.H. Dorr, of Arnold, Dorr & Co., New York; A. Schierenberg, of +Corn, Schwarz & Co., New York; Leon Israel, of Leon Israel & Bro., New +York; Joseph Purcell, of Hard & Rand, New York; B.F. Peabody, of T. +Barbour Brown & Co., New York; J.D. Pickslay, of Williams, Russell & +Co., New York; Charles L. Meehan, of P.C. Meehan & Co., New York; B.C. +Casanas, of Merchants Coffee Co., New Orleans; John R. Moir, of Chase & +Sanborn, Boston; and B. Meyer, of Stewart, Carnal & Co., New Orleans.</p> + +<p>Others in the trade who served the food administration during the period +of the World War were George E. Lichty, president of the Black Hawk +Coffee & Spice Co., Waterloo, Iowa; and Theodore F. Whitmarsh, +vice-president and treasurer of Francis H. Leggett & Co., New York.</p> + +<p>The visible supply of coffee for the United States on January 1, 1918, +was 2,887,308 bags. The world's visible supply was given as 10,012,000 +bags; but to be added to this were more than 3,000,000 bags held by the +São Paulo government. Thus there was little reason to fear a coffee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[Pg 536]</a></span> +shortage. That coffee should be permitted, with this large amount in +view, to run wild as to price, was certainly not the intention of the +food administrator, whose purpose was to keep foods moving to the United +States forces and allies, and as far as possible, to keep reasonable +prices for the United States consumers. Steadily advancing prices of +foods meant increasing cost of labor, general unrest, and a difficult +situation to meet at a period when the situation as a whole was most +critical.</p> + +<p>Trouble for the coffee trade was imminent early in 1918, when the +shipping board, backed by experts, decided, or attempted to decide, that +coffee was not a food product; that no vessels could be had for its +transportation; and that it must be put on the list of prohibited or +restricted commodities. Mr. Hoover, however, insisted that coffee was a +very necessary essential, and that tonnage must be provided for an +amount sufficient at all times to keep the visible supply for the United +States up to at least 1,500,000 bags of Brazil coffee; and this figure +was ultimately accepted and carried out by the shipping board.</p> + +<p>These figures, based on the deliveries of the two preceding years, and +with dealers limited to ninety days stock in the country, were deemed +ample to care for all requirements. It was figured that by November 1, +1918, the freight situation would be relieved to such an extent by the +new vessels building, that the amount could be increased should it be +found necessary. The food administration, through the war trade board, +offered steamer room to importers of record of the years 1916–17 at +$1.70 per bag. The first few vessels were promptly filled on a basis of +nine and one-quarter to nine and five-eighths cents, c. & f., for Santos +4s, well described. About the same time, our army and navy were able to +buy at eight to eight and three-eighths cents f.o.b. Santos, for +shipment by their own vessels. After the first few vessels offered by +the War Trade Board were filled, the trade became indifferent. The +warehouses in Brazil were loaded with stocks; vessels to carry coffee +were assured buyers at a fixed rate (profits limited); and, as there was +no apparent reason for an advance, buyers were willing to let the +producing countries carry the stock.</p> + +<p>The last week in June brought very cold weather in São Paulo, and cables +reported heavy frost. The news was not taken seriously by the trade at +large. "Frost news" from Brazil was no novelty, and in the past had +always been looked upon as a regular and seasonable method of bulling +the market. This year, however, the frost was a fact, and the market +began to move upward with surprising speed. Reports of the damage to the +trees varied from forty to eighty percent. Quotations from Santos +advanced two cents per pound in as many days. United States buyers were +not disposed to follow the advance; offerings of steamer room were +declined; and boats booked for coffee, owing to the lack of cargoes, +were transferred elsewhere. Meanwhile the market continued to advance +rapidly. The allies were holding the enemy, and peace prospects were +brighter. From September 1 to November 15, the records of the food +administration showed very small purchases. The buyers did not believe +in the frost. With the news of the armistice, Brazil markets went wild; +and Santos 4s, which had sold at eight and one-quarter cents in May, +were quoted at twenty and one-half cents by December 10.</p> + +<p>The food administration had decided, on February 6, 1918, after +consulting the committee appointed by the Exchange, and on their advice +and recommendation, to permit trading in futures on the following plan: +a fixed maximum price of eight and one-half cents per pound for the spot +month, with a carrying charge not to exceed fifteen points per pound for +delivery for each succeeding month. Thus the price for March delivery +was fixed at eight and one-half cents, while July delivery could be sold +at nine and one-tenths cents; but when July arrived, it became the spot +month, and eight and one-half cents was the maximum at which it could be +sold.</p> + +<p>This rule effectively stopped speculation, but failed to work out +satisfactorily to the trade. Experience proved that a maximum fixed +price at which coffee could be traded in would have produced much better +results. Business on the Exchange followed its usual course, and the +customary hedging of purchases was done by dealers. The indifference of +buyers, already referred to, had resulted in a heavy decrease of the +United States visible supply; and it had shrunk to 2,445,000 bags on +September 1; to 2,173,098 bags on October 1; to 1,857,260 bags on +November 1. Included in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[Pg 537]</a></span> amounts were at least 500,000 bags, held +in New York by foreign owners, which could not be sold; and of the +balance left, there was undoubtedly a liberal amount sold against on the +Exchange for future delivery. By October, the situation had become +acute. Dealers who had classified themselves as jobbers or importers had +gone into the retail classification in order to evade the limitations of +profit allowed jobbers, and were limiting their sales to lots of +twenty-five bags or fewer. Dealers who had legitimately hedged their +holdings were unable to buy in.</p> + +<p>The Exchange officials showed no disposition to relieve the situation; +and as all prices had reached the maximum price for every month +permitted, the food administration, on November 1, 1918, ordered the +liquidation of all contracts outstanding, bought or sold, by not later +than November 9. This was done; and the coffee covered by such contracts +was released to the trade.</p> + +<p>The regulations governing transactions on the Exchange were withdrawn on +December 5, 1918; and, after a long argument, the Exchange decided to +re-open for trading on December 26, 1918. Opening transactions amounted +to 25,000 bags on a basis of seventeen and one-half cents per pound or +nine cents over the prices at which contracts had been liquidated. On +December 28 the price had declined to fifteen and one-half cents. In the +opinion of many of our best merchants, the Exchange should have been +closed during the war, as it failed to be of any real service. That it +was operating at a fixed price for the spot month only, made it of no +value to the trade during this period. Of its loyalty to the government, +and its evident desire to assist there can be no question; but its +cheerful acceptance of the burdens laid upon it proved largely futile.</p> + +<p>The action of the food administration in confining the coffee business +solely to licensed dealers and to a fixed profit on actual cost; in +limiting dealers to ninety days stock; and in prohibiting resales, was +the cause of much unjust criticism. The regulations were based on the +general rules of the food administration, and applied to coffee quite as +equitably as did the regulations governing other food commodities under +control and license. As a matter of fact, they were much less rigorous +in some ways than the regulations applying to many other articles. For +example, ninety days stock based on sales for 1916–17 was allowed on +coffee. There was no other article on the food list to which this +liberality was permitted. A forty to sixty days stock would probably be +found to be the maximum permitted to be carried of other food products.</p> + +<p>The general proclamation of the food administration of November 1, 1917, +declared:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">These general and special rules and regulations are promulgated by +the President to accomplish three principal objects, viz: 1st, to +limit the prices charged by every licensee "to a reasonable amount +over expenses and forbid the acquisition of speculative profits +from a rising market"; 2d, to keep all food commodities moving in +as direct a line as possible and with as little delay as +practicable to the consumer; 3d, to limit as far as practicable +contracts for future delivery and dealing in future contracts.</p></div> + +<p>From the foregoing it will be apparent that a profit to be allowed based +on "market value" for coffees was an impossibility, unless this law had +been altered to allow all licensees of other commodities to share. +Coffee profits were fixed by the food administration on the advice of, +and with acceptance by, the coffee committee. They started too low; and +were made more liberal, when the first figures were shown to be +impossible. George W. Lawrence reports a conversation that he had with +the food administrator on this particular subject, and that was +characteristic of his broadness. Mr. Hoover said, "The coffee dealers +are complaining of the profits permitted them. I want them satisfied; +and if the profits are not reasonable, I shall put them where they will +be. This war is not going to last always; and at its conclusion I want +every American merchant in a position to be able to continue his +business and be no worse off than when the war started."</p> + +<p>Resales were prohibited, or limited to one transaction, in order to +prevent an accumulation of profits, that, added to each transfer, would +result ultimately in higher prices to the consumer.</p> + +<p>The fixing of profit based on cost, and not on market or replacement +value, is a thing that is impossible in normal times. Carried to the +last degree, it would mean ruination; for no provision is made for +declines in the market, and resulting losses. As a war measure it was +inevitable, and so endured. In normal times it is like trying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[Pg 538]</a></span> to make +water run uphill. With a united people, it worked; but one can not have +a World War always to unite the people. It has been said that government +regulation of coffees caused a large increase in price to the consumer. +This would be hard to prove. The trade, generally, that refused to buy +at ten to twelve cents per pound because it did not, or would not +believe the reports of frost damage, and thought prices too high, was +frantically bidding up to twenty and twenty-two cents for 4s in March +and April, 1919. According to the ideas of some enthusiasts, fifty cents +was not an impossibility. Naturally such a bubble must burst eventually. +Government control had nothing to do with such natural conditions as +frost, or as the buyers' indifference. Expansion and inflation were in +the air, and had to run their course. The year 1920 brought the +aftermath; and in the deflation, coffee, with all other commodities, +went down to prices far below its intrinsic value. The expected European +demand did not materialize; the interior buyer was overloaded with +stock; and the losses of the coffee trade in 1920 will, it is to be +hoped, never be repeated.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Story of Soluble Coffee</i></p> + +<p>For nearly two decades, many coffee men and chemists have been seeking a +soluble coffee, or dried coffee extract, that would simplify the +preparation of the beverage. Thus far, all the products that have +appeared on the market are somewhat deficient in aroma and in the more +delicate flavors of coffee. A satisfying average cup of coffee can be +prepared from the better brands; the chief advantages of which are +rapidity of preparation, absence of any grounds, and uniformity of +drink.</p> + +<p>Considerable progress has been made in certain directions; enough to +warrant telling here, though briefly, the story of soluble coffee to +date.</p> + +<p>Some there are among trade experts and coffee connoisseurs who maintain +soluble coffee is an <i>ignis fatuus</i>; that it can never be manufactured +without destroying the aromatic principle; that at best it is a delusion +and a snare. Certainly, many absurd claims have been made for some of +the soluble coffees on the market. However, there are others that are +not without their merits; and the story of their introduction to the +trade and the consuming public is entertaining and instructive.</p> + +<p>Dr. Sartori Kato, a Japanese chemist, of Tokio, brought a soluble tea to +Chicago about 1899. It was not a commercial success; but it served to +bring him in touch with some coffee men and chemists, for whom he +produced a soluble coffee in the same year. A company was organized to +promote the product. It was called the Kato Coffee Co., and included, in +addition to Dr. Kato; Fillip Kreissel, a chemist; W.R. Ruffner, a +green-coffee broker; and I.D. Richheimer, a coffee roaster. Kato's +soluble coffee was first sold to the public at the Pan-American +Exposition in 1901. The first quantity order was received from Captain +Baldwin and by him used with satisfaction on the Ziegler Arctic +expedition. United States patents on a coffee concentrate, and process +for making the same (soluble coffee), were granted to Sartori Kato of +Chicago, assignor to the Kato Coffee Co., of the same place, on August +11, 1903.</p> + +<p>G. Washington, who was born in Belgium of English parents, and who was +living temporarily in Guatemala City, invented about 1906, a soluble +coffee that was made ready for the market in 1909.</p> + +<p>The George Washington Coffee Refining Co. was organized in 1910 to put +the Washington product on the market, which it did first under the name, +Red E coffee. This was later changed to G. Washington's Prepared Coffee, +as an alternative to Washington's Coffee Extract, a name which was +favorably regarded by all except certain authorities at the national +capital. Associated with Mr. Washington at the start of the enterprise +were: E. Van Etten, former vice-president of the New York Central +Railroad; W.J. Arkell; Bartlett Arkell, of the Beechnut Packing Co.; +C.M. Warner, of the Warner Sugar Refining Co.; and Charles E. Proctor, +of the Singer Sewing Machine Co.</p> + +<p>The G. Washington Coffee Refining Company has its coffee-roasting and +preparing plant in Brooklyn; but its process is a secret one, and has +never been patented.</p> + +<p>F. Lehnhoff Wyld, who was the Washingtons' family physician when they +lived in Guatemala City, and with whom Mr. Washington had discussed his +work in soluble coffee, duplicated the Washington product in 1913; and, +with E.T. Cabarrus,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[Pg 539]</a></span> he organized the <i>Société du Café Soluble Belna</i>, +Brussels, Belgium, to put on the European market a refined soluble +coffee under the brand name Belna.</p> + +<p>Eight or ten United States patents have been granted on soluble coffees +that have never been applied commercially.</p> + +<p>Nowhere has soluble coffee met with such success as in the United +States, where a number of brands followed the Kato and G. Washington +products. Among them, mention should be made of the C.F. Blanke Tea & +Coffee Company's Magic Cup, afterward Fairy Cup, and later, Faust brand, +brought out in 1912; the Baker Importing Co.'s Barrington Hall Soluble +Coffee, brought out in 1917; and the Charles G. Hires Co.'s brand, +introduced to the trade in 1918.</p> + +<p>It was the World War that brought soluble coffee to the front. E.F. +Holbrook, formerly in charge of the coffee section, subsistence +division, United States War Department, said, "The use of mustard gas by +the Germans made it one of the most important articles of subsistence +used by the army." Early in the war, soluble coffee was added to the +reserve ration, three-quarters of an ounce being considered at first the +proper amount per ration. After trying to put it up in sticks, tablets, +capsules, and other forms, it was determined that the best method was to +pack it in envelopes. A month before the signing of the armistice, the +New York depot was notified that after January 1, 1919, the requirements +of soluble coffee were to be 25,000 pounds per day in addition to +quantities packed in reserve rations, bringing the total daily output to +42,500 pounds per day. Arrangements were made to have the total output +of the New York zone, 40,000 pounds per day, packed in quarter-ounce +envelopes, twenty-four to a sealed can.</p> + +<p>I.D. Richheimer, promoter of the original soluble coffee of Kato and the +Kato patent, organized the Soluble Coffee Co. of America in 1918, to +supply soluble coffee to the American army overseas. After the +armistice, the company began licensing other merchants under the Kato +patent or offering to process the merchants' own coffee for them if +desired.</p> + +<p>William A. Hamor and Charles W. Trigg, Pittsburgh, assignors to John E. +King, Detroit, were granted a United States patent in 1919 on a process +for making a new soluble coffee. Their process consists in bringing the +volatilized caffeol in contact with a petrolatum, or absorbing medium, +where it is held until needed for combination with the evaporated coffee +extract. The King Coffee Products Corp. of Detroit was organized in 1920 +to manufacture this product, known as Minute coffee, and a coffee base +for soft drinks, the latter being marketed under the name of Coffee Pep. +Mr. King had believed for many years that soluble coffee was destined to +solve many of the vexations of the coffee business, and had been +experimenting with the idea since 1906. To facilitate his +investigations, he established a fellowship at the Mellon Institute of +Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, in 1914, in charge of Charles W. Trigg. +This chemically controlled research evolved a product which, after +passing through the laboratory stage, was placed upon a small unit plan +basis, and then patented. Five additional patents on the product were +granted Messrs. Trigg and David S. Pratt in 1921; and all were assigned +to John E. King.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[Pg 540]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="EARLIEST_COFFEE_MANUSCRIPT" id="EARLIEST_COFFEE_MANUSCRIPT"></a> +<img src="images/image409.jpg" width="500" height="704" alt="THE EARLIEST COFFEE MANUSCRIPT, 1587" title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE EARLIEST COFFEE MANUSCRIPT, 1587<br /> +<small>Pages from the Arabian writing by Abd-al-Kâdir, photographed for this +work in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.</small></span> +</div> + + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[Pg 541]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXXII" id="Chapter_XXXII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXXII</span></h2> + +<h3>A HISTORY OF COFFEE IN LITERATURE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, +history, drama, philosophic writing, and fiction of the seventeenth +and eighteenth centuries and on the writers of today—Coffee quips +and anecdotes</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">A</span><span class="caps">ny</span> study of the literature of coffee comprehends a survey of selections +from the best thought of civilized nations, from the time of Rhazes +(850–922) to Francis Saltus. We have seen in chapter III how Rhazes, the +physician-philosopher, appears to have been the first writer to mention +coffee; and was followed by other great physicians, like Bengiazlah, a +contemporary, and Avicenna (980–1037).</p> + +<p>Then arose many legends about coffee, that served as inspiration for +Arabian, French, Italian, and English poets.</p> + +<p>Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Mocha, is said to have discovered the virtues +of coffee about 1454, and to have promoted the use of the drink in +Arabia. Knowledge of the new beverage was given to Europeans by the +botanists Rauwolf and Alpini toward the close of the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>The first authentic account of the origin of coffee was written by +Abd-al-Kâdir in 1587. It is the famous Arabian manuscript commending the +use of coffee, preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, and +catalogued as "Arabe, 4590."</p> + +<p>Its title written in Arabic is as follows:<br /> + +<img src="images/arabic3.jpg" width="300" height="53" alt="Arabic phrase" title="" /></p> + +<p class="noin">which is pronounced (reading right to left):<br /> +<img src="images/arabic4.jpg" width="300" height="53" alt="Translated arabic phrase" title="" /></p> + +<p class="noin">or; in the literary style: omdatu s safwati fi hallu 'l kahwati which +means—literally, (the corresponding words being underlined and +numbered)<br /> +<img src="images/arabic5.jpg" width="300" height="93" alt="Another arabic translated phrase" title="" /></p> + +<p class="noin">or, more freely, "Argument in favor of the legitimate use of coffee."</p> + +<p><img src="images/arabic6.jpg" width="45" height="22" alt="kahwa" title="" /> +kahwa, is the Arabic word for coffee.</p> + +<p>The author is Abd-al-Kâdir ibn Mohammad al Ansâri al Jazari al Hanbali. +That is, he was named Abd-al-Kâdir, son of Mohammed.</p> + +<p><i>Abd-al-Kâdir</i> means "slave of the strong one" (i.e., of God); while <i>al +Ansâri</i> means that he was a descendant of the <i>Ansâri</i> (i.e., "helpers"), +the people of Medina who received and protected the Prophet Mohammed +after his flight from Mecca; <i>al Jazari</i> means that he was a man of +Mesopotamia; and <i>al Hanbali</i> that in law and theology he belonged to +the well known sect, or school, of the Hanbalites, so called after the +great jurist and writer, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who died at Bagdad A.H. 241 +(A.D. 855). The Hanbalites are one of the four great sects of the Sunni +Mohammedans.</p> + +<p>Abd-al-Kâdir ibn Mohammed lived in the tenth century of the Hegira—the +sixteenth of our era—and wrote his book in 996 A.H., or 1587 A.D. +Coffee had then been in common use since about 1450 A.D. in Arabia. It +was not in use in the time of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[Pg 542]</a></span> the Prophet, who died in 632 A.D.; but he +had forbidden the drink of strong liquors which affect the brain, and +hence it was argued that coffee, as a stimulant, was unlawful. Even +today, the community of the Wahabis, very powerful in Arabia a hundred +years ago, and still dominant in part of it, do not permit the use of +coffee.</p> + +<p>Abd-al-Kâdir's book is thought to have been based on an earlier writing +by Shihâb-ad-Dîn Ahmad ibn Abd-al-Ghafâr al Maliki, as he refers to the +latter on the third page of his manuscript; but if so, this previous +work does not appear to have been preserved. La Roque says Shihâb-ad-Dîn +was an Arabian historian who supplied the main part of Abd-al-Kâdir's +story. La Roque refers also to a Turkish historian.</p> + +<p>Research by the author has failed to disclose anything about +Shihâb-ad-Dîn save his name (<i>al Maliki</i> means that he belonged to the +Malikites, another of the four great Sunni sects), and that he wrote +about a hundred years before Abd-al-Kâdir. No copy of his writings is +known to exist.</p> + +<p>The illustrations show the title page of Abd-al-Kâdir's manuscript, the +first page, the third page, and the fly leaf of the cover, the latter +containing an inscription in Latin made at the time the manuscript was +first received or classified. It reads:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center">Omdat al safouat fl hall al cahuat.</p> + +<p class="quot1">De usu legitimo et licito potionis quae vulgo Café nuncupatur. +Authore Abdalcader Ben Mohammed al Ansâri. Constat hic liber +capitibus septem, et ab authore editus est anno hegirae 996 quo +anno centum et viginti anni effluxerant ex quo huius potionis usus +in Arabia felice invaluerat</p></div> + +<p>The translation of the Latin is:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Concerning the legitimate and lawful use of the drink commonly +known as café by Abdalcader Ben Mohammed al Ansâri. The book is +composed in seven chapters and was brought out by the author in the +year of the Hegira 996 at which time a hundred and twenty years had +passed since the use of this drink had become firmly established in +Arabia Felix.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee in Poetry</i></p> + +<p>The Abd-al-Kâdir work immortalized coffee. It is in seven chapters. The +first treats of the etymology and significance of the word cahouah +(kahwa), the nature and properties of the bean, where the drink was +first used, and describes its virtues. The other chapters have to do +largely with the church dispute in Mecca in 1511, answer the religious +objectors to coffee, and conclude with a collection of Arabic verses +composed during the Mecca controversy by the best poets of the time.</p> + +<p>De Nointel, ambassador from the court of Louis XIV to the Ottoman Porte, +brought back with him to Paris from Constantinople the Abd-al-Kâdir +manuscript, and another by Bichivili, one of the three general +treasurers of the Ottoman Empire. The latter work is of a later date +than the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript, and is concerned chiefly with the +history of the introduction of coffee into Egypt, Syria, Damascus, +Aleppo, and Constantinople.</p> + +<p>The following are two of the earliest Arabic poems in praise of coffee. +They are about the period of the first coffee persecution in Mecca +(1511), and are typical of the best thought of the day:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">In Praise of Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Translation from the Arabic</i></p> + +<p class="noin">O Coffee! Thou dost dispel all cares, thou art the object of desire +to the scholar.<br /> + +This is the beverage of the friends of God; it gives health to +those in its service who strive after wisdom.<br /> + +Prepared from the simple shell of the berry, it has the odor of +musk and the color of ink.<br /> + +The intelligent man who empties these cups of foaming coffee, he +alone knows truth.<br /> + +May God deprive of this drink the foolish man who condemns it with +incurable obstinacy.<br /> + +Coffee is our gold. Wherever it is served, one enjoys the society +of the noblest and most generous men.<br /> + +O drink! As harmless as pure milk, which differs from it only in +its blackness.</p></div> + +<p>Here is another, rhymed version of the same poem:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">In Praise of Coffee</span></p> +<p class="center"><i>Translation from the Arabic</i></p> + +<p class="noin">O coffee! Doved and fragrant drink, thou drivest care away,<br /> +The object thou of that man's wish who studies night and day.<br /> +Thou soothest him, thou giv'st him health, and God doth favor those<br /> +Who walk straight on in wisdom's way, nor seek their own repose.<br /> +Fragrant as musk thy berry is, yet black as ink in sooth!<br /> +And he who sips thy fragrant cup can only know the truth.<br /> +Insensate they who, tasting not, yet vilify its use;<br /> +For when they thirst and seek its help, God will the gift refuse.<br /> +Oh, coffee is our wealth! for see, where'er on earth it grows,<br /> +Men live whose aims are noble, true virtues who disclose.<br /> +</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[Pg 543]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Coffee Companionship</span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Translation from the Arabic</i></p> + +<p class="quot1">Come and enjoy the company of coffee in the places of its +habitation; for the Divine Goodness envelops those who partake of +its feast.</p> + +<p class="quot1">There the elegance of the rugs, the sweetness of life, the society +of the guests, all give a picture of the abode of the blest.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is a wine which no sorrow could resist when the cup-bearer +presents thee with the cup which contains it.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is not long since Aden saw thy birth. If thou doubtest this, see +the freshness of youth shining on the faces of thy children.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Grief is not found within its habitations. Trouble yields humbly to +its power.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is the beverage of the children of God, it is the source of +health.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is the stream in which we wash away our sorrows. It is the fire +which consumes our griefs.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Whoever has once known the chafing-dish which prepares this +beverage, will feel only aversion for wine and liquor from casks.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Delicious beverage, its color is the seal of its purity.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Reason pronounces favorably on the lawfulness of it.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Drink of it confidently, and give not ear to the speech of the +foolish, who condemn it without reason.</p></div> + +<p>During the period of the second religious persecution of coffee in the +latter part of the sixteenth century, other Arabian poets sang the +praises of coffee. The learned Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr ben Abid Iesi wrote +a book entitled <i>The Triumph of Coffee</i>, and the poet-sheikh +Sherif-Eddin-Omar-ben-Faredh sang of it in harmonious verse, wherein, +discoursing of his mistress, he could find no more flattering comparison +than coffee. He exclaims, "She has made me drink, in long draughts, the +fever, or, rather, the coffee of love!"</p> + +<p>The numerous contributions by early travelers to the literature of +coffee have been mentioned in chronological order in the history +chapters. After Rauwolf and Alpini, there were Sir Antony Sherley, +Parry, Biddulph, Captain John Smith, Sir George Sandys, Sir Thomas +Herbert, and Sir Henry Blount in England; Tavernier, Thévenot, Bernier, +P. de la Roque, and Galland in France; Delia Valle in Italy; Olearius +and Niebhur in Germany; Nieuhoff in Holland, and others.</p> + +<p>Francis Bacon wrote about coffee in his <i>Hist. Vitae et Mortis</i> and +<i>Sylva Sylvarum</i>, 1623–27. Burton referred to it in his "<i>Anatomy of +Melancholy</i>" in 1632. Parkinson described it in his <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i> +in 1640. In 1652, Pasqua Rosée published his famous handbill in London, +a literary effort as well as a splendid first advertisement.</p> + +<p>Faustus Nairon (Banesius) produced in Rome, in 1671, the first printed +treatise devoted solely to coffee. The same year Dufour brought out the +first treatise in French. This he followed in 1684 with his work, <i>The +manner of making coffee, tea, and chocolate</i>. John Ray extolled the +virtues of coffee in his <i>Universal Botany of Plants</i>, published in +London in 1686. Galland translated the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript into +French in 1699, and Jean La Roque published his <i>Voyage de l'Arabie +Heureuse</i> in Paris in 1715. Excerpts from nearly all these works appear +in various chapters of this work.</p> + +<p>Leonardus Ferdinandus Meisner published a Latin treatise on coffee, tea, +and chocolate in 1721. Dr. James Douglas published in London (1727) his +<i>Arbor yemensis fructum cofè ferens, or a description and history of the +Coffee Tree</i>. This work laid under contribution many of the Italian, +German, French, and English scholars mentioned above; and the author +mentioned as other sources of information: Dr. Quincy, Pechey, Gaudron, +de Fontenelle, Professor Boerhaave, Figueroa, Chabraeus, Sir Hans +Sloane, Langius, and Du Mont.</p> + +<p>In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the poets and dramatists of +France, Italy, and England found a plentiful supply in what had already +been written on coffee; to say nothing of the inspiration offered by the +drink itself, and by the society of the cafés of the period.</p> + +<p>French poets, familiar with Latin, first took coffee as the subject of +their verse. Vaniére sang its praises in the eighth book of his +<i>Praedium rusticum</i>; and Fellon, a Jesuit professor of Trinity College, +Lyons, wrote a didactic poem called, <i>Faba Arabica, Carmen</i>, which is +included in the <i>Poemata didascalica</i> of d'Olivet.</p> + +<p>Abbé Guillaume Massieu's <i>Carmen Caffaeum</i>, composed in 1718, has been +referred to in chapter III. It was read at the Academy of Inscriptions. +One of the panegyrists of this author, de Boze, in his <i>Elogé de +Massieu</i>, says that if Horace and Virgil had known of coffee, the poem +might easily have been attributed to them; and Thery, who translated it +into French, says "it is a pearl of elegance in a rare jewel case."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[Pg 544]</a></span></p><p>The following translation of the poem from the Latin original was made +for this work:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="center"><i>A Poem by Guillaume Massieu of the French Academy</i><br /> + +(A literal prose translation from the original Latin in the British Museum.)</p> +<p class="poem"> +How coffee first came to our shores,<br /> +What the nature of the divine drink is, what its use,<br /> +How it brings ready aid to man against every kind of evils,<br /> +I shall here begin to tell in simple verse.<br /> +<br /> +You soft-spoken men, who have often tried the sweetness of this drink,<br /> +If it has never deceived your wishes or mocked your hopes<br /> +With its empty results, be propitious and lend a willing ear to our song.<br /> +And may you, O Phoebus, kindly be present, to acknowledge<br /> +As your gift the power of herbs and healthful plants, and to<br /> +Dispel sad diseases from our bodies; for they say you are<br /> +The author of this blessing, and may you spread your<br /> +Gifts among peoples, and everywhere far and wide throughout the entire world.<br /> +<br /> +Across Libya afar, and the seven mouths of the swollen Nile,<br /> +Where Asia most joyfully spreads in immense fields<br /> +Rich in various resources and filled with fragrant woods,<br /> +A region extends. The Sabeans of old inhabited it.<br /> +I believe indeed Nature, that best parent of all things,<br /> +Loved this place more than all others with a tender love.<br /> +Here the air of Heaven always breathes more mildly.<br /> +The sun has a gentler power; here are flowers of a different clime;<br /> +And the earth with fertile bosom brings forth various fruits,<br /> +Cinnamon, casia, myrrh, and fragrant thyme.<br /> +Amid the resources and gifts of this blessed land,<br /> +Turned to the sun and the warm south winds,<br /> +A tree spontaneously lifts itself into the upper air.<br /> +Growing nowhere else, and unknown in earlier centuries,<br /> +By no means great in size, it stretches not far its<br /> +Spreading branches, nor lifts a lofty top to heaven;<br /> +But lowly, after the manner of myrtle or pliant broom,<br /> +It rises from the ground. Many a nut bends its rich branches.<br /> +Small, like a bean, dark and dull in color,<br /> +Marked by a slight groove in the centre of its hull.<br /> +<br /> +To transplant this growth to our own fields<br /> +Many have tried, and to cultivate it with great care.<br /> +In vain; for the plant has not responded to the zeal<br /> +And desires of the planters, and has rendered vain their long labor;<br /> +Before day the root of the tender herb has withered away.<br /> +Either this has happened through fault of climate, or grudging<br /> +Earth refuses to furnish fit nourishment to the foreign plant.<br /> +<br /> +Therefore come thou, whoever shall be possesed by a love for coffee,<br /> +Do not regret having brought the healthful bean from the far<br /> +Remote world of Arabia; for this is its bountiful mother country.<br /> +The soothing draught first flowed from those regions through other<br /> +Peoples; thence through all Europe and Asia,<br /> +and next made its way through the entire world.<br /> +<br /> +Therefore, what you shall know to be sufficient for your needs,<br /> +Do you prepare long beforehand; let it be your care to have collected<br /> +Yearly a copious store, and providently fill small granaries,<br /> +As of yore the farmer, early mindful and provident of the future,<br /> +Collected crops from his fields and garnered them in his barns,<br /> +And turned his attention to the coming year.<br /> +<br /> +None the less, meanwhile, must the utensils for coffee be cared for.<br /> +Let not vessels suited for drinking the beverage be lacking,<br /> +And a pot, whose narrow neck should be topped by a small cover<br /> +And whose body should swell gradually into an oblong shape.<br /> +When these things shall have been provided by you, let your<br /> +Next care be to roast well the beans with flames, and to grind them when roasted.<br /> +Nor should the hammer cease to crush them with many a blow,<br /> +Until they lay aside their hardness, and when thoroughly ground,<br /> +Become fine powder; which forthwith pack either in a bag or a box made for such uses.<br /> +And wrap it in leather, and smear it over with soft wax, lest<br /> +Narrow chinks be open, or hidden channels.<br /> +Unless you prevent these, by a secret path gradually small<br /> +Particles and whatever of value exists, and the entire strength,<br /> +Would leave, wasting into empty air.<br /> +</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_THE_NEAR_AND_FAR_EAST" id="COFFEE_SCENES_IN_THE_NEAR_AND_FAR_EAST"></a> +<img src="images/plate15a.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="Camel Transport Between Harar and Dire-Daoua, Abyssinia" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Camel Transport Between Harar and Dire-Daoua, Abyssinia</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate15b.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Sun-Drying in La Laguna, Philippine Islands" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sun-Drying in La Laguna, Philippine Islands</span><br /> +COFFEE SCENES IN THE NEAR AND THE FAR EAST</span> +</div> + +<p class="poem"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[Pg 545]</a></span>There is also a hollow machine, like a small tower, which they<br /> +Call a mill, in which you can bruise the useful fruit of the<br /> +Roasted bean and crush it with frequent rubbing;<br /> +A revolving pivot in the middle, on an easy wheel turning,<br /> +Twists its metal joints on a creaking stem.<br /> +The top of the wheel, you know, is pierced with an ivory handle<br /> +Which will have to be turned by hand, through a thousand revolutions,<br /> +And through a thousand circles it moves the pivot.<br /> +When you put a kernel in, you will turn the handle with quick hand—<br /> +No delay—and you will wonder how the crackling kernel is<br /> +With much grinding quickly reduced to a powder.<br /> +Once only the lower compartment receives on its kindly bosom<br /> +The crushed grains, which are placed in the very depths of the box.<br /> +<br /> +But why do we linger over these less important matters?<br /> +Greater things call us. Then is it time to drain the sweet<br /> +Draught, either under the new light of the early sun<br /> +In the morning, when an empty stomach demands food;<br /> +Or, when, after the splendid feasts of a magnificent table<br /> +The overburdened stomach suffers from too heavy load, and<br /> +Unequal to the demands made upon it, seeks the aid of external heat.<br /> +Then come, when now the pot grows ruddy in the fire<br /> +Crackling beneath, and you shall behold the liquid, swelling<br /> +With mingled powdered coffee, now bubble around the brim,<br /> +Draw it from the fire. Unless you should do this, the force of<br /> +The water would break forth suddenly, overflowing, and would<br /> +Sprinkle the beverage on the fire beneath.<br /> +Therefore, let no such accident disturb your joys.<br /> +You should keep watch carefully when the water no longer<br /> +Restrains itself and bubbles with the heat; then return<br /> +The pot to the fire thrice and four times, until the powdered<br /> +Coffee steams in the midst of the fire and blends thoroughly with the surrounding water.<br /> +<br /> +This soothing drink ought to be boiled with skill, to be drunk<br /> +With art—not in the way men are wont to drink other beverages—<br /> +And with reason; for when you shall have taken it steaming from<br /> +A quick fire, and gradually all the dregs have settled to the<br /> +Very bottom, you shall not drink it impatiently at one gulp.<br /> +But rather, sip it little by little, and between draughts<br /> +Contrive pleasant delays; and sipping, drain it in long draughts,<br /> +So long as it is still hot and burns the palate.<br /> +For then it is better, then it permeates our inmost bones, and<br /> +Penetrating within to the center of our vitals and our marrow,<br /> +It pervades all our body with its vivifying strength.<br /> +Often even merely inhaling the odor with their nostrils, men<br /> +Have welcomed it, when it has bubbled up from the bottom,<br /> +More refreshing than the breeze. So much pleasure is there in a delicious odor.<br /> +<br /> +And now there remains awaiting us the other part of our task,<br /> +To make known the secret strength of the divine draught.<br /> +But who could hope to understand this wonderful blessing<br /> +Or to be able to pursue so great a miracle in verse?<br /> +For really, when coffee has quietly glided into your body,<br /> +Taking itself within, it sheds a vital warmth through your<br /> +Limbs, and inspires joyous strength in your heart. Then if<br /> +There is anything undigested, with fire's help, it heats the<br /> +Hidden channels, and loosens the thin pores, through which the<br /> +Useless moisture exudes, and seeds of diseases flee from all your veins.<br /> +<br /> +Wherefore come, O you who have a care for your health!<br /> +You, whose triple chin hangs on your breast,<br /> +Who drag your heavy stomach of great bulk,<br /> +It is fitting for you, first of all, to indulge in the warm<br /> +Beverage; for indeed it will dry the hideous flow of moisture<br /> +Which oppresses your limbs, and sends forth streams of perspiration from your whole body.<br /> +And in a short time, the swelling of your fat belly will<br /> +Gradually begin to decrease, and it will lighten your members, now oppressed by their heavy weight.<br /> +<br /> +O happy peoples, on whom Titan, rising, looks with his first light!<br /> +Here, a rather free use of wine has never done harm.<br /> +Law and religion forbid us to quaff the flowing wine.<br /> +Here one lives on coffee. Here, then, flourishing with joyous strength<br /> +One pursues life and knows not what diseases are,<br /> +Nor that child of Bacchus and companion of high living—Gout;<br /> +Nor what innumerable diseases through this union are ready to attack our world.<br /> +<br /> +Yet, indeed, the soothing power of this invigorating drink<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[Pg 546]</a></span>Drives sad cares from the heart, and exhilarates the spirits.<br /> +I have seen a man, when he had not yet drained a mighty<br /> +Draught of this sweet nectar, walk silently with slow gait,<br /> +His brow sad, and forehead rough with forbidding wrinkles.<br /> +This same man who had hardly bathed his throat with the sweet<br /> +Drink—no delay—clouds fled from his wrinkled brow; and<br /> +He took pleasure in teasing all with his witty sayings.<br /> +Nor yet did he pursue any one with bitter laughter. For this<br /> +Harmless drink inspires no desire of offending, the venom<br /> +Is lacking, and pleasant laughter without bitterness pleases.<br /> +<br /> +And in the entire East this custom of coffee drinking<br /> +Has been accepted. And, now, France; you adopt the foreign custom,<br /> +So that public shops, one after the other, are opened for<br /> +Drinking Coffee. A hanging sign of either ivy or laurel invites the passers-by.<br /> +Hither in crowds from the entire city they assemble, and<br /> +While away the time in pleasant drinking.<br /> +And when once the feelings have grown warm, acted upon by<br /> +The gentle heat, then good-humored laughter, and pleasant<br /> +Arguments increase. General gaiety ensues,<br /> +the places about resound with joyous applause.<br /> +But never does the liquid imbibed overpower weary minds, but<br /> +Rather, if ever slumber presses their heavy eyes and dulls<br /> +The brain; and their strength, blunted, grows torpid in the<br /> +Body, coffee puts sleep to flight from the eyes, and slothful inactivity from the whole frame.<br /> +Therefore to absorb the sweet draught would be an advantage<br /> +For those whom a great deal of long-continued labor awaits<br /> +And those who need to extend their study far into the night.<br /> +<br /> +And here I shall make known who taught the use of this pleasant<br /> +Drink; for its virtue, unknown, has lain hidden through many<br /> +Years; and reviewing, I shall relate the matter from the very beginning.<br /> +<br /> +An Arab shepherd was driving his young goats to the well-known<br /> +Pastures. They were wandering through lonely wastes and cropping<br /> +The grasses, when a tree heavy with many berries—never seen before—met their eyes.<br /> +At once, as they were able to reach the low branches, they began<br /> +To pull off the leaves with many a nibble, and to pluck the tender<br /> +Growth. Its bitterness attracts. The shepherd, not knowing this,<br /> +Was meanwhile singing on the soft grass and telling the story of his loves to the woods.<br /> +But when the evening star, rising, warned him to leave the field,<br /> +And he led back his well-fed flock to their stalls, he perceived<br /> +That the beasts did not close their eyes in sweet sleep, but<br /> +Joyous beyond their wont, with wonderful delight throughout the<br /> +Whole night jumped about with wanton leaps. Trembling with sudden<br /> +Fear, the shepherd stood amazed; and crazed by the sound, he<br /> +Thought these things were being done through some wicked trick of a neighbor, or by magic art.<br /> +<br /> +Not far from here a holy band of brethren had built their<br /> +Humble home in a remote valley; their lot it was to chant<br /> +Praises of God, and to load his altars with fitting gifts.<br /> +Although throughout the night the deep-toned bell resounded<br /> +With great din, and summoned them to the sacred temple, often<br /> +The coming of dawn found them lingering on their couches,<br /> +Having forgotten to rise in the middle of the night.<br /> +So great was their love of sleep!<br /> +<br /> +In charge of the sacred temple, revered and obeyed by his<br /> +Willing brethren, was the master, an aged man, a heavy mass of white hair on head and chin.<br /> +The shepherd, hastening, came to him and told him the story,<br /> +Imploring his aid. The old man smiled to himself; but<br /> +He agreed to go, and investigate the hidden cause of the miracle.<br /> +<br /> +When he has come to the hills, he observes the lambs, together<br /> +With their mothers, gnawing the berries of an unknown plant,<br /> +And cries, "This is the cause of the trouble!" And saying no<br /> +More, he at once picks the smooth fruit from the heavily-laden<br /> +Tree, and carries it home, places it, when washed, in pure<br /> +Water, cooking it over the fire, and fearlessly drinks a large<br /> +Cup of it. Forthwith a warmth pervades his veins, a living<br /> +Force is diffused through his limbs, and weariness is dispelled from his aged body.<br /> +Then, at length, the old man exulting in the blessing thus found,<br /> +Rejoices, and kindly shares with all his brothers. They eagerly<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[Pg 547]</a></span>At early night-fall, indulge in pleasant banquets and drain great bowls.<br /> +No longer is it hard for them to break off sweet sleep and to leave their soft beds as formerly.<br /> +O fortunate ones! whose hearts the sweet draught has often<br /> +Bathed. No sluggish torpor holds their minds, they briskly<br /> +Rise for their prescribed duties and rejoice to outstrip the rays of the first light.<br /> +<br /> +You also, whose care it is to feed minds with divine eloquence<br /> +And to terrify with your words the souls of the guilty, you also<br /> +Should indulge in the pleasant drink; for, as you know, it<br /> +Strengthens weakness. Keen vigor is gained for the limbs from<br /> +This source, and spreads through the whole body. From this source,<br /> +Too, shall come new strength and new power to your voice.<br /> +You also, whom oft harmful vapors harass, whose sick brain the dangerous vertigo shakes,<br /> +Ah, come! In this sweet liquid is a ready medicine<br /> +And none other better to calm undue agitation.<br /> +Apollo planted this power for himself, they say,<br /> +The story is worthy to be sung.<br /> +<br /> +Once a disease most deadly to life assailed the disciples of<br /> +Apollo's Mount. It spread far and wide, and attacked the brain itself.<br /> +Already all the people of genius were suffering with this<br /> +Disease; and the arts, deserted, were languishing along with<br /> +The workers. Some even pretended to have the disease, and<br /> +Assuming feigned suffering, gave themselves over to an idle life.<br /> +Unpleasing work grew distasteful, and deadly inertia increased<br /> +Everywhere. It pleased all, now released from work and labors,<br /> +To indulge in care-free quiet.<br /> +Apollo, full of indignation, did not endure longer that the deadly<br /> +Contagion of such easy ruin should creep over them thus. And,<br /> +That he might take away from seers all means of deception, he<br /> +Enticed from the rich bosom of the earth this friendly plant,<br /> +Than which no other is more ready either to refresh for work the<br /> +Mind wearied by long studies, or to sooth troublesome sorrows of the head.<br /> +<br /> +O plant, given to the human race by the gift of the Gods!<br /> +No other out of the entire list of plants has ever vied with you.<br /> +On your account sailors sail from our shores<br /> +And fearlessly conquer the threatening winds, sandbanks and<br /> +Dreadful rocks. With your nourishing growth you surpass dittany,<br /> +Ambrosia, and fragrant panacea. Grim diseases flee from you. To<br /> +You trusting health clings as a companion, and also the merry<br /> +Crowd, conversation, amusing jokes, and sweet whisperings.<br /> +</p> + +<p>The poet Belighi toward the close of the sixteenth century composed a +poem, which, freely translated, runs:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +In Damascus, in Aleppo, in great Cairo,<br /> +At every turn is to be found<br /> +That mild fruit which gives so beloved a drink,<br /> +Before coming to court to triumph.<br /> +There this seditious disturber of the world,<br /> +Has, by its unparalleled virtue,<br /> +Supplanted all wines from this blessed day.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Jacques Delille (1738–1813) the didactic poet of nature, in <i>chant vi</i> +of his "<i>Three Reigns of Nature</i>," thus apostrophizes the "divine +nectar" and describes its preparation:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Divine Coffee</span><br /> + +<i>Translation from the French</i></p> +<p class="poem"> +A liquid there is to the poet most dear,<br /> +'T was lacking to Virgil, adored by Voltaire,<br /> +'T is thou, divine coffee, for thine is the art,<br /> +Without turning the head yet to gladden the heart.<br /> +And thus though my palate be dulled by age,<br /> +With joy I partake of thy dear beverage.<br /> +How glad I prepare me thy nectar most precious,<br /> +No soul shall usurp me a rite so delicious;<br /> +On the ambient flame when the black charcoal burns,<br /> +The gold of thy bean to rare ebony turns,<br /> +I alone, 'gainst the cone, wrought with fierce iron teeth.<br /> +Make thy fruitage cry out with its bitter-sweet breath;<br /> +Till charmed with such perfume, with care I entrust<br /> +To the pot on my hearth the rare spice-laden dust:<br /> +First to calm, then excite, till it seethingly whirls,<br /> +With an eye all attention I gaze till it boils.<br /> +At last now the liquid comes slow to repose;<br /> +In the hot, smoking vessel its wealth I depose,<br /> +My cup and thy nectar; from wild reeds expressed,<br /> +America's honey my table has blest;<br /> +All is ready; Japan's gay enamel invites—<br /> +And the tribute of two worlds thy prestige unites:<br /> +Come, Nectar divine, inspire thou me,<br /> +I wish but Antigone, dessert and thee;<br /> +For scarce have I tasted thy odorous steam,<br /> +When quick from thy clime, soothing warmths round me stream,<br /> +Attentive my thoughts rise and flow light as air,<br /> +Awaking my senses and soothing my care.<br /> +Ideas that but late moved so dull and depressed,<br /> +Behold, they come smiling in rich garments dressed!<br /> +Some genius awakes me, my course is begun;<br /> +For I drink with each drop a bright ray of the sun.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[Pg 548]</a></span></p><p>Maumenet addressed to Galland the following verses:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +If slumber, friend, too near, with some late glass should creep—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dull, poppy-perfumed sleep—</span><br /> +If a too fumous wine confounds at length thy brain—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Take coffee then—this juice divine</span><br /> +Shall banish sleep and steam of vap'rous wine,<br /> +And with its timely aid fresh vigor thou shalt find.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Castel, in his poem, <i>Les Plantes</i> (The Plants) could not omit the +coffee trees of the tropics. He thus addressed them in 1811:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Bright plants, the favorites of Phoebus,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In these climes the rarest virtues offer,</span><br /> +Delicious Mocha, thy sap, enchantress,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Awakens genius, outvalues Parnasse!</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>In a collection of the <i>Songs of Brittany</i> in the Brest library there +are many stanzas in praise of coffee. A Breton poet has composed a +little piece of ninety-six verses in which he describes the powerful +attraction that coffee has for women and the possible effects on +domestic happiness. The first time that coffee was used in Brittany, +says an old song of that country, only the nobility drank it, and now +all the common people are using it, yet the greater part of them have +not even bread.</p> + +<p>A French poet of the eighteenth century produced the following:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Lines on Coffee</span><br /> + +<i>Translation from the French</i></p> +<p class="poem"> +Good coffee is more than a savory cup,<br /> +Its aroma has power to dry liquor up.<br /> +By coffee you get upon leaving the table<br /> +A mind full of wisdom, thoughts lucid, nerves stable;<br /> +And odd tho' it be, 't is none the less true,<br /> +Coffee's aid to digestion permits dining anew.<br /> +And what 's very true, tho' few people know it,<br /> +Fine coffee 's the basis of every fine poet;<br /> +For many a writer as windy as Boreas<br /> +Has been vastly improved by the drink ever glorious.<br /> +Coffee brightens the dullness of heavy philosophy,<br /> +And opens the science of mighty geometry.<br /> +Our law-makers, too, when the nectar imbibing,<br /> +Plan wondrous reforms, quite beyond the describing;<br /> +The odor of coffee they delight in inhaling,<br /> +And promise the country to alter laws ailing.<br /> +From the brow of the scholar coffee chases the wrinkles,<br /> +And mirth in his eyes like a firefly twinkles;<br /> +And he, who before was but a hack of old Homer,<br /> +Becomes an original, and that 's no misnomer.<br /> +Observe the astronomer who 's straining his eyes<br /> +In watching the planets which soar thro' the skies;<br /> +Alas, all those bright bodies seem hopelessly far<br /> +Till coffee discloses his own guiding star.<br /> +But greatest of wonders that coffee effects<br /> +Is to aid the news-editor as he little expects;<br /> +Coffee whispers the secrets of hidden diplomacy,<br /> +Hints rumors of wars and of scandals so racy.<br /> +Inspiration by coffee must be nigh unto magic,<br /> +For it conjures up facts that are certainly tragic;<br /> +And for a few pennies, coffee's small price per cup,<br /> +"Ye editor's" able to swallow the Universe up.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Esménard celebrated Captain de Clieu's romantic voyage to Martinique +with the coffee plants from the Jardin des Plantes, in some admirable +verses quoted in chapter II.</p> + +<p>Among other notable poetic flights in praise of coffee produced in +France mention should be made of: "<i>L'Elogé du Café</i>" (Eulogy of Coffee) +a song in twenty-four couplets, Paris, Jacques Estienne, 1711; <i>Le Café</i> +(Coffee), a fragment from the fourth <i>chant</i> (song) of <i>La Grandeur de +Dieu dans les merveilles de la Nature</i> (The Grandeur of God in the +Wonders of Nature) Marseilles; <i>Le Café</i>, extract from the fourth +gastronomic song, by Berchoux; "<i>A Mon Café</i>" (To My Coffee), stanzas +written by Ducis; <i>Le Café</i>, anonymous stanzas inserted in the +<i>Macedoine Poetique</i>, 1824; a poem in Latin in the Abbé Olivier's +collection; <i>Le Bouquet Blanc et le Bouquet Noir, poesie en quatre +chants; Le Café</i>, C.D. Mery, 1837; <i>Elogé du Café</i>, S. Melaye, 1852.</p> + +<p>Many Italian poets have sung the praises of coffee. L. Barotti wrote his +poem, <i>Il Caffè</i> in 1681. Giuseppe Parini (1729–1799), Italy's great +satirical and lyric poet and critic of the eighteenth century, in <i>Il +Giorno</i> (<i>The Day</i>), gives a delightful pen picture of the manners and +customs of Milan's polite society of the period. William Dean Howells +quotes as follows from these poems (his own translation) in his <i>Modern +Italian Poets</i>. The feast is over, and the lady signals to the cavalier +that it is time to leave the table:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spring to thy feet</span><br /> +The first of all, and, drawing near thy lady,<br /> +Remove her chair and offer her thy hand,<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[Pg 549]</a></span>And lead her to the other room, nor suffer longer<br /> +That the stale reek of viands shall offend<br /> +Her delicate sense. Thee with the rest invites<br /> +The grateful odor of the coffee, where<br /> +It smokes upon a smaller table hid<br /> +And graced with Indian webs. The redolent gums<br /> +That meanwhile burn, sweeten and purify<br /> +The heavy atmosphere, and banish thence<br /> +All lingering traces of the feast. Ye sick<br /> +And poor, whom misery or whom hope, perchance!<br /> +Has guided in the noonday to these doors.<br /> +Tumultuous, naked, and unsightly throng,<br /> +With mutilated limbs and squalid faces,<br /> +In litters and on crutches from afar<br /> +Comfort yourselves, and with expanded nostrils<br /> +Drink in the nectar of the feast divine<br /> +That favourable zephyrs waft to you;<br /> +But do not dare besiege these noble precincts,<br /> +Importunately offering her that reigns<br /> +Within your loathsome spectacle of woe!<br /> +And now, sir, 't is your office to prepare<br /> +The tiny cup that then shall minister,<br /> +Slow sipped, its liquor to thy lady's lips;<br /> +And now bethink thee whether she prefer<br /> +The boiling beverage much or little tempered<br /> +With sweet; or if, perchance, she likes it best,<br /> +As doth the barbarous spouse, then when she sits<br /> +Upon brocades of Persia, with light fingers,<br /> +The bearded visage of her lord caressing.<br /> +</p> + +<p>This is from <i>Il Mezzogiorno</i> (<i>Noon</i>). The other three poems, rounding +out <i>The Day</i>, are <i>Il Mattino</i> (<i>Morning</i>), <i>Il Vespre</i> (<i>Evening</i>), +and <i>La Notte</i> (<i>Night</i>). In <i>Il Mattino</i>, Parini sings:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Should dreary hypochondria's woes oppress thee,<br /> +Should round thy charming limbs in too great measure<br /> +Thy flesh increase, then with thy lips do honor<br /> +To that clear beverage, made from the well-bronzed,<br /> +The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends thee,<br /> +And distant Mocha too, a thousand ship-loads;<br /> +When slowly sipped it knows no rival.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Belli's <i>Il Caffè</i> supplies a partial bibliography of the Italian +literature on coffee. There are many poems, some of them put to music. +As late as 1921, there were published in Bologna some advertising verses +on coffee by G.B. Zecchini with music by Cesare Cantino.</p> + +<p>Pope Leo XIII, in his Horatian poem on <i>Frugality</i> composed in his +eighty-eighth year, thus verses his appreciation of coffee:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Last comes the beverage of the Orient shore,<br /> +Mocha, far off, the fragrant berries bore.<br /> +Taste the dark fluid with a dainty lip,<br /> +Digestion waits on pleasure as you sip.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Peter Altenberg, a Vienna poet, thus celebrated the cafés of his native +city:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">To The Coffee House</span>!</p> +<p class="poem"> +When you are worried, have trouble of one sort or another—to the coffee house!<br /> +When she did not keep her appointment, for one reason or other—to the coffee house!<br /> +When your shoes are torn and dilapidated—coffee house!<br /> +When your income is four hundred crowns and you spend five hundred—coffee house!<br /> +You are a chair warmer in some office, while your ambition led you to seek professional honors—coffee house!<br /> +You could not find a mate to suit you—coffee house!<br /> +You feel like committing suicide—coffee house!<br /> +You hate and despise human beings, and at the same time you can not be happy without them—coffee house!<br /> +You compose a poem which you can not inflict upon friends you meet in the street—coffee house!<br /> +When your coal scuttle is empty, and your gas ration exhausted—coffee house!<br /> +When you need money for cigarettes, you touch the head waiter in the—coffee house!<br /> +When you are locked out and haven't the money to pay for unlocking the house door—coffee house!<br /> +When you acquire a new flame, and intend provoking the old one, you take the new one to the old one's—coffee house!<br /> +When you feel like hiding you dive into a—coffee house!<br /> +When you want to be seen in a new suit—coffee house!<br /> +When you can not get anything on trust anywhere else—coffee house!<br /> +</p> + +<p>English poets from Milton to Keats celebrated coffee. Milton (1608–1674) +in his <i>Comus</i> thus acclaimed the beverage:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;">One sip of this</span><br /> +Will bathe the drooping spirits in delight<br /> +Beyond the bliss of dreams.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Alexander Pope, poet and satirist (1688–1744), has the oft-quoted lines:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Coffee which makes the politician wise,<br /> +And see through all things with his half-shut eyes.<br /> +</p> + +<p>In Carruthers' <i>Life of Pope</i>, we read that this poet inhaled the steam +of coffee in order to obtain relief from the headaches to which he was +subject. We can well understand the inspiration which called forth from +him the following lines when he was not yet twenty:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +As long as Mocha's happy tree shall grow,<br /> +While berries crackle, or while mills shall go;<br /> +While smoking streams from silver spouts shall glide,<br /> +Or China's earth receive the sable tide,<br /> +While coffee shall to British nymphs be dear,<br /> +While fragrant steams the bended head shall cheer,<br /> +Or grateful bitters shall delight the taste,<br /> +So long her honors, name and praise shall last.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[Pg 550]</a></span></p><p>Pope's famous <i>Rape of the Lock</i> grew out of coffee-house gossip. The +poem contains the passage on coffee already quoted:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +For lo! the board with cups and spoons is crowned;<br /> +The berries crackle and the mill turns round;<br /> +On shining altars of Japan they raise<br /> +The silver lamp: the fiery spirits blaze:<br /> +From silver spouts the grateful liquors glide,<br /> +While China's earth receives the smoking tide.<br /> +At once they gratify their scent and taste.<br /> +And frequent cups prolong the rich repast<br /> +Straight hover round the fair her airy band;<br /> +Some, as she sipped, the fuming liquor fanned:<br /> +Some o'er her lap their careful plumes displayed,<br /> +Trembling, and conscious of the rich brocade.<br /> +Coffee (which makes the politician wise,<br /> +And see through all things with his half-shut eyes.)<br /> +Sent up in vapors to the baron's brain<br /> +New stratagems, the radiant lock to gain.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Pope often broke the slumbers of his servant at night by calling him to +prepare a cup of coffee; but for regular serving, it was his custom to +grind and to prepare it upon the table.</p> + +<p>William Cowper's fine tribute to "the cups that cheer but not +inebriate", a phrase which he is said to have borrowed from Bishop +Berkeley, was addressed to tea and not to coffee, to which it has not +infrequently been wrongfully attributed. It is one of the most pleasing +pictures in <i>The Task</i>.</p> + +<p>Cowper refers to coffee but once in his writings. In his <i>Pity for Poor +Africans</i> he expresses himself as "shocked at the ignorance of slaves":</p> + +<p class="poem"> +I pity them greatly, but I must be mum<br /> +For how could we do without sugar and rum?<br /> +Especially sugar, so needful we see;<br /> +What! Give up our desserts, our coffee and tea?<br /> +</p> + +<p>thus contenting himself, like many others, with words of pity where more +active protest might sacrifice his personal ease and comfort.</p> + +<p>Leigh Hunt (1784–1859), and John Keats (1795–1834), were worshippers at +the shrine of coffee; while Charles Lamb, famous poet, essayist, +humorist, and critic, has celebrated in verse the exploit of Captain de +Clieu in the following delightful verses:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">The Coffee Slips</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +Whene'er I fragrant coffee drink,<br /> +I on the generous Frenchman think,<br /> +Whose noble perseverance bore<br /> +The tree to Martinico's shore.<br /> +While yet her colony was new,<br /> +Her island products but a few;<br /> +Two shoots from off a coffee tree<br /> +He carried with him o'er the sea.<br /> +Each little tender coffee slip<br /> +He waters daily in the ship.<br /> +And as he tends his embryo trees.<br /> +Feels he is raising 'midst the seas<br /> +Coffee groves, whose ample shade<br /> +Shall screen the dark Creolian maid.<br /> +But soon, alas! His darling pleasure<br /> +In watching this his precious treasure<br /> +Is like to fade—for water fails<br /> +On board the ship in which he sails.<br /> +Now all the reservoirs are shut.<br /> +The crew on short allowance put;<br /> +So small a drop is each man's share.<br /> +Few leavings you may think there are<br /> +To water these poor coffee plants—<br /> +But he supplies their grasping wants,<br /> +Even from his own dry parched lips<br /> +He spares it for his coffee slips.<br /> +Water he gives his nurslings first,<br /> +Ere he allays his own deep thirst,<br /> +Lest, if he first the water sip,<br /> +He bear too far his eager lip.<br /> +He sees them droop for want of more;<br /> +Yet when they reach the destined shore,<br /> +With pride the heroic gardener sees<br /> +A living sap still in his trees.<br /> +The islanders his praise resound;<br /> +Coffee plantations rise around;<br /> +And Martinico loads her ships<br /> +With produce from those dear-saved slips.<br /> +</p> + +<p>In John Keats' amusing fantasy, <i>Cap and Bells</i>, the Emperor Elfinan +greets Hum, the great soothsayer, and offers him refreshment:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +"You may have sherry in silver, hock in gold, or glass'd champagne<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">... what cup will you drain?"</span><br /> +<br /> +"Commander of the Faithful!" answered Hum,<br /> +"In preference to these, I'll merely taste<br /> +A thimble-full of old Jamaica rum."<br /> +"A simple boon," said Elfinan; "thou mayst<br /> +Have Nantz, with which my morning coffee's laced."<br /> +</p> + +<p>But Hum accepts the glass of Nantz, without the coffee, "made racy with +the third part of the least drop of <i>crème de citron</i>, crystal clear."</p> + +<p>Numerous broadsides printed in London, 1660 to 1675, have been referred +to in chapter X. Few of them possess real literary merit.</p> + +<p>"Coffee and Crumpets" has been much quoted. It was published in +<i>Fraser's Magazine</i>, in 1837. Its author calls himself "Launcelot +Littledo". The poem is quite long, and only those portions are printed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[Pg 551]</a></span> +here that refer particularly to "Yemen's fragrant berry":</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Coffee and Crumpets</span><br /> + +<i>By Launcelot Littledo of Pump Court, Temple, Barrister-at-law.</i></p> +<p class="poem"> +There's ten o'clock! From Hampstead to the Tower<br /> +The bells are chanting forth a lusty carol;<br /> +Wrangling, with iron tongues, about the hour,<br /> +Like fifty drunken fishwives at a quarrel;<br /> +Cautious policemen shun the coming shower;<br /> +Thompson and Fearon tap another barrel;<br /> +"<i>Dissolve frigus, lignum super foco.<br /> +Large reponens.</i>" Now, come Orinoco!<br /> +<br /> +To puff away an hour, and drink a cup,<br /> +A brimming <i>breakfast</i>-cup of ruddy Mocha—<br /> +Clear, luscious, dark, like eyes that lighten up<br /> +The raven hair, fair cheek, and <i>bella boca</i><br /> +Of Florence maidens. I can never sup<br /> +Of perigourd, but (<i>guai a chi la tocca!</i>)<br /> +I'm doomed to indigestion. So to settle<br /> +This strife eternal,—Betty, bring the kettle!<br /> +<br /> +Coffee! oh, Coffee! Faith, it is surprising.<br /> +'Mid all the poets, good, and bad, and worse.<br /> +Who've scribbled (Hock or Chian eulogizing)<br /> +Post and papyrus with "Immortal verse"—<br /> +Melodiously similitudinising<br /> +In Sapphics languid or Alcaics terse<br /> +No one, my little brown Arabian berry,.<br /> +Hath sung thy praises—'tis surprising! very!<br /> +<br /> +Were I a poet now, whose ready rhymes.<br /> +Like Tommy Moore's, came tripping to their places—<br /> +Reeling along a merry troll of chimes,<br /> +With careless truth,—a dance of fuddled Graces;<br /> +Hear it—<i>Gazette</i>, <i>Post</i>, <i>Herald</i>, <i>Standard</i>, <i>Times</i>,<br /> +I'd write an epic! Coffee for its basis;<br /> +Sweet as e'er warbled forth from cockney throttles<br /> +Since Bob Montgomery's or Amos Cottle's.<br /> +<br /> +Thou sleepy-eyed Chinese—enticing siren,<br /> +Pekoe! the Muse hath said in praise of thee,<br /> +"That cheers but not inebriates"; and Byron<br /> +Hath called thy sister "Queen of Tears", Bohea!<br /> +And he, Anacreon of Rome's age of iron,<br /> +Says, how untruly "<i>Quis non potius te</i>."<br /> +While coffee, thou—bill-plastered gables say,<br /> +Art like old Cupid, "roasted every day."<br /> +<br /> +I love, upon a rainy night, as this is,<br /> +When rarely and more rare the coaches rattle<br /> +From street to street, to sip thy fragrant kisses;<br /> +While from the Strand remote some drunken battle<br /> +Far-faintly echoes, and the kettle hisses<br /> +Upon the glowing hob. No tittle-tattle<br /> +To make a single thought of mine an alien<br /> +From thee, my coffee-pot, my fount Castalian.<br /> +</p> + +<p>The many intervening verses cover an unhappy termination to an otherwise +delightful ball. He is sitting with his charming "Mary", about to ask +her to be his bride, when the unfortunate overturning of a glass of red +wine into her white satin gown, at the same time overthrows all his +dreams of bliss, "for the shrew displaces the angel he adored", and he +resigns himself to the life of "a man in chambers."</p> + +<p class="poem"> +'Tis thus I sit and sip, and sip and think.<br /> +And think and sip again, and dip in <i>Fraser</i>,<br /> +A health, King Oliver! to thee I drink:<br /> +Long may the public have thee to amaze her.<br /> +Like <i>Figaro</i>, thou makest one's eyelids wink,<br /> +Twirling on practised palm thy polished razor—<br /> +True Horace temper, smoothed on attic strop;<br /> +Ah! thou couldst "<i>faire la barbe a tout l'Europe</i>."<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +Come, Oliver, and tell us what the news is;<br /> +An easy chair awaits thee—come and fill 't.<br /> +Come, I invoke thee, as they do the muses,<br /> +And thou shalt choose thy tipple as thou wilt.<br /> +And if thy lips my sober cup refuses,<br /> +For ruddier drops the purple grape has spilt,<br /> +We can sing, sipping in alternate verses,<br /> +Thy drink and mine, like Corydon and Thyrsis.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +Fill the bowl, but not with wine.<br /> +Potent port, or fiery sherry;<br /> +For this milder cup of mine<br /> +Crush me Yemen's fragrant berry.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span><br /> +<br /> +Gentle is the grape's deep cluster,<br /> +But the wine's a wayward child;<br /> +Nectar <i>this</i>! of meeker lustre—<br /> +<i>This</i> the cup that "draws it mild."<br /> +Deeply drink its streams divine—<br /> +Fill the cup, but not with wine.<br /> +</p> + +<p>Prior and Montague inserted the following poetic vignette in their <i>City +Mouse and Country Mouse</i>, written in burlesque of Dryden's <i>Hind and +Panther</i>:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Then on they jogg'd; and since an hour of talk<br /> +Might cut a banter on the tedious walk,<br /> +As I remember, said the sober mouse,<br /> +I've heard much talk of the Wits' Coffee-house;<br /> +Thither, says Brindle, thou shalt go and see<br /> +Priests supping coffee, sparks and poets tea;<br /> +Here rugged frieze, there quality well drest,<br /> +These baffling the grand Senior, those the Test,<br /> +And there shrewd guesses made, and reasons given,<br /> +That human laws were never made in heaven;<br /> +But, above all, what shall oblige thy sight,<br /> +And fill thy eyeballs with a vast delight,<br /> +Is the poetic judge of sacred wit,<br /> +Who does i' th' darkness of his glory sit;<br /> +And as the moon who first receives the light,<br /> +With which she makes these nether regions bright,<br /> +So does he shine, reflecting from afar<br /> +The rays he borrowed from a better star;<br /> +For rules, which from Corneille and Rapin flow,<br /> +Admired by all the scribbling herd below,<br /> +From French tradition while he does dispense<br /> +Unerring truths, 't is schism, a damned offense,<br /> +To question his, or trust your private sense.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[Pg 552]</a></span></p><p>Geoffrey Sephton, an English poet and novelist, many years resident in +Vienna, whose fantastic stories and fairy tales are well known in +Europe, has written the following sonnets on coffee:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">To the Mighty Monarch, King Kauhee</span><a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a><br /> + +<i>By Geoffrey Sephton</i></p> +<p class="poem"> +I<br /> +<br /> +Away with opiates! Tantalising snares<br /> +To dull the brain with phantoms that are not.<br /> +Let no such drugs the subtle senses rot<br /> +With visions stealing softly unawares<br /> +Into the chambers of the soul. Nightmares<br /> +Ride in their wake, the spirits to besot.<br /> +Seek surer means, to banish haunting cares:<br /> +Place on the board the steaming Coffee-pot!<br /> +O'er luscious fruit, dessert and sparkling flask,<br /> +Let proudly rule as King the Great Kauhee,<br /> +For he gives joy divine to all that ask,<br /> +Together with his spouse, sweet <i>Eau de Vie</i><br /> +Oh, let us 'neath his sovran pleasure bask.<br /> +Come, raise the fragrant cup and bend the knee!<br /> +<br /> +II<br /> +<br /> +O great Kauhee, thou democratic Lord,<br /> +Born 'neath the tropic sun and bronzed to splendour<br /> +In lands of Wealth and Wisdom, who can render<br /> +Such service to the wandering Human Horde<br /> +As thou at every proud or humble board?<br /> +Beside the honest workman's homely fender,<br /> +'Mid dainty dames and damsels sweetly tender,<br /> +In china, gold and silver, have we poured<br /> +Thy praise and sweetness, Oriental King.<br /> +Oh, how we love to hear the kettle sing<br /> +In joy at thy approach, embodying<br /> +The bitter, sweet and creamy sides of life;<br /> +Friend of the People, Enemy of Strife,<br /> +Sons of the Earth have born thee labouring.<br /> +</p> + +<p>In America, too, poets have sung in praise of coffee. The somewhat +doubtful "kind that mother used to make" is celebrated in James Whitcomb +Riley's classic poem:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Like His Mother Used To Make</span><a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a><br /> + +<i>"Uncle Jake's Place," St. Jo., Mo., 1874.</i></p> +<p class="poem"> +"I was born in Indiany," says a stranger, lank and slim,<br /> +As us fellers in the restaurant was kindo' guyin' him,<br /> +And Uncle Jake was slidin' him another punkin pie<br /> +And a' extry cup o' coffee, with a twinkle in his eye—<br /> +"I was born in Indiany—more'n forty years ago—<br /> +And I hain't ben back in twenty—and I'm work-in' back'ards slow;<br /> +But I've et in ever' restarunt twixt here and Santy Fee,<br /> +And I want to state this coffee tastes like gittin' home, to me!"<br /> +"Pour us out another. Daddy," says the feller, warmin' up,<br /> +A-speakin' crost a saucerful, as Uncle tuk his cup—<br /> +"When I see yer sign out yander," he went on, to Uncle Jake—<br /> +"'Come in and git some coffee like yer mother used to make'—<br /> +I thought of <i>my</i> old mother, and the Posey county farm,<br /> +And me a little kid again, a-hangin' in her arm,<br /> +As she set the pot a-bilin', broke the eggs and poured 'em in"—<br /> +And the feller kindo' halted, with a trimble in his chin;<br /> +And Uncle Jake he fetched the feller's coffee back, and stood<br /> +As solemn, fer a minute, as a' undertaker would;<br /> +Then he sorto' turned and tiptoed to'rds the kitchen door—and next,<br /> +Here comes his old wife out with him, a-rubbin' of her specs—<br /> +And she rushes fer the stranger, and she hollers out, "It's him!—<br /> +Thank God we've met him comin'!—Don't you know yer mother, Jim?"<br /> +And the feller, as he grabbed her, says,—"You bet I hain't forgot—<br /> +But," wipin' of his eyes, says he, "yer coffee's mighty hot!"<br /> +</p> + +<p>One of the most delightful coffee poems in English is Francis Saltus' +(d. 1889) sonnet on "the voluptuous berry", as found in <i>Flasks and +Flagons</i>:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Coffee</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +Voluptuous berry! Where may mortals find<br /> +Nectars divine that can with thee compare,<br /> +When, having dined, we sip thy essence rare,<br /> +And feel towards wit and repartee inclined?<br /> +<br /> +Thou wert of sneering, cynical Voltaire,<br /> +The only friend; thy power urged Balzac's mind<br /> +To glorious effort; surely Heaven designed<br /> +Thy devotees superior joys to share.<br /> +<br /> +Whene'er I breathe thy fumes, 'mid Summer stars,<br /> +The Orient's splendent pomps my vision greet.<br /> +Damascus, with its myriad minarets, gleams!<br /> +I see thee, smoking, in immense bazaars,<br /> +Or yet, in dim seraglios, at the feet<br /> +Of blond Sultanas, pale with amorous dreams!<br /> +</p> + +<p>Arthur Gray, in <i>Over the Black Coffee</i> (1902) has made the following +contribution to the poetry of coffee, with an unfortunate reflection on +tea, which might well have been omitted:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Coffee</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +O, boiling, bubbling, berry, bean!<br /> +Thou consort of the kitchen queen—<br /> +Browned and ground of every feature,<br /> +The only aromatic creature,<br /> +For which we long, for which we feel,<br /> +The breath of morn, the perfumed meal.<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553]</a></span>For what is tea? It can but mean,<br /> +Merely the mildest go-between.<br /> +Insipid sobriety of thought and mind<br /> +It "cuts no figure"—we can find—<br /> +Save peaceful essays, gentle walks,<br /> +Purring cats, old ladies' talks—<br /> +<br /></p> +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> +<p class="poem"> +But coffee! can other tales unfold.<br /> +Its history's written round and bold—<br /> +Brave buccaneers upon the "Spanish Main",<br /> +The army's march across the lenght'ning plain,<br /> +The lone prospector wandering o'er the hill,<br /> +The hunter's camp, thy fragrance all distill.<br /> +<br /> +So here's a health to coffee! Coffee hot!<br /> +A morning toast! Bring on another pot.<br /> +</p> + + +<p><i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i> published in 1909 the following +excellent stanzas by William A. Price:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">An Ode to Coffee</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +Oh, thou most fragrant, aromatic joy, impugned, abused, and often stormed against,<br /> +And yet containing all the blissfulness that in a tiny cup could be condensed!<br /> +Give thy contemners calm, imperial scorn—<br /> +For thou wilt reign through ages yet unborn!<br /> +<br /> +Some ancient Arab, so the legend tells, first found thee—may his memory be blest!<br /> +The world-wide sign of brotherhood today, the binding tie between the East and West!<br /> +Good coffee pleases in a Persian dell,<br /> +And Blackfeet Indians make it more than well.<br /> +<br /> +The lonely traveler in the desert range, if thou art with him, smiles at eventide—<br /> +The sailor, as thy perfume bubbles forth, laughs at the ocean as it rages wide—<br /> +And where the camps of fighting men are found<br /> +Thy fragrance hovers o'er each battleground.<br /> +<br /> +"Use, not abuse, the good things of this life"—that is a motto from the Prophet's days,<br /> +And, dealing with thee thus, we ne'er shall come to troublous times or parting of the ways.<br /> +Comfort and solace both endure with thee,<br /> +Rich, royal berry of the coffee tree!<br /> +</p> + + +<p>The <i>New York Tribune</i> published in 1915 the following lines by Louis +Untermeyer, which were subsequently included in his "—— <i>and Other +Poets</i>."<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a></p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Gilbert K. Chesterton Rises to the Toast of Coffee</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +Strong wine it is a mocker; strong wine it is a beast.<br /> +It grips you when it starts to rise; it is the Fabled Yeast.<br /> +You should not offer ale or beer from hops that are freshly picked,<br /> +Nor even Benedictine to tempt a benedict.<br /> +For wine has a spell like the lure of hell, and the devil has mixed the brew;<br /> +And the friends of ale are a sort of pale and weary, witless crew—<br /> +And the taste of beer is a sort of a queer and undecided brown—<br /> +But, comrades, I give you coffee—drink it up, drink it down.<br /> +With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc.<br /> +<br /> +Oh, cocoa's the drink for an elderly don who lives with an elderly niece;<br /> +And tea is the drink for studios and loud and violent peace—<br /> +And brandy's the drink that spoils the clothes when the bottle breaks in the trunk;<br /> +But coffee's the drink that is drunken by men who will never be drunk.<br /> +So, gentlemen, up with the festive cup, where Mocha and Java unite;<br /> +It clears the head when things are said too brilliant to be bright!<br /> +It keeps the stars from the golden bars and the lips of the tipsy town;<br /> +So, here's to strong, black coffee—drink it up, drink it down!<br /> +With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc.<br /> +</p> + + +<p>The American breakfast cup is celebrated in up-to-date American style in +the following by Helen Rowland in the <i>New York Evening World</i>:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">What Every Wife Knows</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +Give me a man who drinks good, hot, dark, strong coffee for breakfast!<br /> +A man who smokes a good, dark, fat cigar after dinner!<br /> +You may marry your milk-faddist, or your anti-coffee crank, as you will!<br /> +But I know the magic of the coffee pot!<br /> +Let me make my Husband's coffee—and I care not who makes eyes at him!<br /> +Give me two matches a day—<br /> +One to start the coffee with, at breakfast, and one for his cigar, after dinner!<br /> +And I defy all the houris in Christendom to light a new flame in his heart!<br /> +<br /> +Oh, sweet supernal coffee-pot!<br /> +Gentle panacea of domestic troubles,<br /> +Faithful author of that sweet nepenthe which deadens all the ills that married folks are heir to.<br /> +Cheery, glittering, soul-soothing, warmed hearted, inanimate friend!<br /> +What wife can fail to admit the peace and serenity she owes to <i>you</i>?<br /> +To you, who stand between her and all her early morning troubles—<br /> +Between her and the before-breakfast grouch—<br /> +Between her and the morning-after headache—<br /> +Between her and the cold-gray-dawn scrutiny?<br /> +To you, who supply the golden nectar that stimulates the jaded masculine soul,<br /> +Soothes the shaky masculine nerves, stirs the fagged masculine mind, inspires the slow masculine sentiment,<br /> +And starts the sluggish blood a-flowing and the whole day right!<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[Pg 554]</a></span>What is it, I ask you, when he comes down to breakfast dry of mouth, and touchy of temper—<br /> +That gives him pause, and silences that scintillating barb of sarcasm on the tip of his tongue,<br /> +With which he meant to impale you?<br /> +It is the sweet aroma of the coffee-pot—the thrilling thought of that first delicious sip!<br /> +<br /> +What is it, on the morning after the club dance,<br /> +That hides your weary, little, washed-out face and straggling, uncurled coiffure from his critical eyes?<br /> +It is the generous coffee-pot, standing like a guardian angel between you and him!<br /> +And in those many vital psychological moments, during the honeymoon, which decide for or against the romance and happiness of all the rest of married life—<br /> +Those critical before-breakfast moments when temperament meets temperament, and will meets "won't"—<br /> +What is it that halts you on the brink of tragedy,<br /> +And distracts you from the temptation to answer back?<br /> +It is the absorbing anxiety of watching the coffee boil!<br /> +What is it that warms his veins and soothes your nerves,<br /> +And turns all the world suddenly from a dismal gray vale of disappointment to a bright rosy garden of hope—<br /> +And starts <i>another</i> day gliding smoothly along like a new motor car?<br /> +What is it that will do more to transform a man from a fiend into an angel than baptism in the River Jordan?<br /> +<i>It is the first cup of coffee in the morning!</i><br /> +</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee in Dramatic Literature</i></p> + +<p>Coffee was first "dramatized", so to speak, in England, where we read +that Charles II and the Duke of Yorke attended the first performance of +<i>Tarugo's Wiles, or the Coffee House</i>, a comedy, in 1667, which Samuel +Pepys described as "the most ridiculous and insipid play I ever saw in +my life." The author was Thomas St. Serf. The piece opens in a lively +manner, with a request on the part of its fashionable hero for a change +of clothes. Accordingly, Tarugo puts off his "vest, hat, perriwig, and +sword," and serves the guests to coffee, while the apprentice acts his +part as a gentleman customer. Presently other "customers of all trades +and professions" come dropping into the coffee house. These are not +always polite to the supposed coffee-man; one complains of his coffee +being "nothing but warm water boyl'd with burnt beans," while another +desires him to bring "chocolette that's prepar'd with water, for I hate +that which is encouraged with eggs." The pedantry and nonsense uttered +by a "schollar" character is, perhaps, an unfair specimen of +coffee-house talk; it is especially to be noticed that none of the +guests ventures upon the dangerous ground of politics.</p> + +<p>In the end, the coffee-master grows tired of his clownish visitors, +saying plainly, "This rudeness becomes a suburb tavern rather than my +coffee house"; and with the assistance of his servants he "thrusts 'em +all out of doors, after the schollars and customers pay."</p> + +<p>In 1694, there was published Jean Baptiste Rosseau's comedy, <i>Le Caffè</i>, +which appears to have been acted only once in Paris, although a later +English dramatist says it met with great applause in the French capital. +<i>Le Caffè</i> was written in Laurent's café, which was frequented by +Fontenelle, Houdard de la Motte, Dauchet, the abbé Alary Boindin, and +others. Voltaire said that "this work of a young man without any +experience either of the world of letters or of the theater seems to +herald a new genius."</p> + +<p>About this time it was the fashion for the coffee-house keepers of +Paris, and the waiters, to wear Armenian costumes; for Pascal had +builded better than he knew. In <i>La Foire Saint-Germain</i>, a comedy by +Dancourt, played in 1696, one of the principal characters is old +"Lorange, a coffee merchant clothed as an Armenian". In scene 5, he says +to Mlle. Mousset, "a seller of house dresses" that he has been "a +naturalized Armenian for three weeks."</p> + +<p>Mrs. Susannah Centlivre (1667?–1723), in her comedy, <i>A Bold Stroke for +a Wife</i>, produced about 1719, has a scene laid in Jonathan's coffee +house about that period. While the stock jobbers are talking in the +first scene of act II, the coffee boys are crying, "Fresh Coffee, +gentlemen, fresh coffee?... Bohea tea, gentlemen?"</p> + +<p>Henry Fielding (1707–1754) published "<i>The Coffee-House Politician, or +Justice caught in his own trap</i>," a comedy, in 1730.</p> + +<p><i>The Coffee House, a dramatick Piece by James Miller</i>, was performed at +the Theater Royal in Drury Lane in 1737. The interior of Dick's coffee +house figured as an engraved frontispiece to the published version of +the play.</p> + +<p>The author states in the preface that "this piece is partly taken from a +comedy of one act written many years ago in French by the famous +Rosseau, called 'Le<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[Pg 555]</a></span> Caffè', which met with great applause in Paris." +The coffee house in the play is conducted by the Widow Notable, who has +a pretty daughter for whom, like all good mothers, she is anxious to +arrange a suitable marriage.</p> + +<p>In the first scene, an acrimonious conversation takes place between +Puzzle, the Politician, and Bays, the poet, in which squabble the Pert +Beau and the Solemn Beau, and other habitués of the place take part. +Puzzle discovers that a comedian and other players are in the room, and +insists that they be ejected or forbidden the house. The Widow is justly +incensed, and indignantly replies:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Forbid the Players my House, Sir! Why, Sir, I get more by them in a +Week than I do by you in seven Years. You come here and hold a +paper in your hand for an Hour, disturb the whole Company with your +Politics, call for Pen and Ink, Paper and Wax, beg a Pipe of +Tobacco, burn out half a Candle, eat half a Pound of Sugar, and +then go away, and pay Two-pence for a Dish of Coffee. I could soon +shut up my doors, if I had not some other good People to make +amends for what I lose by such as you, Sir.</p></div> + +<p>All join the Widow in scoffing and jeering, and exit the highly +discomfited Puzzle. The pretty little Kitty tricks her mother with the +aid of the Player, and marries the man of her choice, but is forgiven +when he is found to be a gentleman of the Temple.</p> + +<p>The play is in one act and has several songs. The last is one of five +stanzas, with music "set by Mr. Caret:"</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Song</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +What Pleasures a Coffee-House daily bestows!<br /> +To read and hear how the World merrily goes;<br /> +To laugh, sing and prattle of This, That, and T' other;<br /> +And be flatter'd and ogl'd and kiss'd too, like Mother.<br /> +<br /> +Here the Rake, after Roving and Tipling all Night,<br /> +For his Groat in the Morning may set his Head right.<br /> +And the Beau, who ne'er fouls his White fingers with Brass,<br /> +May have his Sixpen' worth of—Stare in the Glass.<br /> +<br /> +The Doctor, who'd always be ready to kill,<br /> +May ev'ry Day here take his Stand, if he will;<br /> +And the soldier, who'd bluster and challenge secure,<br /> +May draw boldly here, for—we'll hold him he's sure.<br /> +<br /> +The Lawyer, who's always in quest of his Prey,<br /> +May find fools here to feed upon every Day;<br /> +And the sage Politician, in Coffee-Grounds known,<br /> +May point out the Fate of each Crown but—his own.<br /> +<br /> +Then, Gallants, since ev'rything here you may find<br /> +That pleasures the Fancy or profits the Mind,<br /> +Come all, and take each a full Dish of Delight,<br /> +And crowd up our Coffee-House every night.<br /> +</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Song_from_The_Coffee_House" id="Song_from_The_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image410.jpg" width="300" height="252" alt="Song from "The Coffee House"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Song from "The Coffee House"</span></span> +</div> + +<p>John Timbs tells us this play "met with great opposition on its +representation, owing to its being stated that the characters were +intended for a particular family (that of Mrs. Yarrow and her daughter) +who kept Dick's, the coffee-house which the artist had inadvertently +selected as the frontispiece. It appears," Timbs continues, "that the +landlady and her daughter were the reigning toast of the Templars, who +then frequented Dick's; and took the matter up so strongly that they +united to condemn the farce on the night of its production; they +succeeded, and even extended their resentment to everything suspected to +be this author's (the Rev. James Miller) for a considerable time after."</p> + +<p>Carlo Goldoni, who has been called the Molière of Italy, wrote <i>La +Bottega di Caffè</i>, (The Coffee House), a naturalistic comedy of +bourgeois Venice, satirizing scandal and gambling, in 1750. The scene is +a Venetian coffee house (probably Florian's), where several actions take +place simultaneously. Among several remarkable studies is one of a +prattling slanderer, Don Marzio, which ranks as one of the finest bits +of original character drawing the stage has ever seen. The play was +produced in English by the Chicago Theatre Society in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[Pg 556]</a></span> 1912. +Chatfield-Taylor<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a> thinks Voltaire probably imitated <i>La Bottega di +Caffè</i> in his <i>Le Café, ou l'Ecossaise</i>. Goldoni was a lover of coffee, +a regular frequenter of the coffee houses of his time, from which he +drew much in the way of inspiration. Pietro Longhi, called the Venetian +Hogarth, in one of his pictures presenting life and manners in Venice +during the years of her decadence, shows Goldoni as a visitor in a café +of the period, with a female mendicant soliciting alms. It is in the +collection of Professor Italico Brass.</p> + +<p>Goldoni, in the comedy <i>The Persian Wife</i>, gives us a glimpse of coffee +making in the middle of the eighteenth century. He puts these words into +the mouth of Curcuma, the slave:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Here is the coffee, ladies, coffee native of Arabia,<br /> +And carried by the caravans into Ispahan.<br /> +The coffee of Arabia is certainly always the best.<br /> +While putting forth its leaves on one side, upon the other the flowers appear;<br /> +Born of a rich soil, it wishes shade, or but little sun.<br /> +Planted every three years is this little tree in the surface of the soil.<br /> +The fruit, though truly very small,<br /> +Should yet grow large enough to become somewhat green.<br /> +Later, when used, it should be freshly ground.<br /> +Kept in a warm and dry place and jealously guarded.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="star">***</span> +<br /> +But a small quantity is needed to prepare it.<br /> +Put in the desired quantity and do not spill it over the fire;<br /> +Heat it till the foam rises, then let it subside again away from the fire;<br /> +Do this seven times at least, and coffee is made in a moment.<br /> +</p> + +<p>In 1760 there appeared in France <i>Le Café, ou l'Ecossaise, comédie</i>, +which purported to have been written by a Mr. Hume, an Englishman, and +to have been translated into French. It was in reality the work of +Voltaire, who had brought out another play, <i>Socrates</i>, in the same +manner a short time before. <i>Le Café</i>, was translated into English the +same year under the title <i>The Coffee House, or Fair Fugitive</i>. The +title page says the play is written by "Mr. Voltaire" and translated +from the French. It is a comedy in five acts. The principal characters +are: Fabrice, a good-natured man and the keeper of the coffee house; +Constantia, the fair fugitive; Sir William Woodville, a gentleman of +distinction under misfortune; Belmont, in love with Constantia, a man of +fortune and interest; Freeport, a merchant and an epitome of English +manners; Scandal, a sharper; and Lady Alton, in love with Belmont.</p> + +<p><i>Il Caffè di Campagna</i>, a play with music by Galuppi, appeared in Italy +in 1762.</p> + +<p>Another Italian play, a comedy called <i>La Caffettiéra da Spirito</i> was +produced in 1807.</p> + +<p><i>Hamilton</i>, a play by Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, the latter also +playing the title rôle, was produced in America by George C. Tyler in +1918. The first-act scene is laid in the Exchange coffee house of +Philadelphia, during the period of Washington's first administration. +Among the characters introduced in this scene are James Monroe, Count +Tallyrand, General Philip Schuyler, and Thomas Jefferson.</p> + +<p>The authors very faithfully reproduce the atmosphere of the coffee house +of Washington's time. As Tallyrand remarks, "Everybody comes to see +everybody at the Exchange Coffee House.... It is club, restaurant, +merchants' exchange, everything."</p> + +<p><i>The Autocrat of the Coffee Stall</i>, a play in one act, by Harold Chapin, +was published in New York in 1921.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee and Literature in General</i></p> + +<p>An interesting book might be written on the transformation that tea and +coffee have wrought in the tastes of famous literary men. And of the two +stimulants, coffee seems to have furnished greater refreshment and +inspiration to most. However, both beverages have made civilization +their debtor in that they weaned so many fine minds from the heavy wines +and spirits in which they once indulged.</p> + +<p>Voltaire and Balzac were the most ardent devotees of coffee among the +French <i>literati</i>. Sir James Mackintosh (1765–1832), the Scottish +philosopher and statesman, was so fond of coffee that he used to assert +that the powers of a man's mind would generally be found to be +proportional to the quantity of that stimulant which he drank. His +brilliant schoolmate and friend, Robert Hall (1764–1831), the Baptist +minister and pulpit orator, preferred tea, of which he sometimes drank a +dozen cups.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[Pg 557]</a></span> Cowper; Parson and Parr, the famous Greek scholars; Dr. +Samuel Johnson; and William Hazlitt, the writer and critic, were great +tea drinkers; but Burton, Dean Swift, Addison, Steele, Leigh Hunt, and +many others, celebrated coffee.</p> + +<p>Dr. Charles B. Reed, professor in the medical school of Northwestern +University, says that coffee may be considered as a type of substance +that fosters genius. History seems to bear him out. Coffee's essential +qualities are so well defined, says Dr. Reed, that one critic has +claimed the ability to trace throughout the works of Voltaire those +portions that came from coffee's inspiration. Tea and coffee promote a +harmony of the creative faculties that permits the mental concentration +necessary to produce the masterpieces of art and literature.</p> + +<p>Voltaire (1694–1778) the king of wits, was also king of coffee drinkers. +Even in his old age he was said to have consumed fifty cups daily. To +the abstemious Balzac (1799–1850) coffee was both food and drink.</p> + +<p>In Frederick Lawton's <i>Balzac</i> we read: "Balzac worked hard. His habit +was to go to bed at six in the evening, sleep till twelve, and, after, +to rise and write for nearly twelve hours at a stretch, imbibing coffee +as a stimulant through these spells of composition."</p> + +<p>In his <i>Treatise on Modern Stimulants</i>, Balzac thus describes his +reaction to his most beloved stimulant:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">This coffee falls into your stomach, and straightway there is a +general commotion. Ideas begin to move like the battalions of the +Grand Army on the battlefield, and the battle takes place. Things +remembered arrive at full gallop, ensign to the wind. The light +cavalry of comparisons deliver a magnificent deploying charge, the +artillery of logic hurry up with their train and ammunition, the +shafts of wit start up like sharpshooters. Similes arise, the paper +is covered with ink; for the struggle commences and is concluded +with torrents of black water, just as a battle with powder.</p></div> + +<p>When Balzac tells how Doctor Minoret, Ursule Minoret's guardian, used to +regale his friends with a cup of "Moka," mixed with Bourbon and +Martinique, which the Doctor insisted on personally preparing in a +silver coffee pot, it is his own custom that he is detailing. His +Bourbon he bought only in the rue Mont Blanc (now the chaussé d'Antin); +the Martinique, in the rue des Vielles Audriettes; the Mocha, at a +grocer's in the rue de l'Université. It was half a day's journey to +fetch them.</p> + +<p>There have been notable contributions to the general literature of +coffee by French, Italian, English, and American writers. Space does not +permit of more than passing mention of some of them.</p> + +<p>The reactions of the early French and English writers have been touched +upon in the chapters on the coffee houses of old London and the early +Parisian coffee houses, and in the history chapters dealing with the +evolution of coffee drinking and coffee manners and customs.</p> + +<p>After Dufour, Galland, and La Roque in France, there were Count Rumford, +John Timbs, Douglas Ellis, and Robinson in England; Jardin and Franklin +in France; Belli in Italy; Hewitt, Thurber, and Walsh in America.</p> + +<p>Mention has been made of coffee references in the works of Aubrey, +Burton, Addison, Steele, Bacon, and D'Israeli.</p> + +<p>Brillat-Savarin (1755–1826) the great French epicure, knew coffee as few +men before him or since. In his historical elegy, contained in +<i>Gastronomy as a Fine Art, or the Science of Good Living</i>, he exclaims:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">You crossed and mitred abbots and bishops who dispensed the favors +of Heaven, and you the dreaded templars who armed yourselves for +the extermination of the Saracens, you knew nothing of the sweet +restoring influence of our modern chocolate, nor of the +thought-inspiring bean of Arabia—how I pity you!</p></div> + +<p>O. de Gourcuff's <i>De la Café, épître attribué à Senecé</i>, is deserving of +honorable mention.</p> + +<p>An early French writer pays this tribute to the inspirational effects of +coffee:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">It is a beverage eminently agreeable, inspiring and wholesome. It +is at once a stimulant, a cephalic, a febrifuge, a digestive, and +an anti-soporific; it chases away sleep, which is the enemy of +labor; it invokes the imagination, without which there can be no +happy inspiration. It expels the gout, that enemy of pleasure, +although to pleasure gout owes its birth; it facilitates digestion, +without which there can be no true happiness. It disposes to +gaiety, without which there is neither pleasure nor enjoyment; it +gives wit to those who already have it, and it even provides wit +(for some hours at least) to those who usually have it not. Thank +heaven for Coffee, for see how many blessings are concentrated in +the infusion of a small berry. What other beverage in the world can +compare with it? Coffee, at once a pleasure and a medicine; Coffee, +which nourishes at the same moment the mind, body<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[Pg 558]</a></span> and imagination. +Hail to thee! Inspirer of men of letters, best digestive of the +gourmand. Nectar of all men.</p></div> + +<p>In Bologna, 1691, Angelo Rambaldi published <i>Ambrosia arabica, caffè +discorso</i>. This work is divided into eighteen sections, and describes +the origin, cultivation, and roasting of the bean, as well as telling +how to prepare the beverage.</p> + +<p>During the time that Milan was under Spanish rule, Cesare Beccaria +directed and edited a publication entitled <i>Il Caffè</i>, which was +published from June 4, 1764, to May, 1766, "edited in Brescia by +Giammaria Rizzardi and undertaken by a little society of friends," +according to the salutatory. Besides the Marchese Beccaria, other +editors and contributors were Pietro and Alexander Verri, Baillon, +Visconti, Colpani, Longhi, Albertenghi, Frisi, and Secchi. The same +periodical, with the same editorial staff, was published also in Venice +in the Typografia Pizzolato.</p> + +<p>Another publication called <i>Il Caffè</i>, devoted to arts, letters, and +science, was published in Venice in 1850–52. Still another, having the +same name, a national weekly journal, was published in Milan, 1884–89.</p> + +<p>An almanac, having the title <i>Il Caffè</i>, was published in Milan in 1829.</p> + +<p>A weekly paper, called <i>Il Caffè Pedrocchi</i>, was published in Padua in +1846–48. It was devoted to art, literature and politics.</p> + +<p>A publication called <i>Coffee and Surrogates</i> (tea, chocolate, saffron, +pepper, and other stimulants) was founded by Professor Pietro Polli, in +Milan, in 1885; but was short-lived.</p> + +<p>An early English magazine (1731) contains an account of divination by +coffee-grounds. The writer pays an unexpected visit, and "surprised the +lady and her company in close cabal over their coffee, the interest very +intent upon one whom, by her address and intelligence, he guessed was a +tire woman, to which she added the secret of divining by coffee grounds. +She was then in full inspiration, and with much solemnity observing the +atoms around the cup; on the one hand sat a widow, on the other a maiden +lady. They assured me that every cast of the cup is a picture of all +one's life to come, and every transaction and circumstance is delineated +with the exactest certainty."</p> + +<p>The advertisement used by this seer is quite interesting:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">An advise is hereby given that there has lately arrived in this +city (Dublin) the famous Mrs. Cherry, the only gentlewoman truly +learned in the occult science of <i>tossing of coffee grounds</i>; who +has with uninterrupted success for some time past practiced to the +general satisfaction of her female visitants. Her hours are after +prayers are done at St. Peter's Church, until dinner.</p> + +<p class="quot1">(N.B. She never requires more than 1 oz. of coffee from a single +gentlewoman, and so proportioned for a second or third person, but +not to exceed that number at any one time.)</p></div> + +<p>If the one ounce of coffee represented her payment for reading the +future, the charge could not be considered exorbitant!</p> + +<p>English writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were +noticeably affected by coffee, and the coffee-houses of the times have +been immortalized by them; and in many instances they themselves were +immortalized by the coffee houses and their frequenters. In the chapters +already referred to and at the close of this chapter, will be found +stories, quips, and anecdotes, in which occur many names that are now +famous in art and literature.</p> + +<p>Modern journalism dates from the publication, April 12, 1709, of the +<i>Tatler</i>, whose editor was Sir Richard Steele (1672–1729) the Irish +dramatist and essayist. He received his inspiration from the coffee +houses; and his readers were the men that knew them best. In the first +issue he announced:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">All accounts of gallantry, pleasure and entertainment shall be +under the article of White's Coffee House; poetry under that of +Will's Coffee House; learning under the title of Grecian; foreign +and domestic news you will have from St. James's Coffee House, and +what else I shall on any other subject offer shall be dated from my +own apartment.</p></div> + +<p>Steele's <i>Tatler</i> was issued three times weekly until 1711, when it +suspended to be succeeded by the <i>Spectator</i>, whose principal +contributor was Joseph Addison (1672–1719), the essayist and poet, and +Steele's school-fellow.</p> + +<p>Sir Richard Steele immortalized the Don and Don Saltero's coffee house +in old Chelsea in No. 34 of the <i>Tatler</i>, wherein he tells us of the +necessity of traveling to know the world, by his journey for fresh air, +no farther than the village of Chelsea, of which he fancied that he +could give an immediate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[Pg 559]</a></span> description—from the five fields, where the +the robbers lie in wait, to the coffee house, where the literati sit in +council. But he found, even in a place so near town as this, that there +were enormities and persons of eminence, whom he before knew nothing of.</p> + +<p>The coffee house was almost absorbed by the museum, Steele says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">When I came into the coffee-house, I had not time to salute the +company, before my eyes were diverted by ten thousand gimcracks +round the room, and on the ceiling. When my first astonishment was +over, comes to me a sage of thin and meagre countenance, which +aspect made me doubt whether reading or fretting had made it so +philosophic; but I very soon perceived him to be that sort which +the ancients call "gingivistee", in our language "tooth-drawers". I +immediately had a respect for the man; for these practical +philosophers go upon a very practical hypothesis, not to cure, but +to take away the part affected. My love of mankind made me very +benevolent to Mr. Salter, for such is the name of this eminent +barber and antiquary.</p></div> + +<p>The Don was famous for his punch, and for his skill on the fiddle. He +drew teeth also, and wrote verses; he described his museum in several +stanzas, one of which is:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Monsters of all sorts are seen:<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Strange things in nature as they grew so;</span><br /> +Some relicks of the Sheba Queen,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And fragments of the fam'd Bob Crusoe.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Steele then plunges into a deep thought why barbers should go farther in +hitting the ridiculous than any other set of men; and maintains that Don +Saltero is descended in a right line, not from John Tradescant, as he +himself asserts, but from the memorable companion of the Knight of +Mancha. Steele certifies to all the worthy citizens who travel to see +the Don's rarities, that his double-barreled pistols, targets, coats of +mail, his sclopeta (hand-culverin) and sword of Toledo, were left to his +ancestor by the said Don Quixote; and by his ancestor to all his progeny +down to Saltero. Though Steele thus goes far in favor of Don Saltero's +great merit, he objects to his imposing several names (without his +license) on the collection he has made, to the abuse of the good people +of England; one of which is particularly calculated to deceive religious +persons, to the great scandal of the well-disposed and may introduce +heterodox opinions. (Among the curiosities presented by Admiral Munden +was a coffin, containing the body or relics of a Spanish saint, who had +wrought miracles.) Says Steele:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">He shows you a straw hat, which I know to be made by Madge Peskad, +within three miles of Bedford; and tells you "It is Pontius +Pilate's wife's chambermaid's sister's hat." To my knowledge of +this very hat, it may be added that the covering of straw was never +used among the Jews, since it was demanded of them to make bricks +without it. Therefore, this is nothing but, under the specious +pretense of learning and antiquities, to impose upon the world. +There are other things which I can not tolerate among his rarities, +as, the china figure of the lady in the glass-case; the Italian +engine, for the imprisonment of those who go abroad with it; both +of which I hereby order to be taken down, or else he may expect to +have his letters patent for making punch superseded, be debarred +wearing his muff next winter, or ever coming to London without his +wife.</p></div> + +<p>Babillard says that Salter had an old grey muff, and that, by wearing it +up to his nose, he was distinguishable at the distance of a quarter of a +mile. His wife was none of the best, being much addicted to scolding; +and Salter, who liked his glass, if he could make a trip to London by +himself, was in no haste to return.</p> + +<p>Don Saltero's proved very attractive as an exhibition, and drew crowds +to the coffee house. A catalog was published of which were printed more +than forty editions. Smollett, the novelist, was among the donors. The +catalog, in 1760, comprehended the following rarities:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Tigers' tusks; the Pope's candle; the skeleton of a Guinea-pig; a +fly-cap monkey, a piece of the true Cross; the Four Evangelists' +heads cut out on a cherry stone; the King of Morocco's +tobacco-pipe; Mary Queen of Scots' pincushion; Queen Elizabeth's +prayer-book; a pair of Nun's stockings; Job's ears, which grew on a +tree; a frog in a tobacco stopper; and five hundred more odd +relics!</p></div> + +<p>The Don had a rival, as appears by <i>A Catalogue of the Rarities to be +seen at Adam's, at the Royal Swan, in Kingsland-road, leading from +Shoreditch Church, 1756</i>. Mr. Adams exhibited, for the entertainment of +the curious:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Miss Jenny Cameron's shoes; Adam's eldest daughter's hat; the heart +of the famous Bess Adams, that was hanged at Tyburn with Lawyer +Carr, January 18, 1736–37; Sir Walter Raleigh's tobacco pipe; Vicar +of Bray's clogs; engine to shell green peas with; teeth that grew +in a fish's belly; Black Jack's ribs; the very comb that Abraham +combed his son Isaac and Jacob's head with; Wat Tyler's spurs; +rope<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span> that cured Captain Lowry of the head-ach, ear-ach, tooth-ach, +and belly-ach; Adam's key of the fore and back door of the Garden +of Eden, etc., etc.</p></div> + +<p>These are only a few out of five hundred other equally marvellous +exhibits.</p> + +<p>The success of Don Saltero in attracting visitors to his coffee house, +induced the proprietor of the Chelsea bunhouse to make a similar +collection of rarities, to attract customers for his buns; and to some +extent it was successful.</p> + +<p>In the first number of the <i>Spectator</i>, Addison says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">There is no place of general resort wherein I do not often make my +appearance. Sometimes I am seen thrusting my head into a round of +politicians at Will's, and listening with great attention to the +narratives that are made in those little circular audiences. +Sometimes I smoke a pipe at Child's, and while I seem attentive to +nothing but the <i>Postman</i>, overhear the conversation of every table +in the room. I appear on Sunday nights at St. James' coffee house, +and <i>sometimes</i> join the little committee of politics in the inner +room as one who comes there to hear and improve. My face is +likewise very well known at the Grecian, the Cocoa Tree, and in the +theatres both of Drury Lane and the Hay Market. I have been taken +for a merchant upon the Exchange for above these ten years, and +sometimes pass for a Jew in the assembly of stock jobbers at +Jonathan's; in short, wherever I see a cluster of people, I always +mix with them, though I never open my lips, but in my own club.</p></div> + +<p>In the second number he tells that:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">I am now settled with a widow woman, who has a great many children +and complies with my humor in everything. I do not remember that we +have exchanged a word together for these five years; my coffee +comes into my chamber every morning without asking for it, if I +want fire I point to the chimney, if water, to my basin; upon which +my landlady nods as much as to say she takes my meaning, and +immediately obeys my signals.</p></div> + +<p>Three of Addison's papers in the <i>Spectator</i> (Nos. 402, 481, and 568) +are humorously descriptive of the coffee houses of the period. No. 403 +opens with the remark that:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The courts of two countries do not so much differ from one another, +as the Court and the City, in their peculiar ways of life and +conversation. In short, the inhabitants of St. James, +notwithstanding they live under the same laws, and speak the same +language, are a distinct people from those of Cheapside, who are +likewise removed from those of the Temple on the one side, and +those of Smithfleld on the other, by several climates and degrees +in their way of thinking and conversing together.</p></div> + +<p>For this reason, the author takes a ramble through London and +Westminster, to gather the opinions of his ingenious countrymen upon a +current report of the king of France's death.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">I know the faces of all the principal politicians within the bills +of mortality; and as every coffee-house has some particular +statesman belonging to it, who is the mouth of the street where he +lives, I always take care to place myself near him, in order to +know his judgment on the present posture of affairs. And, as I +foresaw the above report would produce a new face of things in +Europe, and many curious speculations in our British coffee-houses, +I was very desirous to learn the thoughts of our most eminent +politicians on that occasion.</p> + +<p class="quot1">That I might begin as near the fountain-head as possible, I first +of all called in at St. James's, where I found the whole outward +room in a buzz of politics; the speculations were but very +indifferent towards the door, but grew finer as you advanced to the +upper end of the room, and were so much improved by a knot of +theorists, who sat in the inner room, within the steams of the +coffee-pot, that I there heard the whole Spanish monarchy disposed +of, and all the line of Bourbons provided for in less than a +quarter of an hour.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I afterwards called in at Giles's, where I saw a board of French +gentlemen sitting upon the life and death of their grand monarque. +Those among them who had espoused the Whig interest very positively +affirmed that he had departed this life about a week since, and +therefore, proceeded without any further delay to the release of +their friends in the galleys, and to their own re-establishment; +but, finding they could not agree among themselves, I proceeded on +my intended progress.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Upon my arrival at Jenny Man's I saw an alert young fellow that +cocked his hat upon a friend of his, who entered just at the same +time with myself, and accosted him after the following manner: +"Well, Jack, the old prig is dead at last. Sharp's the word. Now or +never, boy. Up to the walls of Paris, directly;" with several other +deep reflections of the same nature.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I met with very little variation in the politics between Charing +Cross and Covent Garden. And, upon my going into Will's, I found +their discourse was gone off, from the death of the French King, to +that of Monsieur Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and several other +poets, whom they regretted on this occasion as persons who would +have obliged the world with very noble elegies on the death of so +great a prince, and so eminent a patron of learning.</p> + +<p class="quot1">At a coffee-house near the Temple, I found a couple of young +gentlemen engaged very smartly in a dispute on the succession to +the Spanish monarchy. One of them seemed to have been retained as +advocate for the Duke of Anjou, the other for his Imperial Majesty. +They were both for regarding the title to that kingdom by the +statute laws of England; but finding them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg 561]</a></span> going out of my depth, I +pressed forward to Paul's Churchyard, where I listened with great +attention to a learned man, who gave the company an account of the +deplorable state of France during the minority of the deceased +king.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I then turned on my right hand into Fish-street, where the chief +politician of that quarter, upon hearing the news, (after having +taken a pipe of tobacco, and ruminated for some time) "If," says +he, "the King of France is certainly dead, we shall have plenty of +mackerel this season: our fishery will not be disturbed by +privateers, as it has been for these ten years past." He afterwards +considered how the death of this great man would affect our +pilchards, and by several other remarks infused a general joy into +his whole audience.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I afterwards entered a by-coffee-house that stood at the upper end +of a narrow lane, where I met with a Nonjuror engaged very warmly +with a laceman who was the great support of a neighboring +conventicle. The matter in debate was whether the late French King +was most like Augustus Caesar, or Nero. The controversy was carried +on with great heat on both sides, and as each of them looked upon +me very frequently during the course of their debate, I was under +some apprehension that they would appeal to me, and therefore laid +down my penny at the bar and made the best of my way to Cheapside.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I here gazed upon the signs for some time before I found one to my +purpose. The first object I met in the coffee-room was a person who +expressed a great grief for the death of the French King; but upon +his explaining himself, I found his sorrow did not arise from the +loss of the monarch, but for his having sold out of the Bank about +three days before he heard the news of it. Upon which a +haberdasher, who was the oracle of the coffee-house, and had his +circle of admirers about him, called several to witness that he had +declared his opinion, above a week before, that the French King was +certainly dead; to which he added, that considering the late +advices we had received from France, it was impossible that it +could be otherwise. As he was laying these together, and debating +to his hearers with great authority, there came a gentlemen from +Garraway's, who told us that there were several letters from France +just come in, with advice that the King was in good health, and was +gone out a hunting the very morning the post came away; upon which +the haberdasher stole off his hat that hung upon a wooden peg by +him, and retired to his shop with great confusion. This +intelligence put a stop to my travels, which I had prosecuted with +so much satisfaction; not being a little pleased to hear so many +different opinions upon so great an event, and to observe how +naturally, upon such a piece of news, every one is apt to consider +it to his particular interest and advantage.</p></div> + +<p>Johnson wrote in his <i>Life of Addison</i> concerning the <i>Tatler</i> and the +<i>Spectator</i> that they were:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Published at a time when two parties, loud, restless and violent, +each with plausible declarations, and both perhaps without any +distinct determination of its views, were agitating the nation; to +minds heated with political contest they supplied cooler and more +inoffensive reflections.... They had a perceptible influence on the +conversation of the time, and taught the frolic and the gay to +unite merriment with decency, effects which they can never wholly +lose.</p></div> + +<p>Harold Routh in the Cambridge <i>History of Literature</i>, speaking of the +<i>Spectator</i>, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">It surpassed the <i>Tatler</i> in style and in thought. It gave +expression to the <i>power</i> of commerce. For more than a century +traders had been characterized as dishonest and avaricious, because +playwrights and pamphleteers generally wrote for the leisure +classes, and were themselves too poor to have any but unpleasant +relations with men of business. Now merchants were becoming +ambassadors of civilization, and had developed intellect so as to +control distant and, as it seemed, mysterious sources of wealth; by +a stroke of the pen and largely through the coffee houses they had +come to know their own importance and power.</p></div> + +<p>Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) was very fond of good eating, and almost daily +entries were made in his <i>Diary</i> of dinner delicacies that he had +enjoyed. One dinner, that he considered a great success, was served to +eight persons, and consisted of oysters, a hash of rabbits, a lamb, a +rare chine of beef; next a great dish of roasting fowl ("cost me about +30 s.") a tart, then fruit and cheese. "My dinner was noble enough ... I +believe this day's feast will cost me near 5 pounds." But it will be +noted that coffee was not mentioned as a part of the menu.</p> + +<p>He makes countless references to visits paid to this and that coffee +house, but records only one instance of actually drinking coffee:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Up betimes to my office, and thence at seven o'clock to Sir G. +Carteret, and there with Sir J. Minnes made an end of his accounts, +but staid not to dinner my Lady having made us drink our morning +draft there of several wines, but I drank nothing but some of her +coffee, which was poorly made, with a little sugar in it.</p></div> + +<p>This note which he considered worthy of record was certainly not +inspired by the excellence of the good lady's matutinal coffee.</p> + +<p>William Cobbett (1762–1835) the English-American politician, reformer, +and writer on economics, denounced coffee as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[Pg 562]</a></span> "slops"; but he was one of +a remarkably small minority. Before his day, one of England's greatest +satirists, Dean Swift, (1667–1745) led a long roll of literary men who +were devotees of coffee.</p> + +<p>Swift's writings are full of references to coffee; and his letters from +Stella came to him under cover, at the St. James coffee house. There is +scarcely a letter to Esther (Vanessa) Vanhomrigh which does not contain +a significant reference to coffee, by which the course of their +friendship and clandestine meetings may be traced. In one dated August +13, 1720, written while traveling from place to place in Ireland, he +says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>We live here in a very dull town, every valuable creature absent, +and Cad says he is weary of it, and would rather prefer his coffee +on the barrenest mountain in Wales than be king here.</p> + +<p class="noin"> +A fig for partridges and quails,<br /> +Ye dainties I know nothing of ye;<br /> +But on the highest mount in Wales,<br /> +Would choose in peace to drink my coffee.<br /> +</p> + +</div> + +<p>In another letter, about two years later, replying to one in which +Vanessa has reproached him and begged him to write her soon, he advises:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The best maxim I know in life, is to drink your coffee when you +can, and when you cannot, to be easy without it; while you continue +to be splenetic, count upon it I will always preach. Thus much I +sympathize with you, that I am not cheerful enough to write, for, I +believe, coffee once a week is necessary, and you know very well +that coffee makes us severe, and grave, and philosophical.</p></div> + +<p>These various references to coffee are thought to have been based upon +an incident in the early days of their friendship, when on the occasion +of the Vanhomrigh family journeying from Dublin to London, Vanessa +accidentally spilt her coffee in the chimney-place at a certain inn, +which Swift considered a premonition of their growing friendship. +Writing from Clogher, Swift reminds Vanessa:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Remember that riches are nine parts in ten of all that is good in +life, and health is the tenth—drinking coffee comes long after, +and yet it is the eleventh, but without the two former you cannot +drink it right.</p></div> + +<p>In another letter he writes facetiously, in memory of her playful +badinage:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">I long to drink a dish of coffee in the sluttery and hear you dun +me for a secret, and "Drink your coffee; why don't you drink your +coffee?"</p></div> + +<p>Leigh Hunt had very pleasant things to say about coffee, giving to it +the charm of appeal to the imagination, which he said one never finds in +tea. For example:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Coffee, like tea, used to form a refreshment by itself, some hours +after dinner; it is now taken as a digester, right upon that meal +or the wine, and sometimes does not even close it; or the digester +itself is digested by a liquor of some sort called a <i>Chasse-Café</i> +[coffee-chaser]. We like coffee better than tea for taste, but tea +"for a constancy." To be perfect in point of relish (we do not say +of wholesomeness) coffee should be strong and hot, with little milk +and sugar. It has been drunk after this mode in some parts of +Europe, but the public have nowhere, we believe, adopted it. The +favorite way of taking it at a meal, abroad, is with a great +superfluity of milk—very properly called, in France <i>café au lait</i> +(coffee <i>to the</i> milk). One of the pleasures we receive in drinking +coffee is that, being the universal drink in the East, it reminds +of that region of the "Arabian Nights" as smoking does for the same +reason; though neither of these refreshments, which are identified +with Oriental manners, is to be found in that enchanting work. They +had not been discovered when it was written; the drink then was +sherbet. One can hardly fancy what a Turk or a Persian could have +done without coffee and a pipe, any more than the English ladies +and gentlemen, before the civil wars, without tea for breakfast.</p></div> + +<p>In his old age, Immanuel Kant, the great metaphysician, became extremely +fond of coffee; and Thomas de Quincey relates a little incident showing +Kant's great eagerness for the after-dinner cup.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">At the beginning of the last year of his life, he fell into a +custom of taking, immediately after dinner, a cup of coffee, +especially on those days when it happened that I was of his party. +And such was the importance that he attached to his little pleasure +that he would even make a memorandum beforehand, in the blank paper +book that I had given him, that on the next day I was to dine with +him, and consequently "<i>that there was to be coffee</i>." Sometimes in +the interest of conversation, the coffee was forgotten, but not for +long. He would remember and with the querulousness of old age and +infirm health would demand that coffee be brought "upon the spot." +Arrangements had always been made in advance, however; the coffee +was ground, and the water was boiling: and in the very moment the +word was given, the servant shot in like an arrow and plunged the +coffee into the water. All that remained, therefore, was to give it +time to boil up. But this trifling delay seemed unendurable to +Kant. If it were said, "Dear Professor, the coffee will be brought +up in a moment," he would say, <i>"Will be!</i> There's the rub, that it +only <i>will</i> be." Then he would quiet himself with a stoical air, +and say, "Well, one can die after all; it is but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[Pg 563]</a></span> dying; and in the +next world, thank God, there is no drinking of coffee and +consequently no waiting for it."</p> + +<p class="quot1">When at length the servant's steps were heard upon the stairs, he +would turn round to us, and joyfully call out: "Land, land! my dear +friends, I see land."</p></div> + +<p>Thackeray (1811–1863) must have suffered many tea and coffee +disappointments. In the <i>Kickleburys on the Rhine</i> he asks: "Why do they +always put mud into coffee aboard steamers? Why does the tea generally +taste of boiled boots?"</p> + +<p>In <i>Arthur's</i>, A. Neil Lyons has preserved for all time the atmosphere +of the London coffee stall. "I would not," he says, "exchange a night at +Arthur's for a week with the brainiest circle in London." The book is a +collection of short stories. As already recorded, Harold Chapin +dramatized this picturesque London institution in <i>The Autocrat of the +Coffee Stall</i>.</p> + +<p>In General Horace Porter's <i>Campaigning with Grant</i>, we have three +distinct coffee incidents within fifty-odd pages; or explicitly, see +pages 47, 56, 101; where, deep in the fiercest snarls of The Wilderness +campaign we are treated to:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">General Grant, slowly sipping his coffee ... a full ration of that +soothing army beverage.... The general made rather a singular meal +preparatory to so exhausting a day as that which was to follow. He +took a cucumber, sliced it, poured some vinegar over it, and +partook of nothing else except a cup of strong coffee.... The +general seemed in excellent spirits, and was even inclined to be +jocose. He said to me, "We have just had our coffee, and you will +find some left for you." ... I drank it with the relish of a +shipwrecked mariner.</p></div> + +<p>One of the first immediate supplies General Sherman desired from +Wilmington, on reaching Fayetteville and lines of communication in +March, 1865, was, expressly, coffee; does he not say so himself, on page +297 of the second volume of his <i>Memoirs</i>?</p> + +<p>Still more expressly, towards the close of his <i>Memoirs</i>, and among +final recommendations, the fruit of his experiences in that whole vast +war, General Sherman says this for coffee:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Coffee has become almost indispensable, though many substitutes +were found for it, such as Indian corn, roasted, ground and boiled +as coffee, the sweet potato, and the seed of the okra plant +prepared in the same way. All these were used by the people of the +South, who for years could procure no coffee, but I noticed that +the women always begged of us real coffee, which seemed to satisfy +a natural yearning or craving more powerful than can be accounted +for on the theory of habit. Therefore I would always advise that +the coffee and sugar ration be carried along, even at the expense +of bread, for which there are many substitutes.</p></div> + +<p>George Agnew Chamberlain's novel <i>Home</i> contains a vivid description of +coffee-making on an old plantation, and could only have been written by +a devoted lover of this drink. Gerry Lansing, the American, has escaped +drowning in the river, and is now lost in the Brazilian forest. He finds +his way at last to an old plantation house:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">A stove was built into the masonry, and a cavernous oven gaped from +the massive wall. At the stove was an old negress, making coffee +with shaky deliberation.... The girl and the wrinkled old woman +made him sit down at the table, and then placed before him crisp +rusks of mandioc flour and steaming coffee whose splendid aroma +triumphed over the sordidness of the scene and through the nostrils +reached the palate with anticipatory touch. It was sweetened with +dark, pungent syrup and was served black in a capacious bowl, as +though one could not drink too deeply of the elixir of life. Gerry +ate ravenously and sipped the coffee, at first sparingly, then +greedily.... Gerry set down the empty bowl with a sigh. The rusks +had been delicious. Before the coffee the name of nectar dwindled +to impotency. Its elixir rioted in his veins.</p></div> + +<p>In the <i>Rosary</i>, Florence L. Barclay has a Scotch woman tell how she +makes coffee. She says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Use a jug—it is not what you make it in; it is how ye make it. It +all hangs upon the word fresh—freshly roasted—freshly +ground—water freshly boiled. And never touch it with metal. Pop it +into an earthenware jug, pour in your boiling water straight upon +it, stir it with a wooden spoon, set it on the hob ten minutes to +settle; the grounds will all go to the bottom, though you might not +think it, and you pour it out, fragrant, strong and clear. But the +secret is, <i>fresh, fresh, fresh</i>, and don't stint your coffee.</p></div> + +<p>Cyrus Townsend Brady's <i>The Corner in Coffee</i> is "a thrilling romance of +the New York coffee market."</p> + +<p>Coffee, Du Barry, and Louis XV figure in one scene of the story of <i>The +Moat with the Crimson Stains</i>, as told by Elizabeth W. Champney in her +<i>Romance of the Bourbon Chateaux</i>.<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> It tells of the German +apprentice Riesener, who assisted his master Oeben in designing for +Louis XV a beautiful desk with a secret drawer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[Pg 564]</a></span> which it took ten years +of unremitting industry to execute. At the end, Riesener was to be +accepted by his master as a partner and a son-in-law. Little Victoire, +who loved to sit in a punt and trail her doll in the waters of the +Bievre to see to what color its frock would be changed by the dyes of +the Gobelin factory, was then only five, and Madam Oeben twenty-three. +As the years rolled by, Riesener grew to love the mother and not the +daughter, who, meanwhile, shot up into a slim girl, not of her mother's +beauty, but of a loveliness all her own. Then there was a quarrel +because the young apprentice thought the master should have resented the +suggestion of M. Duplessis that his wife pose in the nude for the +statuettes which were to hold the sconces on the king's desk; and +Riesener left in a fine youthful frenzy, vowing he would never return +while the <i>maître</i> lived. The latter, unable to complete the masterpiece +which he loved more than anything else on earth, sought death, and +perished in the crimson waters of the Bievre.</p> + +<p>The <i>maître</i> had no enemies, but his quarrel with Riesener caused a fear +to spring up in the widow's heart that the apprentice might have been +guilty of his murder, so she refused to see him when, hearing of his +master's death, he returned, stricken with remorse, to finish the desk. +On it were the statuettes modeled in perfect likeness of Mlle. de +Vaubernier, a wily little milliner of Riesener's bohemian set who had +taken this way to bring herself to the attention of Louis XV. The ruse +was successful; and after the acceptance of the desk, there was +installed a new <i>maîtresse en titre</i>, the notorious Madame Du Barry, +erstwhile the pretty milliner, Mlle. de Vaubernier.</p> + +<p>Later, Madame Du Barry sent for the now famous <i>ebeniste</i> (cabinet +maker); and, when her negro page Zamore admitted him, he found His +Majesty Louis XV kneeling in front of the fireplace, making coffee for +her while she laughed at him for scalding his fingers. He had been +summoned to show the king the mechanism of the secret drawer, so +cunningly concealed in the king's desk that no one could find it. But +Riesener knew not the secret of his master, who had died without +revealing it. Then the red revolution came; and when the pretty pavilion +at Louveciennes was sacked, and its costly furniture hurled down the +cliff to the Seine, the king's desk, shattered almost beyond repair, was +carried to the Gobelins' factory and presented to Mme. Oeben in +recognition of her husband's workmanship. Then the secret compartment +was found to have been disclosed, and Riesener was absolved by a letter +therein, from the <i>maître</i>, who intimated he was about to end it all +because of paralysis. Riesener marries the widow and all ends happily.</p> + +<p>James Lane Allen, in <i>The Kentucky Warbler</i>, tells a tale of the Blue +Grass country and of a young hero who wanders after a bird's note to +find romance and the key to his own locked nature. Here is an incident +from his first forest adventure:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">There was one tree he curiously looked around for, positive that he +should not be blind to it if fortunate enough to set his eyes on +one—the coffee tree. That is, he felt sure he'd recognize it if it +yielded coffee ready to drink, of which never in his life had they +given him enough. Not once throughout his long troubled experience +as to being fed had he been allowed as much coffee as he craved. +Once, when younger, he had heard some one say that the only tree in +all the American forests that bore the name of Kentucky was the +Kentucky coffee tree, and he had instantly conceived a desire to +pay a visit in secret to that corner of the woods. To take his cup +and a few lumps of sugar and sit under the boughs and catch the +coffee as it dripped down.... No one to hold him back ... as much +as he wanted at last.... The Kentucky coffee tree—his favorite in +Nature!</p></div> + +<p>John Kendrick Bangs relates, in <i>Coffee and Repartee</i><a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a>, some amusing +skirmishes indulged in at the boarding-house table, between the Idiot +and the guests, where coffee served the purpose of enlivening the tilt:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">"Can't I give you another cup of coffee?" asked the landlady of the +School Master.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"You may," returned the School Master, pained at the lady's +grammar, but too courteous to call attention to it save by the +emphasis with which he spoke the word "may".</p> + +<p class="quot1">Said the Idiot: "You may fill my cup too, Mrs. Smithers."</p> + +<p class="quot1">"The coffee is all gone," returned the landlady, with a snap.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"Then, Mary," said the Idiot, gracefully turning to the maid, "you +may give me a glass of ice water. It is quite as warm, after all, +as the coffee and not quite so weak."</p></div> + +<p>One other little skit remains at the expense of Mrs. Smithers' coffee. +At the breakfast table, where the air, as usual, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">[Pg 565]</a></span> charged with +repartee, Mr. Whitechoker, the minister, says to his landlady:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">"Mrs. Smithers, I'll have a dash of hot water in my coffee, this +morning." Then with a glance toward the Idiot, he added, "I think it +looks like rain."</p> + +<p class="quot1">"Referring to the coffee, Mr. Whitechoker?" queried the Idiot....</p> + +<p class="quot1">"Ah,—I don't quite follow you," replied the Minister with some +annoyance.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"You said something looked like rain, and I asked you if the thing +referred to was the coffee, for I was disposed to agree with you," +said the Idiot.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"I am sure," put in Mrs. Smithers, "that a gentleman of Mr. +Whitechoker's refinement would not make any such insinuation, sir. +He is not the man to quarrel with what is set before him."</p> + +<p class="quot1">"I must ask your pardon, Madam," returned the Idiot politely. "I +hope I am not the man to quarrel with my food, either. Indeed, I +make it a rule to avoid unpleasantness of all sorts, particularly +with the weak, under which category I find your coffee."</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Quips and Anecdotes</i></p> + +<p>Coffee literature is full of quips and anecdotes. Probably the most +famous coffee quip is that of Mme. de Sévigné, who, as already told in +chapter XI, was wrongfully credited with saying, "Racine and coffee will +pass." It was Voltaire in his preface to <i>Irene</i> who thus accused the +amiable letter-writer; and she, being dead, could not deny it.</p> + +<p>That Mme. de Sévigné was at one time a coffee drinker is apparent from +this quotation from one of her letters: "The cavalier believes that +coffee gives him warmth, and I at the same time, foolish as you know me, +do not take it any longer."</p> + +<p>La Roque called the beverage "the King of Perfumes", whose charm was +enriched when vanilla was added.</p> + +<p>Emile Souvestre (1806–1854) said: "Coffee keeps, so to say, the balance +between bodily and spiritual nourishment."</p> + +<p>Isid Bourdon said: "The discovery of coffee has enlarged the realm of +illusion and given more promise to hope."</p> + +<p>An old Bourbon proverb says: "To an old man a cup of coffee is like the +door post of an old house—it sustains and strengthens him."</p> + +<p>Jardin says that in the Antilles, instead of orange blossoms, the brides +carry a spray of coffee blossoms; and when a woman remains unmarried, +they say she has lost her coffee branch. "We say in France, that she has +<i>coiffé</i> Sainte-Catherine."</p> + +<p>Fontenelle and Voltaire have both been quoted as authors of the famous +reply to the remark that coffee was a slow poison: "I think it must be, +for I've been drinking it for eighty-five years and am not dead yet."</p> + +<p>In Meidinger's <i>German Grammar</i> the "slow-poison" <i>bon mot</i> is +attributed to Fontenelle.</p> + +<p>It seems reasonable to give Fontenelle credit for this <i>bon mot</i>. +Voltaire died at eighty-four. Fontenelle lived to be nearly a hundred +years. Of his cheerfulness at an advanced age an anecdote is related. In +conversation, one day, a lady a few years younger than Fontenelle +playfully remarked, "Monsieur, you and I stay here so long, methinks +Death has forgotten us." "Hush! Speak in a whisper, madame," replied +Fontenelle, "<i>tant mieux!</i> (so much the better!) don't remind him of +us."</p> + +<p>Flaubert, Hugo, Baudelaire, Paul de Kock, Théophile Gautier, Alfred de +Musset, Zola, Coppée, George Sand, Guy de Maupassant, and Sarah +Bernhardt, all have been credited with many clever or witty sallies +about coffee.</p> + +<p>Prince Talleyrand (1754–1839), the French diplomat and wit, has given us +the cleverest summing up of the ideal cup of coffee. He said it should +be "<i>Noir comme le diable, chaud comme l'enfer, pur comme un ange, doux +comme l'amour.</i>" Or in English, "black as the devil, hot as hell, pure +as an angel, sweet as love."</p> + +<p>This quip has been wrongfully attributed to Brillat-Savarin. Talleyrand +said also:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">A cup of coffee lightly tempered with good milk detracts nothing +from your intellect; on the contrary, your stomach is freed by it, +and no longer distresses your brain; it will not hamper your mind +with troubles, but give freedom to its working. Suave molecules of +Mocha stir up your blood, without causing excessive heat; the organ +of thought receives from it a feeling of sympathy; work becomes +easier, and you will sit down without distress to your principal +repast, which will restore your body, and afford you a calm +delicious night.</p></div> + +<p>Among coffee drinkers a high place must be given to Prince Bismarck +(1815–1898). He liked coffee unadulterated. While with the Prussian army +in France, he one day entered a country inn and asked the host if he had +any chicory in the house. He had. Bismarck said: "Well, bring it to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">[Pg 566]</a></span> me; +all you have." The man obeyed, and handed Bismarck a canister full of +chicory.</p> + +<p>"Are you sure this is all you have?" demanded the chancellor.</p> + +<p>"Yes, my lord, every grain."</p> + +<p>"Then," said Bismarck, keeping the canister by him, "go now and make me +a pot of coffee."</p> + +<p>This same story has been related of François Paul Jules Grévy +(1807–1891), president of France, 1879–1887. According to the French +story, Grévy never took wine, even at dinner. He was, however, +passionately fond of coffee. To be certain of having his favorite +beverage of the best quality, he always, when he could, prepared it +himself. Once he was invited, with a friend, M. Bethmont, to a hunting +party by M. Menier, the celebrated manufacturer of chocolate, at +Noisiel. It happened that M. Grévy and M. Bethmont lost themselves in +the forest. Trying to find their way out, they stumbled upon a little +wine house, and stopped for a rest. They asked for something to drink. +M. Bethmont found his wine excellent; but, as usual, Grévy would not +drink. He wanted coffee, but he was afraid of the decoction which would +be brought him. He got a good cup, however, and this is how he managed +it:</p> + +<p>"Have you any chicory?" he said to the man.</p> + +<p>"Yes, sir."</p> + +<p>"Bring me some."</p> + +<p>Soon the proprietor returned with a small can of chicory.</p> + +<p>"Is that all you have?" asked Grévy.</p> + +<p>"We have a little more."</p> + +<p>"Bring me the rest."</p> + +<p>When he came again, with another can of chicory, Grévy said:</p> + +<p>"You have no more?"</p> + +<p>"No, sir."</p> + +<p>"Very well. Now go and make me a cup of coffee."</p> + +<p>As already told, Louis XV had a great passion for coffee, which he made +himself. Lenormand, the head gardener at Versailles, raised six pounds +of coffee a year which was for the exclusive use of the king. The king's +fondness for coffee and for Mme. Du Barry gave rise to a celebrated +anecdote of Louveciennes which was accepted as true by many serious +writers. It is told in this fashion by Mairobert in a pamphlet +scandalizing Du Barry in 1776:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">His Majesty loves to make his own coffee and to forsake the cares +of the government. One day the coffee pot was on the fire and, his +Majesty being occupied with something else, the coffee boiled over. +"Oh France, take care! Your coffee <i>f—— le camp</i>!" cried the +beautiful favorite.</p></div> + +<p>Charles Vatel has denied this story.</p> + +<p>It is related of Jean Jacques Rousseau that once when he was walking in +the Tuileries he caught the aroma of roasting coffee. Turning to his +companion, Bernardino de Saint-Pierre, he said, "Ah, that is a perfume +in which I delight; when they roast coffee near my house, I hasten to +open the door to take in all the aroma." And such was the passion for +coffee of this philosopher of Geneva that when he died, "he just missed +doing it with a cup of coffee in his hand".</p> + +<p>Barthez, confidential physician of Napoleon the first, drank a great +deal of it, freely, calling it "the intellectual drink."</p> + +<p>Bonaparte, himself, said: "Strong coffee, and plenty, awakens me. It +gives me a warmth, an unusual force, a pain that is not without +pleasure. I would rather suffer than be senseless."</p> + +<p>Edward R. Emerson<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> tells the following story of the Café Procope. +One day while M. Saint-Foix was seated at his usual table in this café +an officer of the king's body-guard entered, sat down, and ordered a cup +of coffee, with milk and a roll, adding, "It will serve me for a +dinner." At this, Saint-Foix remarked aloud that a cup of coffee, with +milk and a roll, was a confoundedly poor dinner. The officer +remonstrated. Saint-Foix reiterated his remark, adding that nothing he +could say to the contrary would convince him that it was <i>not</i> a +confoundedly poor dinner. Thereupon a challenge was given and accepted, +and the whole company present adjourned as spectators to a duel which +ended by Saint-Foix receiving a wound in the arm.</p> + +<p>"That is all very well," said the wounded combatant; "but I call you to +witness, gentlemen, that I am still profoundly convinced that a cup of +coffee, with milk and a roll, is a confoundedly poor dinner."</p> + +<p>At this moment the principals were arrested and carried before the Duke +de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[Pg 567]</a></span> Noailles, in whose presence Saint-Foix, without waiting to be +questioned, said:</p> + +<p>"Monseigneur, I had not the slightest intention of offending this +gallant officer who, I doubt not, is an honorable man; but your +excellency can never prevent my asserting that a cup of coffee, with +milk and a roll, is a confoundedly poor dinner."</p> + +<p>"Why, so it is," said the Duke.</p> + +<p>"Then I am not in the wrong," persisted Saint-Foix; "and a cup of +coffee"—at these words magistrates, delinquents, and auditory burst +into a roar of laughter, and the antagonists forthwith became warm +friends."</p> + +<p>Boswell in his <i>Life of Johnson</i> tells a story of an old chevalier de +Malte, of <i>ancienne noblesse</i>, but in low circumstances, who was in a +coffee house in Paris, where was also "Julien, the great manufacturer at +Gobelins, of fine tapestry, so much distinguished for the figures and +the colours. The chevalier's carriage was very old. Says Julien with a +plebeian insolence, 'I think, sir, you had better have your carriage new +painted.'</p> + +<p>"The chevalier looked at him with indignant contempt, and answered:</p> + +<p>"'Well, sir, you may take it home and dye it.'</p> + +<p>"All the coffee house rejoiced at Julien's confusion."</p> + +<p>Sydney Smith (1771–1845) the English clergyman and humorist, once said: +"If you want to improve your understanding, drink coffee; it is the +intellectual beverage."</p> + +<p>Our own William Dean Howells pays the beverage this tribute: "This +coffee intoxicates without exciting, soothes you softly out of dull +sobriety, making you think and talk of all the pleasant things that ever +happened to you."</p> + +<p>The wife of the president of the United States prefers coffee to tea. +Afternoon guests at the White House may be refreshed, if they choose, by +a sip of tea. But while tea is on tap for callers, Mrs. Harding always +has coffee for those who, like herself, prefer it.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Old London Coffee-House Anecdotes</i></p> + +<p>A good-sized volume might be compiled of the many anecdotes that have +been written about habitués of the London coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Dr_Johnsons_Seat_the_Cheshire_Cheese" id="Dr_Johnsons_Seat_the_Cheshire_Cheese"></a> +<img src="images/image411.jpg" width="300" height="240" alt="Dr. Johnson's Seat at the Cheshire Cheese" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dr. Johnson's Seat at the Cheshire Cheese</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), the lexicographer, was one of the most +constant frequenters of the coffee houses of his day. His big, awkward +figure was a familiar sight as he went about attended by his satellite, +young James Boswell, who was to write about him for the delight of +future generations in his marvelous <i>Life of Johnson</i>. The intellectual +and moral peculiarities of the man found a natural expression in the +coffee house. Johnson was fifty-four and Boswell only twenty-three when +the two first met in Tom Davies' book-shop in Covent Garden. The story +is told by Boswell with great particularity and characteristic naiveté:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Mr. Davies mentioned my name, and respectfully introduced me to +him. I was much agitated, and recollecting his prejudice against +the Scotch, of which I had heard so much, I said to Davies, "Don't +tell him where I come from." "From Scotland," cried Davies +roguishly. "Mr. Johnson," said I, "I do indeed come from Scotland, +but I cannot help it." I am willing to flatter myself that I meant +this as a light pleasantry to sooth and conciliate him, and not as +a humiliating abasement at the expense of my country. But however +that might be, this speech was somewhat unlucky, for with that +quickness of wit for which he was so remarkable, he seized the +expression, "come from Scotland!" which I used In the sense of +being of that country; and, as if I had come away from it, or left +it, he retorted, "That, sir, I find is what a great many of your +countrymen cannot help."</p></div> + +<p>Nothing daunted, however, Boswell within a week called upon Johnson in +his chambers. This time the doctor urged him to tarry. Three weeks later +he said to him, "Come to me as often as you can." Within<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[Pg 568]</a></span> a fortnight +thereafter Boswell was giving the great man a sketch of his own life and +Johnson was exclaiming, "Give me your hand; I have taken a liking to +you."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Original_Coffee_Room_Old_Cock_Tavern" id="Original_Coffee_Room_Old_Cock_Tavern"></a> +<img src="images/image412.jpg" width="300" height="168" alt="Original Coffee Room, Old Cock Tavern" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Original Coffee Room, Old Cock Tavern</span></span> +</div> + +<p>When people began to ask, "Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson's heels?" +Goldsmith replied: "He is not a cur; he is only a bur. Tom Davies flung +him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of sticking."</p> + +<p>Thus began one of the strangest friendships, out of which developed the +most delightful biography in all literature. Boswell's taste for +literary adventures, and Johnson's literary vagrancy met in a +companionship that found much satisfaction in the bohemianism of the +inns and coffee houses of old London. Boswell thus describes the +eccentric doctor's outlook on this mode of living:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">We dined today at an excellent inn at Chapel-House, where Mr. +Johnson commented on English coffee houses and inns remarking that +the English triumphed over the French in one respect, in that the +French had no perfection of tavern life. There is no private house, +(said he) in which people can enjoy themselves so well, as at a +capital tavern. Let there be ever so great plenty of good things, +ever so much grandeur, ever so much elegance, ever so much desire +that everybody should be easy; in the nature of things it cannot +be: there must always be some degree of care and anxiety. The +master of the house is anxious to entertain his guests; the guests +are anxious to be agreeable to him; and no man, but a very impudent +dog indeed, can as freely command what is in another man's house, +as if it were his own. Whereas, at a tavern, there is a general +freedom from anxiety. You are sure you are welcome: and the more +noise you make, the more trouble you give, the more good things you +call for, the welcomer you are. No servants will attend you with +the alacrity which waiters do, who are incited by the prospect of +an immediate reward in proportion as they please. No, Sir, there is +nothing which has yet been contrived by man, by which so much +happiness is produced as by a good tavern or inn. He then repeated, +with great emotion, Shenstone's lines:</p> + +<p class="noin"> +"Whoe'er has travell'd life's dull round,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Where'er his stages may have been,</span><br /> +May sigh to think he still has found<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">His warmest welcome at an inn."</span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p>Patient delving into Johnsoniana is rewarded with many anecdotes about +the mad doctor philosopher and his faithful reporter who delighted in +translating his genius to the world.</p> + +<p>Boswell was a wine-bibber, but Johnson confessed to being "a hardened +and shameless tea drinker." When Boswell twigged him for abstaining from +the stronger drink, the doctor replied: "Sir, I have no objection to a +man's drinking wine if he can do it in moderation. I find myself apt to +go to excess in it and therefore, after having been for some time +without it, on account of illness, I thought it better not to return to +it."</p> + +<p>Another time he said of tea: "What a delightful beverage must that be +that pleases all palates at a time when they can take nothing else at +breakfast."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image413.jpg" width="300" height="445" alt="Fireplace in the Coffee Room of the Old Cock Tavern" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fireplace in the Coffee Room of the Old Cock Tavern</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[Pg 569]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Morning_Gossip_in_the_Coffee_Room" id="Morning_Gossip_in_the_Coffee_Room"></a> +<img src="images/image414.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="Morning Gossip in the Coffee Room of the Old Cock Tavern" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Morning Gossip in the Coffee Room of the Old Cock Tavern</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In his early days Johnson had David Garrick as an unwilling pupil. After +the actor had become famous and his prosperity had turned his head, he +was wont to "put the table in a roar" by mimicking the doctor's +grimaces. There is a story that on the occasion of a certain dinner +party where both were guests, Garrick indulged in a coarse jest on the +great man's table manners. After the merriment had subsided, Doctor +Johnson arose solemnly and said:</p> + +<p>"Gentlemen, you must doubtless suppose from the extreme familiarity with +which Mr. Garrick has thought fit to treat me that I am an acquaintance +of his; but I can assure you that until I met him here, I never saw him +but once before—and then I paid five shillings for the sight."</p> + +<p>A certain sycophant, thinking to curry favor with Johnson, took to +laughing loud and long at everything he said. Johnson's patience at last +became exhausted, and after a particularly objectionable outburst, he +turned upon the boor with:</p> + +<p>"Pray sir, what is the matter? I hope I have not said anything which you +can comprehend!"</p> + +<p>Because of his physical and mental disabilities Dr. Johnson was not a +good social animal. Nevertheless, when it pleased his humor, he could be +the cavalier, for his mind overcame every impediment.</p> + +<p>It is related of him that once when a lady who was showing him around +her garden expressed her regret at being unable to bring a particular +flower to perfection, he arose gallantly to the occasion by taking her +hand and remarking:</p> + +<p>"Then, madam, permit me to bring perfection to the flower!"</p> + +<p>Again, when Mrs. Siddons, the great English tragedienne, called upon him +in his chambers and the servant did not promptly bring her a chair, his +quick wit made capital of the incident by the remark:</p> + +<p>"You see, madam, wherever you go there are no seats to be had!"</p> + +<p>John Thomas Smith in his <i>Antiquarian Rambles in the Streets of London</i> +(1846), tells an amusing incident in the life of Sir George Etherege, +the playright, who having run up a bill at Locket's ordinary, a coffee +house much frequented by dramatists of the period, and finding himself +unable to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570">[Pg 570]</a></span> pay, began to absent himself from the place. Mrs. Locket +thereupon sent a man to dun and to threaten him with prosecution if he +did not pay. Sir George sent back word that if she stirred a step in the +matter he would kiss her. On receiving this answer, the good lady, much +exasperated, called for her hood and scarf, and told her husband, who +interposed, that "she would see if there was any fellow alive who would +have the impudence—" "Prithee! my dear, don't be so rash," said her +husband; "there is no telling what a man may do in his passion."</p> + +<p>Richard Savage, the English poet and friend of Johnson, who included him +in his famous <i>Lives of the Poets</i>, was arrested for the murder of James +Sinclair after a drunken brawl in Robinson's coffee house in 1727. He +was found guilty, but narrowly escaped the death penalty by the +intercession of the countess of Hertford. A feature of his trial was the +extraordinary charge to the jury of Judge Page, who for his hard words +and his love of hanging, is damned to everlasting fame in the verse of +Pope. The charge was:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Gentlemen of the jury! You are to consider that Mr. Savage is a +very great man, a much greater man than you or I, gentlemen of the +jury; that he wears very fine clothes, much finer than you or I, +gentlemen of the jury; that he has an abundance of money in his +pocket, much more money than you or I, gentlemen of the jury; but, +gentlemen of the jury, is it not a very hard case, gentlemen of the +jury, that Mr. Savage should therefore kill you or me, gentlemen of +the jury?</p></div> + +<p>Albert V. Lally<a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a> has made a collection of old coffee-house +anecdotes. Among them are the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The story is told of how Sir Richard Steele in Button's Coffee +House was once made the umpire in an amusing difference between two +unnamed disputants. These two were arguing about religion, when one +of them said: "I wonder, sir, you should talk of religion, when +I'll hold you five guineas you can't say the Lord's prayer." +"Done," said the other, "and Sir Richard Steele shall hold the +stakes." The money being deposited the gentleman began with, "I +believe in God", and so went right through the creed. "Well," said +the other when he had finished, "I didn't think he could have done +it."</p> + +<p class="quot1">There is another story of a famous judge, Sir Nicholas Bacon, who +was importuned by a criminal to spare his life on account of +kinship. "How so," demanded the judge. "Because my name is Hog and +yours is Bacon; and hog and bacon are so near akin that they cannot +be separated."</p> + +<p class="quot1">"Ay," responded the judge dryly, "but you and I cannot yet be +kindred, for hog is not bacon until it is well hanged."</p> + +<p class="quot1">On another occasion a nervous barrister, pleading before this same +judge, began with repeated references to his "unfortunate client." +"Go on, sir," said the judge, "so far the Court is with you."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Of Jonathan Swift it is related that a gentleman who had sought to +persuade him to accept an invitation to dinner said, in way of +special inducement, "I'll send you my bill of fare." "Send me +rather your bill of company," retorted Swift, showing his +appreciation of the truth that not that which is eaten, but those +who eat, form the more important part of a good dinner.</p></div> + +<p>On the occasion when the "dreadful Judge Jeffreys" was trying Compton, +bishop of London, before the Court of High Commission, that prelate, as +Campbell relates in his <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>, complained of +having no copy of the indictment. Jeffreys replied to this excuse that +"all the coffee houses had it for a penny." The case being resumed after +the lapse of a week, the bishop again protested that he was unprepared, +owing to his continued difficulty in obtaining a copy of the necessary +document. Jeffreys was obliged once more to adjourn the case, and in so +doing offered this bantering apology:</p> + +<p>"My lord," said he, "in telling you our commission was to be seen in +every coffee house, I did not speak with any design to reflect on your +lordship, as if you were a haunter of coffee houses. I abhor the +thoughts of it!"</p> + +<p>As the Judge had once been distinctly opposed to the party and +principles which he went to such a length in supporting, so had he +formerly owed something to the very institution against which his last +blow was directed. Roger North relates (and Campbell repeats the story) +that, "after he was called to the bar, he used to sit in coffee houses +and order his man to come and tell him that company attended him at his +chamber; at which he would huff and say, 'let them stay a little, I will +come presently,' and thus made a show of business."</p> + +<p>John Timbs, in his <i>Clubs and Club Life in London</i>, has a host of +anecdotes and stories of the old London coffee houses, among them the +following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Garraway's noted coffee-house, situated in Change-alley, Cornhill, +had a threefold celebrity;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">[Pg 571]</a></span> tea was first sold in England here; it +was a place of great resort in the time of the South Sea Bubble; +and was later a place of great mercantile transactions. The +original proprietor was Thomas Garway, tobacconist and coffee-man, +the first who retailed tea, recommending it as a cure of all +disorders.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="His_Warmest_Welcome_at_an_Inn" id="His_Warmest_Welcome_at_an_Inn"></a> +<img src="images/image415.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt=""His Warmest Welcome at an Inn"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">"His Warmest Welcome at an Inn"</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>The George Inn of today has retained a portion of its old +galleries, the original of which completely surrounded the +courtyard in typical "Dickens Inn" style. The visitor can imagine +Mr. Pickwick emerging from the door of one of the bedrooms and +calling into the yard to Sam Weller. In the old-fashioned coffee +room on the ground floor one may still lunch and dine enclosed in +high bench seats</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Ogilby, the compiler of the <i>Britannia</i>, had his standing lottery +of books at Mr. Garway's Coffee-house from April 7, 1673, till +wholly drawn off. And, in the "Journey through England," 1722, +Garraway's, Robins's, and Joe's are described as the three +celebrated coffee-houses: "In the first, the People of Quality, who +have business in the City, and the most considerable and wealthy +citizens frequent. In the second the Foreign Banquiers, and often +even Foreign Ministers. And in the third, the buyers and sellers of +stock."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Wines were sold at Garraway's in 1673, "by the candle", that is, by +auction, while an inch of candle burns. In the <i>Tatler</i>, No. 147, +we read: "Upon my coming home last night, I found a very handsome +present of French wine, left for me, as a taste of 216 hogshead, +which are to be put on sale at 20£ a hogshead, at Garraway's +Coffee-house, in Exchange alley" etc. The sale by candle is not, +however, by candlelight, but during the day. At the commencement of +the sale, when the auctioneer has read a description of the +property, and the conditions on which it is to be disposed of, a +piece of candle, usually an inch long, is lighted, and he who is +the last bidder at the time the light goes out is declared the +purchaser.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Swift, in his <i>Ballad on the South Sea Scheme</i>, 1721, did not +forget Garraway's:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +There is a gulf, where thousands fell,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Here all the bold adventurers came,</span><br /> +A narrow sound, though deep as hell,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">'Change alley is the dreadful name.</span><br /> +<br /> +Subscribers here by thousands float,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And jostle one another down,</span><br /> +Each paddling in his leaky boat,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And here they fish for gold and drown.</span><br /> +<br /> +Now buried in the depths below,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Now mounted up to heaven again,</span><br /> +They reel and stagger to and fro,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">At their wits' end, like drunken men.</span><br /> +<br /> +Meantime secure on Garway cliffs,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">A savage race, by shipwrecks fed,</span><br /> +Lie waiting for the founder'd skiffs,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And strip the bodies of the dead.</span><br /> +<br /></p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">[Pg 572]</a></span>Dr. Jno. Radcliff, who was a rash speculator in the South Sea +Scheme, was usually planted at a table at Garraway's about Exchange +time, to watch the turn of the market; and here he was seated when +the footman of his powerful rival, Dr. Edward Hannes, came into +Garraway's and inquired by way of a puff, if Dr. H. was there. Dr. +Radcliff, who was surrounded with several apothecaries and +chirurgeons that flocked about him, cried out, "Dr. Hannes is not +here," and desired to know "who wants him?" The fellow's reply was, +"such a lord and such a lord;" but he was taken up with the dry +rebuke, "No, no, friend, you are mistaken; the Doctor wants those +lords." One of Radcliff's ventures was five thousand guineas upon +one South Sea project. When he was told at Garraway's that 'twas +all lost, "Why," said he, "'tis but going up five thousand pair of +stairs more." "This answer," says Tom Brown, "deserved a statue."<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Jonathan's Coffee-house was another Change-alley coffee-house, +which is described in the <i>Tatler</i>, No. 38, as "the general mart of +stock-jobbers," and the <i>Spectator</i>, No. 1, tells us that he +"sometimes passes for a Jew in the assembly of stock-jobbers at +Jonathan's." This was their rendezvous, where gambling of all sorts +was carried on, notwithstanding a former prohibition against the +assemblage of the jobbers, issued by the City of London, which +prohibition continued unrepealed until 1825.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The <i>Spectator</i>, No. 16, notices some gay frequenters of the +Rainbow Coffee-house in Fleet Street: "I have received a letter +desiring me to be very satirical upon the little muff that is now +in fashion; another informs me of a pair of silver garters buckled +below the knee, that have been lately seen at the Rainbow +Coffee-house in Fleet Street."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Mr. Moncrieff, the dramatist, used to tell that about 1780, this +house was kept by his grandfather, Alexander Moncrieff, when it +retained its original title of "The Rainbow Coffee-house."<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Nando's Coffee-house at the east corner of Inner Temple-lane, No. +17, Fleet-Street, by some confused with Groom's house, No. 16, was +the favourite haunt of Lord Thurlow before he dashed into law +practice. At this coffee-house a large attendance of professional +loungers was attracted by the fame of the punch and the charms of +the landlady, which, with the small wits, were duly admired by and +at the bar. One evening, the famous cause of Douglas <i>v.</i> the Duke +of Hamilton was the topic of discussion, when Thurlow being +present, it was suggested, half in earnest, to appoint him junior +counsel, which was done. This employment brought him acquaintance +with the Duchess of Queensberry, who saw at once the value of a man +like Thurlow, and recommended Lord Bute to secure him by a silk +gown.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Dick's Coffee-house, at No. 8, Fleet-street, (south side, near +Temple Bar) was originally "Richard's", named from Richard Torner, +or Turner, to whom the house was let in 1680. Richard's was +frequented by Cowper, when he lived in the Temple. In his own +account of his insanity, Cowper tells us:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"At breakfast I read the newspaper, and in it a letter, which, the +further I perused it, the more closely engaged my attention. I +cannot now recollect the purport of it; but before I had finished +it, it appeared demonstratively true to me that it was a libel or +satire upon me. The author appeared to be acquainted with my +purpose of self-destruction, and to have written that letter on +purpose to secure and hasten the execution of it. My mind, +probably, at this time began to be disordered; however it was, I +was certainly given to a strong delusion. I said within myself, +'Your cruelty shall be gratified; you shall have your revenge,' and +flinging down the paper in a fit of strong passion, I rushed +hastily out of the room; directing my way towards the fields, where +I intended to find some house to die in; or, if not, determined to +poison myself in a ditch, where I could meet with one sufficiently +retired."<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Lloyd's Coffee-house was one of the earliest establishments of its +kind; it is referred to in a poem printed in the year 1700, called +the <i>Wealthy Shopkeeper, or Charitable Christian</i>:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +Now to Lloyd's Coffee-house he never fails,<br /> +To read the letters, and attend the sales.<br /> +<br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">In 1710, Steele (<i>Tatler</i>, No. 246) dates from Lloyd's his Petition +on Coffee-house Orators and Newsvendors. And Addison, in +<i>Spectator</i>, April 23, 1711, relates this droll incident: "About a +week since there happened to me a very odd accident, by reason of +one of these my papers of minutes which I had accidentally dropped +at Lloyd's Coffee-house, where the auctions are usually kept. +Before I missed it, there were a cluster of people who had found +it, and were diverting themselves with it at one end of the +coffee-house. It had raised so much laughter among them before I +observed what they were about, that I had not the courage to own +it. The boy of the coffee-house, when they had done with it, +carried it about in his hand, asking everybody if they had dropped +a written paper; but nobody challenging it, he was ordered by those +merry gentlemen who had before perused it, to get up into the +auction pulpit, and read it to the whole room, that if anybody +would own it they might. The boy accordingly mounted the pulpit, +and with a very audible voice read what proved to be minutes, which +made the whole coffee-house very merry; some of them concluded it +was written by a madman, and others by somebody that had been +taking notes out of the <i>Spectator</i>. After it was read, and the boy +was coming put of the pulpit, the <i>Spectator</i> reached his arm out, +and desired the boy to given it him; which was done according. This +drew the whole eyes of the company upon the <i>Spectator</i>; but after +casting a cursory glance over it, he shook his head twice or thrice +at the reading of it, twisted it into a kind of match, and lighted +his pipe with it. 'My profound silence,' says the <i>Spectator</i>, +'together with the steadiness of my countenance, and the gravity of +my behaviour during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">[Pg 573]</a></span> whole transaction, raised a very loud +laugh on all sides of me; but as I had escaped all suspicion of +being the author, I was very well satisfied, and applying myself to +my pipe and the <i>Postman</i>, took no further notice of anything that +passed about me.'"<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The Smyrna Coffee-house in Pall Mall, was, in the reign of Queen +Anne, famous for "that cluster of wise-heads" found sitting every +evening from the left side of the fire to the door. The following +announcement in the <i>Tatler</i>, No. 78, is amusing: "This is to give +notice to all ingenious gentlemen in and about the cities of London +and Westminster, who have a mind to be instructed in the noble +sciences of music, poetry and politics, that they repair to the +Smyrna Coffee-house, in Pall Mall, betwixt the hours of eight and +ten at night, where they may be instructed gratis, with elaborate +essays 'by word of mouth', on all or any of the above-mentioned +arts."<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">St. James's Coffee-house was the famous Whig coffee-house from the +time of Queen Anne till late in the reign of George III. It was the +last house but one on the southwest corner of St. James's street, +and is thus mentioned in No. 1 of the <i>Tatler</i>: "Foreign and +Domestic News you will have from St. James's Coffee-house." It +occurs also in the passage quoted previously from the <i>Spectator</i>. +The St. James's was much frequented by Swift; letters for him were +left here. In his Journal to Stella he says: "I met Mr. Harley, and +he asked me how long I had learnt the trick of writing to myself? +He had seen your letter through the glass case at the Coffee-house, +and would swear it was my hand."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Elliott, who kept the coffee-house, was, on occasions, placed on a +friendly footing with his guests. Swift, in his Journal to Stella, +November 19, 1710, records an odd instance of this familiarity: +"This evening I christened our coffee-man Elliott's child; when the +rogue had a most noble supper, and Steele and I sat amongst some +scurvy company over a bowl of punch."</p> + +<p class="quot1">In the first advertisement of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's "Town +Eclogues," they are stated to have been read over at the St. +James's Coffee-house, when they were considered by the general +voice to be productions of a Lady of Quality. From the proximity of +the house to St. James's Palace, it was much frequented by the +Guards; and we read of its being no uncommon circumstance to see +Dr. Joseph Warton at breakfast in the St. James's Coffee-house, +surrounded by officers of the Guards, who listened with the utmost +attention and pleasure to his remarks.</p> + +<p class="quot1">To show the order and regularity observed at the St. James's, we +may quote the following advertisement, appended to the <i>Tatler</i>. +No. 25; "To prevent all mistakes that may happen among gentlemen of +the other end of the town, who come but once a week to St. James's +Coffee-house, either by miscalling the servants, or requiring such +things from them as are not properly within their respective +provinces, this is to give notice that Kidney, keeper of the +book-debts of the outlying customers, and observer of those who go +off without paying, having resigned that employment, is succeeded +by John Sowton; to whose place of enterer of messages and first +coffee-grinder, William Bird is promoted; and Samuel Burdock comes +as shoe-cleaner in the room of the said Bird."</p> + +<p class="quot1">But the St. James's is more memorable as the house where originated +Goldsmith's celebrated poem, "Retaliation." The poet belonged to a +temporary association of men of talent, some of them members of the +Club, who dined together occasionally here. At these dinners he was +generally the last to arrive. On one occasion, when he was later +than usual, a whim seized the company to write epitaphs on him as +"the late Dr. Goldsmith", and several were thrown off in a playful +vein. The only one extant was written by Garrick, and has been +preserved, very probably, by its pungency:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +Here lies poet Goldsmith, for shortness called Noll;<br /> +He wrote like an angel, but talked like poor Poll.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">Goldsmith did not relish the sarcasm, especially coming from such a +quarter; and, by way of <i>retaliation</i>, he produced the famous poem, +of which Cumberland has left a very interesting account, but which +Mr. Forster, in his "Life of Goldsmith", states to be "pure +romance". The poem itself, however, with what was prefixed to it +when published, sufficiently explains its own origin. What had +formerly been abrupt and strange in Goldsmith's manners, had now so +visibly increased, as to become matter of increased sport to such +as were ignorant of its cause; and a proposition made at one of the +dinners, when he was absent, to write a series of epitaphs upon him +(his "country dialect" and his awkward person) was agreed to, and +put in practice by several of the guests. The active aggressors +appear to have been Garrick, Doctor Bernard, Richard Burke, and +Caleb Whitefoord. Cumberland says he, too, wrote an epitaph; but it +was complimentary and grave, and hence the grateful return he +received. Mr. Forster considers Garrick's epitaph to indicate the +tone of all. This, with the rest, was read to Goldsmith when he +next appeared at the St. James's Coffee-house, where Cumberland, +however, says he never again met his friends. But "the Doctor was +called on for Retaliation," says the friend who published the poem +with that name, "and at their next meeting produced the following, +which I think adds one leaf to his immortal wreath." +"'Retaliation'", says Sir Walter Scott, "had the effect of placing +the author on a more equal footing with his Society than he had +ever before assumed."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Cumberland's account differs from the version formerly received, +which intimates that the epitaphs were written before Goldsmith +arrived: whereas the pun, "the late Dr. Goldsmith" appears to have +suggested the writing of the epitaphs. In the "Retaliation", +Goldsmith has not spared the characters and failings of his +associates, but has drawn them with satire, at once pungent and +good-humoured. Garrick is smartly chastised; Burke, the Dinner-bell +of the House of Commons, is not let off; and of all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574">[Pg 574]</a></span> the more +distinguished names of the Club, Thomson, Cumberland, and Reynolds +alone escape the lash of the satirist. The former is not mentioned, +and the two latter are even dismissed with unqualified and +affectionate applause.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Still we quote Cumberland's account of the "Retaliation" which is +very amusing from the closely circumstantial manner in which the +incidents are narrated, although they have so little relationship +to truth: "It was upon a proposal started by Edmund Burke, that a +party of friends who had dined together at Sir Joshua Reynolds's +and my house, should meet at the St. James's Coffee-house, which +accordingly took place, and was repeated occasionally with much +festivity and good fellowship. Dr. Bernard, Dean of Derry; a very +amiable and old friend of mine, Dr. Douglas, since Bishop of +Salisbury; Johnson, David Garrick, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Oliver +Goldsmith, Edmund and Richard Burke, Hickey, with two or three +others, constituted our party. At one of these meetings, an idea +was suggested of extemporary epitaphs upon the parties present; pen +and ink were called for, and Garrick, offhand, wrote an epitaph +with a good deal of humour, upon poor Goldsmith, who was the first +in jest, as he proved to be in reality, that we committed to the +grave. The Dean also gave him an epitaph, and Sir Joshua +illuminated the Dean's verses with a sketch of his bust in pen and +ink, inimitably caricatured. Neither Johnson nor Burke wrote +anything, and when I perceived that Oliver was rather sore, and +seemed to watch me with that kind of attention which indicated his +expectation of something in the same kind of burlesque with theirs; +I thought it time to press the joke no further, and wrote a few +couplets at a side-table, which, when I had finished, and was +called upon by the company to exhibit, Goldsmith, with much +agitation, besought me to spare him; and I was about to tear them, +when Johnson wrested them out of my hand, and in a loud voice read +them at the table. I have now lost recollection of them, and, in +fact, they were little worth remembering; but as they were serious +and complimentary, the effect upon Goldsmith was the more pleasing +for being so entirely unexpected. The concluding line, which was +the only one I can call to mind, was:</p> + +<p class="quot1"> +All mourn the poet, I lament the man.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">"This I recollect, because he repeated it several times, and seemed +much gratified by it. At our next meeting he produced his epitaphs +... and this was the last time he ever enjoyed the company of his +friends."<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Will's Coffee-house, the predecessor of Button's, and even more +celebrated than that coffee-house, was kept by William Urwin. It +first had the title of the Red Cow, then of the Rose, and, we +believe, is the same house alluded to in the pleasant story in the +second number of the <i>Tatler</i>. "Supper and friends expect we at the +Rose."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Dean Lockier has left this life-like picture of his interview with +the presiding genius (Dryden) at Will's.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"I was about seventeen when I first came up to town," says the +Dean, "an odd-looking boy, with short rough hair, and that sort of +awkwardness which one always brings up at first out of the country +with one. However, in spite of my bashfulness and appearance, I +used, now and then, to thrust myself into Will's to have the +pleasure of seeing the most celebrated wits of that time, who then +resorted thither. The second time that ever I was there, Mr. Dryden +was speaking of his own things, as he frequently did, especially of +such as had been lately published. 'If anything of mine is good,' +says he, ''tis 'Mac-Flecno', and I value myself the more upon it, +because it is the first piece of ridicule written in heroics.' On +hearing this I plucked up my spirit so far as to say, in a voice +but just loud enough to be heard, 'that "Mac-Flecno" was a very +fine poem, but that I had not imagined it to be the first that was +ever writ that way.' On this, Dryden turned short upon me, as +surprised at my interposing; asked me how long 'I had been a dealer +in poetry'; and added, with a smile, 'Pray, Sir, what is it that +you did imagine to have been writ so before?'—I named Boileau's +'Lutrin' and Tassoni's 'Secchia Rapita,' which I had read, and knew +Dryden had borrowed some strokes from each. ''Tis true,' said +Dryden, 'I had forgot them.' A little after, Dryden went out, and +in going, spoke to me again, and desired me to come and see him the +next day. I was highly delighted with the invitation; went to see +him accordingly; and was well acquainted with him after, as long as +he lived."<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Will's Coffee-house was the open market for libels and lampoons, +the latter named from the established burden formerly sung to them:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +<i>Lampone, lampone, camerada lampone.</i><br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">There was a drunken fellow, named Julian, who was a characterless +frequenter of Will's, and Sir Walter Scott has given this account +of him and his vocation:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"Upon the general practice of writing lampoons, and the necessity +of finding some mode of dispersing them, which should diffuse the +scandal widely while the authors remained concealed, was founded +the self-erected office of Julian, Secretary, as he called himself, +to the Muses. This person attended Will's, the Wits' Coffee-house, +as it was called; and dispersed among the crowds who frequented +that place of gay resort copies of the lampoons which had been +privately communicated to him by their authors. 'He is described,' +says Mr. Malone, 'as a very drunken fellow, and at one time was +confined for a libel.'"</p> + +<p class="quot1">Tom Brown describes 'a Wit and a Beau set up with little or no +expense. A pair of red stockings and a swordknot set up one, and +peeping once a day in at Will's, and two or three second-hand +sayings, the other.'</p> + +<p class="quot1">Pepys, one night, going to fetch home his wife, stopped in Covent +Garden, at the Great Coffee-house there, as he called Will's, where +he never was before: "Where," he adds, "Dryden, the poet (I knew at +Cambridge), and all the Wits of the town, and Harris the player,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">[Pg 575]</a></span> +and Mr. Hoole of our College. And had I had time then, or could at +other times, it will be good coming thither, for there, I perceive, +is very witty and pleasant discourse. But I could not tarry, and, +as it was late, they were all ready to go away."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Addison passed each day alike, and much in the manner that Dryden +did. Dryden employed his mornings in writing, dined <i>en famille</i>, +and then went to Will's, "only he came home earlier o' nights."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Pope, when very young, was impressed with such veneration for +Dryden, that he persuaded some friends to take him to Will's +Coffee-house, and was delighted that he could say that he had seen +Dryden. Sir Charles Wogan, too, brought up Pope from the Forest of +Windsor, to dress <i>a la mode</i>, and introduce at Will's +Coffee-house. Pope afterwards described Dryden as "a plump man with +a down look, and not very conversible," and Cibber could tell no +more "but that he remembered him a decent old man, arbiter of +critical disputes at Will's." Prior sings of—</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +<span style="margin-left: 7em;">The younger Stiles,</span><br /> +Whom Dryden pedagogues at Will's!<br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">Most of the hostile criticism on his Plays, which Dryden has +noticed in his various Prefaces, appear to have been made at his +favourite haunt, Will's Coffee-house.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Dryden is generally said to have been returning from Will's to his +house in Gerard Street, when he was cudgelled in Rose Street by +three persons hired for the purpose by Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, +in the winter of 1679. The assault, or "the Rose-alley Ambuscade," +certainly took place; but it is not so certain that Dryden was on +his way from Will's, and he then lived in Long-acre, not Gerard +Street.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is worthy of remark that Swift was accustomed to speak +disparagingly of Will's, as in his "Rhapsody on Poetry:"</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +Be sure at Will's the following day<br /> +Lie snug, and hear what critics say;<br /> +And if you find the general vogue<br /> +Pronounces you a stupid rogue,<br /> +Damns all your thoughts as low and little;<br /> +Sit still, and swallow down your spittle.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">Swift thought little of the frequenters of Will's: "he used to say, +the worst conversation he ever heard in his life was at Will's +Coffee-house, where the wits (as they were called) used formerly to +assemble; that is to say, five or six men who had writ plays or at +least prologues, or had a share in a miscellany, came thither, and +entertained one another with their trifling composures, in so +important an air as if they had been the noblest efforts of human +nature, or that the fate of kingdoms depended on them."</p> + +<p class="quot1">In the first number of the <i>Tatler</i>, poetry is promised under the +article of Will's Coffee-house. The place, however, changed after +Dryden's time: "you used to see songs, epigrams, and satires in the +hands of every man you met, you have now only a pack of cards; and +instead of the cavils about the turn of the expression, the +elegance of the style, and the like, the learned now dispute only +about the truth of the game." "In old times, we used to sit upon a +play here, after it was acted, but now the entertainment's turned +another way."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The <i>Spectator</i> is sometimes seen "thrusting his head into a round +of politicians at Will's, and listening with great attention to the +narratives that are made in these little circular audiences." Then, +we have as an instance of no one member of human society but that +would have some little pretension for some degree in it, "like him +who came to Will's Coffee-house upon the merit of having writ a +posie of a ring." And, "Robin, the porter who waits at Will's, is +the best man in town for carrying a billet: the fellow has a thin +body, swift step, demure looks, sufficient sense, and knows the +town."</p> + +<p class="quot1">After Dryden's death, in 1701, Will's continued for about ten years +to be still the Wits' Coffee-house, as we see by Ned Ward's +account, and by the "Journey through England" in 1722.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Pope entered with keen relish into society, and courted the +correspondence of the town wits and coffee-house critics. Among his +early friends was Mr. Henry Cromwell, one of the <i>cousinry</i> of the +Protector's family: he was a bachelor, and spent most of his time +in London; he had some pretensions to scholarship and literature, +having translated several of Ovid's Elegies, for Tonson's +Miscellany. With Wycherly, Gay, Dennis, the popular actors and +actresses of the day, and with all the frequenters of Will's, +Cromwell was familiar. He had done more than take a pinch out of +Dryden's snuff-box, which was a point of high ambition and honor at +Will's; he had quarrelled with him about a frail poetess, Mrs. +Elizabeth Thomas, whom Dryden had christened Corinna, and who was +also known as Sappho. Gay characterized this literary and eccentric +beau as</p> + +<p class="quot1"> +Honest, hatless Cromwell, with red breeches: +</p> + +<p class="quot1">it being his custom to carry his hat in his hand when walking with +ladies. What with ladies and literature, rehearsals and reviews, +and critical attention to the quality of his coffee and Brazil +snuff, Henry Cromwell's time was fully occupied in town. Cromwell +was a dangerous acquaintance for Pope at the age of sixteen or +seventeen, but he was a very agreeable one. Most of Pope's letters +to his friends are addressed to him at the Blue Hall, in Great +Wild-street, near Drury Lane, and others to "Widow Hambledon's +Coffee-house, at the end of Princes-street, near Drury-lane, +London." Cromwell made one visit to Binfield; on his return to +London, Pope wrote to him, "referring to the ladies in particular," +and to his favorite coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Will's was the great resort for the wits of Dryden's time, after +whose death it was transferred to Button's. Pope describes the +houses as "opposite each other, in Russell-street, Covent Garden," +where Addison established Daniel Button, in a new house, about +1712; and his fame, after the production of <i>Cato</i>, drew many of +the Whigs thither. Button had been servant to the Countess of +Warwick. The house is more correctly described as "over against +Tom's, near the middle of the south side of the street."</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">[Pg 576]</a></span>Addison was the great patron of Button's; but it is said that when +he suffered any vexation from his Countess, he withdrew from +Button's house. His chief companions, before he married Lady +Warwick, were Steele, Budgell, Philips, Carey, Davenant, and +Colonell Brett. He used to breakfast with one or other of them in +St. James's-place, dine at taverns with them, then to Button's, and +then to some tavern again, for supper in the evening; and this was +the usual round of his life, as Pope tells us in Spencer's +Anecdotes, where Pope also says: "Addison usually studied all the +morning, then met his party at Button's, dined there, and stayed +five or six hours; and sometimes far into the night. I was of the +company for about a year, but found it too much for me; it hurt my +health, and so I quitted it." Again: "There had been a coldness +between me and Mr. Addison for some time, and we had not been in +company together for a good while anywhere but at Button's +Coffee-house, where I used to see him almost every day."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Here Pope is reported to have said of Patrick, the lexicographer, +that "a dictionary-maker might know the meaning of one word, but +not of two put together."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Button's was the receiving house for contributions to <i>The +Guardian</i>, for which purpose was put up a lion's head letter box, +in imitation of the celebrated lion at Venice, as humorously +announced. Thus:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"N.B.—Mr. Ironside has, within five weeks last past, muzzled three +lions, gorged five, and killed one. On Monday next the skin of the +dead one will be hung up, <i>in terrorem</i>, at Button's Coffee-house."</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="star">***</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">"I intend to publish once every week the roarings of the Lion, and +hope to make him roar so loud as to be heard over all the British +nation. I have, I know not how, been drawn into tattle of myself, +more majorum, almost the length of a whole <i>Guardian</i>. I shall +therefore fill up the remaining part of it with what still relates +to my own person, and my correspondents. Now I would have them all +know that on the 20th instant, it is my intention to erect a Lion's +Head, in imitation of those I have described in Venice, through +which all the private commonwealth is said to pass. This head is to +open a most wide and voracious mouth, which shall take in such +letters and papers as are conveyed to me by my correspondents, it +being my resolution to have a particular regard to all such matters +as come to my hands through the mouth of the Lion. There will be +under it a box, of which the key will be in my own custody, to +receive such papers as are dropped into it. Whatever the Lion +swallows I shall digest for the use of the publick. This head +requires some time to finish, the workmen being resolved to give it +several masterly touches, and to represent it as ravenous as +possible. It will be set up in Button's Coffee-house, in Covent +Garden, who is directed to show the way to the Lion's Head, and to +instruct any young author how to convey his works into the mouth of +it with safety and secrecy."</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="star">***</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">"I think myself obliged to acquaint the publick, that the Lion's +Head, of which I advertised them about a fortnight ago, is now +erected at Button's Coffee-house, in Russell-street, Covent Garden, +where it opens its mouth at all hours for the reception of such +intelligence as shall be thrown into it. It is reckoned an +excellent piece of workmanship, and was designed by a great hand in +imitation of the antique Egyptian lion, the face of it being +compounded out of that of a lion and a wizard. The features are +strong and well furrowed. The whiskers are admired by all that have +seen them. It is planted on the western side of the Coffee-house, +holding its paws under the chin, upon a box, which contains +everything that he swallows. He is, indeed, a proper emblem of +knowledge and action, being all head and paws."</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="star">***</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">"Being obliged, at present, to attend a particular affair of my +own, I do empower my printer to look into the arcana of the Lion, +and select out of them such as may be of publick utility; and Mr. +Button is hereby authorized and commanded to give my said printer +free ingress and egress to the lion, without any hindrance, let, or +molestation whatsoever, until such time as he shall receive orders +to the contrary. And, for so doing, this shall be his warrant."</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="star">***</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">"My Lion, whose jaws are at all times open to intelligence, informs +me that there are a few enormous weapons still in being; but that +they are to be met with only in gaming houses and some of the +obscure retreats of lovers, in and about Drury-lane and Covent +Garden."</p> + +<p class="quot1">This memorable Lion's Head was tolerably well carved: through the +mouth the letters were dropped into a till at Button's; and beneath +were inscribed these two lines from Martial:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +<i>Cervantur magnis isti Cervicibus ungues;<br /> +Non nisi delicta pascitur ille fera.</i><br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">The head was designed by Hogarth, and is etched in Ireland's +"Illustrations." Lord Chesterfield is said to have once offered for +the Head fifty guineas. From Button's it was removed to the +Shakspeare's Head Tavern, under the Piazza, kept by a person named +Tomkyns; and in 1751, was, for a short time, placed in the Bedford +Coffee-house immediately adjoining the Shakspeare, and there +employed as a letter-box by Dr. John Hill, for his <i>Inspector</i>. In +1769, Tomkyns was succeeded by his waiter, Campbell, as proprietor +of the tavern and lion's head, and by him the latter was retained +until November 8, 1804, when it was purchased by Mr. Charles +Richardson, of Richardson's Hotel, for 17£ 10s., who also possessed +the original sign of the Shakspeare's Head. After Mr. Richardson's +death in 1827, the Lion's Head devolved to his son, of whom it was +bought by the Duke of Bedford, and deposited at Woburn Abbey, where +it still remains.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Pope was subjected to much annoyance and insult at Button's. Sir +Samuel Garth wrote to Gay, that everybody was pleased with Pope's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[Pg 577]</a></span> +Translation, "but a few at Button's;" to which Gay adds, to Pope, +"I am confirmed that at Button's your character is made very free +with, as to morals, etc."</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Alexander_Pope_at_Buttons_1730" id="Alexander_Pope_at_Buttons_1730"></a> +<img src="images/image416.jpg" width="500" height="392" alt="Alexander Pope at Button's Coffee House—1730" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Alexander Pope at Button's Coffee House—1730</span><br /> +<small>From a drawing by Hogarth. The man opposite the seated figure is thought to be Pope</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Cibber, in a letter to Pope, says: "When you used to pass your +hours at Button's, you were even there remarkable for your +satirical itch of provocation; scarce was there a gentleman of any +pretension to wit, whom your unguarded temper had not fallen upon +in some biting epigram, among which you once caught a pastoral +Tartar, whose resentment, that your punishment might be +proportionate to the smart of your poetry, had stuck up a birchen +rod in the room, to be ready whenever you might come within reach +of it; and at this rate you writ and rallied and writ on, till you +rhymed yourself quite out of the coffee-house." The "pastoral +Tartar" was Ambrose Philips, who, says Johnson, "hung up a rod at +Button's, with which he threatened to chastise Pope."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Pope, in a letter to Crags, thus explains the affair: "Mr. Philips +did express himself with much indignation against me one evening at +Button's Coffee-house (as I was told), saying that I was entered +into a cabal with Dean Swift and others, to write against the Whig +interest, and in particular to undermine his own reputation and +that of his friends, Steele and Addison; but Mr. Philips never +opened his lips to my face, on this or any like occasion, though I +was almost every night in the same room with him, nor ever offered +me any indecorum. Mr. Addison came to me a night or two after +Philips had talked in this idle manner, and assured me of his +disbelief of what had been said, of the friendship we should always +maintain, and desired I would say nothing further of it. My Lord +Halifax did me the honour to stir in this matter, by speaking to +several people to obviate a false aspersion, which might have done +me no small prejudice with one party. However, Philips did all he +could secretly to continue to report with the Hanover Club, and +kept in his hands the subscriptions paid for me to him, as +secretary to that Club. The heads of it have since given him to +understand, that they take it ill; but (upon the terms I ought to +be with such a man) I would not ask him for this money, but +commissioned one of the players, his equals, to receive it. This is +the whole matter; but as to the secret grounds of this malignity, +they will make a very pleasant history when we meet."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Another account says that the rod was hung up at the bar of +Button's, and that Pope avoided<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">[Pg 578]</a></span> it by remaining at home—"his +usual custom." Philips was known for his courage and superior +dexterity with the sword; he afterwards became justice of the +peace, and used to mention Pope, whenever he could get a man in +authority to listen to him, as an enemy to the Government.</p> + +<p class="quot1">At Button's the leading company, particularly Addison and Steele, +met in large flowing flaxen wigs. Sir Godfrey Kneller, too, was a +frequenter.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The master died in 1731, when in the <i>Daily Advertiser</i>, October 5 +appeared the following:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"On Sunday morning, died, after three days' illness, Mr. Button, +who formerly kept Button's Coffee-house, in Russell-street, Covent +Garden: a very noted house for wits, being the place where the Lyon +produced the famous <i>Tatlers</i> and <i>Spectators</i>, written by the late +Mr. Secretary Addison and Sir Richard Steele, Knt., which works +will transmit their names with honour to posterity."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Among other wits who frequented Button's were Swift, Arbuthnot, +Savage, Budgell, Martin Folkes, and Drs. Garth and Armstrong. In +1720, Hogarth mentions "four drawings in Indian ink" of the +characters at Button's Coffee-house. In these were sketches of +Arbuthnot, Addison, Pope (as it is conjectured) and a certain Count +Viviani, identified years afterwards by Horace Walpole, when the +drawings came under his notice. They subsequently came into +Ireland's possession.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Jemmy Maclaine, or M'Clean, the fashionable highwayman, was a +frequent visitor at Button's. Mr. John Taylor, of the <i>Sun</i> +newspaper, describes Maclaine as a tall, showy, good-looking man. A +Mr. Donaldson told Taylor that, observing Maclaine paid particular +attention to the barmaid of the Coffee-house, the daughter of the +landlord, he gave a hint to the father of Maclaine's dubious +character. The father cautioned the daughter against the +highwayman's addresses, and imprudently told her by whose advice he +put her on her guard; she as imprudently told Maclaine. The next +time Donaldson visited the coffee-room, and sitting in one of the +boxes, Maclaine entered, and in a loud tone said, "Mr. Donaldson, I +wish to <i>spake</i> to you in a private room." Mr. D. being unarmed, +and naturally afraid of being alone with such a man, said, in +answer, that as nothing could pass between them that he did not +wish the whole world to know, he begged leave to decline the +invitation. "Very well," said Maclaine, as he left the room, "we +shall meet again." A day or two after, as Mr. Donaldson was walking +near Richmond, in the evening, he saw Maclaine on horseback; but +fortunately, at that moment, a gentleman's carriage appeared in +view, when Maclaine immediately turned his horse towards the +carriage, and Donaldson hurried into the protection of Richmond as +fast as he could. But for the appearance of the carriage, which +presented better prey, it is possible that Maclaine would have shot +Mr. Donaldson immediately.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Maclaine's father was an Irish Dean; his brother was a Calvinist +minister in great esteem at the Hague. Maclaine himself had been a +grocer in Welbeck-street, but losing a wife that he loved +extremely, and by whom he had one little girl, he quitted his +business with two hundred pounds in his pockets which he soon +spent, and then took to the road with only one companion, Plunket, +a journeyman apothecary.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Maclaine was taken in the autumn of 1750, by selling a laced +waistcoat to a pawnbroker in Monmouth-street, who happened to carry +it to the very man who had just sold the lace. Maclaine impeached +his companion, Plunket, but he was not taken. The former got into +verse: Gray, in his "Long Story," sings:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +A sudden fit of ague shook him;<br /> +He stood as mute as poor M'Lean.<br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">Button's subsequently became a private house, and here Mrs. +Inchbald lodged, probably, after the death of her sister, for whose +support she practised such noble and generous self-denial. Mrs. +Inchbald's income was now 172£ a year, and we are told that she now +went to reside in a boarding-house, where she enjoyed more of the +comforts of life. Phillips, the publisher, offered her a thousand +pounds for her Memoirs, which she declined. She died in a +boarding-house at Kensington, on the 1st of August, 1821, leaving +about 6,000£ judiciously divided amongst her relatives. Her simple +and parsimonious habits were very strange. "Last Thursday," she +writes, "I finished scouring my bedroom, while a coach with a +coronet and two footmen waited at my door to take me an airing."</p> + +<p class="quot1">"One of the most agreeable memories connected with Button's," says +Leigh Hunt, "is that of Garth, a man whom, for the sprightliness +and generosity of his nature, it is a pleasure to name. He was one +of the most amiable and intelligent of a most amiable and +intelligent class of men—the physicians."</p> + +<p class="quot1">It was just after Queen Anne's accession that Swift made +acquaintance with the leaders of the wits at Button's. Ambrose +Philips refers to him as the strange clergyman whom the frequenters +of the Coffee-house had observed for some days. He knew no one, no +one knew him. He would lay his hat down on a table, and walk up and +down at a brisk pace for half an hour without speaking to any one, +or seeming to pay attention to anything that was going forward. +Then he would snatch up his hat, pay his money at the bar, and walk +off, without having opened his lips. The frequenters of the room +had christened him "the mad parson." One evening, as Mr. Addison +and the rest were observing him, they saw him cast his eyes several +times upon a gentleman in boots, who seemed to be just come out of +the country. At last, Swift advanced towards this bucolic +gentleman, as if intending to address him. They were all eager to +hear what the dumb parson had to say, and immediately quitted their +seats to get near him. Swift went up to the country gentleman, and +in a very abrupt manner, without any previous salute, asked him, +"Pray, Sir, do you know any good weather in the world?" After +staring a little at the singularity of Swift's manner and the +oddity of the question, the gentleman answered, "Yes, Sir, I thank +God I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span> remember a great deal of good weather in my time."—"That is +more," replied Swift, "than I can say; I never remember any weather +that was not too hot or too cold, too wet or too dry; but, however +God Almighty contrives it, at the end of the year 'tis all very +well."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Sir Walter Scott gives, upon the authority of Dr. Wall, of +Worcester, who had it from Dr. Arbuthnot himself, the following +anecdote—less coarse than the version generally told. Swift was +seated by the fire at Button's; there was sand on the floor of the +coffee-room, and Arbuthnot, with a design to play upon this +original figure, offered him a letter, which he had been just +addressing, saying at the same time, "There—sand that"—"I have +got no sand," answered Swift, "but I can help you to a little +<i>gravel</i>." This he said so significantly, that Arbuthnot hastily +snatched back his letter, to save it from the fate of the capital +of Lilliput.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Tom's Coffee-house in Birchin-lane, Cornhill, though in the main a +mercantile resort, acquired some celebrity from its having been +frequented by Garrick, who, to keep up an interest in the City, +appeared here about twice in a winter at 'Change time, when it was +the rendezvous of young merchants.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Hawkins says: "After all that has been said of Mr. Garrick, envy +must own that he owed his celebrity to his merit; and yet, of that +himself so diffident, that he practiced sundry little but innocent +arts, to insure the favour of the public:" yet, he did more. When a +rising actor complained to Mrs. Garrick that the newspapers abused +him, the widow replied, "You should write your own criticisms; +David always did."</p> + +<p class="quot1">One evening, Murphy was at Tom's, when Colley Cibber was playing at +whist, with an old general for his partner. As the cards were dealt +to him, he took up every one in turn, and expressed his +disappointment at each indifferent one. In the progress of the game +he did not follow suit, and his partner said, "What! have you not a +spade, Mr. Cibber?" The latter, looking at his cards, answered, "Oh +yes, a thousand;" which drew a very peevish comment from the +general. On which, Cibber, who was shockingly addicted to swearing, +replied, "Don't be angry, for—I can play ten times worse if I +like."<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The celebrated Bedford Coffee-house, in Covent Garden, once +attracted so much attention as to have published, "Memoirs of the +Bedford Coffee-house," two editions, 1751 and 1763. It stood "under +the Piazza, in Covent Garden," in the northwest corner, near the +entrance to the theatre, and has long ceased to exist.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In the <i>Connoisseur</i>, No. 1, 1754, we are assured that "this +Coffee-house is every night crowded with men of parts. Almost every +one you meet is a polite scholar and a wit. Jokes and bon-mots are +echoed from box to box: every branch of literature is critically +examined, and the merit of every production of the press, or +performance of the theatres, weighed and determined."</p> + +<p class="quot1">And in the above-named "Memoirs" we read that "this spot has been +signalized for many years as the emporium of wit, the seat of +criticism, and the standard of taste.—Names of those who +frequented the house: Foote, Mr. Fielding, Mr. Woodward, Mr. Leone, +Mr. Murphy, Mopsy, Dr. Arne. Dr. Arne was the only man in a suit of +velvet in the dog-days."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Stacie kept the Bedford when John and Henry Fielding, Hogarth, +Churchill, Woodward, Lloyd, Dr. Goldsmith and many others met there +and held a gossiping shilling rubber club. Henry Fielding was a +very smart fellow.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The <i>Inspector</i> appears to have given rise to this reign of the +Bedford, when there was placed here the Lion from Button's, which +proved so serviceable to Steele, and once more fixed the dominion +of wit in Covent Garden.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The reign of wit and pleasantry did not, however, cease at the +Bedford at the demise of the <i>Inspector</i>. A race of punsters next +succeeded. A particular box was allotted to this occasion, out of +hearing of the lady of the bar, that the <i>double entendres</i>, which +were sometimes very indelicate, might not offend her.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The Bedford was beset with scandalous nuisances, of which the +following letter, from Arthur Murphy to Garrick, April 10, 1768, +presents a pretty picture:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"Tiger Roach (who used to bully at the Bedford Coffee-house because +his name was Roach) is set up by Wilke's friends to burlesque +Luttrel and his pretensions. I own I do not know a more ridiculous +circumstance than to be a joint candidate with the Tiger. O'Brien +used to take him off very pleasantly, and perhaps you may, from his +representation, have some idea of this important wight. He used to +sit with a half-starved look, a black patch upon his cheek, pale +with the idea of murder, or with rank cowardice, a quivering lip, +and a downcast eye. In that manner he used to sit at a table all +alone, and his soliloquy, interrupted now and then with faint +attempts to throw off a little saliva, was to the following +effect:—'Hut! hut! a mercer's 'prentice with a bag-wig;—d—— n +my s—— l, if I would not skiver a dozen of them like larks! Hut! +hut! I don't understand such airs!—I'd cudgel him back, breast and +belly, for three skips of a louse!—How do you do, Pat? Hut! hut! +God's blood—Larry, I'm glad to see you; 'Prentices! a fine thing +indeed!—Hut! hut! How do you do, Dominick!—D—— n my s—— l, +what's here to do!' These were the meditations of this agreeable +youth. From one of these reveries he started up one night, when I +was there, called a Mr. Bagnell out of the room, and most +heroically stabbed him in the dark, the other having no weapon to +defend himself with. In this career, the Tiger persisted, till at +length a Mr. Lennard brandished a whip over his head, and stood in +a menacing attitude, commanding him to ask pardon directly. The +Tiger shrank from the danger, and with a faint voice +pronounced—'Hut! what signifies it between you and me? Well! well! +I ask your pardon.' 'Speak louder, Sir; I don't hear a word you +say.' And indeed he was so very tall, that it seemed as if the +sound, sent feebly from below, could not ascend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">[Pg 580]</a></span> to such a height. +This is the hero who is to figure at Brentford."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Foote's favourite coffee-house was the Bedford. He was also a +constant frequenter of Tom's, and took a lead in the Club held +there, and already described.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Dr. Barrowby, the well-known newsmonger of the Bedford, and the +satirical critic of the day, has left this whole-length sketch of +Foote:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"One evening (he says) he saw a young man extravagantly dressed out +in a frock suit of green and silver lace, bag-wig, sword, bouquet, +and point ruffles, enter the room (at the Bedford), and immediately +join the critical circle at the upper end. Nobody recognized him; +but such was the ease of his bearing, and the point of humor and +remark with which he at once took up the conversation, that his +presence seemed to disconcert no one, and a sort of pleased buzz of +'who is he?' was still going round the room unanswered, when a +handsome carriage stopped at the door; he rose, and quitted the +room, and the servants announced that his name was Foote, and that +he was a young gentleman of family and fortune, a student of the +Inner Temple, and that the carriage had called for him on its way +to the assembly of a lady of fashion". Dr. Barrowby once turned the +laugh against Foote at the Bedford, when he was ostentatiously +showing his gold repeater, with the remark—'Why, my watch does not +go!' 'It soon <i>will go</i>,' quietly remarked the Doctor. Young +Collins, the poet, who came to town in 1744 to seek his fortune, +made his way to the Bedford, where Foote was supreme among the wits +and critics. Like Foote, Collins was fond of fine clothes, and +walked about with a feather in his hat, very unlike a young man who +had not a single guinea he could call his own. A letter of the time +tells us that "Collins was an acceptable companion everywhere; and +among the gentlemen who loved him for a genius, may be reckoned the +Doctors Armstrong, Barrowby, Hill, Messrs. Quin, Garrick, and +Foote, who frequently took his opinions upon their pieces before +they were seen by the public. He was particularly noticed by the +geniuses who frequented the Bedford and Slaughter's Coffee-houses."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Ten years later (1754) we find Foote again supreme in his critical +corner at the Bedford. The regular frequenters of the room strove +to get admitted to his party at supper; and others got as near as +they could to the table, as the only humor flowed from Foote's +tongue. The Bedford was now in its highest repute.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Foote and Garrick often met at the Bedford, and many and sharp were +their encounters. They were the two great rivals of the day. Foote +usually attacked, and Garrick, who had many weak points, was mostly +the sufferer. Garrick, in early life, had been in the wine trade, +and had supplied the Bedford with wine; he was thus described by +Foote as living in Durham-yard, with three quarts of vinegar in the +cellar, calling himself a wine-merchant. How Foote must have abused +the Bedford wine of this period!</p> + +<p class="quot1">One night, Foote came into the Bedford, where Garrick was seated, +and there gave him an account of a most wonderful actor he had just +seen. Garrick was on the tenters of suspense, and there Foote kept +him a full hour. Foote brought the attack to a close by asking +Garrick what he thought of Mr. Pitt's histrionic talents, when +Garrick, glad of the release, declared that if Pitt had chosen the +stage, he might have been the first actor upon it.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Another night, Garrick and Foote were about to leave the Bedford +together, when the latter, in paying the bill, dropped a guinea; +and not finding it at once, said, "Where on earth can it be gone +to?"—"Gone to the devil, I think," replied Garrick, who had +assisted in the search.—"Well said, David!" was Foote's reply, +"let you alone for making a guinea go further than anybody else."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Churchill's quarrel with Hogarth began at the shilling rubber club, +in the parlour of the Bedford; when Hogarth used some very +insulting language towards Churchill, who resented it in the +<i>Epistle</i>. This quarrel showed more venom than wit. "Never," says +Walpole, "did two angry men of their abilities throw mud with less +dexterity."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Woodward, the comedian, mostly lived at the Bedford, was intimate +with Stacie, the landlord, and gave him his (W.'s) portrait, with a +mask in his hand, one of the early pictures by Sir Joshua Reynolds. +Stacie played an excellent game at whist. One morning about two +o'clock, one of the waiters awoke him to tell him that a nobleman +had knocked him up, and had desired him to call his master to play +a rubber with him for one hundred guineas. Stacie got up, dressed +himself, won the money, and was in bed and asleep, all within an +hour.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">After Macklin had retired from the stage, in 1754, he opened that +portion of the Piazza-houses, in Covent Garden, afterwards known as +the Tavistock Hotel. Here he fitted up a large coffee-room, a +theatre for oratory, and other apartments. To a three-shilling +ordinary he added a shilling lecture, or "School of Oratory and +Criticism;" he presided at the dinner table, and carved for the +company; after which he played a sort of "Oracle of Eloquence." +Fielding has happily sketched him in his "Voyage to Lisbon": +"Unfortunately for the fishmongers of London, the Dory only resides +in the Devonshire seas; for could any of this company only convey +one to the Temple of luxury under the piazza, where Macklin, the +high priest, daily serves up his rich offerings, great would be the +reward of that fishmonger."</p> + +<p class="quot1">In the Lecture, Macklin undertook to make each of his audience an +orator, by teaching him how to speak. He invited hints and +discussions; the novelty of the scheme attracted the curiosity of +numbers; and this curiosity he still further excited by a very +uncommon controversy which now subsisted, either in imagination or +reality, between him and Foote, who abused one another very +openly—"Squire Sammy," having for his purpose engaged the Little +Theatre in the Haymarket.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[Pg 581]</a></span>Besides this personal attack, various subjects were debated here +in the manner of the Robin Hood Society, which filled the Orator's +pocket, and proved his rhetoric of some value.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Here is one of his combats with Foote. The subject was Duelling In +Ireland, which Macklin had illustrated as far as the reign of +Elizabeth. Foote cried, "Order;" he had a question to put. "Well, +Sir," said Macklin, "what have you to say on this subject," "I +think, Sir" said Foote, "this matter might be settled in a few +words. What o'clock is it, Sir?" Macklin could not possibly see +what the clock had to do with a dissertation upon Duelling, but +gruffly reported the hour to be half-past nine. "Very well," said +Foote, "about this time of the night every gentleman in Ireland +that can possibly afford it is in his third bottle of claret, and +therefore in a fair way of getting drunk; and from drunkenness +proceeds quarrelling, and from quarrelling, duelling, and so +there's an end of the chapter." The company were much obliged to +Foote for his interference, the hour being considered; though +Macklin did not relish this abridgment.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The success of Foote's fun upon Macklin's Lectures, led him to +establish a summer entertainment of his own at the Haymarket. He +took up Macklin's notion of applying Greek tragedy to modern +subjects, and the squib was so successful that Foote cleared by it +500£ in five nights, while the great Piazza Coffee-room in Covent +Garden was shut up, and Macklin in the <i>Gazette</i> as a bankrupt.</p> + +<p class="quot1">But when the great plan of Mr. Macklin proved abortive, when as he +said in a former prologue, upon a nearly similar occasion—</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +From scheming, fretting, famine and despair.<br /> +We saw to grace restor'd an exiled player;<br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">when the town was sated with the seemingly-concocted quarrel +between the two theatrical geniuses, Macklin locked his doors, all +animosity was laid aside, and they came and shook hands at the +Bedford; the group resumed their appearance, and, with a new +master, a new set of customers was seen.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Tom King's Coffee-house was one of the old night-houses of Covent +Garden Market; it was a rude shed immediately beneath the portico +of St. Paul's Church, and was one "well known to all gentlemen to +whom beds are unknown." Fielding in one of his Prologues says:</p> + +<p class="quot1"> +What rake is ignorant of King's Coffee-house?<br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is in the background of Hogarth's print of <i>Morning</i> where the +prim maiden lady, walking to church, is soured with seeing two +fuddled <i>beaux</i> from King's Coffee-house caressing two frail women. +At the door there is a drunken row, in which swords and cudgels are +the weapons<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Harwood's <i>Alumni Etonenses</i>, p. 239, in the account of the Boys +elected from Eton to King's College, contains this entry: "A.D. +1713, Thomas King, born at West Ashton, in Wiltshire, went away +scholar in apprehension that his fellowship would be denied him; +and afterwards kept that Coffee-house in Covent Garden, which was +called by his own name."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Moll King was landlady after Tom's death: she was witty, and her +house was much frequented, though it was little better than a shed. +"Noblemen and the first <i>beaux</i>," said Stacie, "after leaving Court +would go to her house in full dress, with swords and bags, and in +rich brocaded silk coats, and walked and conversed with persons of +every description. She would serve chimney-sweepers, gardeners, and +the market-people in common with her lords of the highest rank. Mr. +Apreece, a tall thin man in rich dress, was her constant customer. +He was called Cadwallader by the frequenters of Moll's." It is not +surprising that Moll was often fined for keeping a disorderly +house. At length, she retired from business—and the pillory—to +Hempstead, where she lived on her ill-earned gains, but paid for a +pew in church, and was charitable at appointed seasons, and died in +peace in 1747.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The Piazza Coffee-house at the northeastern angle of Covent Garden +Piazza, appears to have originated with Macklin's; for we read in +an advertisement in the <i>Publick Adviser</i>, March 5, 1756; "The +Great Piazza Coffee-room, in Covent Garden."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The Piazza was much frequented by Sheridan; and here is located the +well-known anecdote told of his coolness during the burning of +Drury-lane Theatre, in 1809. It is said that as he sat at the +Piazza, during the fire, taking some refreshment, a friend of his +having remarked on the philosophical calmness with which he bore +his misfortune, Sheridan replied:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"A man may surely be allowed to take a glass of wine by his <i>own +fireside</i>."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Sheridan and John Kemble often dined together at the Piazza, to be +handy to the theatre. During Kemble's management, Sheridan had +occasion to make a complaint, which brought a "nervous" letter from +Kemble, to which Sheridan's reply is amusing enough. Thus, he +writes: "that the management of a theatre is a situation capable of +becoming <i>troublesome</i>, is information which I do not want, and a +discovery which I thought you made long ago." Sheridan then treats +Kemble's letter as "a nervous flight," not to be noticed seriously, +adding his anxiety for the interest of the theatre, and alluding to +Kemble's touchiness and reserve; and thus concludes:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"If there is anything amiss in your mind not arising from the +<i>troublesomeness</i> of your situation, it is childish and unmanly not +to disclose it. The frankness with which I have dealt towards you +entitles me to expect that you should have done so.</p> + +<p class="quot1">"But I have no reason to believe this to be the case; and +attributing your letter to a disorder which I know ought not to be +indulged, I prescribe that thou shalt keep thine appointment at the +Piazza Coffee-house, tomorrow at five, and, taking four bottles of +claret instead of three, to which in sound health you might stint +yourself, forget that you ever wrote the letter, as I shall that I +ever received it."</p> + +<p class="right"> +"R.B. Sheridan." +</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">[Pg 582]</a></span>The Piazza facade, and interior, were of Gothic design. When the +house was demolished, in its place was built the Floral Hall, after +the Crystal Palace model.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The Chapter Coffee-house was a literary place of resort in +Paternoster Row, more especially in connection with the +Wittinagemot of the last century. A very interesting account of the +Chapter, at a later period (1848) is given by Mrs. Gaskell.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Goldsmith frequented the Chapter, and always occupied one place, +which for many years after was the seat of literary honor there. +There are leather tokens of the Chapter Coffee-house in existence.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Child's Coffee-house, in St. Paul's Churchyard, was one of the +<i>Spectator's</i> houses. "Sometimes," he says, "I smoke a pipe at +Child's and whilst I seem attentive to nothing but the <i>Postman</i>, +overhear the conversation of every table in the room." It was much +frequented by the clergy; for the <i>Spectator</i>, No. 609, notices the +mistake of a country gentleman in taking all persons in scarfs for +Doctors of Divinity, since only a scarf of the first magnitude +entitles him to "the appellation of Doctor from his landlady and +the <i>Boy at Child's</i>."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Child's was the resort of Dr. Mead, and other professional men of +eminence. The Fellows of the Royal Society came here. Whiston +relates that Sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Halley and he were once at +Child's when Dr. H. asked him, W., why he was not a member of the +Royal Society? Whiston answered, because they durst not choose a +heretic. Upon which Dr. H. said, if Sir Hans Sloane would propose +him, W., he, Dr. H., would second it, which was done accordingly.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The propinquity of Child's to the Cathedral and Doctors' Commons, +made it the resort of the clergy, and ecclesiastical loungers. In +that respect, Child's was superseded by the Chapter, in Paternoster +Row.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The London Coffee-house was established previous to the year 1731, +for we find of it the following advertisement:</p> + +<p class="center"> +"May, 1731. +</p> + +<p class="quot1">"Whereas, it is customery for Coffee-houses and other +Public-houses, to take 8s. for a quart of Arrack, and 6s. for a +quart of Brandy or Rum, made into Punch:</p> + +<p class="quot1">"This is to give notice,</p> + +<p class="quot1">"That James Ashley has opened on Ludgate Hill, the London +Coffee-house, Punch-house, Dorchester Beer and Welsh Ale Warehouse, +where the finest and best old Arrack, Rum and French Brandy is made +into Punch, with the other of the finest Ingredients—viz., A quart +of Arrack made into Punch for six shillings; and so in proportion +to the smallest quantity, which is half-a-quartern for fourpence +half-penny. A quart of Rum or Brandy made into Punch for four +shillings; and so in proportion to the smallest quantity, which is +half-a-quartern for fourpence half-penny; and gentlemen may have it +as soon made as a gill of Wine can be drawn."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The premises occupied a Roman site; for, in 1800, in the rear of +the house, in a bastion of the City Wall, was found a sepulchral +monument dedicated to Claudina Martina by her husband, a provincial +Roman soldier; here also were found a fragment of a statue of +Hercules and a female head. In front of the Coffee-house +immediately west of St. Martin's Church, stood Ludgate.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The London Coffee-house was noted for its publishers' sales of +stock and copyrights. It was within the rules of the Fleet prison; +and in the Coffee-house were "locked up" for the night such juries +from the Old Bailey Sessions, as could not agree upon verdicts. The +house was long kept by the grandfather and father of Mr. John +Leech, the celebrated artist.</p> + +<p class="quot1">A singular incident occurred at the London Coffee-house, many years +since: Mr. Brayley, the topographer, was present at a party here, +when Mr. Broadhurst, the famous tenor, by singing a high note, +caused a wine-glass on the table to break, the bowl being separated +from the stem.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">From <i>The Kingdom's Intelligencer</i>, a weekly paper, published by +authority, in 1662, we learn that there had just been opened a "new +coffee-house," with the sign of the Turk's Head, where was sold by +retail "the right coffee-powder," from 4s. to 6s. 8d. per pound; +that pounded in a mortar, 2s; East Indian berry, 1s. 6d.; and the +right Turkie berry, well garbled, at 3s. "The ungarbled for lesse, +with directions how to use the same." Also Chocolate at 2s. 6d. per +pound; the perfumed from 4s. to 10s.; "also, Sherbets made in +Turkie, of lemons, roses and violets perfumed; and Tea, or Chaa, +according to its goodness. The house seal is Morat the Great. +Gentlemen customers and acquaintances are (the next New Year's Day) +invited to the sign of the Great Turk at this new Coffee-house, +where Coffee will be on free cost." Morat figures as a tyrant in +Dryden's "Aurung Zebe." There is a token of this house, with the +sultan's head, in the Beaufoy collection<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Another token in the same collection, is of unusual excellence, +probably by John Roettier. It has on the obverse, Morat ye Great +Men did mee call,—Sultan's head; reverse, Where eare I came I +conquered all.—In the field, Coffee, Tobacco, Sherbet, Tea, +Chocolate, retail in Exchange Alee. "The word Tea," says Mr. Burn, +"occurs on no other tokens than those issued from 'the Great Turk' +Coffee-house, in Exchange alley;" in one of its advertisements, +1662, tea is from 6s. to 60s. a pound.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Competition arose. One Constantine Jennings in Threadneedle-street, +over against St. Christopher's Church, advertised that coffee, +chocolate, sherbet, and tea, the right Turkey berry, may be had as +cheap and as good of him as is anywhere to be had for money; and +that people may there be taught to prepare the said liquors gratis.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Pepys, in his "Diary," tells, September 25, 1669, of his sending +for "a cup of Tea, a China Drink, he had not before tasted." Henry +Bennet, Earl of Arlington, about 1666, introduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">[Pg 583]</a></span> tea at Court. +And, in his "Sir Charles Sedley's Mulberry Garden," we are told +that "he who wished to be considered a man of fashion always drank +wine-and-water at dinner, and a dish of tea afterwards." These +details are condensed from Mr. Burn's excellent "Beaufoy +Catalogue," 2nd edition, 1855.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">In Gerard-street, Soho, also, was another Turk's Head Coffee-house, +where was held a Turk's Head Society; in 1777, we find Gibbon +writing to Garrick: "At this time of year (August 14) the Society +of the Turk's Head can no longer be addressed as a corporate body, +and most of the individual members are probably dispersed: Adam +Smith, in Scotland; Burke in the shades of Beaconsfield; Fox, the +Lord or the devil knows where."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The place was a kind of headquarters for the Loyal Association +during the Rebellion of 1745. Here was founded "The Literary Club" +and a select body for the Protection and Encouragement of Art. +Another Society of Artists met in Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane, +from the year 1739 to 1769. After continued squabbles, which lasted +for many years, the principal artists met together at the Turk's +Head, where many others having joined them, they petitioned the +King (George III) to become patron of a Royal Academy of Art. His +Majesty consented; and the new Society took a room in Pall Mall, +opposite to Market-lane, where they remained until the King, in the +year 1771, granted them apartments in Old Somerset House.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The Turk's Head Coffee-house, No. 142, in the Strand, was a +favourite supping-house with Dr. Johnson and Boswell, in whose Life +of Johnson are several entries, commencing with 1763—"At night, +Mr. Johnson and I supped in a private room at the Turk's Head +Coffee-house, in the Strand; 'I encourage this house,' said he, +'for the mistress of it is a good civil woman, and has not much +business'." Another entry is—"We concluded the day at the Turk's +Head Coffee-house very socially." And, August 3, 1673—"We had our +last social meeting at the Turk's Head Coffee-house, before my +setting out for foreign parts."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The name was afterwards changed to "The Turk's Head, Canada and +Bath Coffee-house," and was a well frequented tavern and hotel.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">At the Turk's Head, or Miles's Coffee-house, New Palace-yard, +Westminster, the noted Rota Club met, founded by Harrington, in +1659; where was a large oval table, with a passage in the middle, +for Miles to deliver his coffee.<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a><br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">For many years previous to the streets of London being completely +paved, "Slaughter's Coffee-house" was called "The Coffee-house on +the Pavement." Besides being the resort of artists, Old Slaughter's +was the house of call for Frenchmen.</p> + +<p class="quot1">St. Martin's-lane was long one of the headquarters of the artists +of the last century. "In the time of Benjamin West," says J.T. +Smith, "and before the formation of the Royal Academy, +Greek-street, St. Martin's-lane, and Gerard-street, was their only +colony. Old Slaughter's Coffee-house, in St. Martin's-lane, was +their grand resort in the evenings, and Hogarth was a constant +visitor." He lived at the Golden Head, on the eastern side of +Leicester Fields, in the northern half of the Sabloniere Hotel. The +head he cut out himself from pieces of cork, glued and bound +together; it was placed over the street-door. At this time, young +Benjamin West was living in chambers, in Bedford-street, Covent +Garden, and had there set up his easel; he was married in 1765, at +St. Martin's Church. Roubiliac was often to be found at Slaughter's +in early life; probably before he gained the patronage of Sir +Edward Walpole, through finding and returning to the baronet the +pocket-book of bank-notes which the young maker of monuments had +picked up in Vauxhall Gardens. Sir Edward, to remunerate his +integrity, and his skill, of which he showed specimens, promised to +patronize Roubiliac through life, and he faithfully performed this +promise. Young Gainsborough, who spent three years amid the works +of the painters in St. Martin's-lane, Hayman, and Cipriani, who +were all eminently convival, were, in all probability, frequenters +of Slaughter's. Smith tells us that Quin and Hayman were +inseparable friends, and so convival, that they seldom parted till +daylight.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Mr. Cunningham relates that here, "in early life, Wilkie would +enjoy a small dinner at a small cost. I have been told by an old +frequenter of the house, that Wilkie was always the last dropper-in +for dinner, and that he was never seen to dine in the house by +daylight. The truth is, he slaved at his art at home till the last +glimpse of daylight had disappeared."</p> + +<p class="quot1">Haydon was accustomed, in the early days of his fitful career, to +dine here with Wilkie. In his "Autobiography," in the year 1808, +Haydon writes: "This period of our lives was one of great +happiness; painting all day, then dining at the Old Slaughter +Chop-house, then going to the Academy until eight to fill up the +evening, then going home to tea—that blessing of a studious +man—talking over respective exploits, what he, Wilkie, had been +doing and what I had been doing, and, then frequently to relieve +our minds fatigued by their eight and twelve hours' work, giving +vent to the most extraordinary absurdities. Often have we made +rhymes on odd names, and shouted with laughter at each new line +that was added. Sometimes lazily inclined after a good dinner, we +have lounged about, near Drury Lane or Covent Garden, hesitating +whether to go in, and often have I (knowing first that there was +nothing I wished to see) assumed a virtue I did not possess, and +pretending moral superiority, preached to Wilkie on the weakness of +not resisting such temptations for the sake of our art and our +duty, and marched him off to his studies, when he was longing to +see Mother Goose."</p> + +<p class="quot1">J.T. Smith refers to Old Slaughter's as "formerly the rendezvous of +Pope, Dryden and other wits, and much frequented by several +eminently clever men of his day."</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[Pg 584]</a></span>Thither came Ware, the architect, who, when a little sickly boy, +was apprenticed to a chimney-sweeper, and was seen chalking the +street-front of Whitehall, by a gentleman who purchased the +remainder of the boy's time; gave him an excellent education; then +sent him to Italy, and, upon his return, employed him, and +introduced him to his friends as an architect. Ware was heard to +tell this story while he was sitting to Roubiliac for his bust. +Ware built Chesterfield House and several other noble mansions, and +compiled a Palladio, in folio: he retained the soot in his skin to +the day of his death. He was very intimate with Roubiliac, who was +an opposite eastern neighbour of Old Slaughter's. Another +architect, Gwynn, who competed with Mylne for designing and +building Blackfriars Bridge, was also a frequent visitor at Old +Slaughter's, as was Gravelot, who kept a drawing-school in the +Strand, nearly opposite to Southampton-street.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Hudson, who painted the Dilettanti portraits; M'Ardell, the +mezzotinto-scraper; and Luke Sullivan, the engraver of Hogarth's +March to Finchley, also frequented Old Slaughter's; likewise +Theodore Gardell, the portrait painter, who was executed for the +murder of his landlady: and Old Moser, keeper of the Drawing +Academy in Peter's-court.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Parry, the Welsh harper, though totally blind, was one of the first +draught-players in England, and occasionally played with the +frequenters of Old Slaughter's; and here in consequence of a bet. +Roubiliac introduced Nathaniel Smith (father of John Thomas), to +play at draughts with Parry; the game lasted about half an hour; +Parry was much agitated, and Smith proposed to give in; but as +there were bets depending, it was played out, and Smith won. This +victory brought Smith numerous challenges; and the dons of the +Barn, a public-house, in St. Martin's-lane, nearly opposite the +church, invited him to become a member; but Smith declined. The +Barn, for many years, was frequented by all the noted players of +chess and draughts; and it was there that they often decided games +of the first importance, played between persons of the highest +rank.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The Grecian Coffee-house, Devereux-court, Strand, (closed in 1843) +was named from Constantine, of Threadneedle street, the <i>Grecian</i> +who kept it. In the <i>Tatler</i> announcement, all accounts of learning +are to be "under the title of the Grecian;" and, in the <i>Tatler</i>, +No. 6: "While other parts of the town are amused with the present +actions (Marlborough's) we generally spend the evening at this +table (at the Grecian) in inquiries into antiquity, and think +anything new, which gives us new knowledge. Thus, we are making a +very pleasant entertainment to ourselves in putting the actions of +Homer's Iliad into an exact journal."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The <i>Spectator's</i> face was very well known at the Grecian, a +coffee-house "adjacent to the law." Occasionally it was the scene +of learned discussion. Thus Dr. King relates that one evening, two +gentlemen, who were constant companions, were disputing here, +concerning the accent of a Greek word. This dispute was carried to +such a length, that the two friends thought proper to determine it +with their swords; for this purpose they stepped into +Devereux-court, where one of them (Dr. King thinks his name was +Fitzgerald) was run through the body, and died on the spot.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The Grecian was Foote's morning lounge. It was handy, too, for the +young Templar, Goldsmith, and often did it echo with Oliver's +boisterous mirth; for "it had become the favourite resort of the +Irish and Lancashire Templars, whom he delighted in collecting +around him, in entertaining with a cordial and unostentatious +hospitality, and in occasionally amusing with his flute, or with +whist, neither of which he played very well!" Here Goldsmith +occasionally wound up his "Shoemaker's Holiday" with supper.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It was at the Grecian that Fleetwood Shephard told this memorable +story to Dr. Tancred Robinson, who gave Richardson permission to +repeat it. "The Earle of Dorset was in Little Britain, beating +about for books to his taste: there was 'Paradise Lost'. He was +surprised with some passages he struck upon, dipping here and there +and bought it; the bookseller begged him to speak in his favour, if +he liked it, for they lay on his hands as waste paper.... Shephard +was present. My Lord took it home, read it, and sent it to Dryden, +who in a short time returned it. 'This man,' says Dryden, 'cuts us +all out, and the ancients, too!'"<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">George's Coffee-house, No. 213, Strand, near Temple Bar, was a +noted resort in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. When it +was a coffee-house, one day, there came in Sir James Lowther, who +after changing a piece of silver with the coffee-woman, and paying +twopence for his dish of coffee, was helped into his chariot, for +he was very lame and infirm, and went home: some little time +afterwards, he returned to the same coffee-house, on purpose to +acquaint the woman who kept it, that she had given him a bad +half-penny, and demanded another in exchange for it. Sir James had +about £40,000 per annum.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Shenstone, who found "the warmest welcome at an inn," found +George's to be economical. "What do you think," he writes, "must be +my expense, who love to pry into everything of the kind? Why, truly +one shilling. My company goes to George's Coffee-house, where, for +that small subscription I read all pamphlets under a three +shillings' dimension; and indeed, any larger would not be fit for +coffee-house perusal." Shenstone relates that Lord Oxford was at +George's, when the mob, that were carrying his Lordship in effigy, +came into the box where he was, to beg money of him, amongst +others; this story Horace Walpole contradicts, adding that he +supposes Shenstone thought that after Lord Oxford quitted his place +he went to the coffee-house to learn news.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Arthur Murphy frequented George's, "where the town wits met every +evening." Lloyd, the law-student, sings:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +By law let others toil to gain renown!<br /> +Florio's a gentleman, a man o' the town.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[Pg 585]</a></span>He nor courts clients, or the law regarding,<br /> +Hurries from Nando's down to Covent Garden.<br /> +Yet, he's a scholar; mark him in the pit,<br /> +With critic catcall sound the stops of wit!<br /> +Supreme at George's, he harangues the throng,<br /> +Censor of style, from tragedy to song.<br /> +<br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">The Percy Coffee-house, Rathbone-place, Oxford-street, no longer +exists; but it will be kept in recollection for its having given +name to one of the most popular publications of its class, namely, +the "Percy Anecdotes," by Sholto and Reuben Percy, Brothers of the +Benedictine Monastery of Mont Benger, in forty-four parts, +commencing in 1820. So said the title pages, but the names and the +locality were <i>supposé</i>. Reuben Percy was Thomas Byerly, who died +in 1824; he was the brother of Sir John Byerley, and the first +editor of the <i>Mirror</i>, commenced by John Limbird, in 1822. Sholto +Percy was Joseph Clinton Robertson, who died in 1852; he was the +projector of the <i>Mechanics' Magazine</i>, which he edited from its +commencement to his death. The name of the collection of Anecdotes +was not taken, as at the time supposed, from the popularity of the +"Percy Reliques," but from the Percy Coffee-house, where Byerley +and Robertson were accustomed to meet to talk over their joint +work. The <i>idea</i> was, however, claimed by Sir Richard Phillips, who +stoutly maintained that it originated in a suggestion made by him +to Dr. Tilloch and Mr. Mayne, to cut the anecdotes from the many +years' files of the <i>Star</i> newspaper, of which Dr. Tilloch was the +editor; and Mr. Byerley assistant editor; and to the latter +overhearing the suggestion, Sir Richard contested, might the "Percy +Anecdotes" be traced. They were very successful, and a large sum +was realised by the work.<br /><br /></p> + +<p class="quot1">Peele's Coffee-house, Nos. 177 and 178, Fleet-street, east corner +of Fetter-lane, was one of the coffee-houses of the Johnsonian +period; and here was long preserved a portrait of Dr. Johnson, on +the keystone of a chimney-piece, stated to have been painted by Sir +Joshua Reynolds. Peele's was noted for files of newspapers from +these dates: <i>Gazette</i>, 1759; <i>Times</i>, 1780; <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, +1773; <i>Morning Post</i>, 1773; <i>Morning Herald</i>, 1784; <i>Morning +Advertiser</i>, 1794; and the evening papers from their commencement. +The house is now a tavern.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Literature and Ideals</i></p> + +<p>The bibliography at the end of this work will serve to indicate the +nature and extent of the general literature of coffee. Not that it is +complete or nearly so; it would require twice the space to include +mention of all the fugitive bits of verse, essays, and miscellaneous +writings in newspapers, and periodicals, dealing with the poetry and +romance, history, chemistry, and physiological effects of coffee. Only +the early works, and the more notable contributions of the last three +centuries, are included in the bibliography; but there is sufficient to +enable the student to analyze the lines of general progress.</p> + +<p>A study of the literature of coffee shows that the French really +internationalized the beverage. The English and Italians followed. With +the advent of the newspaper press, coffee literature began to suffer +from its competition.</p> + +<p>The complexities of modern life suggest that coffee drinking in +perfection, the esthetics, and a new literature of coffee may once more +become the pleasure of a small caste. Are the real pleasures of life, +the things truly worth while, only to the swift—the most efficient? Who +shall say? Are not some of us, particularly in America, rather prone to +glorify the gospel of work to such an extent that we are in danger of +losing the ability to understand or to enjoy anything else?</p> + +<p>Granted that this is so, coffee, already recognized as the most grateful +lubricant known to the human machine, is destined to play another part +of increasing importance in our national life as a kind of national +shock-absorber as well. But its rôle is something more than this, +surely. When life is drab, it takes away its grayness. When life is sad, +it brings us solace. When life is dull, it brings us new inspiration. +When we are a-weary, it brings us comfort and good cheer.</p> + +<p>The lure of coffee lies in its appeal to our finer sensibilities; and +signs are not wanting that that pursuit of the long, sweet happiness +that every one is seeking will lead some of us (even in big bustling +America) into footpaths that end in places where coffee will offer much +of its pristine inspiration and charm. It probably will not be a coffee +house anything like that of the long ago, but perhaps it will be a kind +of modernized coffee club. Why not?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[Pg 586]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="DUTCH_COFFEE_HOUSE_1650" id="DUTCH_COFFEE_HOUSE_1650"></a> +<img src="images/image417.jpg" width="500" height="660" alt="A COFFEE HOUSE IN HOLLAND, ABOUT 1650" title="" /> +<span class="caption">A COFFEE HOUSE IN HOLLAND, ABOUT 1650<br /> +<small>After the etching by J. Beauvarlet from a painting by Adriaen Van Ostade +(1610–1675), which is said to be the earliest picture of a coffee house +in western Europe</small></span> +</div> + + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[Pg 587]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXXIII" id="Chapter_XXXIII"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXXIII</span></h2> + +<h3>COFFEE IN RELATION TO THE FINE ARTS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, +engraving, sculpture, caricature, lithography, and music—Epics, +rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee—Beautiful specimens +of the art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee +service of various periods in the world's history—Some historical +relics</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">C</span><span class="caps">offee</span> has inspired the imagination of many poets, musicians, and +painters. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries those whose genius +was dedicated to the fine arts seem to have fallen under its spell and +to have produced much of great beauty that has endured. To the painters, +engravers, and caricaturists of that period we are particularly indebted +for pictures that have added greatly to our knowledge of early coffee +customs and manners.</p> + +<p>Adriaen Van Ostade (1610–1685), the Dutch genre painter and etcher, +pupil of Frans Hals, in his "Dutch Coffee House" (1650), shows the +genesis of the coffee house of western Europe about the time it still +partook of some of the tavern characteristics. Coffee is being served to +a group in the foreground. It is believed to be the oldest existing +picture of a coffee house. The illustration is after the etching by J. +Beauvarlet in the graphic collection at Munich.</p> + +<p>William Hogarth (1697–1764), the famous English painter and engraver of +satirical subjects, chose the coffee houses of his time for the scenes +of a number of his social caricatures. In his series, "Four Times of the +Day," which throws a vivid light on the street life of London of the +period of 1738, we are shown Covent Garden at 7:55 A.M. by the clock on +St. Paul's Church. A prim maiden lady (said to have been sketched from +an elderly relation of the artist, who cut him out of her will) on her +way home from early service, accompanied by a shivering foot-boy, is +scandalized by the spectacle presented by some roystering blades issuing +from Tom King's notorious coffee house to the right. The <i>beaux</i> are +forcing their attentions upon the more comely of the market women in the +foreground. Tom King was a scholar at Eton before he began his ignoble +career. At the date of this picture, it is thought he had been succeeded +by his widow, Moll King, also of scandalous repute.</p> + +<p>Scene VI of the "Rake's Progress" by Hogarth is laid at the club in +White's chocolate (coffee) house, which Dr. Swift described as "the +common rendezvous of infamous sharpers and noble cullies." The rake has +lost all his recently acquired wealth, pulls off his wig and flings +himself upon the floor in a paroxysm of fury and execration. In allusion +to the burning of White's in 1733, flames are seen bursting from the +wainscot, but the pre-occupied gamblers take no heed, even of the +watchman crying "Fire!" To the left is seated a highwayman, with horse +pistol and black mask in a skirt pocket of his coat. He is so engrossed +in his thoughts that he does not notice the boy at his side offering a +glass of liquor on a tray. The scene well depicts the low estate to +which White's had fallen. It recalls a bit of dialogue from Farquhar's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span> +<i>Beaux' Stratagem</i> (act III, scene 2), where Aimwell says to Gibbet, who +is a highwayman: "Pray, sir, ha'nt I seen your face at Will's Coffee +House?" "Yes sir, and at White's, too," answers the highwayman.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Whites_Coffee_House_1733" id="Whites_Coffee_House_1733"></a> +<img src="images/image418.jpg" width="500" height="403" alt="In the Club at White's Coffee House, 1733" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">In the Club at White's Coffee House, 1733</span><br /> +<small>From a painting in the series, "The Rake's Progress," by William Hogarth</small></span> +</div> + +<p>After the fire, the club and chocolate house were removed to Gaunt's +coffee house. The removal was thus announced in the <i>Daily Post</i> of May +3:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">This is to acquaint all noblemen and gentlemen that Mr. Arthur +having had the misfortune to be burnt out of White's Chocolate +House is removed to Gaunt's Coffee House, next the St. James Coffee +House in St. James Street, where he humbly begs they will favour +him with their company as usual.</p></div> + +<p>Alessandro Longhi (1733–1813) the Italian painter and engraver, called +the Venetian Hogarth, in one of his pictures presenting life and manners +in Venice during the years of her decadence, shows Goldoni, the +dramatist, as a visitor in a café of the period, with a female mendicant +soliciting alms.</p> + +<p>In the Louvre at Paris hangs the "Petit Déjeuner" by François Boucher +(1703–1770), famous court painter of Louis XV. It shows a French +breakfast-room of the period of 1744, and is interesting because it +illustrates the introduction of coffee into the home; it shows also the +coffee service of the time.</p> + +<p>In Van Loo's portrait of Madame de Pompadour, second mistress and +political adviser of Louis XV of France, the coffee service of a later +period of the eighteenth century appears. The Nubian servant is shown +offering the marquise a demi-tasse which has just been poured from the +covered oriental pot which succeeded the original Arabian-Turkish +boiler, and was much in vogue at the time.</p> + +<p>Coffee and Madame du Barry (or would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">[Pg 589]</a></span> it be more polite to say Madame du +Barry and coffee?) inspired the celebrated painting of Madame de +Pompadour's successor in the affections of Louis "the well beloved." +This is entitled "Madame du Barry at Versailles", and in the Versailles +catalog it is described as painted by Decreuse after Drouais. Decreuse +was a pupil of Gros, and painted many of the historical portraits at +Versailles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Tom_Kings_1738" id="Tom_Kings_1738"></a> +<img src="images/image419.jpg" width="500" height="612" alt="Tom King's Coffee House is Covent Garden, 1738" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tom King's Coffee House is Covent Garden, 1738</span><br /> +<small>From a printing in the series, "Four Times of the Day," by William Hogarth</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Malcolm C. Salaman, in his <i>French Color Prints of the XVIII Century</i>, +referring to Dagoty's print of this picture, done in 1771, says, "the +original has been attributed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[Pg 590]</a></span> to François Hubert Drouais, but there can +be little doubt that the original portraiture was from the hand of the +engraver (Dagoty), as the style is far inferior to Drouais." He thus +describes it:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Here we see the last of Louis XV's mistresses, sitting in her +bedroom in that alluring retreat of hers at Louveciennes, near the +woods of Marly, as she takes her cup of coffee from her pet +attendant, the little negro boy, Zamore, as the Prince de Conti had +named him, all brave in red and gold. Doubtless she is expecting +the morning visit of the King, no longer the handsome young +gallant, but old and leaden-eyed, and puffy-cheeked; and perhaps it +will be on this very morning that she will wheedle Louis, in a +moment of extravagant badinage, into appointing the negro boy to be +Governor of the Chateau and Pavilion of Louveciennes at a handsome +salary, just as, on another day, she playfully teased the jaded old +sensualist into decorating with the cordon bleu her cuisinière when +it was triumphantly revealed to him that the dinner he had been +praising with enthusiastic gusto was, after all, the work of a +woman cook, the very possibility of which he had contemptuously +doubted. But as we look at these two, the royal mistress and her +little black favorite, we forget the "well beloved" and his +voluptuous pleasures and indulgences, for in the shadows we see +another picture, some twenty years on, when the proud +unconscionable beauty, no longer <i>reine de la main gauche</i>, stands +before the dreaded Tribunal of the Terror, while Zamore, the +treacherous, ungrateful negro, dismissed from his service at +Louveciennes and now devoted to the committee of public safety, and +one of her implacable accusers, sends her shrieking to the +guillotine.</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Dejeuner and Pompadour"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Petit_Dejeuner_by_Boucher" id="Petit_Dejeuner_by_Boucher"></a> +<img src="images/image420.jpg" width="300" height="417" alt=""Petit Déjeuner," by Boucher" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">"Petit Déjeuner," by Boucher</span><br /> +<small>Showing the home coffee service of the period of 1744</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Service_in_the_Home_of_Madame_de_Pompadour_Painting_by_Van_Loo" id="Coffee_Service_in_the_Home_of_Madame_de_Pompadour_Painting_by_Van_Loo"></a> +<img src="images/image421.jpg" width="300" height="387" alt="Coffee Service in the Home of Madame de Pompadour—Painting by Van Loo" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Service in the Home of Madame de Pompadour—Painting by Van Loo</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The introduction of the coffee house into Europe was memorialized by +Franz Schams, the genre painter, pupil of the Vienna Academy, in a +beautiful picture entitled "The First Coffee House in Vienna, 1684," +owned by the Austrian Art Society. A lithographic reproduction was +executed by the artist and printed by Joseph Stoufs in Vienna. There are +several specimens in the United States; and the illustration printed on +page 48 has been made from one of these in the possession of the author.</p> + +<p>The picture shows the interior of the Blue Bottle, where Kolschitzky +opened the first coffee house in Vienna. The hero-proprietor stands in +the foreground pouring a cup of the beverage from an oriental coffee +pot, and another is suspended from the coffee-house sign that hangs over +the fireplace. In the fire alcove a woman is pounding coffee in a +mortar. Men and women in the costumes of the period are being served +coffee by a Vienna <i>mädchen</i>.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[Pg 591]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Madame_Du_Barry_by_Decreuse" id="Madame_Du_Barry_by_Decreuse"></a> +<img src="images/image422.jpg" width="500" height="366" alt="Madame Du Barry and Her Slave Boy Zamore—Painting by Decreuse" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Madame Du Barry and Her Slave Boy Zamore—Painting by Decreuse</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The painters Marilhat, Descamps, and de Tournemine have pictured café +scenes; the first in his "Café sur une route de Syrie", which was shown +at the Salon of 1844; the second in his "Café Turc", which figured at +the Exposition of 1855; and the third in his "Café en Asia Mineure", +which received honors at the Salon of 1859, and attracted attention at +the Universal Exposition of 1867.</p> + +<p>A decorative panel designed for the buffet at the Paris Opera House by +S. Mazerolles was shown at the Exposition of 1878. A French artist, +Jacquand, has painted two charming compositions; one representing the +reading room, and the other the interior, of a café.</p> + +<p>Many German artists have shown coffee manners and customs in pictures +that are now hanging in well known European galleries. Among others, +mention should be made of C. Schmidt's "The Sweets Shop of Josty in +Berlin", 1845; Milde's "Pastor Rautenberg and His Family at the Coffee +Table", 1833; and his "Manager Classen and His Family at the Afternoon +Coffee Table", 1840; Adolph Menzel's "Parisian Boulevard Café", 1870; +Hugo Meith's "Saturday Afternoon at the Coffee Table"; John Philipp's +"Old Woman with Coffee Cup"; Friedrich Walle's "Afternoon Coffee in the +Court Gardens at Munich"; Paul Meyerheim's "Oriental Coffee House"; and +Peter Philippi's (Dusseldorf) "Kaffeebesuch."</p> + +<p>At the Exposition des Beaux Arts, Salon of 1881, there was shown P.A. +Ruffio's picture, "Le café vient au secours de la Muse" (Coffee comes to +the aid of the Muse), in which the graceful form of an oriental ewer +appears.</p> + +<p>The "Coffee House at Cairo," a canvas by Jean Léon Gérôme (1824–1904) +that hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, has been much +admired. It shows the interior of a typical oriental coffee house with +two men near a furnace at the left preparing the beverage; a man seated +on a wicker basket about to smoke a hooka; a dervish dancing; and +several persons seated against the wall in the background.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">[Pg 592]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_HOUSE_AT_CAIRO_BY_GEROME" id="COFFEE_HOUSE_AT_CAIRO_BY_GEROME"></a> +<img src="images/image423.jpg" width="500" height="321" alt="COFFEE HOUSE AT CAIRO—PAINTING BY GÉRÔME IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEE HOUSE AT CAIRO—PAINTING BY GÉRÔME IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">[Pg 593]</a></span></p><p>The New York Historical Society acquired in 1907 from Miss Margaret A. +Ingram an oil painting of the "Tontine Coffee House." It was painted in +Philadelphia by Francis Guy, and was sold at a raffle, after having been +admired by President John Adams. It shows lower Wall Street in +1796–1800, with the Tontine coffee house on the northwest corner of Wall +and Water Streets, where its more famous predecessor, the Merchants +coffee house, was located before it moved to quarters diagonally +opposite.</p> + +<p>Charles P. Gruppe's (<i>b.</i> 1860) painting showing General "Washington's +Official Welcome to New York by City and State Officials at the +Merchants Coffee House," April 23, 1789, just one week before his +inauguration as first president of the United States, is a colorful +canvas that has been much praised for its atmosphere and historical +associations. It is the property of the author.</p> + +<p>The art museums and libraries of every country contain many beautiful +water-colors, engravings, prints, drawings, and lithographs, whose +creators found inspiration in coffee. Space permits the mention of only +a few.</p> + +<p>T.H. Shepherd has preserved for us Button's, afterward the Caledonien +coffee house, Great Russell Street, Covent Garden, in a water-color +drawing of 1857; Tom's coffee house, 17 Great Russell Street, Covent +Garden, 1857; Slaughter's coffee house in St. Martin's Lane, 1841; also, +in 1857, the Lion's Head at Button's, put up by Addison and now the +property of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Phillipi and Ruffio Prints"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Kaffeebesuch_by_Philippi" id="Kaffeebesuch_by_Philippi"></a> +<img src="images/image424.jpg" width="300" height="256" alt=""Kaffeebesuch"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">"Kaffeebesuch"</span><br /> +<small>From the painting by Peter Philippi</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Comes_to_the_Aid_of_the_Muse_by_Ruffio" id="Coffee_Comes_to_the_Aid_of_the_Muse_by_Ruffio"></a> +<img src="images/image425.jpg" width="300" height="426" alt=""Coffee Comes to the Aid of the Muse"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">"Coffee Comes to the Aid of the Muse"</span><br /> +<small>From the painting by Ruffio</small></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Hogarth figures in the Sam Ireland collection with several original +drawings of frequenters of Button's in 1730.</p> + +<p>Thomas Rowlandson (1756–1827) the great English caricaturist and +illustrator, has given us several fine pictures of English coffee-house +life. His "Mad Dog in a Coffee House" presents a lively scene; and his +water-color of "The French Coffee House" is one of the best pictures we +have of the French coffee house in London as it looked during the latter +half of the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>During the campaign in France in 1814, Napoleon arrived one day, +unheralded, in a country presbytery, where the good curé was quietly +turning his hand coffee-roaster. The emperor asked him, "What are you +doing there, abbé?" "Sire", replied the priest, "I am doing like you. I +am burning the colonial fodder." Charlet (1792–1845) made a lithograph +of the incident.</p> + +<p>Several French poet-musicians resorted to music to celebrate coffee. +Brittany has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[Pg 594]</a></span> its own songs in praise of coffee, as have other French +provinces. There are many epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas—and even a +comic opera by Meilhat, music by Deffes, bearing the title, <i>Le Café du +Roi</i>, produced at the Théâtre Lyrique, November 16, 1861.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Mad_Dog_in_a_Coffee_House_by_Rowlandson" id="Mad_Dog_in_a_Coffee_House_by_Rowlandson"></a> +<img src="images/image426.jpg" width="500" height="327" alt=""Mad Dog in a Coffee House"—Caricature by Rowlandson" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">"Mad Dog in a Coffee House"—Caricature by Rowlandson</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Fuzelier wrote, in honor of coffee, a cantata, set to music by Bernier. +This is the burden of the poet's song:</p> + +<p class="poem"> +Ah coffee, what climes yet unknown,<br /> +Ignore the clear fires that thy vapors inspire!<br /> +Thou countest, in thy vast empire<br /> +Those realms that Bacchus' reign disown.<br /> +Favored liquid, which fills all my soul with delights,<br /> +Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade,<br /> +We vanquish e'en sleep by thy fortunate aid,<br /> +Thou hast rescued the hours sleep would rob from our nights.<br /> +Favored liquid which fills all my soul with delights,<br /> +Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade.<br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh liquid that I love,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Triumphant stream of sable,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">E'en for the gods above,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Drive nectar from the table.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Make thou relentless war</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">On treacherous juices sly,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Let earth taste and adore</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">The sweet calm of the sky.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oh liquid that I love,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Triumphant stream of sable,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">E'en for the gods above,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Drive nectar from the table.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>During the early vogue of the café in Paris, a <i>chanson</i>, entitled +<i>Coffee</i>, reproduced here, was set to music with accompaniment for the +piano by M.H. Colet, a professor of harmony at the Conservatoire. +Printed in the form of a placard, and put up in cafés, it received the +approbation of, and was signed by, de Voyer d'Argenson, at that time +(1711) lieutenant of police. The poetry is not irreproachable. It can +hardly be attributed to any of the well known poets of the time; but +rather to one of those bohemian rimesters that wrote all too abundantly +on all sorts of subjects. It is the development of a theory concerning +the properties of coffee and the best method of making it. It is +interesting to note that the uses of advertising were known and +appreciated in Paris in 1711; for in the <i>chanson</i> there appears the +name and address of one Vilain, a merchant, rue des Lombards, who was +evidently in fashion at that period. The translation of the stanza +reproduced is as follows:</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[Pg 595]</a></span><span class="smcap">Coffee—A Chanson</span></p> +<p class="poem"> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">If you, with mind untroubled,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Would flourish, day by day,</span><br /> +Let each day of the seven<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Find coffee on your tray.</span><br /> +It will your frame preserve from every malady,<br /> +Its virtues drive afar, la! la!<br /> +Migrain and dread catarrh—ha! ha!<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dull cold and lethargy.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>The most notable contribution to the "music of coffee," if one may be +permitted the expression, is the <i>Coffee Cantata</i> of Johann Sebastian +Bach (1685–1750) the German organist and the most modern composer of the +first half of the eighteenth century. He hymned the religious sentiment +of protestant Germany; and in his <i>Coffee Cantata</i> he tells in music the +protest of the fair sex against the libels of the enemies of the +beverage, who at the time were actively urging in Germany that it should +be forbidden women, because its use made for sterility! Later on, the +government surrounded the manufacture, sale, and use of coffee with many +obnoxious restrictions, as told in chapter VIII.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Napoleon_and_the_Cure_by_Charlet" id="Napoleon_and_the_Cure_by_Charlet"></a> +<img src="images/image427.jpg" width="500" height="410" alt="Napoleon and the Curé—Lithograph by Charlet" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Napoleon and the Curé—Lithograph by Charlet</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Bach's <i>Coffee Cantata</i> is No. 211 of the <i>Secular Cantatas</i>, and was +published in Leipzig in 1732. In German it is known as <i>Schweigt stille, +plaudert nicht</i> (Be silent, do not talk). It is written for soprano, +tenor, and bass solos and orchestra. Bach used as his text a poem by +Piccander. The cantata is really a sort of one-act operetta—a jocose +production representing the efforts of a stern parent to check his +daughter's propensities in coffee drinking, the new fashioned habit. One +seldom thinks of Bach as a humorist; but the music here is written in a +mock-heroic vein, the recitatives and arias having a merry flavor, +hinting at what the master might have done in light opera.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[Pg 596]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_A_CHANSON_MUSIC_BY_COLET" id="COFFEE_A_CHANSON_MUSIC_BY_COLET"></a> +<img src="images/image428.jpg" width="500" height="754" alt="COFFEE—A CHANSON; MUSIC BY COLET, 1711" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEE—A CHANSON; MUSIC BY COLET, 1711</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[Pg 597]</a></span></p><p>The libretto shows the father Schlendrian, or Slowpoke, trying by +various threats to dissuade his daughter from further indulgence in the +new vice, and, in the end, succeeding by threatening to deprive her of a +husband. But his victory is only temporary. When the mother and the +grandmother indulge in coffee, asks the final trio, who can blame the +daughter?</p> + +<p>Bach uses the spelling coffee—not <i>kaffee</i>. The cantata was sung as +recently as December 18, 1921, at a concert in New York by the Society +of the Friends of Music, directed by Arthur Bodanzky.</p> + +<p>Lieschen, or Betty, the daughter, has a delightful aria, beginning, "Ah, +how sweet coffee tastes—lovelier than a thousand kisses, sweeter far +than muscatel wine!" the opening bars of which are reproduced on page +598.</p> + +<p>As the text is not long, it is printed here in its entirety.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Statue_of_Kolschitzky" id="Statue_of_Kolschitzky"></a> +<img src="images/image429.jpg" width="300" height="462" alt="Statue of Kolschitzky in Vienna" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Statue of Kolschitzky in Vienna</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><i>CHARACTERS</i></p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Characters"> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Messenger and Narrator</span></td> + <td align='right'><i>Tenor</i></td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span></td> + <td align='right'><i>Bass</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Betty, daughter to Slowpoke</span></td> + <td align='right'><i>Soprano</i></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Tenor</span> (<i>Recitative</i>): Be silent, do not talk, but notice what will +happen! Here comes old Slowpoke with his daughter Betty. He's +grumbling like a common bear—just listen to what he says.</p> + +<p class="quot1">(<i>Enter</i> <span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span> <i>muttering</i>): What vexatious things one's +children are! A hundred thousand naughty ways! What I tell my +daughter Betty might as well be told to the moon! (<i>Enter</i> <span class="smcap">Betty</span>.)</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span> (<i>Recitative</i>): You naughty child, you mischievous girl, +oh when can I have my way—give up your coffee!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: Dear father, do not be so strict! If I can't have my little +demi-tasse of coffee three times a day, I'm just like a dried up +piece of roast goat!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span> (<i>Aria</i>): Ah! How sweet coffee tastes! Lovelier than a +thousand kisses, sweeter far than muscatel wine! I must have my +coffee, and if any one wishes to please me, let him present me +with—coffee!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span> <i>(Recitative</i>): If you won't give up coffee, young lady, I +won't let you go to any wedding feasts—I won't even let you go +walking!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: O yes! Do let me have my coffee!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>: What a little monkey you are, anyway! I will not let you +have any whale-bone skirts of the present fashionable size!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: Oh, I can easily fix <i>that</i>!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>: But I won't let you stand at the window and watch the new +styles!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: That doesn't bother me, either. But be good and let me have +my coffee!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>: But from my hands you'll get no silver or gold ribbon for +your hair!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: Oh well! so long as I have what does satisfy me!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>: You wretched Betty, you! You won't give in to me?</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span> (<i>Air</i>): Oh these girls—what obstinate dispositions they +do have! They certainly are not easy to manage! But if one hits the +right spot—oh well, one <i>may</i> succeed!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>, <i>with an air of being sure of success this time</i> +(<i>Recitative</i>): Now please do what father says.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: In everything, except about coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>: Well, then, you must make up your mind to do without a +husband.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: Oh—yes? Father, a husband?</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>: I swear you can't have him—</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span>: Till I give up coffee? Oh well—coffee—let it be +forgotten—dear father—I will not drink—none!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span>: <i>Then</i> you can have one!</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Betty</span> (<i>Aria</i>): Today, dear father—do it <i>today</i>. (<i>He goes out.</i>) +Ah, a husband! Really this suits me exactly! When they know I must +have coffee, why, before I go to bed to-night I can have a valiant +lover! (<i>Goes out.</i>)</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Tenor</span> (<i>Recitative</i>): Now go hunt up old Slowpoke, and just watch +him get a husband for his daughter—for Betty is secretly making it +known "that no wooer may come to the house, unless he promises me +himself, and has it put in the marriage contract that he will allow +me to make coffee whenever I will!"</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[Pg 598]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Bettys_aria_Bachs_Coffee_Cantata" id="Bettys_aria_Bachs_Coffee_Cantata"></a> +<img src="images/image430.jpg" width="500" height="673" alt=""Ah, How Sweet Coffee Tastes—Lovelier Than a Thousand Kisses, Sweeter Far than Muscatel Wine!"" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">"Ah, How Sweet Coffee Tastes—Lovelier Than a Thousand Kisses, Sweeter Far than Muscatel Wine!"</span><br /> +<small>Opening bars of Betty's aria in Bach's <i>Coffee Cantata</i>, 1732</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">[Pg 599]</a></span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">(<i>Enter</i> <span class="smcap">Slowpoke</span> <i>and</i> <span class="smcap">Betty</span>, <i>singing—as chorus—with</i> <span class="smcap">Tenor</span>.)</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Trio</span>: The cat will not give up the mouse, old maids continue +"coffee-sisters!"—the mother loves her drink of coffee—grandma, +too, is a coffee fiend—<i>who</i> now will blame the daughter!</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Caffe_Pedrocchi_in_Padua" id="Caffe_Pedrocchi_in_Padua"></a> +<img src="images/image431.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="The Most Beautiful Coffee House in the World" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Most Beautiful Coffee House in the World</span><br /> +<small>The Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua, Italy, empire period, erected by the poor +lemonade vendor and coffee seller, Antonio Pedrocchi.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Research has discovered only one piece of sculpture associated with +coffee—the statue of the Austrian hero Kolschitzky, the patron saint of +the Vienna coffee houses. It graces the second-floor corner of a house +in the Favoriten Strasse, where it was erected in his honor by the +Coffee Makers' Guild of Vienna. The great "brother-heart" is shown in +the attitude of pouring coffee into cups on a tray from an oriental +service pot.</p> + +<p>The celebrated Caffè Pedrocchi, the center of life in the city of Padua, +Italy, in the early part of the nineteenth century, is one of the most +beautiful buildings erected in Italy. Its use is apparent at first +glance. It was begun in 1816, opened June 9, 1831, and completed in +1842. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776–1852), an obscure Paduan coffee-house +keeper, tormented by a desire for glory, conceived the idea of building +the most beautiful coffee house in the world, and carried it out.</p> + +<p>Artists and craftsmen of all ages since the discovery of coffee have +brought their genius into play to fashion various forms of apparatus +associated with the preparation of the coffee drink. Coffee roasters and +grinders have been made of brass, silver, and gold; coffee mortars, of +bronze; and coffee making and serving pots, of beautiful copper, pewter, +pottery, porcelain, and silver designs.</p> + +<p>In the Peter collection in the United States National Museum there is to +be seen a fine specimen of the Bagdad coffee pot made of beaten copper +and used for making and serving; also, a beautiful Turkish coffee set. +In the Metropolitan Museum in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">[Pg 600]</a></span> New York there are some beautiful +specimens of Persian and Egyptian ewers in faience, probably used for +coffee service. Also, in American and continental museums are to be seen +many examples of seventeenth-century German, Dutch, and English bronze +mortars and pestles used for "braying" coffee beans to make coffee +powder.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Grinder_Set_with_Jewels" id="Coffee_Grinder_Set_with_Jewels"></a> +<img src="images/image432.jpg" width="300" height="339" alt="Coffee Grinder Set with Jewels" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Grinder Set with Jewels</span><br /> +<small>In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</small></span> +</div> + +<p>A very beautiful specimen of the oriental coffee grinder, made of brass +and teakwood, set with red and green glass jewels, and inlaid in the +teakwood with ivory and brass, is at the Metropolitan. This is of +Indo-Persian design of the nineteenth century.</p> + +<p>The Metropolitan Museum shows also many specimens of pewter coffee pots +used in India, Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Russia, and England in +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.</p> + +<p>One can guess at the luxuriousness of the coffee pots in use in France +throughout the eighteenth century by noting that from March 20, 1754, to +April 16, 1755, Louis XV bought no fewer than three gold coffee pots of +Lazare Duvaux. They had carved branches, and were supplied with "chafing +dishes of burnished steel" and lamps for spirits of wine. They cost, +respectively, 1,950, 1,536, and 2,400 francs. In the "inventory of +Marie-Josephe de Saxe, Dauphine of France", we note, too, a "two cup +coffee pot of gold with its chafing dish for spirits of wine in a +leather case."</p> + +<p>The Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster of the seventeenth century was +often a work of art. The specimen illustrated is rich in decorative +motifs associated with the best in Florentine art.</p> + +<p>Madame de Pompadour's inventory disclosed a "gold coffee mill, carved in +colored gold to represent the branches of a coffee tree." The art of +gold, which sought to embellish everything, did not disdain these homely +utensils; and one may see at the Cluny Museum in Paris, among many mills +of graceful form, a coffee mill of engraved iron dating from the +eighteenth century, upon which are represented the four seasons. We are +told, however, that it graced the "sale after the death of Mme. de +Pompadour", which, of course, makes it much more valuable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Italian_Wrought-Iron_Coffee_Roaster" id="Italian_Wrought-Iron_Coffee_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image433.jpg" width="300" height="433" alt="Italian Wrought-Iron Coffee Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Italian Wrought-Iron Coffee Roaster</span><br /> +<small>Courtesy of <i>Edison Monthly</i></small></span> +</div> + +<p>"The tea pot, coffee pot and chocolate pot first used in England closely +resembled each other in form", says Charles James Jackson in his +<i>Illustrated History of English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601">[Pg 601]</a></span> Plate</i>, "each being circular in plan, +tapering towards the top, and having its handle fixed at a right angle +with the spout."</p> + +<div class='center'><a name="Seventeenth-Century_Tea_Pots_and_Coffee_Pots" id="Seventeenth-Century_Tea_Pots_and_Coffee_Pots"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Various Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 159px;"> +<img src="images/image434.jpg" width="159" height="244" alt="Tea Pot, 1670" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Tea Pot, 1670</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image435.jpg" width="200" height="258" alt="Coffee Pot, 1681" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Coffee Pot, 1681</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image436.jpg" width="200" height="314" alt="Coffee Pot, 1689" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Coffee Pot, 1689</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='3'> +<span class="smcap">Seventeenth-Century Tea Pots and Coffee Pots</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>He says further:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The earliest examples were of oriental ware and the form of these +was adopted by the English plate workers as a model for others of +silver. It apparently was not until after both tea and coffee had +been used for several years in this country [England] that the tea +pot was made proportionately less in height and greater in diameter +than the coffee pot. This distinction, which was probably due to +copying the forms of Chinese porcelain tea pots, was afterwards +maintained, and to the present day the difference between the tea +pot and the coffee pot continued to be mainly one of height.</p></div> + +<p>The coffee pot illustrated (1681) formerly belonged to the East India +Company, and is preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is +almost identical with a tea pot (1670) in the same museum, except that +its straight spout is fixed nearer to the base, as is its +leather-covered handle, which, with the sockets into which it fits, +forms a long recurving scroll fixed opposite to and in line with the +spout. Its cover, which is hinged to the upper handle socket, is high +like that of the 1670 tea-pot; but instead of the straight outline of +that cover, this is slightly waved and surmounted by a somewhat flat +button-shaped knob. Engraved on the body is a shield of arms, a chevron +between three crosses fleury, surrounded by tied feathers. The +inscription is, "The Guift of Richard Sterne Eq to ye Honorable East +India Compa."</p> + +<p>This pot is nine and three-quarters inches in height by four and +seven-eighths inches in diameter at the base; it bears the London +hall-marks of 1681–82 and the maker's mark "G.G." in a shaped shield, +thought by Jackson to be George Garthorne's mark.</p> + +<p>The 1689 coffee pot illustrated is the property of King George V. It +bears the London hall-marks of 1689–90, and the mark of Francis +Garthorne. Its tall, round body tapers toward the top, and has applied +moldings on the base and rim. Its spout is straight and tapers upward to +the level of the rim of the pot. Its handle is of ebony, +crescent-shaped, and riveted into two sockets fixed at a right angle +with the spout. The lid is a high cone surmounted by a small vase-shaped +finial, and is hinged to the upper socket of the handle. On no part of +the pot is there any ornamentation other than the royal cipher of King +William III and Queen Mary, which is engraved on the reverse side of the +body. This example, which measures nine inches in height to the top of +its cover, resembles very closely in form the East India Company's +tea-pot just referred to; but as teapots with much lower bodies appear +to have come into fashion before 1689, this pot was probably used as a +coffee pot from the first.</p> + +<p>The 1692 coffee pot of lantern shape is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602">[Pg 602]</a></span> the property of H.D. Ellis, and +has its spout curved upward at the top, being furnished with a small, +hinged flap and a scroll-shaped thumb-piece attached to the rim of the +cover. The body and cover were originally quite plain, the embossing and +chasing with symmetrical rococo decoration being added later, probably +about 1740. Jackson says the wooden handle is not the original one, +which was probably C-shaped. The pot bears the usual London hall-marks +for the year 1692 and the maker's mark is "G G" upon a shaped shield, a +mark recorded upon the copper plate belonging to the Goldsmiths' +company, which Mr. Cripps thinks was that of George Garthorne. The +characteristics of this lantern shaped coffee pot are:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">1. The straight sides, so rapidly tapering from the base upward +that in a height of only six inches the base diameter of four and +three-eighths inches tapers to a diameter of no more than two and +one-half inches at the rim.</p> + +<p class="quot1">2. The nearly straight spout, furnished with a flap or shutter.</p> + +<p class="quot1">3. The true cone of the lid.</p> + +<p class="quot1">4. The thumb-piece, which is a familiar feature upon the tankards +of the period.</p> + +<p class="quot1">5. The handle fixed at right angles to the spout.</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Lantern and Folkingham Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Lantern_Coffee_Pot_1692" id="Lantern_Coffee_Pot_1692"></a> +<img src="images/image437.jpg" width="300" height="461" alt="Lantern Coffee Pot, 1692" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lantern Coffee Pot, 1692</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Folkingham_Pot_1715_16" id="Folkingham_Pot_1715_16"></a> +<img src="images/image438.jpg" width="300" height="372" alt="Folkingham Pot, 1715–16" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Folkingham Pot, 1715–16</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Mr. Ellis, in a paper before the Society of Antiquaries<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> on the +earliest form of coffee pot, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">If coffee was first introduced into this country by the Turkey +merchants, nothing is more probable than that those who first +brought the berry, brought also the vessel in which it was to be +served. Such a vessel would be the Turkish ewer whose shape is +familiar to us, the same today as two hundred years ago, for in the +East things are slow to change. And throughout the reign of the +second Charles, so long as the extended use of coffee in the houses +of the people was retarded by the opposition of the Women of +England, and by the scarcely less powerful influence of the King's +Court, the small requirements of a mere handful of coffee-houses +would be easily met by the importation of Turkish vessels. +Reference to the coffee-house keepers' tokens in the Beaufoy +collection in the Guildhall Museum shows that many of the traders +of 1660–1675 adopted as their trade sign a hand pouring coffee from +a pot. This pot is invariably of the Turkish ewer pattern. It is +true that there is nothing to show that the Turks themselves ever +served coffee from the ewer, but it is scarcely conceivable that +the English coffee-house keepers should have adopted as their trade +sign, their pictorial advertisement, so to speak, a vessel which +had no connection with the commodity in which they dealt, and which +would convey no meaning associated with coffee to the public. But +as soon as the extended use of the beverage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603">[Pg 603]</a></span> created a demand which +stimulated a home manufacture of coffee-pots, a new departure is +apparent. The undulating outlines beloved by the Orientals, bowed +as their scimitars, curvilinear as their graceful flowing script, +do not commend themselves to the more severe Western taste of the +period which had then declared its preference for sweet simplicity +in silversmiths' work, such as we see in the basons, cups, and +especially the flat-topped tankards of that day. The beauty of the +straight line had asserted its power, and fashion felt its sway. +Such was the feeling that produced the coffee-pot of 1692, the +straight lines of which continued in vogue until the middle of the +following century, when a reaction in favour of bulbous bodies and +serpentine spouts set in.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Wastell_Pot_1720_21" id="Wastell_Pot_1720_21"></a> +<img src="images/image439.jpg" width="300" height="394" alt="Wastell Pot, 1720–21" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Wastell Pot, 1720–21</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Some of the more notable of the coffee-house-keepers' tokens in the +Guildhall Museum were photographed for this work. They are described and +illustrated in chapter X.</p> + +<p>There are illustrated other silver coffee pots in the Victoria and +Albert Museum, by Folkingham (1715–16), and by Wastell (1720–21), the +latter pot being octagonal.</p> + +<p>There is illustrated also a design in tiles that were let into the wall +of an ancient coffee house in Brick Lane, Spitalfields, known as the +"Dish of Coffee Boy" in the catalog of the collection of London +antiquities in the Guildhall Museum. Mr. Ellis thinks this belongs to a +period a little earlier, but certainly not later, than 1692; the coffee +pot represented being exactly of the lantern shape. It is an oblong sign +of glazed Delft tiles, decorated in blue, brown, and yellow, +representing a youth pouring coffee. Upon a table, by his side, are a +gazette, two pipes, a bowl, a bottle, and a mug; above, on a scroll, is, +"dish of coffee boy."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Dish_of_Coffee_Boy_Design_1692" id="Dish_of_Coffee_Boy_Design_1692"></a> +<img src="images/image440.jpg" width="300" height="401" alt=""Dish of Coffee Boy" Design in Delft Tiles 1692" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">"Dish of Coffee Boy" Design in Delft Tiles 1692</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Modifications of the lantern began to appear with great rapidity in +England. In the coffee pot of Chinese porcelain, illustrated, probably +made in China from an English model a few years later than the 1692 pot, +Mr. Ellis observes that "the spout has already lost its straightness, +the extreme taper of the body is diminished, and the lid betrays the +first tendency to depart from the straightness of the cone to the curved +outline of the dome." He adds:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">These variations rapidly intensified, and at the commencement of +the eighteenth century we find the body still less tapering and the +lid has become a perfect dome. As we approach the end of Queen +Anne's reign the thumb piece disappears and the handle is no longer +set on at right angles to the spout. Through the reign of George I +but little modification took place, save that the taper of the body +became less and less. In the Second George's time we find the +taper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">[Pg 604]</a></span> has almost entirely disappeared, so that the sides are +nearly parallel, while the dome of the lid has been flattened down +to a very low elevation above the rim. In the second quarter of the +eighteenth century the pear shaped coffee pot was the vogue. In the +earlier years of George III, when many new and beautiful designs in +silversmiths' work were created, a complete revolution in +coffee-pots takes place, and the flowing outlines of the new +pattern recall the form of the Turkish ewer, which had been +discarded nearly one hundred years previously.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Chinese_Porcelain_Coffee_Pot" id="Chinese_Porcelain_Coffee_Pot"></a> +<img src="images/image441.jpg" width="300" height="463" alt="Chinese Porcelain Coffee Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Chinese Porcelain Coffee Pot</span><br /> +<small>Late seventeenth century</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The evolution is shown by illustrations of Lord Swaythling's pot of +1731; the coffee jug of 1736; the Vincent pot of 1738; the Viscountess +Wolseley's coffee pot of copper plated with silver; the Irish coffee pot +of 1760; and the silver coffee pots of 1773–76 and of 1779–80 (<a href="#Page_604">see +illustrations on pages 604</a>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a> and <a href="#Page_607">607</a>).</p> + +<div class='center'><a name="Silver_Coffee_Pots_Early_18th_Century" id="Silver_Coffee_Pots_Early_18th_Century"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Vincent and Lord Swaythling Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image442.jpg" width="300" height="397" alt="Vincent Pot, Hall-marked, London, 1738" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Vincent Pot, Hall-marked, London, 1738</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image443.jpg" width="300" height="434" alt="Lord Swaythling's Pot, 1731" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Lord Swaythling's Pot, 1731</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='2'> +<span class="smcap">Silver Coffee Pots, Early Eighteenth Century</span><br /> +<small>From Jackson's "Illustrated History of English Plate"</small></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>There are illustrated in this connection specimens of coffee pots in +stoneware by Elers (1700), and in salt glaze by Astbury, and another of +the period about 1725. These are in the department of British and +medieval antiquities of the British Museum, where are to be seen also +some beautiful specimens of coffee-service pots in Whieldon ware, and in +Wedgwood's jasper ware.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><a name="SILVER_COFFEE_POTS_18TH_CENTURY" id="SILVER_COFFEE_POTS_18TH_CENTURY"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Silver Coffe Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image444.jpg" width="300" height="364" alt="Irish Coffee Pot, 1760" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Irish Coffee Pot, 1760</span><br /> +<small>Hall-marked Dublin; the property of Col. Moore-Brabazon</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image445.jpg" width="300" height="573" alt="Viscountess Wolseley's Coffee Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Viscountess Wolseley's Coffee Pot</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image446.jpg" width="300" height="406" alt="A Scofield Pot of 1779–80." title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Scofield Pot of 1779–80</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image447.jpg" width="300" height="229" alt="Coffee Jug, 1736" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Jug, 1736</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='2'> +SILVER COFFEE POTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606">[Pg 606]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><a name="POTTERY_AND_PORCELAIN_POTS" id="POTTERY_AND_PORCELAIN_POTS"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Pottery and Porcelain Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image448.jpg" width="200" height="286" alt="Salt-Glaze Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Salt-Glaze Pot</span><br /> +<small>By John Astbury</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image449.jpg" width="200" height="228" alt="Elers Ware Coffee Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Elers Ware Coffee Pot</span><br /> +<small>Stoneware, about 1700</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image450.jpg" width="200" height="270" alt="Salt-Glaze Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Salt-Glaze Pot</span><br /> +<small>About 1725</small></span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='3'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image451.jpg" width="500" height="398" alt="POTS IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 18TH TO 20TH CENTURIES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">POTS IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 18TH TO 20TH CENTURIES</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—Staffordshire; 2—English, eighteen to twentieth centuries; +3—English, blue printed ware, eighteenth to nineteenth centuries; +4—Leeds, 1760–1790; 5—Staffordshire, nineteenth to twentieth +centuries</small></p> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607">[Pg 607]</a></span></p><p>Illustrated, too, are some beautiful examples of the art of the potter, +applied to coffee service, as found in the Metropolitan Museum, where +they have been brought from many countries. Included are Leeds and +Staffordshire examples of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth +centuries; a Sino-Lowestoft pot of the eighteenth-nineteenth centuries; +an Italian (<i>capodimonte</i>) pot of the eighteenth century; German pots of +the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; a Vienna coffee pot of the +eighteenth century; a French (<i>La Seine</i>) coffee pot of 1774–1793, a +Sèvres pot of 1792–1804; and a Spanish eighteenth-century coffee pot +decorated in copper luster.</p> + +<p>At the Metropolitan may be seen also Hatfield and Sheffield-plate pots +of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and many examples of silver +tea and coffee service and coffee pots by American silversmiths.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Silver_Coffee_Pots_Late_18th_Century" id="Silver_Coffee_Pots_Late_18th_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image452.jpg" width="500" height="367" alt="Silver Coffee Pots, Late Eighteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Silver Coffee Pots, Late Eighteenth Century</span><br /> +<small>Left, 1776–77. Right, 1773–4.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Silver tea pots and coffee pots were few in America before the middle of +the eighteenth century. Early coffee-pot examples were tapering and +cylindrical in form, and later matched the tea pots with swelling drums, +molded bases, decorated spouts, and molded lids with finials.</p> + +<p>From notes by R.T. Haines Halsey and John H. Buck, collected by Florence +N. Levy and woven into an introduction to the Metropolitan Museum's art +exhibition catalog for the Hudson-Fulton celebration of 1909, we learn +that:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The first silver made in New England was probably fashioned by +English or Scotch emigrants who had served their time abroad. They +were followed by craftsmen who were either born here, or, like John +Hull, arriving at an early age, learned their trade on this side.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In England it was required that every master goldsmith should have +his mark and set it upon his work after it was assayed and marked +with the king's mark (hall-mark) testifying to the fineness of the +metal.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608">[Pg 608]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PORCELAIN_POTS_METROPOLITAN_MUSEUM" id="PORCELAIN_POTS_METROPOLITAN_MUSEUM"></a> +<img src="images/image453.jpg" width="500" height="261" alt="Sino-Lowestoft, Eighteenth To Nineteenth Centuries" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sino-Lowestoft, Eighteenth To Nineteenth Centuries</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/image454.jpg" width="500" height="184" alt="Italian Capodimonte, Eighteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Italian Capodimonte, Eighteenth Century</span></span> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Metropolitan Porcelain Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/image455.jpg" width="150" height="158" alt="La Seine, 1774" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">La Seine, 1774</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> +<img src="images/image456.jpg" width="150" height="164" alt="Sèvres, 1792" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sèvres, 1792</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> +<img src="images/image457.jpg" width="300" height="157" alt="German Pots, Eighteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">German Pots, Eighteenth Century</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'> +PORCELAIN POTS IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_609" id="Page_609">[Pg 609]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The Colonial silversmiths marked their wares with their initials, +with or without emblems, placed in shields, circles, etc., without +any guide as to place of manufacture or date. After about 1725 it +was the custom to use the surname, with or without an initial, and +sometimes the full name. Since the establishment of the United +States the name of the town was often added and also the letters D +or C in a circle, probably meaning dollar or coin, showing the +standard or coin from which the wares were made.</p></div> + +<p>In the New York colony there were evolved silver tea pots of a unique +design, that was not used elsewhere in the colonies. Mr. Halsey says +they were used indiscriminately for both tea and coffee. In style they +followed, to a certain extent, the squat pear-shaped tea pots of the +period of 1717–18 in England, but had greater height and capacity.</p> + +<p>The colonial silversmiths wrought many beautiful designs in coffee, tea, +and chocolate pots. Fine specimens are to be seen in the Halsey and +Clearwater loan collections in the Metropolitan Museum. Included in the +Clearwater collection is a coffee pot by Pygan Adams (1712–1776); and +recently, there was added a coffee pot by Ephraim Brasher, whose name +appears in the <i>New York City Directory</i> from 1786 to 1805. He was a +member of the Gold and Silversmiths' Society, and he made the die for +the famous gold doubloon, known by his name, a specimen of which +recently sold in Philadelphia for $4,000. His brother, Abraham Brasher, +who was an officer in the continental army, wrote many popular ballads +of the Revolutionary period, and was a constant contributor to the +newspapers.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Vienna and Spanish Coffee Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Vienna_Coffee_Pot_1830" id="Vienna_Coffee_Pot_1830"></a> +<img src="images/image458.jpg" width="300" height="448" alt="Vienna Coffee Pot, 1830" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Vienna Coffee Pot, 1830</span><br /> +<small>In the Metropolitan Museum of Art</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Spanish_Coffee_Pot_18th_Century" id="Spanish_Coffee_Pot_18th_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image459.jpg" width="300" height="348" alt="Spanish Coffee Pot, Eighteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Spanish Coffee Pot, Eighteenth Century</span><br /> +<small>In the Metropolitan Museum</small></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Judge Clearwater's collection of colonial silver in the Metropolitan +Museum, to which he is constantly adding, is a magnificent one; and the +coffee pot is worthy of it. It is thirteen and one-half inches high, +weighs forty-four ounces, exclusive of the ebony handle, has a curved +body and splayed base, with a godrooned band to the base and a similar +edge to the cover. The spout is elaborate and curved; the cover has an +urn-shaped finial; and there is a decoration of an engraved medallion +surrounded by a wreath with a ribbon forming a true lover's knot.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_610" id="Page_610">[Pg 610]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'><a name="SILVER_COFFEE_POTS_IN_AMERICAN_COLLECTIONS" id="SILVER_COFFEE_POTS_IN_AMERICAN_COLLECTIONS"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Silver Coffee Pots in American Collections"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image460.jpg" width="200" height="253" alt="By Samuel Minott Halsey Collection" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By Samuel Minott<br />Halsey Collection</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image461.jpg" width="200" height="253" alt="By Charles Hatfield Metropolitan Museum of Art" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By Charles Hatfield<br />Metropolitan Museum of Art</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image462.jpg" width="200" height="253" alt="By Pygan Adams Clearwater Collection" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By Pygan Adams<br />Clearwater Collection</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image463.jpg" width="200" height="290" alt="London Pot, 1773–74" title="" /> +<span class="caption">London Pot, 1773–74</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image464.jpg" width="200" height="290" alt="By Jacob Hurd" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By Jacob Hurd</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image465.jpg" width="200" height="266" alt="By Paul Revere" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By Paul Revere</span> +</div></td></tr> + +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='3'> +<span class="smcap">From Francis Hill Bigelow's "Historic Silver of the Colonies"</span></td></tr> + +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='3'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/image466.jpg" width="600" height="240" alt="English Sheffield Plate Coffee Pots and Coffee Urn, +Eighteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">English Sheffield Plate Coffee Pots and Coffee Urn, Eighteenth Century</span><br /> +SILVER COFFEE POTS IN AMERICAN COLLECTIONS</span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611">[Pg 611]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="More Coffee Pots"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='2'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><br /><a name="Coffee_Pot_by_Wm_Shaw_and_Wm_Priest" id="Coffee_Pot_by_Wm_Shaw_and_Wm_Priest"></a> +<img src="images/image467.jpg" width="300" height="320" alt="Coffee Pot by Wm. Shaw and Wm. Priest" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Pot by Wm. Shaw and Wm. Priest</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Made for Peter Faneuil (about 1751–52), who gave to Boston Faneuil Hall, +called the cradle of American liberty</small></p> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Pot_of_Sheffield_Plate_18th_Century" id="Pot_of_Sheffield_Plate_18th_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image468.jpg" width="300" height="488" alt="Pot of Sheffield Plate, 18th Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pot of Sheffield Plate, 18th Century</span><br /> +<small>In the Metropolitan Museum</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Pot_by_Ephraim_Brasher" id="Pot_by_Ephraim_Brasher"></a> +<img src="images/image469.jpg" width="300" height="385" alt="Silver Pot by Ephraim Brasher" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Silver Pot by Ephraim Brasher</span><br /> +<small>In the Clearwater Collection, Metropolitan Museum</small></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In the Halsey collection is shown a silver coffee pot by Samuel Minott, +and several beautiful specimens of the handiwork of Paul Revere, whose +name is more often connected with the famous "midnight ride" than with +the art of the silversmith. Of all the American silversmiths, Paul +Revere was the most interesting. Not only was he a silversmith of +renown, but a patriot, soldier, grand master Mason, confidential agent +of the state of Massachusetts Bay, engraver, picture-frame designer, and +die-sinker. He was born in Boston in 1735, and died in 1818. He was the +most famous of all the Boston silversmiths, although he is more widely +known as a patriot. He was the third of a family of twelve children, and +early entered his father's shop. When only nineteen, his father died; +but he was able to carry on the business. The engraving on his silver +bears witness to his ability. He engraved also on copper, and made many +political cartoons. He joined the expedition against the French at Crown +Point, and in the war of the Revolution was a lieutenant-colonel of +artillery. After the close of the war, he resumed his business of a +goldsmith and silversmith in 1783. Decidedly a man of action, he well +played many parts; and in all his manifold undertakings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">[Pg 612]</a></span> achieved +brilliant success. There clings, therefore, to the articles of silver +made by him an element of romantic and patriotic association which +endears them to those who possess them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="French_Silver_Coffee_Pot" id="French_Silver_Coffee_Pot"></a> +<img src="images/image470.jpg" width="300" height="399" alt="French Silver Coffee Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">French Silver Coffee Pot</span><br /> +<small>Grand Prize, Union Centrale, 1886.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Revere had a real talent that enabled him to impart an unwonted elegance +to his work, and he was famous as an engraver of the beautiful crests, +armorial designs, and floral wreaths that adorn much of his work. His +tea pots and coffee pots are unusually beautiful.</p> + +<p>Revere coffee pots are to be seen in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts as +well as in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. The Boston Museum of +Fine Arts has also a coffee pot made by William Shaw and William Priest +in 1751–52 for Peter Faneuil, the wealthiest Bostonian of his time, who +gave to Boston Faneuil Hall, New England's cradle of American liberty.</p> + +<p>Among other American silversmiths who produced striking designs in +coffee pots, mention should be made of G. Aiken (1815); Garrett Eoff +(New York, 1785–1850); Charles Faris (who worked in Boston about 1790); +Jacob Hurd (1702–1758, known in Boston as Captain Hurd); John McMullin +(mentioned in the Philadelphia <i>Directory</i> for 1796); James Musgrave +(mentioned in Philadelphia directories of 1797, 1808, and 1811); Myer +Myers (admitted as freeman, New York, 1746; active until 1790; president +of the New York Silversmiths Society, 1786); and Anthony Rasch (who is +known to have worked in Philadelphia, 1815).</p> + +<p>In the museums of the many historical societies throughout the United +States are to be seen interesting specimens of coffee pots in pewter, +Britannia metal, and tin ware, as well as in pottery, porcelain, and +silver. Some of these are illustrated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Green_Dragon_Tavern_Coffee_Urn" id="Green_Dragon_Tavern_Coffee_Urn"></a> +<img src="images/image471.jpg" width="300" height="430" alt="The Green Dragon Tavern Coffee Urn" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Green Dragon Tavern Coffee Urn</span></span> +</div> + +<p>As in other branches of art during the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries, the United States were indebted to England, Holland, and +France for much of the early pottery and porcelain. Elers, Astbury, +Whieldon, Wedgwood, their imitators, and the later Staffordshire +potters, flooded the American market with their wares. Porcelain was not +made in this country previous to the nineteenth century. Decorative +pottery was made here, however, from an early period. Britannia ware +began to take the place of pewter in 1825; and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613">[Pg 613]</a></span> introduction of +japanned tin ware and pottery gradually caused the manufacture of pewter +to be abandoned.</p> + +<div class='center'><a name="Coffee_Pots_by_American_Silversmiths" id="Coffee_Pots_by_American_Silversmiths"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Coffee Pots by American Silversmiths"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image472.jpg" width="200" height="281" alt="By an unknown silversmith" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By an unknown silversmith</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image473.jpg" width="200" height="311" alt="By Paul Revere" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By Paul Revere</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image474.jpg" width="200" height="278" alt="By Paul Revere" title="" /> +<span class="caption">By Paul Revere</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='3'> +<span class="smcap">Coffee Pots by American Silversmiths</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Twentieth-Century_American_Coffee_Service" id="Twentieth-Century_American_Coffee_Service"></a> +<img src="images/image475.jpg" width="500" height="251" alt="Twentieth-Century American Coffee Service" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Twentieth-Century American Coffee Service</span><br /> +<small>The Portsmouth Pattern, by the Gorham Co.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>An interesting relic is in the collection of the Bostonian Society. It +is a coffee urn of Sheffield ware, formerly in the Green Dragon tavern, +which stood on Union Street from 1697 to 1832, and was a famous meeting +place of the patriots of the Revolution. It is globular in form, and +rests on a base; and inside is still to be seen the cylindrical piece of +iron which, when heated, kept the delectable liquid contents of the urn +hot until imbibed by the frequenters of the tavern. The iron bar was set +in a zinc or tin jacket to keep such fireplace ashes as still clung to +it from coming in contact with the coffee, which was probably brewed in +a stew kettle before being poured into the urn for serving. The Green +Dragon tavern site, now occupied by a business structure, is owned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614">[Pg 614]</a></span> by +the St. Andrew's Lodge of Freemasons of Boston; and at a recent +gathering of the lodge on St. Andrew's Day, the urn was exhibited to the +assembled brethren.</p> + +<p>When the contents of the tavern were sold, the urn was bought by Mrs. +Elizabeth Harrington, who then kept a famous boarding-house on Pearl +Street, in a building owned by the Quincy family. The house was razed in +1847, and was replaced by the Quincy Block; and Mrs. Harrington removed +to High Street, and from there to Chauncey Place. Some of the prominent +men of Boston boarded with her for many years. At her death, the urn was +given to her daughter, Mrs. John R. Bradford. It was presented to the +society by Miss Phebe C. Bradford, of Boston, granddaughter of Mrs. +Elizabeth Harrington.</p> + +<p>A somewhat similar urn, made of pewter, is in the Museum of the Maine +Historical Society of Portland, Me.; another in the Museum of the Essex +Institute at Salem, Mass.</p> + +<p>Among the many treasured relics of Abraham Lincoln is an old Britannia +coffee pot from which he was regularly served while a boarder with the +Rutledge family at the Rutledge inn in New Salem (now Menard), Ill. It +was a valued utensil, and Lincoln is said to have been very fond of it. +It is illustrated on page 690.</p> + +<p>The pot is now the property of the Old Salem Lincoln League, of +Petersburg, Ill., and was donated to it, with other relics, by Mrs. +Saunders, of Sisquoc, Cal., the only surviving child of James and Mary +Ann Rutledge. Mrs. Rutledge carefully preserved this and other relics of +New Salem days; and shortly before her death in 1878, she gave them into +the keeping of her daughter, Mrs. Saunders, advising her to preserve +them until such time as a permanent home for them would be provided by a +grateful people back at New Salem, where they were associated with the +immortal Lincoln and his tragic romance with her daughter Ann.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Turkish_Coffee_Set_Peter_Collection" id="Turkish_Coffee_Set_Peter_Collection"></a> +<img src="images/image476.jpg" width="500" height="278" alt="Turkish Coffee Set, Peter Collection, United States +National Museum, Washington" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Turkish Coffee Set, Peter Collection, United States +National Museum, Washington</span></span> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[Pg 615]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXXIV" id="Chapter_XXXIV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXXIV</span></h2> + +<h3>THE EVOLUTION OF COFFEE APPARATUS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, +coffee-making, and coffee-serving devices from the earliest time to +the present day—The original coffee grinder, the first coffee +roaster, and the first coffee pot—The original French drip pot, +the De Belloy percolator—Count Rumford's improvement—How the +commercial coffee roaster was developed—The evolution of +filtration devices—The old Carter "pull-out" roaster—Trade +customs in New York and St. Louis in the sixties and seventies—The +story of the evolution of the Burns roaster—How the gas roaster +was developed in France, Great Britain, and the United States</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">A</span> <span class="caps">book</span> could be written on the subject of this chapter. We shall have to +be content to touch briefly upon the important developments in the +devices employed. The changes that have taken place in the preparation +of the drink itself will be discussed in <a href="#Chapter_XXXVI">chapter XXXVI</a>.</p> + +<p>In the beginning, that is, in Ethiopia, about 800 A.D., coffee was +looked upon as a food. The whole ripe berries, beans and hulls, were +crushed, and molded into food balls held in shape with fat. Later, the +dried berries were so treated. So the primitive stone mortar and pestle +were the original coffee grinder.</p> + +<p>The dried hulls and the green beans were first roasted, some time +between 1200 and 1300, in crude burnt clay dishes or in stone vessels, +over open fires. These were the original roasting utensils.</p> + +<p>Next, the coffee beans were ground between little mill-stones, one +turning above the other. Then came the mill used by the Greeks and +Romans for grain. This mill consisted of two conical mill stones, one +hollow and fitted over the other, specimens of which have been found in +Pompeii. The idea is the same as that employed in the most modern metal +grinder.</p> + +<p>Between 1400 and 1500, individual earthenware and metal coffee-roasting +plates appeared. These were circular, from four to six inches in +diameter, about <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">16</span> inch thick, slightly concave and pierced with small +holes, something like the modern kitchen skimmer. They were used in +Turkey and Persia for roasting a few beans at a time over braziers (open +pans, or basins, for holding live coals). The braziers were usually +mounted on feet and richly ornamented.</p> + +<p>About the same time we notice the first appearance of the familiar +Turkish pocket cylinder coffee mill and the original Turkish <i>ibrik</i>, or +coffee boiler, made of metal. Little drinking cups of Chinese porcelain +completed the service.</p> + +<p>The original coffee boiler was not unlike the English ale mug with no +cover, smaller at the top than at the bottom, fitted with a grooved lip +for pouring, and a long straight handle. They were made of brass, and in +sizes to hold from one to six tiny cupfuls. A later improvement was of +the ewer design, with bulbous body, collar top, and cover.</p> + +<p>The Turkish coffee grinder seems to have suggested the individual +cylinder roaster<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616">[Pg 616]</a></span> which later (1650) became common, and from which +developed the huge modern cylinder commercial roasting machines.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Oldest_Coffee_Grinder" id="Oldest_Coffee_Grinder"></a> +<img src="images/image477.jpg" width="300" height="187" alt="The Oldest Coffee Grinder" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Oldest Coffee Grinder</span><br /> +<small>Ancient Egyptian mortar and pestle, probably used for pounding coffee</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The individual coffee service of early civilization first employed crude +clay bowls or dishes for drinking; but as early as 1350, Persian, +Egyptian, and Turkish ewers, made of pottery, were used for serving. In +the seventeenth century, ewers of similar pattern, but made of metal, +were the favorite coffee-serving devices in oriental countries and in +western Europe.</p> + +<p>Between 1428 and 1448, a spice grinder standing on four legs was +invented; and this was later used for grinding coffee. The drawer to +receive the ground coffee was added in the eighteenth century.</p> + +<p>Between 1500 and 1600, shallow iron dippers with long handles and +foot-rests, designed to stand in open fires, were used in Bagdad, and by +the Arabs in Mesopotamia, for roasting coffee. These roasters had +handles about thirty-four inches long, and the bowls were eight inches +in diameter. They were accompanied by a metal stirrer (spatula) for +turning the beans.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Grain_Mill_Used_by_Greeks_and_Romans" id="Grain_Mill_Used_by_Greeks_and_Romans"></a> +<img src="images/image478.jpg" width="300" height="224" alt="Grain Mill of Greeks and Romans" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Grain Mill of Greeks and Romans</span><br /> +<small>Also used for grinding coffee</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Another type of roaster was developed about 1600. It was in the shape of +an iron spider on legs, and was designed, like that just described, to +sit in open fires. At this period pewter serving pots were first used.</p> + +<p>Between 1600 and 1632, mortars and pestles of wood, iron, brass, and +bronze came into common use in Europe for braying the roasted beans. For +several centuries, coffee connoisseurs held that pounding the beans in a +mortar was superior to grinding in the most efficient mill. Peregrine +White's parents brought to America on the <i>Mayflower</i>, in 1620, a wooden +mortar and pestle that were used for braying coffee to make coffee +"powder."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="First_Coffee_Roaster" id="First_Coffee_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image479.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt="The First Coffee Roaster, About 1400" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The First Coffee Roaster, About 1400</span></span> +</div> + +<p>When La Roque speaks of his father bringing back to Marseilles from +Constantinople in 1644 the instruments for making coffee, he undoubtedly +refers to the individual devices which at that time in the Orient +included the roaster plate, the cylinder grinder, the small long-handled +boiler, and <i>fenjeyns</i> (findjans), the little porcelain drinking cups.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="First_Cylinder_Roaster_1650" id="First_Cylinder_Roaster_1650"></a> +<img src="images/image480.jpg" width="300" height="67" alt="The First Cylinder Roaster, About 1650" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The First Cylinder Roaster, About 1650</span></span> +</div> + +<p>When Bernier visited Grand Cairo about the middle of the seventeenth +century, in all the city's thousand-odd coffee houses he found but two +persons who understood the art of roasting the bean.</p> + +<p>About 1650, there was developed the individual cylinder coffee roaster +made of metal, usually tin plate or tinned copper, suggested by the +original Turkish pocket grinder. This was designed for use over open +fires in braziers. There appeared about this time also a combined +making-and-serving metal pot which was undoubtedly the original of the +common type of pot that we know today.</p> + +<p>There appeared in England about 1660, Elford's white iron machine (sheet +iron coated with tin) which was "turned on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_617" id="Page_617">[Pg 617]</a></span> spit by a jack.<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a>" This +was simply a larger size of the individual cylinder roaster, and was +designed for family or commercial use. Modifications were developed by +the French and Dutch. In the seventeenth century the Italians produced +some beautiful designs in wrought-iron coffee roasters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Historical_Relics_US_National_Museum" id="Historical_Relics_US_National_Museum"></a> +<img src="images/image481.jpg" width="500" height="441" alt="Historical Relics in the Peter Collection, United States +National Museum" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Historical Relics in the Peter Collection, United States National Museum</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—Bagdad coffee-roasting pan and stirrer. 2—Iron mortar and pestle +used for pounding coffee. 3—Coffee mill used by General and Mrs. +Washington. 4—Coffee-roasting pan used at Mt. Vernon. 5—Bagdad coffee +pot with crow-bill spout</small></p> +</div> + +<p>Before the advent of the Elford machine, and indeed, for two centuries +thereafter, it was the common practise in the home to roast coffee in +uncovered earthenware tart dishes, old pudding pans, and fry pans. +Before the time of the modern kitchen stove, it was usually done over +charcoal fires without flame.</p> + +<p>The improved Turkish combination coffee grinder with folding handle and +cup receptacle for the beans, used for grinding, boiling, and drinking, +was first made in Damascus in 1665. About this period, the Turkish +coffee set, including the long-handled boiler and the porcelain drinking +cups in brass holders, also came into vogue.</p> + +<p>In 1665, Nicholas Book, "living at the Sign of the Frying Pan in St. +Tulies street," London, advertised that he was "the only known man for +making of mills for grinding of coffee powder, which mills are sold by +him from forty to forty-five shillings the mill."</p> + +<p>By combining the long-handle idea contained in the Bagdad roaster with +that of the original cylinder roaster, the Dutch perfected a small, +closed, sheet-iron cylinder-roaster with a long handle that permitted +its being held and turned in open fire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[Pg 618]</a></span> places. From 1670, and well into +the middle of the nineteenth century, this type of family roaster +enjoyed great favor in Holland, France, England, and the United States, +more especially in the country districts. The museums of Europe and the +United States contain many specimens. The iron cylinder measured about +five inches in diameter, and was from six to eight inches long, being +attached to a three or four foot iron rod provided with a wooden handle. +The green coffee was put into the cylinder through a sliding door. +Balancing the roaster over the blaze by resting the end of the iron rod +projecting from the far end of the roasting cylinder in a hook of the +usual fireplace crane, the housekeeper was wont slowly to revolve the +cylinder until the beans had turned the proper color.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Turkish_Coffee_Mill" id="Turkish_Coffee_Mill"></a> +<img src="images/image482.jpg" width="300" height="554" alt="Turkish Coffee Mill" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Turkish Coffee Mill</span><br /> +<small>A fine specimen in the Peter collection, United States National Museum</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the pocket were much in vogue in +France in 1691. These included a roaster, a grinder, a lamp, the oil, +cups, saucers, spoons, coffee, and sugar. The roaster was first made of +tin plate or tinned copper; but for the aristocracy silver and gold were +used. In 1754, a white-silver coffee roaster eight inches long and four +inches in diameter was mentioned among the deliveries made to the army +of the king at Versailles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Early_French_Wall_and_Table_Grinders" id="Early_French_Wall_and_Table_Grinders"></a> +<img src="images/image483.jpg" width="500" height="226" alt="Early French Wall and Table Grinders" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early French Wall and Table Grinders</span><br /> +<small>Left, seventeenth-century coffee grinder in the Musée de la Porte de +Hal—Center, wall mill, eighteenth century—Right, iron mill, eighteenth +century</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Humphrey Broadbent, "the London coffee man" wrote in 1722:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">I hold it best to roast coffee berries in an iron vessel full of +little holes, made to turn on a spit over a charcoal fire, keeping +them continually turning, and sometimes shaking them that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619">[Pg 619]</a></span> do +not burn, and when they are taken out of the vessel, spread 'em on +some tin or iron plate 'till the vehemency of the heat is vanished; +I would recommend to every family to roast their own coffee, for +then they will be almost secure from having any damaged berries, or +any art to increase the weight, which is very injurious to the +drinkers of coffee. Most persons of distinction in Holland roast +their own berries.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Bronze_and_Brass_Mortars_17th_Century" id="Bronze_and_Brass_Mortars_17th_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image484.jpg" width="500" height="217" alt="Bronze and Brass Mortars of the Seventeenth Century Used for Making Coffee Powder" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Bronze and Brass Mortars of the Seventeenth Century Used for Making Coffee Powder</span><br /> +<small>Left, bronze (Germany)—Center, brass (England)—Right, bronze (Holland, +1632)</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Between 1700 and 1800, there was developed a type of small portable +household stove to burn coke or charcoal, made of iron and fitted with +horizontal revolving cylinders for coffee roasting. These were provided +with iron handles for turning. A modification of this type of roaster +under a three-sided hood, and standing on three legs, was designed to +sit on the hearth of open fireplaces, close to the fire or in the +smoldering ashes. Because of its greater capacity, it was probably used +in the inns and coffee houses for roasting large batches. Still another +type, which made its appearance late in the eighteenth century, was the +sheet-iron roaster suspended at the top of a tall, iron, box-like +compartment, or stove, in which the fire was built. This, too, was +designed to roast coffee in comparatively large quantities. In some +examples it was provided with legs.</p> + +<p>Great silver coffee pots ("with all the utensils belonging to them of +the same metal") were first used by Pascal at St.-Germain's fair in +Paris in 1672. It remained for the English and American silversmiths to +produce the most beautiful forms of silver coffee pots; and there are +some notable collections of these in England and the United States.</p> + +<p>The oriental serving pot was nearly always of metal, tall, and, in old +models, of graceful curve, with a slightly twisted ornamental beak in +the form of an S, attached below the middle of the vessel. A handle +ornamented in the same way formed a decorative balance.</p> + +<p>In 1692, the lantern straight-line coffee serving pot with true cone +lid, thumb-piece, and handle fixed at right angle to the spout, was +introduced into England, succeeding the curved oriental serving pot. In +1700, coffee pots made of cheaper metals, like tin and Britannia ware, +began to appear on the home tables of the people. In 1701, silver coffee +pots appeared in England having perfect domes and bodies less tapering. +Between 1700 and 1800, silver, gold, and delicate porcelain serving pots +were the vogue among European royalty.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Early_American_Coffee_Roasters" id="Early_American_Coffee_Roasters"></a> +<img src="images/image485.jpg" width="300" height="207" alt="Early American Coffee Roasters" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early American Coffee Roasters</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Both the cast-iron spiders and the long-handled roasters were used in +open fireplaces previous to 1770</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620">[Pg 620]</a></span></p><p>In 1704, Bull's machine for roasting coffee was patented in England. +This probably marks the first use of coal for commercial roasting.</p> + +<p>In 1710, the popular coffee roaster in French homes was a dish of +varnished earthenware. This same year a novelty was introduced in France +in the shape of a fustian (linen) bag for infusing ground coffee.</p> + +<p>By 1714, the thumb-piece on English serving pots had disappeared, and +the handle was no longer set at a right angle to the spout. English +coffee-pot bodies showed a further modification in 1725, the taper +becoming less and less.</p> + +<p>Coffee grinders were so common in France in 1720 that they were to be +had for a dollar and twenty cents each. Their development by the French +had been rapid from the original spice grinder. At first, they were +known as coffee mills; but in the eighteenth century, roasters came to +be known by that name. They were made of iron, retaining the same +principle of the horizontal mill-stones—one of which is fixed while the +other moves—that the ancients employed for grinding wheat. They were +squat, box-shaped affairs, having in the center a shank of iron that +revolved upon a fixed, corrugated iron plate. There was also the style +that fastened to the wall. At first, the drawer to receive ground coffee +was missing, but this was supplied in later types. Before its invention, +the ground coffee was received in a sack of greased leather, or in one +treated on the outside with beeswax—probably the original of the duplex +paper bag for conserving the flavor.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Roasting Devices"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="center" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Roaster_with_Three-Sided_Hood" id="Roaster_with_Three-Sided_Hood"></a> +<img src="images/image486.jpg" width="300" height="265" alt="Roaster with Three-Sided Hood" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Roaster with Three-Sided Hood</span><br /> +<small>It succeeded the cast-iron spider, and was suspended from a crane, or +stood in the embers</small></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Roasting_Making_and_Serving_Devices_17th_Century" id="Roasting_Making_and_Serving_Devices_17th_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image487.jpg" width="300" height="505" alt="Roasting, Making, and Serving Devices" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Roasting, Making, and Serving Devices</span><br /> +<small>Early seventeenth century, as pictured by Dufour</small></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The French brought their innate artistic talents to bear upon coffee +grinders, just as they did upon roasters and serving pots. In many +instances they made the outer parts of silver and of gold.</p> + +<p>By 1750, the straight-line serving pot in England had begun to yield to +the reactionary movement in art favoring bulbous bodies and serpentine +spouts.</p> + +<p>About 1760, French inventors began to devote themselves to improvements +in coffee-making devices. Donmartin, a Paris tinsmith, in 1763, invented +an urn pot that employed a flannel sack for infusing. Another infusion +device, produced the same year by L'Ainé, also a tinsmith of Paris, was +known as a <i>diligence</i>.</p> + +<p>A complete revolution in the style of English serving pots took place in +1770,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621">[Pg 621]</a></span> with a return to the flowing lines of the Turkish ewer; and +between 1800 and 1900, there was a gradual return to the style of +serving pot having the handle at a right angle to the spout.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="English_and_French_Coffee_Grinders" id="English_and_French_Coffee_Grinders"></a> +<img src="images/image488.jpg" width="300" height="298" alt="English and French Coffee Grinders" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">English and French Coffee Grinders</span><br /> +<small>Nineteenth century</small></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1779, Richard Dearman was granted an English patent on a new method +of making mills for grinding coffee. In 1798, the first American patent +on an improved coffee grinding mill was granted to Thomas Bruff, Sr. It +was a wall mill, fitted with iron plates, in which the coffee was ground +between two circular nuts, three inches broad and having coarse teeth +around their centers and fine shallow teeth at the edges.</p> + +<p>De Belloy's (or Du Belloy's) coffee pot appeared in Paris about 1800. It +was first made of tin; but later, of porcelain and silver—the original +French drip pot. This device was never patented; but it appears to have +furnished the inspiration for many inventors in France, England, and the +United States. The first French patent on a coffee maker was granted to +Denobe, Henrion, and Rouch in 1802. It was for a +"pharmacological-chemical coffee-making device by infusion." Charles +Wyatt obtained a patent the same year in London on an apparatus for +distilling coffee. The De Belloy pot is illustrated on page 622.</p> + +<p>In 1806, Hadrot was granted a French patent on a device "for filtering +coffee without boiling and bathed in air." This use of the word +filtering was misleading, as it was many times after in French, English, +and American patent nomenclature, where it often meant percolation or +something quite different from filtration. True percolation means to +drip through fine interstices of china or metal. Filtration means to +drip through a porous substance, usually cloth or paper. De Belloy's pot +was a percolator. So was Hadrot's. The improvement on which Hadrot got +his patent was to "replace the white iron filter (sic) used in ordinary +filtering pots by a filter composed of hard tin and bismuth" and to use +"a rammer of the same metal, pierced with holes." The rammer was +designed to press down and to smooth out the powdered coffee in an even +and uniform fashion. "It also," says Hadrot in his specification, "stops +the derangement which boiling water poured from a height can produce. It +is held by its stem a half inch from the surface of the powder so that +it receives only the action of the water which it divides and +facilitates thus the extraction which it must produce in each of the +particles."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Eighteenth-Century_Roaster" id="Eighteenth-Century_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image489.jpg" width="300" height="313" alt="Eighteenth-Century Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Eighteenth-Century Roaster</span><br /> +<small>Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.</small></span> +</div> + +<p>A coffee percolator was invented in Paris about 1806 by Benjamin +Thompson, F.R.S., an American-British scientist, philanthropist, and +administrator. He was known as Count Rumford, a title bestowed on him by +the Pope. Rumford's invention was first given to the public in London in +1812. He has gained great credit for his device, because of an elaborate +essay that he wrote on it in Paris under the title of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622">[Pg 622]</a></span><i>The excellent +qualities of coffee and the art of making it in the highest perfection</i>, +and that he caused to be published in London in 1812. It was a simple +percolator pot provided with a hot-water jacket, and was a real +improvement on the French drip or percolator coffee pot invented by De +Belloy, but not at all unlike Hadrot's patented device. Count Rumford, +however, was a picturesque character, and a good advertiser. He is +generally credited with the invention of the coffee percolator; but +examination of his device shows that, strictly speaking, the De Belloy +pot was just as much a percolator, and apparently antedated it by about +six years.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Original_French_Drip_Pot" id="Original_French_Drip_Pot"></a> +<img src="images/image490.jpg" width="300" height="251" alt="The Original French Drip Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Original French Drip Pot</span><br /> +<small><i>Cafetière à la</i> De Belloy</small></span> +</div> + +<p>De Belloy employed the principle of having the boiling water drip +through the ground coffee when held in suspension by a perforated metal +or porcelain grid. This is true percolation. Hadrot did the same thing +with the improvements noted above. Count Rumford in his essay admits +that this method of making coffee was not new, but claims his +improvement was. This was to provide a rammer for compressing the ground +coffee in the upper or percolating device into a definite thickness, +this being accomplished by providing the perforated circular tin disk +water-spreader that rested on the ground coffee with four projections, +or feet, that kept the spreader within half an inch of the grid holding +the powder in suspension and free from "agitation."</p> + +<p>His argument was that two-thirds of an inch of ground coffee should be +leveled and compressed into a half-inch thickness before the boiling +water was introduced. Practically the same result was achieved in the De +Belloy and Hadrot pots, also provided with water-spreaders and pluggers, +but the same mathematical exactitude in the matter of the depth of the +ground coffee before the percolation started was not assured. De +Belloy's spreader did not have the projections on the under side upon +which Count Rumford laid such stress. Then there was the hot-water +jacket, which was an improvement on Hadrot's hot air bath. Inventors +that followed Rumford have made light of the importance that he attached +to scientific accuracy in coffee-making; but it is interesting to note +how many of the features of the De Belloy, Hadrot, and Rumford pots have +been retained in the modern complex coffee machines, and in most of the +filtration devices.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Belgian_Russian_and_French_Pewter_Pots" id="Belgian_Russian_and_French_Pewter_Pots"></a> +<img src="images/image491.jpg" width="500" height="214" alt="Belgian, Russian, and French Pewter Serving Pots" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Belgian, Russian, and French Pewter Serving Pots</span><br /> +<small>These are in the Metropolitan Museum and are of nineteenth century +design</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[Pg 623]</a></span></p><p>French inventors continued to apply themselves to coffee-roasting and +coffee-making problems, and many new ideas were evolved. Some of these +were improved upon by the Dutch, the Germans, and the Italians; but the +best work in the line of improvements that have survived the test of +time was done in England and the United States.</p> + +<p>In 1815, Sené was granted a French patent on "a device to make coffee +without boiling." In 1819, Laurens produced the original of the +percolation device in which the boiling water is raised by a tube and +sprayed over the ground coffee. The same year Morize, a Paris tinsmith +and lamp-maker, followed with a reversible, double drip pot which was +the pioneer of all the reversible filtration pots of Europe and America. +Gaudet, another tinsmith, in 1820, patented an improvement on the +percolator idea, that employed a cloth filter. By 1825, the pumping +percolator, working by steam pressure and by partial vacuum, was much +used in France, Holland, Germany, and Austria.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, it was common practise to roast coffee in England in "an iron +pan or in hollow cylinders made of sheet iron"; while in Italy, the +practise was to roast it in glass flasks, which were fitted with loose +corks. The flasks were "held over clear fires of burning coals and +continually agitated." Anthony Schick was granted an English patent in +1812, on a method, or process, for roasting coffee; but as he never +filed his specifications, we shall probably never know what the process +was. The custom of the day in England was to pound the roasted beans in +a mortar, or to grind them in a French mill.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Count_Rumfords_Percolator" id="Count_Rumfords_Percolator"></a> +<img src="images/image492.jpg" width="300" height="352" alt="Count Rumford's Percolator" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Count Rumford's Percolator</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1822, Louis Bernard Rabaut was granted an English patent in which the +French drip process was reversed by using steam pressure to force the +boiling water upward through the coffee mass. Casseneuve, a Paris +tinsmith, seems to have patented practically the same idea in France in +1824. Casseneuve employed a paper filter in his machine.</p> + +<p>In America, a United States patent was granted in 1813 to Alexander +Duncan Moore of New Haven on a mill "for grinding and pounding coffee." +This was followed by a patent granted to Increase Wilson, of New London, +in 1818, on a steel mill for grinding coffee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="One_17th_and_18th_Pewter_Pots" id="One_17th_and_18th_Pewter_Pots"></a> +<img src="images/image493.jpg" width="500" height="162" alt="Pewter Pots of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Pewter Pots of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries</span><br /> +<small>Left to right, they are German, Flemish, English, and Dutch specimens in +the Metropolitan Museum</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">[Pg 624]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /><a name="Drawings_of_Early_French_Coffee_Makers" id="Drawings_of_Early_French_Coffee_Makers"></a> +<img src="images/image494.jpg" width="500" height="155" alt="Patent Drawings of Early French Coffee Makers" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Patent Drawings of Early French Coffee Makers</span><br /> +<small>Left, drip pot of 1806—Next two, Durant's inner-tube pot, 1827—Next +(fourth), Gandais' first practicable percolator, 1827—Right, Grandin & +Crepeaux' percolator, 1832</small></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1815, Archibald Kenrich was granted a patent in England on "mills for +grinding coffee."</p> + +<p>The coffee biggin, said to have been invented by a Mr. Biggin, came into +common use in England for making coffee about 1817. It was usually an +earthenware pot. At first it had in the upper part a metal strainer like +the French drip pots. Suspended from the rim in later models there was a +flannel or muslin bag to hold the ground coffee, through which the +boiling water was poured, the bag serving as a filter. The idea was an +adaptation of the French fustian infusion bag of 1711, and of other +early French drip and filtration devices, and it attained great +popularity. Any coffee pot with such a bag fitted into its mouth came to +be spoken of as a coffee biggin. Later, there was evolved the metal pot +with a wire strainer substituted for the cloth bag. The coffee biggin +still retains its popularity in England.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Early_French_Filtration_Devices" id="Early_French_Filtration_Devices"></a> +<img src="images/image495.jpg" width="500" height="222" alt="Early French Filtration Devices" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early French Filtration Devices</span><br /> +<small>Left, Casseneuve's filter-paper machine, 1824—Center, Gaudet's +cloth-filter pot, 1820—Right, Raparlier's percolator</small></span> +</div> + +<p>While French inventors were busy with coffee makers, English and +American inventors were studying means to improve the roasting of the +beans. Peregrine Williamson, of Baltimore, was granted the first patent +in the United States for an improvement on a coffee roaster in 1820. In +1824, Richard Evans was granted a patent in England for a commercial +method of roasting coffee, comprising a cylindrical sheet-iron roaster +fitted with improved flanges for mixing; a hollow tube and trier for +sampling coffee while roasting; and a means for turning the roaster +completely over to empty it.</p> + +<p>The next year, 1825, the first coffee-pot patent in the United States +was granted to Lewis Martelley of New York. It marked the first American +attempt to perfect an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">[Pg 625]</a></span> arrangement to condense the steam and the +essential oils and to return them to the infusion. In 1838, Antoni +Bencini, of Milton, N.C., was granted a similar patent in the United +States. Rowland, in 1844, and Waite and Sener, in their Old Dominion pot +of 1856, tried for the same result, namely, the condensation of the +steam in upper chambers.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Early_American_Coffee-Maker_Patents" id="Early_American_Coffee-Maker_Patents"></a> +<img src="images/image496.jpg" width="300" height="257" alt="Early American Coffee-Maker Patents" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early American Coffee-Maker Patents</span><br /> +<small>Left, Waite & Sener's Old Dominion pot—Right, Bencini's steam +condenser</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The French meantime focused on coffee makers; and in 1827, Jacques +Augustin Gandais, a manufacturer of plated jewelry in Paris, produced a +really practicable pumping percolator. This machine had the ascending +steam tube on the exterior. The same year, 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, +a manufacturer in Chalons-sur-Marne, was granted a French patent on a +percolator employing for the first time an inner tube for spraying the +boiling water over the ground coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1828, Charles Parker, of Meriden, Conn., began work on the original +Parker coffee mill, which later was to bring him fame and fortune.</p> + +<p>The next year, 1829, the first French patent on a coffee mill was issued +to Colaux & Cie. of Molsheim.</p> + +<p>That same year, 1829, the Établissements Lauzaune, Paris, began to make +hand-turned iron-cylinder coffee-roasting machines.</p> + +<p>In 1831, David Selden was granted a patent in England for a +coffee-grinding mill having cones of cast-iron.</p> + +<p>The first Parker coffee-grinder patent for a household coffee and spice +mill was issued in the United States in 1832 to Edmund Parker and Herman +M. White of Meriden, Conn. The Charles Parker Company's business was +founded the same year. In 1832 and 1833, United States patents were +issued to Ammi Clark, of Berlin, Conn., also on improved coffee and +spice mills for home use.</p> + +<p>Amos Ransom, Hartford, Conn., was granted a United States patent on a +coffee roaster in 1833.</p> + +<p>The English began exporting coffee-roasting and coffee-grinding +machinery to the United States in 1833–34.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a name="French_Coffee_Makers_19th_Century" id="French_Coffee_Makers_19th_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image497.jpg" width="350" height="642" alt="French Coffee Makers, Nineteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">French Coffee Makers, Nineteenth Century</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1, 2—Improved French drip pots. 3—Persian design. 4—De Belloy pot. +5—Russian reversible pot. 6—New filter machine. 7—Glass filter pot. +8—Syphon machine. 9—Vienna Incomparable. 10—Double glass "balloon" +device</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_626" id="Page_626">[Pg 626]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /><a name="FIRST_ENGLISH_COMMERCIAL_ROASTER_PATENT" id="FIRST_ENGLISH_COMMERCIAL_ROASTER_PATENT"></a> +<img src="images/image498.jpg" width="600" height="818" alt="FIRST ENGLISH COMMERCIAL COFFEE-ROASTER PATENT, 1824" title="" /> +<span class="caption">FIRST ENGLISH COMMERCIAL COFFEE-ROASTER PATENT, 1824</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>Fig. 1—End elevation. Fig. 2—Front sectional view. Fig. 3—Front +elevation, showing how the roasting cylinder was turned completely over +to empty. Fig. 4—The examiner, or trier. Fig. 5—Tube (J) to be +inserted in H of Fig. 6 to prevent escape of aroma</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627">[Pg 627]</a></span></p><p>It was not until 1836 that the first French patent was issued on a +combined coffee-roaster-and-grinder to François Réné Lacoux of Paris. +The roaster was made of porcelain, because the inventor believed that +metal imparted a bad taste to the beans while roasting.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Early_French_Coffee-Roasting_Machines" id="Early_French_Coffee-Roasting_Machines"></a> +<img src="images/image499.jpg" width="500" height="453" alt="Early French Coffee-Roasting Machines" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early French Coffee-Roasting Machines</span><br /> +<small>1—Delephine's coke machine. 2—Bernard's machine, 1841. 3—Circlet for +same. 4—Postulart's gas machine</small></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow were granted an English patent on +a kind of urn percolator employing the vacuum process of coffee making, +the upper vessel being made of glass. The first French patent on a glass +coffee-making device, using the same principle, was granted to Madame +Vassieux, of Lyons, in 1842. These were the forerunners of the double +glass "balloons" for making coffee which later on, in the early part of +the twentieth century, attained much vogue in the United States. They +were very popular in Europe until the latter part of the nineteenth +century.</p> + +<p>In 1839, John Rittenhouse, of Philadelphia, was granted a United States +patent on a cast-iron mill designed to handle the problem of nails and +stones in grinding coffee. His improvement was intended to prevent +injury to the grinding teeth by stopping the machine.</p> + +<p>In 1840, Abel Stillman, Poland, N.Y., was granted a United States patent +on a family coffee roaster having a mica window to enable the operator +to observe the coffee while roasting. (<a href="#Page_630">See 10, page 630.</a>)</p> + +<p>In 1841, William Ward Andrews was granted an English patent on an +improved coffee pot employing a pump to force the boiling water upward +through the coffee, which was contained in a perforated cylinder screwed +to the bottom of the pot. This was Rabaut's idea of nineteen years +before. We find it again repeated in the United States in a machine +which appeared on the New York market in 1906.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628">[Pg 628]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="BATTERY_OF_CARTER_PULL-OUT_MACHINES" id="BATTERY_OF_CARTER_PULL-OUT_MACHINES"></a> +<img src="images/image500.jpg" width="500" height="334" alt="BATTERY OF CARTER PULL-OUT MACHINES IN AN EARLY AMERICAN PLANT" title="" /> +<span class="caption">BATTERY OF CARTER PULL-OUT MACHINES IN AN EARLY AMERICAN PLANT</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629">[Pg 629]</a></span></p><p>In 1841, Claude Marie Victor Bernard, of Paris, was granted a French +patent on a coffee roaster, which was an improvement designed to bring +the roasting cylinder and the fire in closer contact. This was +accomplished, to quote the quaint language of the inventor, by applying +movable legs and "by superimposing a sheet iron circlet around the edge +of the furnace to get double the quantity of heat and it presents so +much advantage that it has seemed to me worthy of being patented." (<a href="#Page_627">See +4, page 627.</a>)</p> + +<p>But the French were only toying with the roaster, because roasting in +France was not yet a separate branch of business, as it had become in +England and the United States, where keen minds were already at work on +the purely commercial coffee-roasting machine. The application of +intensive thought in this direction was destined to bear fruit in +America in 1846, and in England in 1847.</p> + +<p>French inventive genius continued to occupy itself with coffee making, +and in the invention of Edward Loysel de Santais, of Paris, in 1843, +produced the first of the ideas that were later incorporated in the +hydrostatic percolator for making "two thousand cups of coffee an +hour"<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> at the exposition of 1855, and that has since been improved +upon by the Italians in their rapid-filter machines. It should be noted +that Loysel's 2,000 cups were probably demi-tasses. The modern Italian +rapid-filter machine produces about 1,000 large coffee cups per hour.</p> + +<p>James W. Carter, of Boston, was granted a United States patent in 1846 +on his "pull-out" roaster; and this was the machine most generally +employed for trade roasting in America for the next twenty years. Carter +did not claim to have invented the combination of cylindrical roaster +and furnace; but he did claim priority for the combination, with the +furnace and roasting vessel, of the air space, or chamber, surrounding +it, "the same being for the purpose of preventing the too rapid escape +of heat from the furnace when the air chamber's induction and eduction +air openings or passages are closed."</p> + +<p>The Carter "pull-out," was so called because the roasting cylinder of +sheet iron was pulled out from the furnace on a shaft supported by +standards, to be emptied or to be refilled from sliding doors in its +"sides." It was in use for many years in such old-time plants as that of +Dwinell-Wright Company, 25 Haverhill Street. Boston; by James H. Forbes +and William Schotten in St. Louis; and by D.Y. Harrison in Cincinnati.</p> + +<p>The picture of a roasting room with Carter machines in operation, +reproduced here, recalled to George S. Wright, the present head of the +Dwinell-Wright Company's business, the scene as he saw it so many times +when, as a boy of ten or twelve, he occasionally spent a day in his +father's factory. "The only difference I notice," he wrote the author, +"is that, according to my recollection, there was no cooler box to +receive the roasted coffee, which was dumped on the floor where it was +spread out three or four inches deep with iron rakes and sprinkled with +a watering pot. The contact of water and hot coffee caused so much steam +that the roasting room was in a dense fog for several minutes after each +batch of coffee was drawn from the fire."</p> + +<p>A.E. Forbes also thus recalled the Carter machine in his father's +factory in St. Louis in 1853, when he used to help after school; and +sometimes ran the roasters, after 1857:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">It was barrel shaped, having a slide the full length of one side to +fill and empty. A heavy shaft ran through the centre, resting on +the wall of the furnace at the rear end and on an upright about +eight feet from the front wall. The fire was about sixteen to +eighteen inches below the cylinder and of soft coal. The cylinder +was not perforated, the theory being to keep the vapors from +escaping.<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> This of course was erroneous. The color of the smoke +bursting from the edge of the slide was our medium of telling when +the roasting process was nearing completion, and often the cylinder +was pulled out and opened for inspection several times before that +point was reached. When just right, the belt was shifted to a loose +pulley, stopping the cylinder, which, was pulled off the fire. A +handle was attached to the shaft, the slide drawn, and the coffee +was dumped into a wooden tray which had to be shoved under the +cylinder. The coffee was stirred around in the tray until cool +enough to sack.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The roaster man had to be a husky in those days to pick up a sack +of Rio weighing about one hundred, sixty to one hundred, +seventy-five pounds (not a hundred, thirty-two pounds, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630">[Pg 630]</a></span> now) and +to empty it in the cylinder. We had no overhead hoppers.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="EARLY_ENGLISH_AND_AMERICAN_ROASTERS" id="EARLY_ENGLISH_AND_AMERICAN_ROASTERS"></a> +<img src="images/image501.jpg" width="500" height="534" alt="EARLY ENGLISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE ROASTERS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">EARLY ENGLISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE ROASTERS</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1, 2—English charcoal machines. 3, 5, 8—American coal-stove +roasters. 4—Remington's wheel-of-buckets (American) roaster, 1841. +6—Wood's roaster. 7—Hyde's stove roaster. 9—Reversible stove +roaster. 10—Abel Stillman's stove roaster</small></p> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Later we built in the rear and put in two cylinders of the Chris +Abele type, having stationary fronts and filling and emptying from +the front end. We still used soft coal, with the fire sixteen to +eighteen inches under the cylinder.</p> + +<p class="quot1">We had other machines made locally from the Carter pattern. The +idea of the tight cylinder was to keep out smoke, as well as to +keep in the aroma. I think we were the first to use perforations, +because I remember old Jabez Burns coming along after we put in one +of his machines and remarking on it.... We had a kind of mechanical +genius for engineer at that time (he also did the roasting) and he +conceived the idea that we ought to get rid of the moisture in the +roasting coffee because it would cook quicker. When the holes +clogged up, he put in loose pieces of wire bent at the ends which +shook as the cylinder revolved and kept the holes open. Another +thing, he put a hole in the cylinder head and a stopper with a +string on it so he could get out a few grains at a time to note the +progress of the roasting—but he judged mostly by the smoke.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">[Pg 631]</a></span>The cooling box was as I have described it, but later we put in a +perforated false bottom which let out some chaff and small stones.</p> + +<p class="quot1">On our first watering, we pulled out the slide and dashed in a +bucket of water, then closed the slide and let it revolve outside +the furnace. This was hard on the cylinder, so later we used the +sprinkling can and put on water sparingly.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Once we had a party that wanted to put in a soapstone lined +roaster, and another near us named Salzgerber patented a +superheated-steam roaster which was shaped like our modern milk +bottle. This was covered with asbestos and worked on a central +bearing so it could be depressed for emptying and elevated for +filling. It did good work.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Forbes' recollections of the early days of roasting and selling +coffee at retail in St. Louis are so illuminating, and paint so +interesting a picture of the period that they are printed here to +illustrate the conditions that prevailed generally at the time when the +commercial roasting machine of the United States was being developed +into the modern type. He says further:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Selling roasted coffee was uphill work, as every one roasted coffee +in the kitchen oven. People were buying, say, at twenty cents. Our +asking twenty-five cents "roasted" called for a lot of explanation +about shrinkage, tight cylinders so the strength and flavor could +not get away, etc.; while, when they roasted a pound in the oven +the flavor scented the whole house, thus losing so much strength to +say nothing of the unevenness of their roasts—part raw, part +roasted, producing an unpleasant taste. An occasional burned roast +at home helped some. They tell of a man who, going out in the back +yard and kicking over a clod by accident, uncovered some burned +coffee. He called to his wife and wanted an explanation. She +acknowledged she had burnt it, and hid it so he would not scold. He +said, "We had better buy it roasted in the future and avoid such +accidents."</p> + +<p class="quot1">We roasted in the cellar. We had an elaborately polished Reed & +Mann engine in one window, two brass hoppered mills in the other, +and our boiler was under the sidewalk. We had a mahogany-top +counter, oil paintings on the wall, and bin fronts of Chinamen, +etc., done by the celebrated artist, Mat Hastings (now dead); so +you see we started right.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The fight we had to introduce roasted coffee was fierce. Our +argument was on the saving of fuel, labor, temper, scorched faces, +and anything we could think of. We talked only three coffees, Rio, +Java, and Mocha. When Santos began to come, it was hard to change +them over from the rank Rio flavor to the more mild Santos. The +latter they claimed did not have the rough taste. They missed it +and longed for the wild tang of the Rio.</p> + +<p class="quot1">We did not import, but bought in New Orleans and from several local +wholesale grocers. No one delivered. Shipments were f.o.b. St. +Louis. Draying and packages were extra. Coffee was not cleaned or +stoned, but was sold as it came from the sack. However, we did not +use any very low grades then. If any one complained of the stones +hurting their mills, we advised them to buy ground coffee, showing +how it kept better ground as it was packed tight, whereas the +roasted was looser and the air could get through it. It was fully a +year or more before we began to sell in quantities to make it +profitable. In roasting for others, we got a cent per pound; and +after awhile, that became so much a business it paid all our +expenses. We were the first to roast coffee by steam power west of +the Mississippi and east of the Rocky Mountains.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The tea department helped us to hold out until coffee got its hold +on the public; for in those days every one used tea and insisted on +having it good. Price was no object. How different now!</p> + +<p class="quot1">Five years later (1862) J. Nevison, an Englishman, drifted into +town and opened at 85 North Fourth Street. He got out a very +bombastic circular which caused us to put out the one I enclose +(illustration, page 436). Then came a party named Childs; and after +him, Hugh Menown, grand-uncle of the present Menown, of Menown & +Gregory; and Mat Hunt; all passed over to the Great Majority. After +the Civil War they multiplied pretty fast, coming and going until +now we have nineteen roasting establishments in the city.</p></div> + +<p>The late Julius J. Schotten also wrote the author as follows concerning +the days of the Carter roaster and of the wholesale coffee-roasting +business founded by William Schotten in 1862:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">In the early days, every wholesale grocer was selling coffee; the +wholesale grocer controlled ninety percent of the trade in the +country. It did not pay the coffee roaster to have men on the road +selling coffee in those days. Such being the case, seventy-five +percent of the roasting done by the coffee roasters was job +roasting, at one cent a pound.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In the beginning there were only two kinds of roasted coffee known +to the trade in this section of the country (St. Louis) and of +course one of these brands was "Rio"—the other; "Java". The former +was a genuine Rio, but the Java was mostly Jamaica coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Roasted coffee then was packed (for city trade) in five and ten +pound packages, and this size package seemed to supply the wants of +the ordinary grocer for a week. Occasionally a twenty-five pound +package, and in a few instances as much as fifty pounds of one +grade was sold at a time.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The class of customers the coffee roasters sold in those days were +the smaller merchants; the larger stores, having their ideas as to +quality, bought their coffees green. As they had very little sale +for the roasted, they would send a half-sack, and sometimes a whole +sack to have it roasted. It took a number of years to induce the +larger grocers, and even the average grocers, to purchase their +coffee already roasted.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coffees were roasted in the old style, "pull-out" roaster cylinder. +That is to say, it was necessary to stop the roaster and to pull +out the cylinder to sample the coffee in order to know when to take +the coffee off the fire. When the coffee was ready to take off, the +cylinder was pulled out its entire length. It was then turned over +and a slide nine inches wide, running the full length of the +cylinder, was opened and the contents were dumped in the cooling +box. When the coffee reached the cooling box, it took two men with +hoes or wooden shovels to stir and turn it until it was properly +cooled, there being no cooling arrangements then as we have +nowadays.</p> + +<p class="quot1">At that time there were no stoning or separating machines; and as a +bag of the ordinary green Jamaica coffee contained from three to +five pounds of stones and sticks, it was necessary to hand-pick the +coffee after it was roasted.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">[Pg 632]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="EARLY_FOREIGN_AND_AMERICAN_COFFEE-MAKING_DEVICES" id="EARLY_FOREIGN_AND_AMERICAN_COFFEE-MAKING_DEVICES"></a> +<img src="images/image502.jpg" width="500" height="666" alt="EARLY FOREIGN AND AMERICAN COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">EARLY FOREIGN AND AMERICAN COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—English adaptation of French boiler. 2—English coffee biggin. +3—Improved Rumford percolator. 4—Jones's exterior-tube percolator. +5—Parker's steam-fountain coffee maker. 6—Platow's filterer. +7—Brain's Vacuum, or pneumatic filter. 8—Beart's percolator. +9—American coffee biggin. 10—cloth-bag drip pot. 11—Vienna coffee +pot. 12—Le Brun's cafetière. 13—Reversible Potsdam cafetière. 14, +15—Gen. Hutchinson's percolator and urn. 16—Etruscan biggin</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_633" id="Page_633">[Pg 633]</a></span></p><p>After Carter, the next United States coffee-roaster patent was granted +to J.R. Remington, of Baltimore, on a roaster employing a wheel of +buckets to move the green coffee beans singly through a charcoal heated +trough. It never became a commercial success. (<a href="#Page_630">See 4, page 630.</a>)</p> + +<p>In 1847–48, William and Elizabeth Dakin were granted patents in England +on an apparatus for "cleaning and roasting coffee and for making +decoctions." The roaster specification covered a gold, silver, platinum, +or alloy-lined roasting cylinder and traversing carriage on an overhead +railway to move the roaster in and out of the roasting oven; and the +"decoction" specification covered an arrangement for twisting a +cloth-bag ground-coffee-container in a coffee biggin, or applied a screw +motion to a disk within a perforated cylinder containing the ground +coffee, so as to squeeze the liquid out of the grounds after infusion +had taken place.</p> + +<p>The roaster has survived, but the coffee maker was not so fortunate. The +Dakin idea was that coffee was injuriously affected by coming in contact +with iron during the roasting process. The roasting cylinder was +enclosed in an oven instead of being directly exposed to the furnace +heat. The apparatus was provided also with a "taster," or sampler, the +first of its kind, to enable the operator to examine the roasting +berries without stopping the machine. As will be seen by referring to +the picture of the model shown, the apparatus was ingenious and not +without considerable merit. Dakin & Co. are still in existence in +London, operating a machine very like the original model.</p> + +<p>In 1848, Thomas John Knowlys was granted a patent in England on a +perforated roasting cylinder coated with enamel.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted in passing that this idea of handling the green bean +with extreme delicacy, evidently obtained from the French, was never +taken seriously in the United States, whose inventors chose to handle it +with rough courage.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Dakin_Roasting_Machine_of_1848" id="Dakin_Roasting_Machine_of_1848"></a> +<img src="images/image503.jpg" width="500" height="306" alt="The Dakin Roasting Machine of 1848" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Dakin Roasting Machine of 1848</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">[Pg 634]</a></span></p><p>The first English patent on a coffee grinder was granted to Luke +Herbert in 1848.</p> + +<p>In 1849, Apoleoni Pierre Preterre, of Havre, was granted an English +patent on a coffee roaster mounted on a weighing apparatus to indicate +loss of weight in roasting and automatically stop the roasting process. +At the same time he secured an English patent on a vacuum percolator, +not unlike Durant's of 1827.</p> + +<p>In 1849 also, Thomas R. Wood, of Cincinnati, was granted a United States +patent on a spherical coffee roaster for use on kitchen stoves. It +attained considerable popularity among housewives who preferred to do +their own roasting. (<a href="#Page_630">See 6, page 630.</a>)</p> + +<p>In 1852, Edward Gee secured a patent in England on a coffee roaster +fitted with inclined flanges for turning the beans while roasting.</p> + +<p>C.W. Van Vliet, of Fishkill Landing, N.Y., was granted a United States +patent in 1855 on a household coffee mill employing upper breaking and +lower grinding cones. He assigned it to Charles Parker of Meriden, Conn. +In 1860–61 several United States patents were granted John and Edmund +Parker on coffee grinders for home use.</p> + +<p>In 1862, E.J. Hyde, of Philadelphia, was granted a United States patent +on a combined coffee-roaster and stove fitted with a crane on which the +roasting cylinder was revolved and swung out horizontally for emptying +and refilling. This machine proved to be a commercial success. Benedickt +Fischer used one in his first roasting plant in New York. It is still +being manufactured by the Bramhall Deane Company of New York.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Globe and Hydes Roasters"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Globe_Stove_Roaster_of_1860" id="Globe_Stove_Roaster_of_1860"></a> +<img src="images/image504.jpg" width="300" height="151" alt="A Globular Stove Roaster of 1860" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Globular Stove Roaster of 1860</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Hydes_Combined_Roaster_and_Stove" id="Hydes_Combined_Roaster_and_Stove"></a> +<img src="images/image505.jpg" width="300" height="274" alt="Hyde's Combined Roaster and Stove" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Hyde's Combined Roaster and Stove</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In 1864, Jabez Burns, of New York, was granted a United States patent on +the original Burns coffee roaster, the first machine which did not have +to be moved away from the fire for discharging the roasted coffee, and +one that marked a distinct advance in the manufacture of coffee-roasting +apparatus. It was a closed iron cylinder set in brickwork. (<a href="#Original_Burns_Roaster_1864">See +illustration, page 635.</a>)</p> + +<p>Jabez Burns had been a student of coffee roasting in New York for twenty +years before he produced the machine that was to revolutionize the +coffee business of the United States. He had brought with him from +England a knowledge of the trade in that country, where he first began +his business training by selling Java coffee at fourteen cents and +Sumatra at eleven cents to hotels, boarding-houses, and private +families.</p> + +<p>Up to the time of the Civil War, the contrivances employed for roasting +coffee in every case necessitated the removal of the roasting +apparatus—whether pan, globe, or cylinder—from the fire. The process +of causing coffee to discharge from the end of the roasting cylinder at +the pleasure of the operator while the cylinder was still in motion was +new; and the double set of flanges to produce this effect, and at the +same time, during the process of roasting, to keep the coffee equally +distributed from end to end of the cylinder, was new. Some one suggested +this last improvement was simply an Archimedean screw placed in a +cylinder, but Mr. Burns replied: "It is a double screw, a thing never +suggested by the Archimedean screw. It is, in fact, a double right and +left augur, one within the other, firmly secured together and also to +the shell or cylinder, and when the cylinder<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635">[Pg 635]</a></span> revolves the desired +result is obtained—the idea being entirely original."</p> + +<p>Mr. Burns had watched the development of the coffee business from the +time when the preparation of coffee was largely confined to the home, +where the approved roasting implements were hot stones, or tiles, iron +plates, skillets, and frying pans. Some of these were still in use +twenty years after he produced his first machine; and he often said that +coffee evenly roasted by such methods was just as good as if done by the +best mechanical device ever invented. He also said: "Coffee can be +roasted in very simple machinery. Some of the best we ever saw was done +in a corn popper. Patent portable roasters are almost as numerous as rat +traps or churns."</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Original_Burns_Roaster_1864" id="Original_Burns_Roaster_1864"></a> +<img src="images/image506.jpg" width="300" height="302" alt="The Original Burns Roaster, 1864" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Original Burns Roaster, 1864</span></span> +</div> + +<p>He early saw the practise of domestic roasting falling into disuse, as +it was becoming possible to supply the consumer with roasted coffee for +only a trifle more than in the green state, with all the labor and +annoyance of roasting done away with—a talking point that John Arbuckle +was quick to seize upon in his first Ariosa advertising.</p> + +<p>In almost every town of any size there were concerns engaged in the +roasting business. Within a few years, Burns machines were placed in all +the principal roasting centers. Pupke & Reid in New York; Flint, Evans & +Co., and James H. Forbes in St. Louis; Arbuckles & Co., in Pittsburgh; +the Weikel & Smith Spice Co. in Philadelphia; Theodore F. Johnson & Co., +in Newark; Evans & Walker in Detroit; W. & J.G. Flint in Milwaukee; and +Parker & Harrison in Cincinnati, were among his first customers.</p> + +<p>It is said that in 1845 there were facilities in and around New York to +roast as much coffee as was then consumed in Great Britain. Steam power +was being extensively used, and the roasting was done here for a large +part of the country. The habit was to buy roasted coffee from the coffee +and spice mills by the bag or larger quantity for country consumption; +and the grocers and small tea stores, for local consumption, bought from +twenty-five pounds upward at a time. This method cheapened the roasting +of coffee to half a cent a pound; and then good profits could be made, +for everything was cheap in those days. Even at that, it would have been +impossible for each tea dealer to have roasted his own coffee for +several times the amount, so the practise was generally adhered to all +over the country.</p> + +<p>Jabez Burns wrote in 1874:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">It is preposterous to suppose that household roasting will be +continued long in any part of this country, if coffee properly +prepared can be had. This is demonstrated by the remarkable +advances made in Pittsburgh and other places, where only a few +years ago the sales were chiefly in green coffee. Now the amount +roasted in Pittsburgh alone by those who make a business of it, +exceeds the entire consumption of coffee of any kind in the United +States fifty years ago. It will never pay for small stores to roast +if the large manufactories will do the work well, and if they will +not, small dealers will add proper machinery, and will eventually +become strong competing dealers. By doing the work with proper care +they will not only secure a reputation with large sales for +themselves, but will command the roasting for other parties.</p></div> + +<p>Until the Burns roaster appeared, coffee roasters were usually cylinders +that revolved upon an axis; the other devices that were tried were not +successful. Jabez Burns thus describes the first roaster he ever saw at +Hull, England:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">It consisted of a furnace, open at the top, and a perforated +cylinder with a slide door. The axis, or shaft, of the cylinder had +bearings on a frame which passed outside the furnace, while the +cylinder went down into the fire pit, the top of which could be +covered over. In this position it could be turned by means of a +crank on the end of a shaft The only means of testing was by the +escape of the steam or aroma, whichever predominated, passing out +through the perforations at the top; but so expert was the operator +and so quick to detect the aroma, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636">[Pg 636]</a></span> he seldom had to return the +cylinder to the fire to produce a satisfactory roast. This man +roasted fifty pounds or less in a batch for a number of retail +stores.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Globes, consisting of two hemispheres, made of cast-iron and so +arranged that they opened to fill and discharge, but operated +substantially as above, only with the method of lowering into the +fire changed somewhat, I have seen in use in Scotland in 1840. They +were called French roasters.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In this country a few years ago the use of the long sheet-iron +cylinder was almost universal, varying only in the method of +placing the cylinder over the fire—some sideways on a track, +others endwise, sliding on a long shaft or by turning on a crane, +in either case causing considerable labor and loss of time, which +often resulted in the hands of the inexperienced in more or less +spoiling the batch of coffee.</p></div> + +<p>From his expert knowledge of coffee and coffee-roasting problems, Jabez +Burns quickly rose to a commanding position in the industry. He was a +trade teacher and a trade builder. He had very definite ideas on +roasting. He said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The object of roasting is not attained until all the moisture +(water of vegetation) is driven off. Roast properly—uniformly and +sufficiently—and you will get all the aroma there is in the bean. +Coffees of various kinds can not be roasted to a uniform color. +Some will be of a light shade when sufficiently roasted while +others will have to be roasted dark to develop the aroma. +Therefore, appearance alone is not a proper test. Aroma-saving +devices have had their day. Coffee is of no use unless the aroma is +fully developed, and the more it is developed by roasting the +better it is. What passes off in the roasting process can not be +saved and is so small that if all of it in the country could be +collected and freed of all foreign matter, it would not weigh an +ounce.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Roast coffee over a slow fire so that it will be an hour before it +has the color of roasted coffee, and, in contrast, produce in +another batch of like quantity the same color in thirty minutes, +and it will be found for all intended purposes, either to grind, +sell or drink, that the latter will be, beyond all comparison, the +best. Coffee should be roasted uniform and as quickly as possible, +only it must not be scorched or spotted, otherwise it will have a +bitter burned taste. If roasted properly it will very considerably +increase its bulk and will be plump, swelled out and crisp; easily +crushed in the hand or between the fingers.</p></div> + +<p>In his <i>Spice Mill Companion</i>, published in 1879, Jabez Burns said +further in regard to roasting:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">All coffees do not roast alike; some will be a bright light color +when done, and others will be dark before done. There are two +infallible rules, which if properly appreciated and tried will +prove to be practically useful. One is, when the aroma is +sufficiently developed to produce a sharp, cutting, but aromatic +sensation in the nose. Those who practice that way do not need to +see the roast. The other rule is that when a berry is broken it is +crisp and uniform in color inside and out. Those who are accustomed +to this method may be good coffee roasters, albeit they may not +have any nose at all. But we must state in this connection, that a +man who has no smell and is color blind is not a fit candidate for +the coffee roasting profession; and, moreover, we affirm that any +person who can not roast coffee, so far as judgment is concerned, +after a few trials, will never make a good operator.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Burns_Granulating_Mill_1872-74" id="Burns_Granulating_Mill_1872-74"></a> +<img src="images/image507.jpg" width="300" height="327" alt="Burns Granulating Mill, 1872–74" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns Granulating Mill, 1872–74</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1867, Jabez Burns was granted a United States patent on an improved +coffee cooler, mixer, and grinding mill, or granulator. Another +granulator patent was issued to him in 1872. Mr. Burns had also given +the subject of cooling coffees considerable study, and his cooler was +the result. He argued that it was necessary to cool quickly. Before his +day, various methods had been employed, such as placing the coffee in +revolving drums covered with wire cloth. Sometimes a draft of cold air +was applied to the cooling drums, and the dirt and chaff blown through +the wire cloth. It was also customary in wholesale establishments to +blow cold air up through a perforated bottom, and this had been found +effective when properly applied. The Burns idea was to cool by means of +suction, causing a downward draft through the coffee and wire-cloth +bottomed box, which was found to be more uniform and efficient for +cooling purposes, as well as in controlling smoke, heat, and dust, which +by this means<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637">[Pg 637]</a></span> could be blown out of the roasting room by any convenient +outlet.</p> + +<p>On the subject of grinding, likewise, Mr. Burns had reached some +definite conclusions. The French and English lap and wall mills, the +English steel mills, and the Swift mills were all used in the United +States. Troemner's, the Enterprise, and others—to be mentioned later in +chronological order—were extending their use in a retail way; but Jabez +Burns confined his attention to a practicable mill for wholesale +grinding establishments.</p> + +<p>For manufacturing purposes, burstone mills were for many years +exclusively employed, especially one first known as the Prentiss & Page, +and later as the Page mill. There was a time when all the coffee +establishments in New York sent their coffee to Prentiss & Page to be +ground. Some of the places roasted by hand, others by horse power; and +if by steam, it was limited, and they did not have enough to spare for +grinding.</p> + +<p>With the march of improvement, burstone mills went into the discard. The +difficulty lay in finding men experienced in stone dressing to run them; +and the demand grew for a better style of grinding than could be done in +a mill out of face and balance. This demand was met in an altogether +different style of machine, which for twenty-five years was well known +as the Barbor mill. It was for improvements on this mill that Jabez +Burns in 1867, 1872, and 1874 obtained his granulator patents.</p> + +<p>The mill comprised cutters in the form of an iron roller running in near +contact with a concave, also of iron, and a revolving cylinder provided +with sieves, or screens, that received the ground material, rolled it +over the wire surface, sifting out the fine and discharging the coarse +automatically into the cutter, to be again manipulated until it was fine +enough to pass through the meshes of the screen.</p> + +<p>Jabez Burns patented an improved form of his roaster in 1881, and a +sample-coffee roaster in 1883, before he died in 1888; and since that +time his sons, who continue the business, have perfected a number of +improvements and brought out new machines which will be referred to in +chronological order.</p> + +<p>James H. Nason, of Franklin, Mass., was granted a United States patent +in 1865 on a percolator with fluid joints.</p> + +<p>P.H. Vanderweyde, of Philadelphia, was granted United States patents in +1866 on a percolator and a continuous coffee-filtering machine.</p> + +<p>Raparlier was granted a French patent on a pocket coffee-making device +in 1867. In later years, his invention became very popular among French +coffee drinkers. It was one of the early practicable forms of +double-glass-globe filtration devices.</p> + +<p>E.B. Manning of Middletown, Conn., was granted his first patent on a tea +and coffee pot in 1868. Others followed in 1870 and 1876. In the latter +year, John Bowman brought out the valve-type percolator which +subsequently attained great favor in American households.</p> + +<p>Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Company, Ltd., successors) began to +manufacture at Glasgow, Scotland, about 1870, the Napierian vacuum +coffee machine which had been invented in 1840—but never patented—by +Robert Napier of the celebrated firm of Clyde shipbuilders. This machine +makes coffee by distillation and filtration. It employs a metal globe, +and a brewer from which the coffee is syphoned over into the globe +through a tube, around the strainer-end of which, as it rests in the +coffee liquid in the brewer, there is tied a filter cloth. It is still +being manufactured by Elkington & Company.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Napiers_Vacuum_Machine" id="Napiers_Vacuum_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image508.jpg" width="300" height="331" alt="Napier's Vacuum Machine, 1840" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Napier's Vacuum Machine, 1840</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Thomas Page, a New York millwright, began the manufacture of a pull-out +coffee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638">[Pg 638]</a></span> roaster similar to the old Carter machine, in 1868. Later, Chris +Abele, who was foreman in the Page shop, succeeded to the business; and +in 1882, he was granted a United States patent on an improvement on a +coffee roaster similar to the original Burns machine (the patent had +then expired) which he marketed under the name of Knickerbocker.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>German Coffee Machinery</i></p> + +<p>The Germans first began to show an active interest in coffee machinery +in 1860. In that year, Alexius Van Gulpen, of Emmerich, produced a +green-coffee grader; and later (1868), in partnership with J.H. Lensing +and Theodore von Gimborn, began the manufacture of coffee-roasting +machines. From this start there developed in Emmerich quite an industry +in coffee-machinery building. In 1870, Alexius Van Gulpen introduced to +the German trade a globular coffee roaster employing wood and coke as +fuel and having perforations and an exhauster. Van Gulpen and von +Gimborn are the two names most often met with in the development of +German coffee-roasting machinery.</p> + +<p>The first recorded German patent on a coffee roaster was issued to G. +Tubermann's Son in 1877, for "a coffee burner with vertically adjusted +stirring works." German patents were issued in 1878 to R. Muhlberg, of +Taucha, for coffee roasters with movable partitions and "screw-shaped +declining walls." Six roaster patents were issued to other inventors in +1878–79.</p> + +<p>Peter Pearson, of Manchester, took out a German patent on a +coffee-roasting apparatus in 1880. Fleury & Barker, of London, were +granted a coffee-roaster patent in Germany in 1881.</p> + +<p>After 1870, Van Gulpen devoted himself to the cylinder type of roaster, +on which he obtained several patents. The partnership between Messrs. +Van Gulpen, Lensing and von Gimborn was dissolved in 1906. They were +succeeded by the Emmericher Maschinenfabrik und Eissengiesserei, and Van +Gulpen & Co. Van Gulpen died in 1920. Among his inventions were a +circular air fan to supply fresh air to the beans while roasting; a +fire-dampening device; roasting and cooling exhausters; and a +"withdrawable" mixer remaining inside the cylinder during the roasting +process, but designed to be withdrawn at the end, discharging the +contents with a jerk into a circular cooler. These improvements are +featured in Van Gulpen & Co.'s latest Meteor machine. They make also the +Typhoon and Comet machines, and a line of globular roasters.</p> + +<p>A dozen coffee-roaster patents were issued in Germany in 1880–82. Among +them was one to the Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry, Van +Gulpen, Lensing & von Gimborn, Emmerich, in 1882.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="German_Gas_and_Coal_Roasting_Machines" id="German_Gas_and_Coal_Roasting_Machines"></a> +<img src="images/image509.jpg" width="500" height="217" alt="German Gas and Coal Roasting Machines" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">German Gas and Coal Roasting Machines</span><br /> +<small>Left, Perfekt gas roaster—Right, Probat coal roaster</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Numerous coffee-cooling, coffee-grinding, and coffee-making devices were +patented in Germany from 1877 to 1885; among them Newstadt's +coffee-extract machine in 1882, safety attachments, rapid filters, +Vienna coffee makers, etc. The first Vienna coffee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">[Pg 639]</a></span> maker seems to have +been patented in Germany in 1879.</p> + +<p>The Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry acquired certain Danish +and Austrian coffee-roaster patents in 1881, and in 1892 it was granted +a German patent on a ball roaster. In the eighties this concern began +the manufacture of a closed ball, or globular, roaster with gas-heater +attachment. It acquired, in 1889, the rights for Germany to manufacture +gas roasters under the Dutch Henneman patents of 1888. In 1892, Theodore +von Gimborn was granted French and English patents on a coffee roaster +employing a naked gas flame in a rotary cylinder. In 1897, the +Emmericher concern was granted a German patent on an automatic circular +tipping cooler with power drive. Today, this factory features the Probat +and Perfekt roasters, but manufactures a general line of cylinder and +ball machines for coal, coke, and gas.</p> + +<p>Among others engaged in the manufacture of coffee machines in Germany +are G. W. Barth, Ludwigsburg, and Ferd. Gothot, Mulheim on Rhur. The +latter manufactures a coke or gas heated quick-roaster known as the +Ideal-Rapid, and a smaller hand-power machine, of the same type, called +Favour.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Other_German_Coffee_Roasters" id="Other_German_Coffee_Roasters"></a> +<img src="images/image510.jpg" width="500" height="241" alt="Other German Coffee Roasters" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Other German Coffee Roasters</span><br /> +<small>Left, globular machine—Right, Meteor quick-roasting outfit</small></span> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>American, French, and British Machines</i></p> + +<p>In 1869, Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet, of New York, were granted three +United States patents on a coffee pot or urn made of sheet copper and +lined with pure sheet block tin. These patents were the foundation of +the successful coffee-urn business afterward built up under the name of +the Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co.</p> + +<p>Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Co., Ltd., successors) began, in 1870, +the manufacture of the Napierian coffee-making machine at Glasgow, +Scotland. This was a device for making coffee by distillation, employing +a metal globe syphon and brewer with filter cloth. The principle was +subsequently used in the Napier-List steam coffee machine for ships and +institutions, patented in England in 1891.</p> + +<p>John Gulick Baker, of Philadelphia, one of the founders of the +Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania, was granted a United +States patent in 1870, on a coffee grinder introduced to the trade as +the Enterprise Champion No. 1 store mill. Another Baker patent was +granted in 1873, and this became known as the Enterprise Champion Globe +No. 0. These mills were the pioneer machines for store use.</p> + +<p>In 1870, Delphine, Sr., of Marourme, France, was granted a French patent +on a tubular coffee roaster which turned over a flame.</p> + +<p>In the sixties and seventies, French inventors became quite active on +coffee-roaster improvements. Many patents were granted, and quite a few +were for practical small-capacity machines that have survived, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_640" id="Page_640">[Pg 640]</a></span> are +in use today in France and on the continent. Some supplied inspiration +for inventors in neighboring countries. Among the more notable names, +mention should be made of Martin, of St. Quentin, who produced a +sheet-iron cylinder roaster with "interior gatherer" in 1860; Marchand, +of Paris, "fan roaster with movable fire box," 1866 and 1869; Lauzaune, +Paris, "rocking system of roasting coffee in a round stove," 1873; +Ittel's glass sphere, Lyons, 1874; and Marchand and Hignette, Paris, +1877, a ball coffee roaster.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Evolution of the Gas Roaster</i></p> + +<p>According to the patent records, Roure, of Marseilles, appears to have +produced the original gas coffee roaster in 1877. The evolution of the +gas roasting-machine was as follows:</p> + +<p>In 1879, H. Faulder, of Stockport, England, obtained an English patent +on an external air-blast burner applied to a cylinder gas machine, which +is still being manufactured by the Grocers Engineering and Whitmee, +Ltd., of London. Fleury and Barker, of London, followed with another +English gas machine in 1880, the heat being supplied from gas jets over +the roasting cylinder. In 1881, Peter Pearson, of Manchester, produced a +gas roaster which consisted of a wire-gauze cylinder revolving under a +metal plate heated by gas.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Enterprise and Max Thurmers"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Original_Enterprise_Mill" id="Original_Enterprise_Mill"></a> +<img src="images/image511.jpg" width="300" height="462" alt="Original Enterprise Mill" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Original Enterprise Mill</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Max_Thurmers_Quick_Gas_Roaster" id="Max_Thurmers_Quick_Gas_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image512.jpg" width="300" height="335" alt="Max Thurmer's Quick Gas Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Max Thurmer's Quick Gas Roaster</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Beeston Tupholme, of London, was granted an English patent in 1887, on a +direct-flame gas roaster which he assigned to Joseph Baker & Sons.</p> + +<p>Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, took out his first patent on +the Henneman direct-flame gas roaster in Spain in 1888; and the +following year, he obtained patents in Belgium, France, and England. His +United States patents were granted in 1893–95.</p> + +<p>Postulart secured a patent in France for a gas coffee roaster in 1888.</p> + +<p>The Germans also began, in the eighties, to take the quick gas coffee +roaster seriously. In 1889, Carl Alexander Otto, of Dresden, secured a +German patent on a spiral tubular machine to roast coffee in three and a +half minutes. It was first manufactured and sold by Max Thurmer, of +Dresden, in 1891–93.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="PRIMITIVE_TRANSPORTATION_METHODS_ARABIA" id="PRIMITIVE_TRANSPORTATION_METHODS_ARABIA"></a> +<img src="images/plate16a.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="Loading Coffee on Zamboeks at Hodeida" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Loading Coffee on Zamboeks at Hodeida</span><br /> +<small>These boats then transfer their cargoes to steamships lying in the roads</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><br /> +<img src="images/plate16b.jpg" width="500" height="309" alt="Picturesque Camel and Bullock Carts" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Picturesque Camel and Bullock Carts</span><br /> +<small>Used for local coffee transport in Aden and Hodeida</small><br /> +PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION METHODS IN ARABIA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641">[Pg 641]</a></span></p><p>The subject of quick roasting has greatly agitated German and French +coffee men. Otto found that coffee roasted in small quantities (say +fifty grams) on a sample-roaster produced a finer flavor and aroma than +that roasted in the big machines. He set out to produce a machine that +would roast continuous small quantities in the shortest time. He built +the first commercial machine under his patent in 1893. It was shown at +the International Food Exhibition in Dresden in 1894. The latest type +manufactured by Max Thurmer, Dresden, in which firm Otto is a partner, +has a spiral five meters long and an hourly production of about 450 +pounds. The Thurmer machine, as it is called, has been sold to the trade +since 1914.</p> + +<p>Quick roasting is gone in for quite extensively in Germany, even in the +big trade-roasting plants, where machines to roast in ten to seventeen +minutes are common. Natural, slow cooling is most necessary with quick +roasting, according to Thurmer. On the other hand, A. Mottant, of Paris, +who also manufactures a line of quick gas-roasting machines, called +Magic, argues that quick cooling is essential after quick roasting. +Three of the Mottant machines are illustrated on pages 642 and 644.</p> + +<p>Other quick-roasting machines of German make are the Combinator, +Tornado, and Rekord.</p> + +<p>In a lecture before the Society of Medical Officers of Health, London, +October 24, 1912, William Lawton demonstrated to the satisfaction of his +audience that coffee could be roasted in 3 minutes, using a perforated +gas-roaster of his own invention.<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a></p> + +<p>The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America was installed in +the plant of the Potter-Parlin Co., New York, by F.T. Holmes, in 1893. +This was Tupholme's machine, patented in England in 1887, and in the +United States in 1896–97. The Potter-Parlin Co. subsequently placed the +Tupholme machines throughout the United States on a daily rental basis, +limiting its leases to one firm in a city, having obtained the exclusive +American rights from the Waygood, Tupholme Co., now the Grocers +Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="An_English_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant" id="An_English_Gas_Coffee-Roasting_Plant"></a> +<img src="images/image513.jpg" width="500" height="375" alt="An English Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An English Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant</span><br /> +<small>The machines are the Morewood (Improved Faulder) sliding-burner indirect type</small></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">[Pg 642]</a></span></p><p>Natural gas was first used in the United States as fuel for roasting +coffee in 1896, when it was introduced under coal roasting cylinders in +Pennsylvania and Indiana by improvised gas burners.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="French_Globular_Roaster" id="French_Globular_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image514.jpg" width="300" height="342" alt="French Globular Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">French Globular Roaster</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Edwin Crawley and W.T. Johnston, Newport, Ky., assignors to the +Potter-Parlin Co., New York, were granted four United States patents on +gas coffee-roasting machines.</p> + +<p>In 1897, a special gas burner, not to be confused with the direct-flame +machine, was first attached to a regular Burns roaster in the United +States, and was made the basis of application for a patent.</p> + +<p>In 1897–99, David B. Fraser, of New York, began to market in the United +States a central-heated gas-fuel machine with an inner wire-cloth +cylinder to keep the coffee from dropping into the flame, developed +under United States patents granted to Carl H. Duehring, of Hoboken, in +1897, and to D.B. Fraser in 1899.</p> + +<p>M.F. Hamsley, of Brooklyn, was granted a United States patent on an +improved direct-flame gas roaster in 1898.</p> + +<p>Ellis M. Potter, New York, was granted in 1899, a United States patent +on an improved direct-flame gas roaster in which the flame was spread +over a large area to avoid scorching and to insure a more thorough and +uniform roast. In the Tupholme machine, the gas flame entered at one +end, and the smoke and flame went out through a stack on top. In the +Potter machine, the stack was put on the end opposite the gas intake, +with a fan to pull the flame all the way through.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Sirocco_Machine_French" id="Sirocco_Machine_French"></a> +<img src="images/image515.jpg" width="300" height="304" alt="Sirocco Machine (French)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sirocco Machine (French)</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The Burns direct-flame gas roaster, with patented swing-gate head for +feeding and discharging, was introduced to the trade in 1900. The Burns +gas sample-roaster followed.</p> + +<p>In 1901, Joseph Lambert, of Marshall, Mich., introduced to the trade one +of the earliest indirect gas roasting machines.</p> + +<p>In 1901, also, T.C. Morewood, of Brentford, England, was granted an +English patent on a gas roaster fitted with a sliding burner and a +removable sampling tube. This machine is now being made by the Grocers +Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd.</p> + +<p>In the same year, 1901, F.T. Holmes, formerly with the Potter-Parlin +Co., joined the Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver Creek, N.Y., which +then began to build the Monitor direct-flame gas coffee roaster. Mr. +Holmes still further improved the Tupholme idea by putting gas burners +in both ends of the roasting cylinder, with the pipes bent down so as to +cause the gas flame to go first to the bottom and then up to the stack +on top. This improvement was never patented.</p> + +<p>The Henneman direct-flame gas roaster was introduced to the United +States trade in 1905, by C.A. Cross & Co., wholesale grocers, of +Fitchburg, Mass. It was marketed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_643" id="Page_643">[Pg 643]</a></span> here seven years, but was never a +great success.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="English_Roasting_and_Grinding_Equipment" id="English_Roasting_and_Grinding_Equipment"></a> +<img src="images/image516.jpg" width="500" height="360" alt="English Roasting and Grinding Equipment" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">English Roasting and Grinding Equipment</span><br /> +<small>Showing one 168-pound Simplex gas roaster, with a Rapid disk grinding +machine having a capacity of 300 to 400 pounds per hour</small></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1906, F.T. Holmes was granted a United States patent on a coffee +roaster which he assigned to the Huntley Manufacturing Co.</p> + +<p>J.C. Prims, of Battle Creek, Mich., was granted a United States patent +in 1908, on a corrugated cylinder improvement for a gas and coal roaster +designed for retail stores. The A.J. Deer Co., Hornell, N.Y., acquired +this machine in 1909, and began to market it as the Royal coffee +roaster. An improvement patented in 1915 by J.C. Prims was assigned to +the A.J. Deer Co.</p> + +<p>In 1915, and again in 1919, Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, patented their +Jubilee roaster, an inner-heated machine in which the gas is burned +inside a revolving cylinder in a combustion chamber protected from +direct coffee contact. The heat is deflected downward and then passes +upward through the coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1919, William Fullard (<i>d.</i> 1921), of Philadelphia, was granted a +United States patent on a "heated fresh air system" roaster, in which +the fresh air is forced by an electric fan through a pipe to a set of +coils over gas, coal, or oil flame. At the top of the coils is a +manifold, the hot air being forced through small holes to circulate in +and around a regulation perforated roasting cylinder; the vapors and +spent air are then drawn into an overhead exhaust pipe that connects +with a pipe provided with a fresh-air intake, the idea being to return +them to the roasting cylinder after being mixed with fresh air and +heated in the coils as before. This patent has not been successfully +marketed at the time of writing. The purpose is to roast by heated air +not mixed with any furnace gases. Whether this can be done with +sufficient fuel economy, and whether coffee thus roasted would have any +greater value, are questions that are raised by the coffee experts.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee-Grinding and Coffee-Making Chronology</i></p> + +<p>To return to our coffee-grinding and coffee-making chronology, it is to +be noted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644">[Pg 644]</a></span> that in 1875–76–78, Turner Strowbridge, of New Brighton, Pa., +was granted three United States patents on a box coffee mill, first made +by Logan & Strowbridge, later the Logan & Strowbridge Iron Company, the +latter being succeeded by the Wrightsville Hardware Co. in 1906.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Gas Machines"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Magic_Gas_Machine_French" id="Magic_Gas_Machine_French"></a> +<img src="images/image517.jpg" width="300" height="339" alt="Magic Gas Machine (French)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Magic Gas Machine (French)</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Burns_Jubilee_Gas_Machine" id="Burns_Jubilee_Gas_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image518.jpg" width="300" height="431" alt="Burns Jubilee Gas Machine" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Burns Jubilee Gas Machine</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In 1878, a United States patent was issued to Rudolphus L. Webb, +assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, Conn., on an improved +box coffee grinder for home use.</p> + +<p>In 1878, and in 1880, United States patents were issued to John C. Dell +of Philadelphia on a store coffee mill.</p> + +<p>In 1879, and in 1880, United States patents were issued to Orson W. +Stowe, of the Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co., Southington, Conn., on a +household coffee mill.</p> + +<p>In 1879, Charles Halstead, of New York, was granted the first United +States patent on a metal coffee pot having a china interior. It was an +infuser for home use.</p> + +<p>In 1880, coffee pots, with tops having muslin bottoms for clarifying and +straining, were first made in the United States by the Duparquet, Huot & +Moneuse Co., of New York.</p> + +<p>The name Hungerford first appears in the United States patent records in +1880–81, in connection with patents granted to G.W. and G.S. Hungerford +on machines for cleaning, scouring, and polishing coffee. In 1882, the +Hungerfords, father and son, brought out a roaster. This machine and the +one patented by Chris Abele, of New York, already referred to, were +constructions resulting from the expiration of the original Burns patent +of 1864. In 1881, Jabez Burns patented the improved Burns roaster, +comprising a turn-over front head serving for both feeding and +discharging. Additional United States coffee-roaster patents were issued +to G.W. Hungerford in 1887–89. In the latter year, David Fraser, who +came to the United States from Glasgow in 1886, established the +Hungerford Co., succeeding the business of the Hungerfords, and later +being granted certain United States patents, already mentioned. In 1910, +the Hungerford Co. business was discontinued in New York; and David B. +Fraser moved to Jersey City, where he continued to operate as the Fraser +Manufacturing Co. This business was discontinued in 1918.</p> + +<p>Chris Abele was an active competitor of the Hungerfords and of the +Fraser Manufacturing Co.; and his Knickerbocker roaster was sold over a +wide territory. He died in 1910; and his son-in-law, Gottfried Bay, +succeeded to the business.</p> + +<p>In 1881, the Morgan Brothers, Edgar H. and Charles, began the +manufacture of household coffee mills, the business being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_645" id="Page_645">[Pg 645]</a></span> acquired in +1885 by the Arcade Manufacturing Co., of Freeport, Ill. The latter +concern brought out the first pound coffee mill in 1889. Its mills +became very popular in the United States. In 1900, Charles Morgan was +granted a United States patent on a glass-jar coffee mill, with +removable glass measuring cup.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Double_Gas_Roasting_Outfit_French" id="Double_Gas_Roasting_Outfit_French"></a> +<img src="images/image519.jpg" width="500" height="357" alt="Double Aromatic Gas Roasting Outfit (French)" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Double Aromatic Gas Roasting Outfit (French)</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1881, Harvey Ricker, of Brooklyn, later of Minneapolis, introduced to +the trade in the United States a "minute coffee pot" and urn known as +the Boss, the name being subsequently changed to Minute. He improved and +patented the device in 1901 as the Half-Minute coffee pot. It is a +filtration device employing a cotton sack with a thickened bottom.</p> + +<p>In 1882, Chris Abele, of New York, patented an improvement on the +old-style Burns roaster, with openings cut in the front plate. It was +known as the Knickerbocker. As already noted, the machine was a +competitor of the Hungerford machine patented the same year.</p> + +<p>In 1882, a German patent was granted to Emil Newstadt, of Berlin, on one +of the earliest coffee-extract machines.</p> + +<p>In 1883, Jabez Burns was granted a United States patent on his improved +sample-coffee roaster.</p> + +<p>In 1884, the Star coffee pot, later known as the Marion Harland, was +introduced to the trade. It employed a wire-gauze drip device, called a +"filter," which was fitted to a metal pot. It was extensively advertised +and attained considerable popularity. The same year, Finley Acker, of +Philadelphia, brought out an improved coffee pot for family trade. +Later, he produced his Mo-Kof-Fee pot and an individual porcelain drip +pot for testing-table use.</p> + +<p>In 1885, F.A. Cauchois, New York, brought out an improved +porcelain-lined urn.</p> + +<p>In 1887–88, the Etruscan coffee pot was invented and put on the market +by the Etruscan Coffee Pot Co., of Philadelphia. It employed a muslin +cylinder with metal ends and a mechanism for combining "agitation, +distillation and infusion." It was not unlike the Dakin device of 1848, +previously mentioned.</p> + +<p>In 1890, A. Mottant, Bar-le-Duc, France, began to manufacture a line of +coffee-roasting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646">[Pg 646]</a></span> machinery which included vertical ball-and-cylinder +machines, using wood, coal, coke, or gas for fuel. His best known makes +are Magic and Sirocco (<a href="#Page_642">see page 642</a>).</p> + +<p>Before 1895, the commercial roaster was little used in France. Since +then, the industry has developed, but without displacing the smaller +roaster for family use. Ball roasters are popular with shop-keepers, +especially the variety manufactured by the Établissements Lauzaune at +Paris, and known as Aromatic, being equipped with electric motors. This +firm builds also a larger machine known as Moderne.</p> + +<p>Other makes of roasters that have attained prominence in France are the +Lambert, equipped with a steam condenser; Van den Brouck's, having the +roasting cylinder lined with wire gauze; and Resson's machine for +wholesale plants.</p> + +<p>The French led off with glass-cylinder roasters for home use in the +early seventies. They are still popular. One of the developments of the +last decade was known as the Bijou, and was operated by clock work. A +similar automatic machine, made of glass, was manufactured and sold in +New York in 1908 under the name of the Home roaster. As late as 1914, an +American inventor produced a home roaster for use in a stove hole. This +device had a stirrer in the cover to be rotated by hand. A similar +device was sold in 1917 under the name Savo. Home roasting, however, has +become a lost art in America.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Lamberts_Victory_Gas_Machine" id="Lamberts_Victory_Gas_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image520.jpg" width="300" height="325" alt="Lambert's Victory Gas Machine" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lambert's Victory Gas Machine</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1897, Joseph Lambert, of Vermont, began the manufacture and sale in +Battle Creek, Mich., of the Lambert self-contained coffee roaster +without the brick setting then required for coffee-roasting machines. In +1900, he was joined by A.P. Grohens. In 1901, the Lambert Food and +Machinery Co. was organized. In 1904, the company was reorganized. Since +then, many improvements have been made under Mr. Grohens' direction. The +Lambert gas roaster, one of the first machines employing gas as fuel for +indirect roasting, dates back to 1901, as previously mentioned. The +Economic roaster is Mr. Grohens' latest development for coal or coke +fuel. It is a compact self-contained equipment operating in connection +with a new-type rotary cooler. He has also recently (1922) brought out a +gas-fired, electrically operated 600-pound Victory roaster and a +fifty-pound miniature coffee-roasting plant designed for retail stores.</p> + +<p>In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania was the first +regularly to employ electric motors for driving commercial coffee mills +by means of belt-and-pulley attachments.</p> + +<p>In 1898, the Hobart Manufacturing Co., of Troy, Ohio, introduced to the +trade another early coffee grinder connected with an electric motor and +driven by belt-and-pulley attachment.</p> + +<p>In 1900, the first gear-driven electric coffee grinder was put on the +market by the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p>In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Co., (Braun Co., successor) and Henry +Troemner, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture and sale of gear-driven +electric coffee grinders.</p> + +<p>In 1905, the A.J. Deer Co., Buffalo, N.Y., (now at Hornell, N.Y.) began +to sell its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers on the +instalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling coffee +mills through hardware jobbers.</p> + +<p>In 1905, H.L. Johnston was granted a United States patent on a coffee +mill. He assigned the patent to the Hobart Manufacturing Co.</p> + +<p>In 1900, Charles Lewis was granted a United States patent on an improved +reversible filtration coffee pot known as the Kin-Hee. This pot has +since been further improved, and the patent rights sold in several +foreign countries. It employs a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_647" id="Page_647">[Pg 647]</a></span> filter cloth in place of the metal or +china strainer used in the French drip pot.</p> + +<p>In 1901, Landers, Frary & Clark's improved Universal percolator was +patented in the United States. This pot has proved to be one of the most +popular percolators on the American market. This firm brought out the +Universal Cafenoira, a double glass filtration device, in 1916. It is +covered by design and structural patents issued in 1916 and 1917.</p> + +<p>In 1900, the Burns swing-gate sample-roasting outfit was patented in the +United States.</p> + +<p>In 1901, Robert Burns, of New York, was granted two United States +patents on a coffee roaster and cooler.</p> + +<p>In 1901, Freidrich Kuchelmeister, Brux, Austria-Hungary, was granted a +United States patent on a coffee roaster having a double-walled drum, +the inner being of wire gauze, and the outer of solid iron, designed to +prevent scorching of the beans.</p> + +<p>In 1902, W.M. Still & Sons, London, were granted an English patent on a +steam coffee-making machine employing twelve ounces of coffee to the +gallon.</p> + +<p>In 1902, T.K. Baker, of Minneapolis, was granted two United States +patents on a cloth-filter coffee-making device.</p> + +<p>In 1903, A.E. Bronson, Jr., assignor to the Bronson-Walton Company, +Cleveland, Ohio, was granted a United States patent on a coffee mill.</p> + +<p>In 1903, John Arbuckle was granted a United States patent on a +coffee-roasting apparatus employing a fan to force the hot fire gases +into the roasting cylinder. From this was developed the Jumbo roaster, +now used in the Arbuckle plant, which roasts ten thousand pounds an +hour.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Electric Coffee-Roasting</i></p> + +<p>In 1903, George C. Lester, of New York, was granted a United States +patent on an electric coffee roaster, that is, a machine to roast by +electric heat. There were two cylinders, the inner being of wire gauze, +and the outer of copper and asbestos. Between the two, four electric +heaters were placed.</p> + +<p>There was demonstrated in Germany, in 1906, an electric coffee roaster +employing a number of resistance coils, consisting of strips of Krupp +metal two and one-half mm. thick, five mm. broad, and thirteen and +one-half mm. long, wound on porcelain tubes, which transmitted the heat +to the air within the roasting cylinder. Analysis showed that coffee +electrically roasted contained more substances soluble in water than +that roasted by coke, as well as considerably more material soluble in +ether. This machine was invented by Captain Carl Moegling about 1900.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="One_of_the_First_Electric_Coffee_Mills" id="One_of_the_First_Electric_Coffee_Mills"></a> +<img src="images/image521.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="One of the First Electric Coffee Mills" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">One of the First Electric Coffee Mills</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Another electric-fuel-machine patent was granted in the United States to +Robert H. Talbutt, of Baltimore, in 1911. This machine had the electric +heater in the center of the roasting cylinder. An electrically heated +machine called the Ben Franklin was demonstrated in New York in 1918.</p> + +<p>In 1919, Everett T. Shortt, Dallas, Tex., was granted a United States +patent on an electrical roaster.</p> + +<p>Up to the present writing, no great progress has been made in the United +States with the roasting of coffee by electric heat.</p> + +<p>The Phoenix Electrical Heating Co. manufactured, and the Uno Company, +Ltd., of London, marketed an electrically heated roaster as far back as +1909. The machine was not altogether satisfactory, even to the makers; +and the Uno Company is now (1922) experimenting with a new type of +electric roaster which it expects will remedy the defects of the early +machine. The 1909 roaster was made of two concentric cylinders revolving +around a set of fixed heating elements, consisting of a series of +spiral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_648" id="Page_648">[Pg 648]</a></span> wires held in position on fireproof clay insulators, these wires +being assembled, insulated, and brought out through the fixed center to +a terminal, or a set of terminals, at one end. In this way, no contact +brushes or rings were needed. The machine had a sampling device at one +end which threw out a few berries each time it was operated. It was not +possible to return these sample berries. Such an arrangement appeared +necessary, however, unless one was prepared to have the heating element +on the outside of the machine and to pick up the current by means of +rings or brushes. When the operator became accustomed to the coffee he +was roasting, this was not a matter of great moment, because in England, +at least, the average coffee roaster does not require a testing sample +until he is about ready to turn out and to cool the roast.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="English and Ben Franklin Coffee Roasters"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="English_Electric-Fuel_Roaster" id="English_Electric-Fuel_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image522.jpg" width="300" height="503" alt="English Electric-Fuel Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">English Electric-Fuel Roaster</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Ben_Franklin_Electric_Coffee_Roaster" id="Ben_Franklin_Electric_Coffee_Roaster"></a> +<img src="images/image523.jpg" width="300" height="405" alt="Ben Franklin Electric Coffee Roaster" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ben Franklin Electric Coffee Roaster</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The Uno machine had a capacity of seven pounds, and the time occupied in +roasting was from eight to ten minutes, depending on whether the roaster +had been freshly switched on or had been running for a few minutes. The +wattage was 5,520. The consumption per hundred-weight was under thirteen +units. The makers gave, as the most economical pressure on which to +work, 220 to 240 volts. The machine was operated for eighteen months in +the show window of a London retail grocer.</p> + +<p>In 1921, a United States patent was granted to Mark T. Seymour, Stowe, +N.Y., on an electric coffee and peanut roaster, which has the heating +element embedded in a cement-lined cylinder that contains a roasting +cage.</p> + +<p>In 1921, Fred J. Kuhlemeir and Ralph J. Quelle, of Burlington, Ia., were +granted a United States patent on a small household coffee roaster +electrically equipped, and roasting by electric heat.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Other Machinery Patents</i></p> + +<p>In 1903, Luigi Giacomini, of Florence, Italy, was granted a United +States patent on a process for roasting coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1905, A.A. Warner, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, +Conn., was granted two United States patents on a coffee mill.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">[Pg 649]</a></span></p><p>In 1906, Ludwig Schmidt, assignor to the Essmueller Mill Furnishing +Co., St. Louis, was granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. +This company and the Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Co., also of St. Louis, +were making machines similar to the original Burns model. The +Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Co., in 1910, brought out a self-contained +gas roaster called the St. Louis, Jr. In 1913, at a receiver's sale, +A.P. Grohens, of the Lambert Machine Co., acquired all the machinery and +patent rights of the Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Company.</p> + +<p>In 1904, J.W. Chapman and G.W. Kooman, assignors to Manning, Bowman & +Co., Meriden, Conn., were granted a United States patent on a coffee or +tea pot. The same year, George E. Savage and G.W. Hope were granted two +United States patents on coffee or tea pots, also assigned to Manning, +Bowman & Co.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Enterprise_Hand_Store_Mill" id="Enterprise_Hand_Store_Mill"></a> +<img src="images/image524.jpg" width="300" height="501" alt="Enterprise Hand Store Mill" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Enterprise Hand Store Mill</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1904, Sigmund Sternau, J.P. Steppe, and L. Strassberger, assignors to +S. Sternau & Co., New York, were granted a United States patent on a +percolator. Six others were granted to Charles Nelson, and assigned to +S. Sternau & Co., in 1912 and 1913, for a percolator, the manufacture +and sale of which were discontinued in 1915.</p> + +<p>In 1905, a celebrated case was decided in Kansas City involving +litigation between William E. Baker, of Baker & Co., Minneapolis, and +the F.A. Duncombe Manufacturing Co., of St. Joseph, Mo., over Mr. +Baker's patent rights in a machine to produce steel-cut coffee. The suit +was brought in 1903, and Mr. Baker contended that his patent gave him +the exclusive right to the "uniformity of granules by means of the +sharply dressed mechanism" and by the use of a fan for blowing away the +silver skins, produced by his machine; while the defendant said he +obtained the same result (steel-cut coffee) by grading the granules +through screens or sieves. The defense was that Mr. Baker's process was +not a discovery; because, grinding coffee was as old as the world's +knowledge, and winnowing the chaff was equally ancient. The lower court +dismissed the bill, because the "patents sued upon are devoid of +patentable invention"; and the United States Court of Appeals confirmed +the decision.</p> + +<p>In 1905, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New York, brought out his Private +Estate coffee maker, a clever combination of the French drip and filter +processes, employing a thin layer of Japanese paper as a filtering +agent. The same year, Finley Acker, of Philadelphia, was granted a +United States patent on a percolator employing two cylinders, perforated +on the sides, with a sheet of percolator paper placed between them to +act as a filtering medium.</p> + +<p>In 1906, George Savage and J.W. Chapman, assignors to Manning, Bowman & +Co. of Meriden, Conn., were granted a United States patent on a coffee +percolator.</p> + +<p>In 1906, Alonzo A. Warner, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New +Britain, Conn., was granted a United States patent on a coffee +percolator.</p> + +<p>In 1906, H.D. Kelly, Kansas City, was granted a United States patent on +the Kellum Automatic coffee urn, employing a coffee extractor in which +ground coffee is continually agitated before percolation by a vacuum +process. Sixteen patents followed.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650">[Pg 650]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="LATEST_TYPES_OF_ELECTRIC_STORE_MILLS" id="LATEST_TYPES_OF_ELECTRIC_STORE_MILLS"></a> +<img src="images/image525.jpg" width="500" height="346" alt="LATEST TYPES OF ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN STORE MILLS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">LATEST TYPES OF ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN STORE MILLS</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651">[Pg 651]</a></span></p><p>In 1907, Desiderio Pavoni, of Milan, Italy, was granted a patent in +Italy for an improvement on the Bezzara system for preparing and serving +coffee as a rapid infusion of a single cup, first introduced in +1903–1904. It is known as the Ideale urn, and makes 150 cups per hour. +Among other Italian rapid coffee-making machines which, with this one, +have attained considerable prominence in Europe and South America, +mention should be made of La Victoria Arduino made by Pier Teresio +Arduino, of Turin, Italy, introduced in 1909, that makes 1000 cups per +hour. It was patented in the United States in 1920. There are, also, +L'Italiana Sovereign Filter Machine (1440 cups per hour) made by Bossi, +Vernetti & Bartolini, Turin, (subsequently merged with La Victoria +Arduino-Societa Anonima); and José Baro's Express, Buenos Aires, making +600 cups an hour.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Italian_Rapid_Coffee-Making_Machines" id="Italian_Rapid_Coffee-Making_Machines"></a> +<img src="images/image526.jpg" width="500" height="305" alt="Types of Italian Rapid Coffee-Making Machines" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Types of Italian Rapid Coffee-Making Machines</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">The Ideale Machine (Center) Makes 150 Cups of Coffee an +Hour. The Machine at the Left Makes 1,000 Cups an Hour</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">A Machine of the Type of the One at the Right will Produce from 1,440 to +1,800 Cups of Coffee an Hour</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1908, A.E. White, Chicago, was granted a United States patent on a +coffee urn. He assigned it to the James Heekin Co., of Cincinnati.</p> + +<p>In 1908, I.D. Richheimer, Chicago, introduced his Tricolator to the +trade and the consumer. This is an aluminum device to fit any coffee +pot, combining French drip and filtration ideas, with Japanese paper as +the filtration medium.</p> + +<p>In 1908, an improved type of Burns roaster was patented in the United +States. The improvement consisted of an open perforated cylinder with +flexible back-head and balanced front bearing. The following year, the +Burns tilting sample-roaster for gas or electric heating units was +patented.</p> + +<p>In 1909, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New York, was granted a United States +patent on a coffee urn fitted with a centrifugal pump for repouring.</p> + +<p>In 1909, C.F. Blanke, of St. Louis, was granted two United States +patents on a china coffee pot with a cloth filter, the sides tightly, +and the bottom loosely, woven.</p> + +<p>In 1911, Edward Aborn, of New York, was granted a United States patent +on his Make-Right coffee-filter device. This was later incorporated with +improvements in a Tru-Bru coffee pot, on which he was granted another +patent in 1920.</p> + +<p>In 1912, John E. King, of Detroit, was granted a United States patent on +an improved coffee percolator for restaurants, employing a sheet of +filter paper on a ring in a metal basket; the ring to be removed once +the filter paper was in position on the perforated bottom plate of the +percolator basket.</p> + +<p>In 1913, F.F. Wear, Los Angeles, perfected a coffee-making device in +which a metal perforated clamp was employed to apply a filter paper to +the under-side of an English earthenware adaptation of the French drip +pot.</p> + +<p>In 1912, William Lawton demonstrated in London a gas coffee roaster of +his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652">[Pg 652]</a></span> invention, by means of which he roasted coffee "in suspension" +to a light brown color in three minutes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Working_of_Italian_Rapid_Machines" id="Working_of_Italian_Rapid_Machines"></a> +<img src="images/image527.jpg" width="500" height="164" alt="Showing How the Italian Rapid Coffee Machine Works" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Showing How the Italian Rapid Coffee Machine Works</span><br /> +<small>Left, putting coffee in the filter—Center, applying filter to +faucet—Right, turning on water and steam to make the drink</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Hobart Electric Manufacturing Co., +Troy, Ohio, was granted a United States patent on a machine for refining +coffee in 1913.</p> + +<p>In 1914, the Phylax coffee maker, embodying an improvement on the French +drip principle, was introduced to the trade. The process was +demonstrated by Benjamin H. Calkin, of Detroit, in 1921, as "an art of +brewing coffee."</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="La_Victoria_Arduino_Mignonne" id="La_Victoria_Arduino_Mignonne"></a> +<img src="images/image528.jpg" width="300" height="464" alt="La Victoria Arduino Mignonne" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">La Victoria Arduino Mignonne</span><br /> +<small>An electric rapid coffee maker</small></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1914, Robert Burns, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, was +granted a United States patent on a coffee-granulating mill.</p> + +<p>In 1914–15, Herbert Galt, of Chicago, was granted three United States +patents on the Gait coffee pot, made of aluminum, and having two parts, +a removable cylinder employing the French drip principle, and the +containing pot.</p> + +<p>In 1915, the Burns Jubilee (inner-heated) gas coffee roaster was +patented in the United States and put on the market.</p> + +<p>In 1915, the National Coffee Roasters Association Home coffee mill, +employing an improved set screw operating on a cog-and ratchet +principle, was introduced to the trade.</p> + +<p>In 1916, a United States patent was granted to I.D. Richheimer, Chicago, +for an infuser improvement on his Tricolator.</p> + +<p>In 1916, Saul Blickman, assignor to S. Blickman, New York, was granted a +United States patent on an apparatus for making and dispensing coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1916, Orville W. Chamberlain, New Orleans, was granted a United +States patent on an automatic drip coffee pot.</p> + +<p>In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind., obtained two United States +patents on cutting rolls to cut—and not to grind or crush—corn, wheat, +or coffee. These were subsequently incorporated in the Ideal steel-cut +coffee mill and marketed to the trade by the B.F. Gump Co., Chicago.</p> + +<p>In 1917, Richard A. Greene and William G. Burns, assignors to Jabez +Burns <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_653" id="Page_653">[Pg 653]</a></span>& Sons, New York, were granted patents in the United States on +the Burns flexible-arm cooler (for roasted batches) providing full +fan-suction to a cooler box at all points in its track travel.</p> + +<p>In 1919, Joseph F. Smart, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New +Britain, Conn., was granted a United States patent on a percolator.</p> + +<p>In 1919, Charles Morgan, assignor to the Arcade Manufacturing Co., +Freeport, Ill., was granted a United States patent on an improved +grinding mill.</p> + +<p>In 1919, Edward F. Schnuck, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, +was granted a United States patent on an improvement for a gas coffee +roaster. In 1920, he was granted a United States patent on an improved +process of twice cutting coffee and removing the chaff after each +cutting.</p> + +<p>In 1920, Natale de Mattei, of Turin, Italy, was granted a United States +patent on a rapid coffee-filtering machine.</p> + +<p>In 1920, Frederick H. Muller, of Chicago, was granted a United States +patent on "an art of making coffee," and on an improved apparatus for +hotels and restaurants, which comprised a series of superposed metal +containers, or cartridges, of ground coffee placed in a perforated +bucket designed to rest in a coffee urn, the cartridges being lifted out +as the boiling water poured on them sinks with the drawing off of the +"decoction" at the faucet.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="NCRA and Manthey-Zorn"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="NCRA_Home_Coffee_Mill" id="NCRA_Home_Coffee_Mill"></a> +<img src="images/image529.jpg" width="300" height="428" alt="The N.C.R.A. Home Coffee Mill" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The N.C.R.A. Home Coffee Mill</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Manthey-Zorn_Rapid_Infuser_and_Dispenser" id="Manthey-Zorn_Rapid_Infuser_and_Dispenser"></a> +<img src="images/image530.jpg" width="300" height="406" alt="The Manthey-Zorn Rapid Coffee Infuser and Dispenser" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Manthey-Zorn Rapid Coffee Infuser and Dispenser</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In 1920, Alfredo M. Salazar, of New York, was granted a United States +patent on a coffee urn in which the coffee is made at the time of +serving by using steam pressure to force the boiling water through +ground coffee held in a cloth sack attached to the faucet.</p> + +<p>In 1920, William H. Bruning, Evansville, Ind., was granted a United +States patent on an improved French drip pot made of aluminum and +provided with a vacuum jacket in the dripper section, and a hot-water +jacket in the serving portion, to keep the beverage hot.</p> + +<p>In 1921, the Manthey-Zorn Laboratories Co., of Cleveland, brought out a +rapid coffee-infuser and dispenser employing in the infuser a +centrifugal to make an extract in thirty-eight seconds, and designed to +deliver a gallon of concentrated liquid, or coffee base, every three +minutes. The dispenser automatically combines the coffee base with +boiling water in a differential faucet in the proportion desired, +usually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654">[Pg 654]</a></span> one of base to four of water. The dispenser serves 600 cups per +hour. An additional faucet may be added which will double the capacity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Tricolette_Single_Cup_Filter_Device" id="Tricolette_Single_Cup_Filter_Device"></a> +<img src="images/image531.jpg" width="300" height="385" alt="The Tricolette, a Paper-Filter Device for a Single Cup" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Tricolette, a Paper-Filter Device for a Single Cup</span><br /> +<small>Above; In position on cup—Below; opened, showing parts</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Among foreign coffee makers applying the French drip principle, the +Vienna coffee-making machine, known in the United States as the Bohemian +coffee pot, has met with much favor in this country. Elsewhere it is +known as the Carlsbad. It is made of china, and the European +manufacturer has a patent on the porcelain strainer, or grid, which is +provided with slits that are very fine on the inner side but that widen +on the outer side to permit careful straining and to facilitate +cleaning.</p> + +<p>Some of the latest developments in coffee apparatus were shown at the +industrial exposition at the National Coffee Roasters Association, held +in New York, November 1–3, 1921. Among items of distinction not +heretofore included in this work, mention should be made of: an +American-French coffee biggin, being a French drip pot made of American +porcelain and fitted with a muslin strainer; a glass urn-liner, intended +to supplant the porcelain liner; and an electric repouring pump, +designed to be attached to any type of coffee urn.</p> + +<p>Careful research of the records of the United States patent office +discloses that the number of patents relating to coffee apparatus and +coffee preparations, issued from 1789 to 1921, is as follows:</p> + + + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="United States Coffee Patents"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">United States Coffee Patents</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td class='tdlpl2'><i>Devices</i></td> + <td align='right'><i>Patents</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Coffee Mills</td> + <td align='right'>185</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Coffee-roasting devices, and improvements thereon</td> + <td align='right'>312</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Coffee-making devices</td> + <td align='right'>835</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Coffee-cleaning, hulling, drying, polishing, and plantation machinery in general</td> + <td align='right'>175</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Miscellaneous patents (for coating, glazing, treated coffees, substitutes, etc.)</td> + <td align='right'>300</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl2'>Total</td> + <td align='right'>1,807</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It must be borne in mind that there was a number of patents granted on +machines that were intended for, and used for, coffee, but that did not +mention coffee in the specifications. Many coffee driers were listed as +"grain driers," for instance. Also, many excellent devices have been +made that were never patented.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655">[Pg 655]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXXV" id="Chapter_XXXV"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXXV</span></h2> + +<h3>WORLD'S COFFEE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading +civilized countries—The Arabian coffee ceremony—The present-day +coffee houses of Turkey—Twentieth-century improvements in Europe +and the United States</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">C</span><span class="caps">offee</span> manners and customs have shown little change in the Orient in the +six hundred-odd years since the coffee drink was discovered by Sheik +Omar in Arabia. As a beverage for western peoples, however, and more +particularly in America, there have been many improvements in making and +serving it.</p> + +<p>A brief survey of the coffee conventions and coffee service in the +principal countries where coffee has become a fixed item in the dietary +is presented here, with a view to show how different peoples have +adapted the universal drink to their national needs and preferences.</p> + +<p>To proceed in alphabetical order, and beginning with Africa, coffee +drinking is indulged in largely in Abyssinia, Algeria, Egypt, Portuguese +East Africa, and the Union of South Africa.</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Coffee Manners and Customs in Africa</i></p> + +<p>In Abyssinia and Somaliland, among the native population, the most +primitive methods of coffee making still obtain. Here the wandering +Galla still mix their pulverized coffee beans with fats as a food +ration, and others of the native tribes favor the <i>kisher</i>, or beverage +made from the toasted coffee hulls. An hour's boiling produces a +straw-colored decoction, of a slightly sweetish taste. Where the Arabian +customs have taken root, the drink is prepared from the roasted beans +after the Arabian and Turkish method. The white inhabitants usually +prepare and serve the beverage as in the homeland; so that it is +possible to obtain it after the English, French, German, Greek, or +Italian styles. Adaptations of the French sidewalk café, and of the +Turkish coffee house, may be seen in the larger towns.</p> + +<p>In the equatorial provinces of Egypt, and in Uganda, the natives eat the +raw berries; or first cook them in boiling water, dry them in the sun, +and then eat them. It is a custom to exchange coffee beans in friendly +greeting.</p> + +<p>Individual earthen vessels for making coffee, painted red and yellow, +are made by some of the native tribes in Abyssinia, and usually +accompany disciples of Islam when they journey to Mecca, where the +vessels find a ready sale among the pilgrims, most of whom are +coffee-devotees.</p> + +<p>Turkish and Arabian coffee customs prevail in Algeria and Egypt, +modified to some extent by European contact. The Moorish cafés of Cairo, +Tunis, and Algiers have furnished inspiration and copy for writers, +artists, and travelers for several centuries. They change little with +the years. The <i>mazagran</i>—sweetened cold coffee to which water or ice +has been added—originated in Algeria. It probably took its name from +the fortress of the same name reserved to France by the treaty of the +Tafna in 1837. It is said that the French colonial troops were first +served with a drink made from coffee syrup and cold water on marches +near Mazagran, formerly spelled Masagran. Upon their return to the +French capital, they introduced the idea, with the added fillip of +service in tall glasses, in their favorite cafés, where it became known +as <i>café mazagran</i>. Variants are coffee syrup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_656" id="Page_656">[Pg 656]</a></span> with seltzer, and with +hot water. "This fashion of serving coffee in glasses", says Jardin, +"has no <i>raison d'être</i>, and nothing can justify abandoning the cup for +coffee."</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Moorish_Coffee_House_in_Algiers" id="Moorish_Coffee_House_in_Algiers"></a> +<img src="images/image532.jpg" width="300" height="169" alt="Moorish Coffee House in Algiers" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Moorish Coffee House in Algiers</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In the principal streets and public squares of any town in Algeria it is +a common sight to find a group of Arabs squatting about a portable +stove, and a table on which cups are in readiness to receive the boiling +coffee. The thirsty Arab approaches the dealer, and for a modest sum he +gets his drink and goes his way; unless he prefers to go inside the +café, where he may get several drinks and linger over them, sitting on a +mat with his legs crossed and smoking his <i>chibouque</i>. Indeed, this is a +typical scene throughout the Near East, where sheds or coffee +tents—sketches of the more pretentious coffee houses—coffee shops, and +itinerant coffee-venders are to be met at almost every turn.</p> + +<p>In an unpublished work, Baron Antoine Rousseau and Th. Roland de Bussy +have the following description of a typical Moorish café at Algiers:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">We entered without ceremony into a narrow deep cave, decorated with +the name of the café. On the right and on the left, along its +length, were two benches covered with mats; notched cups, tongs, a +box of brown sugar, all placed near a small stove, completed the +furniture of the place. In the evening, the dim light from a lamp +hanging from the ceiling shows the indistinct figures of a double +row of natives listening to the nasal cadences of a band who play a +pizzicato accompaniment on small three-stringed violins.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Here, as in Europe, the cafés are the providential rendezvous for +idlers and gossips, exchanges for real-estate brokers and players +at cards.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Europeans recently arrived frequent them particularly. Some go only +to satisfy their curiosity; others out of an inborn scorn for the +customs of civilization. They go to sleep as Frenchmen, they awake +Mohammedans! Their love for "Turkish art" only leads them to haunt +the native shops and to affect oriental poses.</p> + +<p class="quot1">If we quit for a moment the interior of the city to follow between +two hedgerows of mastics or aloes, one of those capricious paths +which lead one, now up to the summit of a hill, now to the depths +of some ravine, very soon the tones of a rustic flute, the +modulations of the <i>Djou-wak</i>, will betray some cool and peaceful +retreat, some rustic café, easily recognized by its facade, pierced +with large openings. To my eyes, nothing equals the charm of these +little buildings scattered here and there along the edges of a +stream, sheltered under the thick foliage, and constantly enlivened +by the coming and going of the husbandmen of the neighborhood.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Certain old Moors from the neighboring districts, fleeing the +noises of the city, are the faithful habitués of these agreeable +retreats. Here they instal themselves at dawn, and know how to +enjoy every moment of their day with tales of their travels and +youthful adventures, and many a legend for which their imagination +takes all the responsibility.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_House_in_Cairo" id="Coffee_House_in_Cairo"></a> +<img src="images/image533.jpg" width="300" height="448" alt="Coffee House in Cairo" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee House in Cairo</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 319px;"><br /><a name="HULLING_COFFEE_IN_ADEN_ARABIA" id="HULLING_COFFEE_IN_ADEN_ARABIA"></a> +<img src="images/plate17.jpg" width="319" height="500" alt="HULLING COFFEE IN ADEN, ARABIA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">HULLING COFFEE IN ADEN, ARABIA</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_657" id="Page_657">[Pg 657]</a></span></p><p>Gérôme's painting of the "Coffee House at Cairo," which hangs in the +Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, gives one a good idea of the +atmosphere of the Egyptian café. The preparation and service is modified +Turkish-Arabian. The coffee is ground to a powder, boiled in an <i>ibrik</i> +with the addition of sugar, and served frothing in small cups. +Story-tellers, singers, and dancers furnish amusement as of yore. The +Oriental customs have not changed much in this respect. Trolley cars, +victorias, and taxis may have replaced the donkeys in the new sections +of the larger Egyptian cities; but in old Alexandria and Cairo, the +approach to the native coffee house is as dirty and as odorous as ever. +Coffee is always served in all business transactions. Nowadays, the +Egyptian women chew gum and the men smoke cigarettes, French department +stores offer bargain sales, and the hotels advertise tea dances; but the +Egyptian coffee drink is still the tiny cup of coffee grounds and sugar +that it was three hundred years ago, when sugar was first used to +sweeten coffee in Cairo.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_Service_in_Cairo_Barber_Shop" id="Coffee_Service_in_Cairo_Barber_Shop"></a> +<img src="images/image534.jpg" width="500" height="275" alt="Coffee Service at a Barber Shop in Cairo" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Service at a Barber Shop in Cairo</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In Portuguese East Africa, the natives prepare and drink coffee after +the approved African native fashion, but the white population follows +European customs. In the Union of South Africa, Dutch and English +customs prevail in making and serving the beverage.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Manners and Customs in Asia</i></p> + +<p>"Arabia the Happy" deserves to be called "the Blest", if only for its +gift of coffee to the world. Here it was that the virtues of the drink +were first made known; here the plant first received intensive +cultivation. After centuries of habitual use of the beverage, we find +the Arabs, now as then, one of the strongest and noblest races of the +world, mentally superior to most of them, generally healthy, and growing +old so gracefully that the faculties of the mind seldom give way sooner +than those of the body. They are an ever living earnest of the +healthfulness of coffee.</p> + +<p>The Arabs are proverbially hospitable; and the symbol of their +hospitality for a thousand years has been the great drink of +democracy—coffee. Their very houses are built around the cup of human +brotherhood. William Wallace,<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a> writing on Arabian philosophy, +manners, and customs, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The principal feature of an Arab house is the <i>kahwah</i> or coffee +room. It is a large apartment spread with mats, and sometimes +furnished with carpets and a few cushions. At one end is a small +furnace or fireplace for preparing coffee. In this room the men +congregate; here guests are received, and even lodged; women rarely +enter it, except at times when strangers are unlikely to be +present. Some of these apartments are very spacious and supported +by pillars; one wall is usually built transversely to the compass +direction of the <i>Ka'ba</i> (sacred shrine of Mecca). It serves to +facilitate the performance of prayer by those who may happen to be +in the <i>kahwah</i> at the appointed times.</p></div> + +<p>Several rounds of coffee, without milk or sugar, but sometimes flavored +with cardamom seeds, are served to the guest at first welcome; and +coffee may be had at all hours<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_658" id="Page_658">[Pg 658]</a></span> between meals, or whenever the occasion +demands it. Always the beans are freshly roasted, pounded, and boiled. +The Arabs average twenty-five to thirty cups (findjans) a day. +Everywhere in Arabia there are to be found cafés where the beverage may +be bought.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Coffee_Laden_Camels_Arabia" id="Coffee_Laden_Camels_Arabia"></a> +<img src="images/image535.jpg" width="300" height="168" alt="Ships of the Desert Laden with Coffee, Arabia" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Ships of the Desert Laden with Coffee, Arabia</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Those of the lower classes are thronged throughout the day. In front, +there is generally a porch or bench where one may sit. The rooms, +benches, and little chairs lack the cleanliness and elegance of the +one-time luxurious "<i>caffinets</i>" of cities like Damascus and +Constantinople, but the drink is the same. There is not in all Yemen a +single market town or hamlet where one does not find upon some simple +hut the legend, "Shed for drinking coffee".</p> + +<p>The Arab drinks water before taking coffee, but never after it. "Once in +Syria", says a traveler, "I was recognized as a foreigner because I +asked for water just after I had taken my coffee. 'If you belonged +here', said the waiter, 'you would not spoil the taste of coffee in your +mouth by washing it away with water.'"</p> + +<p>It is an adventure to partake of coffee prepared in the open, at a +roadside inn, or khan, in Arabia by an <i>araba</i>, or diligence driver. He +takes from his saddle-bag the ever-present coffee kit, containing his +supply of green beans, of which he roasts just sufficient on a little +perforated iron plate over an open fire, deftly taking off the beans, +one at a time, as they turn the right color. Then he pounds them in a +mortar, boils his water in the long, straight-handled open boiler, or +<i>ibrik</i> (a sort of brass mug or <i>jezveh</i>), tosses in the coffee powder, +moving the vessel back and forth from the fire as it boils up to the +rim; and, after repeating this maneuver three times, pours the contents +foaming merrily into the little egg-like serving cups.</p> + +<p><i>Cafée sultan</i>, or <i>kisher</i>, the original decoction, made from dried and +toasted coffee hulls, is still being drunk in parts of Arabia and +Turkey.</p> + +<p>Coffee in Arabia is part of the ritual of business, as in other Oriental +countries. Shop-keepers serve it to the customer before the argument +starts. Recently, a New York barber got some valuable publicity because +he regaled his customers with tea and music. It was "old stuff". The +Arabian and Turkish barber shops have been serving coffee, tobacco, and +sweetmeats to their customers for centuries.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Arabian_Coffee_House" id="Arabian_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image536.jpg" width="300" height="223" alt="An Arabian Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Arabian Coffee House</span></span> +</div> + +<p>For a faithful description of the ancient coffee ceremony of the Arabs, +which, with slight modification, is still observed in Arabian homes, we +turn to Palgrave. First he describes the dwelling and then the ceremony:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The K'hāwah was a large oblong hall, about twenty feet in +height, fifty in length, and sixteen, or thereabouts, in breadth; +the walls were coloured in a rudely decorative manner with brown +and white wash, and sunk here and there into small triangular +recesses, destined to the reception of books, though of these +Ghafil at least had no over-abundance, lamps, and other such like +objects. The roof of timber, and flat; the floor was strewed with +fine clean sand, and garnished all round alongside of the walls +with long strips of carpet, upon which cushions, covered with faded +silk, were disposed at suitable intervals. In poorer houses felt +rugs usually take the place of carpets.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In one corner, namely, that furthest removed from the door, stood a +small fireplace, or, to speak more exactly, furnace, formed of a +large square block of granite, or some other hard stone, about +twenty inches each way; this is hollowed inwardly into a deep +funnel, open above, and communicating below with a small horizontal +tube or pipe-hole, through which the air passes, bellows-driven, to +the lighted charcoal piled up on a grating about half-way inside +the cone. In this manner the fuel is soon brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_659" id="Page_659">[Pg 659]</a></span> to a white heat, +and the water in the coffee-pot placed upon the funnel's mouth is +readily brought to boil. The system of coffee furnaces is universal +in Djowf and Djebel Shomer, but in Nejed itself, and indeed in +whatever other yet more distant regions of Arabia I visited to the +south and east, the furnace is replaced by an open fireplace +hollowed in the ground floor, with a raised stone border, and +dog-irons for the fuel, and so forth, like what may be yet seen in +Spain. This diversity of arrangement, so far as Arabia is +concerned, is due to the greater abundance of firewood in the +south, whereby the inhabitants are enabled to light up on a larger +scale; whereas throughout the Djowf and Djebel Shomer wood is very +scarce, and the only fuel at hand is bad charcoal, often brought +from a considerable distance, and carefully husbanded.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Mohammedan_Brewing_Coffee_for_Guest" id="Mohammedan_Brewing_Coffee_for_Guest"></a> +<img src="images/image537.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="Brewing the Guest's Coffee in a Mohammedan Home" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Brewing the Guest's Coffee in a Mohammedan Home</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">This corner of the K'hāwah is also the place of distinction +whence honour and coffee radiate by progressive degrees round the +apartment, and hereabouts accordingly sits the master of the house +himself, or the guests whom he more especially delighteth to +honour.</p> + +<p class="quot1">On the broad edge of the furnace or fireplace, as the case may be, +stands an ostentatious range of copper coffee-pots, varying in size +and form. Here in the Djowf their make resembles that in vogue at +Damascus; but in Nejed and the eastern districts they are of a +different and much more ornamental fashioning, very tall and +slender, with several ornamental circles and mouldings in elegant +relief, besides boasting long beak-shaped spouts and high steeples +for covers. The number of these utensils is often extravagantly +great. I have seen a dozen at a time in a row by one fireside, +though coffee-making requires, in fact, only three at most. Here in +the Djowf five or six are considered to be the thing; for the south +this number must be doubled; all this to indicate the riches and +munificence of their owner, by implying the frequency of his guests +and the large amount of coffee that he is in consequence obliged to +have made for them.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Behind this stove sits, at least in wealthy houses, a black slave, +whose name is generally a diminutive in token of familiarity or +affection; in the present case it was Soweylim, the diminutive of +Sālim. His occupation is to make and pour out the coffee; where +there is no slave in the family, the master of the premises +himself, or perhaps one of his sons, performs that hospitable duty; +rather a tedious one, as we shall soon see.</p> + +<p class="quot1">We enter. On passing the threshold it is proper to say, +"<i>Bismillah</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, in the name of God;" not to do so would be +looked on as a bad augury alike for him who enters and for those +within. The visitor next advances in silence, till on coming about +half-way across the room, he gives to all present, but looking +specially at the master of the house, the customary +"<i>Es-salamu'aleykum</i>," or "Peace be with you," literally, "on you." +All this while every one else in the room has kept his place, +motionless, and without saying a word. But on receiving the salaam +of etiquette, the master of the house rises, and if a strict +Wahhābee, or at any rate desirous of seeming such, replies with +the full-length traditionary formula. "<i>W' 'aleykumu-s-salāmu, +w'rahmat' Ullahi w'barakátuh</i>," which is, as every one knows, "And +with (or, on) you be peace, and the mercy of God, and his +blessings." But should he happen to be of anti-Wahhābee +tendencies the odds are that he will say "<i>Marhaba</i>," or "<i>Ahlan w' +sahlan</i>," <i>i.e.</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_660" id="Page_660">[Pg 660]</a></span> "welcome" or "worthy, and pleasurable," or the +like; for of such phrases there is an infinite, but elegant +variety.</p> + +<p class="quot1">All present follow the example thus given, by rising and saluting. +The guest then goes up to the master of the house, who has also +made a step or two forwards, and places his open hand in the palm +of his host's, but without grasping or shaking, which would hardly +pass for decorous, and at the same time each repeats once more his +greeting, followed by the set phrases of polite enquiry, "How are +you?" "How goes the world with you?" and so forth, all in a tone of +great interest, and to be gone over three or four times, till one +or other has the discretion to say "<i>El hamdu l'illāh</i>," "Praise +be to God", or, in equivalent value, "all right," and this is a +signal for a seasonable diversion to the ceremonious interrogatory.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The guest then, after a little contest of courtesy, takes his seat +in the honoured post by the fireplace, after an apologetical +salutation to the black slave on the one side, and to his nearest +neighbour on the other. The best cushions and newest looking +carpets have been of course prepared for his honoured weight. Shoes +or sandals, for in truth the latter alone are used in Arabia, are +slipped off on the sand just before reaching the carpet, and there +they remain on the floor close by. But the riding stick or wand, +the inseparable companion of every true Arab, whether Bedouin or +townsman, rich or poor, gentle or simple, is to be retained in the +hand, and will serve for playing with during the pauses of +conversation, like the fan of our great-grandmothers in their days +of conquest.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Without delay Soweylim begins his preparations for coffee. These +open by about five minutes of blowing with the bellows and +arranging the charcoal till a sufficient heat has been produced. +Next he places the largest of the coffee-pots, a huge machine, and +about two-thirds full of clear water, close by the edge of the +glowing coal-pit, that its contents may become gradually warm while +other operations are in progress. He then takes a dirty knotted rag +out of a niche in the wall close by, and having untied it, empties +out of it three or four handfuls of unroasted coffee, the which he +places on a little trencher of platted grass, and picks carefully +out any blackened grains, or other non-homologous substances, +commonly to be found intermixed with the berries when purchased in +gross; then, after much cleansing and shaking, he pours the grain +so cleansed into a large open iron ladle, and places it over the +mouth of the funnel, at the same time blowing the bellows and +stirring the grains gently round and round till they crackle, +redden, and smoke a little, but carefully withdrawing them from the +heat long before they turn black or charred, after the erroneous +fashion of Turkey and Europe; after which he puts them to cool a +moment on the grass platter.</p> + +<p class="quot1">He then sets the warm water in the large coffee-pot over the fire +aperture, that it may be ready boiling at the right moment, and +draws in close between his own trouserless legs a large stone +mortar, with a narrow pit in the middle, just enough to admit the +large stone pestle of a foot long and an inch and a half thick, +which he now takes in hand. Next, pouring the half-roasted berries +into the mortar, he proceeds to pound them, striking right into the +narrow hollow with wonderful dexterity, nor ever missing his blow +till the beans are smashed, but not reduced into powder. He then +scoops them out, now reduced to a sort of coarse reddish grit, very +unlike the fine charcoal dust which passes in some countries for +coffee, and out of which every particle of real aroma has long +since been burnt or ground.</p> + +<p class="quot1">After all these operations, each performed with as intense a +seriousness and deliberate nicety as if the welfare of the entire +Djowf depended on it, he takes a smaller coffee-pot in hand, fills +it more than half with hot water from the larger vessel, and then +shaking the pounded coffee into it, sets it on the fire to boil, +occasionally stirring it with a small stick as the water rises to +check the ebullition and prevent overflowing. Nor is the boiling +stage to be long or vehement: on the contrary, it is and should be +as light as possible. In the interim he takes out of another +rag-knot a few aromatic seeds called heyl, an Indian product, but +of whose scientific name I regret to be wholly ignorant, or a +little saffron, and after slightly pounding these ingredients, +throws them into the simmering coffee to improve its flavour, for +such an additional spicing is held indispensable in Arabia though +often omitted elsewhere in the East. Sugar would be a totally +unheard of profanation. Last of all, he strains off the liquor +through some fibres of the inner palm-bark placed for that purpose +in the jug-spout, and gets ready the tray of delicate +parti-coloured grass, and the small coffee cups ready for pouring +out. All these preliminaries have taken up a good half-hour.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Meantime we have become engaged in active conversation with our +host and his friends. But our Sherarat guide, Suleyman, like a true +Bedouin, feels too awkward when among townsfolk to venture on the +upper places, though repeatedly invited, and accordingly has +squatted down on the sand near the entrance. Many of Ghāfil's +relations are present; their silver-decorated swords proclaim the +importance of the family. Others, too, have come to receive us, for +our arrival, announced beforehand by those we had met at the +entrance pass, is a sort of event in the town; the dress of some +betokens poverty, others are better clad, but all have a very +polite and decorous manner. Many a question is asked about our +native land and town, that is to say, Syria and Damascus, +conformably to the disguise already adopted, and which it was +highly important to keep well up; then follow enquiries regarding +our journey, our business, what we have brought with us, about our +medicines, our goods and wares, etc., etc. From the very first it +is easy for us to perceive that patients and purchasers are likely +to abound. Very few travelling merchants, if any, visit the Djowf +at this time of year, for one must be mad, or next door to it, to +rush into the vast desert around during the heats of June and July; +I for one have certainly no intention of doing it again. Hence we +had small danger of competitors, and found the market almost at our +absolute disposal.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">[Pg 661]</a></span></p><p class="quot1">But before a quarter of an hour has passed, and while blacky is +still roasting or pounding his coffee, a tall thin lad, Ghāfil's +eldest son, appears, charged with a large circular dish, +grass-platted like the rest, and throws it with a graceful jerk on +the sandy floor close before us. He then produces a large wooden +bowl full of dates, bearing in the midst of the heap a cup full of +melted butter; all this he places on the circular mat, and says, +"<i>Semmoo</i>," literally, "pronounce the Name", of God, understood; +this means "set to work at it." Hereon the master of the house +quits his place by the fireside and seats himself on the sand +opposite to us; we draw nearer to the dish, and four or five +others, after some respectful coyness, join the circle. Every one +then picks out a date or two from the juicy half-amalgamated mass, +dips them into the butter, and thus goes on eating till he has had +enough, when he rises and washes his hands.</p> + +<p class="quot1">By this time the coffee is ready, and Soweylim begins his round, +the coffee-pot in one hand; the tray and cups on the other. The +first pouring out he must in etiquette drink himself, by way of a +practical assurance that there is no "death in the pot;" the guests +are next served, beginning with those next the honourable fireside; +the master of the house receives his cup last of all. To refuse +would be a positive and unpardonable insult; but one has not much +to swallow at a time, for the coffee-cups, or finjans, are about +the size of a large egg-shell at most, and are never more than +half-filled. This is considered essential to good breeding, and a +brimmer would here imply exactly the reverse of what it does in +Europe; why it should be so I hardly know, unless perhaps the +rareness of cup-stands or "zarfs" (see Lane's "Modern Egyptians") +in Arabia, though these implements are universal in Egypt and +Syria, might render an over-full cup inconveniently hot for the +fingers that must grasp it without medium. Be that as it may, "fill +the cup for your enemy" is an adage common to all, Bedouins or +townsmen, throughout the Peninsula. The beverage itself is +singularly aromatic and refreshing, a real tonic, and very +different from the black mud sucked by the Levantine, or the watery +roast-bean preparations of France. When the slave or freeman, +according to circumstances, presents you with a cup, he never fails +to accompany it with a "<i>Semm'</i>," "say the name of God," nor must +you take it without answering "<i>Bismillah</i>."</p> + +<p class="quot1">When all have been thus served, a second round is poured out, but +in inverse order, for the host this time drinks first, and the +guests last. On special occasions, a first reception, for instance, +the ruddy liquor is a third time handed round; nay, a fourth cup is +sometimes added. But all these put together do not come up to +one-fourth of what a European imbibes in a single draught at +breakfast.</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Cafe and Early Service"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Native_Cafe_Harar" id="Native_Cafe_Harar"></a> +<img src="images/image538.jpg" width="300" height="246" alt="Native Café, Harar, Abyssinia" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Native Café, Harar, Abyssinia</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Early_Coffee_Tea_and_Chocolate_Service" id="Early_Coffee_Tea_and_Chocolate_Service"></a> +<img src="images/image539.jpg" width="300" height="378" alt="Early Manner of Serving Coffee, Tea and Chocolate" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early Manner of Serving Coffee, Tea and Chocolate</span><br /> +<small>From a drawing in Dufour's <i>Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du The +et du Chocolat</i></small></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>For a more recent pen picture of coffee manners and customs in Arabia, +we turn to Charles M. Daughty's "<i>Travels in Arabia Deserta</i>"<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Hirfa ever demanded of her husband towards which part should "the +house" be built. "Dress the face". Zeyd would answer, "to this +part", showing her with his hands the south, for if his booth's +face be all day turned to the hot sun there will come in fewer +young loitering and parasitical fellows that would be his +coffee-drinkers. Since the <i>sheukh</i>, or heads, alone receive their +tribes' <i>surra</i>, it is not much that they should be to the arms [of +his] coffee-hosts. I have seen Zeyd avoid [them] as he saw them +approach, or even rise ungraciously upon such men's presenting +themselves (the half of every booth, namely the men's side, is at +all times open, and any enter there that will, in the free<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_662" id="Page_662">[Pg 662]</a></span> +desert), and they murmuring he tells them, <i>wellah</i>, his affairs do +call him forth, adieu; he must away to the <i>mejlis</i>; go they and +seek the coffee elsewhere. But were there any <i>sheykh</i> with them, a +coffee lord, Zeyd could not honestly choose but abide and serve +them with coffee; and if he be absent himself, yet any <i>sheykhly</i> +man coming to a <i>sheykh's</i> tent, coffee must be made for him, +except he gently protest "<i>billah</i>, he would not drink." Hirfa, a +<i>sheykh's</i> daughter and his nigh kinswoman, was a faithful mate to +Zeyd in all his sparing policy.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Our <i>menzil</i> now standing, the men step over to Zeyd's coffee-fire, +if the <i>sheykh</i> be not gone forth to the <i>mejlis</i> to drink his +mid-day cup there. A few gathered sticks are flung down beside the +hearth; with flint and steel one stoops and strikes fire in tinder, +he blows and cherishes those seeds of the cheerful flame in some +dry camel-dung, sets the burning shred under dry straws, and +powders over more dry camel-dung. As the fire kindles, the <i>sheykh</i> +reaches for his <i>dellàl</i>, coffee pots, which are carried in the +<i>fatya</i>, coffee-gear basket; this people of a nomad life bestow +each thing of theirs in a proper <i>beyt</i>; it would otherwise be lost +in their daily removings. One rises to go to fill up the pots at +the water-skins, or a bowl of water is handed over the curtain from +the woman's side; the pot at the fire, Hirfa reaches over her +little palm-ful of green coffee berries.... These are roasted and +brayed; as all is boiling he sets out his little cups, <i>fenjeyl</i> +(for fenjeyn). When, with a pleasant gravity, he has unbuckled his +<i>gutia</i> or cup-box, we see the nomad has not above three or four +fenjeyns, wrapt in a rusty clout, with which he scours them busily, +as if this should make his cups clean. The roasted beans are +pounded amongst Arabs with a magnanimous rattle—and (as all their +labor) rhythmical—in brass of the town, or an old wooden mortar, +gaily studded with nails, the work of some nomad smith. The water +bubbling in the small <i>dellàl</i>, he casts in his fine coffee powder, +<i>el-bunn</i>, and withdraws the pot to simmer a moment. From a knot in +his kerchief he takes then a head of cloves, a piece of cinnamon or +other spice, <i>bahar</i>, and braying these he casts their dust in +after. Soon he pours out some hot drops to essay his coffee; if the +taste be to his liking, making dexterously a nest of all the cups +in his hand, with pleasant clattering, he is ready to pour out for +all the company, and begins upon his right hand; and first, if such +be present, to any considerable <i>sheykh</i> and principal persons. The +<i>fenjeyn kahwah</i> is but four sips; to fill it up to a guest, as in +the northern towns, were among Bedouins an injury, and of such +bitter meaning, "This drink thou and depart."</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Nubian_Slave_Girl_with_Coffee_Service" id="Nubian_Slave_Girl_with_Coffee_Service"></a> +<img src="images/image540.jpg" width="300" height="496" alt="Nubian Slave Girl with Coffee Service, Persia" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Nubian Slave Girl with Coffee Service, Persia</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Then is often seen a contention in courtesy amongst them, +especially in any greater assemblies, who shall drink first. Some +man that receives the <i>fenjeyn</i> in his turn will not drink yet—he +proffers it to one sitting in order under him, as to the more +honourable; but the other putting off with his hand will answer +<i>ebbeden</i>, "Nay, it shall never be, by Ullah! but do thou drink." +Thus licensed, the humble man is despatched in three sips, and +hands up his empty <i>fenjeyn</i>. But if he have much insisted, by this +he opens his willingness to be reconciled with one not his friend. +That neighbor, seeing the company of coffee-drinkers watching him, +may with an honest grace receive the cup, and let it seem not +willingly; but an hard man will sometimes rebut the other's gentle +proffer.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Some may have taken lower seats than becoming their <i>sheykhly</i> +blood, of which the nomads are jealous; entering untimely, they sat +down out of order, sooner than trouble all the company. A <i>sheykh</i>, +coming late and any business going forward, will often sit far out +in the assembly; and show himself a popular person in this kind of +honourable humility. The more inward in the booth is the higher +place; where also is, with the <i>sheykhs</i>, the seat of a stranger. +To sit in the loose circuit without and before the tent, is for the +common sort. A tribesman arriving presents himself at that part or +a little lower, where in the eyes of all men his pretension will be +well allowed; and in such observances of good nurture, is a nomad +man's honour among his tribesmen. And this is nigh all that serves +the nomad for a conscience, namely, that which men will hold of +him. A poor person, approaching from behind, stands obscurely, +wrapped in his tattered mantle, with grave ceremonial, until those +sitting indolently before him in the sand shall vouchsafe to take +notice of him; then they rise unwillingly, and giving back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_663" id="Page_663">[Pg 663]</a></span> enlarge +the coffee-circle to receive him. But if there arrive a <i>sheykh</i>, a +coffee-host, a richard amongst them of a few cattle, all the +coxcomb companions within will hail him with their pleasant +adulation <i>taad henneyi</i>, "Step thou up hither."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The astute Fukara <i>sheukh</i> surpass all men in their coffee-drinking +courtesy, and Zeyd himself was more than any large of this +gentlemen-like imposture: he was full of swaggering complacence and +compliments to an humbler person. With what suavity could he +encourage, and gently too compel a man, and rising himself yield +him parcel of another man's room! In such fashions Zeyd showed +himself a bountiful great man, who indeed was the greatest niggard. +The cups are drunk twice about, each one sipping after other's lips +without misliking; to the great coffee <i>sheykhs</i> the cup may be +filled more times, but this is an adulation of the coffee-server. +There are some of the Fukara <i>sheukh</i> so delicate Sybarites that of +those three bitter sips, to draw out all their joyance, twisting, +turning, and tossing again the cup, they could make ten. The +coffee-service ended, the grounds are poured out from the small +into the great store-pot that is reserved full of warm water; with +the bitter lye the nomads will make their next bever, and think +they spare coffee.</p></div> + +<p>Here is an Arabian recipe<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a> for making coffee as given by Kadhi +Hodhat, the best informed man of his time:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Tadj-Eddin-Aid-Almaknab-ben-Yacoub-Mekki Molki, chief of all the +cantons of Hedjaz, (May God have mercy on him!) I learned it when +once in his company at the time of the Holy Feasts.... He informed +me that nothing is more beneficial than to drink cold water before +coffee, because it lessens the dryness of the coffee and thus taken +it does not cause insomnia to the same degree. The poet did not +forget to explain this manner of taking coffee:</p> + +<p class="poem1"> +As with art 'tis prepared, one should drink it with art.<br /> +The mere commonplace drinks one absorbs with free heart;<br /> +But this—once with care from the bright flame removed,<br /> +And the lime set aside that its value has proved—<br /> +Take it first in deep draughts, meditative and slow,<br /> +Quit it now, now resume, thus imbibe with gusto;<br /> +While charming the palate it burns yet enchants,<br /> +In the hour of its triumph the virtue it grants<br /> +Penetrates every tissue; its powers condense.<br /> +Circulate cheering warmths, bring new life to each sense.<br /> +From the cauldron profound spiced aromas unseen<br /> +Mount to tease and delight your olfactories keen,<br /> +The while you inhale with felicity fraught,<br /> +The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has brought.<br /> +</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Persian_Coffee_Service_1737" id="Persian_Coffee_Service_1737"></a> +<img src="images/image541.jpg" width="300" height="475" alt="Persian Coffee Service, 1737" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Persian Coffee Service, 1737</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Gone are the "luxurious and magnificent" coffee houses of Constantinople +(if they ever existed—at least as we understand luxury and +magnificence) which first brought the beverage world-wide fame; such +<i>caffinets</i> as the one pictured by Thomas Allom and described by the +Rev. Robert Walsh, in <i>Constantinople, Illustrated</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The caffinet, or coffee-house, is something more splendid, and the +Turk expends all his notions of finery and elegance on this, his +favorite place of indulgence. The edifice is generally decorated in +a very gorgeous manner, supported on pillars, and open in front. It +is surrounded on the inside by a raised platform, covered with mats +or cushions, on which the Turks sit cross-legged. On one side are +musicians, generally Greeks, with mandolins and tambourines, +accompanying singers, whose melody consists in vociferation; and +the loud and obstreperous concert forms a strong contrast to the +stillness and taciturnity of Turkish meetings. On the opposite side +are men, generally of a respectable class, some of whom are found +here every day, and all day long, dozing under the double influence +of coffee and tobacco. The coffee is served in very small cups, not +larger than egg-cups, grounds and all, without cream or sugar, and +so black, thick, and bitter that it has been aptly compared to +"stewed soot". Besides the ordinary chibouk for tobacco, there is +another implement, called narghillai, used for smoking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_664" id="Page_664">[Pg 664]</a></span> in a +caffinet, of a more elaborate construction. It consists of a glass +vase, filled with water, and often scented with distilled rose or +other flowers. This is surmounted with a silver or brazen head, +from which issues a long flexible tube; a pipe-bowl is placed on +the top, and so constructed that the smoke is drawn, and comes +bubbling up through the water, cool and fragrant to the mouth. A +peculiar kind of tobacco, grown at Shiraz in Persia, and resembling +small pieces of cut leather, is used with this instrument.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="In_a_Turkish_Coffee_House" id="In_a_Turkish_Coffee_House"></a> +<img src="images/image542.jpg" width="300" height="196" alt="In a Turkish Coffee House" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">In a Turkish Coffee House</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Certainly there never was any such thing as a coffee-house architecture. +It may be that up to the time of Abdul Hamid, when money was more +plentiful than it has been for the past fifty years, there were coffee +houses more comfortably appointed than now exist.</p> + +<p>The coffee house in a modernized form is, however, quite as numerous in +Turkey as in the days of Amurath III and the notorious Kuprili.</p> + +<p>H.G. Dwight<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a> writing on the present day Turkish coffee house, says:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Roasting_Coffee_Outside_a_Turkish_Cafe" id="Roasting_Coffee_Outside_a_Turkish_Cafe"></a> +<img src="images/image543.jpg" width="300" height="223" alt="Roasting Coffee Before a Café, Turkey" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Roasting Coffee Before a Café, Turkey</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">There are thoroughfares in any Turkish city that carry on almost no +other form of traffic. There is no quarter so miserable or so +remote as to be without one or two. They are the clubs of the +poorer classes. Men of a street, a trade, a province, or a +nationality—for a Turkish coffee-house may also be Albanian, +Armenian, Greek, Hebrew, Kurd, almost anything you please—meet +regularly when their work is done, at coffee-houses kept by their +own people. So much are the humbler coffee-houses frequented by a +fixed clientèle that a student of types or dialects may realize for +himself how truly they used to be called Schools of Knowledge.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The arrangement of a Turkish coffee-house is of the simplest. The +essential is that the place should provide the beverage for which +it exists and room for enjoying the same. A sketch of a coffee-shop +may often be seen on the street, in a scrap of shade or sunshine +according to the season, where a stool or two invite the passer-by +to a moment of contemplation. Larger establishments, though they +are rarely very large, are most often installed in a room longer +than it is wide, having as many windows as possible at the street +end and what we would call the bar at the other. It is a bar that +always makes me regret I do not etch, with its pleasing curves, its +high lights of brass and porcelain striking out of deep shadow, and +its usually picturesque <i>kahvehji</i>.</p> + +<p class="quot1">You do not stand at it. You sit on one of the benches running down +the sides of the room. They are more or less comfortably cushioned, +though sometimes higher and broader than a foreigner finds to his +taste. In that case you slip off your shoes, if you would do as the +Romans do, and tuck your feet up under you. A table stands in front +of you to hold your coffee—and often in summer an aromatic pot of +basil to keep the flies away. Chairs or stools are scattered about. +Decorative Arabic texts, sometimes wonderful prints, adorn the +walls. There may even be hanging rugs and china to entertain your +eyes. And there you are.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The habit of the coffee-house is one that requires a certain +leisure. You must not bolt coffee as you bolt the fire-waters of +the West, without ceremony, in retreats withdrawn from the public +eye. Being a less violent and a less shameful passion, I suppose, +it is indulged in with more of the humanities. The etiquette of the +coffee-house, of those coffee-houses which have not been too much +infected by Europe, is one of their most characteristic features. +Something like it prevails in Italy, where you tip your hat on +entering and leaving a <i>caffè</i>. In Turkey, however, I have seen a +new-comer salute one after another each person in a crowded +coffee-room, once on entering the door and again after taking his +seat, and be so saluted in return—either by putting the right hand +to the heart and uttering the greeting <i>Merhabah</i>, or by making the +<i>temennah</i>, that triple sweep of the hand which is the most +graceful of salutes. I have also seen an entire company rise upon +the entrance of an old man, and yield him the corner of honor.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Such courtesies take time. Then you must wait for your coffee to be +made. To this end coffee, roasted fresh as required by turning in +an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_665" id="Page_665">[Pg 665]</a></span> iron cylinder over a fire of sticks and ground to the fineness +of powder in a brass mill, is put into a small uncovered brass pot +with a long handle. There it is boiled to a froth three times on a +charcoal brazier, with or without sugar as you prefer. But to +desecrate it by the admixture of milk is an unheard of sacrilege. +Some <i>kahvehjis</i> replace the pot in the embers with a smart rap in +order to settle the grounds. You in the meanwhile smoke. That also +takes time, particularly if you "drink" a <i>narguileh</i>, as the Turks +say. This is familiar enough in the West to require no great +description. It is a big carafe with a metal top for holding +tobacco and a long coil of leather tube for inhaling the +water-cooled fumes thereof. The effect is wonderfully soothing and +innocent at first, though wonderfully deadly in the end to the +novice. The tobacco used is not the ordinary weed, but a much +coarser and stronger one called <i>tunbeki</i>, which comes from Persia. +The same sort of tobacco used to be smoked a great deal in shallow +red earthenware pipes with long mouthpieces. They are now chiefly +seen in antiquity shops.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Turkish_Caffinet_Early_19th_Century" id="Turkish_Caffinet_Early_19th_Century"></a> +<img src="images/image544.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="Interior of a Turkish Caffinet, Early Nineteenth +Century—after Allan" title="" /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Interior of a Turkish Caffinet, Early Nineteenth +Century—after Allan</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">When your coffee is ready it is poured into an after-dinner +coffee-cup or into a miniature bowl, and brought to you on a tray +with a glass of water. A foreigner can almost always be spotted by +the manner in which he finally partakes of these refreshments. A +Turk sips his water first, partly to prepare the way for the +coffee, but also because he is a connoisseur of the former liquid +as other men are of stronger ones. And he lifts his coffee-cup by +the saucer, whether it possess a handle or no, managing the two +together in a dexterous way of his own. The current price for all +this, not including the water-pipe, is ten paras—a trifle over a +cent—for which the <i>kahvehji</i> will cry you "Blessing". More +pretentious establishments charge twenty paras, while a giddy few +rise to a piaster—not quite five cents—or a piaster and a half. +That, however, begins to look like extortion. And mark that you do +not tip the waiter. I have often been surprised to be charged no +more than the tariff, although I gave a larger piece to be changed +and it was perfectly evident that I was a foreigner. That is an +experience which rarely befalls a traveller among his own +coreligionaries. It has even happened to me, which is rarer still, +to be charged nothing at all, nay, to be steadfastly refused when I +persisted in attempting to pay, simply because I was a foreigner, +and therefore a guest.</p> + +<p class="quot1">There is no reason, however, why you should go away when you have +had your coffee—or your glass of tea—and your smoke. On the +contrary, there are reasons why you should stay, particularly if +you happen into the coffee-house not too long after sunset. Then +coffee-houses of the most local color are at their best. Earlier in +the day their clients are likely to be at work. Later they will +have disappeared altogether. For Constantinople has not quite +forgotten the habits of the tent. Stamboul, except during the holy +month of Ramazan, is a deserted city at night. But just after dark +it is full of a life which an outsider is often content simply to +watch through the lighted windows of coffee-rooms. These are also +barber-shops, where men have shaved not only their chins, but +different parts of their heads according to their "countries". In +them likewise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_666" id="Page_666">[Pg 666]</a></span> checkers, the Persian backgammon, and various games +of long narrow cards are played. They say that Bridge came from +Constantinople. Indeed, I believe a club of Pera claims the honor +of having communicated that passion to the Western World. But I +must confess that I have yet to see an open hand in a coffee-house +of the people.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Making_in_Turkey" id="Coffee_Making_in_Turkey"></a> +<img src="images/image545.jpg" width="300" height="403" alt="Coffee Making in Turkey" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Making in Turkey</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">One of the pleasantest forms of amusement to be obtained in +coffee-houses is unfortunately getting to be one of the rarest. It +is that afforded by itinerant story-tellers, who still carry on in +the East the tradition of the troubadours. The stories they tell +are more or less on the order of the Arabian Nights, though perhaps +even less suitable for mixed companies—which for the rest are +never found in coffee-shops. These men are sometimes wonderfully +clever at character monologue or dialogue. They collect their pay +at a crucial moment of the action, refusing to continue until the +audience has testified to the sincerity of its interest by some +token more substantial.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Music is much more common. There are those, to be sure, who find no +music in the sounds poured forth oftenest by a gramophone, often by +a pair of gypsies with a flaring pipe and two small gourd drums, +and sometimes by an orchestra so-called of the fine lute—a company +of musicians on a railed dais who sing long songs while they play +on stringed instruments of strange curves. For myself I know too +little of music to tell what relation the recurrent cadences of +those songs and their broken rhythms may bear to the antique modes. +But I can listen, as long as musicians will perform, to those +infinite repetitions, that insistent sounding of the minor key. It +pleases me to fancy there a music come from far away—from unknown +river gorges, from camp-fires glimmering on great plains. Does not +such darkness breathe through it, such melancholy, such haunting of +elusive airs? There are flashes too of light, of song, the playing +of shepherd's pipes, the swoop of horsemen and sudden outcries of +savagery. But the note to which it all comes back is the monotone +of a primitive life, like the day-long beat of camel bells. And +more than all, it is the mood of Asia, so rarely penetrated, which +is neither lightness or despair.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Street_Coffee_Vender_in_the_Levant" id="Street_Coffee_Vender_in_the_Levant"></a> +<img src="images/image546.jpg" width="300" height="450" alt="Street Coffee Vender in the Levant, 1714" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Street Coffee Vender in the Levant, 1714</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">There are seasons in the year when these various forms of +entertainment abound more than at others, as Ramazan and the two +Bairams. Throughout the month of Ramazan the purely Turkish +coffee-houses are closed in the daytime, since the pleasures which +they minister may not then be indulged in; but they are open all +night. It is during that one month of the year that Karaghieuz, the +Turkish shadow-show, may be seen in a few of the larger +coffee-shops. The Bairams are two festivals of three and four days +respectively, the former of which celebrates the close of Ramazan, +while the latter corresponds in certain respects to the Jewish +Passover. Dancing is a particular feature of the coffee-houses in +Bairam. The Kurds, who carry the burdens of Constantinople on their +backs, are above all other men given to this form of +exercise—though the Lazzes, the boatmen, vie with them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_667" id="Page_667">[Pg 667]</a></span> One of +these dark tribesmen plays a little violin like a pochelle, or two +of them perform on a pipe and a big drum, while the others dance +round them in a circle, sometimes till they drop from fatigue. The +weird music and the picturesque costumes and movements of the +dancers make the spectacle one to be remembered.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Christian coffee-houses also have their own festal seasons. These +coincide in general with the festivals of the church. But every +quarter has its patron saint, the saint of the local church or of +the local holy well, whose feast is celebrated by a three-day +<i>panayiri</i>. The street is dressed with flags and strings of colored +paper, tables and chairs line the sidewalk, and libations are +poured forth in honor of the holy person commemorated. For this +reason, and because of the more volatile character of the Greek, +the general note of his merrymaking is louder than that of the +Turk. One may even see the scandalous spectacle of men and women +dancing together at a Greek <i>panayiri</i>. The instrument which sets +the key of these orgies is the <i>lanterna</i>, a species of hand-organ +peculiar to Constantinople. It is a hand-piano rather, of a loud +and cheerful voice, whose Eurasian harmonies are enlivened by a +frequent clash of bells.</p> + +<p class="quot1">What first made coffee-houses suspicious to those in authority, +however, is their true resource—the advantages they offer for +meeting one's kind, for social converse and the contemplation of +life. Hence it must be that they have so happy a tact for locality. +They seek shade, pleasant corners, open squares, the prospect of +water or wide landscapes. In Constantinople they enjoy an infinite +choice of site, so huge is the extent of that city, so broken by +hill and sea, so varied in its spectacle of life. The commonest +type of city coffee-room looks out upon the passing world from +under a grape-vine or a climbing wistaria.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="A_Coffee_House_in_Syria" id="A_Coffee_House_in_Syria"></a> +<img src="images/image547.jpg" width="500" height="290" alt="A Coffee House in Syria—after Jardin" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Coffee House in Syria—after Jardin</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee-houses of distinction are to be found also in the Place of the +Pines overlooking the Marble Sea, on Giant's Mountain, in the Landing +Place of the Man-slayer, and along the rivers that flow into the Golden +Horn.</p> + +<p>Originally the Turkish method of preparing coffee was the Arabian +method, and it is so described by Mr. Fellows in his <i>Excursions through +Asia Minor</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Each cup is made separately, the little saucepan or ladle in which +it is prepared being about an inch wide and two deep; this is more +than half filled with coffee, finely pounded with a pestle and +mortar, and then filled up with water; after being placed for a few +seconds on the fire, the contents are poured, or rather shaken, out +(being much thicker than chocolate) without the addition of cream +or sugar, into a china cup of the size and shape of half an +egg-shell, which is inclosed in one of ornamented metal for +convenience of holding in the hand.</p></div> + +<p>Later, the Turks sought to improve the method by adding sugar (a +concession to the European sweet tooth) during the boiling process. The +improved Turkish recipe is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">First boil the water. For two cups of the beverage add three lumps +of sugar and return the boiler to the fire. Add two teaspoonfuls of +powdered coffee, stirring well and let the pot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_668" id="Page_668">[Pg 668]</a></span> boil up four times. +Between each boiling the pot is to be removed from the fire and the +bottom tapped gently until the froth on the top subsides. After the +last boiling pour the coffee first into one cup and then the other, +so as to evenly divide the froth.</p></div> + +<p>In Syria and Palestine the Turkish-Arabian methods are followed. The +brazen dippers, or <i>ibriks</i>, are used for boiling.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="Cafetan_Garb_of_oriental_cafe_keeper" id="Cafetan_Garb_of_oriental_cafe_keeper"></a> +<img src="images/image548.jpg" width="250" height="601" alt="Cafetan" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cafetan</span><br /> +<small>Oriental coffee-house keeper's costume</small></span> +</div> + +<p>In the Near East, coffee manners and customs are much the same today as +they were fifty or even one hundred years ago. Witness Damascus. The +following pen picture of the cafés in this ancient city was written in +1836 to accompany the drawing by Bartlett and Purser, which is +reproduced here; but it might have been written in 1922, so slight have +been the changes in the setting or the spirit of the original coffee +house that Shemsi first brought to Constantinople from Damascus in +1554.<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Street_Coffee_Service_in_Constantinople" id="Street_Coffee_Service_in_Constantinople"></a> +<img src="images/image549.jpg" width="300" height="460" alt="Street Coffee Service in Constantinople" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Street Coffee Service in Constantinople</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The Cafés of the kind represented in the plate are, perhaps, the +greatest luxury that a stranger finds in Damascus. Gardens, +kiosques, fountains, and groves are abundant around every Eastern +capital: but Cafés on the very bosom of a rapid river, and bathed +by its waves, are peculiar to this ancient city: they are formed so +as to exclude the rays of the sun, while they admit the breeze; the +light roof is supported by slender rows of pillars, and the +building is quite open on every side.</p> + +<p class="quot1">A few of these houses are situated in the skirts of the town, on +one of the streams, where the eye rests on the luxuriant vegetation +of garden and wood: others are in the heart of the city: a flight +of steps conducts to them from the sultry street, and it is +delightful to pass in a few moments from the noisy, shadeless +thoroughfare, where you see only mean gateways and the gable-ends +of edifices, to a cool, grateful, calm place of rest and +refreshment, where you can muse and meditate in ease and luxury, +and feel at every moment the rich breeze from the river. In two or +three instances, a light wooden bridge leads to the platform, close +to which, and almost out of it, one or two large and noble trees +lift the canopy of their spreading branches and leaves, more +welcome at noonday than the roofs of fretted gold in the "Arabian +Nights." The high pavilion roof and the pillars are all constructed +of wood: the floor is of wood, and sometimes of earth, and is +regularly watered, and raised only a few inches above the level of +the stream, which rushes by at the feet of the customer, which it +almost bathes, as he sips his coffee or sherbet. Innumerable small +seats cover the floor, and you take one of these, and place it in +the position you like best.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Perhaps you wish to sit apart from the crowd, just under the shadow +of the tree, or in some favourite corner where you can smoke, and +contemplate the motley guests, formed into calm and solemn groups, +who wish to hold no communion with the Giaour. There is ample food +here for the observer of character, costume and pretension: the +tradesman, the mechanic, the soldier, the gentleman, the dandy, the +grave old man, looking wise on the past and dimly on the future: +the hadge, in his green turban, vain of his journey to Mecca, and +drawing a long bow in his tales and adventures: the long straight +pipe, the hookah with its soft curling tube and glass vase, are in +request: but the poorer argille is most commonly used.</p> + +<p class="quot1">From sunrise to set, these houses are never empty: we were +accustomed to visit one of them early every morning, before +breakfast, and very many persons were already there: yet this +"balmy hour of prime" was the most silent and solitary of the whole +day; it was the coolest also: the rising sun was glancing redly on +the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_669" id="Page_669">[Pg 669]</a></span> waters: there was as yet no heat in the air, and the little +cup of Mocha coffee and the pipe were handed by an attendant as +soon as the stranger was seated. His favourite Café was the one +represented in the plate: the river is the Barrada, the ancient +Pharpar. Never was the sound of many waters so pleasant to the ear +as in Damascus: the air is filled with the sound, with which no +clash of tongues, rolling of wheels, march of footman or horsemen, +mingle: the numerous groups who love to resort here are silent half +the time; and when they do converse, their voice is often "low, +like that of a familiar spirit," or in short grave sentences that +pass quickly from the ear.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Riverside_Cafe_in_Damascus" id="Riverside_Cafe_in_Damascus"></a> +<img src="images/image550.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="A Riverside Café in Damascus, Nineteenth Century" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Riverside Café in Damascus, Nineteenth Century</span><br /> +<small>After Bartlett and Purser</small></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Yet much, very much of the excitement of the life of the Turk in +this city, is absorbed in these coffee-houses: they are his opera, +his theatre, his conversazione: soon after his eyes are unclosed +from sleep, he thinks of his Café, and forthwith bends his way +there: during the day he looks forward to pass the evening on the +loved floor, to look on the waters, on the stars above, and on the +faces of his friends; and at the moonlight falling on all. Mahomet +committed a grievous error in the omission of coffee-houses, in a +future state: had he ever seen those of Damascus, he would surely +have given them a place on his rivers of Paradise, persuaded that +true believers must feel a melancholy void without them.</p> + +<p class="quot1">There is no ornament or richness about these houses: no sofas, +mirrors, or drapery, save that afforded by a few evergreens and +creepers: the famous silks and damasks of Damascus have no place +here; all is plain and homely; yet no Parisian Café, with its +beautiful mirrors, gilding, and luxuriousness, is so welcome to the +imagination and senses of the traveller. After wandering many days +over dry, and stony, and desert places, where the lip thirsted for +the stream, is it not delicious to sit at the brink of a wild, +impetuous torrent, to gaze on its white foam and breaking waves, +till you can almost feel their gush in every nerve and fibre, and +can bathe your very soul in them. And while you slowly smoke your +pipe of purest tobacco, the sands of the desert, and their burning +sun, rise again before you, when you prayed for even the shadow of +a cloud on your way. The banks are in some parts covered with wood, +whose soft green verdure contrasts beautifully with the clear +torrent, and almost droops into its bosom.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Near the coffee-houses are one or two cataracts several feet high, +and the perpetual sound of their fall, and the coolness they spread +around, are exquisite luxuries—in the heat of day, or in the +dimness of evening. There are two or three Cafés constructed +somewhat differently from those just described: a low gallery +divides the platform from the tide; fountains play on the floor, +which is furnished with very plain sofas and cushions; and music +and dancing always abound, of the most unrefined description.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The only intellectual gratification in these places is afforded by +the Arab story-tellers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_670" id="Page_670">[Pg 670]</a></span> among whom are a few eminent and clever +men: soon after his entrance, a group begins to form around the +gifted man, who, after a suitable pause, to collect hearers or whet +their expectations, begins his story. It is a picturesque sight—of +the Arab with his wild and graceful gestures, and his auditory, +hushed into deep and child-like attention, seated at the edge of +the rushing tide, while the narrator moves from side to side, and +each accent of his distinct and musical voice is heard throughout +the Café. The building directly opposite is another house, of a +similar kind in every respect There are a few small Cafés, more +select as to company, where the Turkish gentlemen often go, form +dinner parties, and spend the day.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Night is the propitious season to visit these places: the glare of +the sun, glancing on the waters, is passed away; the company is +then most numerous, for it is their favourite hour; the lamps, +suspended from the slender pillars, are lighted; the Turks, in the +various and brilliant colours of their costume, crowd the platform, +some standing moveless as the pillars beside them, their long pipe +in their hand—noble specimens of humanity, if intellect breathed +within: some reclining against the rails, others seated in groups, +or solitary as if buried in "lonely thoughts sublime"; while the +rush of the falling waters is sweeter music than that of the pipe +and the guitar, that faintly strive to be heard. The cataract in +the plate is a very fine one; on its foam the moonlight was lovely: +we passed many an hour here on such a night, the clear waters of +the Pharpar, as they rolled on, reflecting each pillar, each +Damascene slowly moving by in his waving garments. The glare of the +lamps mingled strangely with the moonlight, that rested with a soft +and vivid glory on the waters, and fell beneath pillar and roof on +the picturesque groups within.</p></div> + +<p>The slender brass coffee grinders sometimes serve as a combination +utensil in the equipment of the Turkish officer. Frequently they are +made of silver. They might be called collapsible, convertible coffee +kits, as they are made to serve as a combination coffee pot, mill, can, +and cup. The green or roasted beans are kept in the lower section. It +takes but a minute to unscrew the apparatus. To make a cup of coffee, +the beans are dumped out and three or four of them are put in the middle +section. The steel crank is fitted over the squared rod projecting from +the middle section, which revolves, setting in motion the grinding +apparatus inside. The ground coffee falls into the bottom section, and +water is added. The pot is placed on the fire, and the contents brought +to a boil. The coffee pot serves as a cup. The process requires but a +few minutes. The cup is rinsed out, the beans replaced, the utensils put +together, the whole thing is slipped into the officer's tunic, and he +goes on, refreshed.</p> + +<p>In Persia, where tea is mostly drunk, the Turkish-Arabian methods of +making coffee are followed. In Ceylon and India, the same applies to the +native population, but the whites follow the European practise. In +India, many people look upon coffee as just a <i>bonne bouche</i>—a +"chaser." A well known English tea firm has had some success in India +with a tinned "French coffee", which is a blend of Indian coffee and +chicory.</p> + +<p>European methods obtain in making coffee in China and Japan, and in the +French and Dutch colonies. When traveling in the Far East one of the +greatest hardships the coffee lover is called upon to endure is the +European bottled coffee extract, which so often supplies lazy chefs with +the makings of a most forbidding cup of coffee.</p> + +<p>In Java, a favorite method is to make a strong extract by the French +drip process and then to use a spoonful of the extract to a cup of hot +milk—a good drink when the extract is freshly made for each service.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Making in Europe</i></p> + +<p>In Europe, the coffee drink was first sold by lemonade venders. In +Florence those who sold coffee, chocolate, and other beverages were not +called <i>caffetiéri</i> (coffee sellers) but <i>limonáji</i> (lemonade venders). +Pascal's first Paris coffee shop served other drinks as well as coffee; +and Procope's café began as a lemonade shop. It was only when coffee, +which was an afterthought, began to lead the other beverages, that he +gave the name café to his whole refreshment place.</p> + +<p>Today, nearly every country in Europe can supply the two extremes of +coffee making. In Paris and Vienna, one may find it brewed and served in +its highest perfection; but here too it is frequently found as badly +done as in England, and that is saying a good deal. The principal +difficulty seems to be in the chicory flavor, for which long years of +use has cultivated a taste, with most people. Now coffee-and-chicory is +not at all a bad drink; indeed the author confesses to have developed a +certain liking for it after a time in France—but it is not coffee. In +Europe, chicory is not regarded as an adulterant—it is an addition, or +modifier, if you please. And so many people have acquired a +coffee-and-chicory taste, that it is doubtful if they would appreciate a +real cup of coffee should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_671" id="Page_671">[Pg 671]</a></span> they ever meet it. This, of course, is a +generalization; and like all generalizations, is dangerous, for it <i>is</i> +possible to obtain good coffee, properly made, in any European country, +even England, in the homes of the people, but seldom in the hotels or +restaurants.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Coffee_al_Fresco_in_Jerusalem" id="Coffee_al_Fresco_in_Jerusalem"></a> +<img src="images/image551.jpg" width="500" height="331" alt="Coffee al Fresco in Jerusalem" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee al Fresco in Jerusalem</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Austria.</span> Coffee is made in Austria after the French style, usually by +the drip method or in the pumping percolator device, commonly called the +Vienna coffee machine. The restaurants employ a large-size urn fitted +with a combination metal sieve and cloth sack. After the ground coffee +has infused for about six minutes, a screw device raises the metal +sieve, the pressure forcing the liquid through the cloth sack containing +the ground coffee.</p> + +<p>Vienna cafés are famous, but the World War has dimmed their glory. It +used to be said that their equal could not be found for general +excellence and moderate prices. From half-past eight to ten in the +morning, large numbers of people were wont to breakfast in them on a cup +of coffee or tea, with a roll and butter. <i>Mélangé</i> is with milk; +"brown" coffee is darker, and a <i>schwarzer</i> is without milk. In all the +cafés the visitor may obtain coffee, tea, liqueurs, ices, bottled beer, +ham, eggs, etc. The Café Schrangl in the Graben is typical. Then there +are the dairies, with coffee, a unique institution. In the <i>Prater</i> +(public park) there are many interesting cafés.</p> + +<p>Charles J. Rosebault says in the <i>New York Times</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The café of Vienna has been imitated all over the world—but the +result has never failed to be an imitation. The nearest approach to +the genuine in my experience was the upstairs room of the old +Fleischman Café in New York. That was because the average New +Yorker knew it not and it remained sacred to the internationalists: +the musicians, artists, writers, and other Bohemians to whom had +been intrusted the secret of its existence. It is the spirit that +counts, and it was the spirit of its frequenters that made the +Vienna café. It was everyman's club, and everywoman's, too, where +one went to relax and forget all the worries of existence, to look +over papers and magazines from all parts of the world and printed +in every known language, to play chess or skat or taracq, to chat +with friends and to drink the inimitable Viennese coffee, the +fragrance of which can no more be described than the perfume of +last year's violets.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The café was filled after the noon meal, when busy men took their +coffee and smoked; again around five o'clock, when all the world +and his wife paraded along the Graben and the Karntner Strasse, and +then dropped into a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_672" id="Page_672">[Pg 672]</a></span> favorite café for coffee or chocolate and +cakes—horns and crescents of delicious dough filled with jam or, +possibly, the wonderful Kugelhupf, in comparison with which our +sponge is like unto lead; finally in the evening, when there were +family parties and those returning from theatres and concerts and +opera.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="Cafe_Schrangl_Vienna" id="Cafe_Schrangl_Vienna"></a> +<img src="images/image552.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="The Café Schrangl in the Graben, Vienna, the City That Coffee Made Famous" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Café Schrangl in the Graben, Vienna, the City That Coffee Made Famous</span><br /> +<small>Photograph by Burton Holmes</small></span> +</div> + +<p>While the café life of Vienna has been nearly killed by the World War, +it is to be hoped that time will restore at least something of its +former glory. In spite of the stories of plundering bands of Bolshevists +that in the latter part of 1921 wrecked some of the better known places, +we read that Oscar Straus, composer of <i>The Chocolate Soldier</i>, is +living in comparative luxury in Vienna, and spends most of his time in +the cafés, where he is to be found usually from two until five in the +afternoon and from eleven o'clock at night until some early hour of the +morning "surrounded by musicians of lesser note and wealth, whom, to a +degree, he supports; also with him being many of the leading composers, +librettists, actors, actresses, and singers of Vienna."</p> + +<p>For Vienna coffee, the liquor is usually made in a pumping percolator or +by the drip process. In normal times it is served two parts coffee to +one of hot milk topped with whipped cream. During 1914–18 and the recent +post-war period, however, the sparkling crown of delicious whipped cream +gave way to condensed milk, and saccharine took the place of sugar.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Belgium.</span> In Belgium, the French drip method is most generally employed. +Chicory is freely used as a modifier. The greatest coffee drinker among +reigning monarchs is said to be the King of the Belgians. His majesty +takes a cup of coffee before breakfast, after breakfast, at his noonday +meal, in the afternoon, after dinner, and again in the evening.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">British Isles.</span> In the British Isles coffee is still being boiled; +although the infusion, true percolation (drip), and filtration methods +have many advocates. A favorite device is the earthenware jug with or +without the cotton sack that makes it a coffee biggin. When used without +the sack, the best practise is first to warm the jug. For each pint of +liquor, one ounce (three dessert-spoonfuls) of freshly ground coffee is +put in the pot. Upon it is poured freshly boiling water—three-fourths +of the amount required. After stirring with a wooden spoon, the +remainder of the water is poured in, and the pot is returned to the +"hob" to infuse, and to settle for from three to five minutes. Some stir +it a second time before the final settling.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_673" id="Page_673">[Pg 673]</a></span></p><p>The best trade authorities stress home-grinding, and are opposed to +boiling the beverage. They advocate also its use as a breakfast +beverage, after lunch, and after the evening meal.</p> + +<p>From an American point of view, the principal defects in the English +method of making coffee lie in the roasting, handling, and brewing. It +has been charged that the beans are not properly cooked in the first +place, and that they are too often stale before being ground. The +English run to a light or cinnamon roast, whereas the best American +practise requires a medium, high, or city roast. A fairly high shade of +brown is favored on the South Downs with a light shade for Lancashire, +the West Riding of Yorkshire, and the south of Scotland. The trade +demands, for the most part, a ripe chestnut brown. Wholesale roasting is +done by gas and coke machines; while retail dealers use mostly a small +type of inner-heated gas machine. The large gas machines (with +capacities running from twenty-five to seven hundred pounds) have +external air-blast burners, direct and indirect burners, sliding +burners, etc. The best known are the Faulder and Moorewood machines. In +the Uno, a popular retail machine, roasting seven to fourteen pounds at +a time, the coffee beans are placed in the space between outer and inner +concentric cylinders, one made of perforated steel, and the other of +wire gauze, revolving together. A gas flame of the Bunsen type burns +inside the inner cylinder, its heat traversing the outer, or coffee +cylinder, while the fumes are driven off through the open ends. The +roasting coffee may be viewed through a mica or wire-gauze panel +inserted in the wall of the outer cylinder. The Faulder machine has an +external flame, a capacity of from seven to fourteen pounds; and there +are quick gas machines, with capacities ranging from three pounds to two +hundred and twenty-four pounds, for the retail trade.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="English Coffee Making and Ye Mecca Company"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Favorite_English_Way_of_Making_Coffee" id="Favorite_English_Way_of_Making_Coffee"></a> +<img src="images/image553.jpg" width="300" height="239" alt="Favorite English Coffee-Making Method" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Favorite English Coffee-Making Method</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="A_Cafe_of_Ye_Mecca_Company_London" id="A_Cafe_of_Ye_Mecca_Company_London"></a> +<img src="images/image554.jpg" width="300" height="198" alt="A Café of Ye Mecca Company, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Café of Ye Mecca Company, London</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In recent years there has been a marked improvement in English coffee +roasting, due to the intelligent study brought to bear upon the subject +by leaders of the trade's thought, and by the retail distributer, who, +in the person of the retail grocer, is, generally speaking, better +educated to his business than the retail grocer in any other country. +Years ago, it was the practise to use butter or lard to improve the +appearance of the bean in roasting; but this is not so common as +formerly.</p> + +<p>The British consumer, however, will need much instruction before the +national character of the beverage shows a uniform improvement. While +the coffee may be more carefully roasted, better "cooked" than it was +formerly, it is still remaining too long unsold after roasting, or else +it is being ground too long a time before making. These abuses are, +however, being corrected; and the consumer is everywhere being urged to +buy his coffee freshly roasted and to have it freshly ground. Another +factor has undoubtedly contributed to give England a bad name among +lovers of good coffee, and that is certain tinned "coffees," composed of +ground coffee and chicory, mixtures that attained some vogue for a time +as "French" coffee. They found favor, perhaps, because they were easily +handled. Package coffees have not been developed in England as in +America; but there is a more or less limited field for them, and there +are several good brands of absolutely pure coffee on the market.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_674" id="Page_674">[Pg 674]</a></span></p><p>The demi-tasse is a popular drink after luncheon, after dinner, and +even during the day, especially in the cities. In London, there are +cafés that make a specialty of it; places like Peel's, Groom's, and the +Café Nero in the city; also the shops of the London Café Co., and Ye +Mecca Co.</p> + +<p>While, in the home, it is customary to steep the coffee; in hotels and +restaurants some form of percolating apparatus, extractor, or steam +machine is employed. There are the Criterion (employing a drip tray for +making coffee in the Etzenberger style); Fountain; Platow; Syphon +(Napier); and Verithing extractors, put out by Sumerling & Co. of +London; and the well-known J. & S. rapid coffee-making machine, having +an infuser, and producing coffee by steam pressure, manufactured by W.M. +Still & Sons, Ltd., London.</p> + +<p>American visitors complain that coffee in England is too thick and +syrupy for their liking. Coffee in restaurants is served "white" (with +milk), or black, in earthen, stoneware, or silver pots. In chain +restaurants, like Lyons' or the A.B.C., there is to be found on the +tariff, "hot milk with a dash of coffee."</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Grooms and Cafe Monico, London"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Grooms_Coffee_House_London" id="Grooms_Coffee_House_London"></a> +<img src="images/image555.jpg" width="300" height="497" alt="Groom's Coffee House, Fleet Street, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Groom's Coffee House, Fleet Street, London</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Cafe_Monico_Piccadilly_Circus_London" id="Cafe_Monico_Piccadilly_Circus_London"></a> +<img src="images/image556.jpg" width="300" height="286" alt="Café Monico. Piccadilly Circus, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Café Monico, Piccadilly Circus, London</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>As to the boiling method, this is already generally discredited in the +countries of western Europe. The steeping method so much favored in +England may be responsible for some of the unkind things said about +English coffee; because it undoubtedly leads to the abuse of +over-infusion, so that the net result is as bad as boiling.</p> + +<p>The vast majority of the English people are, however, confirmed tea +drinkers, and it is extremely doubtful if this national habit, ingrained +through centuries of use of "the cup that cheers" at breakfast and at +tea time in the afternoon can ever be changed.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned in this work, the London coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries gave way to a type of coffee house +whose mainstay was its food rather than its drink. In time, these too +began to yield to the changing influences of a civilization that +demanded modern hotels, luxurious tea lounges, smart restaurants, chain +shops, tea rooms, and cafés with and without coffee. A certain type of +"coffee shop," with rough boarded stalls, sanded floors and "private +rooms," frequented by lower class workingmen, were to be found in +England for a time; but because of their doubtful character, they were +closed up by the police.</p> + +<p>Among other places in London where coffee may be had in English or +continental style, mention should be made of the Café<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_675" id="Page_675">[Pg 675]</a></span> Monico, a good +place to drop in for a coffee and liqueur, and one of the pioneers of +the modern restaurant; Gatti's, where <i>café filtré</i>, or coffee produced +by the filtration method, is a specialty; the cosmopolitan Savoy with +its popular tea lounge (teas, sixty cents); the Piccadilly Hotel, with +its Louis XIV restaurant catering to refined and luxurious tastes; the +Waldorf Hotel, with its American clientèle and its palm court (teas, +thirty-six cents); the Cecil, with its palm court and tea balcony, also +having a special attraction for Americans; Lyons' Popular Café (iced +coffee, twelve cents); the Trocadero with its special Indian curries +prepared by native cooks once each week; the Temple Bar restaurant, an +attractive refectory owned by the semi-philanthropic Trust-Houses, Ltd., +which runs some two hundred similar establishments throughout the +country, serving alcoholic drinks but stressing non-intoxicating +beverages, among them special Mocha at six and eight cents a cup; +Slater's, Ltd., catering mostly to business folk in the city, there +being about a score of restaurants and tea rooms under this name with +retail shops attached; the British Tea Table Association, like Slater's, +a grown-up sister of the olden bun shop of Queen Victoria's day; and the +Kardomah chain of cafés, where one is reasonably sure to get a +satisfying cup of coffee and a cake.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Gatti's and Hotel Savoy, London"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Gattis_The_Strand_London" id="Gattis_The_Strand_London"></a> +<img src="images/image557.jpg" width="300" height="312" alt="Gatti's, in The Strand, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Gatti's, in The Strand, London</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Tea_Lounge_Hotel_Savoy_London" id="Tea_Lounge_Hotel_Savoy_London"></a> +<img src="images/image558.jpg" width="300" height="310" alt="Tea Lounge of Hotel Savoy, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tea Lounge of Hotel Savoy, London</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Supplementing the above, Charles Cooper, some time editor of the +<i>Epicure</i> and <i>The Table</i>, has prepared for this work some notes on the +evolution of the old-time London coffee houses into the present-day tea +rooms, tea lounges, cafés, and restaurants for all comers. Mr. Cooper +says of the transformation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The old-fashioned London coffee-house that flourished forty to +fifty years ago has within the past thirty years been completely +extinguished by the modern tea rooms. These old-fashioned +establishments were mainly situated in and about the Strand and +Fleet Street, the neighborhood of the Inns of Court, etc. They did +not sacrifice much to outside show and decoration. They were +divided into boxes or pews, and were generally speaking clean and +well ordered; the prices were moderate, and the fare simple but +superlatively good. There is nothing to equal it now. Chops were +cooked in the grill. The tea and coffee were of the best; the hams +were York hams and the bacon the best Wiltshire; they were the last +places where real buttered toast was made. The art is now lost. +They catered exclusively to men; and their clientèle consisted of +journalists, artists, actors, men from the Inns of Court, students, +<i>et al.</i> A man living in chambers could breakfast comfortably at +one of these places, and read all the morning papers at his ease. +The most westerly perhaps of the old houses was Stone's in Panton +Street, Haymarket, which has recently been sold. Groom's in Fleet +Street, where a good cup of coffee may still be had, is principally +frequented by barristers about the luncheon hour. They are usually +men who lunch lightly.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The tea rooms, as I have said, have killed the coffee houses. At +the time the latter flourished, there were no facilities in London +for a woman, unattended by a man, to obtain refreshment beyond a +weak cup of tea at a few confectioners'. It mattered the less in +the days when the girl clerk had not come into being. When the +field of women's employment widened, fresh requirements were +created which the coffee shops did not meet.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_676" id="Page_676">[Pg 676]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="TWO_POPULAR_PLACES_FOR_COFFEE_IN_LONDON" id="TWO_POPULAR_PLACES_FOR_COFFEE_IN_LONDON"></a> +<img src="images/image559.jpg" width="500" height="323" alt="Lyons' "Popular Café," Piccadilly—One of Many Operated +Under That Name" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Lyons' "Popular Café," Piccadilly—One of Many Operated +Under That Name</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image560.jpg" width="500" height="319" alt="Palm Court in the Waldorf Hotel—A Popular Resort for +American Travelers" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Palm Court in the Waldorf Hotel—A Popular Resort for American Travelers</span><br /> +TWO POPULAR PLACES FOR COFFEE IN LONDON</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_677" id="Page_677">[Pg 677]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The tea room pioneers in London were the Aërated Bread Company, +familiarly known as the A.B.C. I think that coffee palaces in +provincial industrial centers had been started; but as part of a +temperance propaganda, to counteract the attractions of the public +house. The Aërated Bread Company was founded about the middle of +the past century for the manufacture and sale of bread made under +the patent aërated process of Dr. Daugleish. The shops were opened +for the sale of bread to the public for home consumption; but to +give people an opportunity of testing it, facilities were provided +for obtaining a cup of tea, and bread and butter, on the premises. +This subsidiary object became in a short time the most important +part of the company's business. It multiplied its shops, enlarged +its bill of fare to include cooked foods; and while, nowadays, the +A.B.C. and its rivals cater to many thousands daily, I doubt if +anybody ever buys a loaf to take home.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Temple_Bar_Restaurant_London" id="Temple_Bar_Restaurant_London"></a> +<img src="images/image561.jpg" width="300" height="226" alt="Temple Bar Restaurant, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Temple Bar Restaurant, London</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The A.B.C. has many competitors, similar shops having been started +by Lyons, Lipton, Slaters. Express Dairy Company, Cabin, Pioneer +Cafés, and others. <i>Ex uno disce omnes.</i></p> + +<p class="quot1">The fare in all these places is much alike, as are the general +equipment, prices, and class of customers. They cater for a cheap +class of business. In the busy centers they are frequented mostly +by young men and girl clerks and shop assistants, by women in town, +shopping, and such-like custom. Young employees can get a modest +mid-day meal at a price to suit a shallow pocket. Before the war, +the ruling price for a cup of tea, and a roll and butter, was +fourpence, and the general tariff in proportion. Nowadays, the war +has run up prices at least fifty percent. During the worst times of +food control the fare was very scanty and very unappetizing. As a +rule, it is plain and wholesome, with no pretense of being +<i>recherché</i>. Tea is almost always very good; coffee not on the same +level. Their tea rooms are all places designed for small, quick +meals; and are in no sense lounges.</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Hotel Cecil and Slaters Chain Shops, London"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Tea_Balcony_Hotel_Cecil_London" id="Tea_Balcony_Hotel_Cecil_London"></a> +<img src="images/image562.jpg" width="300" height="309" alt="Tea Balcony in the Hotel Cecil, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Tea Balcony in the Hotel Cecil, London</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="One_of_Slaters_Chain_Shops_London" id="One_of_Slaters_Chain_Shops_London"></a> +<img src="images/image563.jpg" width="300" height="305" alt="Slater's, a Better-class Chain Shop, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Slater's, a Better-class Chain Shop, London</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Lyons have refreshment-houses of different grades. The Popular Café +is a cut above the tea rooms, and so are the Corner Houses. Two +years ago, the A.B.C. amalgamated with Buzard's, an old established +confectioner's in Oxford Street—a famous cake-house.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The Monico and Gatti's appeal to a quite different class from that +catered to by the tea shops, although perhaps not to what Mrs. +Boffin would call "the highfliers of fashion" who frequent the +lounges of the fashionable hotels. Gatti's original café was under +the arches of Charing Cross station.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I may add about the Savoy that it was an outcome of the successful +Gilbert and Sullivan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_678" id="Page_678">[Pg 678]</a></span> operas of the seventies, D'Oyly Carte having +expended some of his profits on building the hotel on a piece of +waste ground by the Savoy Theatre. He brought over M. Ritz from +Monte Carlo to manage the hotel and restaurant, and Escoffier, the +greatest chef of the day, to preside over the cuisine. They made +the Savoy famous for its dinners, and it has always maintained a +high reputation, although Escoffier, who has now retired, ruled +later at the Carlton; and Ritz, at the hotel in Piccadilly which +bears his name.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bulgaria.</span> In Bulgaria, Arabian-Turkish methods of making coffee prevail. +The accompanying illustration shows a group in a caravan of the faithful +on the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. The venerable Moslem, who is +ambitious of becoming a hadji, is attended by his guards, distinguished +by their fantastic dress; their glittering golden-hafted <i>hanjars</i>, +stuck in their shawl girdles; and their silver-mounted pistols; the +grave turban replaced by a many-tasseled cap. Their accommodation is the +stable of a khan, or serai, shared with their camel. Their refreshment +is coffee, thick, black and bitter, served by the khanji in tiny +egg-shaped cups.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="St_James_Restaurant_Piccadilly_London" id="St_James_Restaurant_Piccadilly_London"></a> +<img src="images/image564.jpg" width="300" height="220" alt="St. James's Restaurant, Piccadilly, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">St. James's Restaurant, Piccadilly, London</span></span> +</div> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Denmark</span> and <span class="smcap">Finland</span> coffee is made and served after the French and +German fashion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">France.</span> Were it not for the almost inevitable high roast and frequently +the disconcerting chicory addition, coffee in France might be an +unalloyed delight—at least this is how it appears to American eyes. One +seldom, if ever, finds coffee improperly brewed in France—it is never +boiled.</p> + +<p>Second only to the United States, France consumes about two million bags +of coffee annually. The varieties include coffee from the East Indies; +Mocha; Haitian (a great favorite); Central American; Colombian; and +Brazils.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="ABC Shop London and Serai Bulgaria"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="An_ABC_Shop_London" id="An_ABC_Shop_London"></a> +<img src="images/image565.jpg" width="300" height="233" alt="An A.B.C. Shop, London" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">An A.B.C. Shop, London</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Halt_of_Caravaners_at_a_Serai_Bulgaria" id="Halt_of_Caravaners_at_a_Serai_Bulgaria"></a> +<img src="images/image566.jpg" width="300" height="404" alt="Halt of Caravaners at a Serai, Bulgaria" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Halt of Caravaners at a Serai, Bulgaria</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Although there are many wholesale and retail coffee roasters in France, +home roasting persists, particularly in the country districts. The +little sheet-iron cylinder roasters, that are hand-turned over an iron +box holding the charcoal fire, find a ready sale even in the modern +department stores of the big cities. In any village or city in France it +is a common sight on a pleasant day to find the householder turning his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_679" id="Page_679">[Pg 679]</a></span> +roaster on the curb in front of his home. Emmet G. Beeson, in <i>The Tea +and Coffee Trade Journal</i> gives us this vignette of rural coffee +roasting in the south of France:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">In a certain town in the south of France I saw an old man with an +outfit a little larger than the home variety, a machine with a +capacity of about ten pounds. Instead of a cylinder in which to +roast his coffee, he had perched on a sheet-iron frame a hollow +round ball made of sheet iron. In the top of this ball there was a +little slide which was opened by the means of a metal tool. In the +sheet-iron frame he had kindled his charcoal fire. Directly in +front of his roaster was a home-made cooling pan, the sides of +which were of wood, the bottom covered with a fine grade of wire +screening.</p> + +<p class="quot1">On this particular afternoon, the old man had taken up his place on +the curb; and a big black cat had taken advantage of the warmth +offered by the charcoal fire and was curled up, sleeping peacefully +in the pan nearest the fire. The old man paid no attention to the +cat, but went on rotating his ball of coffee and puffing away +pensively on his cigarette. When his coffee had become blackened +and burned, and blackened and burned it was, he stopped rotating +the ball, opened the slide in the top, turned it over, and the hot, +burned coffee rolled out, and much to his delight, on the sleeping +cat, which leaped out of the pan and scampered up the street and +into a hole under an old building.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I afterward learned that this old fellow made a business of going +about the town gathering up coffee from the houses along the way +and roasting it at a few sous per kilo, much the same fashion as a +scissors grinder plies his trade in an American town.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Cafe_de_la_Paix_Paris" id="Cafe_de_la_Paix_Paris"></a> +<img src="images/image567.jpg" width="500" height="303" alt="Café de la Paix, Where Paris Drinks Its Coffee Outdoors" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Café de la Paix, Where Paris Drinks Its Coffee Outdoors</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Quite a few grocers roast their own coffee in crude devices much like +those described above; but the large coffee roasters are gradually +eliminating this sort of procedure. There are at Havre several roasters, +but only two of importance; one does a business of about two hundred and +fifty bags a day, and the next largest has a capacity of about one +hundred and sixty bags a day. In Paris, there are many coffee roasters, +some quite large, comparatively speaking, one having a capacity of about +seven hundred and fifty bags a day. Shop-keepers in Paris and other +large cities roast their coffee fresh daily. The machines used are of +the ball or cylinder type, employing gas fuel and turned by electric +power. Invariably they stand where they may be seen from the street.</p> + +<p>Sample-roasters, or testing tables, in France are conspicuous by their +absence. Inquiry regarding this subject discloses that coffee is sold on +description; and when the French trader is asked, "How do you know your +delivery is up to description so far as cup quality is concerned?" he +answers that this is arrived at from the general appearance and the +smell of the coffee in the green. Perhaps one reason for the laxity in +buying cup quality may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_680" id="Page_680">[Pg 680]</a></span> be explained by the fact that coffee is roasted +very high, in fact it is burned almost to a charred state; and unless +the coffee is unusually bad in character, the burned taste eliminates +any foreign flavor it may have.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"><a name="Sidewalk_Annex_Cafe_de_la_Paix" id="Sidewalk_Annex_Cafe_de_la_Paix"></a> +<img src="images/image568.jpg" width="500" height="300" alt="Sidewalk Annex, Café de la Paix, Paris, with Opera House +in Background—Summer of 1918" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sidewalk Annex, Café de la Paix, Paris, with Opera House +in Background—Summer of 1918</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The fact that coffee was, and still is, quite generally sold to the +consumer green, accounts for Central American coffees taking first +place. Style takes preference over everything else when it comes to +selling to a Frenchman.</p> + +<p>To the American coffee merchant it seems that the French are carrying +their artistic tastes to an unreasonable extreme when they apply them to +coffee; for coffee is grown to drink and not to look at.</p> + +<p>Since the coming of the large coffee roaster, who delivers roasted +coffee right down the line to the consumer, Santos has come in for its +share of the business. The roasters are getting good results out of +Santos blends, up to fifty percent and sixty percent with West Indian +and Central American coffees. Rio is as much in disfavor in France as it +is in the United States, perhaps more so.</p> + +<p>In Brittany the demand is for peaberry coffee, no matter of what +variety. This comes about from the fact that the people of this section +of the country still do a great deal of their roasting at home, and have +become accustomed to the use of peaberry coffee because they do not have +the improved hand roasters, and still do a great deal of their roasting +in pans in the ovens of their stoves. The peaberry coffee rolls about so +nicely in the pan that they get a much more uniform roast.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the coffee is ground at home, which is not a bad practise for +the consumer; but perhaps works hardship on the dealer, who can mix some +grade grinders into his blends without doing them any material harm. +Where coffee mills are used in the stores, they are of the Strong-Arm +family and of an ancient heritage. To get a growl out of the grocer in +France, buy a kilo of coffee and ask him to grind it.</p> + +<p>Package coffee and proprietary brands have not come into their own to +the extent that they have in the United States, although there are at +present two firms in Paris which have started in this business and are +advertising extensively on billboards, in street cars, and in the +subways. However, most coffee is still sold in bulk. The butter, egg, +and cheese stores of France do a very large business in coffee. Prior to +the war and high prices, there were some very large firms doing a +premium business in coffee, tea, spices, etc. They<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_681" id="Page_681">[Pg 681]</a></span> still exist, and +have a very fine trade; but since the high prices of coffees and +premiums, the business has gone down very materially. They operate by +the wagon-route and solicitor method, just as some of our American +companies do. One very large firm in Paris has been in this business for +more than thirty years, operating branches and wagons in every town, +village, and hamlet in France.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Cafe_de_la_Regence_Paris" id="Cafe_de_la_Regence_Paris"></a> +<img src="images/image569.jpg" width="500" height="297" alt="Café de la Régence, Paris, Showing the Typical +Continental Arrangement of Seats" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Café de la Régence, Paris, Showing the Typical +Continental Arrangement of Seats</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The consumption of coffee is increasing very materially in France; some +say, on account of the high price of wine, others hold that coffee is +simply growing in favor with the people. Among the masses, French +breakfast consists of a bowl or cup of <i>café au lait</i>, or half a cup or +bowl of strong black coffee and chicory, and half a cup of hot milk, and +a yard of bread. The workingman turns his bread on end and inserts it +into his bowl of coffee, allowing it to soak up as much of the liquid as +possible. Then he proceeds to suck this concoction into his system. His +approval is demonstrated by the amount of noise he makes in the +operation.</p> + +<p>Among the better classes, the breakfast is the same, <i>café au lait</i>, +with rolls and butter, and sometimes fruit. The brew is prepared by the +drip, or true percolator, method or by filtration. Boiling milk is +poured into the cup from a pot held in one hand together with the brewed +coffee from a pot held in the other, providing a simultaneous mixture. +The proportions vary from half-and-half to one part coffee and three +parts milk. Sometimes, the service is by pouring into the cup a little +coffee then the same quantity of milk and alternating in this way until +the cup is filled.</p> + +<p>Coffee is never drunk with any meal but breakfast, but is invariably +served <i>en demi-tasse</i> after the noon and the evening meals. In the +home, the usual thing after luncheon or dinner is to go into the <i>salon</i> +and have your demi-tasse and liqueur and cigarettes before a cosy grate +fire. A Frenchman's idea of after-dinner coffee is a brew that is +unusually thick and black, and he invariably takes with it his liqueur, +no matter if he has had a cocktail for an appetizer, a bottle of red +wine with his meat course, and a bottle of white wine with the salad and +dessert course. When the demi-tasse comes along, with it must be served +his cordial in the shape of cognac, benedictine, or crème de menthe. He +can not conceive of a man not taking a little alcohol with his +after-dinner coffee, as an aid, he says, to digestion.</p> + +<p>In Normandy, there prevails a custom in connection with coffee drinking +that is unique. They produce in this province<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_682" id="Page_682">[Pg 682]</a></span> great quantities of what +is known as <i>cidre</i>, made from a particular variety of apple grown +there—in other words, just plain hard cider. However, they distil this +hard cider, and from the distillation they get a drink called +<i>calvados</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Cafe_de_la_Regence_in_1922" id="Cafe_de_la_Regence_in_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image570.jpg" width="500" height="266" alt="Café de la Régence in 1922" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Café de la Régence in 1922</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The man from Normandy takes half a cup of coffee, and fills the cup with +<i>calvados</i>, sweetened with sugar, and drinks it with seeming relish. +Ice-cold coffee will almost sizzle when <i>calvados</i> is poured into it. It +tastes like a corkscrew, and one drink has the same effect as a crack on +the head with a hammer. From the toddling age up, the Norman takes his +<i>calvados</i> and coffee.</p> + +<p>In the south of France they make a concoction from the residue of +grapes. They boil the residue down in water, and get a drink called +<i>marc</i>; and it is used in much the same way as the Norman in the north +uses <i>calvados</i>. Then there is also the very popular summertime drink +known as <i>mazagran</i>, which in that region means seltzer water and cold +coffee, or what Americans might call a coffee highball.</p> + +<p>Making coffee in France has been, and always will be, by the drip and +the filtration methods. The large hotels and cafés follow these methods +almost entirely, and so does the housewife. When company comes, and +something unusual in coffee is to be served, Mr. Beeson says he has +known the cook to drip the coffee, using a spoonful of hot water at a +time, pouring it over tightly packed, finely ground coffee, allowing the +water to percolate through to extract every particle of oil. They use +more ground coffee in bulk than they get liquid in the cup, and +sometimes spend an hour producing four or five demi-tasses. It is +needless to say that it is more like molasses than coffee when ready for +drinking.</p> + +<p>It is not unusual in some parts of France to save the coffee grounds for +a second or even a third infusion, but this is not considered good +practise.</p> + +<p>Von Liebig's idea of correct coffee making has been adapted to French +practise in some instances after this fashion: put used coffee grounds +in the bottom chamber of a drip coffee pot. Put freshly ground coffee in +the upper chamber. Pour on boiling water. The theory is that the old +coffee furnishes body and strength, and the fresh coffee the aroma.</p> + +<p>The cafés that line the boulevards of Paris and the larger cities of +France all serve coffee, either plain or with milk, and almost always +with liqueur. The coffee house in France may be said to be the wine +house; or the wine house may be said to be the coffee house. They are +inseparable. In the smallest or the largest of these establishments +coffee can be had at any time of day or night. The proprietor of a very +large café in Paris says his coffee sales during the day almost equal +his wine sales.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_683" id="Page_683">[Pg 683]</a></span></p><p>The French, young or old, take a great deal of pleasure in sitting out +on the sidewalk in front of a café, sipping coffee or liqueur. Here they +love to idle away the time just watching the passing show.</p> + +<p>In Paris, there are hundreds of these cafés lining the boulevards, where +one may sit for hours before the small tables reading the newspapers, +writing letters, or merely idling. In the morning, from eight to eleven, +employees, men-about-town, tourists, and provincials throng the cafés +for <i>café au lait</i>. The waiters are coldly polite. They bring the +papers, and brush the table—twice for <i>café créme</i> (milk), and three +times for <i>café complet</i> (with bread and butter).</p> + +<p>In the afternoon, <i>café</i> means a small cup or glass of <i>café noir</i>, or +<i>café nature</i>. It is double the usual amount of coffee dripped by +percolator or filtration device, the process consuming eight to ten +minutes. Some understand <i>café noir</i> to mean equal parts of coffee and +brandy with sugar and vanilla to taste. When <i>café noir</i> is mixed with +an equal quantity of cognac alone it becomes <i>café gloria</i>. <i>Café +mazagran</i> is also much in demand in the summertime. The coffee base is +made as for <i>café noir</i>, and it is served in a tall glass with water to +dilute it to one's taste.</p> + +<p>Few of the cafés that made Paris famous in the eighteenth century +survive. Among those that are notable for their coffee service are the +Café de la Paix; the Café de la Régence, founded in 1718; and the Café +Prévost, noted also for chocolate after the theater.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Biard and Procope Cafes, Paris"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="One_of_the_Biard_Cafes_Paris" id="One_of_the_Biard_Cafes_Paris"></a> +<img src="images/image571.jpg" width="300" height="280" alt="One of the Biard Cafés" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">One of the Biard Cafés</span></span> +<p class="hang2"><small>There are about 200 of these coffee and wine shops in Paris. They are +frequented mostly by laborers, clerks, and midinettes</small></p> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Restaurant_Procope_1922" id="Restaurant_Procope_1922"></a> +<img src="images/image572.jpg" width="300" height="280" alt="Restaurant Procope, 1922" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Restaurant Procope, 1922</span><br /> +<small>Successor to the famous "Cave" of 1689</small></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Germany.</span> Germany originated the afternoon coffee function known as the +kaffee-klatsch. Even today, the German family's reunion takes place +around the coffee table on Sunday afternoons. In summer, when weather +permits, the family will take a walk into the suburbs, and stop at a +garden where coffee is sold in pots. The proprietor furnishes the +coffee, the cups, the spoons and, in normal times, the sugar, two pieces +to each cup; and the patrons bring their own cake. They put one piece of +sugar into each cup and take the other pieces home to the "canary bird," +meaning the sugar bowl in the pantry.</p> + +<p>Cheaper coffee is served in some gardens, which conspicuously display +large signs at the entrance, saying: "Families may cook their own coffee +in this place." In such a garden, the patron merely buys the hot water +from the proprietor, furnishing the ground coffee and cake himself.</p> + +<p>While waiting for the coffee to brew, he may listen to the band and +watch the children play under the trees. French or Vienna drip pots are +used for brewing.</p> + +<p>Every city in Germany has its cafés, spacious places where patrons sit +around small tables, drinking coffee, "with or without" turned or +unturned, steaming or iced, sweetened or unsweetened, depending on the +sugar supply; nibble, at the same time, a piece of cake or pastry, +selected from a glass pyramid; talk, flirt, malign, yawn, read, and +smoke. Cafés are, in fact,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_684" id="Page_684">[Pg 684]</a></span> public reading rooms. Some places keep +hundreds of daily and weekly newspapers and magazines on file for the +use of patrons. If the customer buys only one cup of coffee, he may keep +his seat for hours, and read one newspaper after another.</p> + +<p>Three of the four corners of Berlin's most important street crossing are +occupied by cafés. This is where Unter den Linden and Friedrichstrasse +meet. On the southwest corner there is Kranzler's staid old café, a very +respectable place, where the lower hall is even reserved for +non-smokers. On the southeast corner is Café Bauer, known the world +over. However, it has seen better days. It has been outdistanced by +competitors. On the northeast corner is the Victoria, a new-style place, +very bright, and less staid. There no room is reserved for non-smokers, +for most of the ladies, if they do not themselves smoke, will light the +cigars for their escorts.</p> + +<p>Around the Potsdamer Platz there is a number of cafés. Josty's is +perhaps the most frequented in Berlin. It is the best liked on account +of the trees and terraces in front. Farther to the west, on +Kuerfuerstendamm, there are dozens of large cafés.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Paris and Berlin Cafes"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Morning_Coffee_at_a_Boulevard_Cafe" id="Morning_Coffee_at_a_Boulevard_Cafe"></a> +<img src="images/image573.jpg" width="300" height="426" alt="Morning Coffee in Front of a Boulevard Café, Paris, with +a British Background" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Morning Coffee in Front of a Boulevard Café, Paris, with a British Background</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Cafe_Bauer_Unter_den_Linden_Berlin" id="Cafe_Bauer_Unter_den_Linden_Berlin"></a> +<img src="images/image574.jpg" width="300" height="219" alt="Interior, Café Bauer, Berlin" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Interior, Café Bauer, Berlin</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Some of the cafés are meeting-places for certain professions and trades. +The Admiral's café, in Friedrichstrasse, for instance, is the +"artistes'" exchange. All the stage folk and stars of the tanbark meet +there every day. Chorus girls, tumblers, ladies of the flying trapeze, +contortionists, and bareback riders are to be found there, discussing +their grievances, denouncing their managers, swapping their diamonds, +and recounting former triumphs. Cinema-makers come also to pick out a +cast for a new film play. There one can pick out a full cast every +minute.</p> + +<p>Then there is the Café des Westens in Kuerfuerstendamm, the old one, +where dreamers and poets congregate. It is called also Café +Groessenwahn, which means that persons suffering from an exaggerated ego +are conspicuous by their presence and their long hair.</p> + +<p>At almost every table one may find a poet who has written a play that is +bound to enrich its author and any man of means who will put up the +money to build a new theater in which to produce it.</p> + +<p>Saxony and Thuringia are proverbial hotbeds of coffee lovers. It is said +that in Saxony there are more coffee drinkers to the square inch and +more cups to the single coffee bean than anywhere else upon earth. The +Saxons like their coffee, but seem to be afraid it may be too strong for +them. So, when over their cups, they always make certain they can see +bottom before raising the steaming bowl to the lip.</p> + +<p>Von Liebig's method of making coffee, whereby three-fourths of the +quantity to be used is first boiled for ten or fifteen minutes, and the +remainder added for a six-minute steeping or infusion, is religiously +followed by some housekeepers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_685" id="Page_685">[Pg 685]</a></span> Von Liebig advocated coating the bean +with sugar. In some families, fats, eggs, and egg-shells are used to +settle and to clarify the beverage.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Cafe_Bauer_Exterior" id="Cafe_Bauer_Exterior"></a> +<img src="images/image575.jpg" width="300" height="211" alt="Café Bauer, Unter den Linden, Berlin" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Café Bauer, Unter den Linden, Berlin</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee in Germany is better cooked (roasted) and more scientifically +prepared than in many other European countries. In recent years, during +the World War and since, however, there has been an amazing increase in +the use of coffee substitutes, so that the German cup of coffee is not +the pure delight it was once.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Greece.</span> Coffee is the most popular and most extensively used +non-alcoholic beverage in Greece, as it is throughout the Near East. Its +annual per capita consumption there is about two pounds, two-thirds of +the supply coming <i>via</i> Austria and France, Brazil furnishing direct the +bulk of the remaining third.</p> + +<p>Coffee is given a high or city roast, and is used almost entirely in +powdered form. It is prepared for consumption principally in the Turkish +demi-tasse way. Finely ground coffee is used even in making ordinary +table, or breakfast, coffee. In private houses the cylindrical brass +hand-grinders, manufactured in Constantinople, are mostly used. In many +of the coffee houses in the villages and country towns throughout Greece +and the Levant, a heavy iron pestle, wielded by a strong man, is +employed to pulverize the grains in a heavy stone or marble mortar; +while the poorer homes use a small brass pestle and mortar, also +manufactured in Turkey.</p> + +<p>In his <i>The Greeks of the Present Day</i><a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a>, Edmond François Valentin +About says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The coffee which is drunk in all the Greek houses rather astonishes +the travellers who have neither seen Turkey nor Algeria. One is +surprised at finding food in a cup in which one expected drink. Yet +you get accustomed to this coffee-broth and end by finding it more +savoury, lighter, more perfumed, and especially more wholesome, +than the extract of coffee you drink in France.</p></div> + +<p>Then About gives the recipe of his servant Petros, who is "the first man +in Athens for coffee":</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The grain is roasted without burning it; it is reduced to an +impalpable powder, either in a mortar or in a very close-grained +mill. Water is set on the fire till it boils up; it is taken off to +throw in a spoonful of coffee, and a spoonful of pounded sugar for +each cup it is intended to make; it is carefully mixed; the coffee +pot is replaced on the fire until the contents seem ready to boil +over; it is taken off, and set on again; lastly it is quickly +poured into the cups. Some coffee drinkers have this preparation +boiled as many as five times. Petros makes a rule of not putting +his coffee more than three times on the fire. He takes care in +filling the cups to divide impartially the coloured froth which +rises above the coffee pot; it is the <i>kaimaki</i> of the coffee. A +cup without <i>kaimaki</i> is disgraced.</p> + +<p class="quot1">When the coffee is poured out you are at liberty to drink it +boiling and muddy, or cold and clear. Real amateurs drink it +without waiting. Those who allow the sediment to settle down, do +not do so from contempt, for they afterwards collect it with the +little finger and eat it carefully.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Thus prepared, coffee may be taken without inconvenience ten times +a day: five cups of French coffee could not be drunk with impunity +every day. It is because the coffee of the Turks and the Greeks is +a diluted tonic, and ours is a concentrated tonic.</p> + +<p class="quot1">I have met at Paris many people who took their coffee without +sugar, to imitate the Orientals. I think I ought to give them +notice, between ourselves, that in the great coffee-houses of +Athens, sugar is always presented with the coffee; in the khans and +second-rate coffee-houses, it is served already sugared; and that +at Smyrna and Constantinople, it has everywhere been brought to me +sugared.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Kranzlers_Unter_den_Linden_Berlin" id="Kranzlers_Unter_den_Linden_Berlin"></a> +<img src="images/image576.jpg" width="300" height="210" alt="Kranzler's, Unter den Linden, Berlin" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Kranzler's, Unter den Linden, Berlin</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_686" id="Page_686">[Pg 686]</a></span></p><p><span class="smcap">Italy.</span> In Italy coffee is roasted in a wholesale and retail way as well +as in the home. French, German, Dutch, and Italian machines are used. +The full city, or Italian, roast is favored. There are cafés as in +France and other continental countries, and the drink is prepared in the +French fashion. For restaurants and hotels, rapid filtering machines, +first developed by the French and Italians, are used. In the homes, +percolators and filtration devices are employed.</p> + +<p>The De Mattia Brothers have a process designed to conserve the aroma in +roasting. The Italians pay particular attention to the temperature in +roasting and in the cooling operation. There is considerable glazing, +and many coffee additions are used.</p> + +<p>Like the French, the Italians make much of <i>café au lait</i> for breakfast. +At dinner, the <i>café noir</i> is served.</p> + +<p>Cafés of the French school are to be found along the Corso in Rome, the +Toledo in Naples, in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuel and the Piazza del +Duomo in Milan, and in the arcades surrounding the Piazza de San Marco +in Venice, where Florian's still flourishes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Netherlands.</span> In the Netherlands, too, the French café is a delightful +feature of the life of the larger cities. The Dutch roast coffee +properly, and make it well. The service is in individual pots, or in +demi-tasses on a silver, nickle, or brass tray, and accompanied by a +miniature pitcher containing just enough cream (usually whipped), a +small dish about the size of an individual butter plate holding three +squares of sugar, and a slender glass of water. This service is +universal; the glass of water always goes with the coffee. It is the one +sure way for Americans to get a drink of water. It is the custom in +Holland to repair to some open-air café or indoor coffee house for the +after-dinner cup of coffee. One seldom takes his coffee in the place +where he has his dinner. These cafés are many, and some are elaborately +designed and furnished. One of the most interesting is the St. Joris at +the Hague, furnished in the old Dutch style. The approved way of making +coffee in Holland is the French drip method.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Norway and Sweden.</span> French and German influences mark the roasting, +grinding, preparing, and serving of coffee in Norway and Sweden. +Generally speaking, not so much chicory is used, and a great deal of +whipped cream is employed. In Norway, the boiling method has many +followers. A big (open) copper kettle is used. This is filled with +water, and the coffee is dumped in and boiled. In the poorer-class +country homes, the copper kettle is brought to the table and set upon a +wooden plate. The coffee is served directly from the kettle in cups. In +better-class homes, the coffee is poured from the kettle into silver +coffee pots in the kitchen, and the silver coffee pots are brought to +the table. The only thing approaching coffee houses are the "coffee +rooms" which are to be found in Christiania. These are small one-room +affairs in which the plainer sorts of foods, such as porridge, may be +purchased with the coffee. They are cheap, and are largely frequented by +the poorer class of students, who use them as places in which to study +while they drink their coffee.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Russia</span> and <span class="smcap">Switzerland</span>, French and German methods obtain. Russia, +however, drinks more tea than coffee, which by the masses is prepared in +Turkish fashion, when obtainable. Usually, the coffee is only a cheap +"substitute." The so-called <i>café à la Russe</i> of the aristocracy, is +strong black coffee flavored with lemon. Another Russian recipe calls +for the coffee to be placed in a large punch bowl, and covered with a +layer of finely chopped apples and pears; then cognac is poured over the +mass, and a match applied.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Roumania</span> and <span class="smcap">Servia</span> drink coffee prepared after either the Turkish or +the French style, depending on the class of the drinker and where it is +served. Substitutes are numerous.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Spain</span> and <span class="smcap">Portugal</span> the French type of café flourishes as in Italy. In +Madrid, some delightful cafés are to be found around the Puerto del Sol, +where coffee and chocolate are the favorite drinks. The coffee is made +by the drip process, and is served in French fashion.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Manners and Customs in North America</i></p> + +<p>The introduction of coffee and tea into North America effected a great +change in the meal-time beverages of the people. Malt beverages had been +succeeded by alcoholic spirits and by cider. These in turn were +supplanted by tea and coffee.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Canada.</span> In Canada, we find both French and English influences at work in +the preparation and serving of the beverage;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_687" id="Page_687">[Pg 687]</a></span> "Yankee" ideas also have +entered from across the border. Some years back (about 1910) A. McGill, +chief chemist of the Canadian Inland Revenue Department, suggested an +improvement upon Baron von Liebig's method, whereby Canadians might +obtain an ideal cup of coffee. It was to combine two well-known methods. +One was to boil a quantity of ground coffee to get a maximum of body or +soluble matter. The other was to percolate a similar quantity to get the +needed caffeol. By combining the decoction and the infusion, a finished +beverage rich in body and aroma might be had. Most Canadians continue to +drink tea, however, although coffee consumption is increasing.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Sidewalk_Cafe_Lisbon" id="Sidewalk_Cafe_Lisbon"></a> +<img src="images/image577.jpg" width="300" height="226" alt="Sidewalk Café, Lisbon" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Sidewalk Café, Lisbon</span></span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mexico.</span> In Mexico, the natives have a custom peculiarly their own. The +roasted beans are pounded to a powder in a cloth bag which is then +immersed in a pot of boiling water and milk. The <i>vaquero</i>, however, +pours boiling water on the powdered coffee in his drinking cup, and +sweetens it with a brown sugar stick.</p> + +<p>Among the upper classes in Mexico the following interesting method +obtains for making coffee:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Roast one pound until the beans are brown inside. Mix with the +roasted coffee one teaspoonful of butter, one of sugar, and a +little brandy. Cover with a thick cloth. Cool for one hour; then +grind. Boil one quart of water. When boiling, put in the coffee and +remove from fire immediately. Let it stand a few hours, and strain +through a flannel bag, and keep in a stone jar until required for +use; then heat quantity required.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">United States.</span> In no country has there been so marked an improvement in +coffee making as in the United States. Although in many parts, the +national beverage is still indifferently prepared, the progress made in +recent years has been so great that the friends of coffee are hopeful +that before long it may be said truly that coffee making in America is a +national honor and no longer the national disgrace that it was in the +past.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Swedish_Coffee_Boilers" id="Swedish_Coffee_Boilers"></a> +<img src="images/image578.jpg" width="500" height="205" alt="These Coffee Pots Are Widely Used in Sweden for Boiling Coffee" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">These Coffee Pots Are Widely Used in Sweden for Boiling Coffee</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Left, copper pot with wooden handle and iron legs designed to stand in +the coals—Center, glass-globe pot, for stove use, enclosed in +felt-lined brass cosey—Right, hand-made hammered-brass kettle for stove +use]</p> + +<p>Already, in the more progressive homes, and in the best hotels and +restaurants, the coffee is uniformly good, and the service all that it +should be. The American breakfast cup is a food-beverage because of the +additions of milk or cream and sugar; and unlike Europe, this same +generous cup serves again as a necessary part of the noonday and evening +meals for most people.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_688" id="Page_688">[Pg 688]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="COFFEE_ROOMS_REPLACING_HOTEL_BARS_US" id="COFFEE_ROOMS_REPLACING_HOTEL_BARS_US"></a> +<img src="images/image579.jpg" width="500" height="291" alt="The Coffee Room of the Hotel Adolphus, Dallas, Texas" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Coffee Room of the Hotel Adolphus, Dallas, Texas</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><br /> +<img src="images/image580.jpg" width="500" height="308" alt="Day-and-Night Coffee Room, Rice Hotel, Houston, Texas" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Day-and-Night Coffee Room, Rice Hotel, Houston, Texas</span><br /> +HOTEL BARS REPLACED BY COFFEE ROOMS IN THE UNITED STATES</span> +</div> + +<p>One effect of prohibition has been to lead many hotels to feature their +coffee service, bringing back the modern type of coffee room illustrated +above]</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_689" id="Page_689">[Pg 689]</a></span></p><p>The important and indispensable part that sugar plays in the make-up of +the American cup of coffee was ably set forth by Fred Mason,<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> +vice-president of the American Sugar Refining Co., when he said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The coffee cup and the sugar bowl are inseparable table companions. +Most of us did not realize this until the war came, with its +attendant restrictions on everything we did, and we found that the +sugar bowl had disappeared from all public eating places. No longer +could we make an unlimited number of trips to the sugar bowl to +sweeten our coffee; but we had to be content with what was doled +out to us with scrupulous care—a quantity so small at times that +it gave only a hint of sweetness to our national beverage.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Then it was that we really appreciated how indispensable the proper +amount of sugar was to a good, savory cup of coffee, and we missed +it as much as we would seasoning from certain cooked foods. +Secretly we consoled ourselves with the promise that if the day +ever came when sugar bowls made their appearance once more, filled +temptingly with the sweet granules that were "gone but not +forgotten," we should put an extra lump or an additional spoonful +of sugar into our coffee to help us forget the joyless war days.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Since sugar is so necessary to our enjoyment of this popular +beverage, it is obvious that a considerable part of all the sugar +we consume must find its way into the national coffee cup. The +stupendous amount of 40,000,000,000 cups of coffee is consumed in +this country each year. Taking two teaspoonfuls or two lumps as a +fair average per cup, we find that about 800,000,000 pounds of +sugar, almost one-tenth of our total annual consumption, are +required to sweeten Uncle Sam's coffee cup. This is specially +significant when one considers that, with the single exception of +Australia, the United States consumes more sugar per capita than +any country on earth.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Sugar adds high food value to the stimulative virtues of coffee. +The beverage itself stimulates the mental and physical powers, +while the sugar it contains is fuel for the body and furnishes it +with energy. Sugar is such a concentrated food that the amount used +by the average person in two cups of coffee is enough to furnish +the system with more energy than could be derived from 40 oysters +on the half-shell.</p></div> + +<p>Since prohibition, the average citizen is drinking one hundred more cups +of coffee a year than he did in the old days; and a good part of the +increase is attributed to newly formed habits of drinking coffee between +meals, at soda fountains, in tea and coffee shops, at hotels, and even +in the homes. In other words, the increase is due to coffee drinking +that directly takes the place of malt and spirituous liquors. There have +come into being the hotel coffee room; the custom of afternoon coffee +drinking; and free coffee-service in many factories, stores, and +offices.</p> + +<p>In colonial days, must or ale first gave way to tea, and then to coffee +as a breakfast beverage. The Boston "tea party" clinched the case for +coffee; but in the meantime, coffee was more or less of an after-dinner +function, or a between-meals drink, as in Europe. In Washington's time, +dinner was usually served at three o'clock in the afternoon, and at +informal dinner parties the company "sat till sunset—then coffee."</p> + +<p>In the early part of the nineteenth century, coffee became firmly +intrenched as the one great American breakfast beverage; and its +security in this position would seem to be unassailable for all time.</p> + +<p>Today, all classes in the United States begin and end the day with +coffee. In the home, it is prepared by boiling, infusion or steeping, +percolation, and filtration; in the hotels and restaurants, by infusion, +percolation, and filtration. The best practise favors true percolation +(French drip), or filtration.</p> + +<p>Steeping coffee in American homes (an English heirloom) is usually +performed in a china or earthenware jug. The ground coffee has boiling +water poured upon it until the jug is half full. The infusion is stirred +briskly. Next, the jug is filled by pouring in the remainder of the +boiling water, the infusion is again stirred, then permitted to settle, +and finally is poured through a strainer or filter cloth before serving.</p> + +<p>When a pumping percolator or a double glass filtration device is used, +the water may be cold or boiling at the beginning as the maker prefers. +Some wet the coffee with cold water before starting the brewing process.</p> + +<p>For genuine percolator, or drip coffee, French and Austrian china drip +pots are mostly employed. The latest filtration devices are described in +chapter XXXIV.</p> + +<p>The Creole, or French market, coffee for which New Orleans has long been +famous is made from a concentrated coffee extract prepared in a drip +pot. First, the ground coffee has poured over it sufficient boiling +water thoroughly to dampen it, after which further additions of boiling +water, a tablespoonful at a time, are poured upon it at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_690" id="Page_690">[Pg 690]</a></span> five minute +intervals. The resulting extract is kept in a tightly corked bottle for +making <i>café au lait</i> or <i>café noir</i> as required. A variant of the +Creole method is to brown three tablespoonfuls of sugar in a pan, to add +a cup of water, and to allow it to simmer until the sugar is dissolved; +to pour this liquid over ground coffee in a drip pot, to add boiling +water as required, and to serve black or with cream or hot milk, as +desired.</p> + +<p>In New Orleans, coffee is often served at the bedside upon waking, as a +kind of early breakfast function.</p> + +<p>The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 served to introduce the +Vienna café to America. Fleischmann's Vienna Café and Bakery was a +feature of our first international exposition. Afterward, it was +transferred to Broadway, New York, where for many years it continued to +serve excellent coffee in Vienna style next door to Grace Church.</p> + +<p>The opportunity is still waiting for the courageous soul who will bring +back to our larger cities this Vienna café or some Americanized form of +the continental or sidewalk café, making a specialty of tea, coffee, and +chocolate.</p> + +<p>The old Astor House was famous for its coffee for many years, as was +also Dorlon's from 1840 to 1922.</p> + +<p>Members of the family of the late Colonel Roosevelt began to promote a +Brazil coffee-house enterprise in New York in 1919. It was first called +Café Paulista, but it is now known as the Double R coffee house, or Club +of South America, with a Brazil branch in the 40's and an Argentine +branch on Lexington Avenue. Coffee is made and served in Brazilian +style; that is, full city roast, pulverized grind, filtration made; +service, black or with hot milk. Sandwiches, cakes, and crullers are +also to be had.</p> + +<p>One of New York's newest clubs is known as the Coffee House. It is in +West Forty-fifth Street, and has been in existence since December, 1915, +when it was opened with an informal dinner, at which the late Joseph H. +Choate, one of the original members, outlined the purpose and policies +of the club.</p> + +<p>The founders of the Coffee House were convinced—as the result of the +high dues and constantly increasing formality and discipline in the +social clubs in New York—that there was need here for a moderate-priced +eating and meeting place, which should be run in the simplest possible +way and with the least possible expense.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of its career, the club framed, adopted, and has since +lived up to, a most informal constitution: "No officers, no liveries, no +tips, no set speeches, no charge accounts, no RULES."</p> + +<p>The membership is made up, for the most part, of painters, writers, +sculptors, architects, actors, and members of other professions. Members +are expected to pay cash for all orders. There are no proposals of +candidates for membership. The club invites to join it those whom it +believes to be in sympathy with the ideals of its founders.</p> + +<p>The method of preparing coffee for individual service in the +Waldorf-Astoria, New York, which has been adopted by many first-class +hotels and restaurants that do not serve urn-made coffee exclusively, is +the French drip plus careful attention to all the contributing factors +for making coffee in perfection, and is thus described by the hotel's +steward:</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Britannia_Coffee_Pot_a_Lincoln_Relic" id="Britannia_Coffee_Pot_a_Lincoln_Relic"></a> +<img src="images/image581.jpg" width="300" height="320" alt="Britannia Coffee Pot from Which Abraham Lincoln Was Often +Served in New Salem" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Britannia Coffee Pot from Which Abraham Lincoln Was Often Served in New Salem</span><br /> +<small>Its story is told on <a href="#Page_614">page 614</a></small></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">A French china drip coffee pot is used. It is kept in a warm +heater; and when the coffee is ordered, this pot is scalded with +hot water. A level tablespoonful of coffee, ground to about the +consistency of granulated sugar, is put into the upper and +percolator part of the coffee pot. Fresh boiling water is then +poured through the coffee and allowed to percolate into the lower +part of the pot. The secret of success, according to our +experience, lies in having the coffee freshly ground, and the water +as near the boiling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_691" id="Page_691">[Pg 691]</a></span> point as possible, all during the process. For +this reason, the coffee pot should be placed on a gas stove or +range. The quantity of coffee can be varied to suit individual +taste. We use about ten percent more ground coffee for after dinner +cups than we do for breakfast. Our coffee is a mixture of Old +Government Java and Bogota.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coffee_Service_Hotel_Astor_New_York" id="Coffee_Service_Hotel_Astor_New_York"></a> +<img src="images/image582.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="Coffee Service, Hotel Astor, New York" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coffee Service, Hotel Astor, New York</span></span> +</div> + +<p>C. Scotty, chef at the Hotel Ambassador, New York, thus describes the +method of making coffee in that hostelry:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">In the first place, it is essential that the coffee be of the +finest quality obtainable; secondly, better results are obtained by +using the French filterer, or coffee bag.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Twelve ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for breakfast.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Sixteen ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for dinner.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Boiling water should be poured over the coffee, sifoned, and put +back several times. We do not allow the coffee grounds to remain in +the urn for more than fifteen to twenty minutes at any time.</p></div> + +<p>The coffee service at the best hotels is usually in silver pots and +pitchers, and includes the freshly made coffee, hot milk or cream +(sometimes both), and domino sugar.</p> + +<p>Within the last year (1921) many of the leading hotels, and some of the +big railway systems, have adopted the custom of serving free a +demi-tasse of coffee as soon as the guest-traveler seats himself at the +breakfast table or in the dining car. "Small blacks," the waiters call +them, or "coffee cocktails," according to their fancy.</p> + +<p>At the Pequot coffee house, 91 Water Street, New York, a noonday +restaurant in the heart of the coffee trade, an attempt has been made to +introduce something of the old-time coffee house atmosphere.</p> + +<p>The Childs chain of restaurants recently began printing on its menus, in +brackets before each item, the number of calories as computed by an +expert in nutrition. Coffee with a mixture of milk and cream is credited +with eighty-five calories, a well known coffee substitute with seventy +calories, and tea with eighteen calories. The Childs chain of 92 +restaurants serves 40,000,000 cups of coffee a year, made from 375 tons +of ground coffee, and figuring an average of 53 cups to the pound.</p> + +<p>The Thompson chain of one hundred restaurants serves 160,000 cups of +coffee per day, or more than 58,000,000 cups per year.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Customs in South America</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Argentine.</span> Coffee is very popular as a beverage in Argentina. <i>Café con +léche</i>—coffee with milk, in which the proportion of coffee may vary +from one-fourth to two-thirds—is the usual Argentine breakfast +beverage. A small cup of coffee is generally taken after meals, and it +is also consumed to a considerable extent in cafés.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brazil.</span> In Brazil every one drinks coffee and at all hours. Cafés making +a specialty of the beverage, and modeled after continental originals, +are to be found a-plenty in Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and other large +cities. The custom prevails of roasting the beans high, almost to +carbonization, grinding them fine, and then boiling after the Turkish +fashion, percolating in French drip pots, steeping in cold water for +several hours, straining and heating the liquid for use as needed, or +filtering by means of conical linen sacks suspended from wire rings.</p> + +<p>The Brazilian loves to frequent the cafés and to sip his coffee at his +ease. He is very continental in this respect. The wide-open doors, and +the round-topped marble tables, with their small cups and saucers set +around a sugar basin, make inviting pictures. The customer pulls toward +him one of the cups and immediately a waiter comes and fills it with +coffee, the charge for which is about three cents. It is a common thing +for a Brazilian to consume one dozen to two dozen cups of black coffee a +day. If one pays a social visit, calls upon the president of the +Republic, or any lesser official, or on a business acquaintance, it is a +signal for an attendant to serve coffee. <i>Café au lait</i> is popular in +the morning; but except for this service, milk or cream is never used. +In Brazil, as in the Orient, coffee is a symbol of hospitality.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Chile</span>, <span class="smcap">Paraguay</span> and <span class="smcap">Uruguay</span>, very much the same customs prevail of +making and serving the beverage.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_692" id="Page_692">[Pg 692]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Drinking in Other Countries</i></p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Australia</span> and <span class="smcap">New Zealand</span>, English methods for roasting, grinding, +and making coffee are standard. The beverage usually contains thirty to +forty percent chicory. In the bush, the water is boiled in a billy can. +Then the powdered coffee is added; and when the liquid comes again to a +boil, the coffee is done. In the cities, practically the same method is +followed. The general rule in the antipodes seems to be to "let it come +to a boil", and then to remove it from the fire.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Cuba</span> the custom is to grind the coffee fine, to put it in a flannel +sack suspended over a receiving vessel, and to pour cold water on it. +This is repeated many times, until the coffee mass is well saturated. +The first drippings are repoured over the bag. The final result is a +highly concentrated extract, which serves for making <i>café au lait</i>, or +<i>café noir</i>, as desired.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Martinique</span>, coffee is made after the French fashion. In <span class="smcap">Panama</span>, +French and American methods obtain; as also in the <span class="smcap">Philippines</span>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_693" id="Page_693">[Pg 693]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="Chapter_XXXVI" id="Chapter_XXXVI"></a><span class="smcap">Chapter XXXVI</span></h2> + +<h3>PREPARATION OF THE UNIVERSAL BEVERAGE</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>The evolution of grinding and brewing methods—Coffee was first a +food, then a wine, a medicine, a devotional refreshment, a +confection, and finally a beverage—Brewing by boiling, infusion, +percolation, and filtration—Coffee making in Europe in the +nineteenth century—Early coffee making in the United +States—Latest developments in better coffee making—Various +aspects of scientific coffee brewing—Advice to coffee lovers on +how to buy coffee, and how to make it in perfection</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<p class="noin"><span class="dcap">T</span><span class="caps">he</span> coffee drink has had a curious evolution. It began, not as a drink, +but as a food ration. Its first use as a drink was as a kind of wine. +Civilization knew it first as a medicine. At one stage of its +development, before it became generally accepted as a liquid +refreshment, the berries found favor as a confection. As a beverage, its +use probably dates back about six hundred years.</p> + +<p>The protein and fat content, that is, the food value, of coffee, so far +as civilized man is concerned, is an absolute waste. The only +constituents that are of value are those that are water soluble, and can +be extracted readily with hot water. When coffee is properly made, as by +the drip method, either by percolation or filtration, the ground coffee +comes in contact with the hot water for only a few minutes; so the major +portion of the protein, which is not only practically insoluble, but +coagulates on heating, remains in the unused part of the coffee, the +grounds. The coffee bean contains a large percent of protein—fourteen +percent. By comparing this figure with twenty-one percent of protein in +peas, twenty-three percent in lentils, twenty-six percent in beans, +twenty-four percent in peanuts, about eleven percent in wheat flour, and +less than nine percent in white bread, we learn how much of this +valuable food stuff is lost with the coffee grounds<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a>.</p> + +<p>Though civilized man (excepting the inhabitants of the Isle de Groix off +the coast of Brittany) does not use this protein content of coffee, in +certain parts of Africa it has been put to use in a very ingenious and +effective manner "from time immemorial" down to the present day. James +Bruce, the Scottish explorer, in his travels to discover the source of +the Nile in 1768–73, found that this curious use of the coffee bean had +been known for centuries. He brought back accounts and specimens of its +use as a food in the shape of balls made of grease mixed with roasted +coffee finely ground between stones.</p> + +<p>Other writers have told how the Galla, a wandering tribe of Africa—and +like most wandering tribes, a warlike one—find it necessary to carry +concentrated food on their long marches. Before starting on their +marauding excursions, each warrior equips himself with a number of food +balls. These prototypes of the modern food tablet are about the size of +a billiard ball, and consist of pulverized coffee held in shape with +fat. One ball constitutes a day's ration; and although civilized man +might find it unpalatable, from the purely physiological<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_694" id="Page_694">[Pg 694]</a></span> standpoint it +is not only a concentrated and efficient food, but it also has the +additional advantage of containing a valuable stimulant in the caffein +content which spurs the warrior on to maximum effort. And so the savage +in the African jungle has apparently solved two problems; the +utilization of coffee's protein, and the production of a concentrated +food.</p> + +<p>Further research shows that perhaps as early as 800 A.D. this practise +started by crushing the whole ripe berries, beans and hulls, in mortars, +mixing them with fats, and rounding them into food balls. Later, the +dried berries were so used. The inhabitants of Groix, also, thrive on a +diet that includes roasted coffee beans.</p> + +<p>About 900, a kind of aromatic wine was made in Africa from the fermented +juice of the hulls and pulp of the ripe berries<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a>.</p> + +<p>Payen says that the first coffee drinkers did not think of roasting but, +impressed by the aroma of the dried beans, they put them in cold water +and drank the liquor saturated with their aromatic principles. Crushing +the raw beans and hulls, and steeping them in water, was a later +improvement.</p> + +<p>It appears that boiled coffee (the name is anathema today) was invented +about the year 1000 A.D. Even then, the beans were not roasted. We read +of their use in medicine in the form of a decoction. The dried fruit, +beans and hulls, were boiled in stone or clay cauldrons. The custom of +using the sun-dried hulls, without roasting, still exists in Africa, +Arabia, and parts of southern Asia. The natives of Sumatra neglect the +fruit of the coffee tree and use the leaves to make a tea-like infusion. +Jardin relates that in Guiana an agreeable tea is made by drying the +young buds of the coffee tree, and rolling them on a copper plate +slightly heated. In Uganda, the natives eat the raw berries; from +bananas and coffee they make also a sweet, savory drink which is called +<i>menghai</i>.</p> + +<p>About 1200, the practise was common of making a decoction from the dried +hulls alone. There followed the discovery that roasting improved the +flavor. Even today, this drink known as Sultan or Sultana coffee, <i>café +à la sultane</i>, or <i>kisher</i>, continues in favor in Arabia. Credit for the +invention of this beverage has been wrongfully given by various French +writers to Doctor Andry, director of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris. +Dr. Andry had his own recipe for making <i>café à la sultane</i>, which was +to boil the coffee hulls for half an hour. This gave a lemon-colored +liquid which was drunk with a little sugar.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Early_Coffee_Making_in_Persia" id="Early_Coffee_Making_in_Persia"></a> +<img src="images/image583.jpg" width="300" height="349" alt="Early Coffee Making in Persia" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Early Coffee Making in Persia</span><br /> +<small>Showing leather bag for green beans, roasting plate, grinder, boiler, +and serving cups</small></span> +</div> + +<p>The Oriental procedure was to toast the hulls in an earthenware pot over +a charcoal fire, mixing in with them a small quantity of the silver +skins, and turning them over until they were slightly parched. The hulls +and silver skins, in proportions of four to one, were then thrown into +boiling water and well boiled again for at least a half-hour. The color +of the drink had some resemblance to the best English beer, La Roque +assures us, and it required no sweetening, "there being no bitterness to +correct." This was still the coffee drink of the court of Yemen, and of +people of distinction in the Levant, when La Roque and his +fellow-travelers made their celebrated voyage to Arabia the Happy in +1711–13.</p> + +<p>Some time in the thirteenth century, the practise began of roasting the +dried beans, after the hulling process. This was done first in crude +stone and earthenware trays, and later on metal plates, as described in +chapter XXXIV. A liquor was made from boiling the whole roasted beans. +The next<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_695" id="Page_695">[Pg 695]</a></span> step was to pound the roasted beans to a powder with a mortar +and pestle; and the decoction was then made by throwing the powder into +boiling water, the drink being swallowed in its entirety, grounds and +all. It was a decoction for the next four centuries.</p> + +<p>When the long-handled Arabian metal boiler made its appearance in the +early part of the sixteenth century, the method of preparation and +service had much improved. The Arabs and the Turks had made it a social +adjunct, and its use was no longer confined to the physicians and the +churchmen. It had become a stimulating refreshment for all the people; +and at the same time, the Arabians and the Turks had developed a coffee +ceremony for the higher classes which was quite as wonderful as the tea +ceremony of Japan.</p> + +<p>The common early method of preparation throughout the Levant was to +steep the powder in water for a day, to boil the liquor half away, to +strain it, and to keep it in earthen pots for use as wanted. In the +sixteenth century, the small coffee boiler, or <i>ibrik</i>, caused the +practise to be more of an instantaneous affair. The coffee was ground, +and the powder was dropped into the boiling water, to be withdrawn from +the fire several times as it boiled up to the rim. While still boiling, +cinnamon and cloves were sometimes added before pouring the liquid off +into the findjans, or little china cups, to be served with the addition +of a drop of essence of amber. Later, the Turks added sugar during the +boiling process.</p> + +<p>From the first simple uncovered <i>ibrik</i> there was developed, about the +middle of the seventeenth century, a larger-size covered coffee boiler, +the forerunner of the modern combination brewing and serving pot. This +was a copper-plated kettle patterned after the oriental ewer with a +broad base, bulbous body, and narrow neck. After having poured into it +one and a half times as much water as the dish (cup) in which the drink +was to be served would hold, the pot was placed on a lively fire. When +the water boiled, the powdered coffee was tossed into the pot; and, as +the liquid boiled up, it was taken from the fire and returned, probably +a dozen times. Then the pot was placed in hot ashes to permit the +grounds to settle. This done, the drink was served. Dufour, describing +this process as practised in Turkey and Arabia, says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">One ought not to drink coffee, but suck it in as hot as one can. In +order not to be burned, it is not necessary to place the tongue in +the cup but hold the edge against the tongue with the lips above +and below it, forcing it so little that the edges do not bear down, +and then suck in; that is to say, swallow it sip by sip. If one is +so delicate he can not stand the bitterness, he can temper it with +sugar. It is a mistake to stir the coffee in the pot, the grounds +being worth nothing. In the Levant it is only the scum of the +people who swallow the grounds.</p></div> + +<p>La Roque says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The Arabians, when they take their coffee off the fire, immediately +wrap the vessel in a wet cloth which fines the liquor instantly, +makes it cream at the top and occasion a more pungent steam, which +they take great pleasure in snuffing up as the coffee is pouring +into the cups. They, like all other nations of the East, drink +their coffee without sugar.</p></div> + +<p>Some of the Orientals afterward modified the early coffee-making +procedure by pouring the boiling water on the powdered coffee in the +serving cups. They thus obtained "a foaming and perfumed beverage," says +Jardin, "to which we (the French) could not accustom ourselves because +of the powder which remains in suspension. Nevertheless, clarified +coffee may be obtained in the Orient. In Mecca, in order to filter it, +they strain it through stopples of dried herbs, put into the opening of +a jar."</p> + +<p>Sugar seems to have been introduced into coffee in Cairo about 1625. +Veslingius records that the coffee drinkers in Cairo's three thousand +coffee houses "did begin to put sugar in their coffee to correct the +bitterness of it", and that "others made sugar plums of the coffee +berries". This coffee confection later appeared in Paris, and about the +same time (1700) at Montpellier was introduced a coffee water, "a sort +of rosa-folis of an agreeable scent that has somewhat of the smell of +coffee roasted." These novelties, however, were designed to please only +"the most nice lovers of coffee"; for <i>ennui</i> and boredom demanded new +sensations then as now.</p> + +<p>Boiling continued the favorite method of preparing the beverage until +well into the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, we learn from English +references that it was the custom to buy the beans of apothecaries, to +dry them in an oven, or to roast them in an old pudding dish or frying +pan before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_696" id="Page_696">[Pg 696]</a></span> pounding them to a powder with mortar and pestle, to force +the powder through a lawn sieve, and then to boil it with spring water +for a quarter of an hour. The following recipe from a rare book +published in London, 1662, details the manner of making coffee in the +seventeenth century:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"> + +<span class="smcap">Coffee Making in 1662</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">To make the drink that is now much used called coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The coffee-berries are to be bought at any Druggist, about three +shillings the pound; take what quantity you please, and over a +charcoal fire, in an old pudding-pan or frying-pan, keep them +always stirring until they be quite black, and when you crack one +with your teeth that it is black within as it is without; yet if +you exceed, then do you waste the Oyl, which only makes the drink; +and if less, then will it not deliver its Oyl, which must make the +drink; and if you should continue fire till it be white, it will +then make no coffee, but only give you its salt. The Berry prepared +as above, beaten and forced through a Lawn Sive, is then fit for +use.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Take clean water, and boil one-third of it away what quantity +soever it be, and it is fit for use. Take one quart of this +prepared Water, put in it one ounce of your prepared coffee, and +boil it gently one-quarter of an hour, and it is fit for your use; +drink one-quarter of a pint as hot as you can sip it.</p></div> + +<p>In England, about this time, the coffee drink was not infrequently mixed +with sugar candy, and even with mustard. In the coffee houses, however, +it was usually served black, without sugar or milk.</p> + +<p>About 1660, Nieuhoff, the Dutch ambassador to China, was the first to +make a trial of coffee with milk in imitation of tea with milk. In 1685, +Sieur Monin, a celebrated doctor of Grenoble, France, first recommended +<i>café au lait</i> as a medicine. He prepared it thus: Place on the fire a +bowl of milk. When it begins to rise, throw in to it a bowl of powdered +coffee, a bowl of moist sugar, and let it boil for some time.</p> + +<p>We read that in 1669 "coffee in France was a hot black decoction of +muddy grounds thickened with syrup."</p> + +<p>Angelo Rambaldi in his <i>Ambrosia Arabica</i> thus describes coffee making +in Italy and other European countries in 1691:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Description of the Vase for Making the<br /> +Decoction, Dose of Powder and of the<br /> +Water Necessary and Time of<br /> +Boiling It.</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">Two such vessels having a large paunch to reach the fire, two +others with long necks and narrow, with a cover to restrain their +spirituous and volatile particles which when thrown off by the heat +are easily lost. These vessels are called Ibriq in Arabia. They are +made of copper—coated with white outside and inside. We, who do +not possess the art of making them should select an earth vitriate, +sulphate of copper, or any other material adapted for kitchen ware: +it might even be of silver.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The quantity of water and powder has no certain rule, by reason of +the difference of our nature and tastes, and each one after some +experience will use his own judgment to adjust it to his desire and +liking.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Maronita infused two ounces of powder in three litres of water. +Cotovico in his voyage to Jerusalem affirms that he has observed +six ounces of the former to 20 litres of the latter, boiled until +it was reduced to half the quantity. Thévenot asserts that the +Turks in three cups of water are contented with a good spoonful of +powder. I have observed however that in Africa, France and England, +into about six ounces of water (which with them is one cup) a dram +of the powder is infused and this agrees with my taste—but I have +wished at times to change the dose.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Others put the water into the vase and when it begins to boil add +the powder, but because it is full of spirit at the first contact +with the heat it rises and boils over the edge of the vase. Take it +away from the fire till the boiling ceases, then put it on the fire +again and let it stay a short time boiling with the cover on: Stand +it on warm ashes until it settles, after which slowly pour a little +of the decoction into an earthen vessel, or one of porcelain or any +other kind, as hot as can be borne, and drink a sip; if it pleases +your taste, add a portion of cardamom, cloves, nutmeg or cinnamon, +and dissolve a little sugar in the water; yet because these +substances will alter the taste of this simple, they are not prized +by many experts.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Modern Arabia, Bassa, Turkey, the Great Orient, those who are +travelling or in the army, infuse the powder in cold water, and +then boiling it as directed above, bear witness to its efficacy. +All times are opportune to take this salutary drink (beverage). +Among the Turks are those who take it even by night, nor is there a +business meeting or conversation, where coffee is not taken. Among +the Great it would be accounted an incivility, if with smoke, +coffee were not offered: and no one in the day is ashamed to +frequent the bazaars where it is sold. When I was in London, that +city of three million people, there were taverns for its special +use. It is a great stimulant. The sober take it to invigorate the +stomach. The scrofulous hated it because they thought it stirred up +the bile on an empty stomach—but experience proving the contrary +enjoy it as much as others.</p></div> + +<p>In 1702, coffee in the American colonies was being used as a refreshment +between meals, "like spirituous liquors."</p> + +<p>It was in 1711 that the infusion idea in coffee making appeared in +France. It came in the form of a fustian (cloth) bag which contained the +ground coffee in the coffee maker, and the boiling water was poured over +it. This was a decided French<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_697" id="Page_697">[Pg 697]</a></span> novelty, but it made slow headway in +England and America, where some people were still boiling the whole +roasted beans and drinking the liquor.</p> + +<p>In England, as early as 1722, there arose a conscientious objector to +boiled coffee in the person of Humphrey Broadbent, a coffee merchant who +wrote a treatise on <i>the True Way of Preparing and Making Coffee</i><a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a>, +in which he condemned the "silly" practise of making coffee by "boiling +an ounce of the powder in a quart of water," then common in the London +coffee houses, and urging the infusion method. He favored the following +procedure:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Put the quantity of powder you intend, into your pot (which should +be either of stone, or silver, being much better than tin or +copper, which takes from it much of its flavour and goodness) then +pour boiling-hot water upon the aforesaid powder, and let it stand +to infuse five minutes before the fire. This is an excellent way, +and far exceeds the common one of boiling, but whether you prepare +it by boiling or this way, it will sometimes remain thick and +troubled, after it is made, except you pour in a spoonful or two of +cold water, which immediately precipitates the more heavy parts at +the bottom, and makes it clear enough for drinking.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Some, make coffee with spring water, but it is not so good as +river, or <i>Thames</i>-water, because the former makes it hard, and +distasteful, and the other makes it smooth and pleasant, lying soft +on the stomach. If you have a desire to make good coffee in your +families, I cannot conceive how you can put less than two ounces of +powder to a quart, or one ounce to a pint of water; some put two +ounces and a quarter.</p></div> + +<p>By 1760, the decoction, or boiling, method in France had been generally +replaced by the infusion, or steeping, method.</p> + +<p>In 1763, Donmartin, a tinsmith of St. Bendit, France, invented a coffee +pot, the inside of which was "filled by a fine sack put in its +entirety," and which had a tap to draw the coffee. Many inventions to +make coffee <i>sans ebullition</i> (without boiling) appeared in France about +this time; but it was not until 1800 that De Belloy's pot, employing the +original French drip method, appeared, signaling another step forward in +coffee making—percolation.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>De Belloy and Count Rumford</i></p> + +<p>De Belloy's pot was probably made of iron or tin, afterward of +porcelain; and it has served as a model for all the percolation devices +that followed it for the next hundred years. It does not seem to have +been patented, and not much is known of the inventor. About this period, +it was the common practise in England to boil coffee in the good +old-fashioned way, and to "fine" (clarify) it with isinglass. This moved +Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), an American-British scientist, then +living in Paris, to make a study of scientific coffee-making, and to +produce an improved drip device known as Rumford's percolator. He has +been generally credited with the invention of the percolator; but, as +pointed out in a previous chapter, this honor seems to be De Belloy's +and not Rumford's.</p> + +<p>Count Rumford embodied his observations and conclusions in a verbose +essay entitled <i>Of the excellent qualities of coffee and the art of +making it in the highest perfection</i>, published in London in 1812. In +this treatise he describes and illustrates the Rumford percolator.</p> + +<p>Brillat-Savarin, the famous French gastronomist, who also wrote on +coffee in his <i>VI<sup>me</sup> Meditation</i>, said of the De Belloy pot:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">I have tried, in the course of time, all methods and of all those +which have been suggested to me up to today (1825) and with a full +knowledge of the matter in hand. I prefer the De Belloy method, +which consists of pouring the boiling water upon the coffee which +has been placed in the vessel of porcelain or silver, pierced with +very small holes. I have attempted to make coffee in a boiler at +high pressure, but I have had as a result a coffee full of extracts +and bitterness which would scrape the throat of a Cossack.</p></div> + +<p>Brillat-Savarin had something also to say on the subject of grinding +coffee, his conclusion being that it was "better to pound the coffee +than to grind it."</p> + +<p>He refers to M. Du Belloy, archbishop of Paris, "who loved good things +and was quite an epicure," and says that Napoleon showed him deference +and respect. This may have been Jean Baptiste De Belloy, who, according +to Didot, was born in 1709 and died in 1808, and, it is thought likely, +was the inventor of the De Belloy pot.</p> + +<p>Count Rumford was born in Woburn, Mass., in 1753. He was apprenticed to +a storekeeper in Salem in 1766. He became an object of distrust among +the friends of the cause of American freedom: and, on the evacuation of +Boston by the Royal troops in 1776, he was selected by Governor +Wentworth of New Hampshire to carry dispatches to England. He left +England<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_698" id="Page_698">[Pg 698]</a></span> in 1802, and resided in France from 1804 until his death in +1814. In 1772, he had married, or rather, as he put it, he was married +by, a wealthy widow, the daughter of a highly respectable minister and +one of the first settlers at Rumford, now called Concord, New Hampshire. +It was from this town that he took his title of Rumford when he was +created a Count of the Holy Roman Empire in 1791. His first wife having +died, he married in Paris, the wealthy widow of the celebrated chemist, +Lavoisier; and with her he lived an extremely uncomfortable life until +they agreed to separate.</p> + +<p>In his essay on coffee and coffee making, Count Rumford gives us a good +pen picture of the preparation of the beverage in England at the +beginning of the nineteenth century. He says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Coffee is first roasted in an iron pan, or in a hollow cylinder, +made of sheet iron, over a brisk fire; and when, from the colour of +the grain, and the peculiar fragrance which it acquires in this +process, it is judged to be sufficiently roasted, it is taken from +the fire, and suffered to cool. When cold it is pounded in a +mortar; or ground in a hand-mill to a coarse powder, and preserved +for use.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Formerly, the ground Coffee being put into a coffee-pot, with a +sufficient quantity of water, the coffee-pot was put over the fire, +and after the water had been made to boil a certain time, the +coffee-pot was removed from the fire, and the grounds having had +time to settle, or having been fined down with isinglass, the clear +liquor was poured off, and immediately served up in cups.</p></div> + +<p>Count Rumford thought it a mistake to agitate the coffee powder in the +brewing process, and in this he agreed with De Belloy. His improvement +on the latter's pot is described in chapter XXXIV. He was a coffee +connoisseur; and as such was one of the first to advocate the use of +cream as well as sugar for making an ideal cup of the beverage. He +refers, though not by name, to De Belloy's percolation method and says, +"Its usefulness is now universally acknowledged."</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>A Few Definitions</i></p> + +<p>Just here, in order to assure a better understanding of the subject, it +may be well to clear up sundry misconceptions regarding the words +percolation, filtration, decoction, infusion, etc., by the simple +expedient of definition.</p> + +<p>A decoction is a liquid produced by boiling a substance until its +soluble properties are extracted. Thus the coffee drink was first a +decoction; and a decoction is what one gets today when coffee is boiled +in the good old-fashioned way—as "mother used to make it."</p> + +<p>Infusion is the process of steeping—extraction without boiling. It is +extraction accomplished at any temperature below boiling, and is a +general classification of procedure capable of sub-division. As +generally and correctly applied, it is the operation wherein hot water +is merely poured upon ground coffee loose in a pot, or in a container +resting on the bottom of the pot. In the strictest sense of the term, an +infusion is also produced by percolation and filtration, when the water +is not boiled in contact with the coffee.</p> + +<p>Percolation means dripping through fine apertures in china or metal as +in De Belloy's French drip pot.</p> + +<p>Filtration means dripping through a porous substance, usually cloth or +paper.</p> + +<p>Percolation and filtration are practically synonymous, although a shade +of distinction in their meaning has arisen so that often the latter is +considered as a step logically succeeding the former. Accomplishing +extraction of a material by permitting a liquid to pass slowly through +it is in fact percolation, whereas filtration of the resultant extract +is effected by interposing in its path some medium which will remove +solid or semi-solid material from it. Coffee-making practise has in +itself so applied these terms that each is considered a complete +process. Percolation is thus applied when the infusion is removed from +the grounds immediately by dripping through fine perforations in the +china or metal of which the device is constructed.</p> + +<p>True percolation is not produced in the pumping "percolators" in which +the heated water is elevated and sprayed over the ground coffee held in +a metal basket in the upper part of the pot, the liquor being +recirculated until a satisfactory degree of extraction has been reached. +Rather, the process is midway between decoction and infusion, for the +weak liquor is boiled during the operation in order to furnish +sufficient steam to cause the pumping action.</p> + +<p>Filtration is accomplished when the ground coffee is retained by cloth +or paper, generally supported by some portion of the brewing device, and +extraction effected by pouring water on the top of the mass, permitting +the liquid to percolate through, the filtering medium retaining the +grounds.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_699" id="Page_699">[Pg 699]</a></span></p><p class="center"><br /><i>Patents and Devices</i></p> + +<p>From the beginning, the French devoted more attention than any other +people to coffee brewing. The first French patent on a coffee maker was +granted in 1802 to Denobe, Henrion, and Rauch for "a +pharmacological-chemical coffee making device by infusion."</p> + +<p>In 1802, Charles Wyatt obtained a patent in London on an apparatus for +distilling coffee.</p> + +<p>The first French patent on an improved French drip pot for making coffee +"by filtration without boiling" was granted to Hadrot in 1806. Strictly +speaking, this was not a filtering device, as it was fitted with a tin +composition strainer, or grid. It was very like Count Rumford's +percolator announced six years later, as will be seen by comparing the +two in chapter XXXIV.</p> + +<p>In 1815, Sené invented in France his <i>Cafetière Sené</i>, another device to +make coffee "without boiling."</p> + +<p>About the year 1817, the coffee biggin appeared in England. It was +simply a squat earthenware pot with an upper, movable, strainer part +made of tin, after the French drip pot pattern. Later models employed a +cloth bag suspended from the rim of the pot. It was said to have been +invented by a Mr. Biggin; and Dr. Murray, of dictionary fame, seems to +have become convinced of this gentleman's existence, although others +have doubted it and thought the name was of Dutch origin, the article +having been first made for Holland. It has been suggested that, in all +probability, the name came from the Dutch word <i>beggelin</i>, to trickle, +or run down. One thing is certain, coffee biggins came originally from +France; so that if there was a Mr. Biggin, he merely introduced them +into England. The coffee biggin with which Americans are most familiar +is a pot containing a flannel bag or a cylindrical wire strainer to hold +the ground coffee through which the boiling water is poured. The Marion +Harland pot was an improved metal coffee biggin. The Triumph coffee +filter was a cloth-bag device which made any coffee pot a biggin.</p> + +<p>In 1819, Morize, a Paris tinsmith, invented a double drip, reversible +coffee pot. The device had two movable "filters" and was placed bottom +up on the fire until the water boiled, when it was inverted to let the +coffee "filter" or drip through.</p> + +<p>In 1819, Laurens was granted a French patent on the original +pumping-percolator device, in which the water was raised by steam +pressure and dripped over the ground coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1820, Gaudet, another Paris tinsmith, invented a filtration device +that employed a cloth strainer.</p> + +<p>In 1822, Louis Bernard Rabaut was granted an English patent on a +coffee-making device in which the usual French drip process was reversed +by the use of steam pressure to force the boiling water upward through +the coffee mass. Caseneuve, of Paris, was granted a patent on a similar +device in France in 1824.</p> + +<p>In 1825, the first coffee-pot patent in the United States was granted to +Lewis Martelley on a machine "to condense the steam and essential oils +and return them to the infusion."</p> + +<p>In 1827, the first really practicable pumping percolator, as we +understand the meaning today, was invented by Jacques-Augustin Gandais, +a manufacturer of plated jewelry in Paris. The boiling water was raised +through a tube in the handle and sprayed over the ground coffee +suspended in a filter basket, but could not be returned for a further +spraying.</p> + +<p>In 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, a manufacturer of Chalons-sur-Marne, was +granted a French patent on a "percolator" employing, for the first time, +an inner tube to raise the boiling water for spraying over the ground +coffee.</p> + +<p>In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow were granted an English patent on +a kind of urn "percolator", or filter, employing the vacuum process of +coffee making, the upper vessel being made of glass.</p> + +<p>By this time, the pumping percolator, working by steam pressure and by +partial vacuum, was in general use in France, England, and Germany. And +then began the movement toward the next stage in coffee +making—filtration.</p> + +<p>About this time (1840), Robert Napier (1791–1876) the Scottish marine +engineer, of the celebrated Clyde shipbuilding firm of Robert Napier & +Sons, invented a vacuum coffee machine to make coffee by distillation +and filtration. The device was never patented; but thirty years later, +it was being made in the works of Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Co., +Ltd., successors)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_700" id="Page_700">[Pg 700]</a></span> under the direction of Mr. Napier, the aged inventor. +The device consists of a silver globe, brewer syphon, and strainer, as +illustrated. It operates as follows: a half-cupful of water is put into +the globe, and the gas flame is lighted. The dry coffee is put into the +receiver, which is then filled up with boiling water. This will at once +become agitated, and will continue so for a few minutes. When it becomes +still, the gas flame is turned down, and clear coffee is syphoned over +into the globe through the syphon tube, on the end of which, as it rests +in the coffee liquid, there is a metal strainer covered with a filter +cloth.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Napier Machines"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Napier_Vacuum_Coffee_Maker" id="Napier_Vacuum_Coffee_Maker"></a> +<img src="images/image584.jpg" width="300" height="364" alt="Napier Vacuum Coffee Maker" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Napier Vacuum Coffee Maker</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Napier-List_Steam_Coffee_Machine" id="Napier-List_Steam_Coffee_Machine"></a> +<img src="images/image585.jpg" width="300" height="287" alt="Napier-List Steam Coffee Machine" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Napier-List Steam Coffee Machine</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The Napierian coffee machine has enjoyed great popularity in England. +The principle has in later years been incorporated in the Napier-List +steam coffee machine for use in hotels, ships, restaurants, etc. Steam +is used as a source of heat, but does not mix with the coffee. List's +patent is for an improvement on the Napierian system and was granted in +1891.</p> + +<p>It is related that shortly before he died, old Mr. Napier, at the +termination of a dispute in Smith & Co.'s factory at Glasgow, where the +device was being made under his instruction, said to old Mr. Smith:</p> + +<p>"You may be a guid silversmith, but I am a better engineer."</p> + +<div class='center'><a name="Finley_Ackers_Filter-Paper_Coffee_Pot" id="Finley_Ackers_Filter-Paper_Coffee_Pot"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Finley Acker Coffee Pot"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image586.jpg" width="200" height="240" alt="Finley Acker" title="" /> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/image587.jpg" width="200" height="134" alt="Showing Method of Operation" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Showing Method of Operation</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='2'> +<span class="smcap">Finley Acker's Filter-Paper Coffee Pot</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In 1841, William Ward Andrews was granted an English patent on an +improved pot employing a pump to force the boiling water through the +ground coffee while contained in a perforated cylinder screwed to the +bottom of the pot.</p> + +<p>In 1842, the first French patent on a glass coffee-making device was +granted to Madame Vassieux of Lyons.</p> + +<p>Following this, there were numerous patents issued in France and England +on double glass-globe coffee-making devices. They were first known as +double glass balloons, and most of them employed metal strainers.</p> + +<p>After this, there were many "percolator" patents in France, England, and +the United States, some of which were for improved forms of the original +drip method of the De Belloy device. Others were for the type of machine +which came to be known as "percolators" because they employed the +principle of raising the heated water and spraying it over the ground +coffee in continuous fashion. The story is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_701" id="Page_701">[Pg 701]</a></span> told in chronological order +in the chapter on the evolution of coffee apparatus; so it is not +necessary to repeat it here. Numerous filtration devices also were +produced abroad and in the United States.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Kin-Hee_Pot_in_Operation" id="Kin-Hee_Pot_in_Operation"></a> +<img src="images/image588.jpg" width="300" height="236" alt="The Kin-Hee Pot in Operation" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Kin-Hee Pot in Operation</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Among the percolators, those of Manning, Bowman & Co., and of Landers, +Frary & Clark, became well known here. In the filtration field, the +following attained considerable distinction: Harvey Ricker's Half-Minute +pot, employing a cotton sack with re-inforced bottom, introduced about +1881; the Kin-Hee pot of 1900; Cauchois' Private Estate coffee maker, +using Japanese filter paper, introduced in 1905; Finley Acker's +percolator, introduced the same year, which also employed a filter paper +between two cylinders having side perforations; the Tricolator, 1908; +King's percolator, using filter paper, in 1912; and the "Make-Right", +1911, with its adaptation as presented in the Tru-Bru pot of 1920.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Tricolator_in_Operation" id="Tricolator_in_Operation"></a> +<img src="images/image589.jpg" width="300" height="327" alt="The Tricolator in Operation" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">The Tricolator in Operation</span></span> +</div> + +<p>The Make-Right was the invention of Edward Aborn, New York, and +comprised two telescoping open wire frames, or baskets, with a flat +piece of muslin between them. In the Tru-Bru pot, the same idea was +employed, except that the wire frames were so constructed as to furnish +four drip points to afford better distribution on the ground coffee and +to lessen the time of filtration. There was also a porcelain top, to +house and to raise the filtration device, above the brew with an opening +through which the boiling water could be poured without exposing the +ground coffee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="King_Percolator" id="King_Percolator"></a> +<img src="images/image590.jpg" width="300" height="574" alt="King Percolator, as Applied to a Hotel or Restaurant Urn" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">King Percolator, as Applied to a Hotel or Restaurant Urn</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Among later developments of the genuine percolator principle that have +attracted attention in this country, mention should be made of the +Phylax coffee maker, and the Galt pot.</p> + +<p>In 1914–16, there was a revival of interest in the United States in the +double glass-globe method of making coffee, introduced into France as +"double glass balloons"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_702" id="Page_702">[Pg 702]</a></span> in the first half of the nineteenth century. +American ingenuity produced several clever adaptations, and several +notable filter improvements. Advertising developed a great demand for +glass percolators, as they were first called; but although five attained +considerable prominence, only two survived and, at this writing, are +still being manufactured. Both are double glass-globe filters employing +a spirit lamp, gas, or electricity as heating agents.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="Three_American_Coffee_Making_Machines_in_Operation" id="Three_American_Coffee_Making_Machines_in_Operation"></a> +<img src="images/image591.jpg" width="500" height="219" alt="Three Types of American Coffee Makers in Operation" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Three Types of American Coffee Makers in Operation</span><br /> +<small>Left, Blanke's Cloth Filter—Center, Phylax—Right, Galt Vacuum device</small></span> +</div> + +<p>Within the last few years, it has become the fashion to obtain patents +in the United States on "the art of brewing coffee", or the "art of +making coffee". Instances are the patents issued to Messrs. Calkin and +Muller. In the Calkin patent (the Phylax device illustrated at the top +of this page) the "art" consists in controlling the flow of the boiling +water by means of the number and spacing of the holes in the +water-spreader, so as to restrict the volume and the speed, to effect a +quick initial extraction; and then, by means of a new spacing of holes +in the infuser, retarding the drip "to attain a prolonged extraction of +the tannin and other elements of slow extraction and combining the +liquids obtained during the initial and subsequent stages of the brew +for attaining a balanced liquid extract."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="How_the_Tru-Bru_Pot_Operates" id="How_the_Tru-Bru_Pot_Operates"></a> +<img src="images/image592.jpg" width="400" height="330" alt="How the Tru-Bru Pot Operates" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">How the Tru-Bru Pot Operates</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Muller's "art" (the apparatus is described in <a href="#Chapter_XXXIV">chapter XXXIV</a>) consisted +in so supplying and supporting the ground coffee in an urn that it is +never again subjected to the "decoction" after having been exposed to +the air and steam following the first application of the water.</p> + +<p>In 1920, William G. Goldsworthy, San Francisco, was granted a United +States patent on a process for preparing the beans for making the +beverage. The process consisted of grinding the raw dried beans; then +packing the ground product in non-combustible and non-soluble porous +containers, which are securely closed to keep them unimpaired while the +contained coffee is being roasted; and, after cooling, sealing them with +gelatine. To brew, container and contents are dropped into a cup of hot +water.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_703" id="Page_703">[Pg 703]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="COFFEE-MAKING_DEVICES_USED_IN_THE_US" id="COFFEE-MAKING_DEVICES_USED_IN_THE_US"></a> +<img src="images/image593.jpg" width="600" height="801" alt="COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES USED IN THE UNITED STATES" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES USED IN THE UNITED STATES</span> +<p class="hang2"><small>1—Marlon Harland Pot; 2—Universal Percolator; 3—Galt Vacuum Process +Coffee Maker; 4—Universal Electric Urn; 5—English Coffee Biggin +(Langley Ware); 6—Universal Cafenoira (Glass Filter); 7—Vienna +(Bohemian or Carlsbad) Coffee Machine; 8—Tru-Bru Pot; 9—Tricolator; +10—Manning-Bowman Percolator; 11—Blanke's Sanitary Coffee Pot; +12—Phylax Coffee Maker; 13—Private-Estate Coffee Maker; 14—American +French Drip Pot; 15—Kin-Hee Pot; 16—Silex Opalescent Glass Filter; +17—French Drip Pot (Langley Ware).</small></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_704" id="Page_704">[Pg 704]</a></span></p><p>This brief review of the evolution of coffee brews shows that coffee +making started with boiling, and next became an infusion. After that, +the best practise became divided between simple percolation and +filtration, which have continued to the present time. Boiling has also +continued to find advocates in every country, even in the United States, +where it seems to die hard, no matter how much is done to discredit it. +Percolation devices are subdivided into the simple drip pots and the +continuous percolation machines, as represented by numerous complicated +and high-priced contrivances on the market. Gradually, however, true +coffee lovers are realizing that the best results are to be obtained +through simple percolation or simple filtration. There are good +arguments for both methods.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Coffee Making in Europe in the Nineteenth Century</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">England.</span> We have noted Count Rumford's efforts to reform coffee making +in England in the early part of the nineteenth century. Many other +scientific men joined the movement. Among them was Professor Donovan, +who in the <i>Dublin Philosophical Journal</i> for May, 1826, told of his +experiments "to ascertain the best methods for extracting all the +virtues inherent in the berry." The <i>Penny Magazine</i> for June 14, 1834, +after deploring "the straw-colored fluid commonly introduced under the +misnomer of coffee in England", thus digests Professor Donovan's +findings:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Mr. Donovan found, that what we shall call the medicinal quality of +coffee resides in it independent of its aromatic flavor,—that it +is possible to obtain the exhilarating effect of the beverage +without gratifying the palate,—and, on the other hand, that all +the aromatic quality may be enjoyed without its producing any +effect upon the animal economy. His object was to combine the two.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The roasting of coffee is requisite for the production of both +these qualities; but, to secure them in their full degree, it is +necessary to conduct the process with some skill. The first thing +to be done is to expose the raw coffee to the heat of a gentle +fire, in an open vessel, stirring it continually until it assumes a +yellowish colour. It should then be roughly broken,—a thing very +easily done,—so that each berry is divided into about four or five +pieces, when it must be put into the roasting apparatus. This, as +most commonly used, is made of sheet-iron, and is of a cylindrical +shape: it no doubt answers the purpose well, and is by no means a +costly machine, but coffee may be very well roasted in a common +iron or earthenware pot, the main circumstances to be observed +being the degree to which the process is carried, and the +prevention of partial burning, by constant stirring. One of the +requisites for having good coffee is that it shall have been +recently roasted.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coffee should be ground very fine for use, and only at the moment +when it is wanted, or the aromatic flavour will in some measure be +lost. To extract all its good qualities, the powder requires two +separate and somewhat opposite modes of treatment, but which do not +offer any difficulty when explained. On the one hand, the fine +flavour would be lost by boiling, while, on the other, it is +necessary to subject the coffee to that degree of heat in order to +extract its medicinal quality. The mode of proceeding, which, after +many experiments, Mr. Donovan found to be the most simple and +efficacious for attaining both these ends, was the following:—</p> + +<p class="quot1">The whole water to be used must be divided into two equal parts. +One half must be put first to the coffee "cold", and this must be +placed over the fire until it "just comes to a boil", when it must +be immediately removed. Allowing it then to subside for a few +moments the liquid must be poured off as clear as it will run. The +remaining half of the water, which during this time should have +been on the fire, must then be added "at a boiling heat" to the +grounds, and placed on the fire, where it must be kept "boiling" +for about three minutes. This will extract the medicinal virtue, +and if then the liquid be allowed again to subside, and the clear +fluid be added to the first portion, the preparation will be found +to combine all the good properties of the berry in as great +perfection as they can be obtained. If any fining ingredient is +used it should be mixed with the powder at the beginning of the +process.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Several kinds of apparatus, some of them very ingenious in their +construction, have been proposed for preparing coffee, but they are +all made upon the principle of extracting only the aromatic +flavour, while Professor Donovan's suggestions not only enable us +to accomplish that desirable object, but superadd the less obvious +but equally essential matter of extracting and making our own all +the medicinal virtues.</p></div> + +<p>When Webster and Parkes published their <i>Encyclopedia of Domestic +Economy</i>, London, 1844, they gave the following as "the most usual +method of making coffee in England":</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Put fresh ground coffee into a coffee-pot, with a sufficient +quantity of water, and set this on the fire till it boils for a +minute or two; then remove it from the fire, pour out a cupful, +which is to be returned into the coffee-pot to throw down the +grounds that may be floating; repeat this, and let the coffee-pot +stand near the fire, but not on too hot a place, until the grounds +have subsided to the bottom; in a few minutes the coffee will be +clear without any other preparation, and may be poured into cups; +in this manner, with good materials in sufficient quantity, and +proper care, excellent coffee may be made. The most valuable part +of the coffee is soon extracted, and it is certain that long +boiling dissipates the fine aroma and flavour. Some make it a rule +not to suffer the coffee to boil, but only to bring it just to the +boiling point; but it is said by Mr. Donovan that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_705" id="Page_705">[Pg 705]</a></span> requires +boiling for a little time to extract the whole of the bitter, in +which he conceives much of the exhilarating qualities of the coffee +reside.</p></div> + +<p>This work had also the following to say on the clearing of coffee, which +was then a much-mooted question:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The clearing of coffee is a circumstance demanding particular +attention. After the heaviest parts of the grounds have settled, +there are still fine particles suspended for some time, and if the +coffee be poured off before these have subsided, the liquor is +deficient in that transparency which is one test of its perfection; +for coffee not well cleared has always an unpleasant bitter taste. +In general, the coffee becomes clear by simply remaining quiet for +a few minutes, as we have stated; but those who are anxious to have +it as clear as possible employ some artificial means of assisting +the clearing. The addition of a little isinglass, hartshorn +shavings, skins of eels or soles, white of eggs, egg shells, etc., +has been recommended for clearing; but it is evident that these +substances, to produce their effect, which is upon the same +principle as the fining of beer or wine, should be dissolved +previously, for if put in without, it would require so much time to +dissolve, that the flavour of the coffee would vanish.</p></div> + +<p>Coffee-making devices of this period in England, in addition to the +Rumford type of percolator and the popular coffee biggin, included +Evans' machine provided with a tin air-float to which was attached a +filter bag containing the coffee; Jones' apparatus, a pumping +percolator; Parker's steam-fountain coffee maker, which forced the hot +water upward through the ground coffee; Platow's patent filter, +previously mentioned, a single vacuum glass percolator in combination +with an urn; Brain's vacuum or pneumatic filter employing a "muslin, +linen or shamoy leather filter" and an exhausting pump, designed for +kitchen use; and Palmer's and Beart's pneumatic filtering machines of +similar construction.</p> + +<p>Cold infusions were common, the practise being to let them stand +overnight, to be filtered in the morning, and only heated, not boiled.</p> + +<p>Coffee grinding for these various types of coffee makers was performed +by iron mills; the portable box mill being most favored for family use. +"It consisted of a square box either of mahogany or iron japanned, +containing in the interior a hollow cone of steel with sharp grooves on +the inside; into this fits a conical piece of hardened iron or steel +having spiral grooves cut upon its surface and capable of being turned +round by a handle." There was a drawer to receive the finely ground +coffee. Larger wall-mills employed the same grinding mechanism.</p> + +<p>In 1855, Dr. John Doran wrote in his "Table Traits":</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">With regard to the making of coffee, there is no doubt that the +Turkish method of pounding the coffee in a mortar is infinitely +superior to grinding it in a mill, as with us. But after either +method the process recommended by M. Soyer may be advantageously +adopted; namely, "Put two ounces of ground coffee into a stew-pan, +which set upon the fire, stirring the coffee round with a spoon +until quite hot, then pour over a pint of boiling water; cover over +closely for five minutes, pass it through a cloth, warm again, and +serve."</p></div> + +<p>From observations by G.W. Poore, M.D., London, 1883, we are given a +glimpse of coffee making in England in the latter part of the nineteenth +century. He said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Those who wish to enjoy really good coffee must have it fresh +roasted. On the Continent, in every well-regulated household, the +daily supply of coffee is roasted every morning. In England this is +rarely done.</p> + +<p class="quot1">If roasted coffee has to be kept, it must be kept in an air-tight +vessel. In France, coffee used to be kept in a wrapper of waxed +leather, which was always closely tied over the contained coffee. +In this way the coffee was kept from contact with any air.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The Viennese say that coffee should be kept in a glass bottle +closed with a bung, and that coffee should on no account be kept in +a tin canister.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The coffee having been roasted, it has to be reduced to a coarse +powder before the infusion is made. The grinding and powdering of +coffee should be done just before it is wanted, for if the whole +coffee seeds quickly lose their aroma, how much more quickly will +the aroma be dissipated from coffee which has been reduced to a +fine powder? Nothing need be said in the matter of coffee mills. +They are common enough, varied enough, and cheap enough to suit all +tastes.</p> + +<p class="quot1">To insure a really good cup of coffee attention must be given to +the following points:</p> + +<p class="quot1">1. Be sure that the coffee is good in quality, freshly roasted, and +fresh ground.</p> + +<p class="quot1">2. Use sufficient coffee. I have made some experiments on this +point, and I have come to the conclusions that one ounce of coffee +to a pint of water makes poor coffee, 1<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> ounces of coffee to a +pint of water makes fairly good coffee, two ounces of coffee to a +pint of water makes excellent coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">3. As to the form of coffee pot I have nothing to say. The +varieties of coffee machines are very numerous and many of them are +useless incumbrances. At the best, they can not be regarded as +absolutely necessary. The Brazilians insist that coffee pots should +on no account be made of metal, but that porcelain or earthenware +is alone permissible. I have been in the habit of late of having my +coffee made in a common jug provided with a strainer, and I believe +there is nothing better.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_706" id="Page_706">[Pg 706]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="ENGLISH_HOTEL_COFFEE-MAKING_MACHINES" id="ENGLISH_HOTEL_COFFEE-MAKING_MACHINES"></a> +<img src="images/image594.jpg" width="500" height="293" alt="COFFEE-MAKING MACHINES POPULAR IN ENGLISH HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS" title="" /> +<span class="caption">COFFEE-MAKING MACHINES POPULAR IN ENGLISH HOTELS AND RESTAURANTS</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_707" id="Page_707">[Pg 707]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">4. Warm the jug, put the coffee into it, boil the water, and pour +the boiling water on the coffee, and the thing is done.</p> + +<p class="quot1">5. Coffee must not be boiled, or at most it must be allowed just to +"come to a boil", as cook says. If violent ebullition takes place, +the aroma of the coffee is dissipated, and the beverage is spoiled.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The most economical way of making coffee is to put the coffee into +a jug and pour cold water upon it. This should be done some hours +before the coffee is wanted—over night, for instance, if the +coffee be required for breakfast. The light particles of coffee +will imbibe the water and fall to the bottom of the jug in course +of time. When the coffee is to be used stand the jug in a saucepan +of water or a bainmarie and place the outer vessel over the fire +till the water contained in it boils. The coffee in this way is +gently brought to the boiling point without violent ebullition, and +we get the maximum extract without any loss of aroma.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Always make your coffee strong. <i>Café au lait</i> is much better if +made with one-fourth strong coffee and three-fourths milk than if +made half-and-half with a weaker coffee; this is evident.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is a mistake to suppose that coffee can not be made without a +great deal of costly and cumbersome apparatus.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Continent.</span> Rossignon has given us a general view of coffee making on +the continent of Europe in the middle of the nineteenth century. He +says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Formerly small bags of baize were used to percolate coffee. The +water was poured on the coffee, and when they were new the coffee +percolated through them was pretty good, but when they had been +used a few times they became greasy and it was very difficult to +clean them by any means. The greasy baize altered the quality of +the coffee, and in spite of all efforts to keep it clean the coffee +had a tarnished appearance very disagreeable to the view. Very few +persons use them at present. The apparatus most in use for the +percolation of coffee is a tin coffee-pot composed of two parts. +The upper one has a filter or sieve on which the coffee powder is +placed and through which the filtered coffee must pass. Boiling +water is poured on the coffee. The liquor which percolates falls in +the second part. Then the upper part is removed and the coffee is +ready as a beverage. There are very many systems of coffee pots. +One of the best is the Russian one, which consists of a receptacle +composed of two parts resembling two halves of an egg screwed +together. One part contains the hot water and the other the ground +coffee. In the center there is a filter. Turning the pot upside +down the percolation takes place very slowly and no aroma is lost.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The tin plate which is generally used to make the coffee pot has +many drawbacks. One of them is the dissolution of iron which takes +place after it has been used for a short time.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The quality of coffee, as a beverage, depends principally on the +degree of heat of the water. Experience has shown that a medium +class of coffee prepared at a moderate heat gives a very good +liquor, while excellent coffee on which boiling water has been +poured did not give a very good liquor. Therefore, instead of +pouring boiling water at 100°C. in a porcelain or silver +coffee-pot, those who desire to make a perfect coffee must use +water heated from 60° to 75°C.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><a name="Well_Known_Makes_of_Large_Coffee_Urns" id="Well_Known_Makes_of_Large_Coffee_Urns"></a> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Large Coffee Urns"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image595.jpg" width="200" height="389" alt="The Duparquet" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Duparquet</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> +<img src="images/image596.jpg" width="250" height="263" alt="Still's machine" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Still's machine</span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/image597.jpg" width="200" height="386" alt="The Kellum" title="" /> +<span class="caption">The Kellum</span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center' colspan='3'> +<span class="smcap">Three Well Known Makes of Large Coffee Urns</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">France.</span> Also about the middle of the nineteenth century the French +naturalist, Du Tour, thus describes one manner of making coffee in +France:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Let the powder be poured into the coffee-pot filled with boiling +water, in the proportion of two ounces and a half to two pounds, or +two English pints of water. Let the mixture be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_708" id="Page_708">[Pg 708]</a></span> stirred with a +spoon, and the coffee-pot be soon taken off the fire, but suffered +to remain closely shut, for about at least two hours, on the warm +ashes of a wood fire. During the infusion the liquor should be +several times agitated by a chocolate frother, or something of the +same kind, and be finally left for about a quarter of an hour to +settle.</p></div> + +<p><i>Café au lait</i> was not made by boiling coffee and milk together, as milk +was not proper to extract the coffee; the coffee was first made as <i>café +noir</i>, only stronger; as much of this coffee was poured in the cup as +was required, and the cup was then filled up with <i>boiled</i> milk. <i>Café a +la crème</i>, was made by adding boiled cream to strong clear coffee and +heating them together.</p> + +<p>In France, during the latter part of the nineteenth century, coffee was +roasted over charcoal fires in earthenware dishes or saucepans, stirred +with a spatula or wooden spoon, or in small cylinder or globular +roasters of iron. Gas roasting was also practised. When roasted in large +batches, the beans were cooled in wicker baskets, tossed into the air. +The grinding was preferably done in mortars or in box mills of pyramid +shape with receiving drawers, and was not too fine.</p> + +<p>The usual method of making coffee in France among the better classes at +this time was by means of improved De Belloy drip devices, double glass +vacuum filters, pumping percolators (double circulation devices), the +Russian egg-shaped pots, and the Viennese machines. The last-named were +metal pumping percolators with glass tops, usually swung between the +uprights of a carry arrangement, the base of which held a spirit lamp.</p> + +<p>Among the numerous French machines which became well known were: +Reparlier's glass "filter"; Egrot's steam cloth-filter machine and +Malen's percolator apparatus, both designed for barracks and ships, +where previously the coffee had been brewed in soup kettles; Bouillon +Muller's steam percolator; Laurent's whistling coffee pot, a steam +percolator which announced when the coffee was ready; Ed. Loysel's rapid +filter, a hydrostatic percolator; and those pots to which Morize, +Lemare, Grandin, Crepaux, and Gandais gave their names.</p> + +<p>In 1892, the French minister of war directed that, in the army roasting +and grinding operations, the coffee chaff should no longer be thrown +away, as it had been found that it was rich in caffein and aroma +constituents.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Popular_German_Drip_Pot" id="Popular_German_Drip_Pot"></a> +<img src="images/image598.jpg" width="300" height="325" alt="Popular German Drip Pot" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Popular German Drip Pot</span></span> +</div> + +<p>Coffee <i>à la minute</i>, which appeared in France in the nineteenth +century, was made by decoction or infusion through a funnel pierced with +holes and covered inside with blotting paper, or a woolen strainer +cloth. This system, says Jardin, suggested the economical coffee pot.</p> + +<p>A popular German drip coffee maker of the late nineteenth century +employs a plug in the spout which provides air pressure to hold back the +infusion until the plug is removed.</p> + +<p>Pierre Joseph Buc'hoz, physician to the king of Poland, in 1787, made a +business of supplying roasted coffee in small packets, each sufficient +for one cup. He built up quite a trade until one day he was caught +substituting roasted rye for coffee. This was the Buc'hoz method of +making coffee, much practised by the lower classes because he was looked +upon as an authority:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Boil the water in a coffee pot. When it boils, draw it from the +fire long enough to add an ounce of coffee powder to a pound of +water. Stir with a spoon. Return it to the fire and when it boils +move it back somewhat from the heat and let it simmer for eight +minutes. Clarify with sugar or deer horn powder.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Early Coffee Making in the United States</i></p> + +<p>The coffee drink reached the colonies, first as a beverage for the +well-to-do, about 1668. When introduced to the general public through +the coffee houses about 1700, it was first sipped from small dishes as +in England; and no one inquired too closely as to how it was made. When, +half a century later, it had displaced beer and tea for breakfast, its +correct making became a matter of polite inquiry. It was not until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_709" id="Page_709">[Pg 709]</a></span> well +into the nineteenth century that there was any suggestion of scientific +interest, and not until within the last decade was any real chemical +analysis of brewed coffee undertaken with a view to producing a +scientific cup of the beverage.</p> + +<p>At first, owing to the great distances, and difficulties surrounding +communications, between the colonies, news of improvements in coffee +makers and coffee making traveled slowly, and coffee customs brought +from Europe by the early settlers became habits that were not easily +changed. Some of the worst have clung on, ignoring the march of +improvement, and seem as firmly entrenched in suburban and rural +communities today as they were two hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>Indeed, despite the fact that the United States have been the largest +consumer of coffee among the nations for nearly half a century, it is +only within the last ten years that coffee properly prepared could be +obtained outside the principal cities. Even today, the average consumer +is sadly in need of education in correct coffee brewing. It would be an +excellent idea if all the coffee propaganda funds could be concentrated +on a study of this one phase of the coffee question for several years, +and the recommendations published in such fashion as firmly to fix in +the minds of the rising generation a knowledge of correct coffee +brewing. The facts of the case are that, generally speaking, coffee is +still prepared in slovenly fashion in the average American home. +However, with the good work done in recent years by organized trade +effort to correct this abuse of our national beverage, signs are +plentiful that the time is not far distant when a lasting reformation in +coffee making will have been accomplished.</p> + +<p>In colonial times the coffee drink was mostly a decoction. Esther +Singleton tells us that in New Amsterdam coffee was boiled in a copper +pot lined with tin and drunk as hot as possible With sugar or honey and +spices. "Sometimes a pint of fresh milk was brought to the boiling point +and then as much drawn tincture of coffee was added, or the coffee was +put in cold water with the milk and both were boiled together and drunk. +Rich people mixed cloves, cinnamon or sugar with ambergris in the +coffee.<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a>"</p> + +<p>Ground cardamom seeds were also used to flavor the decoction.</p> + +<p>In the early days of New England, the whole beans were frequently boiled +for hours with not wholly pleasing results in forming either food or +drink<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a>.</p> + +<p>In New Orleans, the ground coffee was put into a tin or pewter coffee +dripper, and the infusion was made by slowly pouring the boiling water +over it after the French fashion. The coffee was not considered good +unless it actually stained the cup. This method still obtains among the +old Creole families.</p> + +<p>Boiling coarsely pounded coffee for fifteen minutes to half an hour was +common practise in the colonies before 1800.</p> + +<p>In the early part of the nineteenth century, the best practise was to +roast the coffee in an iron cylinder that stood before the hearth fire. +It was either turned by a handle or wound up like a jack to go by +itself. The grinding was done in a lap or wall mill; and among the best +known makes were Kenrick's, Wilson's, Wolf's, John Luther's, George W.M. +Vandegrift's, and Charles Parker's Best Quality.</p> + +<p>To make coffee "without boiling" the cookery books of the period advised +the housewife to obtain "a biggin, the best of which is what in France +is called a Grecque."</p> + +<p>In 1844, the <i>Kitchen Directory and American Housewife's</i> advice on the +subject of coffee making was the following:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Coffee should be put in an iron pot and dried near a moderate fire +for several hours before roasting (in pot over hot coals and +stirring constantly). It is sufficiently roasted when biting one of +the lightest colored kernels—if brittle the whole is done. A +coffee roaster is better than an open pot. Use a tablespoonful +ground to a pint of boiling water. Boil in tin pot twenty to +twenty-five minutes. If boiled longer it will not taste fresh and +lively. Let stand four or five minutes to settle, pour off grounds +into a coffee pot or urn. Put fish skin or isinglass size of a nine +pence in pot when put on to boil or else the white and shell of +half an egg to a couple of quarts of coffee. French coffee is made +in a German filter, the water is turned on boiling hot and +one-third more coffee is needed than when boiled in the common way.</p></div> + +<p>In 1856 the <i>Ladies' Home Magazine</i> (now the <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>) +printed the following, which fairly sums up the coffee making customs of +that period:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Coffee, if you would have its best flavor, should be roasted at +home; but <i>not in an open pan</i>, for this permits a large amount of +aroma to escape. The roaster should be a closed sphere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_710" id="Page_710">[Pg 710]</a></span> or +cylinder. The aroma, upon which the good taste of the coffee +depends, is only developed in the berry by the roasting process, +which also is necessary to diminish its toughness, and fit it for +grinding. While roasting, coffee loses from fifteen to twenty-five +percent of its weight, and gains from thirty to fifty percent in +bulk. More depends upon the proper roasting than upon the quality +of the coffee itself. One or two scorched or burned berries will +materially injure the flavor of several cupfuls. Even a slight +overheating diminishes the good taste.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The best mode of roasting, where it is done at home, is to dry the +coffee first, in an open vessel, until its color is slightly +changed. This allows the moisture to escape. Then cover it closely +and scorch it, keeping up a constant agitation, so that no portion +of a kernel may be unequally heated. Too low and too slow a heat +dries it up without producing the full aromatic flavor; while too +great heat dissipates the oily matter and leaves only bitter +charred kernels. It should be heated so as to acquire a uniform +deep cinnamon color, and an oily appearance, but never a deep, dark +brown color. It then should be taken from the fire and kept closely +covered until cold, and further until used. While unroasted coffee +improves by age, the roasted berries will very generally lose their +aroma if not covered very closely. The ground stuff kept on sale in +barrels, or boxes, or in papers, is not worthy the name of coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coffee should not be ground until just before using. If ground over +night, it should be covered: or, what is quite as well, put into +the boiler and covered with water. The water not only retains the +valuable oil and other aromatic elements, but also prepares it by +soaking for immediate boiling in the morning.</p> + +<p class="quot1">If the coffee pot (the "<i>Old Dominion</i>", of course, for in a common +boiler this process would ruin the coffee by wasting the aroma) be +set on the range or stove, or near the fire, so as to be kept hot +all night preparatory to boiling in the morning, the beverage will +be found in the morning, rich, mellow, and of a most delicious +flavor.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coffee used at supper time should be placed on or near the fire +immediately after dinner and kept hot or simmering—not +boiling—all the afternoon.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Try this method if you wish coffee in perfection.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Wood's improved coffee roaster is acknowledged to be the best +article of the kind now in use.</p> + +<p class="quot1">This patent coffee roaster has been improved by the introduction of +a triangular flange inside of each of the hemispheres, as seen in +the cut. These flanges, as the roaster is turned, catch the coffee +and throw it from the inner surface, thus insuring a perfect +uniformity in the burning.</p></div> + +<p>The Woods roaster (1849) and the Old Dominion Coffee Pot (1856) have +been referred to in chapter XXXIV.</p> + +<p>From the <i>Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery</i>, we learn some more about +the customs prevailing "among the first cooks in the country" in +roasting and making coffee in the United States about the middle of the +nineteenth century. For example:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Roasting Coffee Beans</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">Put the beans in the roaster, set this before a moderate fire, and +turn slowly until the Coffee takes a good brown colour; for this it +should require about twenty-five minutes. Open the cover to see +when it is done. If browned, transfer it to an earthen jar, cover +it tightly, and use when needed.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Or a more simple plan, and even more effectual, is to take a tin +baking-dish, butter well the bottom, put the Coffee in it, and set +it in a moderate oven until the beans take a strong golden colour, +twenty minutes sufficing for this. Toss them frequently with a +wooden spoon as they are cooking.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Another plan is to put in a small frying-pan 1 1b. of raw +Coffee-beans and set the pan on the fire, stirring and shaking +occasionally till the beans are yellow: then cover the frying-pan +and shake the Coffee about till it is a dark brown. Move the pan +off the fire, keep the cover on, and when the beans are a little +cool, break an egg over them and stir them until they are all well +coated with the egg. Then store the Coffee in tins or jars with +tight-fitting lids, and grind it as wanted for use.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coffee should always be bought in the bean and ground as required, +otherwise it is liable to extensive adulteration with chicory (or +succory); some persons like the addition, but the epicure who is +really fond of Coffee would not admit of its introduction.</p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Making Breakfast Coffee.</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">Allow 1 tablespoonful of Coffee to each person. The Coffee when +ground should be measured, put into the Coffee-pot, and boiling +water poured over it in the proportion of <span class="above">3</span>⁄<span class="below">4</span> pint to each +tablespoonful of Coffee, and the pot put on the fire; the instant +it boils, take the pot off, uncover it, and let it stand a minute +or two; then cover it again, put it back on the fire, and let it +boil up again. Take it from the fire and let it stand for five +minutes to settle. It is then ready to pour out.</p></div> + +<p>This work recommended as among the latest and best devices for coffee +making, all those manufactured or sold in this country by Adams & Son; +the English coffee biggin; General Hutchinson's coffee pot and urn, +combining De Belloy's and Rumford's ideas; Le Brun's Cafetiére for +making coffee by distillation and by steam pressure, passing it directly +into the cup; a Vienna coffee-making machine, and a Russian coffee +reversible pot called the Potsdam.</p> + +<p>Among two score of coffee recipes for making various kinds of extracts, +ices, candies, cakes, etc., flavored with coffee, there is a curious one +for coffee beer, the invention of Frenchman named Pluehart.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_711" id="Page_711">[Pg 711]</a></span> "The +ingredients and quantities in a thousand parts are—Strong coffee 300; +rum 300; syrup thickened with gum senegal 65; alcoholic extract of +orange peel 10; and water 325."</p> + +<p>"It does not appear to have reached any important degree of popularity", +adds the editor.</p> + +<p>In 1861, Godey's <i>Lady's Book and Magazine</i> noted with approval the +growing custom of hotel and restaurant guests to order coffee instead of +wines or spirits with their dinners. On the subject of "How to make a +cup of coffee" it had this to say:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Which is the best way of making coffee? In this particular notions +differ. For example, the Turks do not trouble themselves to take +off the bitterness by sugar, nor do they seek to disguise the +flavor by milk, as is our custom. But they add to each dish a drop +of the essence of amber, or put a couple of cloves in it, during +the process of preparation. Such flavoring would not, we opine, +agree with western tastes. If a cup of the very best coffee, +prepared in the highest perfection and boiling hot, be placed on a +table in the middle of a room and suffered to cool, it will, in +cooling, fill the room with its fragrance: but becoming cold, it +will lose much of its flavor. Being again heated, its taste and +flavor will be still further impaired, and heated a third time, it +will be found vapid and nauseous. The aroma diffused through the +room proved that the coffee has been deprived of its most volatile +parts, and hence of its agreeableness and virtue. By pouring +boiling water on the coffee, and surrounding the containing vessel +with boiling water, the finer qualities of the coffee will be +preserved.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Boiling coffee in a coffee-pot is neither economical or judicious, +so much of the aroma being wasted by this method. Count Rumford (no +mean authority) states that one pound of good Mocha, when roasted +and ground, will make fifty-six cups of the very best coffee, but +it must be ground finely, or the surfaces of the particles only +will be acted upon by the hot water, and much of the essence will +be left in the grounds.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In the East, coffee is said to arouse, exhilarate, and keep awake, +allaying hunger, and giving to the weary renewed strength and +vigor, while it imparts a feeling of comfort and repose. The +Arabians, when they take their coffee off the fire, wrap the vessel +in a wet cloth, which fines the liquor instantly, and makes it +cream at the top. There is one great essential to be observed, +namely, that coffee should not be ground before it is required for +use, as in a powdered state its finer qualities evaporate.</p> + +<p class="quot1">We pass over the usual modes of making coffee, as being familiar to +every lady who presides over every household; and content ourselves +with the most modern and approved Parisian methods, though we may +add that a common recipe for good coffee is—two ounces of coffee +and one quart of water. Filter or boil ten minutes, and leave to +clear ten minutes.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The French make an extremely strong coffee. For breakfast, they +drink one-third of the infusion, and two-thirds of hot milk. The +<i>café noir</i> used after dinner, is the very essence of the berry. +Only a small cup is taken, sweetened with white sugar or +sugar-candy, and sometimes a little <i>eau de vie</i> is poured over the +sugar in a spoon held above the surface, and set on fire; or after +it, a very small glass of <i>liqueur</i>, called a <i>chasse-café</i>, is +immediately drunk. But the best method, prevalent in France, for +making coffee (and the infusion may be strong or otherwise as taste +may direct) is to take a large coffee-pot with an upper receptacle +made to fit close into it, the bottom of which is perforated with +small holes, containing in its interior two movable metal +strainers, over the second of which the powder is to be placed, and +immediately under the third. Upon this upper strainer pour boiling +water, and continue to do so gently; until it bubbles up through +the strainer: then shut the cover of the machine close down, place +it near the fire, and so soon as the water has drained through the +coffee, repeat the operation until the whole intended quantity be +passed. No finings are required. Thus all the fragrance of its +perfume will be retained with all the balsamic and stimulating +powers of its essence. This is a true Parisian mode, and <i>voila!</i> a +cup of excellent coffee.</p></div> + +<p>This article is most interesting in that it shows the revolt against +boiling coffee had started in the United States; also that the +importance of fine grinding was being recognized and emphasized by the +leaders of the best thought of the nation.</p> + +<p>Probably the first scientific inquiry into the subject of coffee +roasting and brewing in the United States was that detailed by August T. +Dawson and Charles M. Wetherill, Ph.D., M.D., in the <i>Journal of the +Franklin Institute</i> for July and August, 1855. The following is a +digest:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">There are two classes of beverages: 1, alcoholic, and 2, +nitrogenized. Nitrogenized foods are effective to replace the +substance of the different organs of the body wasted away by the +process of vitality. Coffee is one of these.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Besides the tannin, the coffee berry contains two substances, one +the nitrogenized quality, caffeine, which is about one percent and +is not altered in roasting, and the other a volatile oil which is +developed in roasting and which gives the coffee its flavor. Dr. +Julius Lehmann (Liebig's Annales LXXXVII. 205) says that coffee +retards the waste tissues of the body and diminishes the amount of +food necessary to preserve life. This effect is due to the oil. +Much of the nutritive portion of coffee is lost by European methods +of making.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Good coffee is very rare. These experiments were made to ascertain +whether a potable coffee could not be offered to the public at as +low a price as the raw or roasted now is. In order to be successful +we needed to extract a larger portion of the nutritive substance +than is extracted in the household. The experiments have proved +vain.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_712" id="Page_712">[Pg 712]</a></span>As a result of our experiments with different ways of roasting and +brewing coffee, we have found the following plan to be the most +convenient and the best: the coffee will taste the same every time +and it will taste good. If a good berry be properly roasted and the +infusion be of the proper strength, good coffee must result. A +Mocha berry should be selected and roasted seven or eight pounds at +a time in a cylindrical drum. After roasting it should be placed in +a stone jar with a mouth three inches in diameter. The jar should +be closed air-tight. This will furnish two cups of coffee daily for +six months. A quart should be taken from the jar at a time and +ground. The ground coffee should be kept in covered glass jars.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The best coffee pot was found to be the common biggin having an +upper compartment with a perforated bottom upon which to place the +coffee. To make one cup of this infusion, place half an ounce of +ground coffee in the upper compartment and six fluid ounces of +water into the bottom. Put the biggin over a gas lamp. After three +minutes the water will boil. When steam appears, take the biggin +from the fire and pour the water into a cup and thence immediately +into the top of the biggin where it will extract the berry by +replacement. (Here follows an experiment.)</p> + +<p class="quot1">This experiment shows that loss of weight is no criterion that +coffee is properly roasted, neither is the color (by itself) nor +the temperature, nor the time.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Next we experimented to ascertain whether the aroma developed by +roasting coffee and which is lost might not be collected and added +to the coffee at pleasure. An attempt was made to drive the +volatile oils from roasted coffee by steam and make a dried extract +of the residual coffee to which the oils were to be later added. +Two attempts were made and both failed. It appears that but a small +quantity of the aroma is lost in roasting and that is mixed with +bad smelling vapors from which it is impossible to free it.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Then we tried to make a potable coffee by making an aqueous extract +of raw coffee, evaporating to dryness and roasting the residue. +(Here follows the experiment.)</p> + +<p class="quot1">This also was unsuccessful. The great trouble here is a dark shiny +residue, which, while tasteless, is very disagreeable to look at. +In the preparation of coffee by boiling, two and a half times as +much matter is extracted as by biggin.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The proper method of roasting coffee is as follows: It should be +placed in a cylinder and turned constantly over a bright fire. When +white smoke begins to appear, the contents should be closely +watched. Keep testing the grains. As soon as a grain breaks easily +at a slight blow, at which time the color will be a light chestnut +brown, the coffee is done. Cool it by lifting some up and dropping +it back with a tin cup. If it be left to cool in a heap there is +great danger of over-roasting. Keep the coffee only in air-tight +vessels. <i>Measure</i> the infusions, a half ounce of coffee to six +ounces of water per cup.</p> + +<p class="quot1">All "extracts of coffee" are worthless. Most of them are composed +of burned sugar, chicory, carrots, etc.</p></div> + +<p>In 1883, an authority of that day, Francis B. Thurber, in his book, +<i>Coffee; from Plantation to Cup</i>, which he dedicated to the railroad +restaurant man at Poughkeepsie, because he served an "ideal cup of +coffee", came out strongly for the good old boiling method with eggs, +shells included. This was the Thurber recipe:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Grind moderately fine a large cup or small bowl of coffee; break +into it one egg with shell; mix well, adding enough cold water to +thoroughly wet the grounds; upon this pour one pint of boiling +water: let it boil slowly for ten to fifteen minutes, according to +the variety of coffee used and the fineness to which it is ground. +Let it stand three minutes to settle, then pour through a fine +wire-sieve into a warm coffee pot; this will make enough for four +persons. At table, first put the sugar into the cup, then fill +half-full of boiling milk, add your coffee, and you have a +delicious beverage that will be a revelation to many poor mortals +who have an indistinct remembrance of, and an intense longing for, +an ideal cup of coffee. If cream can be procured so much the +better, and in that case boiling water can be added either in the +pot or cup to make up for the space occupied by the milk as above; +or condensed milk will be found a good substitute for cream.</p></div> + +<p>In 1886, however, Jabez Burns, who knew something about the practical +making of the beverage as well as the roasting and grinding operations, +said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Have boiling water handy. Take a clean dry pot and put in the +ground coffee. Place on fire to warm pot and coffee. Pour on +sufficient boiling water, not more than two-thirds full. As soon as +the water boils add a little cold water and remove from fire. To +extract the greatest virtue of coffee grind it fine and pour +scalding water over it.</p></div> + +<p>John Cotton Dana, of the Newark Public Library, says he remembers how in +his old home in Woodstock, Vt., they had always, in the attic, a big +stone jar of green coffee. This was sacred to the great feast days, +Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Just before those anniversaries, the jar +was brought forward and the proper amount of coffee was taken out and +roasted in a flat sheet-iron pan on the top of the stove, being stirred +constantly and watched with great care. "As my memory seems to say that +this was not constantly done," says Mr. Dana, "it would seem that, even +then, my father, who kept the general store in the village, bought +roasted coffee in Boston or New York."</p> + +<p>At the close of the century, there were still many advocates of boiling +coffee; but although the coffee trade was not quite ready to declare its +absolute independence in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_713" id="Page_713">[Pg 713]</a></span> direction, there were many leaders who +boldly proclaimed their freedom from the old prejudice. Arthur Gray, in +his <i>Over the Black Coffee</i>, as late as 1902, quoted "the largest coffee +importing house in the United States" as advocating the use of eggs and +egg-shells and boiling the mixture for ten minutes.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Latest Developments in Better Coffee Making</i></p> + +<p>Better coffee making by co-operative trade effort got its initial +stimulus at the 1912 convention of the National Coffee Roasters +Association. As a result of discussions at that meeting and thereafter, +a Better Coffee Making Committee was created for investigation and +research.</p> + +<p>The coffee trade's declaration of independence in the matter of boiled +coffee was made at the 1913 convention of the National Coffee Roasters +Association, when, after hearing the report of the Better Coffee Making +Committee, presented by Edward Aborn of New York, it adopted a +resolution saying that the recommendations met with its approval and +ordering that they be printed and circulated.</p> + +<p>The work done by the committee included "the first chemical analysis of +brewed coffee on record", a study of grindings, and a comparison of the +results of four brewing methods. Its conclusions and recommendations +were embodied in a booklet published by the National Coffee Roasters +Association, entitled <i>From Tree to Cup with Coffee</i>, and were as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Roasting</span></p> + +<p class="quot1">The Roaster or "Coffee Chef" is the only cook necessary to a good +cup of coffee. He sends it to the consumer a completely cooked +product.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In the roasting process the berries swell up by the liberation of +gases within their substance. The aromatic oils contained in the +cells are sufficiently developed or "cooked", and made ready for +instantaneous solution with boiling water, when the cells are +thoroughly opened by grinding.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The roasting principles of different green coffees vary. Trained +study and a nice science in timing the roast and manipulating the +fire is necessary to a perfect development of aroma and flavor.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The drinking quality is largely dependent upon the experienced +knowledge of the coffee roaster and his scientific methods and +modern machinery, by which the coffee is not only roasted, but +cleaned, milled and completely manufactured to a high point of +perfection.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In their National Association work, the wholesale roasters are +giving the public new facts and valuable information, from +scientific researches, investigations, etc.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Grinding.</span> The roasted berry is constructed of fibrous tissues +formed into tiny cells visible only under the microscope, which are +the "packages" wherein are stored the whole value of coffee, the +aromatic oils. Like cutting open an orange, the grinding of coffee +is the opening of surrounding tissue and pulp, and the finer it is +cut the more easily are the "juices" released.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The fibrous tissue itself is waste material, yielding, by boiling +or too long percolations, a coffee colored liquid which is fibrous +and twangy in taste, has no aromatic character, and contains +undesirable elements.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The true strength and flavor of roasted coffee is ground out, not +boiled out. The finer coffee is ground, the more thoroughly are the +cells opened, the surfaces multiplied, and the aromatic oils made +ready for separation from their husks. Hence it follows that:</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coarse ground coffee is unopened coffee—coffee thrown away.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The finer the grind, the better and greater the yield. With +pulverized coffee (fine as corn meal) the fully released aromatic +oils are instantaneously soluble with boiling water.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In ground coffee the oils are standing in "open packages," escaping +into the air and absorbing moisture, etc., necessitating quick use +or confinement in air proof and moisture proof protection.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Brewing.</span> From scientific researches by the National Coffee +Roasters' Association, including the first chemical analysis on +record of brewed coffee, produced by various brewing methods, the +fundamental principles of coffee making have been clearly +established. These principles are simple, and when once understood +equip any person to intelligently judge the merits and defects of +the various coffee making devices on the market. They constitute +the law of coffee brewing, and may be stated as follows:</p> + +<p class="quot1">Correct brewing is not "cooking." It is a process of extraction of +the already cooked aromatic oils from the surrounding fibrous +tissue, which has no drinkable value. Boiling or stewing cooks in +the fibre, which should be wholly discarded as dregs, and damages +the flavor and purity of the liquid. Boiling coffee and water +together is ruin and waste.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The aromatic oils, constituting the whole true flavor, are +extracted instantly by boiling water when the cells are thoroughly +opened by fine grinding. The undesirable elements, being less +quickly soluble, are left in the grounds in a quick contact of +water and coffee. The coarser the grind the less accessible are the +oils to the water, thus the inability to get out the strength from +coffee not finely enough ground.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Too long contact of water and coffee causes twang and bitterness, +and the finer the grind the less the contact should be. The +infusion, when brewed, is injured by being boiled or overheated. It +is also damaged by being chilled, which breaks the fusion of oils +and water. It should be served immediately, or kept hot, as in a +double boiler.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_714" id="Page_714">[Pg 714]</a></span>Tests show that water under the boiling point, 212°, is +inefficient for coffee brewing, and does not extract the aromatic +oils<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a>. Used under this temperature, it is a sure cause of weak +and insipid flavor. The effort to make up this deficiency by longer +contact of coffee and water, or repeated pouring through, results +in no extraction of the oils, but draws out undesirable elements, +such as coffee-tannin, which is soluble in water at any temperature +and is governed by the time of contact.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coffee-tannin, which is not the commercial tannic acid, is +eliminated to practically nothing in the quick brewing methods.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The chemical analysis of brewed coffee shows the following:</p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Chemical Analysis of Brewed Coffee"> +<tr> + <td align='left'> </td> + <td align='center'>Coffee Tannin<br />per Cup</td> + <td align='center'>Comparative<br />Proportions</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Percolator method, + <a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> + fine gran. 5 minutes' steeping</td> + <td align='left'>2.90 grains</td> + <td align='right'>—————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Boiling Method, medium gran.</td> + <td align='left'>2.35 grains</td> + <td align='right'>————</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Steeping Method, medium gran.</td> + <td align='left'>2.31 grains</td> + <td align='right'>———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Filtration (or Drip) Method Pulverized</td> + <td align='left'>0.29 grains</td> + <td align='right'>—</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="quot1">Brewing is the final manufacturing process of coffee. All previous +perfection is dependent upon it. Like food products which lose +nutritive value by bad cooking, coffee loses its best values by +wrong brewing. Brewed by the very simple correct methods, it is an +unfailingly clear, fragrant, taste-charming beverage, universally +loved and scientifically approved.</p></div> + +<p>The committee made a further report in 1914, and some of the findings +were subsequently published in an association booklet called <i>The Coffee +Book</i>, used in connection with the second National Coffee Week campaign +in 1915. In it were these:</p> + +<div class='table2'><br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Grinding Definitions"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='2'><span class="smcap">Grinding Definitions</span></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr10'> + <td align='center'><i>Powdered</i><br />Like—flour.</td> + <td class='tdcpl2'><i>Pulverized</i><br />Like—not coarser than<br />fine corn meal.</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr3'> + <td align='center'><i>Very Fine and Fine</i><br />Like—from corn meal to<br />fine granulated sugar.</td> + <td class='tdcpl2'><i>Medium</i><br />Like—coarse granulated<br />sugar.</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Also, the committee emphasized its previous findings, particularly this +one: "Filter bags should be kept in cold water when not in use. Drying +causes decomposition. Keeps sweet if kept wet. Use muslin for filter bag +and pulverized granulation."</p> + +<p>The association brought out this same year, on recommendation of the +committee, its Home coffee mill, an "ideal and standard coffee mill for +home use." It was a wall mill equipped with a glass-front metal hopper +and employing a ratchet spring-lock nut and double-action grinders. The +mill was later improved with an all-glass hopper and a tumbler bracket. +More than 20,000 of these mills have been sold.</p> + +<p>At the suggestion of the author, the efficiency of nine different +coffee-making devices (including boiling and drip pots, pumping +percolators, cloth and paper filters) was investigated in the +laboratories of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research of the +University of Pittsburgh in 1915; and Dr. Raymond F. Bacon submitted a +report that showed that the boiling method produced the highest +percentage of caffetannic acid and caffein; the French drip process the +lowest. The investigation disclosed also a more palatable brew at 195° +to 200° F. than at the boiling point.</p> + +<p>Another notable contribution to the science of coffee brewing was made +by the Home Economics Laboratories of the University of Kansas in 1916. +The experiments extended over one year. They showed that strength and +color in coffee brews are independent of blend and price and are most +fully obtained by pulverized granulation, which was found to be the most +efficient; that the consumer pays for flavor and that filtration yielded +the best brew. The French drip, or true percolator, did not figure in +these experiments.</p> + +<p>At the 1915 convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, Mr. +Aborn reported that 4,000 copies of the committee's findings on grinding +and brewing had been given away: and the facts were further circulated +in 2,000,000 booklets issued during two years. He told of tests which +showed that while there might be reasons of commercial expediency for +packing ground coffee, it could not be defended as a quality principle; +also that plate-grinders produced a more efficient drawing granulation +than roller grinders, and that the idea that the steel-cut process +eliminates dirt was an absurdity, as "the finest ground coffee is not +dirt but coffee in its most efficient drawing condition." He added, "I +have paid no attention to chaff removal in these tests as the +uselessness of such removal has been repeatedly shown up." The reference +here was to his 1914 and 1913 reports, in which it was stated that +"removing the chaff in the steel-cut process does not remove any of the +tannin, and for this purpose the steel-cut process is wholely futile, +and a wasteful and unnecessary tax upon cost", and that "the removal of +the chaff appreciably affects the flavor and depreciates the cup value."</p> + +<p>This report repeated previous findings against the pumping percolator as +producing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_715" id="Page_715">[Pg 715]</a></span> an inefficient brew and being a very faulty utensil. Mr. +Aborn concluded his report by saying:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The old time boiling method has fewer and fewer defenders and holds +its own only as a superstition. I therefore pass it over as a +discarded issue.... It is but repetition of former reports for me +to say that pulverized granulation is the most efficient +granulation; that it assures the highest quality of brew and the +lowest proportion of coffee to a given strength; that it is the +most saving and most satisfying grinding for all to use; that it +(the coffee) must be fresh ground; that the filtration method is +the most correct in fundamental principles and that used with a +muslin bag it assures the consumer coffee of the purest, finest +flavored quality, highest health value and sure economy.</p></div> + +<p>The campaign of education was continued during 1916, producing +encouraging results among schools, colleges, the medical fraternity, +newspapers, with the trade and the consumer. It marked the first big +constructive work combining the practical and scientific phases of +grinding and brewing methods. In his report at the 1916 convention of +the National Coffee Roasters Association, Mr. Aborn reviewed the four +years work, and pointed out what had been accomplished. He told of a new +booklet, to be called the <i>True Book on Coffee Grinding and Brewing</i>, +and an educational exhibit box for schools about to be issued. Due to +opposition which developed from trade interests that were putting out +steel-cut and other grinds of coffee not favored by the committee, and +also because many members thought the association should not exploit any +particular method of grinding or brewing, it was decided to make no +further publication of the coffee grinding and brewing conclusions of +the committee until they had been confirmed by laboratory research.</p> + +<p>Boiling and filtration tests in the mountains of the Yellowstone Park by +W.H. Aborn in 1916 showed that the limit of coffee brewing was reached +at an altitude of nine thousand feet.</p> + +<p>At the 1916 meeting, Dr. Floyd W. Robison of the Detroit Testing +Laboratories, read a notable paper entitled "What do we know about +coffee?," which hailed coffee as a food product, warned the roasters to +beware of half-facts, and urged the importance of a research laboratory. +It was published and given distribution by the association.</p> + +<p>The educational exhibit box showing samples of coffee from plantation to +cup, including five different grinds, was issued in 1917, and sold for +one dollar.</p> + +<p>The Better Coffee Making Committee also published in this year a booklet +entitled <i>Coffee Grinding and Brewing</i> in which it summarized its work +to date, and presented its special plea for cotton-cloth filters as the +ideal coffee-making device.</p> + +<p>This booklet aroused considerable discussion, particularly between those +who favored the paper filter and those who, with Mr. Aborn, believed +cotton cloth, such as muslin, to be the most efficient strainer. +"Cotton", argued Mr. Aborn, "is an ideal sanitary strainer because it +contains no chemical or questionable manufacturing element."</p> + +<p>It was pointed out by Dr. Floyd W. Robison that while cotton cloth, such +as muslin, does give a fairly clear coffee, it is not so clear as by the +methods where a filter paper is used. He said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Both methods have serious objectionable features. The muslin bag, +particularly, is decidedly unsanitary, especially when used in +restaurants and hotels. It is rarely kept clean, and one who has +frequented restaurants and many hotel kitchens knows that it lends +itself to very unclean and unsightly methods of handling. The food +inspector has to check this up perhaps as often as any one feature +about a restaurant.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The objection to the filter paper is not at all on the ground of +sanitation. It is ideal in this respect. The claim is made, and at +least, in part, substantiated, that it does hold back valuable +features of the brew.</p> + +<p class="quot1">There are many points about the filter that have not been +considered at all. Mr. Calkin believes that the very best type of +filter is a bed of coffee itself, and I must say this has the +sanction of good laboratory experience.</p></div> + +<p>I.D. Richheimer<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a>, attacking the cotton cloth filter, said:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">It is a known fact that the fats in coffee are very dense and +represent twelve to fifteen percent of the coffee weight. These +fats—due to the simplest chemical action of contact with air, +moisture and continued heat—begin a fermentation in the completed +beverage. In the cloth-filtering process—due to the rapid passage +of water through grounds almost as quickly as poured—the largest +percentage of fats is carried into the beverage. Fat being lighter +than water rises to the top of water if given a certain amount of +time during the brewing process. Were there no fats (which ferment) +in coffee there would be no need for placing cloth-filtering +material under water, as suggested, to keep them from becoming +sour.</p></div> + +<p>In the booklet referred to, Mr. Aborn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_716" id="Page_716">[Pg 716]</a></span> expressed himself as follows on +the filtration method:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The filtration method is not new, but well tried, thoroughly proven +and long used, though often incorrectly. It is the method followed, +more or less correctly, by all of the first-class hotels in the +world. It is controlled by no patent or proprietary device, and +requires a most inexpensive equipment. For a perfect result it but +demands an accurate adherence to simple but vital principles. +Deviations from these fundamentals, though apparently slight, cause +failure. When they, and the necessary <i>exact</i> following of them, +are clearly understood, any person, even a small child, can brew +coffee with unvarying success.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The first point to consider in filtration is the dimensions of the +filter bag, or container of the ground coffee, in relation to the +quantity of coffee used and the granulation of same. If the filter +be a muslin bag, free on all sides, the filtering surface is +considerable and permits the necessary quick passage of water +through the grounds, provided the bag is of a wide enough diameter +as to prevent too great a depth of grounds through which the water +cannot quickly penetrate. The error of too narrow a filter is a +common one. It causes a delayed filtration, which means undesirably +long contact of water and coffee and also the cooling of the liquid +which in a correct, undelayed filtration is smoking hot at +completion. The bag should also not be too long or be allowed to +hang or soak in the liquid. A filter bag set tightly into a pot +against its sides, thus surrounded with impenetrable walls, is +greatly reduced in filtering surface, and the filtration is thereby +slackened.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The filter material should not be too coarse in texture, like +cheese cloth, or too heavy and impenetrable, like very heavy +muslin. A moderate weight muslin, not too light, is efficient.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The degree of granulation also, of course, affects the rate of +flow. The coarser the grind the faster the flow, which permits a +larger quantity of coffee to a given diameter of filter bag.</p> + +<p class="quot1">A most frequent fault in the use of the filtration method is the +failure to understand the fine degree of grinding necessary to the +best results. When the grind is not sufficiently fine the +extraction is, of course, weak. A fine grind (like fine cornmeal) +is essential. It does not retard the flow if the filter is of right +dimensions. A powdered grind (like flour) is so fine that it is apt +to "mat" itself into a resisting floor.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Many users of the filtration method pour the liquid through more +than once. This gains some added color, but adds undesirable +element, depreciates flavor and is especially inadvisable when the +grind is sufficiently fine. <i>One pouring</i> only is recommended for +the best results.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The chinaware, or glazed earthenware pot, sometimes called the +French drip pot, with a chinaware or earthenware sieve container +for the grounds at the top through which the water is poured, being +free of all metal, is inviting in purity and in hygienic merit. +Together with the filter bag, it is subject to the above remarks on +dimensions. A chinaware sieve cannot be made as fine as a metal +sieve and cannot of course hold very fine granulation as can cotton +cloth. More coffee for a given strength is, therefore, required. +The upper container should be wide enough, for a given quantity of +coffee, as to allow an unretarded flow, and the more openings the +strainer contains the better.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In any drip, filtration or percolating method the stirring of the +grounds causes an over-contact of water and coffee and results in +an overdrawn liquor of injured flavor. If the water does not pass +through the grounds readily, the fault is as above indicated and +cannot be corrected by stirring or agitation. Many complaints of +bitter taste are traced to this error in the use of the filtration +method.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is not necessary to pour on the water in driblets. The water may +be poured slowly, but the grounds should be kept well covered. The +weight of the water helps the flow downward through the grounds. +Care should be taken to keep up the temperature of the water. Set +the kettle back on the stove when not pouring. If the water is +measured, use a small heated vessel, which fill and empty quickly +without allowing the water to cool.</p></div> + +<p>In 1917, <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i> made a comparative +coffee-brewing test with a regulation coffee pot for boiling, a pumping +percolator, a double glass filtration device, a cloth-filter device, and +a paper filter device. The cup tests were made by E.M. Frankel, Ph.D.; +and William B. Harris, coffee expert, United States Department of +Agriculture. The brews were judged for color, flavor (palatability, +smoothness), body (richness), and aroma. The test showed that the paper +filtration device produced the most superior brew. The cloth-filter, +glass-filter, percolator, and boiling pot followed in the order named.</p> + +<p>At the 1917 convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, John +E. King, of Detroit, announced that laboratory research which he had had +conducted for him showed that the finer the grind, the greater the loss +of aroma, and so he had selected a grind containing ninety percent of +very fine coffee and ten percent of a coarser nature, which seemed to +retain the aroma. He subsequently secured a United States patent for +this grind. Mr. King announced also at this meeting that his +investigations showed there was more than a strong likelihood that the +much-discussed caffetannic acid did not exist in coffee—that it most +probably was a mixture of chlorogenic and and coffalic acids.</p> + +<p>The World War operated to interfere with the coffee roasters' plans for +a research bureau; and in the meantime the Brazil planters, in 1919, +started their million-dollar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_717" id="Page_717">[Pg 717]</a></span> advertising campaign in the United States, +co-operating with a joint committee representing the green and roasted +coffee interests. In the following year (June, 1920), this committee +arranged with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to start +scientific research work on coffee, the literature of the roasters' +Better Coffee Making Committee being turned over to it; and the +Institute began to "test the results of the committee's work by purely +analytical methods."</p> + +<p>The first report on the research work at the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology was made by Professor S.C. Prescott to the Joint Coffee Trade +Publicity Committee in April, 1921. The committee gave out a statement +saying that Prof. Prescott's report stated that "caffein, the most +characteristic principle of coffee, is, in the moderate quantities +consumed by the average coffee drinker, a safe stimulant without harmful +after-effects."</p> + +<p>There was no publication of experimental results; but the announced +findings were, in the main, a confirmation of the results of previous +workers, particularly of Hollingworth, with whose statement, that +"caffein, when taken with food in moderate amount is not in the least +deleterious," the report was quoted as being in entire agreement.</p> + +<p>At the annual convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, +November 2, 1921, Professor Prescott made a further report, in which he +stated that investigations on coffee brewing had disclosed that coffee +made with water between 185° and 200° was to be preferred to coffee made +with the water at actual boiling temperature (212°), that the chemical +action was far less vigorous, and that the resulting infusion retained +all the fine flavors and was freer from certain bitter or astringent +flavors than that made at the higher temperature. Professor Prescott +announced also that the best materials for coffee-making utensils were +glass (including agate-ware, vitrified ware, porcelain, etc.), aluminum, +nickel or silver plate, copper, and tin plate, in the order named<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a>.</p> + +<p>The Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee's booklet on <i>Coffee and +Coffee Making</i>, issued in 1921, was very guarded in its observations on +grinding and brewing. It avoided all controversial points, but it did go +so far as to say on the general subject of brewing:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Chemists have analyzed the coffee bean and told us that the only +part of it which should go into our coffee cups for drinking is an +aromatic oil. This aromatic element is extracted most efficiently +only by fresh boiling water. The practice of soaking the grounds in +cold water, therefore, is to be condemned. It is a mistake also to +let the water and the grounds boil together after the real coffee +flavor is once extracted. This extraction takes place very quickly, +especially when the coffee is ground fine. The coarser the +granulation the longer it is necessary to let the grounds remain in +contact with the boiling water. Remember that flavor, the only +flavor worth having, is extracted by the <i>short</i> contact of boiling +water and coffee grounds and that after this flavor is extracted, +the coffee grounds become valueless dregs.</p></div> + +<p>The report contained also the following helpful generalities on coffee +service and the various methods of brewing in more or less common use in +the United States in 1921:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Although the above rules are absolutely fundamental to good Coffee +Making, their importance is so little appreciated that in some +households the lifeless grounds from the breakfast Coffee are left +in the pot and resteeped for the next meal, with the addition of a +small quantity of fresh coffee. Used coffee grounds are of no more +value in coffee making than ashes are in kindling a fire.</p> + +<p class="quot1">After the coffee is brewed the true coffee flavor, now extracted +from the bean, should be guarded carefully. When the brewed liquid +is left on the fire or overheated this flavor is cooked away and +the whole character of the beverage is changed. It is just as fatal +to let the brew grow cold. If possible, coffee should be served as +soon as it is made. If service is delayed, it should be kept hot +but not overheated. For this purpose careful cooks prefer a double +boiler over a slow flre. The cups should be warmed beforehand, and +the same is true of a serving pot, if one is used. Brewed coffee, +once injured by cooling, cannot be restored by reheating.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Unsatisfactory results in coffee brewing frequently can be traced +to a lack of care in keeping utensils clean. The fact that the +coffee pot is used only for coffee making is no excuse for setting +it away with a hasty rinse. Coffee making utensils should be +cleansed after each using with scrupulous care. If a percolator is +used pay special attention to the small tube through which the hot +water rises to spray over the grounds. This should be scrubbed with +the wire-handled brush that comes for the purpose.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In cleansing drip or filter bags use cool water. Hot water "cooks +in" the coffee stains. After the bag is rinsed keep it submerged in +cool water until time to use it again. Never let it dry. This +treatment protects the cloth from the germs in the air which cause +souring. New filter bags should be washed before using to remove +the starch or sizing.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_718" id="Page_718">[Pg 718]</a></span><span class="smcap">Drip (or Filter) Coffee.</span> The principle behind this method is the +quick contact of water at full boiling point with coffee ground as +fine as it is practical to use it. The filtering medium may be of +cloth or paper, or perforated chinaware or metal. The fineness of +the grind should be regulated by the nature of the filtering +medium, the grains being large enough not to slip through the +perforations.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The amount of ground coffee to use may vary from a heaping +teaspoonful to a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee +desired, depending upon the granulation, the kind of apparatus used +and individual taste. A general rule is the finer the grind the +smaller the amount of dry coffee required.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The most satisfactory grind for a cloth drip bag has the +consistency of powdered sugar and shows a slight grit when rubbed +between thumb and finger. Unbleached muslin makes the best bag for +this granulation. For dripping coffee reduced to a powder, as fine +as flour or confectioner's sugar, use a bag of canton flannel with +the fuzzy side in. Powdered coffee, however, requires careful +manipulation and cannot be recommended for everyday household use.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Put the ground coffee in the bag or sieve. Bring fresh water to a +full boil and pour it through the coffee at a steady, gradual rate +of flow. If a cloth drip bag is used, with a very finely ground +coffee, one pouring should be enough. No special pot or device is +necessary. The liquid coffee may be dripped into any handy vessel +or directly into the cups. Dripping into the coffee cups, however, +is not to be recommended unless the dripper is moved from cup to +cup so that no one cup will get more than its share of the first +flow, which is the strongest and best.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The brew is complete when it drips from the grounds, and further +cooking or "heating up" injures the quality. Therefore, since it is +not necessary to put the brew over the fire, it is possible to make +use of the hygienic advantages of a glassware, porcelain or +earthenware serving pot.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Boiled (or Steeped) Coffee.</span> For boiling (or steeping) use a medium +grind. The recipe is a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee +desired or—as some cooks prefer to remember it—a tablespoonful +for each cup and "one for the pot." Put the dry coffee in the pot +and pour over it fresh water <i>briskly boiling</i>. Steep for five +minutes or longer, according to taste, over a low fire. Settle with +a dash of cold water or strain through muslin or cheesecloth and +serve at once.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Percolated Coffee.</span> Use a rounded tablespoonful of medium fine +ground coffee to each cupful of water. The water may be poured into +the percolator cold or at the boiling point. In the latter case, +percolation begins at once. Let the water percolate over the +grounds for five or ten minutes depending upon the intensity of the +heat and the flavor desired.</p></div> + +<p>In response to a request by the author, Charles W. Trigg has contributed +the following discussion of coffee making:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Various Aspects of Scientific Coffee Brewing</span><br /> +</p> + +<p class="quot1">Before converting it into the beverage form, coffee must be +carefully selected and blended, and skillfully roasted, in order +thus far to assure obtaining a maximum efficiency of results. No +matter how accurately all this be done, improper brewing of the +roasted bean will nullify the previous efforts and spoil the drink; +for roasted coffee is a delicate material, very susceptible to +deterioration and of doubtful worth as the source of a beverage +unless properly handled.</p> + +<p class="quot1">There probably never was produced a drink which so fits into the +exacting desires of the human appetite as does coffee. Properly +prepared, it is a delightful beverage: but incorrectly made, it +becomes an imposition upon the palates of mankind. Sensitive though +coffee is to improper manipulation, the best procedure for brewing +it is also the easiest. Cheap coffee well made excels good coffee +poorly made.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Constituent Concepts.</span> The roasting of green coffee causes an +alteration in the constitution of its constituents, with the result +that some of the compounds present therein which were originally +water-soluble are rendered insoluble, and some which were insoluble +are converted into soluble ones. A portion of the original caffein +content is lost by sublimation. The aromatic conglomerate, caffeol, +is formed, and a considerable quantity of gas is produced, a +portion of which, developing pressure in the cells of the beans, +pops, or swells, them so as to increase the size of each individual +bean. The constituents which are water-soluble after the +torrefaction may be generally classified as heavy extractives and +light aromatic materials. The percentages and nature of these +materials in the roasted coffee will vary with the type of coffee +and with the roast which it is given. In general, and in particular +for purposes of comparison of methods of brewing, they may be +considered to be the same and to occur in about the same +proportions in all coffees.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The heavy extractives are caffein, mineral matter, proteins, +caramel and sugars, "caffetannic acid", and various organic +materials of uncertain composition. Some fat will also be found in +the average coffee brew, being present not by virtue of being water +soluble, but because it has been melted from the bean by the hot +water and carried along with the solution.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The caffein furnishes the stimulation for which coffee is generally +consumed. It has only a slightly bitter taste, and because of the +relatively small percentage in which it is present in a cup of +coffee, does not contribute to the cup value. The mineral matter, +together with certain decomposition and hydrolysis products of +crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, contribute toward the astringency +or bitterness of the cup. The proteins are present in such small +quantity that their only rôle is to raise somewhat the almost +negligible food value of a coffee infusion. The body, or what might +be called the licorice-like character of coffee, is due to the +presence of bodies of a glucosidic nature and to caramel.</p> + +<p class="quot1">As has been previously pointed out<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a>, the term "caffetannic +acid" is a misnomer; for the substances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_719" id="Page_719">[Pg 719]</a></span> which are called by this +name are in all probability mainly coffalic and chlorogenic acids. +Neither is a true tannin, and they evince but few of the +characteristic reactions of tannic acid. Some neutral coffees will +show as high a "caffetannic acid" content as other acid-charactered +ones. Careful work by Warnier<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> showed the actual acidities of +some East Indian coffees to vary from 0.013 to 0.033 percent. These +figures may be taken as reliable examples of the true acid content +of coffee, and though they seem very low, it is not at all +incomprehensible that the acids which they indicate produce the +acidity in a cup of coffee. They probably are mainly volatile +organic acids together with other acidic-natured products of +roasting.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a name="Section_of_Roasted_Bean_Magnified" id="Section_of_Roasted_Bean_Magnified"></a> +<img src="images/image599.jpg" width="300" height="329" alt="Section of Roasted Bean Magnified 1,000 Times" title="" /><br /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Section of Roasted Bean Magnified 1,000 Times</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">We know that very small quantities of acid are readily detected in +fruit juices and beer, and that variation in their percentages is +quickly noticed, while the neutralization of this small amount of +acidity leaves an insipid drink. Hence it seems quite likely that +this small acid content gives to the coffee brew its essential +acidity. A few minor experiments on neutralization have proven the +production of a very insipid beverage by thus treating a coffee +infusion. So that the acidity of certain coffees most apparently +should be attributed to such compounds, rather than to the misnamed +"caffetannic acid."</p> + +<p class="quot1">The light aromatic materials, and the other substances which are +steam-distillable, i.e. which are driven off when coffee is +concentrated by boiling, are the main determining factors in the +individuality of coffees. These compounds, which are collectively +called "caffeol", vary greatly in the percentages present in +different coffees, and thus are largely responsible for our ability +to distinguish coffees in the cup. It is these compounds which +supply the pleasingly aromatic and appetizing odor to coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">All of these compounds, with the possible exception of the +proteins, are easily soluble in both hot and cold water. The fact +that a clear coffee extract made with hot water does not show any +precipitate immediately upon cooling, proves that cold water will +give as complete an extraction as hot water. However, speed of +extraction is materially increased with rise in temperature, due to +the fact that the rate and degree of solubility of the substances +in water, and the diffusion of the water through the cell walls of +the coffee, are accelerated. Also, the resistance which the fat +content of the bean offers to the wetting of the coffee, and the +persistency of the "enfleurage" action of the fat in retaining the +caffeol, are less with hot than with cold water. Accordingly, the +speed of extraction is increased by using hot water, and the +efficiency of extraction procured per unit time of subjection to +water is higher.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Prolonged contact of coffee with water results in the hydrolysis of +some of the insoluble materials and subsequent extraction of the +substances thus formed. The rate of hydrolysis also increases with +temperature: and as these compounds are of an astringent or bitter +nature, the solution obtained upon boiling coffee is naturally +possessed of a flavor unpleasant to the palate of the connoisseur. +Boiling of the coffee infusion after it has been removed from the +grounds also has a deleterious effect, as the local overheating of +the solution at the point of application of the heat results in a +decomposition, particularly if the solution be converted into steam +at this point, leaving a thin film of solids temporarily exposed to +the destructive action of the heat. Some of the more delicate +constituents are unfavorably affected by such treatment, and +undergo hydrolysis and oxidation. The products thus formed are +thrown into relief in the flavor by the loss of the aromatic +properties through steam distillation which is incidental to +boiling.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is a well known fact that re-warming a coffee brew has a +unfavorable effect upon it. This is probably due in part to a +precipitation of some of the water-soluble proteins upon standing, +and their subsequent decomposition when heat is applied directly to +them in reheating the solution. The absorption of air by the +solution upon cooling, with attendant oxidation, which is +accentuated by the application of heat in re-warming, must also be +considered, as well as the other effects of boiling as set forth, +and the action of the materials of which the coffee pot is +constructed upon the solution.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Physical Conception.</span> The coffee bean is composed of a large number +of cells which function as natural containers and retainers of +coffee fat and of the aromatic flavoring substances. In order to +render the soluble solids fully accessible, the resistance which +these cells offer to the extracting water must be overcome by +grinding so as to break open all of them. In this manner a grind is +obtained which will give a maximum removal of the heavy +extractives. But when all of the cells are broken, great +opportunity is offered for the escape of the caffeol, which is +further enhanced by the slight heating which usually accompanies +such fine grinding. So much caffeol escapes that even our most +expert cup-testers would experience difficulty in identifying +powdered coffees in a blind test. What<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_720" id="Page_720">[Pg 720]</a></span> cup-testers, in fact, use +powdered coffees for making their cup selections?</p> + +<p class="quot1">Consider powdered coffee, compared with freshly ground coffee of a +coarser grind. Neither the former nor its brew possesses the amount +of characteristic flavor or aroma, attributable to caffeol, +evidenced by the latter. The explanation of this is that the finer +the grind, the more readily accessible are the soluble constituents +of the coffee to the extracting water. Caffeol, however, in +addition to being water-soluble, is extremely fugacious, so that +when the grinding is carried to such a fineness that every cell is +broken, the greater part of the caffeol volatilizes before the +water comes into contact with it. It is therefore highly desirable +that a grind be used wherein all of the cells are not broken, but a +grind that is sufficiently fine to permit efficient extraction. In +the light of this knowledge, the grind advocated by King<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> seems +to be logical, for with it—though neither a maximum of the +non-volatile extractives nor a maximum of caffeol is obtained—an +all-round maximum of cup quality is procured.</p> + +<p class="quot1">The escape, upon grinding, of these volatile aromatic and flavoring +constituents which lend individuality to coffees, makes it +essential that the roasted beans be ground immediately prior to +extraction.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Different Methods of Extraction.</span> The methods employed for preparing +the coffee drink may be classified under the general headings of +boiling, steeping, percolation, and filtration. True percolation is +the simple process known by the trade as filtration; but in this +classification, the term indicates the style of extraction +exemplified by the pumping percolator.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Boiled coffee is usually cloudy, due to the suspension of fine +particles resulting from the disintegration of the grounds by the +violence of boiling. The usual procedure in clarifying the +decoction is to add the white of an egg or some egg-shells, the +albumen of which is coagulated upon the fine particles by the heat +of the solution, and the particles thus weighted sink to the +bottom. Even this procedure, requiring much attention, does not +give as clear a solution as some of the other extraction procedures +employed. The conditions to which coffee is subjected during +boiling are the worst possible, as both grounds and solution +undergo hydrolysis, oxidation, and local-overheating, while the +caffeol is steam-distilled from the brew. Many persons, who have +long been accustomed to drinking the relatively bitter beverage +thus produced, are not satisfied by coffee made in any other way; +but this is purely a perversion of taste, for none of the +properties are present which make coffee so prized by the epicure.</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Bean Under Microscope"> +<tr class='tr6'><td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Cross-section_of_Roasted_Bean_Magnified" id="Cross-section_of_Roasted_Bean_Magnified"></a> +<img src="images/image600.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="Cross-section of Roasted Coffee Bean Magnified 600 Times" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Cross-section of Roasted Coffee Bean Magnified 600 Times</span></span> +</div></td> +<td align='center'> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Coarse_Grind_Under_the_Microscope" id="Coarse_Grind_Under_the_Microscope"></a> +<img src="images/image601.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="Coarse Grind Under the Microscope" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Coarse Grind Under the Microscope</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Steeping, in which cold water is added to the coffee, and the +mixture brought up to a boil, does not subject the coffee to so +strenuous conditions. Local overheating and hydrolysis occur, but +not to so great an extent as in boiling; and most of the effects of +oxidation and volatization of caffeol are absent. However, +extraction is rather incomplete, due to lack of thorough admixture +of the water and coffee.</p> + +<p class="quot1">When coffee is to be made under the best conditions, the +temperature of the water used and of the extract after it is made +should not fluctuate. In the pumping percolator, as in the steeping +method, the temperature varies greatly from the time the extraction +is started to the completion of the operation. This is deleterious. +Also, local overheating of the infusion occurs at the point of +application of the heat; and because of the manner in which the +water is brought into contact with the coffee, the degree of +extraction shows inefficiency. Spraying of the water over the +coffee never permits the grounds to be completely covered with +water at any one time, and the opportunity offered for channeling +is excessive. The principle of thorough extraction demands that, as +the substance being extracted becomes progressively more exhausted, +fresh solvent should be brought into contact with it. In the +pumping percolator the solution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_721" id="Page_721">[Pg 721]</a></span> pumped over the grounds becomes +more concentrated as the grounds become exhausted; so that the time +taken to reach the degree of extraction desired is longer, and an +appreciable amount of relatively concentrated liquor is retained by +the grounds.</p></div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Medium_Grind_Under_the_Microscope" id="Medium_Grind_Under_the_Microscope"></a> +<img src="images/image602.jpg" width="300" height="297" alt="Medium Grind Under the Microscope" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Medium Grind Under the Microscope</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The simplest procedure to follow is that in which boiling water is +poured over ground coffee suspended on a filtering medium in such a +manner that the extracting water will slowly pass through the +coffee and be received in a containing vessel, which obviates +further contact of the beverage with the grounds. The water as it +comes into contact with the ground coffee extracts the soluble +material, and the solution is removed by gravity. Fresh water takes +its place; so that, if the filter medium be of the proper fineness, +the water flows through at the correct rate of speed, and complete +extraction is effected with the production of a clear solution. +Thus a maximum extraction of desirable materials is obtained in a +short time with a minimum of hydrolysis, oxidation, and loss of +caffeol; and if the infusion be consumed at once, or kept warm in a +contrivance embodying the double-boiler principle, the effects of +local overheating are avoided. Also, with the use of an appropriate +filter, a finer grind of coffee can be used than in the other +devices, without obtaining a turbid brew. All this works toward the +production of a desirable drink.</p> + +<p class="quot1">There are several devices on the market, some using paper, and some +cloth, as a filter, which operate on this principle and give very +good coffee. The use of paper presents the advantage of using a new +and clean filter for each brew, whereas the cloth must be carefully +kept immersed in water between brews to prevent its fouling.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Contrivances operating on the filtration principle have been +designed for use on a large scale in conjunction with coffee urns, +and have proven quite successful in causing all of the water to go +slowly through the coffee without channeling, thus accomplishing +practically complete extraction. The majority of urns are still +operated with bags, of which the ones with sides of heavier +material than the bottom obtain the most satisfactory results, as +the majority of the water must pass through the coffee instead of +out through the sides of the bag. Greatest efficiency, when bags +are used, is obtained by repouring until all of the liquid has +passed twice through the coffee; further repouring extracts too +much of the astringent hydrolysis products. The bags, when not in +use, should not be allowed to dry but should be kept in a jar of +cold water. The urns provided with water jackets keep the brew at +almost a constant temperature and avoid the deterioration incident +to temperature fluctuation.</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Composition of Brews.</span> The real tests of the comparative values of +different methods of brewing are the flavor and palatibility of the +drink, in conjunction with the number of cups of a given strength +which are produced, or the relative strengths of brews of the same +number of cups volume. Chemical analysis has not yet been developed +to a stage where the results obtained with it are valuably +indicative. Caffeol is present in quantities so small that no +comparative results can be obtained. "Caffetannic acid" +determinations are practically meaningless. This compound is of so +doubtful a composition and physiological action, and the methods +employed for its determination are so indefinite as to +interpretation, as to render valueless any attempts at comparison +of relative percentages. The only accurate analysis which can be +made is that for caffein.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Much advertising emphasis has been placed on the small amount of +caffein extracted by some devices. What is one of the main reasons +for the consumption of coffee? The caffein contained therein, of +course. So that if one device extracts less caffein than another, +that fact alone is nothing in favor of the former. If the consumer +does not want caffein in his drink there are caffein-free coffees +on the market.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="Fine-Meal_Grind_Under_the_Microscope" id="Fine-Meal_Grind_Under_the_Microscope"></a> +<img src="images/image603.jpg" width="300" height="301" alt="Fine-Meal Grind Under the Microscope" title="" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fine-Meal Grind Under the Microscope</span></span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">The coffee liquor acts on metals in such a manner as to lower the +quality of the drink, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_722" id="Page_722">[Pg 722]</a></span> that metals of any sort, and by all +means, irons, should be avoided as far as possible. Instead, +earthenware or glass, preferably a good grade of the former, should +be employed as far as possible in the construction of coffee-making +devices.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Of the various metals, silver, aluminum, monel metal, and tin (in +the order named) are least attacked by coffee infusions; and +besides these, nickel, copper, and well enameled iron (absolutely +free from pin holes) may be used without much danger of +contamination. Rings for coffee-urn bags should be made of tinned +copper, monel metal, or aluminum. Even if coffee be made in metal +contrivances, the receptacles in which it stands should be made of +earthenware or of glass.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Painstaking care should be given to the preservation of the +coffee-makers in a state of cleanliness, as upon this depends the +value of the brew. Dirt, fine grounds, and fat (which will turn +rancid quickly) should not be allowed to collect on the sides, +bottom, or in angles of the device difficult of access. Nor should +any source of metallic or exterior contamination be allowed to go +uneliminated.</p></div> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>The Perfect Cup of Coffee</i></p> + +<p>Lovers of coffee in the United States are in a better position to obtain +an ideal cup of the beverage than those in any other country. While +imports of green coffee are not so carefully guarded as tea imports, +there is a large measure of government inspection designed to protect +the consumer against impurities, and the Department of Agriculture is +zealous in applying the pure food laws to insure against misbranding and +substitution. The department has defined coffee as "a beverage resulting +from a water infusion of roasted coffee and nothing else."</p> + +<p>Today no reputable merchant would think of selling even loose coffee for +other than what it is. And the consumer can feel that, in the case of +package coffee, the label tells the truth about the contents.</p> + +<p>With a hundred different kinds of coffee coming to this market from +nineteen countries, so many combinations are possible, that there is +sure to be a straight coffee or a blend to suit any taste. And those who +may have been frightened into the belief that coffee is not for them +should do a little experimenting before exposing themselves to the +dangers of the coffee-substitute habit.</p> + +<p>Once upon a time it was thought that Java and Mocha were the only +worthwhile blend, but now we know that a Bogota coffee from Colombia, +and a Bourbon Santos from Brazil, make a most satisfying drink. And if +the individual seeker should happen to be a caffein-sensitive, there are +coffees so low in caffein content, like some Porto Ricans, as to +overcome this objection; while there are other coffees from which the +caffein has been removed by a special treatment. There is no reason why +any person who is fond of coffee should forego its use. Paraphrasing +Makaroff, Be modest, be kind, eat less, and think more, live to serve, +work and play and laugh and love—it is enough! Do this and you may +drink coffee without danger to your immortal soul.</p> + +<p>If you are accustomed to buying loose coffee, have your dealer do a +little experimental blending for you until you find a coffee to suit +your palate. Some expert blends are to be found among the leading +package brands. But you really can not do better than to trust your case +to a first-class grocer of known reputation. He will guide you right if +he knows his business; and if he doesn't, then he doesn't know his +business—try elsewhere. Test him out along this line:</p> + +<p>Let us reason together, Mr. Grocer. Let us consider these facts about +coffee: green coffee improves with age? Granted. As soon as it is +roasted, it begins to lose in flavor and aroma? Certainly. Grinding +hastens the deterioration? Of course. Therefore, it is better to buy a +small quantity of freshly roasted coffee in the bean and grind it at the +time of purchase or at home just before using? Absolutely!</p> + +<p>If your grocer reacts in this fashion, he need only supply you with a +quality coffee at fair price and you need only to make it properly to +obtain the utmost of coffee satisfaction.</p> + +<p>Some connoisseurs still cling to the good old two-thirds Java and +one-third Mocha blend, but the author has for years found great pleasure +in a blend composed of half Medellin Bogota, one-quarter Mandheling +"Java", and one-quarter Mocha. However, this blend might not appeal to +another's taste, and the component parts are not always easy to get. The +retail cost (1922) is about fifty cents.</p> + +<p>Another pleasing blend is composed of Bogota, washed Maracaibo, and +Santos, equal parts. This should retail from thirty to thirty-five +cents. Good drinking coffees are to be had for prices ranging from +twenty-five to thirty cents. In the stores of one of the large chain +systems an excellent blend composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_723" id="Page_723">[Pg 723]</a></span> +and forty percent Bogota is to be had (1922) for 29 cents. All these +figures apply, of course, to normal times.</p> + +<p>If you are epicurean, you will want to read up on, and to try, the fancy +Mexicans, Cobáns, Sumatra growths, Meridas, and some from the "Kona +side" of Hawaii.</p> + +<p>In preparing the perfect cup of coffee, then, the coffee must be of good +grade, and freshly roasted. It should, if possible, be ground just +before using. The author has found a fine grind, about the consistency +of fine granulated sugar, the most satisfactory. For general home use, a +device that employs filter paper or filter cloth is best; for the +epicure an improved porcelain French percolator (drip pot) or an +improved cloth filter will yield the utmost of coffee's delights. Drink +it black, sweetened or unsweetened, with or without cream or hot milk, +as your fancy dictates.</p> + +<p>It should be remembered that to make good coffee no special pot or +device is necessary. Good coffee can be made with any china vessel and a +piece of muslin. But to make it in perfection pains must be taken with +every step in the process from roaster to cup.</p> + +<p>Hollingworth<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a> points out that through taste alone it is impossible +to distinguish between quinine and coffee, or between apple and onion. +There is something more to coffee than its caffein stimulus, its action +on the taste-buds of the tongue and mouth. The sense of smell and the +sense of sight play important rôles. To get all the joy there is in a +cup of coffee, it must look good and smell good, before one can +pronounce its taste good. It must woo us through the nostrils with the +wonderful aroma that constitutes much of the lure of coffee.</p> + +<p>And that is why, in the preparation of the beverage, the greatest +possible care should be observed to preserve the aroma until the moment +of its psychological release. This can only be done by having it appear +at the same instant that the delicate flavor is extracted—roasting and +grinding the bean much in advance of the actual making of the beverage +will defeat this object. Boiling the extraction will perfume the house; +but the lost fragrance will never return to the dead liquid called +coffee, when served from the pot whence it was permitted to escape.</p> + +<p>To recapitulate, with an added word on service, the correct way to make +coffee is as follows:</p> + +<p>1. Buy a good grade of freshly roasted coffee from a responsible dealer.</p> + +<p>2. Grind it very fine, and at home, just before using.</p> + +<p>3. Allow a rounded tablespoonful for each beverage cup.</p> + +<p>4. Make it in a French drip pot or in some filtration device where +freshly boiling water is poured through the grind but once. A piece of +muslin and any china receptacle make an economical filter.</p> + +<p>5. Avoid pumping percolators, or any device for heating water and +forcing it repeatedly through the grounds. Never boil coffee.</p> + +<p>6. Keep the beverage hot and serve it "black" with sugar and hot milk, +or cream, or both.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><i>Some Coffee Recipes</i></p> + +<p>When Mrs. Ida C. Bailey Allen prepared a booklet of recipes for the +Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, she introduced them with the +following remarks on the use of coffee as a flavoring agent:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1">Although coffee is our national beverage, comparatively few cooks +realize its possibilities as a flavoring agent. Coffee combines +deliciously with a great variety of food dishes and is especially +adapted to desserts, sauces and sweets. Thus used it appeals +particularly to men and to all who like a full-bodied pronounced +flavor.</p> + +<p class="quot1">For flavoring purposes coffee should be prepared just as carefully +as when it is intended for a beverage. The best results are +obtained by using freshly made coffee, but when, for reasons of +economy, it is desirable to utilize a surplus remaining from the +meal-time brew, care should be taken not to let it stand on the +grounds and become bitter.</p> + +<p class="quot1">When introducing made coffee into a recipe calling for other +liquid, decrease this liquid in proportion to the amount of coffee +that has been added. When using it in a cake or in cookies, instead +of milk, a tablespoonful less to the cup should be allowed, as +coffee does not have the same thickening properties.</p> + +<p class="quot1">In some cases, better results are gained if the coffee is +introduced into the dish by scalding or cooking the right +proportion of ground coffee with the liquid which is to form the +base. By this means the full coffee flavor is obtained, yet the +richness of the finished product is not impaired by the +introduction of water, as would be the case were the infused coffee +used. This method is advisable especially for various desserts +which have milk as a foundation, as those of the custard variety +and certain types of Bavarian Creams, Ice Cream, and the like. The +right proportion of ground coffee, which is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_724" id="Page_724">[Pg 724]</a></span> generally a +tablespoonful to the cup, should be combined with the cold milk or +cream in the double-boiler top and should then be scalded over hot +water, when the mixture should be put through a very fine strainer +or cheese cloth, to remove all grounds.</p></div> + +<p>Coffee can be used as a flavoring in almost any dessert or confection +where a flavoring agent is employed.</p> + +<p>On iced coffee and the use of coffee in summer beverages in general, +Mrs. Allen writes as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Iced Coffee.</span> This is not only a delicious summer drink, but it also +furnishes a mild stimulation that is particularly grateful on a +wilting hot day. It may be combined with fruit juices and other +ingredients in a variety of cooling beverages which are less sugary +and cloying than the average warm weather drink and for that reason +it is generally popular with men.</p> + +<p class="quot1">Coffee that is to be served cold should be made somewhat stronger +than usual. Brew it according to your favorite method and chill +before adding sugar and cream. If cracked ice is added make sure +the coffee is strong enough to compensate for the resulting +dilution. Mixing the ingredients in a shaker produces a smoother +beverage topped with an appetizing foam.</p> + +<p class="quot1">It is a convenience, however, to have on hand a concentrated syrup +from which any kind of coffee-flavored drink may be concocted on +short notice and without the necessity of lighting the stove. +Coffee left over from meals may be used for the same purpose, but +it should be kept in a covered glass or china dish and not allowed +to stand too long. A coffee syrup made after the following recipe +will keep indefinitely and may be used as a basis for many +delicious iced drinks:</p> + +<p class="quot1"><span class="smcap">Coffee Syrup.</span> Two quarts of very strong coffee; 3<span class="above">1</span>⁄<span class="below">2</span> pounds sugar. +The coffee should be very strong, as the syrup will be largely +diluted. The proportion of a pound of coffee to one and +three-fourths quarts of water will be found satisfactory. This may +be made by any favorite method, cleared and strained, then combined +with the sugar, brought to boiling point, and boiled for two or +three minutes. It should be canned while boiling, in sterilized +bottles. Fill them to overflowing and seal as for grape juice or +for any other canned beverage.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_725" id="Page_725">[Pg 725]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="A_COFFEE_CHRONOLOGY" id="A_COFFEE_CHRONOLOGY"></a>A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, +literature, cultivation, plantation treatment, trading, and in the +preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the +present</i></p><br /><br /></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="hang1">900[L]—Rhazes, famous Arabian physician, is first writer to +mention coffee under the name <i>bunca</i> or <i>bunchum</i>.[M]</p> + +<p class="hang1">1000[L]—Avicenna, Mahommedan physician and philosopher, is the +first writer to explain the medicinal properties of the coffee +bean, which he also calls <i>bunchum</i>.[M]</p> + +<p class="hang1">1258[L]—Sheik Omar, disciple of Sheik Schadheli, patron saint and +legendary founder of Mocha, by chance discovers coffee as a +beverage at Ousab in Arabia.[M]</p> + +<p class="hang1">1300[L]—The coffee drink is a decoction made from roasted berries, +crushed in a mortar and pestle, the powder being placed in boiling +water, and the drink taken down, grounds and all.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1350[L]—Persian, Egyptian, and Turkish ewers made of pottery are +first used for serving coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1400–1500—Earthenware or metal coffee-roasting plates with small +holes, rounded and shaped like a skimmer, come into use in Turkey +and Persia over braziers. Also about this time appears the familiar +Turkish cylinder coffee mill, and the original Turkish coffee +boiler of metal.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1428–48—Spice grinder to stand on four legs first invented; +subsequently used to grind coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1454[L]—Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, having discovered the +virtues of the berry on a journey to Abyssinia, sanctions the use +of coffee in Arabia Felix.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1470–1500—The use of coffee spreads to Mecca and Medina.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1500–1600—Shallow iron dippers with long handles and small +foot-rests come into use in Bagdad and in Mesopotamia for roasting +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1505[L]—The Arabs introduce the coffee plant into Ceylon.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1510—The coffee drink is introduced into Cairo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1511—Kair Bey, governor of Mecca, after consultation with a +council of lawyers, physicians, and leading citizens, issues a +condemnation of coffee, and prohibits the use of the drink. +Prohibition subsequently ordered revoked by the sultan of Cairo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1517—Sultan Selim I, after conquering Egypt, brings coffee to +Constantinople.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1524—The kadi of Mecca closes the public coffee houses because of +disorders, but permits coffee drinking at home and in private. His +successor allows them to re-open under license.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1530[L]—Coffee drinking introduced into Damascus.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1532[L]—Coffee drinking introduced into Aleppo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1534—A religious fanatic denounces coffee in Cairo and leads a mob +against the coffee houses, many of which are wrecked. The city is +divided into two parties, for and against coffee; but the chief +judge, after consultation with the doctors, causes coffee to be +served to the meeting, drinks some himself, and thus settles the +controversy.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1542—Soliman II, at the solicitation of a favorite court lady, +forbids the use of coffee, but to no purpose.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1554—The first coffee houses are opened in Constantinople by +Shemsi of Damascus and Hekem of Aleppo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1570[L]–80[L]—Religious zealots in Constantinople, jealous of the +increasing popularity of the coffee houses, claim roasted coffee to +be a kind of charcoal, and the mufti decides that it is forbidden +by the law. Amurath III subsequently orders the closing of all +coffee houses, on religious grounds, classing coffee with wine, +forbidden by the <i>Koran</i>. The order is not strictly observed, and +coffee drinking continues behind closed shop-doors and in private +houses.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1573—Rauwolf, German physician and botanist, first European to +mention coffee, makes a journey to the Levant.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1580—Prospero Alpini (Alpinus), Italian physician and botanist, +journeys to Egypt and brings back news of coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1582–83—The first printed reference to coffee appears as <i>chaube</i> +in Rauwolf's <i>Travels</i>, published in German at Frankfort and +Lauingen.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1585—Gianfraneesco Morosini, city magistrate in Constantinople, +reports to the Venetian senate the use by the Turks "of a black +water, being the infusion of a bean called <i>cavee</i>."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1587—The first authentic account of the origin of coffee is +written by the Sheik Abd-al-Kâdir,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_726" id="Page_726">[Pg 726]</a></span> in an Arabian manuscript +preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1592—The first printed description of the coffee plant (called +<i>bon</i>) and drink (called <i>caova</i>) appears in Prospero Alpini's work +<i>The Plants of Egypt</i>, written in Latin, and published in Venice.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1596[L]—Belli sends to the botanist de l'Écluse "seeds used by the +Egyptians to make a liquid they call <i>cave</i>."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1598—The first printed reference to coffee in English appears as +<i>chaoua</i> in a note of Paludanus in <i>Linschoten's Travels</i>, +translated from the Dutch, and published in London.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1599—Sir Antony Sherley, first Englishman to refer to coffee +drinking in the Orient, sails from Venice for Aleppo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1600[L]—Pewter serving-pots appear.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1600—Iron spiders on legs, designed to sit in open fires, are used +for roasting coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1600[L]—Coffee cultivation introduced into southern India at +Chickmaglur, Mysore, by a Moslem pilgrim, Baba Budan.[M]</p> + +<p class="hang1">1600–32—Mortars and pestles of wood, and of metal (iron, bronze, +and brass) come into common use in Europe for making coffee powder.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1601—The first printed reference to coffee in English, employing +the more modern form of the word, appears in W. Parry's book, +<i>Sherley's Travels</i>, as "a certain liquor which they call coffe."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1603—Captain John Smith, English adventurer, and founder of the +colony of Virginia, in his book of travels published this year, +refers to the Turks' drink, "coffa."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1610—Sir George Sandys, the poet, visits Turkey, Egypt, and +Palestine, and records that the Turks "sip a drink called <i>coffa</i> +(of the berry that it is made of) in little china dishes, as hot as +they can suffer it."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1614—Dutch traders visit Aden to examine into the possibilities of +coffee cultivation and coffee trading.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1615—Pietro Della Valle writes a letter from Constantinople to his +friend Mario Schipano at Venice that when he returns he will bring +with him some coffee, which he believes "is a thing unknown in his +native country."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1615—Coffee is introduced into Venice.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1616—The first coffee is brought from Mocha to Holland by Pieter +Van dan Broecke.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1620—Peregrine White's wooden mortar and pestle (used for +"braying" coffee) is brought to America on the Mayflower by White's +parents.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1623–27—Francis Bacon, in his <i>Historia Vitae et Mortis</i> (1623), +speaks of the Turks' "caphe"; and in his <i>Sylva Sylvarum</i> (1627) +writes: "They have in Turkey a drink called <i>coffa</i> made of a berry +of the same name, as black as soot, and of a strong scent ... this +drink comforteth the brain and heart, and helpeth digestion."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1625—Sugar is first used to sweeten coffee in Cairo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1632—Burton in his <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i> says: "The Turks have a +drink called <i>coffa</i>, so named from a berry black as soot and as +bitter."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1634—Sir Henry Blount makes a voyage to the Levant, and is invited +to drink "cauphe" in Turkey.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1637—Adam Olearius, German traveler and Persian scholar, visits +Persia (1633–39); and on his return tells how in this year he +observed that the Persians drink <i>chawa</i> in their coffee houses.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1637—Coffee drinking is introduced into England by Nathaniel +Conopios, a Cretan student at Balliol College, Oxford.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1640—Parkinson, in his <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i>, publishes the first +botanical description of the coffee plant in English—referred to +as "<i>Arbor Bon cum sua Buna</i>. The Turkes Berry Drinke."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1640—The Dutch merchant, Wurffbain, offers for sale in Amsterdam +the first commercial shipment of coffee from Mocha.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1644—Coffee is introduced into France at Marseilles by P. de la +Roque, who brought back also from Constantinople the instruments +and vessels for making it.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1645—Coffee comes into general use in Italy.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1645—The first coffee house is opened in Venice.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1647—Adam Olearius publishes in German his <i>Persian Voyage +Description</i>, containing an account of coffee manners and customs +in Persia in 1633–39.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1650[L]—Varnar, Dutch minister resident at the Ottoman Porte, +publishes a treatise on coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1650[L]—The individual hand-turned metal (tin-plate or tinned +copper) roaster appears; shaped like the Turkish coffee grinder, +for use over open fires.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1650—The first coffee house in England is opened at Oxford by +Jacobs, a Jew.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1650—Coffee is introduced into Vienna.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1652—The first London coffee house is opened by Pasqua Rosée in +St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1652—The first printed advertisement for coffee in English appears +in the form of a handbill issued by Pasqua Rosée, acclaiming "The +Vertue of the Coffee Drink."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1656—Grand Vizier Kuprili, during the war with Candia, and for +political reasons, suppresses the coffee houses and prohibits +coffee. For the first violation the punishment is cudgeling; for a +second, the offender is sewn up in a leather bag and thrown into +the Bosporus.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1657—The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appears in <i>The +Publick Adviser</i> of London.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1657—Coffee is introduced privately into Paris by Jean de +Thévenot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1658—The Dutch begin the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1660[L]—The first French commercial importation of coffee arrives +in bales at Marseilles from Egypt.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1660—Coffee is first mentioned in the English statute books when a +duty of four pence is laid upon every gallon made and sold "to be +paid by the maker."</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_727" id="Page_727">[Pg 727]</a></span>1660[L]—Nieuhoff, Dutch ambassador to China, is the first to make +a trial of coffee with milk, in imitation of tea with milk.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1660—Elford's "white iron" machine for roasting coffee is much +used in England, being "turned on a spit by a jack."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1662—Coffee is roasted in Europe over charcoal fires without +flame, in ovens, and on stoves; being "browned in uncovered +earthenware tart dishes, old pudding pans, fry pans."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1663—All English coffee houses are required to be licensed.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1663—Regular imports of Mocha coffee begin at Amsterdam.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1665—The improved Turkish long brass combination coffee grinder +with folding handle and cup receptacle for green beans, for boiling +and serving, is first made in Damascus. About this period the +Turkish coffee set, including long-handled boiler and porcelain +cups in brass holders, comes into vogue.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1668—Coffee is introduced into North America.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1669—Coffee is introduced publicly into Paris by Soliman Aga, the +Turkish ambassador.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1670—Coffee is roasted in larger quantities in small closed +sheet-iron cylinders having long iron handles designed to turn them +in open fireplaces. First used in Holland. Later, in France, +England, and the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1670—The first attempt to grow coffee in Europe at Dijon, France, +results in failure.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1670—Coffee is introduced into Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1670—Coffee is first sold in Boston.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1671—The first coffee house in France is opened in Marseilles in +the neighborhood of the Exchange.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1671—The first authoritative printed treatise devoted solely to +coffee, written in Latin by Faustus Nairon, professor of Oriental +languages, Rome, is published in that city.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1671—The first printed treatise in French, largely devoted to +coffee, <i>Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea and Chocolate</i>, by +Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, purporting to be a translation from the +Latin, is published at Lyons.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1672—Pascal, an Armenian, first sells coffee publicly at St. +Germain's fair, Paris, and opens the first Parisian coffee house.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1672—Great silver coffee pots (with all the utensils belonging to +them of the same metal) are used at St.-Germain's fair, Paris.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1674—<i>The Women's Petition Against Coffee</i> is published in London.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1674—Coffee is introduced into Sweden.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1675—Charles II issues a proclamation to close all London coffee +houses as places of sedition. Order revoked on petition of the +traders in 1676.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1679—An attempt by the physicians of Marseilles to discredit +coffee on purely dietetic grounds fails of effect; and consumption +increases at such a rate that traders in Lyons and Marseilles begin +to import the green bean by the ship-load from the Levant.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1679[L]—The first coffee house in Germany is opened by an English +merchant at Hamburg.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1683—Coffee is sold publicly in New York.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1683—Kolschitzky opens the first coffee house in Vienna.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1684—Dufour publishes at Lyons, France, the first work on <i>The +Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1685—<i>Café au lait</i> is first recommended for use as a medicine by +Sieur Monin, a celebrated physician of Grenoble, France.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1686—John Ray, one of the first English botanists to extol the +virtues of coffee in a scientific treatise, publishes his +<i>Universal Botany of Plants</i> in London.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1686—The first coffee house is opened in Regensburg, Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1689—Café de Procope, the first real French café, is opened in +Paris by François Procope, a Sicilian, coming from Florence.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1689—The first coffee house is opened in Boston.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1691—Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the pocket find favor +in France.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1692—The "lantern" straight-line coffee pot with true cone lid, +thumb-piece, and handle fixed at right angle to the spout, is +introduced into England, succeeding the curved Oriental serving +pot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1694—The first coffee house is opened in Leipzig, Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1696—The first coffee house (The King's Arms) is opened in New +York.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1696—The first coffee seedlings are brought from Kananur, on the +Malabar coast, and introduced into Java at Kedawoeng, near Batavia, +but not long afterward are destroyed by flood.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1699—The second shipment of coffee plants from Malabar to Java by +Henricus Zwaardecroon becomes the progenitors of all the <i>arabica</i> +coffee trees in the Dutch East Indies.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1699—Galland's translation of the earliest Arabian manuscript on +coffee appears in Paris under the title, <i>Concerning the First Use +of Coffee and the Progress It Afterward Made</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1700—Ye coffee house, the first in Philadelphia, is built by +Samuel Carpenter.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1700–1800—Small portable coke or charcoal stoves made of +sheet-iron, and fitted with horizontal revolving cylinders turned +by hand, come into use for family roasting.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1701—Coffee pots appear in England with perfect domes and bodies +less tapering.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1702—The first "London" coffee house is established in +Philadelphia.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1704—Bull's machine for roasting coffee, probably the first to use +coal for commercial roasting, is patented in England.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1706—The first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown in +Java, are received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1707—The first coffee periodical, <i>The New and Curious Coffee +House</i>, is issued at Leipzig by Theophilo Georgi, as a kind of +organ of the first kaffee-klatsch.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1711—Java coffee is first sold at public auction in Amsterdam.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1711—A novelty in coffee-making is introduced into France by +infusing the ground beans in a fustian (linen) bag.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1712—The first coffee house is opened in Stuttgart, Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1713—The first coffee house is opened in Augsburg, Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_728" id="Page_728">[Pg 728]</a></span>1714—The thumb-piece on English coffee pots disappears, and the +handle is no longer set at a right angle to the spout.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1714—A coffee plant, raised from seed of the plant received at the +Amsterdam botanical gardens in 1706, is presented to Louis XIV of +France, and is nurtured in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1715—Jean La Roque publishes in Paris his <i>Voyage de l'Arabie +Heureuse</i> (voyage to Arabia the Happy) containing much valuable +information on coffee in Arabia and its introduction into France.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1715—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Haiti and Santo +Domingo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1715–17—Coffee cultivation is introduced into the Isle of Bourbon +(now Réunion) by a sea captain of St. Malo, who brings the plants +from Mocha by direction of the French Company of the Indies.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1718—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Surinam by the Dutch.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1718—Abbé Massieu's <i>Carmen Caffaeum</i>, the first and most notable +poem on coffee written in Latin, is composed, and is read before +the Academy of Inscriptions.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1720—Caffè Florian is opened in Venice by Floriono Francesconi.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1721—The first coffee house is opened in Berlin, Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1721—Meisner publishes a treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1722—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cayenne, from Surinam.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1723—The first coffee plantation started in the Portuguese colony +of Pará, Brazil, with plants brought from Cayenne (French Guiana) +results in failure.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1723—Gabriel de Clieu, Norman captain of infantry, sails from +France, accompanied by one of the seedlings of the Java tree +presented to Louis XIV, and with it shares his drinking water on a +protracted voyage to Martinique.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1730—The English bring the cultivation of coffee to Jamaica.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1732—The British Parliament seeks to encourage the cultivation of +coffee in British possessions in America by reducing the inland +duty.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1732—Bach's celebrated <i>Coffee Cantata</i> is published in Leipzig.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1737—The Merchants' coffee house is established in New York; by +some called the true cradle of American liberty and the birthplace +of the Union.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1740—Coffee culture is introduced into the Philippines from Java +by Spanish missionaries.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1748—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cuba by Don José +Antonio Gelabert.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1750—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Celebes from Java.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1750—The straight-line coffee pot in England begins to give way to +the reactionary movement in art favoring bulbous bodies and +serpentine spouts; the sides are nearly parallel, while the dome of +the lid is flattened to a slight elevation above the rim.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1752—Intensive coffee cultivation is resumed in the Portuguese +colonies in Pará and Amazonas, Brazil.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1754—A white-silver coffee roaster, eight inches high by four +inches in diameter, is mentioned as being among the deliveries made +to the army of Louis XV at Versailles.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1755—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Porto Rico from +Martinique.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1760—Decoction, or boiling, of coffee in France is generally +replaced by the infusion method.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1760—João Alberto Castello Branco plants in Rio de Janeiro the +first coffee tree brought to Brazil from Goa, Portuguese India.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1761—Brazil exempts coffee from export duty.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1763—Donmartin, a tinsmith of St. Benoit, France, invents a novel +coffee pot, the inside of which is "filled by a fine flannel sack +put in its entirety." It has a tap to draw the coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1764—Count Pietro Verri publishes in Milan, Italy, a philosophic +and literary periodical, entitled <i>Il Caffè</i> (the coffee house).</p> + +<p class="hang1">1765—Mme. de Pompadour's golden coffee mill is mentioned in her +inventory.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1770—Complete revolution in style of English serving pots; return +to the flowing lines of the Turkish ewer.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1770—Chicory is first used with coffee in Holland.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1770–73—Coffee cultivation begins in Rio, Minãs, and São Paulo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1771—John Dring is granted a patent in England for a compound +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1774—Molke, a Belgian monk, introduces the coffee plant from +Surinam into the garden of the Capuchin monastery at Rio de +Janeiro.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1774—A letter is sent by the Committee of Correspondence from the +Merchants' coffee house, New York, to Boston, proposing the +American Union.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1777—King Frederick the Great of Prussia issues his celebrated +coffee and beer manifesto, recommending the use of the latter in +place of the former among the lower classes.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1779—Richard Dearman is granted an English patent for a new method +of making mills for grinding coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1779—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Costa Rica from Cuba by +the Spanish voyager, Navarro.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1781—King Frederick the Great of Prussia establishes state +coffee-roasting plants in Germany, declares the coffee business a +government monopoly, and forbids the common people to roast their +own coffee. "Coffee-smellers" make life miserable for violators of +the law.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1784—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Venezuela by seed from +Martinique.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1784—A prohibition against the use of coffee, except by the rich, +is issued by Maximilian Frederick, elector of Cologne.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1785—Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts introduces chicory to the +United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1789—The first import duty on coffee, two and a half cents a +pound, is levied by the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1789—George Washington is officially greeted, April 23, as +president-elect of the U.S. at the Merchants coffee house in New +York.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1790—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Mexico from the West +Indies.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1790—The first wholesale coffee-roasting plant in the United +States begins operation at 4 Great Dock Street, New York.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_729" id="Page_729">[Pg 729]</a></span>1790—The first United States advertisement for coffee appears in +the <i>New York Daily Advertiser.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1">1790—The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased +to four cents a pound.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1790—The first crude package coffee is sold in "narrow mouthed +stoneware pots and jars," by a New York merchant.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1792—The Tontine coffee house is established in New York.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1794—The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased +to five cents a pound.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1798—The first United States patent for an improved +coffee-grinding mill is granted to Thomas Bruff, Sr.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1800[L]—Chicory comes into use in Holland as a substitute for +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1800[L]—De Belloy's coffee pot, made of tin, later of porcelain, +appears—the original French drip coffee pot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1800[L]–1900[L]—There is a return in England to the style of +coffee-serving pot having the handle at right angle to the spout.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1802—The first French patent on a coffee maker is granted to +Denobe, Henrion, and Rouch for "a pharmacological-chemical coffee +making device by infusion."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1802—Charles Wyatt is granted a patent in London on an apparatus +for distilling coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1804[L]—The first cargo of coffee—and other East Indian +produce—from Mocha, to be shipped in an American bottom, reaches +Salem, Mass.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1806—James Henckel is granted a patent in England on a coffee +dryer, "an invention communicated to him by a certain foreigner."</p> + +<p class="hang1">1806—The first French patent on an improved French drip coffee pot +for making coffee by filtration, without boiling, is granted to +Hadrot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1806—The coffee percolator (really an improved French drip coffee +pot) is invented by Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), an +expatriated American scientist, in Paris.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1809—The first importation of Brazil coffee by the United States +arrives at Salem, Mass.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1809—Coffee becomes an article of commerce in Brazil.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1811—Walter Rochfort, a London grocer and tea dealer, obtains a +patent in London on a compressed coffee tablet.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1812—Coffee in England is roasted in an iron pan or hollow +cylinder made of sheet iron; and then is pounded in a mortar, or +ground in a hand-mill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1812—Anthony Schick is granted an English patent on a method, or +process, for roasting coffee, for which specifications were never +enrolled.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1812—Coffee is roasted in Italy in a glass flask with a loose +cork, held over a clear fire of burning coals and continually +agitated.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1812—The import duty, on coffee in the United States is increased +to ten cents a pound as a war-revenue measure.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1813—A United States patent is granted Alexander Duncan Moore, New +Haven, Conn., on a mill for grinding and pounding coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1814—A war-time fever of speculation in tea and coffee causes the +citizens of Philadelphia to form a non-consumption association, +each member pledging himself not to pay more than twenty-five cents +a pound for coffee, and not to use tea unless it is already in the +country.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1816—The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to +five cents a pound.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1817[L]—The coffee biggin (said to have been invented by a man +named Biggin) comes into common use in England.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1818—The Havre coffee market for spot coffee and to arrive is +established.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1819—Morize, a Paris tinsmith, invents a double drip reversible +coffee pot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1819—Laurens is granted a French patent on the original +pumping-percolator device in which the boiling water was raised by +steam pressure and sprayed over the ground coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1820—Peregrine Williamson, Baltimore, is granted the first United +States patent for an improvement on a coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1820—Another early form of the French percolator is patented by +Gaudet, a Paris tinsmith.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1822—Nathan Reed, Belfast, Me., is granted a United States patent +on a coffee huller.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1824—Richard Evans is granted a patent in England for a commercial +method of roasting coffee, comprising a cylinder sheet-iron roaster +fitted with improved flanges for mixing, a hollow tube and trier +for sampling the coffee while roasting, and a means for turning the +roaster completely over to empty it.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1825—The pumping percolator, working by steam pressure and by +partial vacuum, comes into vogue in France, Germany, Austria, and +elsewhere.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1825—The first coffee-pot patent in the United States is issued to +Lewis Martelley, New York.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1825—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Hawaii from Rio de +Janeiro.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1827—The first patent for a really practicable French coffee +percolator is granted to Jacques Augustin Gandais, a manufacturer +of plated jewelry in Paris.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1828—Charles Parker, Meriden, Conn., begins work on the original +Charles Parker coffee mill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1829—The first French patent on a coffee mill is granted Colaux et +Cie, Molsheim, France.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1829—Établissements Lauzaune begin the manufacture of hand-turned +cylinder coffee roasting machines in Paris.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1830—The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to +two cents a pound.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1831—David Selden is granted a patent in England for a +coffee-grinding mill having cones of cast-iron.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1831—John Whitmee & Co., England, begin the manufacture of +coffee-plantation machinery.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1831—The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to +one cent a pound.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1832—A United States patent is granted to Edmund Parker and Herman +M. White, Meriden, Conn., on a new household coffee and spice mill. +(Chas. Parker Co. business founded same year.)</p> + +<p class="hang1">1832—Government coffee cultivation by forced labor is introduced +into Java.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_730" id="Page_730">[Pg 730]</a></span>1832—Coffee is placed on the free list in the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1832–33—United States patents are granted to Ammi Clark, Berlin, +Conn., on improved coffee and spice mills for household use.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1833—Amos Ransom, Hartford, Conn., is granted a United States +patent on a coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1833–34—A complete English coffee-roasting-and-grinding plant is +installed in New York by James Wild.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1834—John Chester Lyman is granted a patent in England on a coffee +huller employing circular wooden disks with wire teeth.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1835—Thomas Ditson, Boston, is granted a United States patent on a +coffee huller. Ten others follow.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1835—The first private coffee estates are started in Java and +Sumatra.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1836—The first French coffee-roaster patent is issued to François +Réné Lacoux, Paris, on a combination coffee roaster and grinder +made of porcelain.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1837—The first French coffee substitute is patented by François +Burlet, Lyons.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1839—James Vardy and Moritz Platow are granted an English patent +on a form of urn percolator employing the vacuum process of coffee +making, the upper vessel being made of glass.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1840—Central America begins shipping coffee to the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1840[L]—Robert Napier, of the Clyde engineering firm of Robert +Napier & Sons, invents the Napierian vacuum coffee machine to make +coffee by distillation and filtration, but the idea is never +patented. (See 1870.)</p> + +<p class="hang1">1840—Abel Stillman, Poland, N.Y., is granted a United States +patent on a family coffee roaster having a mica window to enable +the operator to observe the coffee while roasting.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1840—The English begin to cultivate coffee in India.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1840—Wm. McKinnon & Co.. Aberdeen, Scotland, begin the manufacture +of plantation machinery. (Established 1798.)</p> + +<p class="hang1">1842—The first French patent on a glass coffee-making device is +granted to Mme. Vassieux of Lyons.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1843—Ed. Loysel de Santais, Paris, is granted a patent on an +improved coffee-making device, the principle of which is later +incorporated in a hydrostatic percolator making 2,000 cups an hour.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1846—James W. Carter, Boston, is granted a United States patent on +the Carter "pull-out" coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1847—J.R. Remington, Baltimore, is granted a United States patent +on a coffee roaster employing a wheel of buckets to move the green +coffee beans singly through a charcoal-heated trough in which they +are roasted while passing over the rotating wheel.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1847–48—William Dakin and Elizabeth Dakin are granted patents in +England for a roasting cylinder lined with gold, silver, platinum, +or alloy, and traversing carriage on a railway to move the roaster +in and out of the heating chamber.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1848—Thomas John Knowlys is granted a patent in England on a +perforated roasting cylinder coated with enamel.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1848—Luke Herbert is granted the first English patent on a +coffee-grinding machine.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1849—Apoleoni Preterre, Havre, is granted a patent in England on a +coffee roaster mounted on a weighing apparatus to indicate loss of +weight in roasting, and automatically to stop the roasting process.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1849—Thomas R. Wood of Cincinnati is granted a United States +patent on Wood's improved spherical coffee roaster for use on +kitchen stoves.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1850—John Gordon & Co. begin the manufacture of coffee-plantation +machinery in London.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1850[L]—The cultivation of coffee is introduced into Guatemala.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1850[L]—John Walker introduces his cylinder pulper for coffee +plantations.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1852—Edward Gee secures a patent in England for an improved +combination of apparatus for roasting coffee; having a perforated +cylinder fitted with inclined flanges for turning the beans while +roasting.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1852—Robert Bowman Tennent is granted a patent in England on a +two-cylinder machine for pulping coffee. Others follow.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1852—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Salvador from Cuba.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1852—Tavernier is granted a French patent on a coffee tablet.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1853—Lacassagne and Latchoud are granted a French patent on liquid +and solid extracts of coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1855—C.W. Van Vliet, Fishkill Landing, N.Y., is granted a patent +on a household coffee mill employing upper breaking, and lower +grinding, cones. Assigned to Charles Parker, Meriden, Conn.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1856—Waite and Sener's Old Dominion pot is patented in the United +States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1857—The Newell patents on coffee-cleaning machinery are issued in +America. Sixteen patents follow.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1857—George L. Squier, Buffalo, N.Y., begins the manufacture of +coffee-plantation machinery.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1859—John Gordon, London, is granted an English patent on a coffee +pulper.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1860[L]—Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java coffee, the pioneer +ground-coffee package, is put on the New York market by Lewis A. +Osborn.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1860—Marcus Mason, an American mechanical engineer in San José, +Costa Rica, invents the Mason pulper and cleaner.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1860—John Walker is granted a patent in England on a disk pulper +for pulping Arabian coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1860—Alexius Van Gulpen begins the manufacture of a +green-coffee-grading machine at Emmerich, Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1861—An import duty of four cents a pound on coffee is imposed by +the United States as a war-revenue measure.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1862—The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased +to five cents a pound.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1862—The first paper-bag factory in the United States, making bags +for loose coffee, begins operation in Brooklyn.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_731" id="Page_731">[Pg 731]</a></span>1862—E.J. Hyde, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent +on a combined coffee roaster and stove, fitted with a crane on +which the roasting cylinder is revolved and swung out horizontally +from the stove.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1864—Jabez Burns, New York, is granted a United States patent on +the Burns coffee roaster, the first machine that did not have to be +moved away from the fire for discharging the roasted +coffee—marking a distinct advance in the manufacture of +coffee-roasting apparatus.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1864—James Henry Thompson. Hoboken, and John Lidgerwood, +Morristown, N.J., are granted an English patent on a coffee-hulling +machine.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1865—John Arbuckle introduces to the trade at Pittsburgh roasted +coffee in individual packages, the forerunner of the Ariosa +package.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1866—William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, American chargé d'affaires, Rio +de Janeiro, is granted an English patent on a +coffee-hulling-and-cleaning machine.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1867—Jabez Burns is granted United States patents on a coffee +cooler, a coffee mixer, and a grinding mill, or granulator.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1868—Thomas Page, New York, begins the manufacture of a pull-out +coffee roaster similar to the Carter machine.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1868—Alexius Van Gulpen, in partnership with J.H. Lensing and +Theodore von Gimborn, begins the manufacture of coffee-roasting +machines at Emmerich, Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1868—E.B. Manning, Middletown, Conn., patents his tea-and-coffee +pot in the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1868—John Arbuckle is granted a United States patent for a +roasted-coffee coating consisting of Irish moss, isinglass, +gelatin, sugar, and eggs.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1869—Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet, New York, are granted three +United States patents on a coffee pot, or urn, formed of sheet +copper and lined with pure sheet block tin.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1869—B.G. Arnold, New York, engineers the first large green-coffee +speculation; his success as an operator winning for him the title +of King of the Coffee Trade.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1869—Henry E. Smyser, assignor to the Weikel & Smith Spice Co., +Philadelphia, is granted his first United States patent on a spice +box used also for coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1869—Licenses to sell coffee in London are abolished.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1869—The coffee-leaf disease is first noticed in Ceylon.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1870—John Gulick Baker, Philadelphia, one of the founders of the +Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania, is granted a patent +on a coffee grinder introduced to the trade by the Enterprise +Manufacturing Co. as its Champion No. 1 mill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1870—Delephine, Sr., Marourme, is granted a French patent on a +tubular coffee roaster that turns over the flame.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1870—Alexius Van Gulpen, Emmerich, Germany, brings out a globular +coffee roaster having perforations and an exhauster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1870—Thos. Smith & Son, Glasgow, Scotland, (Elkington & Co., +successors), begin the manufacture of the Napierian vacuum +coffee-making machines for brewing coffee by distillation.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1870—First United States trade-mark for essence of coffee is +registered by Butler, Earhart & Co., Columbus, Ohio.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1870—The first coffee-valorization enterprise in Brazil results in +failure.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1871—J.W. Gillies, New York, is granted two patents in the United +States for roasting and treating coffee by subjecting it to an +intervening cooling operation.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1871—First United States trade-mark for coffee is issued to +Butler, Earhart & Co., Columbus, Ohio, for Buckeye, first used +1870.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1871—G.W. Hungerford is granted United States patents on +coffee-cleaning-and-polishing machines.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1871—The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to +three cents a pound.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1872—Jabez Burns, New York, is granted a United States patent on +an improved coffee-granulating mill. Another in 1874.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1872—J. Guardiola, Chocola, Guatemala, is granted his first United +States patents on a coffee pulper and a coffee drier.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1872—The import duty on coffee in the United States is repealed.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1872—Robert Hewitt, Jr., New York, publishes the first American +work on coffee, <i>Coffee: Its History, Cultivation, and Uses</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—J.G. Baker, Philadelphia, assignor of the Enterprise +Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania, is granted a United States +patent on a grinding mill later known to the trade as Enterprise +Champion Globe No. 0.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—Marcus Mason begins the manufacture of coffee-plantation +machinery in the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—Ariosa, first successful national brand of package coffee is +put on the United States market by John Arbuckle of Pittsburgh. +(Registered 1900.)</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—H.C. Lockwood, Baltimore, is granted a United States patent +on a coffee package made of paper and lined with tin-foil, with +false bottom and top.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—The first international syndicate to control coffee is +organized in Frankfort, Germany, by the German Trading Company, and +operates successfully for eight years.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—The Jay Cooke stock-market panic causes the price of Rios in +the New York market to drop from twenty-four cents to fifteen cents +in one day.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—E. Dugdale, Griffin, Ga., is granted two United States +patents on coffee substitutes.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1873—The first "coffee palace," the Edinburgh Castle, designed to +replace public-houses for workingmen, is opened in London.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1874—John Arbuckle is granted a United States patent on a +coffee-cleaner-and-grader.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1875—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Guatemala.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1875–76–78—Turner Strowbridge, of New Brighton, Pa., is granted +three United States patents on a box coffee mill first made by +Logan & Strowbridge.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_732" id="Page_732">[Pg 732]</a></span>1876—John Manning brings out his valve-type percolator in the +United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1876–78—Henry B. Stevens, Buffalo, assignor to George L. Squier, +Buffalo, is granted important United States patents on +coffee-cleaning-and-grading machines.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1877—The first German patent on a commercial coffee roaster is +issued in Berlin to G. Tuberman's Son.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1877—A French patent is granted Marchand and Hignette, Paris, on a +sphere or ball coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1877—The first French patent on a gas coffee roaster is issued to +Roure of Marseilles.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1878—Coffee cultivation is introduced into British Central Africa.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1878—<i>The Spice Mill</i>, the first paper in America devoted to the +coffee and spice trades, is founded by Jabez Burns of New York.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1878—A United States patent is issued to Rudolphus L. Webb, +assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark of New Britain, Conn., on an +improved box coffee grinder for home use.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1878—Chase & Sanborn, the Boston coffee roasters, are the first to +pack and ship roasted coffee in sealed containers.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1878—John C. Dell, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent +on a coffee mill for store use.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1879—H. Faulder, Stockport, Lancaster, Eng., is granted an English +patent on the first English gas coffee roaster, now made by the +Grocers Engineering & Whitmee, Ltd.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1879—A new gas coffee roaster is invented in England by Fleury & +Barker.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1879—C.F. Hargreaves, Rio de Janeiro, is granted an English patent +on machinery for hulling, polishing, and separating coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1879—Charles Halstead, New York, is the first to bring out a metal +coffee pot with a china interior.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1879–80—Orson W. Stowe, of the Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co., +Southington, Conn., is granted United States patents on an improved +coffee and spice mill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880—Great failures in the American coffee trade as a result of +syndicate planting and buying of coffees in Brazil, Mexico, and +Central America.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880—Coffee pots with tops, having muslin bottoms for clarifying +and straining, are first made by Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co. in +the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880—Peter Pearson, Manchester, Eng., is granted a patent in +England on a coffee roaster wherein gas is substituted for coke as +fuel.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880—Henry E. Smyser, Philadelphia, is granted a United States +patent on a package-making-and-filling machine, forerunner of the +weighing-and-packing machine, the control of which by John Arbuckle +led to the coffee-sugar war with the Havemeyers.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880—Fancy paper bags for coffee are first used in Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880–81—G.W. and G.S. Hungerford are granted United States patents +on machines for cleaning, scouring, and polishing coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880–81—The first big coffee-trade combination in North America, +known as the "trinity" (O.G. Kimball, B.G. Arnold and Bowie Dash, +all of New York), has a sensational collapse, its failure being the +result of syndicate planting and buying of coffees in Brazil, +Mexico, and Central America.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—Steele & Price, Chicago, are the first to introduce all-paper +cans (made of strawboard) for coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—C.S. Phillips, Brooklyn, is granted three patents in the +United States for aging and maturing coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—The Emmericher Machinenfabrik und Eisengiesserei at Emmerich, +Germany, begins the manufacture of a closed globular roaster with a +gas-heater attachment.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—Jabez Burns is granted a United States patent on an improved +construction of his roaster, comprising a turn-over front head, +serving for both feeding and discharging.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—The Morgan brothers, Edgar H. and Charles, begin the +manufacture of household coffee mills, subsequently acquired (1885) +by the Arcade Manufacturing Co., Freeport, Ill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—Francis B. Thurber, New York, publishes the second important +American work on coffee, <i>Coffee from Plantation to Cup</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—Harvey Ricker, Brooklyn, introduces to the trade a "minute" +coffee pot and urn, known as the Boss, name subsequently changed to +Minute, and later improved and patented (1901) as the Half Minute +coffee pot—a filtration device employing a cotton sack with a +thick bottom.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1881—New York Coffee Exchange is incorporated.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1882—Chris. Abele, New York, is granted a atent in the United +States on an improvement on a coffee roaster, similar to the +original Burns machine (on which the 1864 patent had expired) known +as the Knickerbocker.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1882—The Hungerfords, father and son, bring out a coffee roaster, +similar to the first Burns machine, in competition with Chris. +Abele.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1882—A German patent is granted to Emil Newstadt, Berlin, on one +of the earliest coffee-extract-making machines.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1882—The first French coffee exchange, or terminal market, is +opened at Havre.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1882—New York Coffee Exchange begins business.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1883—The Burns Improved Sample Coffee Roaster is patented in the +United States by Jabez Burns.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1884—The Star coffee pot, later known as the Marion Harland, is +introduced to the trade.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1884—The Chicago Liquid Sack Co. introduces the first combination +paper and tin-end can for coffee in the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1885—F.A. Cauchois introduces into the United States market an +improved porcelain-lined coffee urn.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1885—Property of New York Coffee Exchange is transferred to the +Coffee Exchange, City of New York, incorporated by special charter.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1880—Walker, Sons & Co., Ltd., begin experiments in Ceylon with a +Liberian disk coffee pulper; fully perfected in 1898.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1886–88—The "great coffee boom" forces the price of Rio 7's from +seven and a half to twenty-two and a quarter cents, the subsequent +panic reducing the price to nine cents. Total sales on the New York +Coffee Exchange.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_733" id="Page_733">[Pg 733]</a></span>1887–88, amount to 47,868,750 bags; and prices advance 1,485 +points during 1886–87.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1887—Beeston Tupholme, London, is granted a patent in England on a +direct-flame gas coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1887—Coffee cultivation is introduced into Tonkin, Indo-China.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1887—Coffee exchanges are opened in Amsterdam and Hamburg.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1888—Evaristo Conrado Engelberg, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, is +granted a United States patent on a coffee-hulling machine +(invented in 1885); and the same year, the Engelberg Huller Co., +Syracuse, N.Y., is organized for the purpose of manufacturing and +selling Engelberg machines.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1888—Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted a +patent in Spain on a direct-flame gas coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1888—A French patent is granted to Postulart on a gas roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1889—David Fraser, who came to the United States in 1886 from +Glasgow, Scotland, establishes the Hungerford Co., succeeding to +the business of the Hungerfords.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1889—The Arcade Manufacturing Co., Freeport, Ill., brings out the +first "pound" coffee mill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1889—Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted patents +in Belgium, France, and England, on his direct-flame gas coffee +roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1889—C.A. Otto is granted a German patent on a spiral-coil gas +coffee machine to roast coffee in three and a half minutes.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1890—A. Mottant, Bar-le-Duc, France, begins the manufacture of +coffee-roasting machines.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1890[L]—Coffee exchanges are opened in Antwerp, London, and +Rotterdam.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1890—Sigmund Kraut begins the manufacture of fancy grease-proof +paper-lined coffee bags in Berlin.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1891—The New England Automatic Weighing Machine Co., Boston, +begins the manufacture of machines to weigh coffee into cartons and +other packages.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1891—R.F.E. O'Krassa; Antigua, Guatemala, is granted an important +English patent on a machine for pulping coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1891—John List, Black Heath, Kent, Eng., is granted an English +patent on a steam coffee urn described as an improvement on the +Napierian system.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1892—T. von Gimborn, Emmerich, Germany, is granted an English +patent on a coffee roaster employing a naked gas flame in a rotary +cylinder.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1892—The Fried. Krupp A.G. Grusonwerk, Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, +begins the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1893—Cirilo Mingo, New Orleans, is granted a United States patent +on a process for maturing, or aging, green coffee beans by +moistening the bags.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1893—The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America +(Tupholme's English machine) is installed by F.T. Holmes at the +plant of the Potter-Parlin Co., New York, which places similar +machines on daily rental basis throughout the United States, +limiting leases to one firm in a city, obtaining exclusive American +rights from the Waygood, Tupholme Co., now the Grocers Engineering +& Whitmee, Ltd., London.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1893—Karel F. Hennemann, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted a +United States patent on his direct-flame gas coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1894—The first automatic weighing machine to weigh goods in +cartons is installed in the plant of Chase & Sanborn, Boston.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1894—Joseph M. Walsh, Philadelphia, publishes his <i>Coffee; Its +History, Classification and Description</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1895—Gerritt C. Otten and Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, +Netherlands, are granted a United States patent on a coffee +roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1895—Adolph Kraut introduces German-made double (grease-proof +lined) paper bags for coffee in America.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1895—Marcus Mason, assignor to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, is +granted United States patents on machines for pulping and polishing +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1895—Thomas M. Royal, Philadelphia, is the first to manufacture in +the United States a fancy duplex-lined paper bag.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1895—Édelestan Jardin publishes in Paris a work on coffee, +entitled <i>Le Caféier et le Café</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1895—The Electric Scale Co., Quincy, Mass., begins the manufacture +of pneumatic weighing machines; business continued by the Pneumatic +Scale Corp., Ltd., Norfolk Downs, Mass.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1896—Natural gas is first used in the United States as fuel for +roasting, being introduced under coal roasting cylinders in +Pennsylvania and Indiana by improvised gas-burners.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1896–1897—Beeston Tupholme is granted United States patents on his +direct-flame gas coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1897—Joseph Lambert of Vermont begins the manufacture and sale in +Battle Creek, Mich., of the Lambert self-contained coffee roaster +without the brick setting then required for coffee roasting +machines.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1897—A special gas burner (made the basis of application for +patent) is first attached to a regular Burns roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1897—The Enterprise Manufacturing Co., Pennsylvania, is the first +regularly to employ electric motors for driving commercial coffee +mills by means of belt-and-pulley attachments.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1897—Carl H. Duehring, Hoboken, N.J., assignor to D.B. Fraser, New +York, is granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1898—The Hobart Manufacturing Co., Troy, Ohio, puts on the market +one of the first coffee grinders connected with an electric motor +and driven by a belt-and-pulley attachment.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1898—Millard F. Hamsley, Brooklyn, is granted a United States +patent on an improved direct-flame gas coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1898—Edwin Norton of New York is granted a United States patent on +a vacuum process of canning foods, later applied to coffee. Others +follow.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1898—J.D. Olavarria, a distinguished Venezuelan, first advocates a +plan for restriction of coffee production, and for regulation of +coffee exports from countries suffering from overproduction.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_734" id="Page_734">[Pg 734]</a></span>1898—A bear campaign forces Rio 7's down to four and a half cents +on the New York Coffee Exchange.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1899—The bubonic-plague boom temporarily halts the downward trend +of coffee prices.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1899—The Canister Co., Phillipsburg, N.J., begins the manufacture +of square and oblong fiber-bodied tin-end cans for coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1899—Soluble coffee is invented in Chicago by Dr. Sartori Kato, a +chemist of Tokio.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1899—David B. Fraser, New York, is granted two patents in the +United States, one for a coffee roaster and one for a coffee +cooler.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1899—Ellis M. Potter, New York, is granted a United States patent +on a direct-flame gas coffee roasting machine embodying certain +improvements on the Tupholme machine, whereby the gas flame is +spread over a large area, so avoiding scorching and securing a more +thorough and uniform roast.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—The Burns direct-flame gas coffee roaster with a patented +swing-gate head for feeding and discharging at the center, is first +introduced to the trade.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—First gear-driven electric coffee grinder is introduced into +the United States market by the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of +Pennsylvania.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—The Burns swing-gate sample-coffee roasting outfit is +patented in the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—Hills Bros., San Francisco, are the first to pack coffee in a +vacuum under the Norton patents.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—Charles Morgan, Freeport, Ill., is granted a United States +patent on a glass-jar coffee mill, with removable glass measuring +cup.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—R.F.E. O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted an English +and a United States patents on machines for shelling and drying +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—Chemically purified and neutralized rosin as a glaze +(<i>harz-glasur</i>) for roasted coffee, designed to keep it fresh and +palatable, is first discovered and applied in Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900—Charles Lewis is granted a United States patent on his Kin +Hee filter coffee pot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1900–1901—A new era in coffee is inaugurated when Santos +permanently displaces Rio as the world's largest source of supply.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—Kato's soluble coffee is put on the United States market by +the Kato Coffee Company at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—American Can Co. begins the manufacture and sale of tin +coffee cans in the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—Improved all-paper cans for coffee (made of strawboard or +chip-board, plain or manila-lined) are introduced into the United +States market by J.H. Kuechenmeister of St. Louis.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—The first issue of <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i>, +devoted to the interests of the tea and coffee trades, appears in +New York.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—Coffee cultivation is introduced into British East Africa +from Réunion Island.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—Robert Burns of New York is granted two United States patents +on a coffee roaster and cooler.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—Joseph Lambert of Marshall, Mich., introduces to the trade in +the United States a gas coffee roaster, one of the earliest +machines employing gas as fuel for indirect roasting.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—T.C. Morewood, Brentford, Middlesex, Eng., is granted an +English patent on a gas coffee roaster with a removable sampling +tube.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—F.T. Holmes joins the Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver +Creek, N.Y., which then begins to build the Monitor coffee roaster +for the trade.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1901—Landers, Frary & Clark's Universal percolator is patented in +the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1902—The Coles Manufacturing Co. (Braun Co., successors) and Henry +Troemner, Philadelphia, begin the manufacture and sale of +gear-driven electric coffee grinders.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1902—The Pan-American Congress, meeting in Mexico City, proposes +an international congress for the study of coffee, to meet in New +York, October, 1902.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1902—An international coffee congress is held in New York, October +1 to October 30.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1902—<i>Robusta</i> coffee is introduced into Java from the Jardin +Botanique at Brussels.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1902—The first fancy duplex paper bag made by machinery from a +roll of paper is produced by the Union Bag & Paper Corp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1902—The Jagenberg Machine Co. begins the introduction into the +United States of a line of German-made automatic +packaging-and-labeling machines for coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1902—T.K. Baker, Minneapolis, is granted two United States patents +on a cloth-filter coffee maker.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1903—A United States patent on a coffee concentrate and process of +making the same (soluble coffee) is granted to Sartori Kato of +Chicago, assignor to the Kato Coffee Company of Chicago.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1903—F.A. Cauchois introduces Coffey's soluble coffee to the +United States coffee trade, the product being ground roasted coffee +mixed with sugar and reduced to a powder.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1903—Overproduction in Brazil causes Santos 4's to drop to 3.55 +cents on the New York Exchange, the lowest price ever recorded for +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1903—John Arbuckle, New York, is granted a United States patent on +a coffee-roasting apparatus, employing a fan to force the "hot fire +gases" into the roasting cylinder.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1903—George C. Lester, New York, is granted a United States patent +on an electric coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1904—Dr. E. Denekamp is granted a United States patent on a rosin +glaze for roasted coffee, designed to preserve its flavor and +aroma.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1904—The so-called "cotton crowd," under the leadership of D.J. +Sully, forces green-coffee prices up to 11.85 cents, all records +for business on the New York Coffee Exchange being smashed by the +sale of over a million bags on February 5.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1904—Sigmund Sternau, J.P. Steppe, and L. Strassberger, assignors +to S. Sternau & Co., New York, are granted a United States patent +on a coffee percolator.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1904–05—Douglas Gordon, assignor to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, +is granted United States patents on a coffee pulper and a coffee +drier.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_735" id="Page_735">[Pg 735]</a></span>1905—The A.J. Deer Co., Buffalo (now at Hornell, N.Y.), begins +the sale of its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers, on +the instalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling +coffee mills through the hardware jobbers.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1905—The Henneman direct-flame gas coffee roaster, a Dutch +machine, is introduced into the United States market by C.A. Cross, +Fitchburg, Mass.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1905—H.L. Johnston is granted a United States patent on a coffee +mill which he assigns to the Hobart Manufacturing Co., Troy, Ohio.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1905—Frederick A. Cauchois introduces his Private Estate coffee +maker, a filtration device employing Japanese filter paper.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1905—Finley Acker, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent +on a coffee percolator, employing "porous or bibulous paper" as a +filtering medium and having side perforations.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1905—A coffee exchange is opened in Trieste, Austria-Hungary.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1905—The Kaffee-Handels Aktiengesellschaft, Bremen, is granted a +German patent on a process for freeing coffee from caffein.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1906—H.D. Kelly, Kansas City, Mo., is granted a United States +patent on the Kellum Thermo Automatic coffee urn, employing a +coffee extractor in which the ground coffee is continually agitated +before percolation by a vacuum process. Sixteen patents follow.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1906—G. Washington, an American chemist (born in Belgium of +English parents), living temporarily in Guatemala City, invents a +refined (soluble) coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1906—Frank T. Holmes, Brooklyn (assignor to the Huntley +Manufacturing Co.), is granted a patent for an improvement on a +coffee-roasting machine.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1906—Captain Moegling's electric-fuel coffee roaster, invented in +1900, is given a practical demonstration in Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1906—Ludwig Schmidt, assignor to the Essmueller Mill Furnishing +Co., St. Louis, is granted a United States patent on a coffee +roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1906–07—Brazil produces a record-breaking crop of 20,190,000 bags, +and the State of São Paulo inaugurates a plan to valorize coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1907—The Pure Food and Drugs Act comes into force in the United +States, making it obligatory to label all coffees correctly.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1907—Desiderio Pavoni, Milan, is granted a patent in Italy for an +improvement on the Bezzara system of preparing and serving coffee +as a rapid infusion of a single cup.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1907—P.E. Edtbauer (Mrs. E. Edtbauer), Chicago, is granted a +United States patent on a duplex automatic weighing machine, the +first simple, fast, accurate, and moderate-priced machine for +weighing coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908—Dr. John Friederick Meyer, Jr., Ludwig Roselius, and Karl +Heinrich Wimmer, are granted a United States patent on a process +for freeing coffee of caffein.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908—Brazil begins a propaganda for coffee in England by +subsidizing an English company organized for that purpose.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908—Porto Rico coffee planters present a memorial to the Congress +of the United States asking for a protective tariff of six cents a +pound on all foreign coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908—The revivification of the valorization coffee enterprise is +accomplished by a combination of bankers and the Brazil Government, +with a loan of $75,000,000 placed through Hermann Sielcken with +banking houses in England, Germany, France, Belgium, and the United +States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908—J.C. Prims, of Battle Creek. Mich., patents a +corrugated-cylinder improvement for a gas-and-coal coffee roaster +of small capacity (50 to 130 pounds) designed for retail stores.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908—An improved type of Burns roaster, comprising an open +perforated cylinder with flexible back head and balanced front +bearing, is granted a patent in the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908—I.D. Richheimer, Chicago, introduces his Tricolator, an +improved device employing Japanese filter paper.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1908–11—R.F.E. O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted several +English patents on machines for hulling, washing, drying, and +separating coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1909—The G. Washington refined (prepared) soluble coffee is put on +the United States market.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1909—The A.J. Deer Co. acquires the Prims coffee roaster and +re-introduces it to the trade as the Royal coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1909—The Burns tilting sample-coffee roaster is patented in the +United States for gas or electric heating units.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1909—Frederick A. Cauchois of New York is granted a United States +patent on a coffee urn fitted with a centrifugal pump for +repouring.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1909—C.F. Blanke, St. Louis, is granted two United States patents +on a china coffee pot with a dripper bag.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1910—The German caffein-free coffee is first introduced to the +trade of the United States by Merck & Co., New York, under the +brand name Dekafa, later changed to Dekofa.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1910—B. Belli publishes in Milan, Italy, a work on coffee entitled +<i>Il Caffè</i>.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1910—Frank Bartz, assignor to the A.J. Deer Co., Hornell, N.Y., is +granted two United States patents on flat and concave +coffee-grinding disks provided with concentric rows of inclined +teeth, used in electric coffee mills.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1911—All-fiber parchment-lined Damptite cans for coffee are +introduced by the American Can Company.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1911—The coffee roasters of the United States organize into a +national association.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1911—Robert H. Talbutt, Baltimore (assignor to J.E. Baines, +trustee, Washington) is granted a United States patent on an +electric coffee roaster.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1911—Edward Aborn, New York, introduces his Make-Right coffee +filter, and is granted a United States patent on it.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1912—Robert O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted four United +States patents on machines for washing, drying, separating, +hulling, and polishing coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1912—The C.F. Blanke Tea & Coffee Co., St. Louis, brings out Magic +Cup, later known as Faust Soluble, coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_736" id="Page_736">[Pg 736]</a></span>1912—The United States government brings suit to force the sale +of coffee stocks held in the United States under the valorization +agreement.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1912—John E. King, Detroit, is granted a United States patent on +an improved coffee percolator employing a filter-paper attachment.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1913—F.F. Wear, Los Angeles, Cal., perfects a coffee-making device +in which a metal perforated clamp is employed to apply a filter +paper to the under side of an English earthenware adaptation of the +French drip pot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1913—F. Lehnhoff Wyld, Guatemala City, and E.T. Cabarrus organize +the "Société du Café Soluble Belna," Brussels, Belgium, to put on +the European market a refined soluble coffee under the brand name +Belna.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1913—Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Hobart Electric +Manufacturing Co., Troy, Ohio, is granted a United States patent on +a machine for refining coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1914—The Association Nationale du Commerce des Cafés is +established at 5 Place Jules Ferry, Havre, to protect the interests +of the coffee trade of all France.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1914—The Kaffee Hag Corporation, capital $1,000,000, is organized +in New York to continue marketing in the United States the German +caffein-free coffee under its original German brand name.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1914—Robert Burns of New York, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, is +granted a United States patent on a coffee-granulating mill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1914—The Phylax coffee maker, employing an improved French-drip +principle, is introduced to the trade by the Phylax Coffee Maker +Co., Detroit (succeeded in 1922 by the Phylax Company of +Pennsylvania).</p> + +<p class="hang1">1914—The first national coffee week is promoted in the United +States by the National Coffee Roasters Association.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1914–15—Herbert Galt, Chicago, is granted three United States +patents on the Galt coffee pot, all aluminum, having two parts, a +removable cylinder employing the French-drip principle, and the +containing pot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1915—The Burns Jubilee (inner-heated) gas coffee roaster is +patented in the United States and put on the market.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1915—The National Coffee Roasters Association Home coffee mill, +employing a set screw operating on a cog-and-ratchet principle, is +introduced to the trade.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1915—The second national coffee week is held in the United States +under the auspices of the National Coffee Roasters Association.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—The Federal Tin Co. begins the manufacture of tin coffee +containers for use in connection with automatic packing machines.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—The National Paper Can Co., Milwaukee, introduces to the +United States trade a new hermetically sealed all-paper can for +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—A United States patent is granted to I.D. Richheimer, +Chicago, for an improvement on his Tricolator.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—The Coffee Trade Association, London, is formed to include +brokers, merchants, and wholesale dealers.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—The Coffee Exchange, City of New York, changes its name to +the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, admitting sugar trading.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—Saul Blickman, assignor to S. Blickman, New York, is granted +a United States patent on an apparatus for making and dispensing +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—Orville W. Chamberlain, New Orleans, is granted a United +States patent on an automatic drip coffee pot.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916—Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind., is granted two United States +patents on cutting-rolls to cut, and not to grind or crush, coffee, +later marketed by the B.F. Gump Co., Chicago, as the Ideal +steel-cut coffee mill.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1916–17—The first hermetically-sealed all-paper cans for coffee +are introduced to the United States trade, patented in 1919 by the +National Paper Can Co., Milwaukee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1917—The Baker Importing Co., Minneapolis and New York, puts on +the United States market Barrington Hall soluble coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1917—Richard A. Greene and William G. Burns, New York, assignors +to Jabez Burns & Sons, are granted patents in the United States on +the Burns flexible-arm cooler (for roasted batches), providing full +fan-suction connection to a cooler box at all points in its track +travel.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1918—John E. King, Detroit, Mich., is granted a United States +patent on an irregular-grind of coffee, consisting of coarsely +grinding ten percent of the product and finely grinding ninety +percent.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1918—The Charles G. Hires Co., Philadelphia, brings out Hires +soluble coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1918—I.D. Richheimer, promoter of the original soluble coffee of +Kato, and the Kato patent, organizes the Soluble Coffee Company of +America to supply soluble coffee to the American army overseas; +after the armistice, licensing other merchants under the Kato +patents, or offering to process the merchants' own coffee for them, +if desired.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1918—The United States government places coffee importers, +brokers, jobbers, roasters, and wholesalers under a war-time +licensing system to control imports and prices.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1918–19—The United States government coffee control results in the +accumulation at Brazil ports of more than 9,000,000 bags; in spite +of which, Brazil speculators force Brazil grades up 75 to 100 +percent., costing United States traders millions of dollars.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1919—The Kaffee Hag Corporation becomes Americanized by the sale +of 5,000 shares of its stock sold by the alien property custodian +and by the purchase of the remaining 5,000 shares by George Gund, +Cleveland, Ohio.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1919—William A. Hamor and Charles W. Trigg, Pittsburgh, Pa., +assignors to John E. King, Detroit, Mich., are granted a United +States patent on a process for making a new soluble coffee. The +process consists in bringing the volatilized caffeol in contact +with a petrolatum absorbing medium, where it is held until needed +for combination with the evaporated coffee extract.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1919—Floyd W. Robison, Detroit, is granted a United States patent +on a process for aging green coffee by treating it with +micro-organisms to improve its flavor and to increase its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_737" id="Page_737">[Pg 737]</a></span> +extractive value. The product is put on the market as Cultured +coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1919—William Fullard, Philadelphia, is granted a United States +patent on a "heated fresh air system" for roasting coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1919—A million-dollar propaganda for coffee is begun in the United +States by Brazil planters in co-operation with a joint coffee-trade +publicity committee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1920—The third national coffee week is observed in the United +States, this time under the auspices of the Joint Coffee Trade +Publicity Committee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1920—Edward Aborn, New York, is granted a United States patent on +a Tru-Bru coffee pot, a device embodying striking improvements on +the French filter principle.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1920—Alfredo M. Salazar, New York, is granted a United States +patent on a coffee urn in which the coffee is made at the time of +serving by using steam pressure to force the boiling water through +the ground coffee held in a cloth sack attached to the faucet.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1920—William H. Pisani, assignor to M.J. Brandenstein & Co., San +Francisco, is granted a United States patent on a vacuum process +for packing roasted coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1921—The Comité Français du Café is founded in France to increase +the consumption of coffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1">1922—The São Paulo legislature at the solicitation of the +Sociedade Promotora da Defeza do Café passes a bill increasing the +export tax on coffee from Santos to 200 reis per bag to continue +the propaganda for coffee in the United States for three years.</p> + +<p class="hang1">[L] Approximate Date.</p> + +<p class="hang1">[M] Legendary.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_738" id="Page_738">[Pg 738]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="A_COFFEE_BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="A_COFFEE_BIBLIOGRAPHY"></a>A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"><i>A list of references gathered from the principal general and +scientific libraries—Arranged in alphabetic order of topics</i></p><br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="4" summary="Topics and Subdivisions"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'>TOPICS AND SUBDIVISIONS</td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Adulteration</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Diseases and Enemies</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Physiological Effects</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Board of Health Regulations</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">General Works</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">OF DIFFERENT CONSTITUENTS</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Botanical Description</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Literature, Poetry, Romance</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">OF GREEN COFFEE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chemistry</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Manufacturing Processes</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">OF LEAVES OF COFFEE TREE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">ANALYSIS, GENERAL</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">BREWING</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">OF ROASTED COFFEE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">CAFFEIN</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">GLAZING</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">OF SMOKING COFFEE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">CAFFEIN-FREE COFFEE</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">MISCELLANEOUS</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">ON CHILDREN</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">CAFFEOL</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">MODIFICATIONS</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">ON DIFFERENT ORGANS AND SYSTEMS</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">GREEN COFFEE</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">POLISHING AND COLORING</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Substitutes</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">ROASTED COFFEE</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">ROASTING AND GRINDING</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">GENERAL</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chicory</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Medicinal Qualities and Uses</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">MALT COFFEE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">CHICORY IN COFFEE</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">ANTISEPTIC AND DISINFECTANT</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Taxation, Jurisprudence, Etc.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Coffee Houses</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">GENERAL</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Trade and Statistics</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Culture and Preparation</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Physiological Effects</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">EXCHANGE TABLES</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">GENERAL</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">GENERAL USE AND MISUSE</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">GENERAL</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">REGIONAL</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">OF CAFFEIN-FREE COFFEE</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">REGIONAL</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">SOILS</span></td> + <td class='tdlpl1'><span class="ampm">OF CHEWING COFFEE</span></td> + <td align='left'><span class="smcap">Valorization</span></td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="center"><br />ADULTERATION</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Adulteration</span> of coffee. Report of the proceedings of a public +meeting held at the London Tavern, March 10, 1851. <i>London</i>, 1851.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dafert, Franz W.</span> Las sustancias minerales del cafeto. <i>San José</i>, +1896. 33 pp. <i>Also</i>, Anales del Instituto médico nacional, 1897, +III: 25, 41, 62, 78.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Graham, T.</span> and others. Chemical report on the mode of detecting +vegetable substances mixed with coffee for purposes of +adulteration. <i>London</i>, 1852. 22 pp. (Board of Inland Revenue).</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Les Fraudes</span> du café dévoilées per un amateur. <i>Paris.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Simmonds, P.L.</span> Coffee as it is and as it ought to be. <i>London</i>, +1850.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bertarelli, E.</span> Su una sofisticazione del caffè torrefatto mediante +aggiunta di acqua e borace. Giornale di Farmacia, 1900, 338–343. +<i>Also</i>, Rivista d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1900, XI: 467–472.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Caballero, F.G.</span> Inconvenientes del uso del café puro y del que se +toma con léche; sofisticacion de los componentes de esta bebida, +etc. Boletin de Medicina y Cirugia, 1851, 2 ser. I: 177–185.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Casaña, J.</span> Acerca del producto llamado legumina y sofisticaciones +del café. Anales de la real Academia de Medicina, 1905, XXX: +359–364.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chiappella, A.R.</span> Il caffè macinato che si consuma in +Firenze—Alcune sofisticazioni non ancora descritte. Annali +d'Igiene sperimentale, 1904, n. s. XIV: 427–448.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Le sofisticazioni del caffè che si consuma in Firenze. Società +toscana d'Igiene, 1905, n. s. V: 110–116.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chevallier, J.B.</span> Café indigène. Annales d'Hygiène, 1853, XLIX: +408–412.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> and its adulterations. Lancet, 1851, I: 21, 465; 1853, I: +390, 477; 1857, I: 195. <i>Also</i>, Pharmaceutical Journal, 10: +394–396.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Collin, E.</span> Del caffè e sue falsificazioni. Giornale di Farmacia, di +Chimica e di Scienze affini, 1879, XXVIII: 529–535; 1880, XXIX: +20–22.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coriel, F.</span> Analyse d'un café artificiel torréfié. Journal de +Pharmacie et de Chimie, 1897, 6. ser. VI: 106–108.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cribb, C.H.</span> Note on (1) samples of coffee containing added starch; +(2) a sample of artificial coffee berries. Analyst, 1902, XXVII: +114–116.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Crombie, S.</span> Examination of ground coffee as found in shops. +Physician and Surgeon, <i>Ann Arbor</i>, 1882, IV: 401.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Doolittle, R.E.</span> Coffee sophistications. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXIII: Supplement to no. 6, 62–65.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Draper, J.C.</span> Coffee and its adulterations. New York Academy of +Medicine. Bulletin, 1869, III: 210–218.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dubrisay.</span> Falsifications des cafés, procédés employés à cet effet; +moyens de reconnaître et de reprimer la fraude. Recueil des travaux +du Comité consultatif d'Hygiène publique de France, 1888, XVIII: +19–33.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ducros, H.A.</span> De quelques falsifications du café Moka. Institute +égypt. Bulletin, 1901, 4. ser. pp. 293–306.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Edson, C.</span> Report on colored imitation Java coffee. Sanitary +Engineer, 1883–4, IX: 614.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_739" id="Page_739">[Pg 739]</a></span><span class="smcap">Estudio</span> del cafeto. Anales del Instituto médico nacional, 1897, +III: 139–144.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Falsification</span> du café. Annales d'Hygiène, 1864, 2. ser. XXII: +437–443.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fricke, E.</span> Neuere Kaffeeverfälschung. Zeitschrift für +Medizinalbeamte, 1889, II: 178.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Girardin, J.</span> Rapports sur un café avarié par l'eau de mer et sur +poudre destinée à remplacer le café. Annales d'Hygiène, 1834, XI: +87–103.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Griebel, C.</span> and <span class="smcap">Bergmann, E.</span> Ueber eine neue Kaffeeverfälschung. +Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, +XXI: 481–484.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harnack, E.</span> Ueber die besonderen Eigenarten des Kaffeegetränkes und +das Thurmsche Verfahren zur Kaffeereinigung und verbesserung. +Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1911, LVIII: 1868–1872.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harris, William B.</span> Green and roast coffees, the adulteration and +misbranding thereof. American Grocer, 1913, Nov. 19, pp. 19–20.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hesse, P.</span> Ueber eine Kaffeefarbe. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der +Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911 XXI: 220.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jammes, L.</span> Le café torréfié, en grains, factice. Revue d'Hygiène, +1890, XII: 1044–1050.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mocha</span> coffee. Scientific American, 1903, LXXXIX: 81.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Munita, V.</span> Apuntes acerca de las adulteraciones del café y medios +para reconocerlas. La Gaceta de Sanidad militar, 1883, IX: 286, +394.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nottbohm, F.E.</span> and <span class="smcap">Koch, E.</span> Arsenhaltige Kaffeeglasierungsmittel. +Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, +XXI: 288–290.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ottolenghi, D.</span> Sopra una frequente sofistcazione del caffé in +polyere. Atti della reale Accademia dei Fisiocritici di Siena, +1903, 4. ser. XV: 381–389.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Parecer</span> do commissão encarregada pela Sociedade pharmaceutica +lusitana de investigar se uma determinada èspecie de café é +prejudicial á saude 185. <i>Also</i>, Correio medica de Lisboa, 1874, +III: 136, 147.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Raumer, E. von.</span> Beobachtungen über Kaffeeglasuren seit dem +Inkrafttreten der Kaffeesteuer. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der +Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 102–109.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Reiss, F.</span> Ueber eine mechanische Verfälschung der Kaffeesahne. +Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906, +XI: 391–393.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Soccianti, L.</span> Caffè adulteraro con sostanze nocive. Rivista +d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1895, VI: 497–499.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sormani.</span> Di un nuova falsificazione del caffè. Giornale della reale +Società italiana d'Igiene, 1882, IV: 401.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Spencer, G.L.</span> and <span class="smcap">Ewell, E.E.</span> Tea, coffee, and cocoa preparations. +U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Division of Chemistry. Bulletin, XIII, +pt. 7.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Various</span> "coffees." Lancet, 1915, II: 1006.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Vogel von Ferheim, A.</span> Zur Frage der Zulässigkeit der Verwendung der +sagenannten tauben oder Strohfeigen bei der Feigen +Kaffeefabrikation. Oesterreichische Sanitätswesen, 1903, XV: +101–102.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wiechmann, F.</span> Coffee and its adulterations. School of Mines +Quarterly, 1897–8, I: 8–15.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />BOARD OF HEALTH REGULATIONS</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schneider.</span> Der Kaffee, als Gegenstand der medicinischen Polizei. +Zeitschrift für die Staatsarzneikunde, 1829, IV: 303–327.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schütze.</span> Kaffee, Thee und Chocolade, als Nahrungsmittel und in +sanitäts-polizeilicher Hinsicht. Viertel jahrsschrift für +gerichtliche Medizin und öffentliches Sanitätswesen, 1860, XVII: +168–228.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weitenweber, W.R.</span> Medicinisch-poliseiliche Bemerkungen über den +Caffee. Medicinische Jahrbücher des kaiserl. königl. +österreichischen Staates, 1848, LXVI: 42, 151.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffea</span> <i>stenophylla</i>. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. +Information, 1898:27.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cook, Orator Fuller.</span> Dimorphic branches in tropical crop plants: +cotton, coffee, cacao, the Central American rubber tree, and the +banana. <i>Washington</i>, 1911. 64 pp. (U.S. Plant Industry Bureau. +Bulletin, 198.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dafert, Franz W.</span> Mittheilung aus dem Landwirthschaftsinstitut des +Staates São Paulo, Brasilien. Der Nahrstoff des Kaffeebaumes. +Landw. Jahrb. 1894, XXIII:27–45.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Douglas, James.</span> Lilium sarniense: or, a description of the +Guernsay-lilly. To which is added the botanical dissection of the +coffee berry. <i>London</i>, 1725. 59 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">LaRoque, Jean.</span> Voyage de l'arabie heureuse, par l'Ocean Oriental, & +le détroit de la Mer Rouge. Fait par les François dans les années +1708, 1709 and 1710. Avec la relation d'un voyage fait du port de +Moka à la cour du roy d'Yemen dans la 2. Expedition des années +1711, 1712 and 1713. Un mémoire concernant l'arbre et le fruit du +café. <i>Paris</i>, 1716. 403 pp. Also in English, <i>London</i>, 1726.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">La Roque.</span> Gruendliche und sichere Nachricht vom Cafee- und +Cafee-Baum. <i>Leipzig</i>, 1717.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Liberian</span> coffee. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. +Information, 1895:296–299.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McClelland, T.B.</span> The botany of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXII:28–35.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mariana, J.</span> Les caféiers; structure anatomique de la feuille. +<i>Paris</i>, 1908.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Natural</span> caffein-free coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, +XXIII:230–233.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Natural</span> history of coffee, thee, chocolate, tobacco with a tract of +elder and juniper berries. <i>London</i>, 1682.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">A New</span> hybrid Ceylon coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, +XXX; 232–233.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sloane</span>, Sir <span class="smcap">Hans.</span> On the Bird the Cuntur of Peru and on the Coffee +Shrub. <i>London</i>, 1694.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wildeman, É. de.</span> Notes sur quelques espèces du genre Coffea L. +Cong, internat. d. botanique. Actes, 1900, I:221–238.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />CHEMISTRY</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Analysis, General</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Allen, A.H.</span> Commercial organic analysis. <i>London</i>, 1892, (v. 3 pt. +2 contains a chapter on vegetable alkaloids, including coffee.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Andalori, André.</span> Il café descritto ed esaminato. <i>Messine</i>, 1702.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boussingault, J.B.J.D.</span> Sur les matières sucrées contenues dans le +fruit du caféier. Ann. Inst. Nat. Agron., 1878–79, IV: 1–4.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Caffè di Girasole</span>: analisi chemiche, consigli agronomici, etc. +<i>Padova</i>, 1881.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> and chicory. Science readers and diagrams. Ser. 6, no. 3.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Galeano, Joseph.</span> Il caffè, con piu diligenza esaminato. <i>Palerme</i>, +1674.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_740" id="Page_740">[Pg 740]</a></span><span class="smcap">Griebel, C.</span> Ueber den Kaffeegerbstoff. <i>München</i>, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">König, J.</span> Chemie der menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. 4th +ed. <i>Berlin</i>, 1904. See v. 2, index for Kaffee, Koffeïn.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Locke, Edwin A.</span> Food values. <i>New York</i>, 1911. Coffee analysed p. +54.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lythgoe, Hermann Charles.</span> Report on tea and coffee. <i>Washington</i>, +1905.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marchand, N.L.</span> Recherches organographiques et organogéniques sur le +Coffea arabica L. <i>Paris</i>, 1864.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sestini, J.</span> Il caffé; lettura fatta nell' institutio tecnico di +Fochi. <i>Firenze</i>, 1868.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Standards</span> of purity for food products. Tea, coffee and cocoa +products. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of the Secretary. Circ. +19, p. 16.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Thorpe, Edward.</span> Dictionary of applied chemistry. <i>London and New +York</i>, 1912. See pp. 97–103.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wanklyn, James Alfred.</span> Tea, coffee, and cocoa: a practical treatise +on the analysis of tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, maté (Paraguay +tea). <i>London</i>, 1874. 59 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Warnier, W.L.A.</span> Bijerage tot de kennis der koffie, mededeeling uit +het laboratorium van het Kolonial museum te Haarlem. <i>Amsterdam</i>, +1899. 23 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weyrich, R.</span> Ein Beitrag zur Chemie des Thees und Kaffees. <i>Dorpat</i>, +1872.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wiley, H.W.</span> Coffee and tea. In his, 1001 Tests of food, beverages +and toilet accessories, pp. 10–18.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Winton, Andrew L.</span> The microscopy of coffee. In his, Microscopy of +vegetable foods, <i>New York</i>, 1916. 2 ed. pp. 427–438. Reprinted, +Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, XXI: 22–28.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Allen, A.H.</span> Note on the examination of coffee. Analyst, 1880, V: +1–4.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bau, A.</span> The determination of oxalic acid in tea, coffee, marmalade, +vegetables and bread. Z. Nahr. Genussm, 1920, 40: 50–66.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bertrand, Gabriel.</span> Sur la composition chimique du café de la Grande +Comore. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1901, CXXXII: +162–164.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Binz, C.</span> Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Kaffeebestandtheile. Archiv für +experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1878, IX: 31–51.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bötsch, K.</span> Zur Kenntniss der Saligeninderivate. Monatshefte für +Chemie (Sitzungs berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der +Wissenschaften) 1880, I: 621–623.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Canada (Dominion). Inland Revenue Department Laboratory.</span> Coffee: +results of analysis. <i>Ottawa</i>, 1888. Bulletin, 3. 8 pp.; 1891, +Bulletin, 29. 19 pp.; 1892, Bulletin 31. 13 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Ground coffee: results of analysis. <i>Ottawa</i>, 1904, Bulletin, +100. 7 pp.; 1909, Bulletin, 172. 37 pp.; 1910, Bulletin, 216. 22 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cazeneuve, P.</span> and <span class="smcap">Haddon</span>. Sur l'acide cafétannique. Comptes rendus +de l'Académie des Sciences, 1897, CXXIV: 1458–1460.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Charaux, Charles.</span> Sur l'acide chlorogénique. Fréquence et recherché +de cet acide dans les végétaux. Extraction de l'acide caféique et +rendement en l'acide caféique de quelques plantes. Journal de +Pharmacie et de Chemie, 1900, 7. ser, II: 292–298.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">The Chemistry</span> of a cup of coffee. Lancet, 1913, II, no. 2: +1563–1565. Reviewed in, Journal of Economics, 1914, VI: 466–467; +Literary Digest, 1914, XLVIII: 376–377.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Doolittle, R.E.</span> and <span class="smcap">Wright, B.B.</span> Some effects of storage on coffee. +American Journal of Pharmacy, 1915, LXXXVII: 524–526.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ehrlich, J.</span> Coffee in the laboratory. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1916, XXX: 569–570.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Erni, H.</span> The chemico-physiological relations of tea, coffee and +alcohol. Nashville Monthly Record of Medical and Physical Science, +1858–9, I: 641–656.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frankel, E.M.</span> Coffee by-products. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1917, XXXIII: 43–44.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Coffee identification. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, +XXXI: 158 159.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frankel, F. Hulton.</span> Calories in a cup of coffee. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 446–447.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Geiser, M.</span> Welche Bestandteile des Kaffees sind die Träger der +erregenden Wirkung? Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und +Pharmakologie, 1905, LIII: 112–136.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gorter, K.</span> Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Kaffees. Annalen der Chemie, +1907, CCCLVIII: 327–348; 1908, CCCLIX: 217–244; 1910, CCCLXXII: +237–246. Also, East Indies, Dutch. Dept. van Landbouw. Bulletins, +14, 33.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Graf, L.</span> Ueber Bestandtheile der Kaffeesauen. Zeitschrift für +angewandte Chemie, 1901, pp. 1077–1082.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Ueber den Zusammenhang von Coffeïngehalt und Qualität bei +chinesischem Thee. Forschungs-Berichte über Lebensmittel, 1897, IV: +88.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guigues, P.</span> Note sur l'origine du café. Bulletin des Sciences +pharmacologiques, 1903, VII: 350–357.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hanausek, T.F.</span> Bemerkung zu dem Aufsatz von F. Netolitzky: Ueber +das Vorkommen von Krystallsandzellen im Kaffee. Zeitschrift für +Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 295.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Frucht und des Samens von +Coffea arabica L. Zietschrift für Nahrungsmittel Untersuchung und +Hygiene, 1890, IV: 237–257.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harris, William B.</span> Scientific study of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1915, XXIX: 557–558.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hehner, O.</span> An analysis of coffee leaves. Analyst, 1879, IV: 84.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Howard, C.D.</span> Report on tea and coffee. U.S. Chemistry Bureau. +Bulletin, 1907, CV: 41–45.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Husson, C.</span> Étude sur le café, le thé, et les chicorées. Annales de +Chimie et de Physique, 1879, 5. ser. XVI: 419–427.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jaffa, M.E.</span> Report on tea and coffee, 1910, with list of +references. U.S. Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1911, CXXXVII: +105–108.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lancet</span> special analytical sanitary commission on the composition +and value of coffee extracts, The Lancet, 1894, II: 43–45.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lepper, H.A.</span> Report on coffee. Journal of the Association of +Official Agricultural chemists, 1920, 4: 211–216.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Levesie, O.</span> Beiträge zur Chemie des Kaffees. Archiv der Pharmacie, +1876, 3 ser. VIII: 294–298.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Liebig, J.</span> von. Chemistry of a cup of coffee. Every Saturday, I: +135.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Loomis, H.M.</span> Report on tea and coffee. Journal of the Association +of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1920, 3: 498–503.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_741" id="Page_741">[Pg 741]</a></span><span class="smcap">Mason, G.</span> and <span class="smcap">Savini E.</span> Experiments with coffee. Staz. sper, +agrar. ital., 1918, 51: 413–4.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mazza, C.</span> Sull' esame batteriologico della polvere che si trova +negli spacci di caffè, con spéciale riguardo al bacillo della +tubercolosi. Rivista d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1897, VIII: 8–20.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paladino, Pietro.</span> Sopra un nuovo alcaloide contenuto nel caffè. +Gazette Chimica Italiana, XXV: 104–110. Summarized in, Beilstein's +Organische Chemie, 1897, III: 888.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paret, S.A.</span> Quelques résultats obtenus par l'emploi du valerianate +de caféine (thèse). <i>Paris</i>, 1874.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Payen, Édouard.</span> Mémoire sur le café. Comptes vendus de l'Académie +des Sciences, 1846, XXII: 724–732; XXIII: 8–15, 144–251.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pratt, David S.</span> The microscopy of tea and coffee. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 419–421.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Prescott, A.</span> Chemistry of tea and coffee. Popular Science Monthly, +XX: 359.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Robiquet, von</span>, and <span class="smcap">Boutron</span>. Ueber den Kaffee. Annalen der Chemie, +1837, XXIII: 93–95.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Robison, Floyd W.</span> What do we know about coffee? Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 556–562.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sayre, L.E.</span> A pharmacologist on coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXII: 521–527.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Coffee, its standardization and application to pharmacy. +Merck's Report, 1907, XVI: 61–63.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Some</span> new facts about coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1918, XXXV: 436–437.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Street, John Phillips.</span> About hygienic coffees. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXXI: 52–54.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Hygienic coffee analyses. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, +XXXIII: 42–43.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Recent coffee analyses. Modern Hospital, 1916: 330–332. +Reprinted in Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. XXX: 570–572.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tatlock, R.R.</span> and <span class="smcap">Thomson, R.T.</span> The analysis and composition of +coffee, chicory, and coffee and chicory "essences." Journal of the +Society of Chemical Industries, 1910, XXIX: 138–140.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trigg, Charles W.</span> Caffetannic acid a bugaboo. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 437–439.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Coffee oil and fats. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, +XXXV: 230–231.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Coffee carbohydrates. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, +XXXVI: 246–247.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tusini, F.</span> Sul riconoscimento delle varie specie di grani di caffè, +mediante la misurazione delle cellule del reticolo albuminoideo e +dello spermoderma. Archivio di Farmacologia sperimentale e Science +affini, 1903, II: 215–217.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Vautier, E.</span> The wastes of coffee. Mitt. Lebensm. Hyg., 1921, 12: +35–37.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van der Wolk, P.C.</span> New researches into some statistics of Coffea. +Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre, 1914, +XI: 355–359.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Vlaanderen, C.L.</span> and <span class="smcap">Mulder, G.J.</span> Säuren des Kaffee's. +Jahresbericht der Chemie, 1858: 261–264.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Warnier, W.L.A.</span> Contributions à la connaissance du café. Recueil de +Travaux chimiques du Pays-Bas de la Belgique, 1899, 2. ser. III: +351–357.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Willcox, O.W.</span> Coffee aroma secret out. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1913, XXV: 343–344.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Tannin in coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: +485.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Willcox, O.W.</span> and <span class="smcap">Rentschler, M.J.</span> Scientific analysis of coffee. +Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. 1910. XIX: 440–443; 1911, XX: 30–34, +109–111, 194–195, 355–356.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Woodman, A.G.</span> Report on tea, coffee, and cocoa products, 1909. U.S. +Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1910, CXXXII: 134–136.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Caffein</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Clautriau, G.</span> Nature et significatíon des alcaloides végétaux. +<i>Paris</i>, 190?: 113.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dragendorff, Georg.</span> Caffein und Theobromin. In his, Die +gerichtlich-chemische Ermittelung von Giften, pp. 202–206.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fendler, G.</span> and <span class="smcap">Stüber, W.</span> Coffeïnbestimmungen im Kaffee. +Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1914, +XXVIII: 9–20.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fischer, Emil.</span> Ueber das Caffeïn. Berichte der deutschen chemischen +Gesellschaft, 1882, XV, no. 5: 29–87.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frankel, E.M.</span> Caffeine and theine. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1916, XXXI: 260.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">French, J.M.</span> Caffein, its sources and uses. Merck's Archives, 1907, +IX: 208.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jobst, Carl.</span> Thein identisch mit Caffein. Annalen der Chemie, 1838, +XXV: 63–66.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Langlois, P.</span> Kola et caféine. La Science Illustrée, July, 1890.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lendrich, K.</span> and <span class="smcap">Nottbohm, E.</span> Verfahren zur Bestimmung des Coffeïns +im Kaffee. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und +Genussmittel, 1909, XVI: 241–265.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paul, B.H.</span> and <span class="smcap">Cownley, A.J.</span> The amount of caffeine in various +kinds of coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1887, 3 ser. XVII: 565.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pfaff, C.H.</span> Ueber die Darstellung des Coffeïns, über dessen +charakteristische Eigenschaften und dessen Mischung, über zwei +Säuren im Kaffee, so wie über das sogenannte Kaffee-Grün. Neues +Jahrbüch der Chemie und Physik, 1831, I: 487–503; II: 31–45.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Polstorff, Karl.</span> Ueber das Vorkommen von Betainen und von Cholin in +Kaffein und Theobromin enthaltenden Drogen. Chemisches +Zentralblatt, 1909, 5 ser. XIII: 2014–2015.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Stehle, R.L.</span> Caffeine, the alkaloid. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1917, XXXII: 46–47.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sullivan, A.L.</span> Determination of caffein in coffee, a comparison of +the Hilger and Fricke method with a modification of the Gomberg +method. Science, 1909, XXX: 255.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Willcox, O.W.</span> Coffee and caffein. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1913, XXIV: 460–461.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Caffein-Free Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rabenhorst, W.</span> and <span class="smcap">Varges, J.</span> Koffeïnfreier Kaffee; enthalt der +kaffeinfreie Kaffee fremde chemische Bestandteile, insbesondere +Ammoniak, Benzol, Salzsäure, Schwefelsäure? Medizinische Klinik, +1908, IV: 1612.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Salant, William</span>, and <span class="smcap">Rieger, J.B.</span> Elimination of caffein: an +experimental study of herbivora and carnivora. U.S. Dept. of +Agriculture. Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, CLVII.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trigg, Charles W.</span> About caffein-free coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 233.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Willcox, O.W.</span> "Caffein-free" coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1911, XX: 116.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_742" id="Page_742">[Pg 742]</a></span><span class="smcap">Caffeol</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bernheimer, Oscar.</span> Zur Kenntniss der Röstproducte des Caffees. +Monatshefte für Chemie (Sitzungs-berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie +der Wissenschaften) 1880, I: 456–457.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bertrand, G.</span> and <span class="smcap">Weisweiller, G.</span> Sur la composition de l'essence de +café; présence de la pyridine. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des +Sciences, 1913, CLVII: 212–213. <i>Also</i>, Bulletin des Sciences +pharmacologiques, 1905, XII: 152.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Erdmann, Ernst.</span> Ueber das Kaffeöl und die Physiologische Wirkung +des darin enthaltenen Furfuralkohols. Archiv für experimentelle +Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1902, XLVIII: 233–261. <i>Also</i>, +Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1902, XXXV: 1846.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Beitrag zur kenntniss der kaffeeöles und des darin enthaltenen +furfuralkohols. <i>Halle</i>, 1902: 46.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Grafe, V.</span> Untersuchung über die Herkunft des Kaffeöls. Anzeiger der +Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1912, XLIX: 267–268.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jaekle, H.</span> Studien über die Produkte der Kaffeeröstung ein Beiträge +zur Kenntniss des sogenannte Kaffeearomas (Caffeol.) Zeitschrift +für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1898, 457–472.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Orlowski, A.</span> Kilka slor o kawie palonéj. (Extract of Coffee). +Gazeta Lekarska, <i>Warsaw</i>, 1870, IX: 385–387.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">The Caffeol</span> in roasted coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, +XXIV: 241.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trigg, Charles W.</span> The aroma of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1918, XXXV: 37–39.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Green Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bittó, Bela von.</span> Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der inneren +Fruchtschale der Kaffeefrucht. Jour. Landw. III: 93–95.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Herfeldt, E.</span> and <span class="smcap">Stutzer, A.</span> Untersuchungen über den Gehalt der +Kaffeebohnen an Fett, Zucker und Kaffeegerbsäure. Zeitschrift für +angewandte Chemie, 1895, 469–471.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Meyer, H.</span> and <span class="smcap">Eckert, A.</span> Ueber das fette Ol und das Wachs der +Kaffeebohnen. Summarized in, Anzeiger der Kaiserlichen Akademie der +Wissenschaften, 1910, XLVII: 320.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rochleder, F.</span> Notiz über die Kaffeebohnen. Annalen der Chemie, +1844, L: 244–284; 1846, LIX: 300–310; 1852, LXXXII: 194.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trigg, Charles W.</span> Aging green coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1920, XXXIX: 440.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zwenger, C.</span> and <span class="smcap">Siebert, S.</span> Ueber das Vorkommen der Chinasäure in +den Kaffeebohnen. Annalen der Chemie, 1861, 1 sup. pp. 77–85.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Roasted Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Burmannn, J.</span> Recherches chimiques et physiologiques sur les +principes nocifs du café torréfié. Bulletin général de +Thérapeutique, 1913, CLXVI: 379–400.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ehrlich, J.</span> In a cup of coffee. A consideration of the constituents +of the roasted bean and of the sugar, milk or cream that goes with +it. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX: 547–549.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Goblet, L.</span> Analyses comparées d'un café torréfié par des procédés +différents. Association Belge des Chimistes. Bulletin, 1899, XIII: +172–173.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gould, R.A.</span> The gases evolved from roasted coffee, their +composition and origin. Eighth International Congress of Applied +Chemistry. Report, 1912, XXVI: 389.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lendrich, K.</span> and <span class="smcap">Nottbohm, E.</span> Ueber den Coffeïngehalt des Kaffees +und den Coffeïnverlust beim Rösten des Kaffees. Zeitschrift für +Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1909, XVIII: 299–308.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lythgoe, H.</span> Chemical analyses of a few varieties of roasted coffee. +Technology Quarterly, 1905, XVII: 236–239.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Monari, A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Scoccianti, L.</span> La pyridine dans les produits de la +torréfaction du café. Congrès international d'Hygiène et de +Démographie. Comptes rendus, 1894, VIII: pt. 4, 211. <i>Also</i>, +Archives italiennes de Biologie, 1895, XXIII: 68–70; Chemisches +Zentralblatt, 1895, I: 750.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trigg, Charles W.</span> Coffee roasting. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1919, XXXVII: 170–172.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Gases from roasted coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1920, +XXXIX: 318.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />CHICORY</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Backer, P.</span> La culture du witloof. <i>Thielt</i>, 1912: 22.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— De teelt van witloof. <i>Thielt</i>, 1911: 23.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boruttau, H.</span> Die physiologische Wirkung des Absudes der gebrannten +Zichorie. Medizinische Klinik, 1907, III: 644–647.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fries, M.</span> Praktische Anleitung zum Kaffee Cichorienbau. +<i>Stuttgart</i>, 1886.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kains, M.G.</span> Chicory growing. <i>Washington</i>, 1900: 12.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Chicory growing as an addition to the resources of the +American farmer. <i>Washington</i>, 1898: 52.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmiedeberg, Oswald.</span> Historische und experimentelle Untersuchungen +über die Zichorie und den Zichorienkaffee in diätetischer und +gesundheitlicher Beziehung. Archiv für Hygiene, 1912, LXXVI: +210–244.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weismann, R.</span> Ueber den schädlichen Einfluss von Zichorienaufguss. +Aerztliche Rundschau, 1908, XVIII: 183.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zellner, H.</span> Zichorie. Centralblatt für allgemeine +Gesundheitspflege, 1908, XXVII: 32–39.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chicory in Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cauvet.</span> Sur l'examen et l'analyse des échantillons de café-chicorée +et de café moulu saisis chez divers marchands de Constantine. +Annales d'Hygiène, 1873, XI: 302–317.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chevallier, A.</span> Notice historique et chronologique sur les +substances qui ont été proposées comme succédanées du café et sur +le café-chicorée en particulier. Moniteur d'Hôpitaux, 1853, I: +1129, 1161, 1171, 1185, 1193, 1217.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cloüet, J.</span> Du café-chicorée; empoisonnement de quatre personnes par +l'usage de cette denrée. Mouvement médicale, 1875, XIII: 505.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Forsey, C.B.</span> The new coffee and chicory regulations. Analyst, 1882, +VII: 159.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guillot, Camille.</span> La chicorée et divers produits de substitution du +café. <i>Lons-le-Saunier</i>, 1911. 352 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lawall, C.H.</span> and <span class="smcap">Forman L.</span> The detection of chicory in decoctions +of chicory and coffee. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical +Association, 1914, 111: 1669.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Leebody, J.R.</span> Estimation of chicory in coffee. Chemical News, 1874, +XXX: 243.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morin.</span> Quelques réflexions sur un des moyens employés pour +déterminer la présence du café chicorée dans le café normal. +<i>Rouen</i>, 1863. 5 pp. (Extrait des Mémoires de l'Académie de Caen.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">On</span> the adulteration of chicory and coffee. Lancet, 1861, 11: 18.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_743" id="Page_743">[Pg 743]</a></span>COFFEE HOUSES</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brewster, H. Pomeroy.</span> The coffee houses and tea gardens of old +London. <i>Rochester</i>, 1888.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cafés</span> de Paris par un flaneur patenté. 1849.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> public house, The. How to establish and manage it. <i>London</i>, +1878. 34 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> stalls and taverns: hints on coffee stall management. +<i>London</i>, 1886. 40 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Colman, George</span>, and <span class="smcap">Thornton, B.</span> Survey of the town.... Garraway's, +Batson's St. Paul's, and the Chapter coffee houses. In their, the +Connoisseur. <i>Oxford.</i> 1757, I:1–10.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dafert, F.W.</span> Erfahrungen über rationellen Kaffeebau. <i>Berlin</i>, +1896. 36 pp. 2nd ed., 1899. 60 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Delvau.</span> Histoire anecdotique des cafés et cabaréts de Paris. 1861.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hawes, C.W.</span> Handbook to coffee taverns. <i>Uxbridge</i>, 1888. 17 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Macaulay, T.B.</span> (Coffee houses in the 17th and 18th centuries.) In +his, History of England. I: 334–336.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Michel, Francisque</span>, et <span class="smcap">Fournier, Édouard</span>. Histoire des hôtelleries, +cabaréts et cafés. 1854.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Reid, Thomas Wilson</span>, ed. Traits and stories of Ye Olde Cheshire +Cheese. <i>London</i>, 1886. 133 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Robinson, Edward Forbes.</span> Early history of coffee houses in England. +<i>London</i>, 1893. 240 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Shelley, Charles Henry.</span> Inns and taverns of old London. <i>Boston</i>, +1909. 366 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Old Paris. <i>Boston</i>, 1912.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Timbs, J.</span> Clubs and club life in London, with anecdotes of its +famous coffee houses, hostelries and taverns. <i>London</i>, 1866. 2v. +2nd ed., 1872. 1v. 544 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Andrews, A.</span> Coffee houses and their clubs in the 18th century. +Colburn's New Monthly Magazine, CVI: 107.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bethel Christian Mission</span>, Providence. Annual report ... +constitution, bylaws, etc.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Buss, George.</span> Kaffee und Kaffeehäuser. Westerman's Monatshefte, +Sept. 1908: 805–821.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> house movement. Chambers' Journal, LVI: 143.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> house news. London Magazine, XX: 563.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> houses of old London. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1918, XXXV: 116–125.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> Houses of old New York. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1920, XXXVIII: 160–174.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> Houses of old Philadelphia. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1920, XXXVIII: 308–312.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> houses of the Restoration. Tait, n. s. XXII: 104; +Ecclesiastical Magazine, XXIV: 500.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> palaces. All-the-Year, LII: 520.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Early</span> Parisian coffee houses. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1918, XXXV: 526–534.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fox, S.</span> Coffee club movement in California. Arena, XXXII:519.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Graham, R.</span> Coffee houses as a counter action to the saloon. +Charities Review, I: 215.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hall, E.H.</span> Coffee taverns. Leisure Hour, XXVIII: 301.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hill, E.</span> Coffee and coffee houses. Gentleman's Magazine, n. s. +LXXI: 47.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Holland</span> and the café Krasnapolsky at Amsterdam. Idler, 1899, XVI: +31–39.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hope, Lady.</span> Coffee rooms for the people. Good Words, XXI: 749, 844.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Howerth, I.W.</span> Coffee house as a rival of the saloon. American +Magazine of Civics, VI: 589.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Humphreys, J.</span> Coffee houses. St. James Magazine, XLIII: 598.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jarvis, A.W.</span> Old London coffee houses. English Illustrated +Magazine, 1900, XXIII: 107–114.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Page, H.A.</span> Coffee palaces. Good Words, XVIII: 678.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rodenberg, J.</span> Die kaffeehæuser und clubs von London. Unsere +Zeitung, 1866, II: 177–265.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmitt, E.</span> Volkskuechen und speiseanstalten fuer arbeiter; +Volkskaffeehæuser. Handbook der Architek, 4 theil, IV: 116.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sikes, W.</span> English coffee palaces. Lippincott's Magazine, XXIV: 728.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Some</span> old London coffee houses. Cornhill Magazine, LVI: 527.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Stevens, J.A.</span> Coffee houses of old New York. Harper's Magazine, +LXIV: 481.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sweetser, Arthur Lawrence.</span> The coffee house plan. Gunton's +Magazine, 1901, XXI: 239–245.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Thomas, C. Edgar.</span> Some London coffee houses. Home Counties +Magazine, 1911, XIII: 1–9, 91–100.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wagner, H.</span> Shankstætten und speisewirtschaften; Kaffeehæuser und +restaurants. Handbook der Architek, 4 theil, IV: 116 pp.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />CULTURE AND PREPARATION</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">General</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">American Coffee Growers' Association.</span> Coffee growing by proxy. <i>New +York</i>, 1895. 30 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Arnold, Edwin Lester Linden.</span> Coffee: its cultivation and profit. +<i>London</i>, 1886. 270 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boëry, Pascal.</span> Les plantes oléagineuses et leurs produits; cacao, +café.... <i>Paris</i>, 1888.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bourgoin d'Orli, P.H.F.</span> Guide pratique de la culture du caféier et +du cacaoyer suivi de la fabrication du chocolat. <i>Paris</i>, 1876.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brougier, A.</span> Der Kaffee, dessen Kultur und Handel. 1897.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brown, Alexander.</span> The coffee planter's manual, with which is added +a variety of information useful to planters, including the manuring +of coffee estates. <i>Colombo</i>, 1880. 246 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Browne, D.J.</span> On the cultivation of coffee. <i>Washington</i>, 1859. 12 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Burlamaqui, Frederico Leopoldo César.</span> Monographia do caféeiro e do +café. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, 1860. 62 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Camouilly.</span> La plantation du café, en Nouvelle Calédonia. <i>Paris</i>, +1899.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Civinni, G.D.</span> Delle storiæ naturae del caffè. <i>Firenze</i>, 1731.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cook, Orator Fuller.</span> Shade in coffee culture. <i>Washington</i>, 1901. +79 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cuevas, Hilario.</span> Estudio práctico sobre el cultivo del café. +<i>México</i>, 1895. 50 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cunho, Agostino Rodriguez.</span> De l'art de la culture du café et de sa +propagation. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, 1844.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">d'Orli, P.H.F. Bourgoin.</span> Culture du café, etc. <i>Paris</i>, 1874.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fauchère, A.</span> Culture pratique du caféier et preparation du café. +<i>Paris</i>, 1908. 198 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ferguson, John.</span> The coffee planter's manual for both the Arabian +and Liberian species. <i>Colombo</i>, 1898. 312 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fuchs, M.</span> Die geographische Verbreitung des Kaffeebäume. <i>Leipzig</i>, +1886. 72 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Garvens, Wilhelm.</span> Kaffee: Kultur, Handel und Bereitung im +Produktionslande. 2 ed. <i>Hannover</i>, 1913. 45 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_744" id="Page_744">[Pg 744]</a></span><span class="smcap">Great Britain.</span> Parliament, House of Commons. First report from the +Select committee on sugar and coffee planting, <i>London</i>, 1848: 8v.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Supplement to the report. <i>London</i>, 1848. 198 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hanson, R.</span> Culture and commerce of coffee. <i>London</i>, 1877.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Herrera, Rafael.</span> Estudio sobre la producción del café. <i>México</i>, +1893. 141 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Huntington, L.M.</span> Origin of oily coffee beans. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 228.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">International Bureau of the American Republics</span>, <i>Washington, D.C.</i> +Coffee in America. Methods of production and facilities for +successful cultivation in Mexico, the Central American states, +Brazil and other South American countries, and the West Indies. +1893. 36 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jacotot, A.</span> La culture du café, son avenir dans les colonies +françaises. <i>Paris</i>, 1910. 191 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jiménez Nunez, Enrique.</span> Medios práctios para evitar que las mieles +de café infecten las aguas de los rios. <i>Guadalupe</i>, 1902.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jotapen, José.</span> Cultivation and preparation of coffee for the +market. <i>Aberdeen</i>, 1915. 102 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jumelle, Henri.</span> Plantes à sucre, café, cacao, thé, maté. In his, +Les cultures coloniales. <i>Paris</i>, 1913. v. 3.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kramers, J.G.</span> Verslag omtrent de proeftuinen en andere +mededeelingen over koffie. <i>Batavia</i>, 1899–1904. 4v.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Laerne, C.F. Van Delden.</span> Brazil and Java. Report on coffee culture +in America, Asia and Africa, to H.E. the minister of the colonies. +<i>London</i>, 1885. 637 pp. Also in Dutch and French.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lascelles, Arthur Rowley William.</span> A treatise on the nature and +cultivation of coffee; with some remarks on the management and +purchase of coffee estates. <i>London</i>, 1865. 71 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Le Comte, C.E.A.</span> Culture et production du café dans les colonies. +<i>Paris</i>, 1865.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lecomte, Henri.</span> Le café: culture, manipulation, production. +<i>Paris</i>, 1899. 342 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lievano, Indalecio.</span> Instruccion popular sobre meteorolojia +agricola, i especialmente sobre el añil i el café. <i>Bogota</i>, 1868. +18 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McClelland, T.B.</span> Effect of different methods of transplanting +coffee. <i>Washington</i>, 1917. 11 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Some profitable and unprofitable coffee lands. <i>Washington</i>, +1917. 13 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McCulloch, R. William.</span> Coffee-growing and its preparation for +market. <i>Brisbane, Australia</i>, 1893.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Madriz, F.J.</span> Cultivo del café seu manual theoricopratico sobre +beneficio de este frute con mayores ventajas para al agricultor. +<i>Paris</i>, 1869.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Meitzky, Jo.-Henry.</span> De vario coffeæ potum parandi modo. +<i>Wittebergiæ</i>, 1788.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Middleton, W.H.</span> Manual of coffee planting. <i>Durban</i>, 1866.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Milhon.</span> Dissertation sur le caffeyer. <i>Montpellier</i>, 1746.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Monnereau, Élie.</span> Le parfait indigotier; ou Description de l'indigo +... ensemble un traité sur la culture de café. <i>Amsterdam</i> and +<i>Marseilles</i>, 1765. 238 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morren, F.W.</span> Die arbeiter auf einer Kaffee-plantage. 1900.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Werkzaamheden op eene koffieonderneming. Handleiding voor +opzichters bij de koffie-cultuur. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1896. 266 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nicol, R.</span> A treatise on coffee, its properties and the best mode of +keeping and preparing it. 4th ed. <i>London</i>, 1832.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Owen, T.C.</span> First year's work on a coffee plantation. <i>Colombo</i>, +1877. 55 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pierrot, Édouard.</span> Culture pratique et rationelle du caféier et +préparation du grain pour la vente. <i>Paris</i>, 1906. 95 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rossignen, Julio.</span> Manual del cultivo del café, etc., in la America +Española. <i>Paris</i>, 1859.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Simmonds, P.L.</span> Coffee and chicory, their culture, chemical +composition, preparation, etc. <i>London</i>, 1864. 102 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Tropical agriculture. <i>London</i>, 1887. (p. 27–79 deal with +coffee.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tytler, R.B.</span> Prospects of coffee production. <i>Aberdeen</i>, 1878.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ugarte, José P.</span> The cultivation and preparation of coffee for the +market. <i>London</i>, 1916. 124 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wildeman, Em. de.</span> Les caféiers. <i>Bruxelles</i>, 1901.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Les plantes tropicales de grande culture—café, cacao, coca, +vanilla, etc. <i>Bruxelles</i>, 1902. 304 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zimmermann, Albrecht.</span> Over het enten van koffie volgens de methode +van den Heer D. Butin Schaap. <i>Batavia</i>, 1904. 54 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Aubry-le-Comte.</span> Culture et production du café dans les colonies. +Revue Mar. et Col., Oct., 1865.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Beugless, J.D.</span> Coffee in its home. Overland Monthly, II: 319.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Caswell, G.W.</span> Coffee in our new islands. Overland Monthly, n. s. +XXXII: 459.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> cultivation in the New World. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, +Bull. of Misc. Information, 1893: 321–325.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cultivation</span> and preparation of coffee. Great Britain. Imperial +Institute, Bulletin, 1915, XIII: 260–296.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Vere, M.S.</span> Culture and use of coffee. Harper's Magazine, XLIV: +237.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fesca, Max.</span> Über Kaffeekultur. Jour. Landw. 1897, XLV:13–41.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hagen, J.</span> De Koffiecultuur. Onze Kol. Landbouw No. 7. 1914.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hayward, C.B.</span> Coffee and coffee culture. Scientific American, 1904, +XCI: 189, 194–195.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Linnean Society.</span> Proceedings, 1875–1880, contain articles on coffee +culture.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Loew, Oscar.</span> Fermation of cacao and of coffee. Porto Rico +Agricultural Experiment Station. Report, 1907. pp. 41–55.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marcano, V.</span> Essais d'agronomie tropicale. Ann. sci. agron. 1891, +II: 119–152.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Peatfield, J.J.</span> Culture of coffee. Overland Monthly, XIII: 323.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rost, Eugen C.</span> Coffee growing. Scientific American Supplement, +1902, LIV: 22189–22190.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Torrens, J.H.</span> Hydro-electric installation on a coffee plantation. +General Electric Review, 1915. XVIII: 219–222.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Electricity on a coffee finca. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXXI: 418–421.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Regional</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">ABYSSINIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Southard, Addison E.</span> The story of Abyssinia's coffees. Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 212–215: 324–329.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">AFRICA, NORTHERN</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rivière, Charles.</span> Le caféier dans l'Afrique du nord. <i>Paris</i>, 1903.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_745" id="Page_745">[Pg 745]</a></span><span class="ampm">ANGOLA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> cultivation in Angola. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. +of Misc. Information, 1894: 161–163.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">ARGENTINE</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Argentine Republic.</span> Departamento nacional de tierras, colonias y +agricultura. El café. (Coffea arabica) <i>Buenos Aires</i>, 1896. 22 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">AUSTRALIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jackson, Henry Vaughan.</span> The cultivation of coffee. <i>Sydney</i>, 1908. +8 pp. Reprinted from Agricultural Gazette, June, 1908.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Newport, H.</span> Coffee cultivation in Queensland. Philippine +Agricultural Review, 1910, III: 514–524. <i>Also</i>, Queensland +Agricultural Journal, 1910, XXIV, pt. 6; XXV, pt. 1.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">BRAZIL</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Berthoule.</span> La culture di caféier au Brésil, communication faite a +la Société nationale d'acclimation de France. March 28, 1890.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazil</span> and coffee. Souvenir of the Louisiana purchase exposition. +1904. 28 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Caffè, Il</span>: la coltivazione, la produzione, le imitazione, le +falsificazioni, il valore economico, il fisiologico, appendice. +<i>Rio Janeiro</i>, 1910. 98 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cruwell, G.A.</span> and others. Brazil as a coffee-growing country. +<i>Colombo</i>, 1878. 150 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">da Costa Santos, H.</span> Consideracoes sobre o nosso café. <i>Rio +Janeiro</i>, 1881. 19 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dafert, F.W.</span> De bemesting en het drogen van kaffie in Brazilia. +<i>Amsterdam</i>, 1898. 250 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Über die gegenwärtige Lage des Kaffeebaus in Brazilien. +<i>Amsterdam</i>, 1898. Also in English, 1900; French, Paris, 1900.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dahne, Eugenio.</span> The story of São Paulo coffee from plantation to +cup. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXVIII: 127.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Oltveira, Luiz Torquato</span>, Marques. Novo methodo da plantação +fecundidade, durabilidade estrumação e conservação do café e +extincção das formigas, exposto em beneficio da agricultura do +Brasil e lugares cafeeiros, offerecido aos agricultores. <i>Rio de +Janeiro</i>, 1863. 30 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Empire</span> of Brazil at the World's industrial and cotton centennial +exposition of New Orleans, The. <i>New York</i>, 1885. 71 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Koebel, Rothery</span> and <span class="smcap">Tweney</span>, editors. Enciclopedia de la America del +sur. Agriculture, Brazil, v. I; São Paulo, v. IV. <i>London</i> and +<i>Buenos Aires</i>, 1913.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lalière, Amour.</span> Le café dans l'état de Saint Paul (Brésil). +<i>Paris</i>, 1909. 417 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Misson, Luis</span>, and <span class="smcap">Téllez O.</span> Cultivo y beneficio del café en el +Brazil: cómo se hacen en el estado de São Paulo. <i>México</i>, 1907. 30 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">O Fazendeiro</span>; revista mensal de agricultura, industria e commercio, +dedicada, especialmente, aos interesses da lavoura caféeiro. Anno +1, <i>São Paulo</i>, 1908.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pacheco e Silva, Persio.</span> Do café no o éste de S. Paulo. <i>São +Paulo</i>, 1910. 64 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Peckholt, Theodoro.</span> Monographia do café. In his, Historia das +plantas alimentares e de gozo do Brazil, v. 5. 1871–84.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">São Paulo</span>, <i>Brazil</i>. Secretaria da agricultura, commercio e obras +publicas. Il caffè. Brevi notizie per Eugenio Lefévre. 1904. 68 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schuurman, G.A.E.</span> De koffie-cultuur in Brazilië. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1901. +67 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Smith, H.H.</span> Brazil: Amazona and the coast. (Special chapters on +coffee) <i>London</i>, 1880.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Culture of coffee in Brazil. Scribner's Magazine, XIX: 225. +Penny Magazine, IX: 484.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Story</span> of São Paulo coffee from plantation to cup. Pan American +Union. Bulletin, 1915, XLI: 370–378.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Teixeira, C.</span> O café do Brazil. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, 1883. 24 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ward. R.D.</span> Visit to the Brazilian coffee country. National +Geographic Magazine, 1911, XXII: 908–931.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">CENTRAL AMERICA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cater, R.W.</span> Coffee in Central America. Chambers' Journal, LXXVI: +570.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Choussy, Felix.</span> Cultivo racional del café en centro América. <i>San +Salvador</i>, 1917. 92 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fox, Alvin.</span> Coffee growing in Central America. Simmons' Spice Mill, +1918, XLI: 420–421.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">CEYLON</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Abbay, R.</span> Culture of coffee in Ceylon. Households Words, III: 109. +<i>Also</i>, Nature, XIV: 375.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cruwell, G.A.</span> Liberian coffee in Ceylon. <i>Colombo</i>, 1878.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hull, E.C.P.</span> Coffee planting in southern India and Ceylon. +<i>London</i>, 1877. 324 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Keen, W.</span> Coffee cultivation in Ceylon. <i>London</i>, 1871.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lewis, G.C.</span> Coffee planting in Ceylon. <i>Colombo</i>, 1855.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sabonadière, William.</span> The coffee-planter of Ceylon. <i>London</i>, 1870. +216 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— O fazendeiro de café em Ceylão. <i>Rio de Janerio</i>, 1875, 196 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Spall, P.W.A.</span> Verslag over de koffij en kaneelkultuur op het +eiland Ceijlon. <i>Batavia</i>, 1863.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">COLOMBIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Saenz, Nicolas.</span> Memoria sobre el cultivo del cafeto. <i>Bogota</i>, +1892. 65 pp. Also in French, <i>Bruxelles</i>, 1894. 121 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">COSTA RICA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Calvo, J.B.</span> Coffee, its origin and propagation, its introduction +and cultivation in Costa Rica. American Republics Bureau. Monthly +Bulletin. 1904, XVIII: 1–6; 111–115.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Report on coffee with special reference to the Costa Rican +product. Bureau of American Republics. Publications. <i>Washington</i>, +1901, 15 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> Government. Estudio é informe sobre el café de Costa +Rica. <i>San José</i>, 1900. 48 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Field, Walter J.</span> Coffee culture and preparation in Costa Rica. The +Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1908, XV: 13.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schroeder, John.</span> Coffee culture in Costa Rica. <i>San José</i>, 1890. 4 +pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">CUBA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Borrero y Echevebría, Estéban.</span> El Café. Apuntes para una +monografia. <i>Habana</i>, 1890. 46 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> grounds of Cuba. All-the-Year, XXIV: 61.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fernández y Jiménez, José María.</span> Agricultura cubana. 3 ed. +<i>Habana</i>, 1868. 69 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fox, Alvin.</span> Coffee culture in Cuba and Porto Rico. Simmons' Spice +Mill, 1918, XLI: 1356–1359.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hillman, Joseph.</span> Coffee planting. <i>New York</i>, 1902. 16 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Old</span> Cuban coffee plantations. Harper's Weekly, 1908, LII: 31.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">EAST INDIES</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Arntzenius, G.</span> Cultuur en volk. Beschouwingen over de +gouvernementskoffie-cultuur op Java. <i>'s Gravenhage</i>, 1891. 158 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_746" id="Page_746">[Pg 746]</a></span><span class="smcap">Campbell, Donald Maclaine.</span> The industries of Java: Coffee. In his, +Java: past and present. <i>London</i>, 1915. pp. 931–944.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chalot, C.</span> and <span class="smcap">Thillard, R.</span> Le café à Java. 1914.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> enterprise in the East Indies. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, +Bull. of Misc. Information, 1893: 123–124.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cramer, P.J.S.</span> Gegevens over de variabiliteit van de in +Nederlandsch-Indië verbouwde koffie-soorten. <i>Batavia</i>, 1913. 696 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dumont, A.</span> Consideraciones sobre el cultivo del café en esta isla. +<i>Havana</i>, 1823.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Koffiecultuur.</span> Tijdsch. voor Nederlandsch-Indië, 1901, ser. 2, V: +168–175.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nederlandsch-Indische</span> maatschappij van nijwerheid en landbouw. +Handleiding voor de gouvernements-koffiekultuur. <i>Batavia</i>, 1873. +56 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Parkhurst, E.T.Y.</span> Coffees of the Dutch East Indies. The Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 316–322; 416–420; 1919, XXXVI: +22–27; 118–122.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Raedt Van Oldenbarnevelt, A.C.</span> De koffie-cultuur op Java. <i>'s +Gravenhage</i>, 1898. 48 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Smid, J.H.</span> Handbook voor de kultuur der koffie in Oost en West +Indië. <i>Middleburg</i>, 1884. 112 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Ermel, W.K.L.K.</span> Some facts about coffee in Palembang. +<i>Singapore</i>, 1879. 16 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Gorkom, K.W.</span> Groote cultuur in Nederlandsch Oostindie koffie. +<i>Haarlem</i>, 1882.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">FEDERATED MALAY STATES</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gallagher, William John.</span> Coffee robusta. <i>Kuala Lumpur, Federated +Malay States</i>, 1910. 7 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Liberian</span> coffee at the Straits Settlements (C. Liberica bull.) +Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. information, 1888: +261–263; 1890: 107–108, 245–253.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Liberian</span> coffee in the Malay native states. Royal Botanic Gardens, +<i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1892: 277–282.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">FRENCH INDO-CHINA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Briggs, Lawrence P.</span> The coffee of French Indo-China. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 118–123.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cramer, P.J.S.</span> Coffee plantations of Tonkin, Philippine +Agricultural Review, 1910, III: 94–100.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paris.</span> Président du syndicat des productions et explorateurs de +Tourane. Le café d'Annam; étude pratique sur sa culture. <i>Tourane, +Annam</i>, 1895. 95 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">GOLD COAST</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> cultivation at the Gold Coast. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, +Bull. of Misc. Information, 1895: 21–23; 1897: 325–328.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">GUADELOUPE</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> in Guadeloupe. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, +XXIII: 445.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">GUATEMALA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dieseldorff, E.P.</span> Der Kaffeebaum. Praktische Erfahrungen über seine +Behandlung im nördlichen Guatemala. <i>Berlin</i>, 1908. 36 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morren, F.W.</span> Koffiecultuur in Guatemale, met aanteekeningen +betreffende de overige cultures de mijnen en den economischen +toestand van deze republiek. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1899. 142 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Parkhurst, E.T.Y.</span> Coffee in Guatemala. Californian Magazine, II: +742.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">GUIANA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Aublet, Fusée.</span> Histoire des plantes de la Guyane française. +Observations sur la culture du café. <i>Paris</i>, 1775.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guiana</span> (British) Permanent exhibitions committee. Cacao and coffee +industries. Leaflet 6. 1911. 12 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">HAWAII</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Great Britain. Foreign Office.</span> Report on coffee culture in the +Hawaiian Islands. <i>London</i>, 1897. 18 pp. (Diplomatic and Consular +Reports. Miscellaneous Series, no. 425.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hawaii. Board of Commissioners of Agriculture and Forestry.</span> Culture +of coffee. Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist, 1911, VIII, no. 10.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Blight-resistant coffees. Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist, +1912, IX, no. 3.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Haywood, Wm.</span> Coffee culture in the Hawaiian Islands. <i>Washington</i>, +1898. 164 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McChesney, J.M.</span> The great coffee corner. Hawaiian Forester and +Agriculturist, 1911, VIII: 206–211.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McClelland, J.L.</span> Coffee culture in Hawaii. Overland Monthly, 1903, +n.s. XLI: 170–178.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">United States Department of Agriculture.</span> Division of Vegetable +Physiology and Pathology. Circular No. 16. Danger of introducing a +Central American coffee in Hawaii. <i>Washington</i>, 1898.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Whitney, Henry Martyn.</span> The Hawaiian coffee planter's manual. +<i>Honolulu</i>, 1894. 48 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Inginac, G.B.</span> Industrie agricole. Culture du caféier et préparation +de la fève pour être livrée au commerce. <i>Port-au-Prince</i>, 1840. 22 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Laborie, P.J.</span> The coffee planter of Saint Domingo. <i>Colombo</i>, 1845. +204 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— An abridgment of the coffee planter of Saint Domingo. +<i>Madras</i>, 1863. 83 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Prestoe, H.</span> Report on coffee cultivation in Dominica. <i>Trinidad</i>, +1875.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">HONDURAS, BRITISH</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> cultivation in British Honduras. Royal Botanic Gardens, +<i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1892: 253–259.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">INDIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Anstead, R.D.</span> Coffee, its cultivation and manuring in South India. +<i>Bangalore</i>, 1915. 3 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Anderson, G.</span> Coffee culture in Mysore. <i>Bangalore</i>, 1879.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Arnold, E.L.</span> On the Indian hills, or coffee planting in Southern +India. <i>London</i>, 1895. 350 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cultivation</span> of coffee in India. Scientific American Supplement, +1900, L: 20620.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Culture</span> of coffee in South Travancore. Fraser's Magazine, XC: 64.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Elliott, R.H.</span> Planter in Mysore. <i>London</i>, 1871.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Elliot, Robert H.</span> Gold, sport, and coffee planting in Mysore. +<i>Westminster</i>, 1894. 480 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Experiences</span> of a coffee planter in Southern India. Frasers' +Magazine, XVIX: 703.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> planting in Southern India. Spectator, LV: 664.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hybrid</span> coffee in Mysore. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. of +Misc. Information, 1898: 30 and 207.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">India. Statistical Department.</span> The coffee crop in Coorg. <i>Simla</i>, +1885.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— The cultivation of coffee in India. <i>Simla</i>, 1898, 6 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_747" id="Page_747">[Pg 747]</a></span><span class="smcap">Shortt, John.</span> A hand-book to coffee planting in southern India. +<i>Madras</i>, 1864. 182 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Watson, J.D.</span> Liberian coffee cultivation in Tavoy. <i>Tavoy, Burma</i>, +1893. 5 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">JAVA</span> (<i>see</i> <span class="ampm">EAST INDIES</span>)</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">KAFFA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bieber, Frederick J.</span> Die Kaffee- und Baumwolle-Kultur in Kaffa. +Zeitschrift für Kolonialpolitik, Kolonialrecht und +Kolonial-wirtschaft, 1908, X: 774–781.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">KONGO FREE STATE</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Manuel</span> pratique de la culture du caféier et du cacaoyer au Congo +Belge. Ministère des colonies, <i>Bruxelles</i>, 1908. 96 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">LAGOS</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> planting in Lagos. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull, of +Misc. Information, 1896: 77–79.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">LIBERIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boutilly, V.</span> Le caféier de Libéria, sa culture et sa manipulation. +<i>Paris</i>, 1900. 137 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Felle, W.</span> Veeljarige waarnemingen en ondervindingen van een +Liberia-koffieplanter. 1894.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morren, F.W.</span> Cultuur bereiding en handel van Liberia koffie. +<i>Amsterdam</i>, 1894. 36 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morris</span>, Sir <span class="smcap">Daniel</span>. Notes on Liberian coffee, its history and +cultivation. <i>Jamaica</i>, 1881. 14 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">MADAGASCAR</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Buis, J.</span> L'Hémileia et L'avenir du caféier à Madagascar, et à la +Réunion. 1907.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rigaud, A.</span> Traité pratique de la culture du café dans la région +centrale de Madagascar. <i>Paris</i>, 1896. 102 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">MEXICO</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cook, J.D.</span> American coffee culture in Mexico. World Today, 1907, +XII: 413–418.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fox, Alvin.</span> Coffee culture in southern Mexico. Simmons' Spice Mill, +1918, XLI: 1080–1081.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gómez, Gabriel.</span> Cultivo y beneficio del café. <i>México</i>, 1894. 136 +pp. Also in English.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ludewig, H. Jaun.</span> Veinte años trabajos de colonización y el cultivo +del cafeto en Soconusco. <i>México</i>, 1909. 53 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Moncàda, M.</span> Notas sobre el cultivo y beneficio del café. Memorias y +revista de la Sociedad científica "Antonio Alzate," 1905–6, XXIII: +281–287.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Romero, Matías.</span> Cultivo del café en la costa meridional de Chiapas. +3 ed. <i>México</i>, 1875. 240 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— El cultivo del café en la república mexicana. 2 ed. <i>México</i>, +1893. 127 pp. Also in English, <i>New York</i>, 1901. 74 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— El estado de Oaxaca. <i>Barcelona</i>, 1886. 212 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Terry, E.G.C.</span> Near view of coffee in Mexico. Pan American Union. +Bulletin. 1914, XXXIX: 903–906.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Terry, L.M.</span> Coffee culture in Mexico. Overland Monthly, 1901, n. s. +XXXVII: 702–709.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Torres, J.T.</span> Ensayo experimental sobre el café <i>México</i>, 1876.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Yorba, J.</span> Mexican coffee culture. 2 ed. <i>México</i>, 1895. 64 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">NATAL</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Natal.</span> Commission appointed to inquire into and report upon matters +relating to coffee cultivation in the colony. Report. <i>Maritzburg</i>, +1881. 6 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Stainbank, H.E.</span> Coffee in Natal; its culture and preparation. +<i>London</i>, 1874. 78 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">NICARAGUA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Shedd, W.J.</span> The story of Matagalpa coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 118–122.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">PARAGUAY</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> growing in Paraguay. Scientific American Supplement, 1914, +LXXVIII: 340.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">PORTO RICO</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Linck, J.H.</span> Arbor caffé Lipsiae florens. Extrait factice des Ephem. +Acad. naturae curiosorum. 1725. 7 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McClelland, Thomas B.</span> Suggestions on coffee planting for Porto +Rico. Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. Circular, no. 15. +Also in Spanish.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McClelland, T.B.</span> Restoring Porto Rico coffee. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 420–421.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">National Coffee Growers' Association.</span> Some facts about Porto Rico +coffee. 1913.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Leenhoff, Johannes W.</span> Coffee planting in Porto Rico. +<i>Mayaguez</i>, 1904. 14 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">PORTUGUESE COLONIES</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sociedade de Geooraphiade Lisboa.</span> Exposição colonial de algodão, +borracha, cacau e café. 1906. 104 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">SIERRA LEONE</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Highland</span> coffee of Sierra Leone (Coffea stenophylla, C. Don). Royal +Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1896: 189–191.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">SOUTH AMERICA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fox, Alvin.</span> Liberian coffee in South America. Simmons' Spice Mill, +1918, XLI: 549–550.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">TRINIDAD</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trinidad</span> coffee. Royal Botanic Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. +Information, 1888: 129–133.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">UGANDA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brown, E.</span> and <span class="smcap">Hunter, H.H.</span> Planting in Uganda; coffee, Pará rubber, +cocoa. <i>London</i>, 1913. 176 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> and tea from Uganda. Imperial Institute. Bulletin. <i>London</i>, +1918, XVI.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Small, W.</span> Coffee cultivation in Uganda. Imperial Institute. +Bulletin. 1914, XII: 242–250.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">UNITED STATES</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jones, A.C.</span> Thea viridis, or Chinese tea plant, and the +practicability of its culture and manufacture in the United States. +Also some remarks on the cultivation of the coffee plant. +<i>Washington</i>, 1877. 26 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kains, M.G.</span> Chicory growing as an addition to the resources of the +American farmer. U.S. Depart. of Agriculture. Div. of Botany. +Bulletin, no. 19. <i>Washington</i>, 1898.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">VENEZUELA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ernst, A.</span> El café de Liberia én Vénézuela. <i>Caracas</i>, 1878.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Huntington, L.M.</span> The story of Tachira coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 318–325.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Junta</span> de aclimatacion cuestionario sobre el cultivo del café. +<i>Caracas</i>, 1895. 42 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pelacios, G. Delgado.</span> Contribución al estudio del café en +Venezuela. <i>Caracas</i>, 1895. 93 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">WEST INDIES</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lowndes, John.</span> The coffee-planter; or, An essay on the cultivation +and manufacturing of that article of West-India produce. <i>London</i>, +1807. 76 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_748" id="Page_748">[Pg 748]</a></span><span class="smcap">Nicholls, H.A.A.</span> Liberian coffee in the West Indies. <i>London</i>, +1881. 31 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">SOILS</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Clarke, T.</span> On the management of soils under coffee in Madras. +Madras Agricultural Exhibit. Report. 1883.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fauchère, A.</span> Du choix du terrain dans la culture du caféier. +Colonie de Madagascar and Dependances. Bulletin économique, 1907, +VII: 349–353.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hughes, J.</span> Ceylon coffee soils and manures. <i>London</i>, 1879.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kenny, J.</span> Tea, coffee, tobacco (manuring, etc.) 1910.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kramers, J.G.</span> Verslag omtrent grondanalyses van koffietuinen. +<i>Batavia</i>, 1902. 86 pp.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />DISEASES AND ENEMIES</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Aulmann, G.</span> and <span class="smcap">La Baumé, M.</span> Die Faune der deutcher Kolonien. Pt. +2. Die Schädlinge des Kaffees. <i>Berlin</i>, 1911.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Burck, W.</span> Over de oorzaken van den achteruitgang von de +gouvernementskoffie-cultuur op Java. 1896.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Over de koffiebladziekte en de middelen om haar te bestrijden. +<i>Batavia</i>, 1887:61.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bidie, G.</span> Report on the ravages of the bore in coffee estates. +<i>Madras</i>, 1869. 93 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bosse. J. von.</span> Eenige beschouwingen omtrent de oorzaken van den +achterintgang von de koffie-cultuur der Sumatra's Westkust, etc. +<i>'s Gravenhage</i>, 1895.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cameron, John.</span> Prevention of leaf disease in coffee; report of a +visit to Coorg. 1899. 23 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cooke, M.C.</span> Two coffee diseases. Popular Science Review, XV:161.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Delacroix, Georges.</span> Les maladies et les ennemis des caféiers. +<i>Paris</i>, 1900. 212 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ernst, Adolf.</span> Estudios sobre las deformaciones, enfermedades y +enemigos del arbol de café en Venezuela. <i>Caracas</i>, 1878. 21 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Goeldi, Emil August.</span> Memoria sobre una enfermedad del cafeto en la +provincia Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. <i>México</i>, 1894. 118 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Green, E.E.</span> Observations on the green scale bug in connection with +the cultivation of coffee. <i>Colombo</i>, 1886. 4 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harman, F.E.</span> Report on coffee leaf miner disease. Mysore +Government. <i>Bangalore</i>, 1880. 41 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">India.</span> <span class="smcap">Mysore.</span> <span class="smcap">Department of Agriculture.</span> Short report of a tour +made in Coorg during February and March, 1914. (Green bug on +coffee.) 1914. 3 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Koningsberger, J.C.</span> De dierlijke vijanden der koffie-cultuur op +Java. <i>Batavia</i>, 1897–1901. 2 pts.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kuyper, J.</span> Een fusicladium-ziekte op hevea. De zilver-draad-ziekte +der koffie in Suriname. De gevolgen van keukenzout-houdend water +voor begieting en bespuiting. 1913.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lemarié, Charles.</span> Une maladie du caféier. <i>Hanoi</i>, 1899. 6 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Massee, G.E.</span> Coffee diseases of the New World, Royal Botanic +Gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1909: 337–341.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">México.</span> <span class="smcap">Ministerio de Fomento, Colonización é Industria.</span> La +fumagina y el pulgón de los cafetos en la República Mexicana. 1897. +11 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Misson, Luis</span>, and <span class="smcap">Téllez, O.</span> Cultivo y beneficio del café en el +Brasil: cómo se hacen en el estado de São Paulo, por Luis Misson; y +Plagas del cafeto en México, por O. Téllez. <i>México</i>, 1907. 30 pp. +(Mexico, 1867-republic. Comisión de Parasitologia Agricola. +Circular 70.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Neitner, J.</span> The coffee tree and its enemies in Ceylon. <i>Colombo</i>, +1880. 32 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Peelen, H.J.E.</span> Eenige opmerkingen omtrent de koffie bladziekte. +1888.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Prins, H.J.</span> De oeret-plaag in de koffietuinen op Java. 1884.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sadebeck, R.</span> Beobachtungen und Bemerkungen über die durch Hemileia +vastatrix verursachte Blattfleckenkrankheiten der Kaffeebäume. +<i>München</i>, 1895. 9 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Smith, Jared G.</span> Two plant diseases in Hawaii. <i>Honolulu</i>, 1904. 6 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Thierry, A.J.</span> Notes sur le greffage du caféier, du cacaoyer et du +muscadier et la maladie vermiculaire du caféier. 1899. 77 pp. +Reprinted from Bulletin agricole de la Martinique.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tins, H.J.</span> De veret-plaag in de koffietuinen op Java. <i>Enschede</i>, +1885. 86 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tonduz, Adolfo.</span> Informe sobre la enfermedad del cafeto. <i>San José</i> +(Costa Rica), 1893. 28 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Romunde, R.</span> Koffiebladziekte en koffie kultuur. <i>'s +Gravenhage</i>, 1892. 92 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zacher, Friedrich.</span> Die wichtigsten Krankheiten und Schädlinge der +tropischen Kulturpflanzen und ihre Bekämpfung. <i>Hamburg</i>, 1914.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zimmermann, Albrecht.</span> De nematoden der koffiewortels. <i>Batavia</i>, +1898–1900. 2v.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Botanical Magazine</span>, <i>London</i>, 1787–1904. Coffee arabica, XXXII, +tab. 1303; CXXII, tab. 7475; coffee benghalensis, LXXXII, tab. +4917; coffee stenophylla, CXXII, tab. 7475; coffee travacarensis, +coffee trifiora, CX, tab. 6749.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cook, Melville Thurston.</span> The coffee leaf miner. U.S. Dept. of +Agriculture. Bureau of Entomology. Bulletin, 1905, n. s. LII: +97–99.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cook, M.T.</span> and <span class="smcap">Horne, W.T.</span> Coffee leaf miner and other coffee +pests. <i>Santiago</i>, 1905. 21 pp. (Cuba, 1902-republic. Estación +central agronómica. Boletin 3. English and Spanish ed.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Faber, F.C. von.</span> Die Krankheiten und Schädlinge des Kaffees. +Centralblatt für Bakteriologie, Abteilung 2. 1908, XXI: 97–117.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fawcett, George L.</span> Fungus diseases of coffee in Porto Rico. Porto +Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 17.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Giard, A.</span> Sur deux cochenilles nouvelles Ortheziola fodiens nov. +spec, et Rhizoecus Eloti nov. spec., parasites des racines du +caféier a la Guadeloupe. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, +1897.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Göldi, E.A.</span> Relatorio sobre a molestia do caféeiro na provincia do +Rio de Janeiro. Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, 1892, +VIII: 7–121.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mann, B.P.</span> Coffee leaf miner. American Naturalist, VI: 332–596.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marchal, Paul.</span> Sur un nouvel ennemi du caféier; le "Xyleborus +coffeæ." Journal d'Agriculture tropicale, 1909, IX:227–228.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morris, D.</span> Coffee-leaf disease of Ceylon. Nature, XX: 557.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morstatt, Hermann Albert.</span> Die Schädlinge und Krankheiten des +Kaffeebaumes in Ostafrika. Zeitschrift für Land- und +Forstwirtschaft in Deutsch-Ostafrika, 1912, VIII, Juli.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tea</span> and coffee diseases. Royal gardens, <i>Kew</i>, Bulletin, 1899, +CLI–CLII: 89–133.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_749" id="Page_749">[Pg 749]</a></span><span class="smcap">Tucker, Elbert Stephen.</span> Some miscellaneous results of the work of +the Bureau of Entomology—IX. New breeding records of the +coffee-bean weevil. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of +Entomology. Bulletin, 1909, LXIV: 61–64.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van der Weele, H.W.</span> Ein neuer javanischer kaffeeschälding. +Xyleborus coffeivorus nov. spec. East Indies, Dutch. Department van +Landbouw. Bulletin, 1910, XXXV. Zoologie 5. pp. 1–6.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zimmermann, Albrecht.</span> De kanker (Rostellaziekte) van Coffea +arabica. Buitenzorg, Java. Jardin botanique. Mededeelingen uit 's +Lands plantentuin, 1900, XXXVII: 24–62.</p> + + +<p class="center">GENERAL WORKS</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Descriptive, Historical, Etc.</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Abbal, L.</span> Étude sur le café. <i>Montpellier</i>, 1885.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Abendroth</span>, G.F. De coffea. <i>Lipsiae</i>, 1825.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Alcott, William Alexander.</span> Tea and coffee. <i>Boston</i>, 1839. 174 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Alves de Lima, J.C.</span> Some revelations about the cultivation, the +commerce and the use of coffee. <i>Syracuse, N.Y.</i>, 1901, 16 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Blount (Blunt), Sir Henry.</span> An epistle in praise of tobacco and +coffee, prefixed to a little treatise entitled Organum Salutis. +<i>London</i>, 1657.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bontekos, C.</span> Tractaat van het excellente kruyd thee. I. Van de +coffi. <i>'s Gravenhage</i>, 1679.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brill, Marbuger.</span> Dissertation sur le café. 1862.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Buc'hoz, P.J.</span> Dissertation sur le café <i>Paris</i>, 1787.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chevallier, Alphonse.</span> Du café, son historique, son usage, son +utilité, ses altérations, ses succédanés et ses falsifications, +etc. <i>Paris</i>, 1862. 68 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cornaillac, G.</span> El café, la vainilla, el cacao y el té, cultivo, +preparación, exportación, clasificación comercial, gastos, +rendimiento. <i>Barcelona</i>, 1903. 480 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coubard d'Aulnay, G.E.</span> Monographie du café, ou manuel de l'amateur +du café, ouvrage contenant la description et la culture du caféier, +l'histoire du café, ses caractères commierciaux, sa préparation et +ses propriétés. <i>Paris</i>, 1832.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cripet, Dr.</span> Histoire et physiologie du café. <i>Paris</i>, 1846.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Delrue-Schrevens, L.</span> Le café: étude historique et commerciale. +<i>Tournai</i>, 1886. 90 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Vaux, Antoine Alexis François, Cadet.</span> Dissertation sur le café; +son historique, ses propriétés, et le procédé pour en obtenir la +boisson la plus agréable, etc. <i>Paris</i>, 1807. 119 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Douglas, James.</span> Arbor yemensis fructum cofè ferens: or, A +description and history of the coffee tree. <i>London</i>, 1727. 60 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Duchartre, P.</span> Plantes alimentaires. De l'usage du café, du thé, et +du chocolat. <i>Paris</i>, 1865.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dufour, Philippe S.</span> Traitez nouveaux et curieux du café, du thé, et +du chocolat. <i>Lyons</i>, 1671, 1684; <i>La Haye</i>, 1693.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dumas, Leon.</span> Le pays du café. 1885.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Eggerth, J.</span> De coffea. <i>Budæ</i>, 1833.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ellis, John.</span> An historical account of coffee. <i>London</i>, 1774. 71 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Étrennes</span> à tous les amateurs de café; contenant l'histoire, la +description, la culture, les propriétés de ce végétal. <i>Paris</i>, +1790. 2 pts. in 1 v.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Franklin, Alfred.</span> La vie privée d'autrefois. <i>Paris</i>, 1893.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fauchon, L.J.</span> Sur le café, <i>Paris</i>, 1815.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Galland, A.</span> De l'origine et du progrez du café. Sur un manuscrit +arabe de la Bibliothéque du Roy. <i>Paris</i>, 1699.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Galland, Antoine.</span> A treatise upon the origin of coffee. <i>London</i>, +1695.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gentil, M.</span> Dissertation sur le caffé. 1787. 180 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Georgius, J.C.S.</span> De coffee. <i>Tubingæ</i>, 1752.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Girard, A.L.</span> Les sucres, le café, le thé, le chocolat. <i>Paris</i>, +1907. 96 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gmelin, John George.</span> Dissertation de coffee. <i>Tubingæ</i>, 1752.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gray, Arthur</span>, comp. Over the black coffee. <i>New York</i>, 1902. 108 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gubian, J.M.A.</span> Sur le café. <i>Paris</i>, 1814.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guillot, A.</span> Le café. <i>Toulon</i>, 1883.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hewitt, Robert, Jr.</span> Coffee: its history, cultivation, and uses. +<i>New York</i>, 1872. 102 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Houghton, John.</span> Account of coffee. 1699.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hull, E.C.P.</span> Coffee, its physiology, history and cultivation. +<i>Madras</i>, 1865.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">James, Robert.</span> Treatise on tobacco, tea, coffee and chocolate. +<i>London</i>, 1745.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jardin, Edélestan.</span><a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a> Le caféier et le café, monographie +historique, scientifique et commerciale de cette rubiacée. <i>Paris</i>, +1895. 413 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jomand, J.</span> Du café. <i>Paris</i>, 1860.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Keable, B.B.</span> Coffee from grower to consumer. <i>London</i>, 1910. 120 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Koebel, Rothery and Tweney</span>, editors. Enciclopedia de la America del +Sur. Coffee in South America, v. II: 14. <i>London</i> and <i>Buenos +Aires.</i>, 1913.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kramers, J.G.</span> Waarnemingen en beschouwingen naar aanleiding van +eene reis in de koffie. <i>Batavia</i>, 1898. 101 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kruger, John G.</span> Gedanken, vom Kaffee, Thee und Taback. 1743.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Labat, Le P.</span> Traité de la culture du café, dans un nouveau voyage +aux iles de l'Amérique. <i>Paris</i>, 1722.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lalou.</span> Du café: son origine, le temps de sa découverte et celui ou +l'on commence à en faire usage. <i>Rouen</i>, 1843.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Law, W.</span> The history of coffee, including a chapter on chicory. +<i>London</i>, 1850.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Le Ple, A.</span> Le café: histoire, science, hygiène. <i>Rouen</i>, 1877. 38 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lock, Charles George Warnford.</span> Coffee: its culture and commerce in +all countries. <i>London</i>, 1888. 264 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lodge, J.L.</span> Coffee. <i>Birmingham</i>, 1894. 14 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Maatschappij</span> tot nut van't algemeen. Bijdragen tot de kennis van de +voornaamste voortbrengselen van Nederlandsch Indië. <i>Amsterdam</i>, +1860–61. v. II. De koffij.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Macé, C.</span> Du café. <i>Paris</i>, 1853.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marcus, C.J.</span> De coffea. <i>Leipzig</i>, 1837.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Martínez, Emiliano.</span> Memoria sobre el café; su cultivo, beneficio, +maquinas en uso, escojida, exijencias de los mercados, y otros +conocimientos utiles. 2 ed. <i>Nueva Orleans</i>, 1887. 61 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Meyner.</span> Traité sur le café. 1624.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Miedan, C.</span> Du café. <i>Paris</i>, 1862.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Moreira, N.J.</span> Breve consideraçoes sobre historia e cultura do +caféeiro e consume de seus productes. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, 1873.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nairon, Antoine Faustus.</span> De saluberrima potione cahue, seu café +nuncupata discursus. <i>Romae</i>, 1671.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_750" id="Page_750">[Pg 750]</a></span>—— A discourse on coffee; its description and vertues. (Tr. from +Latin by C.B.) <i>London</i>, 1710.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Natur</span> gemæssige Beschreibung der Coffee, etc. <i>Hamburg</i>, 1684.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Niebuhr, Karstens.</span> Description de l'Arabie. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1774.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Travels through Arabia performed. <i>London</i>, 1792.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Neubert, J.</span> Der Kaffee. <i>Würzburg</i>, 1838.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Novi</span> tractatus de potu caphé; de chinensium thé; et de chocolata. +<i>Genevæ</i>, 1699.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Oldmixon, John.</span> Het Britannische ryk in Amerika, zynde eene +beschryving van de ontdekking, bevolking, inwoonders, het klimaat, +den koophandel, en tegenwoordigen staat van alle de Britannische +coloniën, in dat gedeelte der wereldt. Uit het Engelsch, als mede +een omstandig Berecht aangaande de koffy en koffy-plantery uit het +Fransch vertaald. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1721. 2v.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pan American Union.</span> Coffee. <i>Washington</i>, D. C. 1901.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paulli, S.</span> A treatise on tobacco, tea, coffee and chocolate.... +(tr. by Dr. James) <i>London</i>, 1746.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Penilleau, Auguste.</span> Étude sur le café, au point de vue historique, +physiologique, hygiénique et alimentaire. <i>Paris</i>, 1864. 90 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pennetier, G.</span> Le café. <i>Paris</i>, 1878.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Peters, F.</span> De potu caffi. <i>Giessæ Hassorum</i>, 1666.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pringle, W.</span> Science and coffee. <i>Madras</i>, 1897. 66 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Quélus, de.</span> Histoire naturelle du cacao, et du café, etc. +<i>Amsterdam</i>, 1720.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ramsey (Rumsey), Walter.</span> Organum salutis; or experiments on the +virtue of coffee and tobacco. <i>London</i>, 1657.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Raoul, Édouard François Armand.</span> Culture du caféier, semis, +plantations, taille, cueillette, de pulpation, décorticage, +expédition, commerce, espèces et races. 2 ed. <i>Paris</i>, 1897. 251 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Reichenbach, Anton Benedict.</span> Der Kaffeebaum, seine Verbreitung, +Kulturgeschichte und natürliche Beschaffenheit, der Kaffeehandel +und die Consumtion des Kaffee's, seine medicinische Anwendung, die +Kaffeesurrogate und der Anbau der gangbarsten Sorten. <i>Berlin</i>, +1867. 92 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rendle, A.B.</span> and <span class="smcap">W.G. Freeman</span>. Encyclopedia Britannica. 11th ed. v. +6: 646.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Robin, L.</span> Mémoire sur le café, sur sa culture, son commerce, ses +propriétés physiologiques, thérapeutiques et alimentaires. +<i>Abbeville</i>, 1864.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Roques, Joseph.</span> Traité historique de l'origine et de progres du +café, tant dans l'Europe, de son introduction en France et de +l'etablissement de son usage à Paris. <i>Paris</i>, 1715.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rumford</span>, Count (<span class="smcap">Benjamin Thompson</span>). Of the excellent qualities of +coffee, and the art of making it in the highest perfection. Essay +XVIII. pp. 155–207.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Splitzerber.</span> Drey Tractate von Café, Thé und Chocolate. <i>Budissin</i>, +1688.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Spon, J.</span> De l'usage du caphé, du thé, et du chocolat. <i>Paris</i>, +1671.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tarr, A.</span> De coffea. <i>Pestini</i>, 1836. Hungarian text.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Thompson, Benjamin.</span> (See <span class="smcap">Rumford</span>, Count.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Thompson, William Gilman.</span> Coffee. Composition; method of +preparation; physiological action; adulteration; substitutes. In +his, Practical dietetics, 1909. pp. 252–257.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Thurber, Francis Beatty.</span> Coffee: from plantation to cup. <i>New +York</i>, 1881. 416 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Togni, M.</span> Raccolta delle singolari qualitá del caffè. <i>Venetia</i>, +1675.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van den Berg, Norbert Pieter.</span> Historical-statistical notes on the +production and consumption of coffee. <i>Batavia</i>, 1880. 92 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Vilardebo, J.</span> El tabaco y el café. <i>Barcelona</i>, 1888. 142 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Walsh, Joseph M.</span> Coffee: its history, classification and +description. <i>Philadelphia</i>, 1894. 309 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Welter, H.</span> Essai sur l'histoire du café. <i>Paris</i>, 1868.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ahlenius, Karl.</span> Kaffe, te och rörsocker, deras ursprungliga hem och +viktigaste produktionsområden. Ymer, 1903, XXIII: 242–268.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bannister, Richard.</span> Sugar, coffee, tea and cocoa, their origin, +preparation, and uses. Journal of the Society of Arts, XXXVIII: +1000–1014.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Branson, W.P.</span> Coffee. Journal of the Society of Arts, 1874, XXII: +456–461.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee.</span> Leisure Hour, 1882, XXXI: 45–48.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> King. Chambers' Journal, LXXXII: 23.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> infusion. Medical Standard, 1913, XXXVI: 52–56.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Jussieu.</span> Histoire du café. Histoire de l'Académie Royal des +Sciences, 1713; Mémoires, 1716: 291.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dewey, Stoddard.</span> How coffee came to Paris. English Illustrated +Magazine, 1898, XX: 312–315.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ferris, W.M.</span> Coffee. Nation, XXXIV: 192; Leisure Hour, XXXI: 45.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guérin, P.</span> Le café. Revue Scientifique, 1908, ser. 5. X: 486–494.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harris, William B.</span> Some coffees of today. Good Housekeeping, 1913, +LVII: 264–268.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Heraud, Aug. Fred.</span> Le café. Science et Nature, Feb. 28, 1885, p. +209.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">History</span> and cultivation of coffee. Godey's Lady's Book, LIV: 51.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hoffman, Paul.</span> Aus dem ersten Jahrhundert des Kaffees. Zeitschrift +für Kulturgeschichte, 1901, VIII: 405–441, IX: 90–104.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jackson, J.R.</span> Coffee. Nature, 11: 126; Blackwells' Magazine, LXXV: +86; Household Words, V: 562; Penny Magazine, 1: 49.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lesson, René-Primevère.</span> Précis historique, botanique, médical et +agronomique sur le café. Annual Mar. et Col., 1820: 842.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marshall, W.B.</span> Coffee, its history and commerce; an outline. +American Journal of Pharmacy, 1902, LXXIV: 361–374.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Om</span> Kaffe, dess historica och användning. Helsovännen, 1887, II: +157–163.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pictorial</span> History of coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1918, XXXIV: 26–28; 124–127; XXXV: 116–125; 526–534; 1919, XXXVI: +322–324; 515–516; XXXVII: 140–145.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tuckermann, C.K.</span> Coffee drinking in eastern Europe. North American +Review, 1889, CXLVIII: 643–645.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ukers, William H.</span> Better teas and coffees. Good Housekeeping, 1911, +LIII: 495–498. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XXI: +274–276.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— A talk on coffee. Good Housekeeping, 1908, XLVI: 532–536.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Tea and coffee economies. Joe Chapple's News Letter, 1913, I: +9. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 476–477.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">World's</span> drink. Review of Reviews, 1909, XXXIX: 109–110.</p> + + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_751" id="Page_751">[Pg 751]</a></span><br />LITERATURE, POETRY, ROMANCE</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Abd-al-Kâdir, Ansâri Djezeri Hanbali.</span> Des preuves les plus fortes +en faveur de la légitimité de l'usage du café, in chréstomathie +arabe, par Sylvestre de Sacy. <i>Paris</i>, 1806.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Barotti, L.</span> Il caffé (poem). Esprit des Journaux, 1681, 110–120.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Blondeau.</span> Étrennes littéraires aux grands hommes ou l'empire du +café, poême en 10 chants. <i>Paris</i>, date unknown.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— L'empire du café et le rapport de son influence sur l'esprit +les moeurs et l'économie animale, poême en 4 chants. <i>Paris</i>, 1824.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bouquet</span> blanc et le bouquet noir, Le, poisie en 4 chants. 60 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brady. Cyrus Townsend.</span> A corner in coffee. <i>New York</i>, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Caffee</span> die schonste Panacee, in einem Lobgedicht über die wunder +baie Heikraft des nectarischen Caffeetranks. 1775. 23 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Character</span> of a coffee house, with the symptoms of a town-wit. +<i>London</i>, 1673; in Harleian Miscellany, VI: 429.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Character</span> of coffee and coffee houses. Hazlitt's Handbook to +Popular Literature, 1661.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> and crumpets; a poem. Frasers' Magazine, XV: 316.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> houses vindicated: in answer to the late published character +of a coffee house. <i>London</i>, 1675; also in Harleian Miscellany, VI: +433.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> scuffle; occasioned by a contest between a learned knight +and a pitifull pedagogue, with the character of a coffee house. +Printed and are to be sold at the Salmon coffee house, neer the +stocks market, (London), 1662. Verses by Woolnoth or Sir J. Langham +and Evans, a school-master.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Gourcuff, O.</span> Le café, épître attribué a Senecé. <i>Nantes</i>, 1888. +19 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Mery, C.</span> Le café, poême: accompagné de documents historiques sur +le café, sur son origine, sur son commerce et sur les peuples +d'Orient qui font specialement usage du café. <i>Rennes</i>, 1837. 204 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">D'Israeli, Isaac.</span> Curiosities of literature. <i>London</i>, 1824. +Contains article on, Introduction of tea, coffee and chocolate, in +which the following items are mentioned: (1) An Arabic and English +pamphlet on The nature of the drink, kouhi or coffee, pub. at +<i>Oxford</i>, 1569; (2) A cup of coffee, or coffee in its colours, a +satirical poem (quoted), 1663; (3) A broadside against coffee or +the marriage of the Turk (quoted), 1672; (4) The women's petition +against coffee, 1674.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Drumont, E.</span> Les cafés et les restaurants d'autrefois. Magasin +Littéraire, X: 264.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Excellent</span> virtue of that sober drink coffee, The. Popular ballad of +the 17th century. Broadsheet.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Geyer, E.E.</span> An potus café dicti vestigia in Hebræos sacræ scripturæ +codice reperiantur? Dissertation. <i>Wittebergiæ</i>, 1740.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Goldoni, Carlo.</span> La bottega di caffè. <i>Venice</i>, 1750.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Laguerre, J.N.</span> Essai sur le café. <i>Paris</i>, 1818.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Le Page, Aug.</span> Les cafés politiques et littéraires de Paris. 1874.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Massieu, G.</span> Carmen caffaeum. <i>Paris</i>, 1740.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Melaye, S.</span> Éloge du café. (A song.) <i>Paris</i>, 1852. 4 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Miller, James.</span> The coffee-house. A dramatick piece. <i>London</i>, 1737. +38 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Poem</span> in Latin, A, on coffee; is found in the Abbé Olivier's, +Collection of modern Latin poets; and in, Étrennes à tous les +amateurs du café, <i>Paris</i>, 1790, in which a French translation is +printed facing the Latin text; <i>also</i> Il caffè, in Poemetti +Italiana, vol. 3, 1797.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rebellious</span> antidote: or a dialogue between coffee and tea: <i>verse</i>, +1685.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rosseau, J.B.</span> Le caffé, comédie. 1695. 56 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schotel, G.D.J.</span> Letterkundige bijdragen tot de geschiedenis van den +tabak, de koffij en de thee. <i>'s Gravenhage</i>, 1848. 215 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">St. Serfe, Thomas.</span> Taruga's wiles, or the coffee house; a comedy. +<i>London</i>, 1668.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Smyth, Philip.</span> The coffee house; a characteristic poem. <i>London</i>, +1795.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Steele, Sir Richard.</span> On characters in coffee houses. Spectator, No. +49.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Voltaire, F.M.A. de.</span> The coffee-house; or, Fair fugitive. A comedy. +<i>London</i>, 1760.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ward, Edward.</span> The humours of a coffee house. <i>London</i>, 1714.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />MANUFACTURING PROCESSES</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Brewing</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Aborn, Edward.</span> Better coffee making. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1912, Supplement to No. 6, XXIII: 49–52; 1913, XXV: 568–574; 1919, +XXIX: 553–556.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Better coffee for the army. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1918, XXXV: 622–624.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— On boiling coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, +XXXVI: 48–49.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Coffee-making developments. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1914, XXVII: 550–556.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— On coffee grinding and brewing. Yesterday, today and tomorrow +in better coffee making. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: +570–576.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bacon, Raymond F.</span> Efficiency of coffee-making devices. Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 427–429.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Best</span> method of making coffee. Journal of Home Economics, 1914, VI: +480–481.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bonnette.</span> Préparation du café en campagne, filtré "en rognon" +adapté à une marmite de campement. Revue d'Hygiène, 1911, XXXIII: +459–462. <i>Also</i>, in Spanish, Revista de Sanidad militar, 1911, ser. +3, I: 427–429.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boyes, E.</span> How to obtain an ideal cup of coffee; its cost and value. +<i>London</i>, 1898. 16 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Broadbent, Humphrey.</span> The domestick coffee man, shewing the true way +of preparing and making chocolate, coffee and tea. <i>London</i>, 1722.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> making questionnaire. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1917, XXXII: 31–34.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre.</span> Translation by John Chamberlayne. The +manner of making coffee, tea, and chocolate. As it is used in most +parts of Europe, Asia, Africa and Spanish America. Newly done out +of French and Spanish. <i>London</i>, 1685. 116 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ellis, H.D.</span> Notes on the earliest form of coffee-pot. Preceedings +of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 1899, ser. 2, XVII: +390–394.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Forest, L.</span> L'art de faire le café du cuit a l'ancienne. <i>Paris.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frankel, E.M.</span> Coffee making comparisons. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXII: 336–337.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_752" id="Page_752">[Pg 752]</a></span><span class="smcap">Frankel, F. Hulton.</span> Value of coffee brews. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 238.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gentil, A.A.P.</span> Dissertation sur le café et sur les moyens propres à +prevenir les effets qui resultant de sa préparation, communément +vicieuse, et en rendre la boisson plus agréable et plus salubre. +<i>Paris</i>, 1797.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Giraud, A.</span> Cafés de Paris, procédés uniques pour la préparation du +café, glorias, grogs a l'americaine. <i>Paris</i>, 1853. 75 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harris, William B.</span> Coffee making comparisons. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXII: 336–337.</p> + +<p class="hang1">How to make a cup of coffee. Godey's Lady's Book, LXIII: 107. +<i>Also</i>, Sharpe's London Magazine, XLIV: 259.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Masson</span>, Abbé. Le café, ses propriétés, manière nouvelles de la +préparer. <i>Epernay</i>, 1885. 24 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Masson, P.</span> Le parfait limonadier, ou la manière de préparer le thé, +lecaffé, le chocolat. <i>Paris</i>, 1705.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Meitzky, J.H.</span> De vario coffeæ potum parandi modo. <i>Wittebergiæ</i>, +1782.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">T., C. de.</span> Café français: recette économique. <i>Paris</i>, 1824.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wilhelm, R.C.</span> "Drip" method the best. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1916, XXXI: 338–339.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Willcox, O.W.</span> About coffee-making methods. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1913, XXV: 618–620.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Woodruff, Sybil.</span> Standard strength in coffee brews. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 133–137.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">World's</span> largest coffee brewery. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1919, XXXVI: 230–233.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Glazing</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dannemiller, A.J.</span> Coffee coating upheld. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1914, XXVII: 556–557.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harris, William B.</span> Green and roast coffees, the adulteration and +misbranding thereof. American Grocer, Nov. 19, 1913: 19–20.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Krzizan, R.</span> Ueber Eiweiss-Kaffeeglasur. Zeitschrift für Nahrungs- +und Genussmittel, 1906, XII: 213–216.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schaer, E.</span> Notizen über die Firnisierung von Kaffeebohnen. +Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906, +XII: 60.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Willcox, O.W.</span> Concerning glazed coffees. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1914, XXVI: 340–341.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cultured</span> coffee activities. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1921, +XLI: 456–458.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Giraud, A.</span> Le café perfectionné. <i>Paris</i>, 1846.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harris, William B.</span> Making coffee for the consumer. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1914, XXVI: 335–338.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">How</span> soluble coffee is made. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1921, +XLI: 162–166.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Preparation</span> of coffee for use. Penny Magazine, III: 228.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Walker, J.</span> Handbook of coffee pulpers and pulping. <i>Kandy, Ceylon</i>, +1894: 36 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Modifications, Caffein-Free, etc.</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Daniels, Clinton K.</span> Daniels' golden coffee. 1882, 3 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Detoxication</span> of coffee. Scientific American, Mar. 27, 1915, CXII: +292.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Non-Toxic</span> coffee and tea. Scientific American, Nov. 13, 1909, CI: +346.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wimmer, K.</span> Caffeinless coffee. Scientific American, Apr. 11, 1908, +XCVIII: 258.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Polishing and Coloring</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Halleux, Edmond.</span> Le commerce des cafés avariés colorés ou enrobés. +Annales des Falsifications, 1909, II, No. 7: 201–206.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morpurgo, G.</span> Notizie sulla colorazione artificiale del caffè e sui +mezzi scoprirla. <i>Orosi</i>, 1897, XX: 397–403.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Raumer, E. von.</span> Ueber den Nachweis künstlicher Färbungen bei +Rohkaffee. Forschungs-Berichte über Lebensmittel, 1896, III: +333–338.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sauvage, Édouard.</span> Note sur les cafés verts lustrés-colorés. Leur +rôle commercial. Annales des Falsifications, 1910, III: 113–117.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Roasting and Grinding</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ach, F.J.</span> Roasting costs and accounting. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXIII: 133.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brand, Carl W.</span> Increased packing costs. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXXI: 567–570.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Burns, A. Lincoln.</span> Factory efficiency. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXIII: 30–33.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dausse.</span> Manuel de l'amateur du café, ou l'art de torréfier les +cafés convenablement, basé sur l'analyse chèmique. <i>Paris</i>, 1846.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Electric</span> coffee roasting in Germany. Electrical World, 1906, +XLVIII: 117–178.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Evolution</span> of the coffee roaster. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1910, XVIII: 390–392.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gillies, Edwin J.</span> Getting a roasting profit. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII: 65–68.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Holstad, S.H.</span> Keeping tab on costs. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXIII: 68–70.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">King, John E.</span> Grinding and packing coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 552–555.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Knowlton, H.S.</span> Power installation of a coffee-roasting and +spice-grinding plant. Electrical World, 1905, XLV: 678–681.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McGarty, M.J.</span> Scientific coffee roasting. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXXI: 336–337.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Turcq Des Rosiers, Le.</span> Le café: une révolution dans ses procédés de +torréfaction. <i>Paris</i>, 1890.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wilhelm, R.C.</span> The color of the roast. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXXI: 428–429.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wright, George S.</span> Automatic weighing tests. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 568–570.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zinsmeister, Lee G.</span> Roasting economies. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1914, XXVII: 558–561; 1915, XXIX: 545–550.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />MEDICINAL QUALITIES AND USES</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">As Antiseptic and Disinfectant</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Barbier.</span> Le café comme désinfectant. Journal de Médecine et +Pharmacie de l'Algérie, 1881, VI: 315–318.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Crane, W.H.</span> and <span class="smcap">Friedlander, A.</span> The antiseptic qualities of coffee. +American Medicine, 1903, VI: 403–407.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Heim, L.</span> Ueber den antiseptischen Werth des gerösteten Kaffees. +Münchener medicinische Wochenschrift, 1886, XXXIV: 293–312.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Oppler.</span> Der Kaffee als Antisepticum. Deutsche militärärztliche +Zeitschrift, 1885, XIV: 567–577.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_753" id="Page_753">[Pg 753]</a></span><span class="smcap">General</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Aignant ou Aignan.</span> Le preste médecin, avec un traité du thé, du +café, en France. <i>Paris</i>, 1606.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">B., W.</span> Coffee, its origin, properties and virtues. <i>London</i>, 1908.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Blegny, N. de.</span> Le bon usage du thé, café et du chocolat pour la +prevention et la guerison des maladies. <i>Paris</i>, 1687.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boutekoë, Corneille.</span> Le thé, le café, et le chocolat. 1699.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bradley, Richard.</span> The virtue and use of coffee, with regard to the +plague, and other infectious distempers. <i>London</i>, 1721. 34 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brillié, L.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Dupré, E.</span> Étude sur les cafés. Communication a la +Société française d'hygiène. <i>Paris</i>, 1889.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chicou, T.</span> Du café en hygiène et en thérapeutique. <i>Paris</i>, 1859.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Daupley, C.E.</span> Étude sur le café; ses applications à la médecine. +<i>Paris</i>, 1867.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Eloy, Nicholas F.J.</span> Question médico-politique, si l'usage de café +est avantageux à la santé, et s'il peut se conciler avec le bien de +l'état dans les provinces belgique. 1781.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fontaine.</span> Hernie traité par l'infusion de café. <i>Paris</i>, 1865.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Landarrhilco, Osmin.</span> Nouvelles propriétès thérapeutiques du café +vert dans les affections du foie, les coliques hépatiques et le +diabètè. <i>Montpellier</i>, 1888.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Leconte, A.H.</span> Emploi du café thérapeutique. <i>Strasbourg</i>, 1859.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Magri, D.</span> Virtu del Kafe, bevanda introdotta nuovamente nell' +Italia. 2 ed. <i>Roma</i>, 1671, 16 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marvaud, Angel.</span> Les boissons aromatiques. Le café. In his, Les +aliments d'épargne, <i>Paris</i>, 1874. 2 pt., pp. 292–320.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Munday (Mundy), Henry.</span> Opera omnia—Physica de aere vitali, +esculentis, et potutentis, cum appendice de pasergris in victu et +chocolatu, thea, coffea, tobaco. <i>Leyden</i>, 1685.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Petit, H.</span> De la prolongation de la vie humaine par le café. 2 éd. +<i>Paris</i>, 1862.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Richet, Ch.</span> Les poisons de l'intelligence, l'alcool, le +chloroforme, le haschich, l'opium, le café. <i>Paris</i>, 1877.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trifet, A.</span> Du café, de ses effets sur l'homme. <i>Paris</i>, 1847.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Villemus, A.</span> Du café et de ses principales applications +thérapeutiques. <i>Paris</i>, 1875.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Virey, J.J.</span> Nouvelles considérations sur l'histoire et les effets +hygiéniques du cafés et sur le genre coffea. <i>Paris</i>, 1816.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weiss, C.C.</span> Coffee arabica nach seiner zerstörenden Wirkung auf +animalische Dünste als Schutzmittel gegen Contagion vorschlagen. +<i>Friberg</i>, 1832.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Alleged</span> medicinal properties of the husk of the coffee bean, The +Lancet, 1902, II: 944.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Balzac.</span> Traité des excitants modernes. Alcool, sucre, thé, café, +tabac. Extrait fact. de la Revue de Paris. 1852.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Beneficial</span> effects of coffee as a drink. Review of Reviews, 1906, +XXXIII: 245–246.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boltenstern, von.</span> Zur Bewerkung des Kaffees als Volksgenussmittel. +Deutsche Arzte-Zeitung, 1905, 457–461.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Caron, D.A.</span> Coffee and milk as a diet. Journal of Franklin +Institute, LXIV: 349.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dalson, A.T.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Wetherill, C.M.</span> Coffee as a beverage. Journal of +Franklin Inst. LX: 60–111.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dombrovski, I.F.</span> Kofe i yevo liechebniya svoista. (Coffee and its +medical properties.) Vrachebnaya Gazeta, 1901, VIII: 733–736.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dujardin-Beaumetz.</span> On new cardiac medicaments. Therapeutic Gazette, +1884, n. s. V: 444–449.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dusart, O.</span> Étude critique sur l'action physiologique et +thérapeutique des médicaments dits antidéperditeurs: café, coca, +etc. Tribune médicale, 1874, VII: 197–200.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">English, W.</span> Reply to objections against the use of tea and coffee. +Lancet, 1833–4, II: 75.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Goliner.</span> Ueber unschädlichen Kaffeegenuss. Frauenarzt, 1906, XXI: +205.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Griswold, E.H.</span> Coffee, its uses and medical qualities. Southern +Practitioner, 1882, IV: 269.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hamilton, W.</span> On the medical properties of the coffee arabica. +Pharmaceutical Journal, 1851, X: 450–454.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Holland, J.W.</span> Coffee as a preventive for malarial diseases. +Louisville Medical News, 1876, I: 63–65.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hornemann, E.</span> Kaffe-Sporgsmaalet. (Hygienic value of coffee.) +Hygieniske Meddelelser, <i>Kjbenhavn</i>, 1864. IV: pt. 3, 286–310.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Medicinal</span> properties of the husk of the coffee bean. Scientific +American Supplement, Mar. 7, 1903, LV: 22–123.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">On</span> the medical properties of coffea arabica. Pharmaceutical +Journal, X: 450–454.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paul, J.</span> On coffee, its medical, disinfecting, and dietetic +properties. New Jersey Medical Reporter, 1851–2, V: 265, 297.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Roques, J.</span> Note sur les propriétés médicales du café. Bulletin +général de Thérapeutique, 1835, VIII: 289–294.</p> + +<p class="hang1">"<span class="smcap">S. Culapius.</span>" The healthfulness of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1913, XXV: 27–28, 129–130, 239–240, 345–346, 449–450; +1914, XXVI: 137–138.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Squibb.</span> Tea and coffee as therapeutic substitutes for coca and +guarana. Ephemeris of Materia Medica, 1884, II: 637–647.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Stutzer, A.</span> Neues über die Wirkung der daraus hergestellten +Getränke in gesundheitlicher Beziehung. Centralblatt für allgemeine +Gesundheitspflege, 1892, XI: 145–151.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weitenweber, W.R.</span> Diätetischmedicinische Würdigung des Caffees. +Oesterreichische medicinische Wochenschrift, 1845, pp. 1551, 1583.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Therapeutische Abhandlung über den Caffee. Medicinische +Jahrbücher des kaiserl. königl. österreichischen Staates. 1846. +LVIII: 1, 139.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">General Use and Misuse, Coffee-Habit, Etc.</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Alcott, William Alexander.</span> Tea and coffee: their physical, +intellectual, and moral effects on the human system, rev. ed. +<i>Manchester</i>, 1877. 31 pp. Also in German, <i>Berlin</i>, 1869.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boehmer, G.R.</span> Pr.... inessentiæ coffeæ in novellis publicis nuper +commendatæ virtutem inquirit. <i>Wittebergae</i>, 1782.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bomby, R.</span> Le caféisme. <i>Paris</i>, 1905.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bona, G. Dalla.</span> Dell' uso e dell' abuso del caffè, dissertazione +storico-fisico-medica. <i>Verona</i>, 1751.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boucard, E.</span> Du caféisme; contribution à une étude synthetique. +<i>Paris</i>, 1899.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Braeuninger, J.M.</span> De potus caffè usu et abusu. <i>Erfordiae</i>, 1725.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bruchman, Francis Ernest.</span> A treatise on coffee and a condemnation +of its use. <i>Brunswick</i>, 1727.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_754" id="Page_754">[Pg 754]</a></span><span class="smcap">Buc'hoz, P.J.</span> Dissertation sur l'utilité et les bons et mauvaises +effets du tabac, du café, du cacao et du thé. <i>Paris</i>, 1775.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Calkins, A.</span> Opium and opium appetite, with notices of alcoholic +beverages, Cannabis indica, tobacco and coca, and tea and coffee, +in their hygienic aspects and pathologic relations. <i>New York</i>, +1871.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Calvert, Esprit.</span> An potus café quotidianus valetudini tuendæ vitæ +que producendæ noxius? <i>Avenione</i>, 1762.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Camerarius, E.</span> Dissertationes tres, exhibentes ... III. Usum et +abusum potum, "Thée," et "Caffè" in his regionibus. <i>Tubingæ</i>, +1694.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cathomas, J.B.</span> Ist der Kaffee und Teegenuss gesundheitsschädlich? +<i>St. Gallen</i>, 1910.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Crothers, T.D.</span> (Effects of the coffee habit.) In his, Morphinism +and narcomanias from other drugs. 1902, pp. 303–305.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Davier</span> de <span class="smcap">Breville, J.P.</span> An a frequentiori potu café vita brevior? +<i>Paris</i>, 1715.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Debay, A.</span> Les influences du chocolat, du thé et du café sur +l'économie humaine. <i>Paris</i>, 1864.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Jussieu, Joseph.</span> Litteratis ne salubris coffeæ usus. <i>Paris</i>, +1741.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Deltel, É.</span> Du café, de ses effets physiologiques, et de son emploi +en thérapeutique. <i>Paris</i>, 1851.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Duncan, Daniel.</span> Wholesome advice against the abuse of hot liquors, +particularly coffee, tea, chocolate, brandy and strong waters. +<i>London</i>, 1706.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Garnier, A.</span> Inaestio medica ... discutienda in Scholis Medicarum +... Joanne-Francisco Couthier, Praeside: An parisinio frequento +potus thé, frequenti potu caffé salubrior? <i>Paris</i>, 1749. 4 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gayant, L.</span> An a frequentiori potu café vita brevior? <i>Paris</i>, 1715.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Germany. Kaiserliches Gesundheitsamt.</span> Der Kaffee; gemeinfassliche +Darstellung der Gewinnung, Verwertung und Beurteilung des Kaffees +und seiner Ersatzstoffe. <i>Berlin</i>, 1903. 174 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gleditsch, J.G.</span> De potus cofè abusu catalogum morborum augente. +<i>Lipsiae</i>, 1744.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Grimmann, J.N.</span> De coffee potus usu noxio. 1730.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Günther, Leo.</span> Der Caffee als Hausgetrank. Eine Warnung. <i>Leipzig</i>, +1907.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hahnemann, S.</span> A treatise on the effects of coffee. <i>Louisville</i>, +1875.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Handbook</span> of the medical sciences. Article on coffee, v. III: p. +190.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hilscherus, S.P.</span> Pr ... de abusu potus caffee in sexu sequiori. +<i>Jena</i>, 1727.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Huss, M.</span> Om kaffe, dess bruk och missbruk; en folkskrift. +<i>Stockholm</i>, 1865.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Husson, C.</span> Le café, la bière et le tabac. Étude physiologique et +chèmique. <i>Paris</i>, 1879. 206 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Klamann, Carl</span>, publisher. Der Kaffee in seiner heutigen Bedeutung +als Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. <i>Hamburg</i>, 1882. 48 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Knoll, J.C.G.</span> Lettre à un ami sur les opérations du caffé. +<i>Quedlinbourg</i>, 1752.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lavedan, Antonio.</span> Tratado de los usos, abusos propriedades y +virtudes del tabaco, café, té y chocolate. <i>Madrid</i>, 1796. 237 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lemare-Piquet, de Honfleur.</span> Etudes expérimentales de médecin, +contenant des observations sur l'action dynamique du café. <i>Paris</i>, +1864.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Linne, Carl von.</span> Dissertatio medica, in qua potus coffeæ, leviter +adumbratur. <i>Upsaliæ</i>, 1761. 18 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lorand, Arnold.</span> Coffee. In his, Health through rational diet. +<i>Philadelphia</i>, 1913. pp. 309–313. Excerpts reprinted in, Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXIV: 24–26.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— On other stimulants—tea, coffee, cocoa, tobacco: their merits +and disadvantages. In his, Old age deferred, <i>Philadelphia</i>, 1910. +pp. 362–367. Excerpts reprinted in, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1911, XX: 188–190.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mappus, M.</span> De potu café. <i>Argentorati</i>, 1693.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marchand, N.L.</span> Recherches organographiques et organogéniques sur le +coffea arabica. L. <i>Paris</i>, 1864. 48 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Masson, V.P.</span> De l'usage et de l'abus du thé et du café. <i>Paris</i>, +1848.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Medicus, G.F.</span> Anacrisis médico-historico-diaetetica de caffé et +chocalate, etc., 1720.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Meisner, L.F.</span> De caffé ... anacrisis médico-historico-diaetetica. +<i>Norimbergae</i>, 1721.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Méplain, F.</span> Du café, Étude de thérapeutique physiologique. <i>Paris</i>, +1868.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Michaelis, A.</span> De koffie (Coffea arabica) als genoten geneesmiddel, +naar hare botanische, dieĕtetische en geneeskrachtige +eigenschappen. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1894.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Moseley, B.M.</span> A treatise concerning the properties and effects of +coffee. <i>London</i>, 1785. 69 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Omout, R.</span> Contribution à l'étude du caféisme. <i>Montpellier</i>, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ottleben, F.B.</span> De potus ex coffeæ seminibus parati noxio effectu. +<i>Helmstadii</i>, 1870.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Plaz, A.G.</span> De potus cofè abusu catalogum morborum augente. +<i>Lipsiae</i>, 1763. <i>Also</i>, in his, De jucundis morborum causis, +<i>Lipsiae</i>, 1754. pp. 20–54.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Poore, G.V.</span> Coffee and tea. <i>London</i>, 1883. 44 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Prozorovski, I.D.</span> Vliyanïe kofe i nĭekotorîkh yevo surrogatov na +bolĭeznetvornîye nizshïe organizmî. (The effect of coffee and of +some of its substitutes upon pathogenic organisms.) <i>St. +Petersburg</i>, 1895.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rambaldi, A.</span> Ambrosia arabica, overo della salutare bevanda café. +<i>Bologna</i>, 1691.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Riant, Aimé.</span> Le café, le chocolat, le thé. <i>Paris</i>, 1875. 160 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Roche, A.</span> Du café noir et de la caféine au point de vue de l'action +physiologique et des applications à l'hygiène. <i>Montpellier</i>, 1873.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sabarthez, H.</span> Étude physiologique du café. <i>Paris</i>, 1870.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Saint-Arroman, A.</span> De l'action du café, du thé, et du chocolat sur +la santé, et de leur influence sur l'intelligence et le moral de +l'homme. <i>Bruxelles</i>, 1845. <i>Also</i> in English, <i>Philadelphia</i>, +1846. 90 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Saleeby, C.W.</span> Tea, coffee, cocoa and tobacco. In his, Health, +strength and happiness, <i>New York</i>, 1908. pp. 190–208. Reprinted +in, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1908, XV: 299–301</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Worry, drugs and drink. In his, Worry: the disease of the age, +<i>New York</i>, 1907. pp. 93–110. Excerpts reprinted in, Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1911, XX: 190–192.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Samuel, H.</span> De usu et abusu potus coffee. <i>Duisburgh ad Rhenum</i>, +1747.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schwarzkopf, S.A.</span> Der Kaffee in Naturhistorischer diaetetischer und +medicinischer Hinsicht, seine Bestandtheile, Anwendung, Wirkung und +Geschichte. <i>Weimer</i>, 1831.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Silvestri, Domenico.</span> Dissertazione chimico-medica sul caffé. +<i>Genova</i>, 1815.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_755" id="Page_755">[Pg 755]</a></span><span class="smcap">Sinclair, W.J.</span> Beverages: tea, coffee, etc. (Health lectures.) +<i>Manchester</i>, 1881.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Smith, Hugh.</span> An essay on the nerves ... to which is added an essay +on foreign teas, with observations on mineral waters, coffee, and +chocolate, etc. <i>London</i>, 1794.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sparschuch, H.</span> Potus coffeæ leviter adumbratur. <i>Upsaliæ</i>, 1761.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trifet, H.A.</span> Histoire et physiologie du café. De son action sur +l'homme à l'état de santé et à l'état de maladie. <i>Paris</i>, 1864.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van der Trappen, J.E.</span> Specimen historico-medicum de Coffea, etc. +Trajecti ad <i>Rhenum</i>, 1843. 152 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weidenbusch, N.</span> De noxis ex abusu potus caffé in corpore humano. +<i>Moguntiae</i>, 1769.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weigl, J.</span> Der Kaffeegenuss, eine Schädigung der Leistungsfähigheit. +<i>München</i>, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Kaffeetrinken und Gesundheit, 2 ed. <i>München</i>, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weitenweber, Wilhelm Rudolph.</span> Der arabische Kaffee, in +naturgeschichtlicher, chemischer, diätetischer und ärztlicher +Beziehung für aerzte und nichtärzte geschildert. <i>Prag</i>, 1837. 130 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zimmermann, Albrecht.</span> Eenige pathologische en physiologische +waarnemingen over koffie. <i>Batavia</i>, 1904. 105 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Abd-al-Kâdir Ansâri Djezeri Hanbali.</span> Auszug aus dem Werke: +Deutliche Darstellung über den erlaubten Gebrauch des Kaffee's; aus +dem Arabischen von Sontheimer. Wissenschaftliche Annalen der +gesammten Heilkunde, 1834, XXIX: 129–160.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Abelin, J.</span> and <span class="smcap">Perelstein, M.</span> Ueber die flüchtigen Bestandteile des +Kaffees. Münchener medicinische Wochenschrift, 1914, LXI: 867.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Amory, Robert.</span> Coffee as a beverage: its use and abuse. Boston +Medical and Surgical Journal, 1909, CLX: 611–613. <i>Also</i>, Journal +of Inebriety, 1910, XXXII: 23–27; Scientific American Supplement, +Jan. 1910, LXIX: 26–27.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Balland, A.</span> Les cafés. Annales d'Hygiéne, 1904, 4 ser., II: +497–532.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bardet, G.</span> Un cas d'empoisonnement aigu par le café. Bulletin +général de Thérapeutique, 1911, CLXII: 56–59.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bent, T.</span> On the disorders produced by the use of tea and coffee, +with remarks on their treatment. Lancet, 1843, I: 893.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boetticher, J.G.</span> Vertigo satis vehemens a nimio potu coffee, +aliisque in diaeta commissis erroribus. Acta physico-medica +Academiae Caesareae naturae curiosorum, etc. 1742, VI: 158–160.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boruttau, H.</span> Zur Frage der wirksamen Kaffeebestandteile. +Zeitschrift für physikalische und diätetische Therapie, 1908, XII: +138–145.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bouret, O.</span> Un nouveau cas de caféisme chronique. L'Écho médical du +Nord, 1902, VI: 171–173.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bram, I.</span> The truth about coffee drinking. Medical Summary, 1913, +XXXV: 168–173.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bridge, N.</span> Coffee-drinking as a frequent cause of disease. +Association of American Physicians, Transactions, 1893, VIII: +281–288.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cabanès.</span> Une légende sur le café. Journal de Médecin de Paris, +1892, 2 ser., IV: 511. <i>Also</i>, translated, Cincinnati +Lancet-Clinic, 1893, n. s. XXX: 13–17.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Charanne, H.</span> Coffee. Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey, +1911–2, VIII: 19–22.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cheever, D.W.</span> Properties of coffee. Atlantic Monthly, III: 35.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cole, J.</span> On the deleterious effects produced by drinking tea and +coffee in excessive quantities. Lancet, 1832–3, II: 274–478.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coletti, F.</span> Sull'azione del caffé. Gazzetta medica italiana, +provincie venete, 1862, V: 424, 429, 440, 458; 1863, VI: 20.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Combemale F.</span> Quelques réflexions à propos d'un cas de caféisme +chronique. Bulletin de la Société centrale de Médecine du Nord, +1900, 2 ser., IV: 77–87. <i>Also</i>, L'Écho médical du Nord, 1900, IV: +97–100.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Commaille, A.</span> Étude sur le café. Moniteur scientifique, 1876, 3 +ser., VI: 779–785.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coughlin, R.E.</span> Use and abuse of coffee. New York Medical Journal, +1911, XCIV: 283–285.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coulier.</span> Note sur le café. Recueil de Mémoires de Médecine, de +Chirurgie et de Pharmacie militaires, 1864, 3 ser., XI: 508–511.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cretal, M.</span> Un cas de caféisme chronique. Bulletin de la Société +centrale de Médecine du Nord, 1901, 2 ser., V: 165–167. <i>Also</i>, +L'Écho médical du Nord, 1901, V: 318.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Curschmann, H.</span> Ein Fall von Kaffee-intoxication. Deutsche Klinik, +1873, XXV: 377–380.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Daniel, M.</span> Die Schädlichkeit des Kaffees. Leipziger medizinische +Monatsschrift, 1907, XVI; 38–40.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">da Silva, P.J.</span> O café e a saude publica. Correiro (O) médico de +Lisboa, 1873–4, III: 282; 1874–5, IV: 27, 206.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dorvault.</span> Note pharmacologique sur le café et la caféine. Bulletin +général de Thérapeutique, 1850, XXXVIII: 498–502.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dupouy.</span> De l'influence du café au point de vue social et +hygiénique. Médecin, 1878, IV: no. 44, 1.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fegraeus, E.</span> Kaffee missbruket och folkhälian. (The misuse of +coffee and health.) Hälsovänner, 1913, XXVIII: 257–261.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fort, J.A.</span> Des effets physiologiques du café; d'après des +experiences faites sur l'auteur. Bulletin général de Thérapeutique, +1883, CIV: 550–554. <i>Also</i>, Comptes rendus de l'Académie des +Sciences, 1883, XCVI: 793–796.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frankel, F. Hulton.</span> Coffee truly a food. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXII: 142.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gasparin.</span> Sur le régime alimentaire des mineurs belges; influence +remarquable du café. Bulletin général de Thérapeutique, 1850, +XXXVIII: 380–383. <i>Also</i>, Comptes rendus de l'Académie des +Sciences, 1850, XXX: 397–403.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gilles de la Tourette</span>, and <span class="smcap">Gasne</span>. Sur l'intoxication chronique par +le café. Bulletin et Mémoires de la Société médicale des Hôpitaux, +1895, 3 ser., XII: 558–566.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gourewitsch, D.</span> Ueber des Verhalten des Coffeïn im Tierkörper mit +Rücksicht auf die Angewöhnung. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie +und Pharmakologie, 1907, LVII: 214–221.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guelliot, O.</span> Du caféisme chronique. Union médicale et scientifique +du Nord-Est, 1885, IX: 181, 221.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guimaraes, E.A.R.</span> Sur l'action physiologique du café. Comptes +rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1882, XCV: 1372–1374.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Sur l'action physiologique et hygiénique du café Archives de +Physiologie normale et pathologique, 1884, 3 ser., IV: 252–286.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— De l'usage et de l'abus du café. Archives de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_756" id="Page_756">[Pg 756]</a></span> Physiologie +normale et pathologique, 1883, 3 ser., I: 312–319.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guimaraes, E.A.R.</span> and <span class="smcap">Raposo, A.E.J.</span> Acção physiologica e +therapeutica do café. Gazeta medica brazileira, 1882, I: 121, 179, +228, 275.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">H., D.P.</span> An effect of coffee. British Medical Journal, 1910, I: +300.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hartwich, C.</span> Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Kaffees. Zeitschrift für +Untersuchung der Nahrungs-und Genussmittel, 1909, XVIII: 721–733.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Heinrich, J.B.</span> Die Kaffefrage in ihrer volkshygienischen und +volkswirtschaftlichen Bedeutung. Medizinische Klinik, 1906, II: +383–385. <i>Also</i>, in Dutch, Geneeskundige Courant voor het +Koningrijk der Nederlanden, 1907, LXI: 321.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Helrich.</span> Wypadki z naduzycia kawy. (On the abuse of coffee.) Gazeta +lekarska, 1870, IX: 257–262.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hennig, C.</span> Der Kaffee vom ärztlichen Standpunkte. Memorabilien. +Heilbroun, 1882, n. s., II: 217–221.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Weitere Belge für das Schädliche des orientalischen Kaffees +betreffs Gesunder. Memorabilien. Heilbroun, 1886, n. s., VI: 468.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hueppe, F.</span> Ueber den Missbrauch von Kaffe, Blätter für +Gesundheitspflege, 1906, VI: 121–126.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jackson, S.</span> On the influence upon health of the introduction of tea +and coffee in large proportion into the dietary of children and the +labouring classes. American Medical Association, Transactions, +1849, II: 635–644. <i>Also</i>, American Journal of Medical Science, +1849, n. s., XVIII: 79–86.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Karg.</span> Ueber den Kaffee. Archiv gemeinnütziger physischer und +medizinischer Kenntniss, 1788–9, II: 1, 584.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lehmann, Julius.</span> Ueber den Kaffee als Getränk in +chemisch-physiologischer Hinsicht. Annalen der Chemie, 1853, +LXXXVII: 205–217. <i>Also</i>, in English, Medical Examiner, 1854, X: +19, 98.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lereboullet, L.</span> Le caféisme. Gazette hebdomadaire de Médecine et +Chirurgie, 1885, 2 ser., XXII: 626–628.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lewis, Charles.</span> Educating the physician. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1914, XXVII: 544–547.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Liebig, J. von.</span> Coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1886, II. pt. 7, +412, 416. <i>Also</i>, in German, Zeitschrift für gerichtliche Medicin, +1867, III: 78, 88.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lloyd, John Uri.</span> Concerning coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1913, XXV: 555–560.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Love, I.N.</span> Coffee; its use and abuse. Journal of the American +Medical Association, 1891, XVI: 219–221.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mendel, F.</span> Die schädlichen Folgen des chronischen +Kaffeemissbrauchs. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1889, XXVI: +880–887.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Niles, George M.</span> A dietetist on coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1910, XIX: 27–29.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Some facts and fallacies about coffee. Gulf States Journal of +Medicine and Surgery, 1910, XVI: 352–357.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nyström, A.</span> Föredrag öfver kaffe och thé. Upsala Läkareforeninge +Förhandlingar, 1865–6, I: 129–132.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paolucci, F.</span> Dell' infusodi caffè. Il Raccoglitore médico, 1882, 4 +ser., XVIII: 531–541.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Papillon, G.E.</span> Accidents consécutifs à la suppression brusque du +café chez les caféiques; café et antipyrine. France médicale, 1899, +XLVI: 753.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Poulet, V.</span> Inconvénients de l'usage des caféiques. Bulletin médical +de Vosges, 1897–8, II, no. 45, 45–55.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Prescott, A.B.</span> Coffee in comparison with tea. Physician and +Surgeon, <i>Ann Arbor</i>, 1880, II: 337–343.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rabuteau.</span> Sur un moyen propre à annuler les effets de +l'alimentation insuffisante. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des +Sciences, 1870, LXXXI: 426–428.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Richardson, H.</span> The coffee habit. Dietetic and Hygienic Gazette, +1906, XXII: 385–389.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Roch, M.</span> La caféisme chronique. Archives des Maladies du Côeur, +1916. IX: 19–33. <i>Also</i>, Revue médicale de la Suisse Romande, 1914, +XXXIV: 217–219.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Scohy.</span> De l'action du café. Archives belges de Médecine militaires. +1857, XX: 183–189.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schürhoff.</span> Ist der maasvolle Gebrauch von Alkohol, Kaffee, Tabac +usw. dem Menschen schädlich? Deutsch-Amerikanische +Apotheker-Zeitung, 1911–2, XXXII: 4.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trigg, Charles W.</span> Coffee's dietetic value. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal; 1919, XXXVII: 270.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Saccharin in tea and coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1920, XXXVIII: 697.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Unzer, J.A.</span> Vom Caffee. Der Arzt, 1769, II: 126–139.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Use</span> of coffee as a beverage. Harper's Weekly, Jan. 21, 1911, LV: +26.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Viaud.</span> Le vertige stomacal et le caféisme. Tribune médicale, 2 +ser., XXIX: 928–930.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wallace.</span> On the decrease in use of coffee as a beverage. Analyst, +1884, IX: 42–44. <i>Also</i>, Polyclinic, 1883–4, I: 169.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wesselhoeft, W.</span> On the effects of coffee and their remedy. Journal +of Inebriety, 1909, XXXI: 176–182. <i>Also</i>, Boston Medical and +Surgical Journal, 1909, CLX: 608–611.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wiley, Harvey W.</span> Our national beverages. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXII, Supplement to no. 6, 33–38.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Temperance in tea and coffee drinking. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1910, XIX: 273–274.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wilhite, P.A.</span> Coffee and its effects. Transactions of the South +Carolina Medical Association, 1882, XXXII: 83–86.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zobel.</span> Reflexionen über kaffeeïnhaltige Genussmittel. +Vierteljahrsschrift für die praktische Heilkunde, 1858, II: +105–136.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Of Caffein-Free Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bertrand, Gabriel.</span> Sur les cafés sans caféine. Comptes rendus de +l'Académie des Sciences, 1905. CXLI: 209–211. <i>Also</i>, Bulletin des +Sciences Pharmacologiques, 1905, XII: 152.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bordet, M.</span> Sur un café rendu inoffensif par la décaféination. +Bulletin général de Thérapeutique, 1910, CLIX: 770–773.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chassevant, Allyre.</span> Emploi du café décaféiné en thérapeutique. +Bulletin général de Thérapeutique, 1912, CLXIV: 860–864.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Einfeldt, W.</span> Koffeïnfreier Kaffee. Therapeutische Neuheiten, 1909, +IV: 83–86.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Glücksmann, S.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Gérini, C.</span> Einige Untersuchungen über die +physiologische Wirkung von koffeïnfreien kaffee. Zeitschrift für +Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1910. XX: 100.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harnack, E.</span> Ueber den coffeïnfreien Kaffee Deutsche medizinische +Wochenschrift, 1908, XXXIV: 1943–1946; 1909, XXXV: 254.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_757" id="Page_757">[Pg 757]</a></span><span class="smcap">Kakisawa.</span> Kommt dem koffeïnfreien Kaffee eine diuretische Wirkung +su? Archiv für Hygiene, 1913, LXXXI: 43–47.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lehmann, K.B.</span> Die wirksamen und wertvollen Bestandteile des +Kaffeegetränks mit besonderer Berucksichtigung des koffëinfreien +Kaffees Hag. Münchner medizinische Wochenschrift, 1913, LX: 281, +357.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lehmann, K.B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Wilhelm, F.</span> Besitzt das Coffeon und die +coffeïnfreien Kaffeesurrogate eine kaffeeartige Wirkung. Archiv für +Hygiene, 1898, XXXII: 310–326.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lendrich, K.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Murdfield, R.</span> Coffeïnfreier Kaffee. Zeitschrift +für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1908, XV: 705–715.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Merck's</span> manual of the materia medica. 4th ed. <i>New York</i>, 1911. +Dekofa, pt. I, p. 28.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Munz, P.</span> Kaffeïnfreier Kaffee, ein neues Genussmittel. Arzt als +Ersieher, 1908, IV: 40.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Reinsch.</span> Kaffeïnfreier Kaffee. Berichte des Stadt Untersuchungs +Amtes Altona, 1906.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schlesinger, E.</span> Zur Gesichte des coffeïnfreien Kaffees. Deutsche +medizinische Wochenschrift, 1908, XXXIV: 2228.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wimmer, K.</span> Ueber coffeïnfreien Kaffee, ein neues Genussmittel. +Verhandlung der Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte, +1909, pt. 2, 111–118.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Of Chewing Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee-Chewing</span> habit. Current Literature, 1903, XXXIV: 496.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Of Different Constituents</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Butler, George F.</span> (Caffein). In his, Materia Medica, therapeutics +and pharmacology. 5th ed., 1906. pp. 256–259.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hare, H. Amory.</span> Physiological action of caffein. In his, Practical +therapeutics. 13th ed., 1909, p. 142.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Henneguy, Louis-Felix.</span> Caféine. In his, Étude physiologique sur +l'action des poisons, pp. 85–89. Inaugural dissertation, +<i>Montpellier</i>, 1875.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Huchard, Henry.</span> De la caféine dans les affections du cœur. <i>O. +Bois</i>, 1882.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Johannsen.</span> Über die Wirkungen des Kaffein. Inaugural dissertation, +<i>Dorpat</i>, 1869.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kunkel, A.J.</span> Handbuch der Toxikologie. <i>Jena</i>, 1899. 2 v. See +index: Coffeïn, Kaffee.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Leblond.</span> Étude physiologique et thérapeutique de la caféine. +<i>Paris</i>, 1883. 173 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lewin, L.</span> (Caffein poisoning.) In his, Traité de toxicologie, 1903, +pp. 690–692.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Meyer, Hans H.</span> and <span class="smcap">Gottlieb, R.</span> Pharmacology, clinical and +experimental, tr. by John T. Halsey. <i>Philadelphia</i> and <i>London</i>, +1914. 604 pp. See index: Caffeine.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Parisot, E.</span> Étude physiologique de l'action de la caféine. <i>Paris</i>, +1890. 112 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Potter, S.O.L.</span> Caffeina, caffeine. Physiological action. +Therapeutics. In his, Therapeutics, materia medica and pharmacy, +4th ed. 1912. pp. 186–192.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rivers, W.H.R.</span> The influence of alcohol and other drugs on fatigue. +II. Caffeine. <i>London</i>, 1908. pp. 22–50, 127–130.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schutzkwer, Nachum.</span> Das Coffeïn und sein Verhalten im Thierkörper. +Inaugural dissertation, <i>Königsberg</i>, 1882. 25 pp. <i>Also</i>, +Schmidt's Jahrbücher, 1883, CXCVIII: 232–233.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Voit, Carl.</span> Untersuchung über die Wirkung des Kaffee's auf den +thierischen Organismus. In his, Untersuchung über den Einfluss des +Kochsalzes, des Kaffee's und der Muskelbewegungen, <i>München</i>, 1860. +pp. 67–147.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weigl, J.</span> Das Koffeïn. <i>Leipzig</i>, 1905.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wilhelm, F.</span> Ist das Coffeon an der Kaffeewirkung beteiligt? +<i>Würzburg</i>, 1895.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Albanese, Manfredi.</span> Ueber die Bildung von 3-Methyl-xanthin aus +Coffeïn im thierischen Organismus. Berichte der deutschen +chemischen Gesellschaft, 1899, XXXII; no. 360, 2280–2282.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Ueber das Verhalten des Coffeïns und des Theobromins im +Organismus. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, +1895, XXXV: 449–466.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Albers, J.F.H.</span> Ueber die eigenthümliche Wirkung des Theinum und +Coffeinum citricum auf den thierischen Körper. Deutsche Klinik, +1852, IV: 577–579.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Aubert, H.</span> Ueber den Coffeïngehalt des Kaffeegetränkes und über die +Wirkungen des Coffeïns. Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie des +Menschen und der Thiere, 1872, V: 589–628.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Binz, C.</span> Beitrag zur Toxikologie des Coffeïns. Archiv für +experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1891, XXVIII: 197–200.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bondzynski, St.</span> and <span class="smcap">Gottlieb, R.</span> Ueber Methylxanthin, ein +Stoffwechselprodukt des Theobromin und Coffeïn. Archiv für +experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1895, XXXVI: 45–55. +<i>Also</i>, Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1895, +XXVIII: no. 221, 1113–1118.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Busquet, H.</span> and <span class="smcap">Tiffeneau, M.</span> Du rôle de la caféine dans l'action +cardiaque du café. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1912, +CLV: 362–365.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cogswell, Charles.</span> On the local action of poisons. Lancet, 1852, +No. 2: 488–491.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Féré, Charles.</span> Note sur l'influence de la théobromine sur le +travail. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1901, 2. ser., +III: 593–594, 627–629.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frankel, F. Hulton.</span> Caffein as a body warmer. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXXI: 354–355.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ganzer, E.</span> Ueber ein neues Verfahren der Kaffee-Entgiltung auf +physikalischer Grundlage. Der praktische Arzt, 1914, LIV: 152–175.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gerbis, H.</span> Vergiftung mit anilinölhaltigen Kaffee. Aerztliche +Sachverstandigen-Zeitung, 1913, XIX: 467.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Geraty, T.</span> Poisoning by citrate of caffeine. Lancet, 1889, I: 219.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gouget, A.</span> Coffee and tea poisoning. Journal of Inebriety, 1908, +XXX: 92–102.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hanna, W.J.</span> Chronic coffee poisoning. Occidental Medical Times, +1903, XVII: 148.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hare, H.A.</span> and <span class="smcap">Marshall, J.</span> The physiological effects of the +empyreumatic oil of coffee or caffeon. Medical News, 1888, LII: +337–339.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harnack, E.</span> Zur Frage nach der Schädlichkeit des Kaffees. Deutsche +medizinische Wochenschrift, 1907, XXXIII: 26–28.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hollingworth, H.L.</span> Caffein as a stimulant. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXIII, Supplement to No. 6: 52–56.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ioteyko, J.</span> Étude physiologique et mathématique. IX. Caféine. +Institut Solvay. Travaux de Laboratoire, 1903, VI: 474–485.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jacobj, C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Golowinski</span>. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der verschiedenen +Wirkung des Coffeïns auf Rana esculenta und Rana temporaria.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_758" id="Page_758">[Pg 758]</a></span> +Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1908, +Supplement, 286–298.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Koschlakoff.</span> Beobachtungen über die Wirkung des citrone sauren +Coffeïn's. Virchow's Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und +Physiologie, 1864, XXXI: 436–443.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kurzak.</span> Die Wirkungen des Kaffeïns auf Thiere. Schmidt's +Jahrbücher, 1861, CIX: 172.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Krüger, Martin.</span> Ueber den Abbau des Caffeïns im Organismus des +Hundes. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1899, +XXXII, No. 431, 2818.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Ueber den Abbau des Caffeïns im Organismus des Kaninchens. +Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1899, XXXII, No. +488: 3336.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Langfeld, H.S.</span> Tests with alcohol and caffeine. Psychological +Review, 1911, XVIII: 413, 424.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Leven, M.</span> Action physiologique et médicamenteuse de la caféine. +Archives de Physiologie, 1869, I: 179–189.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Levinthal, Walter.</span> Zum Abbau des Xanthins und Caffeïns im +Organismus des Menschen. Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie, +1912, LXXVII: 259–279.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Maly, Richard</span>, and <span class="smcap">Andreasch, Rudolf</span>. Studien über Caffeïn und +Theobromin. Monatshefte für Chemie (Sitzungs-berichte der +Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften), 1883, IV: 369–387.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Matthews, W.</span> Observations on the use of coffee as a cause of +disease. Northwest Medical and Surgical Journal, 1850–1, VII: +46–50.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pardi.</span> Ricerche intormo alla funzione spermato-genetica negli +animali avvelenati con caffé. Lo Sperimentale, LXV: 17–34.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Peset Cervera, V.</span> Del envenenamiento por el café. Génio +médico-quirúrgico, 1877, XXIII: 670–673.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pétresco, Z.</span> Sur l'action hypercinétique de la caféine à hautes +doses ou doses thérapeutiques. Verhandlungen des X, internationalen +medicinischen Congresses, <i>Berlin</i>, 1890, II, pt. 4, 5–10.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pilcher, J.D.</span> Alcohol and caffeine: a study of antagonism and +synergism. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, +1911, III: 267–298.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Reichert, E.T.</span> The action of caffein on tissue metamorphosis and +heat phenomena. New York Medical Journal, 1890, LI: 456–459.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— The empyreumatic oil of coffee, or caffeone. Medical News, +1890, LVI: 476–478.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ribaut, H.</span> Influence de la caféine sur la production de chaleur +chez l'animal. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1901, LIII +(2. ser., III): 295–296.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Riegel, F.</span> Ueber die therapeutische Verwendung der +Caffein-präparate. Wiener medizinische Blätter, 1884, VII: 615–619. +<i>Also</i>, Berlin klinische Wochenschrift, 1884, XXI: 289.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rugh, J.T.</span> Profound toxic effects from the drinking of large +amounts of strong coffee. Proceedings of the Philadelphia County +Medical Society, 1896, XVII: 195. <i>Also</i>, Medical and Surgical +Reporter, 1896, LXXV: 549; Quarterly Journal of Inebriety, 1897, +XIX: 62–64.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Salant, William</span>, and <span class="smcap">Rieger, J.B.</span> Elimination and toxicity of +caffein in nephrectomized rabbits. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. +Bureau of Chemistry. Bulletin, 1913, CLXVI.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Toxicity of caffein: an experimental study on different +species of animals. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Chemistry. +Bulletin, 1912, CXLVIII.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmid, Julius.</span> Der Abbau methylierter Xanthine. Zeitschrift für +physiologische Chemie, 1910, LXVII: 155–160.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmiedeberg, Oswald.</span> Ueber die Verschiedenheit der Coffeïn-wirkung +an Rana temporaria L. und Rana esculenta L. Archiv für +experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1874, II: 62–69.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Stuhlmann, J.</span> and <span class="smcap">Falck, C.P.</span> Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Wirkungen +des Kaffeïns. Virchow's Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und +Physiologie, 1857, XI: 324–383.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Stenström, Thor.</span> Über die Coffeinhyperglykämie. Biochemische +Zeitschrift, 1913, XLIX: 225–231.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sterrett, R.M.</span> Coffee; a drug. Chicago Medical Times, Jan. 1910, +XLIII.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">The True</span> "poison in the coffee cup." Medical Record, 1885, XXVII: +191.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Untersuchung</span> einer vermutheten Vergiftung durch Kaffee. Blätter für +gerichtliche Anthropologie, 1862, XIII: 137–141.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Waentig, Percy.</span> Über den Gehalt des Kaffeegetränkes an Koffeïn und +die Verfahren zu seiner Ermittelung. Arbeiten a. d. kaiserl. +Gesundheitsamte, 1906, XXIII: 315–332.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wedemeyer, T.</span> Habituation of the psychic functions to caffein. +Arch., exp. Path. Phar., 1920, 85: 339–58.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weismann.</span> Ein Fall von schweren Vergiftungs erscheinungen durch +einmaligen unmässigen Genuss von Kaffee. Zeitschrift für Bahn- und +Bahnkassenärzte, 1906, I: 806.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zenetz.</span> Dangers of caffeine. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1900, 4th +ser., X: 333.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Of Green Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Landarrahilco, O.</span> Du café vert envisagé au point de vue de ses +applications thérapeutiques dans le traitement de la goutte, de la +gravelle, des coliques néphrétiques et de la migraine. +<i>Montpellier</i>, 1866.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Perret, E.</span> Sur l'extrait physiologique de café vert. Bulletin +général de Thérapeutique, 1910, CLX: 214–222.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Squibb.</span> Fluid extract of green coffee. Ephemeris of materia medica, +1884, II: 616–619.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Of Leaves of Coffee Tree</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">On</span> the dried coffee leaf of Sumatra. Pharmaceutical Journal, XIII: +207–209, 382–384.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Of Roasted Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Burmann, J.</span> Recherches chimiques et physiologiques sur les +principes nocifs du café torréfié. Bulletin général de +Thérapeutique, 1913, CLXVI: 379–400.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Grindel.</span> Fortgesetzte Erfahrungen über den rohen Caffee. Journal +der practischen Arzneykunde und Wundarzneykunst, 1809, XXIX, pt. +12, 11–30.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Offret.</span> Observations sur l'action physiologique du café, selon ses +diverses torréfactions. <i>Nantes</i>, 1862.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Of Smoking Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmidt.</span> Ueber Caffee-Räucherung. Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der +Medicin Chirurgie und Pharmacie, 1832, I: 217–220.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Traver, L.</span> Insanity from smoking coffee. Medical and Surgical +Reporter, 1864–5, XII: 406.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">On Children</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jackson, S.</span> On the influence upon health of the introduction of tea +and coffee in large proportion into the dietary of children and the +labouring classes. American Medical Association. Transactions,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_759" id="Page_759">[Pg 759]</a></span> +1848, II: 635–644. <i>Also</i>, American Journal of Medical Science, +1849, n.s. XVIII: 79–86.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Taylor, C.K.</span> Effects of coffee drinking on children. Psychological +Clinic, 1912–13, VI: 56–58.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Williams, T.A.</span> A case of psychasthenia in a child aged two years, +due to coffee drinking. Archives of Pediatrics, 1910, XXVII: +778–782. <i>Also</i>, Pacific Medical Journal, 1911, LIV: 221–225.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">On Different Organs and Systems</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">BLADDER</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Becher, Carl.</span> Coffeïn als Herztonicum und Diureticum. Wiener +Medizinische Blätter, 1884. VII, columns, 639–644.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Besser.</span> Die harnsäurevermehrende Wirkung des Kaffees und der +Methylxanthin beim Normalen und Gichtkranken. Therapie der +Gegenwart, 1909, n.s. XI: 321–327.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bondzynski, St.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Gottlieb, R.</span> Über die Constitution des nach +Coffeïn und Theobromin im Harne auftretenden Methylxanthins. Archiv +für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1896, XXXVII: +385–388.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dumont, A.</span> Expériences relative à l'influence du café sur +l'excrétion de l'urée urinaire. Revue médicale, 1888, VII: 257–260.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fauvel.</span> Action du chocolat et du café sur l'excrétion urique. +Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1908, LXIV: 854–856.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Influence du chocolat et du café sur l'acide urique. Comptes +rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1906, CXLII: 1428–1430; 1909, +CXLVIII: 1541–1544.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fubini, S.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Ottolenghi</span>. Influenza della caffeina e dell' infuso +caffè sulla quantità giornaliera di urea emessa dall' uomo colle +urine. Giornale della reale Accademia di Medicina di l'Orino, 1882, +ser. 3, XXX: 570–574.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Loewi, O.</span> Ueber den Mechanismus der Coffeïndiurese. Archiv für +experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1905, LIII: 15–32.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mendel, L.B.</span> Caffein and uric acid. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1917, XXXIII: 142–145.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rost, E.C.</span> Ueber die Ausscheidung des Coffeïn und Theobromin im +Harn. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1895, +XXXVI: 56–71.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Roux, E.</span> Des variations dans la quantité d'urée excrétée avec une +alimentation normale et sous l'influence du thé et du café. Comptes +rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1873, LXXVII: 365–367.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">S., M.</span> De l'emploi du café comme diurétique. Bulletin général de +Thérapeutique, 1839, XVI: 144–148.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schittenhelm, Alfred.</span> Zur Frage der harnsäurevermehrenden Wirkung +von Kaffee und Tee und ihrer Bedeutung in der Gichttherapie. +Therapeutische Monatshefte, 1910, XXIV: 113–116.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schroeder, W. von.</span> Ueber die diuretische Wirkung des Coffeïns und +der zu derselben Gruppe gehörenden Substanzen. Archiv für +experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1887, XXIV: 85–108.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Ueber die Wirkung des Coffeïns als Diureticum. Archiv für +experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1887, XXII: 39–61.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wardell, Emma L.</span> Caffein and uric acid. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 142–145.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">CIRCULATION, HEART, ETC.</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Archangelsky, C.T.</span> Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und von +Thee auf Athmung und Herz. Archives internationales de +Pharmacodynamie, 1900, VII: 405–424.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Aubert, H.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Dehn, A.</span> Ueber die Wirkungen des Kaffees, des +Fleischextractes und der Kalisalze auf Hersthätigkeit und +Blutdruck. Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie, 1874, IX: 115–155.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Becher, Carl.</span> Coffeïn als Herztonicum und Diureticum. Wiener +Medizinische Blätter, 1884, VII, columns, 639–644.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Beco, Lucien</span>, and <span class="smcap">Plumier, Léon</span>. Action cardiovasculaire de +quelques dérivés xanthiques. Journal de Physiologie et Pathologie +générale, 1906, VIII: 10–21.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Binz, C.</span> Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und Thee auf Athmung +und Herz. Centralblatt für innere Medicin, 1900, XXI: 1169–1176.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bock, Johannes.</span> Ueber die Wirkung des Coffeïns und des Theobromins +auf das Herz. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und +Pharmakologie, 1900, XLIII: 367–399.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Couty, Guimaraes</span>, and <span class="smcap">Niobey</span>. De l'action du café sur la +composition du sang et les échanges nutritifs. Comptes rendus de +l'Académie des Sciences, 1884, XCIX: 85–87.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cushny, A.R.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Van Naten, B.K.</span> On the action of caffeine on the +mammalian heart. Archives internationales de Pharmacodynamie, 1901, +IX: 169–180.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dumas, Adolphe.</span> Bons effets de la caféine dans un cas de paralysie +du cœur. <i>Paris</i>, 1886.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fredericq, Henri.</span> L'excitabilité du vague cardiaque et ses +modifications sous l'influence de la caféine. Archives +internationales de Physiologie, 1913, XIII: 107–125.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frenkel, Sophie.</span> Klinische Untersuchungen über die Wirkung von +Coffeïn, Morphium, Atropin, Secale cormetum und Digitalis auf den +arteriellen Blutdruck. Deutsches Archiv für klinische Medizin, +1890, XLVI: 542–582.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fürst.</span> Die Gefahren des Kaffees bei Herz- und Arterien-leiden. +Deutsche medicinische Presse, 1905, IX: 91.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hedbom, Karl.</span> Ueber die Einwirkung verschiedener Stoffe auf das +isolirte Säugethierherz. Skandinavisches Archiv für Physiologie, +1899, IX: 1–72.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Huchard, Henri.</span> De la caféine dans les affections du cœur. +Bulletin général de Thérapeutique, 1882, CIII: 145–154.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Landergren, E.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Tigerstedt, R.</span> Studien über die Blutvertheilung +im Körper. Skandinavisches Archiv für Physiologie, 1892–3, IV: +241–280.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Loeb, Oswald.</span> Ueber die Beeinflüssung des Koronarkreislaufs durch +einige Gifte. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und +Pharmakologie, 1904, LI: 64–83.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mirano, G.C.</span> L'azione della caffeina sulla pressione del pulso. La +Riforma medica, 1906, XXI: No. 38. Reviewed in, Biochemisches +Centralblatt, 1906–7, V: 205.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pachon, V.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Perrot, E.</span> Sur l'action cardiovasculaire du café +vert, comparée à celle des doses correspondantes de caféine. +Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1910, CL: 1703–1705.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Phillips, C.D.F.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Bradford, J.R.</span> On the action of certain drugs +on the circulation and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_760" id="Page_760">[Pg 760]</a></span> secretion of the kidney. Journal of +Physiology, 1887, VIII: 117–132.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pilcher, J.D.</span> The action of caffeine on the mammalian heart. +Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 1912, III: +609–624.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rabe.</span> The action of coronary vessels to drugs. Zeitschrift für +experimentelle Pathologie, 1912, XI: 175.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Reichert, E.T.</span> Action de la caféine sur la circulation. Bulletin +général de Thérapeutique, CXIX: 86. <i>Also</i> in English, Therapeutic +Gazette, 1890, n.s. VI: 294.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Santesson, C.G.</span> Einige Versuche über die Wirkung des Coffeïns auf +das Herz des Kaninchens. Skandinavisches Archiv für Physiologie, +1901–2, XII: 259–296.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sollmann, T.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Pilcher, J.D.</span> The actions of caffeine on the +mammalian circulation. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental +Therapeutics, 1911, III: 19–92.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trzecieski, A.</span> Ueber die Wirkung der Antipyretica auf das Herz. II. +Ueber die Wirkung des Kaffeïns und Theobromins auf das Herz. +Jahresbericht der Thierchemie, 1909, XXXIX: 1268.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Leeuwen, W.S.</span> Quantitative pharmakologische Untersuchungen über +die Reflexfunktionen des Ruckenmarkes an Warmblütern. Archiv für +die gesammte physiologie, 1913, CLIV: 307–342.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Vinci, G.</span> Azione della caffeina sulla pressione sanguigna. Archivo +di Farmacologia e Terapeutica, 1895, 8. Reviewed, Revue des +Sciences médicales, 1896, XLVII: 80.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">DIGESTIVE ORGANS</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bikfalvi, Karl.</span> Ueber die Einwirkung von Alcohol, Bier, Wein, +Wasser von Borssik, schwarzem Kaffee, Tabak, Kochsalz und Alaun auf +die Verdauung. Jahresbericht der Thierchemie, 1885, XV: 273.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Burian, Richard</span>, and <span class="smcap">Schur, Heinrich</span>. Ueber die Stellung der +Purinkörper im menschlichen Stoffwechsel. Archiv für die gesammte +Physiologie, 1900, LXXX: 241–343.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Crämer.</span> Ueber den Einfluss des Nikotins, des Kaffees und des Thees +auf die Verdauung. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1907, LIV, +pt. 1, 929–931, 988–991.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Eder, Max.</span> Studien über den Wert und die Wirkung des Kaffees auf +die Tätigkeit der Wiederkäuermägen. Inaugural Dissertation, +<i>Giessen</i>, 1912. 88 pp. Summarized, Zentralblatt für Biochemie und +Biophysik, 1912, XIII: 504.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Farr, C.B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Welker, W.H.</span> The effect of caffeine on nitrogenous +excretion and partition. American Journal of the Medical Sciences, +1912, CXLIII: 411–415.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Filehne, Wilhelm.</span> Ueber einige Wirkungen des Xanthins, des Caffeïns +und mehrerer mit ihnen verwandter Körper. Archiv für Anatomie und +Physiologie, 1886, 72–91.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gottlieb, R.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Magnus, R.</span> Ueber die Besiehungen der +Nierencirculation zur Diurese. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie +und Pharmakologie, 1901, XLV: 223–247.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guimaraes, E.A.R.</span> De l'action du café sur la consommation +d'aliments azotés et hydrocarbonés. Comptes rendus de la Société de +Biologie, 1883, ser. 7, V: 590–592.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guimaraes, E.A.R.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Niobey</span>. De l'action du café sur la nutrition +et sur la composition du sang. Comptes rendus de la Société de +Biologie, 1883, ser. 7, IV: 546–550. <i>Also</i>, Comptes rendus de +l'Académie de Sciences, 1884, XCIV: 85–87.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hale, Worth.</span> Influence of certain drugs upon the toxicity of +acetanilide and antipyrine. Public Health and Marine-Hospital +Service of the U.S. Hygienic Laboratory. Bulletin, No. 53, p. 43, +Experiments with caffeine citrate.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Heerlein, W.</span> Das Coffeïn und das Kaffeedestillat in ihrer Beziehung +zum Stoffwechsel. Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie, 1892, LII: +165–185.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kotake, Y.</span> Ueber den Abbau des Coffeïns durch den Auszug aus der +Rinderleber. Zeitschrift für physologische Chemie, 1908, LVII: +378–381.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Liwschitz, O.</span> Ueber den Einfluss des Kaffees auf den +Eiweis-stoffwechsel beim Menschen. <i>Basel</i>, 1914.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Marchand, Eugene.</span> Le café du lait est une soupe au cuir. Revue de +Thérapeutique médico-chirurgicale, 1873, 261.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nagel.</span> Die Wirkung des Café's auf eingeklemmte Darmparthien. +Allgemelner Wiener medizinische Zeitung, 1872, XVII: 391.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nagasaki, S.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Matswuoka, Z.</span> Ueber den Abbau des Kaffeïns und +Theobromins durch den Rinderpankreas und Stierhodenauszug. Kyoto +Igaku-zashi, 1912, IX; H. 3. Summarized, Zentralblatt für Biochemie +und Biochemie und Biophysik, 1912–13, XIV: 743.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ogáta, Masanori.</span> Ueber den Einfluss der Genussmittel und +Magenverdauung. Archiv für Hygiene, 1885, III: 204–214.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pawlowsky, I.</span> Ueber den Einfluss von Tee, Kaffee und einigen +alkoholischen Getränken auf die quantitative Pepsinwirkung. +Jahresbericht der Thierchemie, 1903, XXXIII: 543.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pincussohn, Ludwig.</span> Die Wirkung des Kaffees und des Kakaos auf die +Magansaftsekretion. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1906, +LIII, pt. I, 1248–1249.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Ueber das sekretionsfordernde Prinzip des Kaffees. Zeitschrift +für physikalische und diätetische Therapie, 1907, XI: 261–263.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rabuteau.</span> Recherches sur l'action des caféiques sur la nutrition. +Gazette médicale de Paris, 1870, XXV: 593. <i>Also</i>, Comptes rendus +de la Société de Biologie, 1872, ser. 5, II: 77–81.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ribaut, H.</span> Influence de la caféine sur l'excrétion azotée. Comptes +rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1901, LIII, (ser. 2, III): +393–395.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sasaki, Takaoki.</span> Experimentelle Untersuchungen über den Einfluss +des Tees auf die Magensaftsekretion. Berliner klinische +Wochenschrift, 1905, XLII: 1526–1528.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmiedeberg, Oswald.</span> Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die +pharmakologischen Wirkungen einiger Purinderivate. Berichte der +deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1901, XXXIV, No. 395, 2550–2559.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schultz-Schultzenstein, C.</span> Versuche über den Einfluss van +Caffee- und Thee-Abkochungen auf künstliche Verdauung. Zeitschrift +für physiologische Chemie, 1893–4, XVIII: 131.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Story, W.</span> Coffee as an absorbent. Lancet, 1873, II: 617.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Togami, K.</span> Ueber den Einfluss einiger Genussmittel auf die +Wirksamkeit der Verdauungsenzyme. Biochemisches Zeitschrift, 1908, +IX: 458–462.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tyrode, M.V.</span> Caffeine on the gastro-intestinal tract. Boston +Medical and Surgical Journal, 1911, CLXIV: 686.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_761" id="Page_761">[Pg 761]</a></span><span class="ampm">EYES AND EARS</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bulson, A.E.</span> Coffee amblyopia. American Journal of Ophthalmology, +1905, XXII: 55–64.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Crothers, T.D.</span> Effects of coffee upon the eyes and ears. In his, +Disease of inebriety from alcohol, opium and other narcotic drugs, +<i>New York</i>, 1893. p. 309.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">French, H.C.</span> Coffee drinking and blindness. North American Review, +1888, CXLVII: 584–585.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Holaday, J.M.</span> Coffee-drinking and blindness. North American Review, +CXLVII: 302.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wing, P.B.</span> Report of a case of toxic amblyopia from coffee. Annals +of Ophthalmology, 1903, XII: 232–234.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">LACTATION</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Frankl, J.</span> Ueber die Anwendung von Kaffee bei den Krankheiten der +Säuglinge. Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1872, XXII: 384.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Obidennikoff, E.</span> O vlijanii kofe na kolichestvo i kolichestven +sostave moloka. (Influence of coffee on lactation). <i>St. +Petersburg</i>, 1871.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">MUSCULAR SYSTEM</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Benedicenti, A.</span> Ergographische Untersuchungen über Kaffee, Thee, +Maté, Guarana und Coca. Moleschott's Untersuchungen zur Naturlehre, +1899, XVI: 170–186.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Buchheim</span> and <span class="smcap">Eisenmenger</span>. Ueber den Einfluss einiger Gifte auf die +Zuckungscurve des Froschmuskels. III. Caffeïn. Beiträge zur +Anatomie und Physiologie, 1870, V: 113–118.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Destrée, E.</span> Effets immédiats et tardifs de la caféine sur le +travail. Journal médical de Bruxelles, 1897, II: 231, 577.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dreser, H.</span> Ueber die Messung der durch pharmakologische Agentien +Bedingten Veränderungen der Arbeitsgrösse und der +Elasticitatszustände des Skeletsmuskels. Archiv für experimentelle +Pathologie und Physiologie, 1904, XVI: 139–221.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kobert, E.R.</span> Ueber den Einfluss verschiedener pharmakologischer +Agentien auf die Muskelsubstanz. Archiv für experimentelle +Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1882, XV: 22–79.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lusini, V.</span> Biologische und toxische Wirkung der methylirten +Xanthine insbesondere ihr Einfluss auf die Muskelermüdung. L'Orosi, +XXI: 257–263.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mosso, Ugolino.</span> Action des principes actifs de la noix de kola sur +la contraction musculaire. Archives italiennes de Biologie, 1893, +XIX: 241–256.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Oseretzkowsky, A.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Kraepelin, E.</span> Ueber die Beeinflüssung der +Muskelleistung durch verschiedene Arbeitsbedingungen. V. Der +Einfluss von Alkohol un Coffeïn. Psychologische Arbeiten, 1901, +III: 617–643.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paschkes, H.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Pal, J.</span> Ueber die Muskelwirkung des Coffeïns, +Theobromins und Xanthins. Wiener medizinische Jahrbücher, 1886, +611–617.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ransom, F.</span> The action of caffeine on muscle. Journal of Physiology, +1911, XLII: 144–155.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rivers, W.H.R.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Webber, H.N.</span> The action of caffein on the +capacity for muscular work. Journal of Physiology, 1907–8, XXXVI: +33–47.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rossi, Cesare.</span> Ricerche sperimentali sulla fatica dei muscoli +umani. Caffeina. Rivista sperimentale di Freniatria, 1894, XX: +458–462.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sackur.</span> Ueber die todliche Nachwirkung der durch Kaffein erzengten +Muskelstarre. Virchow's Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und +Physiologie, 1895, CXLI: 479–484.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schumberg.</span> Ueber die Bedeutung von Kola, Kaffee, Thee, Maté und +Alkohol für die Leistung der Muskeln. Archiv für Anatomie und +Physiologie, 1899, 289–313.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sobieranski, W.</span> Ueber den Einfluss der pharmakologischen Mittel auf +die Muskelkraft der Menschen. Gazeta lekarska, 1896. Summarized, +Centralblatt für Physiologie, 1896, X: 126.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wood, H.C.</span> The effects of caffeine on the circulatory and muscular +systems. Therapeutic Gazette, 1912, XXXVI, (ser. 3, XXVIII): 6–13.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">NERVOUS SYSTEM, BRAIN, ETC.</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ach, Narziss.</span> Ueber die Beeinflüssung der Auffossungsfähigkeit. +Psychologische Arbeiten, 1901, III: 203–289.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dehio, Heinrich.</span> Untersuchungen über den Einfluss des Coffeïns und +Thees auf die Dauer einfacher psychischer Vorgänge. Inaugural +dissertation, <i>Dorpat</i>,1887. 55 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dieth, M.J.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Vintschgau, M. von.</span> Das Verhakten der +physiologischen Reactionzeit unter dem Einfluss von Morphium, +Caffee und Wein. Archiv für gesammte Physiologie, 1878, XVI: +316–406.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dixon, W.E.</span> The paralysis of nerve cells and nerve endings with +special reference to the alkaloid apocodeine. Journal of +Physiology, 1904, XXX: 97–131.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hoch, August</span>, and <span class="smcap">Kraepelin, E.</span> Ueber die Wirkung der +Theebestandtheile auf körperliche und geistige Arbeit. +Psychologische Arbeiten, 1896, I: 378–488.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hollingworth, H.L.</span> Influence of caffein on mental and motor +efficiency. Archives of Psychology, 1912, XXII: 166. <i>Also</i>, +Therapeutic Gazette, 1912, XXXVI: 1.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hoppe, I.</span> Des effets de la cofféine sur le système nerveux des +animaux. L'Écho médical, 1858, II: 449–460.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kionka, H.</span> (Caffein and coffee as nerve poisons.) Grundriss der +Toxicologie, 1901: 331–336.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Le Grand, de Saulle.</span> De l'insalubrité de l'atmosphère des cafés et +de son influence sur le développement des maladies cérébrales. +Gazette des Hôpitaux, 1861; <i>also</i> Academie des Sciences, 1861.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Leszynsky, W.M.</span> Coffee as a beverage and its frequent deleterious +effects upon the nervous system; acute and chronic coffee +poisoning. Medical Record, 1901, LIX: 41–44.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McMakin, A.L.</span> Influence of coffee on brain workers. Good +Housekeeping, 1912, LIV: 381–382.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Paldanus.</span> Ein Paar Worte über Kaffee als Fiebermittel und +Medikament überhaupt. Neues Archiv für medizinische Erfahrung, +1809, XI: 318–322.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Petit, H.</span> De l'emploi préventif et curatif du café, notamment dans +les congestions cérébrales. Gazette des Hôpitaux, 1862, XXXV: 446.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">De Sarlo, F.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Bernardini, C.</span> Ricerche sulla circolazione +cérébrale. I. Ischemizzanti. Caffeici. Rivista sperimentale di +Freniatria, 1892, XVIII: 8–14.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Swirski, G.</span> Ueber dieBeeinflüssung des Vaguscentrums durch das +Coffeïn. Archiv für gesammte Physiologie, 1904, CIV: 260–292.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Williams, T.A.</span> Coffee and the nervous system. Medical Summary, +1912.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">RESPIRATION</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Archangelsky, C.T.</span> Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und von +Thee auf Athmung und Herz.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_762" id="Page_762">[Pg 762]</a></span> Archives internationales de +Pharmacodynamie, 1900, VII: 405–424.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Binz, C.</span> Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und Thee auf Athmung +und Herz. Centralblatt für innere Medicin, 1900, XXI: 1169–1176.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cushny, A.R.</span> The action of drugs on the respiration. Proceedings of +the Royal Society of Medicine, 1912–3, VI, pt. 3: 130.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Edsall, D.L.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Means, J.H.</span> The effect of strychnine, caffeine, +atropin and camphor on the respiratory metabolism in normal human +subjects. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1914, XIV: 897–910.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lehmann, K.B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Rohrer, G.</span> Besitzen die flüchtigen Bestandteile +von Thee und Kaffee eine Wirkung auf die Respiration des Menschen? +Archiv für Hygiene, 1902, XLIV: 203.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sée, G.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Lapicque</span>. Action de la caféine sur les fonctions +motrices et respiratoires, à l'état normal et à l'état d'inanition. +La Médicine moderne, 1890, I: 228–234.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />SUBSTITUTES</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">General</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bibra, Baron von.</span> Der kaffee und seine surrogate. <i>Munich</i>, 1858.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Christ, J.L.</span> Der neueste und beste deutsche Stellvertretter des +indischen Caffè oder der Coffee von Erdmandeln; zu Ersparung vieler +Millionen Geldes für Deutschland und längeren Gesundheit Tausender +von Menschen. 2 ed. <i>Frankfurtam Mayn</i>, 1801.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Franke, Erwin.</span> Kaffee, Kaffeekonserven und Kaffeesurrogate. <i>Wien</i>, +1907. 221 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Freeman, W.G.</span> and <span class="smcap">Chandler, S.E.</span> Coffee and coffee substitutes. In +their, the world's commercial products. <i>London</i>, 1907. pp. +174–198.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gerster, C.</span> Kaffee und Kaffee-Surrogate. In ihrer, Bedeutung für +den praktischen Arzt. <i>Berlin</i>, 1894.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gundrizer, R.F.</span> O surrogatĭe kofe, prigotovly-ayemom iz +sĭemyan sinyavo lyupina (Lupinus angustifolius L.) (On a +substitute for coffee, from the seeds of....) <i>St. Petersburg</i>, +1892.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lehmann, K.</span> Die Fabrikation des Surrogat kaffees und des +Tafelsenses. <i>Wien</i>, 1877. 128 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lochner, N.F.</span> De novis et exoticis Thée et Café succeédanéis. +<i>Norimbergae</i>, 1717.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Menier, E.J.</span> Café: succédanés du café, cacao et chocolat, coca et +thé maté. <i>Paris</i>, 1867. 24 pp. (Jury report, Exposition +Universelle de 1867, à Paris.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trillich, Heinrich.</span> Die kaffee surrogate. <i>München</i>, 1889.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weichardt, T.T.</span> Succedaneorum coffeæ inveniendorum regulas +proponit. <i>Lipsiae</i>, 1774.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Acorn</span> coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1876, p. 772.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Basch, Albert.</span> Rapport sur le café de figue. Société de Géographie +d'Alger et de l'Afrique du Nord. Bulletin, 1901, VI: 604–607.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Boullier, G.</span> De la préparation de la soupe destinée à remplacer le +café au réveil. Archives de médecine et de Pharmacie militaires, +1903, XLI: 465–473.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brill, Harvey C.</span> Ipel, a coffee substitute. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 628–630.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Deridder, H.</span> Sur un succédané du café. Archives médicales belges, +1896, 4 ser. VIII: 237–241.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Duchacek, F.</span> Beiträge zur Kenntniss der chemischen Zusammensetzung +des Kaffees und der Kaffee-Ersatztoffe. Zeitschrift für +Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1904, VIII: 139–146.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Faber, E.E.</span> Om kaffee, kaffesurrogater og koffeïnfri kaffe. +Ugeskrift for Laeger, 1909, LXXI: 841–847.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gräf, H.</span> Ein neues Kaffee-Ersatzmittel. Deutsche medicinische +Presse, 1907, XI: 65–67.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Guillot, C.</span> Étude comparative sommaire des principaux produits de +substitution du café. Gazette médicale de Paris, 1912, LXXXIII: +125.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hanausek, T.F.</span> Einige Bermerkungen zu den Kapiteln Kaffee und +Kaffee-Ersatzstoffe in den Vereinbarungen. Apotheker-Zeitung, 1902, +XVII: 657.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hanbury, Daniel.</span> On the use of coffee leaves in Sumatra. +Pharmaceutical Journal, 1853, XIII: 207–209.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kornauth, C.</span> Beiträge zur chemischen und mikroskopischen +Untersuchung des Kaffee und der Kaffeesurrogate. Mittheilungen aus +dem pharmaceutischen Institute und Laboratorium für angewandte +Chemie der Universität Erlangen, 1890, III: 1–56.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kotsin, M.B.</span> Kofe i yevo surrogatî (Coffee and its substitutes.) +Vestnik obshestvennoi higieny, sudebnoi i prakticheskoi meditsiny, +etc., 1894, XXIII: pt. 2. 36, 156, 226.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nicolai, H.F.</span> Der Kaffee und seine Ersatzmittel. Deutsche +Vierteljahrsschrift für öffentliche Gesundheitspflege, 1901, +XXXIII: 294–346, 502–538.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nottbohm, F.E.</span> Verwendung von Steinnuss zur Herstellung von +Kaffeersatzmitteln. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und +Genussmittel, 1913, XXV: pt. 3.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Oeller</span> and <span class="smcap">Gerlach, von</span>. Ueber die Einwirkung von Gerstenkaffee und +Malzkaffee auf das Sehorgen. Therapeutische Monatshefte, 1912, +XXVI: 429–431.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rampold.</span> Ueber Kaffeesurrogate. Journal der practischen Heilkunde, +1838, LXXXVII: pt. 4, 94–109.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ruedy, J.</span> Thee und Kaffee, deren Surrogate und Fälschungen. Blätter +für Gesundheitspflege, 1876, V: 183, 195, 203; 1877, VI: 19, 32, +42, 53.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sale</span> of dandelion coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1860, II: +346–348, 357–358, 396.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Stenhouse, J.</span> On the dried coffee leaf of Sumatra, which is +employed in that and some of the adjacent islands as a substitute +for tea or for the coffee bean. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1854, XIII: +382–384.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Trillich, H.</span> and <span class="smcap">Gockel, H.</span> Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Kaffees und +der Kaffeesurrogate. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und +Genussmittel, 1898, V: 101–106. <i>Also</i>, Forschungs-Berichte über +Lebensmittel, 1897, IV: 78; 1898, V: 101.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weissman.</span> Ueber Kornkaffee. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, +1903, XXIX: 20.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Woods, C.D.</span> and <span class="smcap">Merrill, L.H.</span> Coffee substitutes. Maine +Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin, LXV: 101–116.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Malt Coffee</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Doepmann, F.</span> Ueber Malzkaffee. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der +Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1914, XXVII: 453–466.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_763" id="Page_763">[Pg 763]</a></span><span class="smcap">Jonghahn, A.</span> Beiträge sur Chemie und Technologie des Malzkaffees. +Verhandlung der Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte, +1906, II, pt. 2, 382–386.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Thellich, H.</span> Welche Mindestforderungen sind an Malz für Malzkaffee +zu stellen? Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und +Genussmittel, 1905, X: 118–121.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />TAXATION, JURISPRUDENCE, ETC.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bordeaux.</span> <span class="smcap">Chambre de Commerce.</span> Rapport fait à la Chambre par la +Commission spéciale chargée d'étudier la question de la réduction +des droits sur les sucres et les cafés. <i>Bordeaux</i>, 1858. 27 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Second rapport fait à la Chambre par la Commission spéciale +chargée d'étudier la question de la réduction des droits sur les +sucres et les cafés. <i>Bordeaux</i>, 1859. 16 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Corrie, Edgar.</span> Letters on the subject of the duties on coffee. +<i>London</i>, 1808. 61 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Great Britain.</span> <span class="smcap">Statutes.</span> Anno regni Georgii III. Regis Quadragesimo +nono. Cap. lxi. An act for making sugar and coffee of Martinique +and Mariegalante liable to duty on importation as sugar and coffee +not of the British plantations. <i>London</i>, 1809: pp. 437–438.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Anno regni Georgii II Regis vicesimo quinto. An act for +encouraging the growth of coffee in His Majesty's plantations in +America. <i>London</i>, 1752: pp. 723–734.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Anno regni Georgii II Regis quinto. An act for encouraging the +growth of coffee in His Majesty's plantations in America. <i>London</i>, +1732: pp. 411–415.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Larrinaga, Tulio.</span> Brief of Honorable Tulio Larrinaga, resident +commissioner from Porto Rico to the United States of America before +the Committee on ways and means. <i>Washington</i>, 1908. 9 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Madras.</span> <span class="smcap">Statutes.</span> The Madras coffee-stealing prevention act, 1878. +<i>Madras</i>, 1908. 9 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Nelson, Knute.</span> Export duty on coffee and tea. List of countries +levying an export duty on coffee and tea, with statistics from the +annual report on commerce and navigation for 1908. <i>Washington</i>, +1909. 6 pp. U.S. 61st Congress, 1st session. Senate Document, 120.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ordonnantie</span>, waar naar in de stad Utrecht en Amersfoort, en in de +vryheden van dien, by taxatie zal worden geheven de impost op de +koffy, cicers en thee. <i>Utrecht</i>, 1767. 6 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Produce Clearing House.</span> Regulations for coffee future delivery. +<i>London</i>, 1888. 12 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Oosterwijk Bruyn, Pieter Adolf.</span> Beschouwingen over eene +belasting op koffij. <i>Utrecht</i>, 1863. 78 pp.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />TRADE AND STATISTICS</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Exchange Tables</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Müller, Victor R.</span> Comparative tables showing the parity of prices +of Havre good average and New York coffee exchange standard no. 7. +<i>New York</i>, 1887. 15 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Seligsberg, Louis.</span> Parity tables for quotations of coffee and sugar +on the various exchanges of Europe, converted into American +currency. <i>New York</i>, 1891. 23 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zobel, Paul.</span> Paritäts-Tabellen zum Kaffee-Termin-Markt nebst +Schnellrechunungs Tabellen, 1907. <i>Triest.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">General</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Belli, B.</span> Il caffè, il suo paese e la sua importanza. <i>Milano</i>, +1910. 395 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bisio, G.</span> Il caffè. Le ioni date dal Prof. G. Bizio alla Reale +Scuola superiore di commercio, <i>Venezia</i>, 1870.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brougier, A.</span> Der Kaffee, dessen Kultur und Handel, 1897.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Burns, Jabez.</span> The "Spice mill" companion: a collection of valuable +information, original and selected, suited to the requirements of +the present condition of the coffee and spice mill business. <i>New +York</i>, 1879. 102 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dowler, J.S.O.</span> & Co. Coffee calculator. <i>Saint Louis</i>, 1907. 31 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ferguson, J.</span> Production of tea and coffee in British dependencies. +<i>London</i>, 1896. 1 p.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Fürst, Max.</span> Die Börse, ihre Enstehung und Entwicklung, ihre +Einrichtung und ihre Geschäfte. Die Welthandelsgüter Getreide, +Kaffee, Zucker. <i>Leipzig</i>, 1913.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">International Bureau of the American Republics.</span> Coffee. Extensive +information and statistics. <i>Washington</i>, 1901. 108 pp. <i>Also</i>, in +Spanish.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Coffee. Reprint of an article from the Monthly Bulletin of the +International Bureau of American Republics, Nov. 1908. +<i>Washington</i>, 1909. 11 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">International Institute of Agriculture.</span> <span class="smcap">Bureau of Statistics.</span> +Stocks visibles de froment et farine de froment, de sucre, de café, +de coton et de soie; 1903–12. <i>Rome</i>, 1914. 79 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmedding, J.H.F.</span> and <span class="smcap">Zonen</span>. Coffee. Statistics running from +1884–1905. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1901. 18 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schöffer, C.H.</span> The coffee trade. <i>New York</i>, 1869. 58 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">United States.</span> <span class="smcap">Bureau of Foreign Commerce.</span> Verslagen betreffende de +cultuur en de bereiding van koffie en het keplante en nog +beschikbare terrein voor dit product in Mexico, Centraal-& +Zuid-America en West-Indië. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1889. 135 pp. In English, +except introduction. Reprinted from Reports from the consuls of the +United States, 1888, XXVIII, No. 98.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">United States.</span> <span class="smcap">Statistics Bureau.</span> The world's production and +consumption of coffee, tea and cacao in 1905. <i>Washington</i>, 1905. +206 pp. Reprinted from Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance, +July, 1905.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Delden Laerne, C.F.</span> Brazil and Java. Report on coffee-culture +in America, Asia and Africa, to H.E. the Minister of the Colonies. +<i>London</i>, 1885. 637 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Periodicals</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bache, L.S.</span> How the exchange works. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1921, XLI: 678–682.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brand, Carl W.</span> Co-operative competition. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1914, XXVII: 534–540.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Calvo, J.B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Delfino, A.E.</span> Commission for the study of the +production, distribution and consumption of coffee. International +Bureau of American Republics Monthly Bulletin, 1902, XIII: +1317–1321.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee.</span> Statist, 1915, LXXXIII: 377–378.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> and coffee trade. Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, XXVII: 39; +XLI: 165.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> trade. Leisure Hour, XXIX: 357.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cotton-Coffee</span> quotation record. Monthly. <i>N.Y.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_764" id="Page_764">[Pg 764]</a></span><span class="smcap">Crawford, J.</span> History of coffee. Journal of the Statistical +Society, XV: 50.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Duke, J.S.</span> Coffee trade. De Bow's Commercial Review, II: 303. +Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, 1850, XXIII: 59, 172, 451.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">El Cafetal</span>, revista oficial mensuel dedicada exclusivamente a la +industria cafetera en todos su ramos. <i>New York</i>, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Federal Reporter</span>, for planters, grocers, confectioners, canners and +dealers in coffee, tea and spice. <i>New York.</i> Current monthly.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gardner, J.</span> Coffee trade. Western Journal and Civilian, VII: 301. +<i>Also</i>, Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, XIII: 273; J. Gardner Hunt's +Merchant's Magazine, XXV: 690; Living Age, XXVII: 254.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Production and consumption of coffee. Hunt's Merchant's +Magazine XXIV: 194.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Gill, W.K.</span> Meeting coffee competition. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXXI: 238–239.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Graham, Harry Crusen.</span> Coffee. Production, trade, and consumption by +countries. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Statistics. +Bulletin, 1912, LXXIX. 134 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Great Britain.</span> <span class="smcap">Commercial, Labour and Statistical Dept.</span> Tea and +coffee. Statement "showing the imports of tea and coffee into the +principal countries of Europe and into the United States: together +with statistical tables relating thereto for recent years as far as +the particulars can be stated." 1884–1900. House of Commons, paper +351, 1900. 27 pp. House of Commons paper 363, 1902. 42 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hangwitz, Julian.</span> The world's coffee trade in 1898. Consular +Reports, 1899, LX: 258–261.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Harris, William B.</span> Coffee and the law. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXIII; Supplement to No. 6: 41–44.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Heilprin, M.</span> History of coffee. Nation, VI: 275.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Huebner, G.G.</span> Coffee market. Annals of the American Academy, 1911, +XXXVIII: 610–620.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">International Bureau of the American Republics.</span> Bulletin. +Washington, 1893—date. Contains from time to time articles on +coffee production in the various Latin-American countries.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kaffee</span> verbrauch in den haupt sächlichsten Ländern der Welt. +Deutsche Handels-Archiv, 1901, 206–207.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lecomte, H.</span> La culture du café dans le monde. La Géographie, 1901, +III: 471–488. <i>Also</i>, in Finnish, Geografiska Föreningens Tidskr., +1901, XIII: 252–272.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Leech, C.J.</span>, & Co. Table of coffee statistics. Annual. <i>London.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lehy, Geoffrey B.</span> Coffee distribution. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1913, XXV: 564–566.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lewis, E. St. Elmo.</span> Promoting coffee sales. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 539–544.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mahin, John Lee.</span> Advertising coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912, XXIII: 56–58.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Mathews, Frederick C.</span> Coffee advertising efficiency. The Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII: 38–40.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McCreery, R.W.</span> The penny-change system. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1911, XXI: 462–464.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Macfarlane, John J.</span> Coffee and tea statistics. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 329–333.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Merritt, E.A.</span> The world's coffee. U.S. Consul's report on commerce, +1883, No. 31, 125–147.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">New York.</span> <span class="smcap">Coffee Exchange.</span> Report. Annual. <i>New York.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Our</span> coffee industry. Scientific American Supplement, 1902, LIII: +21994.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Price</span>, import, and consumption of coffee. De Bow's Commercial +Review, XX: 253.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Simmons' Spice Mill</span>; devoted to the interests of the coffee, tea +and spice trades. Monthly. <i>New York.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tea</span> and coffee consumption. Current Literature, 1901, XXX: 298.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, The.</span> For the tea, coffee, spice and +fine grocery trades. Monthly. New York.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ukers, William H.</span> Advertising Brazil coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1917, XXXII: 34–36.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— The right coffee propaganda. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1912, XXIII. Supplement to No. 6: 21–28.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ukers, William H.</span>, editor. Tea and coffee buyer's guide. Annual. +<i>New York.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">United States. State Department.</span> Production and consumption of +coffee, etc. Message from the president of the United States, +transmitting a report from the secretary of state, with +accompanying papers, relative to the proceedings of the +International Congress for the Study of the Production and +Consumption of Coffee, etc. Dee. 10, 1902. U.S. 57th Congress, 2nd +session. Senate document 35. 312 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Vasco, G.</span> Le café. Revue française de l'étranger et des colonies et +exploration, 1900, XXV: 598–603.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weir, Ross W.</span> Coffee hints for grocers. The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1913, XXV: 566–568.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Westerfeld, Sol.</span> Retailers' coffee problems. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 559–560.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">World's</span> coffee trade. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, +XXXVI: 129–130.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Regional</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">BRAZIL</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Alves de Lima, J.C.</span> Solugões sobre o commercio de café. <i>São +Paulo</i>, 1902. 88 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Bolle, Karl.</span> São Paulo das bedeutendste Kaffeegebeit der Welt. +Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie, XXVIII: 66–77.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazil. Ministerio de Fazenda.</span> Direitos de ex-portação e sua +cobranca. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, 1895. 11 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazil.</span> <span class="smcap">Serviço de Estatistica Commercial.</span> Statistics of imports +and exports. The movement of shipping, exchange and coffee in the +republic of the United States of Brazil. (Yearly.) <i>Rio de +Janeiro.</i></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazil</span> and coffee; souvenir of the Louisiana purchase exposition. +1904. 28 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazil</span> coffee in England. Bulletin of the Pan American Union, 1915, +XL: 514–515.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazilian</span> coffee propaganda, The. Commercial and Financial +Chronicle, 1909, LXXXVIII: 1223–1224.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazilian Review</span>, The: a weekly record of trade and finance. <i>Rio +de Janeiro</i>, 1907–1914.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> crop of Brazil, The. Economist, 1909, LXVIII: 1030–1031.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_765" id="Page_765">[Pg 765]</a></span><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> exports from Brazil, 1898–1900. Monthly Summary of Commerce +and Finance, 1900–1901: 2592–2593.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">d'Anthouard de Wasservas, A.</span> Le café au Brésil. Journal des +Économistes, 1910, ser. 6, XXVII: 16–37.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">da Silva Telles, A.E.</span> O café e o estado de S. Paulo. <i>São Paulo</i>, +1900. 60 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Empire</span> of Brazil at the World's industrial and cotton centennial +exposition of New Orleans, The. <i>New York</i>, 1885. 71 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Great Britain. Foreign Office. Brazil.</span> Résumé of a report published +in the "Journal do Commercio" of Rio de Janeiro on the production +of coffee in Brazil, with statistics respecting its consumption in +the United States. <i>London</i>, 1899. 7 pp. Diplomatic and Consular +Reports, Miscellaneous series, No. 512.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Grossi, Vincenzo.</span> La crisi del caffè e i progetti per la fissazione +del cambio al Brasile. Nuova Antologia, CCVIII; (ser. 5, CXXIV): +484–494.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kaffeefrage</span> in Brasilien, Die. Grenzboten, LXVI: 335–339.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Leroy-Beauilieu, Paul.</span> Les droits sur le café. Le Brésil, la France +et nos colonies. L'Économiste français, XXVIII; no. 1: 101–103.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Moreira, Nicolau Joaquim.</span> Brazilian coffee. <i>New York</i>, 1876. 11 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">N. Lettres du Brésil. La question du café. L'Économiste français, +XXVIII, No. 1: 374–377.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Patterson, W. Morrison.</span> Brazil's coffee trade of today. The Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 323–324.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Pinto, Adolpho Augusto.</span> The state of São Paulo. <i>Chicago</i>, 1893. 14 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">São Paulo</span> (<i>state</i>) <span class="smcap">Brazil</span>. <span class="smcap">Secretaria de Commercio se Orras +Publicas.</span> Estatistica especial da lavoura de café nos municipios de +Aracariguama, Atibaia, Bananal, Pilar, Sertãozinho e Redempcão. +<i>São Paulo</i>, 1900. 33 pp. Supplemento do Boletin da Agricultura, +1900, ser. I: VI.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Estatistica especial da lavoura de café nos municipios de +Apiahy, Batates. Caconde, Campos Novos do Paranapanema, Dourado, +Fartura, Faxina, Itarare, Jaboticabal, Mocóca, Monte-Mór, +Natividade, Nazareth, Pirassununga, Porto-Feliz. Remedios da Ponte +do Tieté, São Pedro do Turvo. Sarapuhy, Serra Negra e Yporanga. +<i>São Paulo</i>, 1901. 177 pp. Supplemento do Boletin da Agricultura, +1901, ser. 2: IV.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Seeger, Eugene.</span> Coffee crop of Brazil. U.S. Consular Reports, 1898, +LVII, No. 218: 334–336.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Transporting</span> Brazil coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, +XXXII: 214–224.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ward, Robert De C.</span> A visit to the Brazilian coffee country. +National Geographic Magazine, 1911, XXII: 908–931.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Williams, J.H.</span> The Brazil coffee situation. The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 221–222.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Windels, J.H.</span> A coffee buyer's life in Brazil. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1916, XXX: 538–545.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">COLOMBIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dickson, Spencer S.</span> Colombia. Report on the coffee trade of +Colombia. <i>London</i>, 1903. 8 pp. Great Britain. Foreign Office. +Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Miscellaneous series, No. 598.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">COSTA RICA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> <span class="smcap">Contabilidad Nacional.</span> Exportacion de la cosecha de +café.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> <span class="smcap">Departmento Nacional de Estadistica.</span> Diagrams de los +promedios obtenidos en la venta del café de Costa Rica en Londres +en los años de 1890 a 1899. <i>San José</i>, 1900.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Exportaciones de café de la República de Costa Rica. <i>San +José</i>, 1900. 14 pp. Alcance á La Gaceta, 1900, No. 99.</p> + +<p class="hang1">——Fluctuaciones de los precios del café en Hamburgo, 1880–1899. +<i>San José</i>, 1900.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Costa Rica.</span> <span class="smcap">Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores.</span> Estudio é informe +sobre el café de Costa Rica. 1900. 48 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">EAST INDIES</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Dekker, Eduard Douwes.</span> Max Havelaar; or The coffee auctions of the +Dutch Trading Company; by Multaluli, (pseud.); trans. from the +original ms. by Baron Alphonse Nahuijs. <i>Edinburgh</i>, 1868.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Verwanging</span> van de gedwongen koffieteelt door eene vrije +volkskoffie-cultuur. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië new ser. +2, V: 252–261.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">FINLAND</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Granroth, Elias G.</span> Om café och de inhemska wäxter, som pläga brukas +i dess ställe. <i>Abo</i>, 1755. 18 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">FRANCE</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Arrest du Conseil d'Estat du Roy</span>, qui permet aux directeurs +interessez en l'armement du vaisseaux la Paix, de vendre les balles +de caffé dont il est chargé. <i>Paris</i>, 1720. 4 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Qui accorde à la Compagnie des Indes le privilege exclusif de +la vente du caffé. <i>Paris</i>, 1723. 4 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Pour la prise de possession par la Compagnie des Indes du +privilege de la vente exclusive du caffé, sous le nom de Pierre le +Sueur. <i>Paris</i>, 1723. 7 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Qui ordonne que les commis et employez de la Compagnie des +Indes pour l'exploitation des privileges du tabac et du café, +procederont aux visites et executions au sujet des toiles et +etoffes des Indes et du Levant. <i>Paris</i>, 1723. 7 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Que declare commune en faveur des habitants de Cayenne et de +St. Domingue, la declaration du 27. Septembre 1735. <i>Paris</i>, 1735. +3 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Portant reglement sur les caffez provenant des plantations et +cultures des Isles Françoises de l'Amérique. <i>Paris</i>, 1736. 4 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Darolles, E.</span> Le café sur le marché française. <i>Paris</i>, 1885.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Déclaration Du Roy</span>, Qui regle la manière dont la Compagnie des +Indes fera l'exploitation de la vente exclusive du caffé. Donneé à +Versailles le 10. Octobre 1723. <i>Paris</i>, 1723. 15 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— Concernant les cafez provenant des plantations et culture, de +la Martinique et autres Isles Françoises de l'Amérique. Donnée a +Fontainebleau le 27. Septembre 1732. <i>Paris</i>, 1732. 9 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">GERMANY</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schönfeld, Karl.</span> Der Kaffee-Engrosshandel Hamburgs. <i>Heidelberg</i>, +1903. 135 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">GREAT BRITAIN</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Great Britain. Board of Trade.</span> Tea and coffee, 1888, 1893, +1899–1900, 1903, 1908, 1910. Statistical tables showing the +consumption of tea and coffee in the principal countries of Europe, +in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_766" id="Page_766">[Pg 766]</a></span> United States and in the principal British self-government +dominions, and also showing the principal sources of supply. +Parliament, House of Commons. Reports and papers, 1889, No. 12; +1894, No. 329; 1900, No. 351; 1901, No. 363; 1903, No. 304 +(reprinted, London, 1905, 47 pp.); 1908, No. 378 (reprinted, +London, 1911, 58 pp.); 1911, No. 275 (reprinted, London, 1911, 19 +pp.).</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Great Britain. Treasury Department.</span> Copy of diagrams showing the +consumption from 1856 to 1888 of tea, coffee, cocoa, and chicory, +of alcoholic beverages, and of tobacco, compared with the increase +of population. <i>London</i>, 1889. House of Commons, paper 121.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lifebelt Coffee Company, Ltd.</span> The statutory meeting of the company. +<i>London</i>, 1909. 2 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Oberparleiter, K.</span> Der Londener Kaffeemarkt. 1912.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">GUIANA, DUTCH</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Roef-Praatje</span>, tusschen verscheiden persoonen, over de +tegenswoordige staat van Surinamen en de laage prys der producten; +waarin klaar aangetoond word de verkeerde gewoontens, wegens het +verkoopen der coffy by inschryving, tot merkelyk nadeel der houders +en geïntresseerdens der Surinaamsche obligaties. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1774. +175 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">HAWAII</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hawaii</span> (Republic) <span class="smcap">Labor Commission</span>. Report on the coffee industry. +<i>Honolulu</i>, 1895. 33 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hawaiian Islands. Department of Foreign Affairs.</span> The Hawaiian +Islands, their resources, agricultural, commercial and financial. +Coffee, the coming staple product. <i>Honolulu</i>, 1896. 95 pp. Also, +<i>Washington</i>, 1897. 32 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">INDIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Clifford, Frederick.</span> Indian coffee: its present production and +future prospects. Journal of the Society of Arts, 1887, XXXV: +519–534.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">India.</span> <span class="smcap">Commercial Intelligence Department.</span> Note on the production +of coffee in India.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">India.</span> <span class="smcap">Statistical Department.</span> Production of coffee in India. 19—.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Memminger, Lucien.</span> The Indian coffee trade crisis. The Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1917. XXXII: 506–510.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schuurman, G.E.</span> Eenige beschouwingen over verkoop van gouvernements +koffie in India. <i>Rotterdam</i>, 1877. 13 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">JAVA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kamerwijsheid</span> (Relating to forced native labor in the island of +Java) 1879. 31 pp. Reprint from Algemeen Dagblad van Nederlandsche +Indië, Sept. 16, 18, 22, 24, 25, 1879.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">De Koffiecultuur</span> op Java. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Indië, new +ser. 2, No. 5: 660–667.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kuneman, J.</span> De gouvernements koffie-cultuur op Java. <i>'s +Gravenhage</i>, 1890. 201 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rose, G.F.C.</span> Eenge opmerkingen naar aanleiding van de conclusive +van de neerderheid der commissie nit de Tweede Kamer der +Staten-Generaal over de nitkomsten van het onderzoek betreffende de +koffij kultuur op Java. 1874. 39 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Suermondt, G.</span>, and <span class="smcap">London, H.H.</span> Correspondentie. De +West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij verdedigd tegen den schrijver +van de koloniale kronijk in de Economist. 1868. 15 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij verdedigd tegen de +aanvallen van Volksblad en Arnhemsche Courant. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1865. +44 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Toegelicht. Supplement +van den eersten druk met voorrede. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1865. 19 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van den Berg, Norbert Pieter.</span> Koffieproductie en koffieuitvoer. +<i>Batavia</i>, 1884. 8 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Van Vliet, L. Van W.</span> De koffij-enquête in verband met de ontworpen +West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1871. 35 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">LIBERIA</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ellis, George W.</span> Coffee industry in Liberia. U.S. Monthly Consular +and Trade Reports, 1904, No. 291: 21–22.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Morren, F.W.</span> Cultuur bereiding en handel van Liberia Koffie. +<i>Amsterdam</i>, 1894. 36 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">MEXICO</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hinojosa, G.</span> Cultivo del café. <i>México</i>, 1883. 8 pp. (Mexico. +Ministro de Fomento.)</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Romero, M.</span> Coffee and india rubber culture in Mexico; preceded by +geographical and statistical notes on Mexico. <i>New York</i>, 1898. 416 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Terry, L.M.</span> Coffee culture in Mexico. Overland Monthly, 1901, new +ser. XXXVII: 702–709.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">NETHERLANDS</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Amsterdam.</span> <span class="smcap">Vereeniging Voor Den Koffiehandel.</span> Statistiek van koffie +in Nederland. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1914.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Groeneveld, J.</span> Tremijnzaken in koffie te Rotterdam. <i>Rotterdam</i>, +1893. 15 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jacobson, J.</span> "Ernstig bedreigd" "Opgeroepen," een woord naar +aanleiding van "Ernstig bedreigd" door den heer J. Jacobson en de +daarop gevolgde geschriften van de heeren G.H. Mees en A. Plate, +door en Nederlandes. <i>Amsterdam</i>, 1879. 12 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Jets</span> over de koffij-veilingen der Nederlandsche +Handel-Maatschappij. <i>Rotterdam</i>, 1847. 24 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Netherlands (Kingdom)</span> Laws, statutes, etc. Wij Willem, bij de +gratie Gods, konig der Nederlanden ... enz., enz., enz. Allen den +genen, die deze zullen zien ... salut! doen te weten: Alzoo wij, +tot stijving der inkomsten van den staat, noodzakelijk geoordeeld +hebben, dat de koffij binnen ons rijk gebruikt ... aan eene +belasting op de consumptie worde onderworpen. <i>'s Gravenhage</i>, +18—. 8 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Suermondt, G.</span>, and <span class="smcap">London, H.H.</span> +West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Het advys der Kamer van +Koophandel te Batavia, de Ond Koopman, enz. wederlegd. <i>Amsterdam</i>, +1866. 127 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Waanders, F.G.</span> van B. De koffiemarkt. <i>The Hague</i>, 1882. 27 pp.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">PORTO RICO</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Porto Rican</span> coffee. Outlook, Mar. 24, 1906, LXXXII: 632; May 5, +1906, LXXXIII: 46–47.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">United States. President</span>, 1901–1909 (<span class="smcap">Roosevelt</span>) Message from the +President of the United States relative to his visit to the island +of Porto Rico. <i>Washington</i>, 1906. 200 pp. 59th Congress, 2d +Session, Senate document 135. Message, dated Dec. 11, 1906, +accompanied by petitions in relation to the coffee trade, etc., and +losses by the hurricane of 1899; and the sixth annual report of the +governor, Beekman Winthrop, dated July 1, 1906.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_767" id="Page_767">[Pg 767]</a></span><span class="smcap">Van Leenhoff, Johannes W.</span> The condition of the coffee industry in +Porto Rico. <i>Mayaguez</i>, 1904. 2 pp. Porto Rico Agricultural +Experiment Station. Circular No. 2.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Weyl, W.E.</span> Labor conditions in Porto Rico. U.S. Bureau of Labor. +Bulletin, 1905, XI: 749–753.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">SPAIN</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Spanien.</span> Bestimmungen über die Einfuhr von Kaffee und Kakao aus +Fernando Po. Deutsche Handels-Archiv. 1901. 141.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">TONKIN</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Rottach, Edmond.</span> L'organisation économique de l'Indochine et le +café au Tonkin. Société de Géographic commerciale de Paris. +Bulletin, 1913, XXXV: 643–660.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="ampm">UNITED STATES</span></p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">American</span> tea and coffee trade from 1847 to 1916. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 28.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee Exchange of the City of New York.</span> Annual Report.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> trade of the United States. Chamber of Commerce, <i>New York</i>. +Annual Report 1908–1909, pt. 1: 23–29.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> Trade of the United States for the past six years. Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 326–329.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee Trade</span> of the United States since 1821. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 336–338.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Cunningham, E.S.</span> Export of Mocha coffee to the United States. U.S. +Consular Reports, 1899, LXI: 625–628.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Our</span> fastest growing coffee port, including handling green coffee at +San Francisco. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: +524–528.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Renaissance</span> of tea and coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, +1919, XXXVI: 218–229.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sloss, R.</span> New York coffee party. Everybody's Magazine. 1913, +XXVIII: 772–783.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Tea</span>, coffee, wines, etc.; consumption of tea, coffee, wines, +distilled spirits, and malt liquors in the U.S. since 1870, per +capita of population. <i>Washington</i>, 1896–1899. U.S. Agriculture +Dept. Yearbook, 1895: 552; 1896: 595; 1897: 754; 1898: 723.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">United States.</span> <span class="smcap">Bureau of Statistics.</span> Imports of coffee and tea. +1790–1896. <i>Washington</i>, 1896. <i>Also</i>, Monthly Summary of Finance +and Commerce, 1896, new ser. IV: 670–690.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wakeman, Abram.</span> History and reminiscences of lower Wall St. and +vicinity. <i>New York</i>, 1914. 216 pp.</p> + + +<p class="center"><br />VALORIZATION</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Altschud, F.</span> Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahrbüch für Gesetzgebubg, +1910, 2.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Attacking</span> Brazil's coffee trust. Literary Digest, 1912, XLIV: +1242–1244.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Brazil's</span> failure to control the price. American Geographic Society. +Bulletin, 1909, XLI: 220–222.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Campista, David.</span> Valorisação do café e Caixa de conversão. <i>Rio de +Janeiro</i>, 1906: 53.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Chantland, William T.</span> Valorization of coffee. A detailed report of +the transactions and facts relating to the valorization of coffee. +<i>Washington</i>, 1913. 15 pp. U.S. 63rd Congress, 1st session. Senate +Document, 36.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> combine at bay. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXII: +497–513.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> valorization and the Sherman law. Journal of Political +Economy, 1918, XXI: 162–163.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Coffee</span> valorization scheme and the coming harvest, The. Economist, +1909, LXVIII: 910–911.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">de Carvalho, J.C.</span> O café do Brazil, estudos a favor da propaganda +para a augmento do consumo e valorisação do café do Brazil no +estrangeiro. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, 1901. 41 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— O café, sua historia, des valorisação e propaganda pada o +augmento do consumo na Europa o algodão, a industria da tecelagem +do algodão, sua origem, appareicimento e desenvolvimento na America +do Sul. Conferencias publicas realissadas na séde la Sociedade +nacional de agricultura. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, 1900. 53 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Denis, Pierre.</span> La crise du café au Brésil et la valorisation. Revue +politique et parlementaire, 1908, LVI: 494–520.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ferreira Rangel, Sylvio.</span> Valorisação de café. <i>Rio de Janeiro</i>, +1906. 18 pp. <i>Also</i>, A Lavoura, IX: 81–90.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ferrin, A.W.</span> Brazilian plan of limiting shipments. Moody's +Magazine, 1912, XIII: 409–414.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">How</span> the coffee trust has held its grip. Current Literature, 1912, +LIII: 52–54.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Huebner, G.G.</span> Making green coffee prices. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1912. XXI: 442–449.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Hutchinson, Lincoln.</span> Coffee valorization in Brazil. Quarterly +Journal of Economics, 1909, XXIII: 528–535.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Kurth, Hermann.</span> Die Lage des Kaffeemarktes und die +Kaffeevalorisation. Inaugural dissertation, <i>Jena</i>, 1907. 34 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lalière, A.</span> La valorisation du café. Revue économique +internationale, Feb. 15–20, 1910, VII, pt. 1: 316–350.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Lévy, Maurice.</span> La valorisation du café au Brésil. Annales des +Sciences politiques, 1908, XXIII: 586–603.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Macfarlane, John J.</span> Coffee valorization analysed. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1910, XIX: 103–110.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">McKenna, W.E.</span> Cause of advance in price. Public, 1912, XV: 508.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Olavarria, I.A.</span> Liga de los paises cafeteros. <i>Caracas</i>, 1898. 20 +pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Payen, Édouard.</span> Au Brésil: la valorisation du café. Questions +diplomatique et coloniales, XXIV: 728–740.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Raising</span> prices by destruction. Nation, 1909. LXXXVIII: 520–521.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ramos, F. Ferreira.</span> La valorisation du café au Brésil. 1907.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ratzka-Ernst, Clara.</span> Welthandelsartikel und ihre Preise. Eine +Studie zur Preisbewegung und Preisbildung. Der Zucker, der Kaffee +und die Baumwolle. <i>München</i>, 1912. 244 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Schmidt, Fritz.</span> Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahrbücher für +Nationalökonomie und Statistik, 1909, ser. 3, XXXVIII: 662–670.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Sielcken, Hermann.</span> Coffee valorization explained. Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal, 1911, XXI: 471–481.</p> + +<p class="hang1">—— A defense of valorization. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, +XXIII, Supplement to no. 6: 17–21.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_768" id="Page_768">[Pg 768]</a></span><span class="smcap">Sloss, R.</span> Why coffee costs twice as much. World's Work, 1912, +XXIV: 194–205.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Suit</span> against the coffee trust. Nation, 1912, XCIV: 508–509.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Syndicat</span> général de défense du café et des produits coloniaux. +Bulletin, <i>Paris</i>, 1911, II: No. 6.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Theiss, Lewis Edwin.</span> Why the price of coffee increases. Showing how +a few rich men, who want to be richer, are pushing up the price of +coffee. Pearson's Magazine, 1911, XXVI: 456–463.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Turmann, Max.</span> Un état qui fait du commerce. Le Brésil et la +valorisation du café. La Revue hebdomadaire, 1909, VIII: 450–470.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Ukers, William H.</span> The great coffee corner. Saturday Evening Post, +1909, CLXXXI: 5–7.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Valorizing</span> coffee. Review of Reviews, 1912, XLVI: 21–22.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Value</span> of coffee. Current Literature, 1903, XXXV: 746–747.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wessels, L.</span> De opheffing van het monopolie en de vervanging van de +gedwongen koffie-cultuur op Java door een staatscultuur in vrijen +arbeid. <i>'s Gravenhage</i>, 1890. 72 pp.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Wileman, J.P.</span> Unparalleled valorization. Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal, 1911, XX: 444–445.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><span class="smcap">Zur</span> Frage der Kaffee-Valorisation. Deutsche Wirtschafts-Zeitung, +1913, IX: 237–243.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_769" id="Page_769">[Pg 769]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span> As this is a book about coffee, the entries in the Index +refer—unless otherwise specified—to that general subject, and more +particularly to <i>Coffea arabica</i>; other varieties are distinguished by +their scientific or trade names. Thus, "Adulteration" refers to the +adulteration of coffee; and "Adulterants," to the substances used for +that purpose.</p> + + +<div class='table2'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Abbreviations Used"> +<tr> + <td align='center' colspan='3'><i>Abbreviations Used</i></td> +</tr> +<tr class='tr1'> + <td align='left'><i>bev.</i></td> + <td align='center'>signifies</td> + <td align='left'>beverage</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>biog.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>biography</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>C. or c.</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>coffee</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>C.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'><i>Coffea</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>chk.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>coffee-house keeper</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>d.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>died</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>hyb.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>hybrid</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>ill.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>illustration</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>inv.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>invention</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>newsp.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>newspaper</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>pamph.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>pamphlet</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>pat.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>patent, patentee</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>per.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>periodical</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>pseud.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>pseudonym</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>q.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>quoted</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>v.</i></td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='left'>vessel, ship</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Italicized words are either scientific terms or titles of publications. +Titles of books are followed by the name of the author, if known; other +publications are distinguished as broadsides, newspapers, pamphlets, or +periodicals.</p> + +<p>Geographical names are distributed under various topics, such as +"Acreage," "Coffee houses," "Consumption," "Cultivation," "Exports," +"Imports," "Production," and the like.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="index"> +<i>A Mon Café</i>, Ducis, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Abbas, wife of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> +<br /> +Abbey, Charlotte, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Abbey, Roswell, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Abbey, Freeman & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Abd-al-Kâdir, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br /> +<br /> +Abd-al-Kâdir ms., <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Description, <a href="#Page_541">541</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Abele, Chris, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>d.</i> (1910), <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Abeokutæ, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Abeokutæ</i> × <i>liberica</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Abigail, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Aborn, A.C., <i>q.</i>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cost card for roasters, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Aborn, Edward, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a><br /> +<br /> +Aborn, W.H., <a href="#Page_715">715</a><br /> +<br /> +About, Edmund F.V., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_685">685</a><br /> +<br /> +Abraham, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +<br /> +Abyssinian c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Account of his Journeys, An</i>, Olearius, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Ach (chemist), <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Ach, F.J., <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Acidity, percentages in c., <a href="#Page_719">719</a><br /> +<br /> +Acid c.'s, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> +<br /> +Acids, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Acker, Finley, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a><br /> +<br /> +Acker, Merrall & Condit Co., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Ackland, James, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Acreage<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Africa, British East, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentina, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil (sq. miles), <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ecuador, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federated Malay States, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guiana, British, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haiti, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leeward Islands, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mauritius, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nyasaland, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philippines, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uganda, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yemen, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Adams, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br /> +<br /> +Adams, Abigail, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +Adams, Isaac, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Adams, John, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Adams, Pygan, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Adams & Son, <a href="#Page_710">710</a><br /> +<br /> +Addison, Joseph, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Addison, Life of</i>, Johnson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a><br /> +<br /> +Adjudication (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> +<br /> +Adulterant Act, British, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Adulterants, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Adulteration, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reasons for, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. law affecting, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">rulings against, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Advertisements<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arbuckle's (1861), <a href="#Page_496">496</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston (1748), <a href="#Page_467">467</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cauchois's Private Estate, <a href="#Page_498">498</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee-house</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Boston, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York (1781), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee mills (1665), <a href="#Page_617">617</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Divination by coffee grounds, <a href="#Page_558">558</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First (Abd-al-Kâdir's, 1587), <a href="#Page_431">431</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First American-newspaper, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First newspaper (1657), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Of coffee only, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First printed (1652), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London coffee-house, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Newspaper and periodical, <a href="#Page_432">432–434</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Piazza coffee room, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Song by Zecchini, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turks Head coffee house, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Advertising, <a href="#Page_431">431–465</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Booklets (J.C.T.P.C.), <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brands, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462–465</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early history, <a href="#Page_431">431–434</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Evolution of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government propaganda, <a href="#Page_444">444–459</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Injudicious, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Joint coffee trade, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445–459</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lantern slides, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Motion pictures, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Package-coffee, <a href="#Page_440">440–443</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retail, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trade, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trade journalists as experts, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_434">434–465</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Advertising charts, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Advice against the plague</i>, Harvey, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Advisory Board, C. (<a href="#Government_control"><i>see</i> Gov't control</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Affinis, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Aga, Soliman, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<br /> +Aging<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Artificial, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Natural, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Agriculture, U.S. Dept., <a href="#Page_722">722</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Aigentliche Beschreibung der Raisis, etc.</i>, Rauwolf, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Aiken, G., <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Akers, Frederick, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Alameda (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Albanese, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Albertenghi, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Alcoholic beverages<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee replaces in Am. colonies, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sold in London c. houses, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Alcholism, effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Aldhabani (<a href="#Gemaleddin_Sheik"><i>see</i> Gemaleddin</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Ale wives' complaint against c. houses</i> (<i>pamph.</i>), <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_770" id="Page_770">[Pg 770]</a></span>Alexander, S.R., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Alexander & Baldwin, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Alhadrami, Muhammed, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Al-Haiwi</i> (<i>The Continent</i>), Rhazes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +Alison, Archibald, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Alkaloids in c., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +All Souls' college, Oxford, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Allain, F.V., <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Allanston, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Allen, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Allen, Ida C. Bailey, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a><br /> +<br /> +Allen, James Lane, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a><br /> +<br /> +Allom, Thomas, <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br /> +<br /> +Alpini (Alpinus), Prospero <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Alt und neu Wien</i>, Bermann, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +Altenberg, Peter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +Altitudes<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Best, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honduras, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indo-China, French, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yemen, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Alumini Etonenses</i>, Harwood, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Amarella, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Amber (essence of) in c., <a href="#Page_695">695</a><br /> +<br /> +Ambergris in c., <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ambrosia Arabica, Caffè Discorso</i>, Rambaldi, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br /> +<br /> +American Can Co., <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Am. Chem. Journal</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +American Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>American Grocer</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>American Hist'l Register</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Am. Journ. Ophthalmology</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +American Legion, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +American Mills, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +American Sugar Refining Co., <a href="#Page_689">689</a><br /> +<br /> +Ames, Allan P., <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br /> +<br /> +Amman & Co., C., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Amsinck, Gustave, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Amsinck & Co., G., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +Amurath III, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br /> +<br /> +Amurath IV, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Analyst</i>, <i>per</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Anatomy of Melancholy, The</i>, Burton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Ancilloto, Marco, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>"——" and Other Poets</i>, Untermeyer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a><br /> +<br /> +Anderson, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Anderson, Adam, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> +<br /> +Anderson, E.D., <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Anderson, Mrs. <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +Andreas, A.T., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Andrews, William Ward, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_700">700</a><br /> +<br /> +Andrews & Co., C.E., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Andry, Doctor, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Anecdotes, <a href="#Page_565">565–585</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Addison, Joseph, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bacon, Sir Nicholas, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bismarck, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bonaparte, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brillat-Savarin, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Champmeslé, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cibber, Colley, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Compton, Bishop of London, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de Sévigné, Mme., <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dryden, John, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fontenelle, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foote, Samuel, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Garrick, David <a href="#Page_569">569</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Goldsmith, Oliver, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grévy, Jules, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hannes, Dr., <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hogarth, William, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inchbald, Mrs., <a href="#Page_576">576</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jeffreys, Judge, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Johnson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>, <a href="#Page_569">569</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kant, Immanuel, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kemble, John, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London coffee-house, <a href="#Page_567">567–585</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis XIV and DuBarry, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lowther, Sir James, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Macklin, Charles, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milton, John, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napier, Robert, <a href="#Page_700">700</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Page, Judge, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phipps, Sir William, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pope, Alexander, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Racine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Radcliff, Dr., <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roach, Tiger, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roubiliac, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saint-Foix, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Savage, Richard, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sloane, Sir Hans, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Steele, Sir Richard, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Swift, Jonathan, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Talleyrand, Prince, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thurlow, Lord, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Voltaire, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ware (Brit. architect), <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Anezi c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Angel & Co., A., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Angustifolia, C.</i> <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Ankola c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Annales</i>, Liebig, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Annales Politiques et Littéraires</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Annals</i> (of Phila.), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Annals on Applied Biology</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Anne, Queen, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Année Littéraire</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Anstead, R.D., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Anthony, Frank M., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Antiquarian Rambles in the Streets of London</i>, Smith, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_569">569</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Antiseptic, C. as an, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Apel, Paul E, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Apparatus (<a href="#Machinery"><i>see</i> Machinery</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Appenzeller, John C., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Applegate, John, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Apples in c. (Russia), <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br /> +<br /> +Apreece, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +Araba (driver), <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Arabia, Description of</i>, Niebuhr, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Arabian Chrestomathy</i>, de Sacy <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Arabian c. (<a href="#Mocha_c"><i>see</i> Mocha</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i><a name="Arabian_Nights" id="Arabian_Nights"></a>Arabian Nights, The</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Arabica, C.</i> (see note, p. <a href="#Page_769">769</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Arbitration (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Arbor yemensis fructum cofè ferens, etc., The</i>, Douglas, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckle advertising, <a href="#Page_462">462–465</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckle, Charles, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckle, Christina, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckle, John, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>d.</i>, (1912) <a href="#Page_524">524</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckle, John (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckle Brothers, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coating coffee, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Plant, <a href="#Page_524">524–526</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Business, <a href="#Page_521">521–526</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckle Farm, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckles, The, <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuckles & Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Arbuthnot, Dr., <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Arcade Manufacturing Co., <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Archives of Psychology</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Arcularius, James L., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Arding, Dr. Charles, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Arduino, Pier Teresio, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Arias, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> +<br /> +Ariosa (brand), <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Origin of name, <a href="#Page_522">522</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ariza & Lombard, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Arkell, Bartlett, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Arkell, W.J., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Arlington, Earl of, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Arliss, George, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Armstrong, Dr., <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a> <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i> <a href="#Page_517">517</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Arnold, Francis B., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a><br /> +<br /> +Arnold & Co., B.G., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a> <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a><br /> +<br /> +Arnold, Dorr & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a><br /> +<br /> +Arnold, Hines & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Arnold, Mackey & Co., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Arnold, Sturgess & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Arnoldiana, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Aroma<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Advertising value, retail, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Best grinds to preserve, <a href="#Page_719">719</a>, <a href="#Page_720">720</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cause of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaff rich in, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cup-testing for, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Preservation of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Aroma Coffee & Spice Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Aron & Co., J., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Arroba</i> (weight), <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +<br /> +Art collections<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berlin museums, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston Mus. of Fine Arts, <a href="#Page_612">612</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bostonian Society, <a href="#Page_613">613</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beaufoy (Guildhall Mus.), <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">British Museum, <a href="#Page_604">604</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Guildhall Museum, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Armstrong & Barnewall, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Arne, Dr., <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Arnold, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +<br /> +Arnold, Benjamin Green, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Victoria and Albert Museum, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clearwater (Met. Mus.), <a href="#Page_609">609</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Halsey (Met. Mus.), <a href="#Page_609">609</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Metropolitan Museum</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Pictures, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Service, artistic and historical, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris: Clunny Museum, <a href="#Page_600">600</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portland: Maine Hist. Soc., <a href="#Page_614">614</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Potsdam museums, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salem (Mass.): Essex Inst., <a href="#Page_614">614</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sam Ireland's, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vienna: Austrian Art Soc., <a href="#Page_590">590</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Washington</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peter (U.S. Nat'l Mus.), <a href="#Page_599">599</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Arthur, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Arthur's</i>, Lyons, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Aruwimensis, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ashcroft, John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trade mark, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ashland, James, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Ashley, James, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Astbury, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Astor Library, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +<br /> +Atha, F.P., <a href="#Page_509">509</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Athenae Oxiensis à Wood</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Atlas Mills, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Attal (Arabian bale), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<br /> +Atwood & Co., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Atwood & Holstad, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Aubrey, John, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Auctions<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1711), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Augagneuri, C., <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +Auger & Co., B.E., <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Austin, Nichols & Co., <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Australian c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Autobiography</i>, Haydon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Autocrat (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Automatic Weighing Machine Co., <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Avicenna (Ibn Sina), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<br /> +à Wood, Anthony, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Ayduis, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<br /> +Ayer Bangies c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +Ayer & Son, N.W., <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br /> +<br /> +Aymar & Co., <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Babillard, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br /> +<br /> +Bach, Johann Sebastian. <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_595">595–599</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_771" id="Page_771">[Pg 771]</a></span>Bache, Theophylact, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Bacon, Francis, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bacon, Sir Nicholas, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Bacon, Raymond F., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<br /> +Bacon, Williamson, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Bacon & Co., Williamson, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Bacon, Stickney & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Bacteria, Effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +"Bad" coffee, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Bagnell, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Bags, paper (<a href="#Containers"><i>see</i> Containers</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Bahias (c.), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +Baillon, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Baiz, Jacob, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Baiz & Wakeman, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker (chemist), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker, John Gulick, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker, Roger, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker, T.K., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker, William E., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker & Co., <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker & Sons, Joseph, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker & Young, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker Importing Co., <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Baker <i>vs.</i> Duncombe (<i>pat.</i> suit), <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Baldi, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Baldwin, Captain, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Baldy & Co., J.B., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Bales, Arabian, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +<br /> +Balis (c.), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Balliol college, Oxford, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Ballot-box, origin of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Ballou & Cosgrove, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Baltagi, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Balzac, Honoré de, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Balzac</i>, Lawton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Ban, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +Bananas and c. (<i>bev.</i>), <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Banesius (<a href="#Nairon"><i>see</i> Nairon</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Bangs, John Kendrick, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a><br /> +<br /> +Bank of New York, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Bank of Pennsylvania, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Banks, H.W., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Banks & Co., H.W., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Baptized by Clement VIII, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Barbados c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Barbaro, Angelo Maria, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Barbor, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Barclay, Florence L., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Barclay & Hasson, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Barker, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Barmaids, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +<br /> +Barnardini, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Barnes, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Barnes, Sir Edward, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Barnicle, Michael, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Baro, José, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Barotti, L., <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Barquisimento, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br /> +<br /> +Barr, Thomas T., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Barr & Co., T.M., <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br /> +<br /> +Barr & Co., T.T., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Barr, Lally & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Barrington Hall (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Barrington Hall Soluble (brand), <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Barrowby, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Barth, G.W., <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br /> +<br /> +Barthez, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Bartlett (artist), <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br /> +<br /> +Bartow, H., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Baruch & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Batavia c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +Baudelaire, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Baukobensis, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<br /> +Bay, Gottfried, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Bayne, Daniel K., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Bayne, L.P., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Bayne, Jr., William, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Bayne, Sr., William, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Bayne & Co., William, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Beach & Co., J.D., <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Beaham-Moffatt Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Bean broth, Javanese, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +Beans as friendly tokens, <a href="#Page_655">655</a><br /> +<br /> +Beard, Eli, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Beard, Samuel S., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Beard & Co., Samuel S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Beard & Cummings, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Beard & Howell, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Beard, Sons & Co., S.M., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Beards & Cottrell, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Beaufoy Catalogue, Burn, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Beaumarchais, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Beauvarlet, J., <a href="#Page_587">587</a><br /> +<br /> +Beccaria, Cesare, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Becker, Joseph, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Beckley, S.W., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Beckmann, Alfred H., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br /> +<br /> +Bedford, Duke of, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Beecher, C. McCulloch, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Beede, N.B., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Beekmans, The, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Beer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Beer, Coffee, <a href="#Page_710">710</a>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a><br /> +<br /> +Beeson, Emmet G., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_679">679</a><br /> +<br /> +Bégon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Behrens & Co., A., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Belcher, Jonathan, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Belgians, King of, <a href="#Page_672">672</a><br /> +<br /> +Bell & Co., J.H., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Bell, Conrad & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Bell, Conrad & Webster, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Belli, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Bello (Bellus), Onorio, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +Belna (brand), <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Bencini, Antoni, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Benedicenti, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Benedict & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Benedict & Gaffney, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Benedict & Thomas, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bengalensis, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Bengiazlah, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bennet, Henry, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Bennett, J. Hughes, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Bennett, James, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Bennett, William, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Bennett & Becker, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Bennett & Son, William Hosmer, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Bennett, Schenck & Earle, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Bennett, Sloan & Co., <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Bentley, Benton & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Berchoux, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Berg, Thomson & Davis, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Berhard, Charles, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Berkeley, Bishop, <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br /> +<br /> +Bermann, M., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +Bernard, Claude M.V., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br /> +<br /> +Bernard (Dean of Derry), <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Bernhardt, Sarah, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Bernheimer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Bernier, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Berry (<a href="#Fruit"><i>see</i> Fruit</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Berry, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Berry & Sons, N., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Berthier, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Berytus (Beirut), Bishop of, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +<br /> +Besant, Sir Walter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Bethmont, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Betrand, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Better C.-making Com., <a href="#Page_439">439</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Recommendations, <a href="#Page_713">713</a>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Better coffee-making publicity<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Favored by N.C.R.A., <a href="#Page_513">513</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Beurre, Café avec, <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Beverage" id="Beverage"></a>Beverage<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buds as basis, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemical analysis, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Consumption in U.S., <a href="#Page_689">689</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Definition, U.S. Dep't of Agr., <a href="#Page_722">722</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Discovery (13th century), <a href="#Page_655">655</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Evolution of, <a href="#Page_693">693</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fruit and bananas, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">History, early, <a href="#Page_11">11–23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hull and pulp as basis, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Husks as basis, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Origin</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First reliable date (1454), <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Legendary, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Beverages Past and Present</i>, Emerson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Bey, Kair, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bible</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Bibliothéque Nationale, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Bichivili, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Bichivili manuscript, <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br /> +<br /> +Bickford, Clarence E., <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Bickford & Co., C.E., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Biddulph, William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Biggin, Coffee, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Origin of name, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Infusion_devices"><i>See also</i> Infusion devices</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Bill & Co., Alexander H., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Binz, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Biographic Universelle</i>, Michauds, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Bishop, J. Leander, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> +<br /> +Bishop, Nathaniel, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Bisland & Brown, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Bismarck, Prince, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Bitter (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Bitter c.'s, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> +<br /> +Bjorstjerne Bjornson, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Blackall, Alfred H., <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Blair, Henry, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a><br /> +<br /> +Blair, Henry B., <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Blair, Sidney O., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Blake, Charles F., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Blake, Walter F., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Blake & Bullard, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Blakeman, C.R., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Blanc, Louis, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +Blanchard & Bro., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Black bean, <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scale, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Black_broth" id="Black_broth"></a>Black broth, Lacedemonian, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Blanco, Guzman, <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br /> +<br /> +Blaney, Henry R., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +Blanke, C.F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Blanke Tea & Coffee Co., C.F., <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Blending" id="Blending"></a>Blending, <a href="#Page_396">396–400</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retail, <a href="#Page_418">418–421</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Blending machinery, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br /> +<br /> +Blends, <a href="#Page_722">722</a>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French preferences, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Package coffees, <a href="#Page_408">408</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Restaurants, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Blickman, Saul, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br /> +<br /> +Bliss, Dallett & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Blodgett, Albro, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Blodgett, Henry P., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Blodgett-Beckley Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Blohm & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Blook & Varwig, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Bloom, Daniel, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Bloom Bros., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Blossoms,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bridal flowers in Antilles, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemistry of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Blotting-paper filters, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Blount, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Blue Mountain c., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Blunt, Anne, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Board of Experts favored, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Boardman, George, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Boardman, Howard F., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Boardman, Thomas J., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Boardman, William, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Boardman, William F.J., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Boardman & Sons, Wm., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Boardman & Sons Co., Wm., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Boaz, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Boconos c., <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Bodanzky, Arthur, <a href="#Page_597">597</a><br /> +<br /> +Bodleian library, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +<br /> +Boekit Gompong c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> +<br /> +Boengie c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Boerhaave, Prof., <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Bogotas (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> +<br /> +Bohier & Weikel, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Boiling,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Discussed (Trigg), <a href="#Page_720">720</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.C.R.A. recommendations, <a href="#Page_721">721</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Boindin, Abbie Alary, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Boinest, Walter B., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Bolivian c., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +Bon, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonaparte, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bondzynski, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonifeur, Café (Guadeloupe), <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonnard, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bonnieri, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caffein content, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bontius, Jac., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Book, Nicholas, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a><br /> +<br /> +Booker, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Booklets, advertising, <a href="#Page_455">455</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Booms" id="Booms"></a>Booms,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon (1845), <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. (1814), <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Booms and Panics, <a href="#Page_527">527–530</a><br /> +<br /> +Booth, A.F., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Booth, Otis W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Booth & Linsley, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Boquette c., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_772" id="Page_772">[Pg 772]</a></span>Borino & Bro., <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Boscul (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Bossi, Vernetti & Bartolini, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Boston coffee party, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Boston News Letter</i>, <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Boston_tea_party" id="Boston_tea_party"></a>Boston tea party, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a><br /> +<br /> +Boswell, James, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Botanical description, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131–138</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Classification, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Species, number of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Microscopic, <a href="#Page_149">149–152</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Botanical gardens (<a href="#Gardens"><i>see</i> Gardens</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Botanists disagree, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Botany" id="Botany"></a>Botany of coffee, <a href="#Page_131">131–148</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bottega di caffé</i> (comedy), Goldoni, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Bouche, Charles J., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Boucher, François, <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br /> +<br /> +Boulton & Co., H.L., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Bounties,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia (proposed), <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bour, J.M., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Bour Co., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourai c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourbon c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourbon, Grand, c., <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourbon Le Roy c., <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourbon rond, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourbon-Santos c., <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourdon, Isid, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Bourne, H.R. Fox, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Bovee & Co., Wm. H., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Bowdoin, Gov. (<a href="#Chicory"><i>see</i> Chicory</a>), <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +Bowers, B.O., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Bowman, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Bowman, John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Bown, W.J.H., <a href="#Page_510">510</a><br /> +<br /> +Bown & Bro., W.T., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Bowring & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Boyd & Co., G., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Braas, Joseph, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Brancho, João Alberto C., <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Bradford, Cornelius, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Bradford, John R. (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_614">614</a><br /> +<br /> +Bradford, Phebe C., <a href="#Page_614">614</a><br /> +<br /> +Bradford, William, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Bradley, Prof. R., <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +<br /> +Bradley, Richard, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Brady, Cyrus Townsend, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Brady, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Bramhall Deane Co., <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Brand advertising, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462–465</a><br /> +<br /> +Brand, Carl W., <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Brandenburg, Elector of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +Brandenstein, Edward, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Brandenstein, M.J., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Brandenstein, Manfred, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Brandenstein & Co., M.J., <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Brands, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522–524</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Brasher, Abraham, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Brasher, Ephraim, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Brass, Italico, <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<br /> +Braun Co., <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Brayley (topographer), <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazil Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazil coffee delegation, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazil-grading, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazil Trading Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazils (c.), <a href="#Page_341">341–345</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Breakfast (brand), <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Bregolini, Ubaldo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +Brett, Colonel, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Breur, Moller & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Brewing,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Altitude limit 9,000 feet, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Art of</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Calkin's patent, <a href="#Page_702">702</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Muller's patent, <a href="#Page_702">702</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Below boiling point, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_707">707</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Care in, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemistry of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_718">718–720</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clarifying, <a href="#Page_704">704</a>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comparison of methods, <a href="#Page_720">720</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Evolution of, <a href="#Page_702">702</a>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Filtration <i>vs.</i> percolation, <a href="#Page_515">515</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Incorrect methods injurious, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.C.R.A. recommendations, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Research, Un. of Kansas, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scientific, <a href="#Page_718">718–722</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thurber's method, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brewing devices (1760–1855), <a href="#Page_620">620–629</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Acker's (1884), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American colonial, <a href="#Page_709">709</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andrews' reversed Fr. drip (1841), <a href="#Page_627">627</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Best materials, <a href="#Page_717">717</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blickman's (1916), <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Care of, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Casseneuve's reversed Fr. drip, <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cauchois's porcelain-lined urn, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cauchois's centrifugal pump, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chapman's tea or coffee pot, <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chronology (1879–1921), <a href="#Page_643">643–654</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Combined making and serving pot, <a href="#Page_616">616</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comparative test (1915), <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1917), <a href="#Page_716">716</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Criterion, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Earthenware, painted (Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_655">655</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First (boiler), <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First French patent (1802), <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First U.S. patent (1825), <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fountain, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German patents (1877–85), <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Levant (1691), <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Le Brun's Cafetiére, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manning's combined, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martelley's patent (1825), <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moneuse's urn (1869), <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muller's Art of Making Coffee, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napier-List machine, <a href="#Page_700">700</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parker's steam-fountain, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platow, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rabaut's reversed Fr. drip (1822), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Savage's tea or coffee pot (1904), <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sené's, "without boiling" (1815), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Still's steam coffee-maker (1902), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Syphon (Napier), <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Verithing (Summerling's), <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">White's urn (1908), <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wyatt's distillation apparatus, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brewing methods,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American colonies, <a href="#Page_708">708</a>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_658">658–663</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Austria, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belgium, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canada, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>, <a href="#Page_687">687</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">China, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Denmark, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England (1662), <a href="#Page_696">696</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1722), <a href="#Page_697">697</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(19th cent.), <a href="#Page_704">704–707</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe, <a href="#Page_670">670–686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(19th century), <a href="#Page_704">704–708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Finland, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_678">678–683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1669), <a href="#Page_696">696</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1711–1812), <a href="#Page_696">696–698</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(19th cent.), <a href="#Page_707">707</a>, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buc'hoz's recipe, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_684">684</a>, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great Britain, <a href="#Page_672">672–678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greece, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Japan, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Levant (1691), <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martinique, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_687">687</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_689">689</a>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hotel Ambassador, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Waldorf-Astoria, <a href="#Page_690">690</a>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Zealand, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oriental, early, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persia, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philippines, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portugal, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roumania, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russia, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Servia, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spain, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Switzerland, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turkey, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S., <a href="#Page_687">687</a>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a>, <a href="#Page_709">709–723</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jabez Burns' method, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vienna, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brewing process<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Goldsworthy's (1920), <a href="#Page_702">702</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brews, Composition of, <a href="#Page_721">721</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Brief and merry history of England</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Brief description, etc., A</i>, <i>pamph.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +Briggs, James H., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Briggs & Meehan, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Brillat-Savarin, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brisbane, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +British E. India Co., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>British Pharmaceut. Codex</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Broadbent, Humphrey, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a><br /> +<br /> +Broadhurst, (tenor), <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Broad-side Against C., A; or, the Marriage of the Turk</i>, <i>q., ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Broad-sides_and_pamphlets" id="Broad-sides_and_pamphlets"></a>Broad-sides and pamphlets, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br /> +<br /> +Brock, J., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Brokers<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Dealers_Wholesale"><i>see also</i> Dealers, wholesale</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Bronson, Jr., A.E., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Bronson, Zenos, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Bronson-Walton Co., <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Brougier, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Brown, Agnes, <a href="#Page_526">526</a><br /> +<br /> +Brown, Arthur W., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Brown, James, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Brown, Tom, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Brown & Jones, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Brown & Scott, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Brownejohn, William, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Browning, Charles H., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Bruce, James, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a><br /> +<br /> +Bruckman & Co., L., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +"Bruderherz" (Kolschitzky), <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +Bruff, Sr., Thomas, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br /> +<br /> +Brûleau, Café, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Bruning, William H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +Bruno, Bishop Joachim, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Bubonic-plague boom (1899–1901), <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br /> +<br /> +Bucararamangas (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +Buck, John H., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Buckeye (brand), <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Buc'hoz, Pierre Joseph, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Budan, Baba, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<br /> +Budenbach, T.O., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Budgell, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Buds, beverage from, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Buffon, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Buitzenzorg c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bukabensis, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Bulfinch, Charles, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +<br /> +Bullard & Co., C.G., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Bullata, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Bulson, A.E.J., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Bun, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Bun safi (cleaned beans), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<br /> +Buna, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Bunca, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Buncha, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Bunchum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Bunchy, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_773" id="Page_773">[Pg 773]</a></span>Bunge, Edouard, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +Bunn, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +Bunn, El, <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br /> +<br /> +Bunnu, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Burbank, Luther, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +Bureaus<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bus. research (<a href="#Harvard_University"><i>see</i> Harvard</a>)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemistry, U.S., <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Burke, Edmund, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Burke, Richard, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Burman, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Burmester, H.W., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Burn, J.H., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +Burns, A. Lincoln, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Burns, George, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<br /> +Burns, Henry, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Burns, Jabez., <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>d.</i> (1888), <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Starts <i>Spice Mill</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Burns, Jabez (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_526">526</a><br /> +<br /> +Burns Jr., Jabez, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +Burns, Robert, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Burns, William G., <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Burns & Brown, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Burns & Sons, Inc., Jabez, <a href="#Page_526">526</a><br /> +<br /> +Burr, Aaron, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +<br /> +Burstone mills, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Burton, Robert, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bush Terminal Stores, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> +<br /> +Bute, Lord, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Butler, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Butler, Earhart & Co., <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Butler, Crawford & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Button, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Buying<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_303">303–308</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Buying and selling green c., <a href="#Page_303">303–312</a><br /> +<br /> +Byerly, Thomas, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Byerley, Sir John, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Cabarets à caffè, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>See also</i> Coffee houses</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Cabarrus, E.T., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Cable-break panic (1884), <a href="#Page_528">528</a><br /> +<br /> +Cadwallader, <i>pseud.</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +Café<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">à la crème, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">à la minute, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">au lait, <a href="#Page_691">691</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">avec beurre, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bonifleur (Guadeloupe), <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brûleau, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complet, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">con léche, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de luxe (Guadeloupe), <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">en parché (Guadeloupe), <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">en pergamino (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">filtré, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gloria, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mazagran, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_682">682</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">melangé, <a href="#Page_671">671</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nature, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sultan, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sultane, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Café, The</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Café, literary, artistic, and commercial, The</i>, <i>per.</i> (French), <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Caféier et le Café, Le</i>, Jardin, <i>ill.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a> <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br /> +<br /> +Cafés<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berlin</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Admiral's, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bauer, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Des Westens, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Groessenwahn", <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Josty's, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kranzler's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Victoria, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hague, The</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">St. Joris, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gatti's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kardomah (chain), <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">London Café Co., <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Monico, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nero, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pioneer, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Popular, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ritz, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trocadero, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Naples</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Toledo, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fleischmann's, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paix, de la, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prévost, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Régence, de la, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venice</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Florian's, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>See also</i> Coffee houses</a>; <a href="#Hotels">Hotels</a>; <a href="#Restaurants">Restaurants</a>; <a href="#Taverns">Taverns</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Cafés chantants (<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>see</i> Coffee houses</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Caffè, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Caffè, Il</i>, Belli, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Caffè, Il</i> (almanac, 1829), <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Caffè, Il</i>, <i>per.</i>, (1764–66), <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Caffè, Il</i>, <i>per.</i>, (1850–52), <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Caffè, Il</i>, <i>per.</i>, (1884–89), <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Caffè Pedrocchi, Il</i>, <i>per.</i>, (1885), <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Caffearine, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Caffein, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Analyses for, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chaff contains, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harmless in moderation, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hollingworth's experiments, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loss in roasting, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physiological action, <a href="#Page_183">183–188</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Robusta, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Solubility, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caffein content (<i>C. arabica</i>), <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Caffein-free" id="Caffein-free"></a>Caffein-free c., <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Artificial, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Natural, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Varieties, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caffetannic acid, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Analysis for, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lead number, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Misnomer, <a href="#Page_716">716</a>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physiological action, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caffinets (<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>see</i> Coffee houses</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Caffeol, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a>, <a href="#Page_720">720</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physiological action, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caffeone, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Cage, R.H., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Cage & Drew, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Cage, Drew & Co., Ltd., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Cahoa, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Cahouah, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +Cahove, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +Cahua, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Cahue, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Cahve, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +Cahwa, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +Caleb, Negus, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> +<br /> +Calkin, Benjamin H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br /> +<br /> +Calorific value of c., <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Calvados, <a href="#Page_682">682</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Campaigning with Grant</i>, Porter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Campbell (chemist), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Campbell, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Campbell, Charles, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Campbell's <i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Campen, Christopher, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Canadian Bank of Commerce, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Canby, Edward, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Canby, Frank L., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Canby, Ach & Canby, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Candle, Sales by, <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Canephora, C.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botanical description, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caffein content, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Varieties, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cannon & Co., F., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Canova, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> +<br /> +Cans (<a href="#Containers"><i>see</i> Containers</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Cantatas<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bach's, <i>q.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_595">595–599</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fuzelier's, music by Bernier, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cantino, Cesare, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +Caouhe, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Caova, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Caphe, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Capodimonte c.-pot, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Capitazias, <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Porthandling_charges"><i>See</i> Porthandling charges</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Capuchin, Café, <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br /> +<br /> +Caracanda Frères, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Caracas c., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +Caracol (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Caracollilo (grade), <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> +<br /> +Caramel in c., <a href="#Page_718">718</a><br /> +<br /> +Carazo, Padre, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<br /> +Carbohydrates, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Cardamom in c., <a href="#Page_657">657</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +Caret, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a><br /> +<br /> +Carey, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Carey & Co., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Cargoes<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Damaged, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Record (Brazil to U.S.), <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Carhart & Bro., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Carit & Co., S.A., <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Carjat, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Carmen Caffaeum</i>, Massieu, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543–547</a><br /> +<br /> +Carne, John, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668–670</a><br /> +<br /> +Carnegie, Andrew, <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +Carpenter, Samuel, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Carr, Chase & Raymond, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Carret & Co., J.E., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Carruthers, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +Carson & Co., W.K., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Carte, D'Oyly, <a href="#Page_678">678</a><br /> +<br /> +Carter, James, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> +<br /> +Carter, James W., <a href="#Page_494">494</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Carter Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Carter, Macy & Co., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Carter, Mann & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Cartons (<a href="#Containers"><i>see</i> Containers</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Casanas, Ben. C., <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Case, Howard E., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Caseneuve, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Casilla (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Castel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Castle Bros., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Caswell, George W., <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Caswell Co., George W., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Catalog, Hudson-Fulton Celebration</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Catalogue of the Rarities to be seen at Adam's</i>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Catalogue of Traders' Tokens</i>, Burn, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +Catch crops, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> +<br /> +Cauchois, Frederick A., <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cauphe, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Cavanaugh, Rearuck & Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Cave, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +Caveah, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Cavee, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Cavekane, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> +<br /> +Cazeneuve, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Celebes c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Centlivre, Susannah, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Central American coffee<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco's fight for trade, <a href="#Page_489">489–491</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Central Americans (c.), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359–361</a><br /> +<br /> +Certified Java and Mocha (brand), <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Ceylons (c.), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br /> +<br /> +Chaa (tea), <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +Chabert, Josephine, <a href="#Page_518">518</a><br /> +<br /> +Chabraeus, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Chaff<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Removal deprecated, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rich in caffein and aroma, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chain-stores, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br /> +<br /> +Chamber of Commerce (New York), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Chamberlain, George A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Chamberlain, Orville W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br /> +<br /> +Chamberlaine, John, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a><br /> +<br /> +Champmeslé, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +Champney, Elizabeth W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_774" id="Page_774">[Pg 774]</a></span>Chaouah, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +Chaova, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Chapin, Harold, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Chapman, D.J., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Chapman, J.W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Character of a coffee house, The</i> (broadside) <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_66">66–68</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Characteristics" id="Characteristics"></a>Characteristics<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Complete reference table, <a href="#Page_358">358–378</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governing influences, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Green and roasted, <a href="#Page_341">341–378</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leading growths (chart), <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Charcoal, C. classed as, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<br /> +Charles II, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Proclamation against c. houses, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Charlet, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Chase, Caleb, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Chase & Co., Geo. C., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Chase & Sanborn, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Chase, Raymond & Ayer, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Chatfield-Taylor, H.C., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<br /> +Chatterton, Thomas, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +<br /> +Chattopádhyáya Virendranath, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Chaube, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Checking the roast, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> +<br /> +Cheek, Joel O., <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a><br /> +<br /> +Cheek-Neal Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Cheek, Norton & Neal, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Cheetham, Jr., William H., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Chelsea bunhouse (London), <a href="#Page_560">560</a><br /> +<br /> +Chemical analysis<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bean, <a href="#Page_171">171–173</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beverage, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chemistry, <a href="#Page_155">155–173</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. Bureau of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cheribon c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +Chess in c. houses, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +<br /> +Chesterfield, Lord, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Chesterton, Gilbert K., <a href="#Page_553">553</a><br /> +<br /> +Chestnut, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Chevalier, Aug., <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +Cheyne, George, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Chiapas c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Chibouk, <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br /> +<br /> +Chicago Liquid Sack Co., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Chicago Theatre Society, <a href="#Page_555">555</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Chicory" id="Chicory"></a>Chicory<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botanical description, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemical analysis, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Extracts of c., use in, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First use (Holland, 1750), <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Introduced into U.S. (1785), <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Microscopic exam., <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Substitute for c., <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chicory in coffee, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great Britain, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris and Vienna, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Children, effect on, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +Childs (grocer, St. Louis), <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br /> +<br /> +China & Java Export Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Chlorogenic acid. <a href="#Page_718">718</a>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a><br /> +<br /> +Choate, Joseph H., <a href="#Page_690">690</a><br /> +<br /> +Chocolate<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Discovery of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Introduction into North Am., <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prices, London (1662), <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sold in London (1657), <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sold in London c. houses, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Chocolate Cream (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Chocolate houses (<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>see</i> Coffee houses</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Chocolate pots, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Cholera, effect on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Chops<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Chréstomathie Arabe</i>, de Sacy <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br /> +<br /> +Christian beverage, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Chronology" id="Chronology"></a>Chronology, A coffee, <a href="#Page_725">725–737</a><br /> +<br /> +Chubuck & Saunders, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Churchill, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Churchill & Co., Frederick A., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Cibber, Colley, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cinnamon in c., <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +Cinnamon roast, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Cincinnati, Society of the, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Cincinnati Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Cipriani, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>City, The</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +City Coffee Works, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>City Directory, New York</i> (1848, 1854), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(1861) <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a></span><br /> +<br /> +City Dock Co. (Santos, Brazil), <a href="#Page_303">303</a><br /> +<br /> +City roast, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Clarification, <a href="#Page_704">704</a>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a><br /> +<br /> +Clark, Ammi, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Clark, Charles A., <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Clark & Host Co., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Clarke Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Clay bowls, <a href="#Page_616">616</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Cleaning_machinery" id="Cleaning_machinery"></a>Cleaning machinery, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hungerford's patents, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Clearing Ass'n, N.Y. Exch., <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> +<br /> +Clearwater, Judge, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Clement VIII, Pope, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Climate, Best for c., <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<br /> +Closset, Emile, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Closset, Joseph, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Closset & Devers, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Closset Bros., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Cloves in c., <a href="#Page_696">696</a>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Clubs" id="Clubs"></a>Clubs<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Merchants, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Court de Bone Compagnie, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Evolution of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hanover, <a href="#Page_577">577</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Literary, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London coffee-house</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bread Street, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Devil Tavern, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Friday Street, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mermaid Tavern, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rota, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turk's Head, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turk's Head Society, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">White's, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coffee House, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">South America, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phila., supersede c. houses, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Clubs and Club Life in London</i>, Timbs, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570–585</a><br /> +<br /> +Coal roasting, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<br /> +Coarse (<a href="#Grinds"><i>see</i> Grinds</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Coated c. Rulings (U.S.) against, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +Coatepec c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Coating, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Condemned by N.C.R.A., <a href="#Page_513">513</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reasons for, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Coatzacoalcos c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Coava, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Cobáns (c.), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br /> +<br /> +Cobbett, William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a><br /> +<br /> +Cochrane, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Cocoa, first used in Europe, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffa, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffalic acid, <a href="#Page_719">719</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffao, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffe, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee</i>, Keable, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee, A short historical account of</i>, Bradley, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee and Repartee</i>, Bangs, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee Book, The</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee cantata</i>, Bach, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee Club (U.S.), <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee Club, The</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee from Plantation to Cup</i>, Thurber, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee Grinding and Brewing</i>, N.C.R.A., <a href="#Page_715">715</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee house, most beautiful, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee house, The</i> (comedy) Rosseau, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee house, The new and curious</i>, <i>per</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee house or newsmongers' hall</i>, (broadside), <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee-house keepers, London<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Proposed newspaper monopoly, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tokens, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Coffee_houses" id="Coffee_houses"></a>Coffee houses, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Advantages, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Algeria, <a href="#Page_656">656</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Augsburg, first (1713), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Berlin</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arnoldi, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">City of Rome, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">English, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Falck's (Jewish), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1721), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Miercke, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schmidt, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Widow Doebbert's, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston, <a href="#Page_108">108–113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">American, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Auctions held in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">British, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crown, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Exchange, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Green Dragon, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gutteridge, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">London, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">North-End, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal Exchange, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stage coaches start from, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Washington, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cairo, number (17th century), <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicago</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Exchange, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lake Street, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Washington, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_663">663–667</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prices (1554), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Damascus, <a href="#Page_668">668–670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gate of Salvation, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Roses, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egypt, <a href="#Page_656">656</a>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1650), <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decline, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ordered suppressed, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Proclamation by Charles II, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Proclamation rescinded, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe, first, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Exeter (Devon)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mol's, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_682">682</a>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1675), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hamburg, first (1675), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leipzig, first (1694), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London, <a href="#Page_53">53–89</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Adam's (and museum), <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Baker's, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Baltic, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Batson's, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bedford, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blue Hall, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bowman's, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">British, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Button's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Caledonien, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chapter, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Child's, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cocoa-Tree, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decline of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dick's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dish of Coffee Boy, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Don Saltero's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Museum, <a href="#Page_559">559</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Edinburgh Castle, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Farr's, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fire of 1666, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1652), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Folly (house-boat), <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Garraway's (or Garway's) <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_775" id="Page_775">[Pg 775]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gaunt's, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">George's, <a href="#Page_584">584</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giles's, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grecian, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Groom's, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hamlin's, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jacob's, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jenny Man's, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jerusalem, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Joe's, <a href="#Page_571">571</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jonathan's, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Little Man's, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lloyd's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">London <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Man's, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Miles's, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nando's, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New England and North and South American, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Lloyd's, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Man's, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Slaughter's, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">News centers, use as, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">North's, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Number (1715), <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Old Man's, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Old Slaughter's, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"On the Pavement", <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rosée's, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peele's, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Penny universities", <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Percy, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Piazza, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Piazza coffee room, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rainbow, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Read's, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Red Cow, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Robins's, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Robinson's, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rochford's, Mrs., <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rose, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal Swan (and museum), <a href="#Page_559">559</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Second, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Slaughter's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Smyrna, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Squire's, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">St. James's, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stone's, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thomas's, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tiltyard, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tom King's, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tom's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turk's Head, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turk's Head, Canada and Bath, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Virginia, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Welch (Daniels), <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">White's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Burned (1733), <a href="#Page_587">587</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Widow Hambledon's, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Williams's, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Will's, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Young Man's, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marseilles, first (1671), <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mecca</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Opposition, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Relicensed, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milan</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Demetrio, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New England, <a href="#Page_107">107–113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_115">115–124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Auctions held at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bank, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Burns, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">City, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Civic forums, use as, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Directory, use as, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Double R., <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Exchange, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Exchange coffee room, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Exchanges, use as, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1696), <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decline, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gentlemen's Exchange, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Keen and Lightfoot's, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">King's Arms, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Merchants, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Birthplace of Union (1774), <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Congress of Deputies Suggested, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Memorial tablet (1914), <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Organizations meeting therein, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,<a href="#Page_11">11</a>8</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New England and Quebec, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pequot, <a href="#Page_611">611</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Social centers, use as, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tontine, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Whitehall, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuremburg, first (1696), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oxford</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jacob's, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jobson's, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tillyard's, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Padua: Pedroechi, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris, <a href="#Page_91">91–104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alcazar d'Hiver, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Anglais, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bonnard's, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beauvilliers', <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chartres, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chat Noir, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Concert du XIX Siécle, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Concert Européen, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Des Mille Collonnes, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Development of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Durand, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dutch, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Eldorado, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">English, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Février's, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1672), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Folles Bobino, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Foy, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gaieté, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grand Commun, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gregory's, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Guerbois, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Laurent, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lefévre's, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Le Gantois's, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Littéraire, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Madrid, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Magny's, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maire's, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maison Dorée, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Makara's, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Maliban's, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mapinot, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Massé's, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Méot's, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Momus, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Number of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1843), <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paix, de la, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pascal's (Fair of St. Germain), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paris, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Procope, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rambuteau, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Régence, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Riche, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rocher de Cancale, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rotonde, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal Drummer, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stephen's, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Terre's, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tortoni, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tour d'Argent, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trois Frères Provençaux, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vachette, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venua's, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Véry, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Voisin, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persia, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_125">125–130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Decline of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Exchange (proposed), <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Scene from <i>Hamilton</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Exchanges, use as, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1700), <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">James, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">London, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Slave auctions, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sunday closing, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Swearing, gaming, etc., prohibited, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">London (2nd), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Merchants, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Roberts', <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Social centers, use as, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ye coffee house, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Post-office, use as, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portugal, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Regensburg: first (1689), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santo Domingo, first (1738), <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spain, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Louis: Leonhard's, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stuttgart: first (1712), <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turkey, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663–670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Closed, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Reopened, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States (1700), <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venice,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Abbondanza, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Angelo Custode, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arabo-Piastrelle, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arco Celeste, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Aurora Plante d'oro, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buon genio-Doge, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coraggio-Speranza, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dame Venete, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ducca di Toscana, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Florian, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fontane di Diana, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Imperatore Imperatrice della Russia, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Menegazzo, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Orfeo, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pace, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pitt. l'eroe, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ponte dell' Angelo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quadri, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Redentore, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Re di Francia, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Regina d'Ungheria, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spaderia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tamerlano, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venezia trionfante, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vienna, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blue Bottle, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kolschitzky's, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mosee's, Franz, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Number of (1839), <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sacher, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schrangl, <a href="#Page_671">671</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee houses vindicated</i>, <i>pamph.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee, Its History, Cultivation and Uses</i>, Hewitt, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee kings<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First (Germany), <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(U.S.), <a href="#Page_517">517</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Last (U.S.), <a href="#Page_518">518</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Coffee-makers' guild of Vienna, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee man's granado, The</i> (Broad-side), <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee palaces (<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>see</i> Coffee-houses</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Coffee Pep (brand), <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee pots (<a href="#Service"><i>see</i> Service</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Coffee Roaster & Mill Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Association, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee rooms (Norway), <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee scuffle, The</i> (broadside), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee shops (houses), London, <a href="#Page_674">674</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee-smellers (Germany), <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee, tea, and chocolate, Concerning the use of</i>, Dufour, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Coffee, tea, and chocolate, The manner of making</i>, Dufour, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee tree, Kentucky, <a href="#Page_564">564</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee water (rosa-folis), <a href="#Page_695">695</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffey, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffi, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Cognac in c., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br /> +<br /> +Cogollo & Co., <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_776" id="Page_776">[Pg 776]</a></span>Coho, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Cohoo, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Cohove, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +Cohu, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Coit & Son, Henry, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Coke roasting, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<br /> +Colaux & Cie, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Cole & Son, Stephen, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Coles Manufacturing Co., <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Colet M.H., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br /> +<br /> +Colgate, Charles C., <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Colgate, Samuel, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Collection of Voyages and Travels, A</i>, <i>q.</i> <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +<br /> +Collins, William, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Coloring substances, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Colombians (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348–350</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +Colpani, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Columbia University, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Columbian Centinel</i>, <i>newsp.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Columnaris, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Comité Français du Café, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> +<br /> +Commaille, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Commercial Ass'n, Santos, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> +<br /> +Commercial coffee chart, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +<br /> +Commercial Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Commercial Organic Analysis</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Commissario, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Commissions<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Committee of Correspondence, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> +<br /> +Committee of One Hundred (1774), <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Commonwealth and c., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Competition, retail, <a href="#Page_426">426</a><br /> +<br /> +Complet, Café, <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br /> +<br /> +Compton (Bishop of London), <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Condorcet, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Confectionery, C., <a href="#Page_695">695</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Confessions</i>, Rousseau, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Congensis, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Congensis var. Chalotii</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Congensis</i> × <i>Ugandæ</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Congo, Belgian, c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br /> +<br /> +Congo coffee, caffein content, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +Congress of Deputies, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Conkling & Lloyd, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Con léche, Café, <a href="#Page_691">691</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Connoisseur</i> (London), <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Conopios, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Conquest of Granada</i>, Dryden's (censured by Rota), <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Conrad & Co., J.H., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Consolidated Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Consortium of 1868, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Constantine" id="Constantine"></a>Constantine, George, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Jennings"><i>See</i> Jennings, George</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Constantinople, Illustrated</i>, Walsh, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Constantinople in 1657, Relation of a Journey to</i>, Rolamb, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Constantinople, Old and New</i>, Dwight, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664–667</a><br /> +<br /> +Constituents of c., Valuable, <a href="#Page_693">693</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens</i>, Gilbert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +Consumo (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Consumption, <a href="#Page_285">285–302</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentina, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Balkan States, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belgium, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canada, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Denmark, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe (19th Century), <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federated Malay States, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Average annual, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great Britain, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guiana, French, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Zealand, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Norway, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portugal (1919), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russia, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scandinavia, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spain, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sweden, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Switzerland, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Table of World, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tea and c. comparisons, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Union of South Africa, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Popularity explained, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prohibition; effect on, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">World-war; effect on, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Consumption per capita<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foreign countries, <a href="#Page_288">288–290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Groix, Island of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tables, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Methods of computing, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Containers" id="Containers"></a>Containers, <a href="#Page_402">402–404</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408–412</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First paper and tin-end, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First strawboard (1881), <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leather bags, greased (1710), <a href="#Page_620">620</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pots of various sizes (1790), <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Standardizing, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vacuum, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Conti, Prince de, <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br /> +<br /> +Contracts, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cost-and-freight, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In-store, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.Y. Exchange, <a href="#Page_333">333–335</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To arrive, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Controversies" id="Controversies"></a>Controversies<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England, <a href="#Page_64">64–74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Commercial, U.S., <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Medical, Eng., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Political, Eng. (1666–72), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Opposition"><i>See also</i> Opposition</a>; <a href="#Coffee_houses">Coffee houses</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Conway, Charles, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Cooling, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br /> +<br /> +Cooling machinery, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a><br /> +<br /> +Cooling machines<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burns's flexible-arm, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Emmerich automatic (1897), <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German patents (1877–85), <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grohens's rotary, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cook, O.F., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> +<br /> +Cooper, Charles, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a><br /> +<br /> +Cooper, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Cooper, L.S., <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Cooper & Co., Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Coorg c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br /> +<br /> +Copha, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Cophie, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Cophy, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Coppée, François, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Cordoba c., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Corinchies c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Corner in Coffee, The</i>, Brady, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Corners<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arnold's (1869–1881), <a href="#Page_517">517</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blanco's (1895), <a href="#Page_529">529</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaltenbach's (1891–92), <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States (1901), <a href="#Page_530">530</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Corn-poppers for roasting, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Correa & Sons, F.A., <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Corbett, Barney, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Corbett & Heekin, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Corbin, May & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Corinna (Mrs. E. Thomas), <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Cornell & Smith, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Cost card for roasters, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> +<br /> +Cost analysis, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retail, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cost and freight brokers, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +Cost and profits, retail, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chart <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Costa Ricas (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> +<br /> +Coste, Felix, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Cotovicus, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cottraux, E.P., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Cottrell, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Couha, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Couguet, Dr. A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Coventry, Sir William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +Cowha, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Cowha, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Cowper, William, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cradle of Am. liberty, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +Cramer. P.J.S., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> +<br /> +Crampton, G.E., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Crawford, Thomas A., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Crawley, Edwin, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Cream in c., <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a><br /> +<br /> +Crébilon, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Credit policy, retail, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +Creighton, Clarence, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Creighton & Ashland, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Creighton, Morrison & Meehan, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Creme, Café à la, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Crepaux, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Cripps, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br /> +<br /> +Crispe, Sir Nicholas, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Crocker, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Cromwell, Henry, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +Crooks & Co., Robert, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Crooks & Co., Samuel, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Cross & Co., C.A., <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Crossman, George W., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Crossman, W.H., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Crossmnn & Bro., W.H., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a><br /> +<br /> +Crossman & Sielcken, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +Crossman-Sielcken contract, <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Crouse & Co., Jacob, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Cruger, Henry, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Cruger, John, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Crusade (brand), <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br /> +<br /> +Cubans (c.), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> +<br /> +Cucuras (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuchaletto (chocolate), <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sold in Boston (1670), <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Culapius, S., <i>pseud.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Culbreth, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Cultivation, <a href="#Page_197">197–243</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Crop maturity, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spread of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Propagation"><i>see also</i> Propagation</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Cultivation (geographical)<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Africa, British Central, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Africa, British East, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amazonas (began 1752), <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angola, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Began (A.D. 575), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentina, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bourbon (Réunion), <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204–208</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Profits (1900), <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">California, Southern, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Celebes (began 1750), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Begun by Arabs (before 1505), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Begun by Dutch (1658), <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Systematic (1690), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_208">208–212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dominican Republic, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ecuador, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federated Malay States, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fiji Islands, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guam, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guiana, British, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guiana, Dutch, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guiana, French, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haiti, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honduras, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honduras, British, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indo-China, French, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225–227</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_777" id="Page_777">[Pg 777]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberia, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martinique, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">U.S. interest, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213–217</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Caledonia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pará, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philippines, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Queensland, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rio de Janeiro, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santo Domingo, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">São Paulo, <a href="#Page_205">205–208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">South America (first), <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Straits Settlements, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tahiti, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tobago, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tonkin, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trinidad, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uganda, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">West Indies, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Western Hemisphere (first), <a href="#Page_294">294</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cultured (brand), <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> +<br /> +Culver & Geiger, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Cumberland, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Cummings, W.A., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Cunningham, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Cup of c., or c. in its colours, A</i> (broadside), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +<br /> +Cup-testing, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Curaçoa c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> +<br /> +Cure-all, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Cure for drunkenness, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Curiosities of Literature</i>, D'Israeli, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Curtis & Burnham, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Curtis Publishing Co., <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Cushing, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Customs and Fashions in Old New England</i>, Earle, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +Custom-house procedure, New York, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br /> +<br /> +Cutler, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuyler, Philip, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +C.W. (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Cyrill, Patriarch, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +da Ponte, Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Dagoty, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br /> +<br /> +Dahlman, Henry, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Dahlman, John, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Daily Post</i> (Lond.), <i>newsp.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br /> +<br /> +Dakin, Elizabeth, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br /> +<br /> +Dakin, William, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br /> +<br /> +Dakin & Co., <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br /> +<br /> +Dakotan, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +D'Alembert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +Dally, Gifford, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> +<br /> +Dana, John Cotton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<br /> +Dancourt, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Daney, Sidney, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Daniel, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Dannemiller, A.J., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee-selling chart, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Dannemillers & Co., <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Danton, George Jaques, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Danvers' Letters</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +d'Argenson, De Voyer, <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br /> +<br /> +Dark roast, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br /> +<br /> +Darouf (Arabian bale), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<br /> +d'Arvieux, Chevalier, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Dash, Bowie, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +Dash, J. Bowie, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Dash & Co., Bowie, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a><br /> +<br /> +Dater, Henry, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Dater, Philip, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Dater & Co., Philip, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Dauchet, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Daudet, Alphonse, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +Daughty, Charles, M., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661–663</a><br /> +<br /> +Daugleish, Dr., <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br /> +<br /> +Dauphine of France, <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br /> +<br /> +Davenant, Sir William, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Davenport & Morris, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +David, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Davies, Tom, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a><br /> +<br /> +Davies & Co., John L., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Davies & Co., Ltd., Theo. H., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Davis, S.L., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Davis & Co., Noah, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Dawson, August T., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<br /> +Dayton & Co., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Dayton Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +Dayton Spice Mills Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +De Belloy, Jean Baptiste, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a><br /> +<br /> +de Boze, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +de Bussy, Th. Roland, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br /> +<br /> +de Chirac, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +de Clieu, Mathieu Gabriel, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Memorial to, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Verses about, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Voyage to Martinique, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>De Constantinople à Bombay, Lettres</i>, Della Valle, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +de Coverley, Sir Roger, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +De Fremery & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +de Goncourt, Jules, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +de Gourcuff, O., <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +de Jour, Rouillé, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +de Jussieu, Antoine, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>De la Café</i>, de Gourcuff, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +de la Motte, Houdard, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +De Lancey house, New York, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<br /> +de Lannay, Count, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +de Laval, Pyrard, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +de l'Écluse, Charles, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +De Lessert & Co., J.S., <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +De Lima, D.A., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +De Lima, D.A. & J., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +De Lima & Co., D.A., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +De Luxe, Café (Guadeloupe), <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +<br /> +de Mattei, Natale, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +De Mattia, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +<br /> +De Mattia Bros., <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br /> +<br /> +de Maupassant, Guy, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +de Mere, Mlle., <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +de Monteith, Fulbert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +de Musset, Alfred, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<br /> +de Noailles, Duke, <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +de Nointel, <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br /> +<br /> +De Quincey, Thomas, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a><br /> +<br /> +de Pompadour, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br /> +<br /> +de Rabutin-Chantal, Marie, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +de Sacy, Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>De Saluberrimá Cahue seu Café</i>, etc., Nairon, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +de Santais, Edward Loysel, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br /> +<br /> +De Sarlo, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +de Saxe, Marie-Josephe, <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br /> +<br /> +de Sévigné, Madame, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +de Thévenot, Jean, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +de Tournemine, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +de Wildman, M.E., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Dealers_Wholesale" id="Dealers_Wholesale"></a>Dealers, Wholesale<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_475">475–482</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Dearman, Richard, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br /> +<br /> +Decaffeinated (<a href="#Caffein-free"><i>see</i> Caffein-free</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +Decoction defined, <a href="#Page_698">698</a><br /> +<br /> +Decreuse, <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br /> +<br /> +Deep Sea Hotel (Arbuckle's), <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Deer Co., A.J., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Defendorf, George, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Deffes, <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br /> +<br /> +Defoe, Daniel, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Dehio, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +del Castillo & Co., Rafael, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Delafield, Henry, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Delafield, William, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Delille, Jacques, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a><br /> +<br /> +Dell, John C., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Della Valle, Pierre (Pietro), <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Delphine, Sr., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br /> +<br /> +Demidoff, Prince, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Democracy" id="Democracy"></a>Democracy, Coffee and, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Am. colonies, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Demonstrations, etc., Store, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> +<br /> +Dennis, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Denobe, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br /> +<br /> +Deodorant, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Department stores, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> +<br /> +Des Arts & Henser, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Des Dames du Temps Jadis</i>, Villon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> +<br /> +Descamps, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Desmoulins, Camille, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +Desserts, recipes, <a href="#Page_723">723</a>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br /> +<br /> +Destrée, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Desvignes, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<br /> +Detroit Testing Laboratories, <a href="#Page_715">715</a><br /> +<br /> +Developing point, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Deverall, R.R. & A. <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Devers, A.H., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dewevrei, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Diarrhea, effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Diary</i>, Jourdain, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Diary and Correspondence</i>, Evelyn, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +Dickinson, Gilchrist, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dictionary</i>, d'Alembert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dictionary</i>, d'Arvieux, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dictionary of Applied Chemistry</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dictionary, New English</i>, Murray, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dictionary, Universal</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Diderot, Denis, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Dieckmann & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Diefenthaler, Charles E., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Diefenthaler, T.F., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Dietl, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Dietz, F.C., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Digestion, effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178–180</a><br /> +<br /> +Diligence (infusion device), <a href="#Page_620">620</a><br /> +<br /> +Dilworth & Co., J.S., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Dilworth Bros., <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Dimond & Gardes, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Dimond & Lally, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Direct-flame roasting, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br /> +<br /> +Discovery of c. (<a href="#Origin"><i>see</i> Origin</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Diseases_and_pests" id="Diseases_and_pests"></a>Diseases and pests, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C.-berry beetle, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C.-leaf miner, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eel-worm disease, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fungoid, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Insects, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leaf blight</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ceylon <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dominican Rep., <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hawaii (1855), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">India, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Philippines (1889), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Pellicularia tokeroga</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Root disease, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Sphaerostilbe flavida</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spot of leaf and fruit, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br /> +<br /> +D'Israeli, I., <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Distillation devices<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napier-List (1891), <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napierian (1870), <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napier's vacuum (1840), <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wyatt's patent (1802), <a href="#Page_621">621</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ditson, Thomas, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Dittman, Charles, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Dittman, Jr., Charles, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Dittman Co., Chas., <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Divination by coffee grounds, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Divorce, C. and, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Doane & Co., J.W., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Dolton & Co., Wm., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Domestick Coffee Man</i>, Broadbent, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a><br /> +<br /> +Dominguez, Andres, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> +<br /> +Donaldson, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Donovan, Prof., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br /> +<br /> +Donmartin, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a><br /> +<br /> +Donns, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Doolittle, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Doran, John, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a><br /> +<br /> +Dorn, R.H., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Dorr, S.H., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Dorsay, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +Dorset, Earl of, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Double roasting, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_778" id="Page_778">[Pg 778]</a></span>Douglas, James (Bishop of Salisbury), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Downer, Samuel A., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Downer & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Downtown Association, New York, <a href="#Page_517">517</a><br /> +<br /> +Drake, Samuel Gardner, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +Drake & Co., W.D., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Dramatic Literature, C. in, <a href="#Page_554">554–556</a><br /> +<br /> +Draper & Co., John H., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Dressing machinery, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Drew, J.C., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Drink (<a href="#Beverage"><i>see</i> Beverage</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Drinksum (brand), <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Droste, H.R., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Drouais, François Hubert, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br /> +<br /> +Drug stores, C. sold in, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> +<br /> +Drums (<a href="#Containers"><i>see</i> Containers</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Drupes (<a href="#Botany"><i>see also</i> Botany</a>; <a href="#Fruit">Fruit</a>), <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +<br /> +Dry method, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<br /> +Dry roast, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> +<br /> +Dryden, John, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Drying, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<br /> +Drying grounds, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +<br /> +Drying machinery, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> +<br /> +Du Barry, Madame, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br /> +<br /> +Du Belloy, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_697">697</a><br /> +<br /> +Du Mont, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Du Tour, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_707">707</a>, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Dubard, Prof., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dublin Philosophical Journal</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br /> +<br /> +Ducis, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Duehring, Carl H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Dugdale, E., <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Dumant, Pierre Étienne Louis, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Duncan, James, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Duncombe Mfg. Co., F.A., <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Dunham, Charles A., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Dunks, John, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Duparquet, L., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br /> +<br /> +Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co., <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Durand, Calvin, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Durand, H.C., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Durand, H.C. & C., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Durand & Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Durand & Kasper, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Durand & Kasper Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Durant, Nicholas Felix, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Durieux, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +Duryee, P.S., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a><br /> +<br /> +Dutch (<a href="#Netherlands"><i>see</i> Netherlands</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Dutch New York</i>, Singleton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +Duties, Export<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angola, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">São Paulo, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Duties" id="Duties"></a>Duties, Import<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belgium, removed (1904), <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England (1692, 1732), <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porto Rico requests, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(<a href="#Chronology"><i>See also</i> Chronology</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Dwight, H.G., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664–667</a><br /> +<br /> +Dwinell, James F., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Dwinell & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Dwinell, Hayward & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Dwinell, Wright & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Dwinell-Wright Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dybowski, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dybowski</i> × <i>excelsa</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Dyer & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Dykes & Wilson, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Dymond & Gardes, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Eagle Spice Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Eagle Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Eames, Wilberforce, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> +<br /> +Earle, Alice Morse, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Early History of Coffee Houses in England, The</i>, Robinson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +East Indies (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370–374</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Eating_coffee" id="Eating_coffee"></a>Eating coffee, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Eccles, William, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Eckert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +Eckhardt, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Ecuadors (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +Eddy & Co., L.B., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Eder, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Edmond, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Edtbauer, P.E. (Mrs. E.), <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Educational exhibits, <a href="#Page_715">715</a><br /> +<br /> +Edwards, Daniel, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> +<br /> +Edwards, Hugh, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Edwards, J.M., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Edwards & Co., J.M., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Edwards & Maddux, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Edwards & Raworth, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Edwards, Townsend & Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Ekelund Charles, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Electric motors, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Electric roasting, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<br /> +Electric Scale Co., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Electric signs, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +Elephant (grade), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Elers, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Elford, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<br /> +Elford, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a><br /> +<br /> +Elford the younger, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +"Elixir of life", <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<br /> +Elkington & Co. Ltd., <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Elliott, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br /> +<br /> +Ellis, Douglas, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Ellis, H.D., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br /> +<br /> +Ellis Bros., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Elmenhorst & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Ely & Co., D.J., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Ely & Co., D.J. & Z.S., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Emerson, E., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Emerson, Edward R., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br /> +<br /> +Emo, Angelo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +En pergamino (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Encyclopedia</i>, Diderot, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Encyclopedia der Therapie</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelberg, Evaristo C., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelberg, Huller Co., <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelhard, Albert, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelhard, Jr., Albert, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelhard, George, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelhard, R.W., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelhard, Victor H., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelhard, Jr., Victor H., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Engelhard & Sons, Inc., A., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +English, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +English c.-pots (1714–70), <a href="#Page_620">620</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>English Factories in India</i>, Foster, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Ennis, Frank, <a href="#Page_515">515</a><br /> +<br /> +Ensaccador, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br /> +<br /> +Enterprise Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Enterprise Mfg. Co. of Pa., <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Eoff, Garrett, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Epicure</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a><br /> +<br /> +Eppens, Frederick P., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Eppens, William H., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Eppens, Smith & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Eppens, Smith & Wiemann, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Eppens Smith & Wiemann Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Eppens Smith Co., <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Eppens-Smith Co., <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Erdmann, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Erecta, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Esau, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Escoffier (chef), <a href="#Page_678">678</a><br /> +<br /> +Escott, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<br /> +Esménard, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Esperanza Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Essential oil, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +Essmueller Mill Furnish'g Co., <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Estienne, Jacques, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Estrado & Co., Pedro, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Établissements Lauzaune (<a href="#Lauzaune"><i>see</i> Lauzaune</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Etherege, Sir George, <a href="#Page_569">569</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Ethridge, Tuller & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Etiquette<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_658">658–663</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris (17th century), <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turkey, <a href="#Page_664">664–670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Manners_and_Customs"><i>See also</i> Manners and Customs</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Etruscan Coffee Pot Co., <a href="#Page_645">645</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Etymology" id="Etymology"></a>Etymology, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +"European fiasco" (1888), <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br /> +<br /> +Evans, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +Evans, David G., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Evans, Gwynne, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Evans, Richard, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br /> +<br /> +Evans & Co., David G., <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Evans & Walker, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Evelyn, John, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Evening World</i>, New York, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Ewé, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Ewell, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Ex-sailing ships, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Excellent Qualities of Coffee and the Art of Making It, The</i>, Rumford, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Excelsa, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Indo-China, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Excelsa</i> × <i>liberica</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Excelsior Mills, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Excelso (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Excessive use, effect of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Exchange, Foreign, <a href="#Page_336">336</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Exchanges" id="Exchanges"></a>Exchanges, Coffee, <a href="#Page_329">329–337</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Antwerp, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baltimore, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hamburg, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havre, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_329">329–337</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Change of name, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clearing Ass'n, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Contract, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Functions, <a href="#Page_331">331–338</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Incorporated (1881), <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Initiation fee, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Membership, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Organized (1881), <a href="#Page_528">528</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Reincorporated (1885), <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rio gradings, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Robusta dealings prohibited, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seats, Sales of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">War-time suspension, <a href="#Page_534">534–537</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rotterdam, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Royal (New York, 1752), <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trieste, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Excursions through Asia-Minor</i>, Fellows, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br /> +<br /> +Experimental gardens (<a href="#Gardens"><i>see</i> Gardens</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Exports, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aden (1921), <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Africa, British East, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Borneo, Brit. North, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275-277</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1770), <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Largest (1906–07), <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Central America, first to U.S., <a href="#Page_469">469</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon (1741–1900), <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1721), <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Largest (1873), <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dominican Republic, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ecuador, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federated Malay States, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France (1921), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany (1920), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gold Coast (1916–17), <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grenada (1916), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guiana, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_779" id="Page_779">[Pg 779]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haiti, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honduras, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indo-China, French, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leeward Islands, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mauritius, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Caledonia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nigeria, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nyasaland, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philippines, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portugal, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Producing countries (table), <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Réunion, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos (1900–01), <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sarawak, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sierra Leone, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Somali Coast (French), <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Somaliland, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Straits Settlements, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Vincent (1917), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tobago, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trinidad, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276–278</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Extra (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Extracts, Coffee, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First U.S. trade-mark, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Eyre, Henry, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Faba Arabica, Carmen</i>, Fellon, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Fair-price list (Phila., 1776), <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Fairy Cup (brand), <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Fakr-Eddln-Aboubeckr ben Abid Iesi, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Fancies (Sumatra), <a href="#Page_355">355</a><br /> +<br /> +Faneuil Hall, Boston, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Faneuil, Peter, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Fantasia (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Fantastic claims for c., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Advertising, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Faris, Charles, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Farquhar, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a><br /> +<br /> +Farr, James, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +Farrell, C.P., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Farrington, Campbell & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Fat content in c., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loss in roasting, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> +<br /> +"Father of English C. houses," (Blount), <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Fatigue, effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Fauldier, H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Faunce process, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Faust (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Fauvel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Fazenda (brand), <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> +<br /> +Fazendas (<a href="#Plantations"><i>see</i> Plantations</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Fazendeiros, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a><br /> +<br /> +Federal Sugar Refining Co., <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Fell & Bro., C.J., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Fellon, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Fellows, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a><br /> +<br /> +Fendler-Stüber method, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<br /> +Fenjeyl (<a href="#Findjans"><i>see</i> Findjan</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Fenjyn (<a href="#Findjans"><i>see</i> Findjan</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Feré, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Fermentation, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +<br /> +Fermented (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Ferrari, Mary, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +<br /> +Ferris, P.J., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Fertilizers<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ashes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemical determination, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee pulp, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fertilizing, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fiber, crude, <a href="#Page_718">718</a><br /> +<br /> +Fidelity Trust Co., <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Fielding, Henry, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Fielding, John, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Figueroa, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Filter bags, care of, <a href="#Page_707">707</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a><br /> +<br /> +Filter paper, <a href="#Page_715">715</a><br /> +<br /> +Filtration<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Definition, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Methods, <a href="#Page_715">715</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.C.R.A. recommendations, <a href="#Page_718">718</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Filtration devices<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Acker's "percolator" (1905), <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baker's cloth (1902), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beurt's pneumatic, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blanke's cloth (1909), <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boss (1881), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brain's vacuum, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caseneuve's paper (1824), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Reversed Fr. drip (1824), <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Double glass, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a>, <a href="#Page_702">702</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egrot's steam cloth, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Evans's tin air-float, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gaudet's cloth, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Half-Minute, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">King's, for restaurants, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">"Percolator", <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kin-Hee, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Make-Right, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minute, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napier's vacuum, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a>, <a href="#Page_700">700</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parker's pneumatic, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platow's vacuum glass, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Private Estate, <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Raparlier's pocket, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rapid (<a href="#Rapid-filtration"><i>see</i> Rapid</a>)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salazar's steam-pressure urn, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tricolator, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tricolette, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tru-Bru, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanderweyde's "continuous", <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wear's patent, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Filtré, Café, <a href="#Page_675">675</a><br /> +<br /> +Finch, William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Findjans" id="Findjans"></a>Findjans, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br /> +<br /> +Findlay, Paul, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a><br /> +<br /> +Fine; Very fine (<a href="#Grinds"><i>see</i> Grinds</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Fine Arts, C. in relation to, <a href="#Page_587">587–614</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Fines" id="Fines"></a>Fines (England), <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Fin-ion (<a href="#Findjans"><i>see</i> Findjans</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Finishing machinery, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Finjans (<a href="#Findjans"><i>see</i> Findjans</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Fink & Nasse Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Finney, Samuel, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +First<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Authoritative treatise, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comprenenslve treatise in German, Meisner's (1721), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Description in print, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mention by European, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Printed mention, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">America, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">England, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">As "Coffe", <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Europe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">France, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Printed treatise, <a href="#Page_543">543</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Written mention in Mass. (1670), <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fischer, B., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Fischer, Benedickt, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fischer, Emil, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Fischer, William H., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Fischer & Co., B., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Fischer & Lansing, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Fischer & Lehmann, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Fischer & Thurber, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Fischer, Kirby & Brown, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Fishback, F.C., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Fishback, Frank S., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Fishback, John S., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Fishback Co., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Fisher, George, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Fitch & Howland, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Fitzgerald, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Fitzpatrick, Austin C., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Fitzpatrick & Case, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Fitzpatrick & Co., A.C., <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Flanders, Geo. W., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Flanders & Co., Geo. W., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Flannel sack used for infusion, <a href="#Page_620">620</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Flasks and Flagons</i>, Saltus, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a><br /> +<br /> +Flat (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Flat-bean Santos c., <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Flats, 1st, 2d, 3d (grades), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Flaubert, Gustave, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Flavoring, Use in, <a href="#Page_723">723</a>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Flavors" id="Flavors"></a>Flavors, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> +<br /> +Fleury, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Fleury & Barker, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint, Austin B., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint, J.G., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint, W.K., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint, Wyman, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint, W. & J.G., <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint Co., J.G., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Flint, Evans & Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Floor brokers, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Flora de las Antillas</i>, Tussac, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Florian, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Francesconi"><i>See</i> Francesconi</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Flower, Henry, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Flugel & Popp, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Foley, John T., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Folger, J.A., <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Folger & Co., J.A., <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Folger, Schilling & Co., <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Folkes, Martin, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Folkingham, <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br /> +<br /> +Fontenelle, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Food Administration, U.S.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Government_control"><i>See</i> Government Control</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Food and Dietetics</i>, Hutchinson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Food and Drugs Act, U.S., <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Food and drugs inspection, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Food conservation show, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<br /> +Food use, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a><br /> +<br /> +Food value, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. Army, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Food Values</i>, Locke, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Foote, Samuel, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Foote & Knevals, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Forbes, A.E., <a href="#Page_503">503</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Forbes, James H., <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Forbes, Robert M., <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Force & Co., W.H., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Force & Co., W.S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Force & Co., William H., <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Formaleoni, Vincenzo, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +Forrester, George R., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Forster, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Forster's <i>Life of Goldsmith</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br /> +<br /> +Forster, E.S., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Forsythe & Co., James, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Fossi & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Foster, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Foster, A.C., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Fowler, John A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> +<br /> +Fox, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Francesconi" id="Francesconi"></a>Francesconi, Floriono, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +Francis, Norman, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Franco-American (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +François, Damame, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Frankel, E.M., <a href="#Page_716">716</a><br /> +<br /> +Frankel, F. Hulton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a><br /> +<br /> +Franklin, Alfred, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Franklin, Samuel, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Franklin, Walter, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Franklin Tea Warehouse, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Fraser, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Fraser, David B., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Fraser Manufacturing Co., <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Frederick the Great, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i> <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Frederick William I, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +Fredericq, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Freeman, W.G., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> +<br /> +Freight forwarding bureau, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br /> +<br /> +Freight rates<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil to U.S. (1917–18), <a href="#Page_535">535</a>, <a href="#Page_536">536</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">War-time, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>French Color Prints of the XVIII Century</i>, Salaman, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br /> +<br /> +French Company of the Indies, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +French Revolution, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +French roast, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Freund, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +Fricke, E., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +Frisbie & Stephens, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Frisi, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_780" id="Page_780">[Pg 780]</a></span><i>From Tree to Cup with Coffee</i>, N.C.B.A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<br /> +Fromm & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Fruit" id="Fruit"></a>Fruit<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beverages from, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Food use, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fry & Co., Henry A., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Fryer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Fuels, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coal, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electricity, <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gas, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Natural, <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Full city roast, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Full difference, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br /> +<br /> +Fullard, William, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a><br /> +<br /> +Fulton Mills, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Funk, C., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Fustian bag used for infusion, <a href="#Page_620">620</a><br /> +<br /> +Future of coffee, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Futures market (New York), <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> +<br /> +Fuzelier, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +G.G. (hall mark; <a href="#Garthorne"><i>see</i> Garthorne, G.</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Gaa Paa, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Gabriel, Angel, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legend, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gaffney, Hugh, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Gage, H.N., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Gainsborough, Thomas, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Galen, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +Galla (<a href="#Eating_coffee"><i>see</i> Eating coffee</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Galland, Antoine, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Gallienii, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caffein content, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Galt, Herbert, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br /> +<br /> +Galuppi, <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<br /> +Gambetta, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Gandais, J.A., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a>, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Ganse, John H., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Garair (Arabian bale), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<br /> +Gardell, Theodore, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Gardens" id="Gardens"></a>Gardens<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botanical</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arabia, royal, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paris (Jardin des plantes), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Martinique (Jardin Desclieux), <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Experimental</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bangelan (Java), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Camayenne (Fr. Guinea), <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Indo-China, French, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Java, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pleasure (New York), <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cherry, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Contoit's, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Niblo's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ranelagh, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sans Souci, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vauxhall, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tea (London), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Adam and Eve, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bagnigge Wells, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bayswater, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Canonbury House, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Copenhagen House, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cuper's, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dog and Duck, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Highbury, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hornsey, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jews' Harp, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marylebone, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Spring Gardens, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ranelagh, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spring Gardens, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vauxhall, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">White Conduit House, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Garrick, David, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_569">569</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Garrick, David (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Garrick, Westphal & Co., S.B., <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Garrison, C.H., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Garrondona, J.L., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Garth, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Garthorne, Francis, <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Garthorne" id="Garthorne"></a>Garthorne, George, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br /> +<br /> +Garway (<i>see</i> <a href="#Garraway">Garraway</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Gas roasting, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<br /> +Gaskell, Mrs., <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Gasser, M.H., <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Gastronomy as a Fine Art</i>, Brillat-Savarin, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Gates, H., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Gates, John W., <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Gates & Co., A.B., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Gaudet, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Gaudron, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Gautier, Théophile, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Gazette</i>, London, <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Gazette de France</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Gay, John, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a><br /> +<br /> +Gee, Edward, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Geiger, Frank J., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Geiger-Fishback Co., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Geiger-Tinney Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Gelabert, José Antonio, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Gemaleddin_Sheik" id="Gemaleddin_Sheik"></a>Gemaleddin, Sheik, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a><br /> +<br /> +Genius fostered by c., <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_189">189–195</a><br /> +<br /> +George III, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +George V, <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br /> +<br /> +George & Co., P.T., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Georgi, Theophilo, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +Gephart, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Gerard, (French minister), <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +<br /> +German Trading Co., <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +Germicidal properties, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Germination, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Gérôme, Jean Léon, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br /> +<br /> +Ghiradelli & Co., D., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Giacomini, Luigi, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a><br /> +<br /> +Gibbon, Edward, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Gilbert, Colgate, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Gilbert & Co. Colgate, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Gillet, Frère, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Gillett, A.B., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Gilles, E.J., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Gillies, James W., <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gillies, Wright, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gillies & Bro., Wright, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Gillies & Co. Inc., E.J., <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Gillies Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Gilman, George F., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Gimborn, Theo. von, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Glazes and coatings, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Glazing<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arbuckle's patent, <a href="#Page_522">522</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Effects, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Machinery, <a href="#Page_396">396</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Glines, J.T. & N., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Globe Mills, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a><br /> +<br /> +Gloria, Café, <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br /> +<br /> +Glover, Force & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Glyceral as sweetening, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Glynn, Martin J., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Glynn & Co., Martin J., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Godey's Lady's Book</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a><br /> +<br /> +Goed Vrouw, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br /> +<br /> +Goetzinger, M.E., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +Gold and Silversmiths' Soc., <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Golden Gate (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Golden Sun (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Golden Wedding (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Golden West (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Goldoni Carlo, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Goldsmith, Oliver, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Retaliation", <a href="#Page_573">573</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Goldtree, Liebes & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Goldsworthy, William G., <i>pat.</i> <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Goodhousekeeping</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Gomez, Juan Antonio, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> +<br /> +Gordon, Douglas, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<br /> +Gordon, Fred P., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Gordon, G.O., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Gordon, John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Gordon & Co., Fred P., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Gordon & Co., Geo. O., <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Gordon & Co., John, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Gorter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Gothot, Ferd., <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br /> +<br /> +Gottlieb, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Gould (chemist), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Gould, George J., <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Gouverneur, Isaac, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Gouverneur, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Gourewitsch, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Gout, strange remedy for, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Government (brand), <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Government_control" id="Government_control"></a>Government control, War-time, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534–538</a><br /> +<br /> +Government Monopoly<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Ind., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Grace & Co., W.R., <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a><br /> +<br /> +Grade, Basic (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> +<br /> +Graders (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> +<br /> +Grades, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mocha, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">São Paulo, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. (prohibited), <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Grading" id="Grading"></a>Grading<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hand, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Machinery, <a href="#Page_246">246–248</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Machine (Van Gulpen's), <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York Exchange, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Grafe, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +Grafting (<a href="#Propagation"><i>see</i> Propagation</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Gragé (<a href="#Peaberry"><i>see</i> Peaberry</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Graham, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br /> +<br /> +Gram, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Grand concern of England explained</i>, <i>pamph.</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +Grandin, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Granger & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Granger & Hodge, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Grant, U.S., <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Grassy (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Gray, Arthur, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a><br /> +<br /> +Gray, Louis R., <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> +<br /> +Gray, Thomas, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<br /> +Great American Tea Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co., <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Premiums, <a href="#Page_429">429</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Great Boom (<a href="#Booms"><i>see</i> Booms</a>), <a href="#Page_528">528</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br /> +<br /> +Great London Tea Co., <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Greeks of the Present Day</i>, About, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_685">685</a><br /> +<br /> +Green, William, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Green coffee marks, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Green Dragon c. urn, <a href="#Page_613">613</a>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a><br /> +<br /> +Greene, Richard A., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +Greenwood, Paul, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +Gregory, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +Grenier, Dufougeret, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Grever & Bro., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Grévy, François Paul Jules, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Griebel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Griffiths & Co., J., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Grigor & Co., T.S., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Grinding<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_658">658–662</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greece, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Household</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">England, <a href="#Page_695">695</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Greece, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">United States, <a href="#Page_711">711</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Steel cut, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Zealand, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Grinding and packing, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Grinding machinery, <a href="#Page_400">400–402</a>, <a href="#Page_615">615–654</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chronology, <a href="#Page_643">643–654</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Commercial</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Burstone Mills, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">France, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greece, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Household, <a href="#Page_615">615–620</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First French patent, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Grinding machines<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Household</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Book's (1665), <a href="#Page_617">617</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bronson's patent (1903), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bruff's patent (1798), <a href="#Page_621">621</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clark's hand-mill (1832), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Colaux's patent (1829), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dearman's patent (1779), <a href="#Page_621">621</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Electric (first, 1897), <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First English patent, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First U.S. patent, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Herbert's patent (1848), <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_781" id="Page_781">[Pg 781]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kenrich's mill (1815), <a href="#Page_624">624</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lacoux' combined roaster and grinder, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moore's mill (1813), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Morgan's glass-Jar mill, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Hand mills, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">N.C.R.A. Home Mill (1915), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parker's hand mill (1832), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rittenhouse's hand-mill, <a href="#Page_627">627</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Selden's hand-mill (1831), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stillman's "mica window", <a href="#Page_627">627</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stowe's hand mill, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Strowbridge's box mill, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Turkish combination, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Van Vliet's hand mill, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Webb's box mill (1878), <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wilson's steel mill (1818), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retail</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dell's store mill, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Morgan's patent (1919), <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wholesale</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Barbor mill, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Burns's granulator, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ideal steel-cut mill (1916), <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Knickerbocker (1882), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Grinds" id="Grinds"></a>Grinds, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coarse and fine compared, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comparative test (1917), <a href="#Page_716">716</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Definitions, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek preferences, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Irregular (King's patent), <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Griswold, H.F., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Grocer helps, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +Grocers Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd., <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Grocers, Retail, no. in U.S., <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> +<br /> +Grocery stores, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Model c. departments, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Groff & Co., Charles R., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Grohens, A.P., <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Gros, <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br /> +<br /> +Gross, March & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Grossman, George A., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Grossman, William, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Grossman & Co., William, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Grossman Co., Wm., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Groundy (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Growths, French preferences, <a href="#Page_680">680</a><br /> +<br /> +Gruner, Siegfried, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Gruner & Co., <a href="#Page_530">530</a><br /> +<br /> +Gruner & Co., S., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Gruppe, Charles P., <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Guadeloupes (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> +<br /> +Guam c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Guardian</i> (Lond.), <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guardiola, José, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Guatemalas (c.), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /> +<br /> +Guildhall museum, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br /> +<br /> +Guillasse, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Guineas (c.), <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> +<br /> +Gump Company, B.F., <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br /> +<br /> +Gutteridge, Mary, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<br /> +Gutteridge, Robert <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<br /> +Guy, Francis, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +G. Washington's Prepared (brand), <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Gwynn (architect), <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Haas, Kalman, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Haas Bros, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Haase, Heinrich, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Habit-forming: c. is not, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Habitat, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Hacendado Mex. El</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<br /> +Haciendas (<a href="#Plantations"><i>see</i> Plantations</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Hackfeld & Co., Ltd., H., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Haddon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Hadrot, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Haebler & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Haehnlen Bros., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Haeussler, August, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Hagar, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +<br /> +Hahnemann, Samuel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +Haimi-Harazi c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Haitis (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Hakimani, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> +<br /> +Hakluyt Society, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Half difference, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> +<br /> +Halifax, Lord, <a href="#Page_577">577</a><br /> +<br /> +Hall, G.M., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Hall, I.W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Hall, Robert (Rev.), <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<br /> +Hall & Co., Martin L., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Halla, Wm., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Halley, Dr., <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Halligan, T.F., <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Hallmarks, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Hals, Frans, <a href="#Page_587">587</a><br /> +<br /> +Halsey, R.T. Haines, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Halstead, Charles, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamakua c., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamberger-Polhemus Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamill, David B., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamill, Smith, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamill & Co., S., <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamilton Alexander, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duel, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hamilton, Duke of, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamlin, Mary P., <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hamor, W.A., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Hamsley, M.F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Hanauer, Herman, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Hanauer, Moses G., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Hanausek, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Handbills, <a href="#Page_432">432–435</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First (Rosée's, 1652), <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Handbook of Medical Science</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Handbuch der Physiologie</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Hanley, John, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Hanley & Co., Geo. F., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hanley & Kinsella, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Hanley & Kinsella Coffee and Spice Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Hannes, Edward, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Harari c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br /> +<br /> +Harari longberry c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> +<br /> +Hard, Anson Wales, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Hard & Rand, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pacific Mail strs. chartered, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Harding, Warren G. (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +Hare, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Hargreaves, C.F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Harkness, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Harley, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br /> +<br /> +Harnack, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Harper's Weekly</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Harriman, E.H., <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Harrington, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_614">614</a><br /> +<br /> +Harrington, James, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Harris (actor), <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Harris, Benj., <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<br /> +Harris, Samuel L., <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Harris, Wm. B., <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a><br /> +<br /> +Harrison, D.Y., <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br /> +<br /> +Harrison, W.H., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Harrison & Co., W.H., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Harrison & Wilson, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Harsh Santos c., <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /> +<br /> +Hartford Steam Coffee & Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hartwich, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +Hart & Howell, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Harvard_University" id="Harvard_University"></a>Harvard University<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bureau of Business Research <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Harvest time, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +<br /> +Harvey, Eliab, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +Harvey, Gideon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Harvey, William, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +Harwood, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +Hassey, Cornelius, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Hatch & Jenks, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hatches, Major, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Hatfield c. pots, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Hatton, Edward, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Haulenbeek, Jr., John W., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Haulenbeek, Sr., John W., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Haulenbeek, Peter <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Haulenbeek & Co., John W., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Haulenbeek & Mitchell, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling Co., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Havemeyer, Henry O., <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br /> +<br /> +Havemeyers, The, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Hawaiian c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Hawk, Philip B., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Hawkins, Sir John, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Hawkins, Thomas, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Hawkins & Thornton, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Haworth & Dewhurst, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Haydon, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Haye, de la, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<br /> +Hayes, John (and Mrs.), <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Hayman, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Hayward, George W., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hayward, Martin, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hayward & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hazlitt, Carew W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Hazlitt, William, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Heading, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Health, Effect on, <a href="#Page_174">174–188</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Favorable <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unfavorable, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Health and longevity through Rational Diet</i>, Lorand, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Heart, Effect on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Hébert, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Hedging, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin, Albert E., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin, James, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin, James J., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin, Robert E., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin & Co., James, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin Co., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin Co., James, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin Co., James J., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Heekin Spice Co., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Hekem, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +<br /> +Hekteon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +Helen (of Troy), <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Hellmann Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Hellsten, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Hemileia vastatrix</i> (<a href="#Diseases_and_pests"><i>see</i> Diseases</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Henckel, James, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Hendershot, Peter, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Henneman, Karel F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Henrici, F.H., <a href="#Page_511">511</a><br /> +<br /> +Henrion, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br /> +<br /> +Henry IV, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Hentz & Co., Henry, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Herald</i>, New York, <i>newsp.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Herald of Health</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Herbert, Luke, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Herbert, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Herklotz, Corn & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Hertford, Countess of, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Hess, H.P., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hewitt, Jr., Robert, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Hewitt, Jr., Robert C., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Hewitt, H.H., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Hewitt & Phyfe, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Hickey, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Hidey (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +High roast, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Higgins & Co., Geo. W., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hignette, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Hildreth, A.G., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Hill, John (Dr.), <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Hill Bros., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Hill, Dwinell & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hill & Thornley, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hillis Plantation Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hinchman & Howard, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hind, Rolph & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Hinkle, Henry, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hinz, F.W., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Hire Co., Charles G., <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Hires' Soluble (brand), <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Hirsch, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Historia Vitae et Mortis</i>, Bacon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>History and Antiquities of the City of Boston</i>, Drake, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>History and Reminiscences of Lower Wall Street</i>, Wakeman, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Historical and chronological deduction of the origin of commerce</i>, Anderson, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>History of Am. Manufactures</i>, Bishop, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>History of Literature</i>, Routh, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>History</i> (of Phila.), Scharf & Westcott, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Hlasiwetz, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Hobart Electric Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br /> +<br /> +Hobart Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Hobson-Jobson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoch, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Hodges, Alderman, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Hodges, Dr., <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Hodhat, Kadhi, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoepner, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoffman, Daniel H., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoffman, Lee & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Hogarth, William, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Holbrook, E.F., <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Holland (<a href="#Netherlands"><i>see</i> Netherlands</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_782" id="Page_782">[Pg 782]</a></span>Holland, Charles H., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Holland Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hollingworth, H.L., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caffein investigations <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Holman & Co., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Holmes, F.T., <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Holstad, S., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Holstad, S.H., <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Holstad & Co., S., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Holstad & Co., S.H., <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Home</i>, Chamberlain, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Home Economics Laboratories, Un. of Kansas, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Home, Life of</i>, Mackenzie, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +Homer, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Homeyer, H.L., <a href="#Page_510">510</a><br /> +<br /> +Honduras c., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /> +<br /> +Honey in c., <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +<br /> +Hookah, <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoole, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoopes, B.F., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoover, Herbert, <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a><br /> +<br /> +Hope, G.W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Horace, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Horn, William L., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Horner & Co., Henry, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Horter, John, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Hotel Astor (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Hotels" id="Hotels"></a>Hotels<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cecil, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Piccadilly, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Richardson's, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sabloniere, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Savoy, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tavistock, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Waldorf, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ambassador, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Astor House, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">City, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Waldorf-Astoria, <a href="#Page_690">690</a>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mansion House, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Houghton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Houghton's collection</i> (1698), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +House-boat coffee house, <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> +<br /> +Howard, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Howell, James, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Howell, Son & Co., B.H., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Howells, William Dean, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +Howland & Aspinwall, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Hoyt & Co., W.M., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Huatusco c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Huber & Stendel, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hubner, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> +<br /> +Hudson, D.D., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Hudson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Hudson & Co., H.C., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Hudson-Fulton celebration, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Hudson Mills, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Huestis & Hamilton, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Hughes, Charles E., <a href="#Page_332">332</a><br /> +<br /> +Hugo, Victor, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Hull, John, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Hulling_machinery" id="Hulling_machinery"></a>Hulling machinery, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bucket and beam crusher, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First U.S. patent, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Smout's, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Hulls" id="Hulls"></a>Hulls, beverage from, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Husks"><i>See</i> Husks</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Hulls and pulp, beverage from, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +Hulman, H., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Humboltiana, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caffein content, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hume (<i>pseud.</i> of Voltaire), <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<br /> +Humphrey, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<br /> +Humphreys, H.M., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Humphry (appr. to Bowman), <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Hungerford, G.S., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Hungerford, G.W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Hungerford Co., <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Hunt, Leigh, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hunt, Mathew, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br /> +<br /> +Huntington, L.M., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Huntley Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a><br /> +<br /> +Huntoon & Towner, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Hurd, Jacob, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Husks" id="Husks"></a>Husks, beverage from, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Hulls"><i>see</i> Hulls</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Husted, Ferguson & Titus, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Hutchins, John, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +Hutchinson, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Hutchinson, Edward, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Hutchinson, Gov., <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Hutchinson, Jonathan, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Hutchinson, Woods, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Hybrids, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<br /> +Hyde, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Hyde, E.J., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Hydrolysis, <a href="#Page_719">719</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Ibrik" id="Ibrik"></a>Ibrik, (boiler), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br /> +<br /> +Ibriq (<a href="#Ibrik"><i>see</i> Ibrik</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Iced c., <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br /> +<br /> +Ichtoglan, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Ideals, Coffee, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Illustrated History of English Plate</i>, Jackson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br /> +<br /> +Imbusch, J.F.W., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Importers<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baltimore (Brazil c., 1894), <a href="#Page_485">485</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans (no., 1900–20), <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_475">475–482</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brazil c. (1894), <a href="#Page_484">484</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Number (1900–20), <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phila. (number 1900–20), <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S., Brazil branches, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Number (1900–20), <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Dealers_Wholesale"><i>See</i> Dealers, Wholesale</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Importing ports<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Antwerp, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baltimore, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hamburg, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havre, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rotterdam, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Imports<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aden (for re-export), <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentine (1919), <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Austria-Hungary (1913–17,) <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile (1920), <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Denmark (1921), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fed. Malay States (1920), <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Finland (1921), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany (1920), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martinique, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Early, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484–487</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York (1881), <a href="#Page_528">528</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1900–20), <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Zealand (1920), <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Norway (1921), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portugal (1919), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spain (1920), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Straits Settlements (1920), <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sweden (1921), <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Union of So. Africa (1920), <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299–302</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brazil c., <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Early, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First in Am. vessels, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Value (1919–21), <a href="#Page_299">299-302</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venice, early, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Impotence, C. and, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +Inchbald, Mrs., <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Indiana Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Indias (c.), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Indigena, C.</i> (Maragogipe), <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> +<br /> +Indirect flame, <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Indo-China c., <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +Industrial exhibition (1921), <a href="#Page_654">654</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Influence des cafés sur les moeurs politiques</i>, Salvandy, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue</i>, Rivers, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Infusion, defined, <a href="#Page_698">698</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Infusion_devices" id="Infusion_devices"></a>Infusion devices<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bencini's condenser (1838), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biggin (1817), <a href="#Page_624">624</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dakin's cloth-bag, <a href="#Page_633">633</a>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Denobe's pharmacological-chemical (1802), <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Donmartin's flannel sack (1763), <a href="#Page_620">620</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Duparquet's muslin strainer, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Etruscan (1887–88), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First French (1711), <a href="#Page_696">696</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Halstead's china-lined metal, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">L'Aine's Diligence (1763), <a href="#Page_620">620</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martelley's condenser, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rapid (<a href="#Rapid-infusion"><i>see</i> Rapid</a>)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Old Dominion (1856), <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rowland's condenser (1844), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triumph, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ingram, Margaret A., <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Inner-heated roasting machines, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<br /> +Insomnia caused by c., <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Inspector</i>, London, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Inspectors at ports of entry<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Favored by N.C.R.A., <a href="#Page_513">513</a></span><br /> +<br /> +In-store contract, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br /> +<br /> +Intellectual drink, The, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Intelligence</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +International Coffee Congress (1902), <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Internationalized by French, C., <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Introduction, beverage<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aleppo (1532), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American colonies (1668), <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Austria (1693), <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cairo (1510), <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantinople (1517), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Damascus (1530), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England (1637), <a href="#Page_35">35–42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe (1615), <a href="#Page_25">25–30</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France (1644), <a href="#Page_31">31–34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany (1670), <a href="#Page_45">45–47</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy (1615), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marseilles (1644), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mecca (1470–1500), <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Medina (1470–1500), <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands (1616), <a href="#Page_43">43–44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York (1668), <a href="#Page_115">115–124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">North America (1660–70), <a href="#Page_105">105–113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oxford (1637), <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris (1657), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persia, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia (1682), <a href="#Page_125">125–130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venice (1615), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vienna (1693), <a href="#Page_49">49–52</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Invisible supply (N.C.R.A.), <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Ireland, Augustus, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Ireland, Sam, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Irregular_grind" id="Irregular_grind"></a>Irregular grind, King's patent, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a><br /> +<br /> +Irrigation<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Irving, Washington, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br /> +<br /> +Isenberg, Paul, <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Ishmael, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +<br /> +Israel, Leon, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br /> +<br /> +Israel & Bros., Leon, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Italian roast, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Ittel, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Jackson, Charles James, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br /> +<br /> +Jackson, S., <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Jackson, W.F., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Jackson & Co., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Jacob, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +<br /> +Jacquand, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Jaeckle, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Jagenberg Machine Co., Inc., <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Jalapa c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Jamaica c., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +James, James, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +James, Mrs., <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Jamison, Catherine Arbuckle, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Jamison, Robert, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Jamison, Wm. Arbuckle, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Janney, Jr. & Co., B.S., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_783" id="Page_783">[Pg 783]</a></span><i>Jardin Desclieux, Inauguration de</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fort de France, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Jardin des plantes, Paris, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Jardin, Edélestan, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a>, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Jarvie, James N., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Java c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Jause, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +Jay Cooke panic, <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +Jefferson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +<br /> +Jeffreys, Judge, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Jenkins & Bro., T.C., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Jennings" id="Jennings"></a>Jennings, Constantine, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Constantine"><i>See</i> Constantine, George</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Jewel Tea Co., <a href="#Page_417">417</a><br /> +<br /> +Jewett & Sherman, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Jewett, Sherman & Co., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Jobson, Cirques, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Johns, Benjamin, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnson, James D., <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Johnson, Life of</i>, Boswell, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>, <a href="#Page_569">569</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Johnson & Co., Theo. F., <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnson Automatic Sealer Co., <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnson-Locke Merc. Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnston, Herbert L., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnston, W.T., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnston, William, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnston & Co., E., <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Johnston, Gordon & Co., <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445–459</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Booklets, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brewing, <a href="#Page_717">717</a>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee Club, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Information service, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Membership, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organized (1919), <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Program, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Recipes, <a href="#Page_723">723</a>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scientific research, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Jones, Dorothy, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Jones, J.F., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Jones, W.T., <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Jones, Webster, <a href="#Page_515">515</a><br /> +<br /> +Jones & Co., S.L., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Jones Bros., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Jonson, Ben, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Joseph, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Joseph Andrews</i>, Fielding, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<br /> +Joteyko, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Joubert, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Jourdain, John, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal Am. Chem. Soc.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal Am. Med. Ass'n</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal d' Antoine Galland</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal of Assoc. Agric. Chem.</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal of the Franklin Institute</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal of the Gen. Assembly of the Colony of New York</i> (1709), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal of Pharmachol.</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journal</i>, Revett, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Journey through England</i>, Mackay, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +<br /> +Julian, sec. to the Muses, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Julien (of Gobelins), <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +Jurgens, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Kadoe c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaffa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaffa coffee, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaffee Hag Corp., <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaffee-klatsch (first), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaffee-sieder, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +Kahoueh, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +Kahua, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +Kahvedjibachi, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Kahveji, <a href="#Page_665">665</a><br /> +<br /> +Kahwa, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Kahwah" id="Kahwah"></a>Kahwah, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +Kahwah (coffee-room), <a href="#Page_657">657</a>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br /> +<br /> +Kahwe, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +Kair Bey, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaldi, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaltenbach, George, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br /> +<br /> +Kant, Immanuel, <a href="#Page_562">562</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaspar, Adam J., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Kato, Sartori, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Kato Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Kavah, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaveh, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +Kaveh kanes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>See also</i> Coffee houses</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Kavveghi, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> +Kawih, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +Keable, B.B., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Keats, John, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Keen, William, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Keen's Chop House, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Kelly, George, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Kelly, H.D., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Kemble, John, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +Kendrick, F.G., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Kenny, C.D., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Kenrich, Archibald, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br /> +<br /> +Kentucky coffee tree, <a href="#Page_564">564</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Kentucky Warbler, The</i>, Allen, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a><br /> +<br /> +Kerr, Mary Alice, <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br /> +<br /> +Khawah (<a href="#Kahwah"><i>see</i> Kahwah</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Kickleburys on the Rhine</i>, Thackeray, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Kidde, Frank, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Kidneys, effect on, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Kilgour & Taylor, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Kimball, O.G., <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a><br /> +<br /> +King, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +King, John E., <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a>, <a href="#Page_720">720</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Irregular_grind"><i>See also</i> Irregular grind</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +King, Moll, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a><br /> +<br /> +King, Thomas, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +King, Tom, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a><br /> +<br /> +King Coffee Products Corp., <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +King of American breakfast table, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +<br /> +King of perfumes, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Kingdom's Intelligencer</i>, London, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Kipfel, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirby, James H., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirby & Halstead, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirby, Halstead & Chapin, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirby, Halstead & Chapin Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirkland, A., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirkland, W.J., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirkland & von Sacks, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Kirkland Bros., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Kisher, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Method of preparing, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Kissing the cheeks, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br /> +<br /> +Kitchen, James, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Kitchen Directory and American Housewife</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +Kneller, Sir Godfrey, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Knickerbocker & Cooke, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Knickerbocker Mills, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Knickerbocker Mills Co., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Knight, Eberman & Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Knowles, Cloyes & Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Knowlys, Thomas John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br /> +<br /> +Knudsen & Co., P.J., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Koch, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Kock, Paul de, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Koenig & Co., J. Henry, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Kohwah, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Kolschitzky Franz George, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Introduces c. to Vienna, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portrait, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Statue, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wife (Ursula), <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Kolster & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Kona c., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Kooman, G.W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Koran</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<br /> +Kosmos Line, <a href="#Page_489">489</a><br /> +<br /> +Kraepelin, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Krag-Reynolds Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Kraut, Adolph, <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Kreiser, Alexander W., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Kreissel, Fillip, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Kroberger, Charles, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Kroe c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +Krout, J.M., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Krull, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Krupp A.G. Grusonwerk, Fried, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Kuchelmeister, F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Kuhlemeir, Fred J., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a><br /> +<br /> +Kuhlke, George F., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Kunhardt, Henry, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Kunhardt & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Kuprili, Grand Vizier, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Labaree & Co., J.H., <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Labeling machinery, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br /> +<br /> +Labels, law affecting, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Labor" id="Labor"></a>Labor<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angola, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arbuckle business, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guianas, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honduras, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E.I., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">West Indies, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lacedæmonian (<a href="#Black_broth"><i>see</i> Black broth</a>), <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +La Chaussée, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +La Coux, François Réné, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br /> +<br /> +La Guaira c., <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br /> +<br /> +La Roque, Jean, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></span><br /> +<br /> +La Seine c.-pot, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Lactation, Effect on, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ladies Home Journal</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ladies Home Magazine</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a><br /> +<br /> +Lahey, B., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +L'Ainé, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a><br /> +<br /> +Lait, Café au, <a href="#Page_691">691</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br /> +<br /> +Lally, Albert V., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Lamb, Charles, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br /> +<br /> +Lamb (Folger, Schilling & Co.), <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Lambert, Joseph, <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Lambert Food & Machinery Co., <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Lambert Machine Co., <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lamboray, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lancet</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Landanabileo, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Landers, Frary & Clark, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a><br /> +<br /> +Langfeld, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Langius, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Lantern Slides, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +Lantern-shaped c.-pot, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a><br /> +<br /> +Lapicque, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Larousse, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +Lascelles & Co., A.S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Last-bag notice, New York, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> +<br /> +Lastreto & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Lathrop & Co., C.D., <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Laud, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Laughlin & Co., J.W., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Laurens, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Laurent, Emil, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Laurentii, C. (robusta)</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Laurentii Gillet, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Laurina, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Lauzaune, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Lauzaune" id="Lauzaune"></a>Lauzaune, Établissements, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br /> +<br /> +Lavado (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Lawrence, George W., <a href="#Page_535">535</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a><br /> +<br /> +Lawrence & Van Zandt, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Lawton, Frederick, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Lawton, William, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Lazear, Jesse, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Lead number, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Leaf-blight (<a href="#Diseases_and_pests"><i>see</i> Diseases</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Leaves, beverage from, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Candiot, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Conte, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Gantois, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Morgan Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Le Page, Jules, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br /> +<br /> +Leclerc, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Lee, H.H., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Lee & Murbach, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Leech, John, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Lefévre, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_784" id="Page_784">[Pg 784]</a></span>Légal, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Legendary origin (<a href="#Origin"><i>see</i> Origin</a>), <a href="#Page_541">541</a><br /> +<br /> +Leggett & Co., Francis H., <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Legislative com. on speculations, N.Y., <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> +<br /> +Lehmann, Julius, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Lemare, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Lemierre, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Lemmon & Son, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Lemon in c. (Russia), <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br /> +<br /> +Lemonade venders, <a href="#Page_670">670</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Pedling"><i>See also</i> Pedling</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Lensing, J.H., <a href="#Page_638">638</a><br /> +<br /> +Leo XIII, Pope, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +Leone, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Leopold, Emperor, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Lepper, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> +<br /> +L'Estrange, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Lester, George C., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lettre sur l'Origine et le Progres du Café</i>, Galland, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Leven, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Levering, William T., <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Levering & Co., E., <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Levinthal, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Levy, Florence N., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Levy & Co., M.M., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Lewin-Meyer Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Lewis, Charles, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lewis, Teacle Wallace, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Lewis & Co., T.W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Liberian c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Liberica, C.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Allied Species, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botanical description, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dutch Guiana, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federated Malay States, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French Indo-China, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberia, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trees to acre, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E.I. (1920), <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States imports, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Liberty Boys, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Licenses" id="Licenses"></a>Licenses<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coffee-house, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First, Dorothy Jones, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Coffee-house, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First royal warrant, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France (first, 1692), <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mecca, coffee-house, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia, coffee-house, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First (1670), <a href="#Page_467">467</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">War-time (1917–18), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Württemberg, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lichty, George E., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Lidgerwood, John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Lidgerwood, Wm. Van V., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Lidgerwood Mfg. Co., Ltd., <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Liebig, Baron von, <a href="#Page_682">682</a>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a>, <a href="#Page_685">685</a>, <a href="#Page_687">687</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Liebreich, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Lievre, Frick & Co., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Life of Addison</i>, Johnson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Life of Home</i>, Mackenzie, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Life of Johnson</i>, Boswell, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +Light roast, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Lightfoot, Alexander, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Lilly (astrologer), <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Limbird, John, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Limonáji, <a href="#Page_670">670</a><br /> +<br /> +Linn, A.R. & W.F., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Lins, Albuquerque, <a href="#Page_531">531</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Linschoten's travels</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lion (brand), <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br /> +<br /> +Lion's head (Button's c. house), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Livre Commode</i> (Paris, 1691), <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +Lippincott, Jesse H., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Lispenard, Anthony, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Lispenard, Leonard, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Literature of coffee, <a href="#Page_541">541–585</a><br /> +<br /> +Literature, Influence of c. on <a href="#Page_552">552</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Littledo, L., <i>pseud.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lives of Eminent Men</i>, Aubrey, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lives of the Lord Chancellors</i>, Campbell, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Lives of the Poets</i>, Johnson, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Livierato, B.A., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Livierato, Gregory B., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Livierato Frères (Bros.), <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Livierato-Kidde Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Livingstons, The, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Lloyd, the law-student, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lloyd, Edward, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +Lloyd, John C., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Lloyd & Co., John C., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Lloyd's (London), <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Register of shipping, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Loading, Santos, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> +<br /> +Loaiza & Co., W., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Locke (chemist), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Locket, Mrs., <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Lockier, Dean, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Lockwood, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Lockyer, Captain, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Loeven & Co., E., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Loew, Oscar, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<br /> +Logan & Strowbridge, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Logan & Strowbridge Iron Co., <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +London<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fire (1666), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1748), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<br /> +London, Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>London Pleasure Gardens of the 18th Century, The</i>, Wroth, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +Long, Mary, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Long, William, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Longe, W. Harry, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> +<br /> +Longevity, Effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +Longhi, Alessandro, <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br /> +<br /> +Longhi, Pietro, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Lopez, Pedro, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> +<br /> +Lopez & Co., P.A., <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Lorand, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Lorimore Bros., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Lorraine, Prince of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Lott & Low, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Loudon, Howard C., <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Loudon, J. Carlyle, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Loudon & Johnson, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Loudon & Son, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Loudon & Stellwag, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Louis XIII, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +Louis XIV, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<br /> +Louis XV, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Love, N., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +Low, Seth, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Low & Co., Adolphe, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Lowell, Ebenezer, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Lower Wall St. Bus. Men's Ass'n, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Lown Coffee Co., W.G., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Lowther, Sir James, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Loyal Association (London), <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Lubricant to human machine, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Ludlow & Goold, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Ludolphus, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> +<br /> +Lueder & Co., A., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Lure of coffee, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Lurman & Co., T.G., <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Lusk, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Luttrell, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Lyman, John Chester, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Lyons, A. Neil, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Lytton, Lord, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Macassars (c.), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Macaulay, Thomas B., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Macedoine Poetique</i> (1824), <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Machinery" id="Machinery"></a>Machinery<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Evolution of, <a href="#Page_615">615–654</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">History of Manufacture, <a href="#Page_468">468–474</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mackay, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mackey, William D., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Mackey & Co., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Mackey & Small, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Mackintosh, Sir James, <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<br /> +Macklin, Charles, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +Maclachlan, C.H., <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Maclaine" id="Maclaine"></a>Maclaine, Jemmy, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Macrocarpa, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +MacVeagh & Co., Franklin, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Madagascar c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Madagascar, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Madagascariensis, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Maddux, H. Clay, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Magic Cup (brand), <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Maguire, Charles, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Maguire, Joseph, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Maguire & Gillespie, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Mahomet (<a href="#Mohammed"><i>See also</i> Mohammed</a>), <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Mahood, E.B., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Mahood, Samuel, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Mahood, W. James, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Maidi c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Mail-order houses, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br /> +<br /> +Maine & Eckerenkotter, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Mairobert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Maitland, Coppell & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Maitland, Phelps & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Makara, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +Makonnen, Ras, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br /> +<br /> +Malabars (c.), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +Malang c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +Malaria, Effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Maldonado & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Maliban <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +Mallet, J.W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Malone, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Man, Alexander, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +<br /> +Mandelsloh, Joh. A. von, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +Mandheling c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +Manet, Edouard, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +<br /> +Manipulated Java, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Manizales c., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Manner of Making C., Tea and Chocolate</i>, Dufour, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Manners_and_Customs" id="Manners_and_Customs"></a>Manners and Customs, <a href="#Page_655">655–692</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Africa, <a href="#Page_655">655–657</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Africa, Portuguese E., <a href="#Page_657">657</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Algeria, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_657">657–663</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentina, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Asia, <a href="#Page_657">657–663</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663–670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Damascus (c.-house), <a href="#Page_668">668–670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England (c.-house), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75–89</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egypt, <a href="#Page_655">655–657</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_680">680–683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_683">683–685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London (c.-house), <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_687">687</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">North America, <a href="#Page_686">686–691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Norway, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oriental, Early, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persia (c.-house), <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia (c.-house), <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saxony, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Somaliland, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sweden, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Thuringia, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turkey, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663–670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uganda, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_687">687–691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uruguay, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vienna (c.-house), <a href="#Page_562">562</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>See also</i> Coffee-houses</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Manning, E.B., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Manning, Bowman & Co., <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a><br /> +<br /> +Manthey-Zorn Laboratories, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +Mantsaka c., <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Manual of Pharmacology</i>, Sollman, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Manufacture, U.S., <a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> +<br /> +Many, Daniel, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Marac, <a href="#Page_682">682</a><br /> +<br /> +Maracaibo c., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Maragogipe c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Maragogipe, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Marat, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Marchand, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +M'Ardell (mezzotinter), <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Marden & Folger, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Marden & Myrick, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Margins, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> +<br /> +Mariahalden, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a><br /> +<br /> +Marie Antoinette, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Marilhat, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_785" id="Page_785">[Pg 785]</a></span>Marion Harland c.-pot., <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Market names, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Characteristics"><i>See also</i> Characteristics</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Marlborough, Earl of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Marmontel, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Marquis de Someruelas, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +Marshall, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Martelley, Lewis, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Martin & Co., N., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Martinique c., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Martinique, Histoire de la</i>, Daney, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Martinique, La</i>, Pardon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Marvell, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Mary, Queen, <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br /> +<br /> +Mason, Fred, <a href="#Page_689">689</a><br /> +<br /> +Mason, L.F., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Mason, Marcus, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> +<br /> +Mason & Co., Marcus, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> +<br /> +Mason & Thompson, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Mason machines, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> +<br /> +Masons, Grand Lodge, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +Masons, St. Andrew's Lodge, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +Mass. Inst. of Technology<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scientific research, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Massieu, Abbé Gulllaume, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a><br /> +<br /> +Matagalpa c., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Materia Medica and Pharmacology</i>, Culbreth, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Therapeutics</i>, Potter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacology</i>, Butler, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Matheson, S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Matheson, Jr. & Co., S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Mattari, c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Mattei, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Maumenet, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Mauran, C.S., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mauritiana, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Caffein content, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Maury, Joseph E., <a href="#Page_515">515</a><br /> +<br /> +Maximilian Frederick, Elector, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Maxwell, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Maxwell House (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Mayer Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Mayflower, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mortar and pestle, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mayne, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Mayot, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Mazagran, Café, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_682">682</a><br /> +<br /> +Mazerolles, S., <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +McBride, R.P., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +McCann, Alfred W., <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +McCarthy Bros., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +McChesney & Sons, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +McClean, Jemmy (<a href="#Maclaine"><i>see</i> Maclaine</a>)<br /> +<br /> +McCord, Brady Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +McCready, William, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +McCreery, Henry F., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +McCreery, R.W., <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></span><br /> +<br /> +McDonald, Duncan, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a><br /> +<br /> +McDonald & Arbuckle, <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +McDonald & Arbuckles, <a href="#Page_522">522</a><br /> +<br /> +McDonald & Glynn, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +McFadden, J.M., <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +McFadden & Bro., George H., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +McFarland, A., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +McGarty, M.J., <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +McGill. A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_687">687</a><br /> +<br /> +McKinnon, William, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +McKinnon & Co., Ltd., Wm., <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +McLaughlin, Frederick, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +McLaughlin, George D., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +McLaughlin, William F., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +McLaughlin & Co., W.F., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +McLaughlin & Co., W.H., <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +McMaster, John Bach, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +McMullin, John, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +McNeil & Higgins, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +McNeil & Higgins Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +McNeil, Thomas, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +McNulty, John R., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +McNulty & Co., J.R., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +McReynolds, Attorney General, <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br /> +<br /> +Meacock, James, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Mead, Dr., <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Meal Market, New York, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +<br /> +Meat-packers in c. trade, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mechanic's Magazine</i>, London, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Medellins (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Medical News</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Medical Record</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Medical Times</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Medicinal properties of c., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173–188</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Due to caffein content, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Medicine<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C. first used as, <a href="#Page_693">693</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Café au lait used as, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Meditations</i>, Brillat-Savarin, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a><br /> +<br /> +Medium (<a href="#Grinds"><i>see</i> Grinds</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Medium roast, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Meehan, Charles L., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Meehan, P.C., <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Meehan & Co., P.C., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Meehan & Schramm, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Meidinger, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Meilhat, <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br /> +<br /> +Meisner, Leonhard Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Meith, Hugo, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Mejia, E., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Melangé, Café, <a href="#Page_671">671</a><br /> +<br /> +Melaye, S., <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Mellon Inst. of Industrial Research, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Memoirs</i>, Diderot, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Memoirs</i>, Sherman, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Menado c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Menda & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Mendel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Menezes, T. Langgaard de, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> +<br /> +Mengai, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Menico, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Menier, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Menosperma, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Menown, Hugh, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br /> +<br /> +Menown, H. & J., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Menown & Gregory, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Men's Answer to Women's Petition, The</i>, <i>pamph.</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Menslichen Genussmittel</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +Mental and Motor Efficiency<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Effect of caffein on, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Effect of tea on, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Menzel, Adolph, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Merchants Coffee Co. of N.O., Ltd., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Merchants Exchange (New York), <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +<br /> +Merck & Co., <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mercure de France</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Meridas (c.), <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Merrill & Co., S.C., <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Merritt & Ronaldson, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Merwin & Co., Geo. A., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Mery, C.D., <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Messenger & Co., Thomas H., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Metchnikoff, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +Metropolitan Mills, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Mexicans (c.), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br /> +<br /> +Meyer (chemist), <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +Meyer, B., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Meyer, Fred W., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Meyer, Robert, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Meyerheim, Paul, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +M'Ginley, Joseph, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +M'Gregor, Coll., <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Michaud, I.F. and L.G., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Michelet, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Microscopy of c., <a href="#Page_149">149–153</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Analysis, value, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Microscopy of Vegetable Foods</i>, Winton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Midland Spice Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Milde, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Milds (market name), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Characteristics"><i>See also</i> Characteristics</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Milk in coffee, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Effect of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First used by Nieuhoff (1660), <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Millar & Co., E.B., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Millar Spice Co., E.B., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Miller, Chas. A., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Miller, Harry, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Miller, Rev. James, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q</i>., <a href="#Page_554">554</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Miller, R.O., <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Miller, Watts, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Miller, W.H., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Miller & Walbridge, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Miller, Smith & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Milling (<a href="#Cleaning_machinery"><i>see also</i> Cleaning</a>), <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br /> +<br /> +Milreis, <a href="#Page_336">336</a><br /> +<br /> +Milton, John, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Miner, W.H., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Minerva, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> +<br /> +Minford, Thomas, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Minford & Co., L.W., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Minford, Lueder & Co., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Minford, Thompson & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Mingo, Cirilo, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Minkowski, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Minor, W.H., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Minott, Samuel, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +Minute (brand), <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Minute, Café à la, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mirror</i>, London, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Misbranding<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Condemned by N.C.R.A., <a href="#Page_513">513</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rulings (U.S.), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mitchell, George, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Mitchell, William L., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Mitchell Bros., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Mixing (<a href="#Blending"><i>see</i> Blending</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Mixtures, Strange c., <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Moat With the Crimson Stains, The</i>, Champney, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a><br /> +<br /> +Mocengio, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Mocha_c" id="Mocha_c"></a>Mocha c., <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +Mocha longberry c., <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br /> +<br /> +Mocha-seed Bourbon-Santos c., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Mocha-seed Santos (grade), <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Modern Italian Poets</i>, Howells, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +Moegling, Carl, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mogeneti, C.</i> (caffein content), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Mohammed" id="Mohammed"></a>Mohammed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Mohammed IV, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +Mohedano, José Antonio, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Mohns-Frese Com. Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Moir, John R., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Mokaska Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Mokkæ, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Molded beans, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<br /> +Molke, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<br /> +Molmenti, Pompeo, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Moncrieff (dramatist), <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Moncrieff, Alexander, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Moneuse, Élie, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br /> +<br /> +Monin, Sieur, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br /> +<br /> +Monitor machines, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<br /> +Monk, General, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Monkey coffee, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> +<br /> +Monroe, James (Pres.), <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +<br /> +Monstruo (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br /> +<br /> +Montague, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a><br /> +<br /> +Monte Carmelo c., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Montealegre & Co., <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Montesquieu, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +Montuori, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Moore, Alexander Duncan, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a><br /> +<br /> +Moore, C.T., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Moore, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Moore & Co., Geo. A., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Mopsy, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Moréas, Jean, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Morewood, T.C., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Morey Mercantile Co., C.S., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Morgan, Charles, <a href="#Page_644">644</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Morgan, Edward H., <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Morgan Brothers, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Morize, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a>, <a href="#Page_708">708</a><br /> +<br /> +Morley, W.T., <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Morning Advertiser</i>, Lond., <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Morning Chronicle</i>, London, <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Morning Herald</i>, Lond., <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Morning Post</i>, Lond., <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Morosini, Gianfrancesco, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Morrison, S.B., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Morrison, Wm. J., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Morrison & Bolnest Co., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Morton, Robert, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Mosely, Dr. Benjamin, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Moser (artist), <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Mosso, Ugolino, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Most excellent virtues of the mulberry called coffee</i> (1671), <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<br /> +Mother (grade), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Mother of cafés (Vienna), <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +Motion pictures, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Mott & Williams, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Mottant, A., <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a><br /> +<br /> +Muddiman, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Mudiford, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_786" id="Page_786">[Pg 786]</a></span>Muhlberg, R. <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a><br /> +<br /> +Muller, Frederick H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>, <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br /> +<br /> +Munden, Admiral, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br /> +<br /> +Murdock, Charles A., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Murdock & Co., C.A., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Murdock Mfg. Co., C.A., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Murger, Henry, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Murphy, Arthur, <a href="#Page_584">584</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Murray, Sir James, <a href="#Page_699">699</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Murray, James H., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Murray, Robert, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Murta, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i> <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Musgrave, James, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Music, C. in, <a href="#Page_593">593–599</a><br /> +<br /> +Music in coffee houses, <a href="#Page_656">656</a>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a><br /> +<br /> +Mustapha, Kara, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +Mustard in c., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br /> +<br /> +Myer, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Myers, Myer, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Mylne (architect), <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Mysore c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +Myrtle c. (Mexico), <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Nabob (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Nairon" id="Nairon"></a>Nairon, Antoine Faustus, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Nakhel douin (palm), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<br /> +Nalpasse, Valentin, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Names for c. (English and foreign), <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> +Names of places (<i>see</i> Note, p. <a href="#Page_769">769</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Nancy (tea ship) <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Naphew, Charles, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Napier, Robert, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a>, <a href="#Page_700">700</a><br /> +<br /> +Napier & Co., <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Napier & Sons, Robert, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Narcotism, Effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Narghil (palm), <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> +<br /> +Narghillai, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>Also</i> nargile, narguileh)</span><br /> +<br /> +Nash Grocery Co., George, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Nash, Smith & Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Nash-Smith Tea & Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Nashville Coffee & Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Nason, James H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Nat'l Ass'n of Retail Grocers of the U.S., <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Nat'l Chain Store Grocers' Ass'n., <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br /> +<br /> +National coffee day, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Nat'l C. Roasters Ass'n., <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509–515</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Better c. making com., <a href="#Page_713">713–717</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brewing recommendations, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conventions, <a href="#Page_512">512–515</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dues, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Freight forwarding bureau, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Home mill, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Industrial Expositions, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Membership, <a href="#Page_511">511–514</a></span><br /> +<br /> +National C. Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Ass'n., <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a><br /> +<br /> +National Coffee Week, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Nat'l Packaging Machinery Co., <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Nat'l Retail Tea and Coffee Merchants' Ass'n., <a href="#Page_417">417</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>National Review</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> +<br /> +Nature, Café, <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Nature of the Drink Kauhi, The</i>, Pocoke's trans. <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Nature, quality and most excellent virtues of c., The</i> (broadside), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +Navarro, Francisco Xavier, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> +<br /> +Nave & McCord Merc. Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Nave-McCord Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Negro plot (New York, 1737), <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Neidlinger & Schmidt, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Nelson, Charles, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Nepenthe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Nervous system, Effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Netherlands" id="Netherlands"></a>Netherlands E. India Co., <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a><br /> +<br /> +Netherlands West India Co., <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br /> +<br /> +Neutral (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Nevers, George J., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Nevill, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Nevison, J., <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>New and curious coffee-house, etc., The</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +New Caledonia c., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +New Guinea c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>New Discoveries, etc.</i>, Paschius, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +New England Automatic Weighing Machine Co., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Newbold, William, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Newell, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Newhall, H.B., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Newmark, H., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Newmark, Maurice H., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Newmark & Co., H., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Newmark & Co., M.A., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +New Orleans Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +New uses for c., <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>New View of London</i> (1708), Hatton, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="New_York" id="New_York"></a>New York<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee and Sugar Exchange (<a href="#Exchanges"><i>See</i> Exchanges</a>)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Daily Advertiser</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dock Co., <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Gazette</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Historical Soc., <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hospital, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Journal</i>, <i>per.</i> (1775) <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stock and Exchange Board, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>News from the coffee house</i> (broadside) <i>q.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Newstadt, Emil, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a><br /> +<br /> +Niblo, William, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Gardens"><i>See also</i> Gardens</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Nicaraguas (c.), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> +<br /> +Nicholson, David, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Niemuhr, Karstens, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Nielsen, Thorlief S.B., <a href="#Page_520">520</a><br /> +<br /> +Niessen, von, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Nieuhoff, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br /> +<br /> +Niles, G.M., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +Nonnenbruch, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Nordlinger, Henry, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Nordlinger & Co., Henry, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Norris, G.W., <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br /> +<br /> +North, Roger, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Norton, Edward, <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Norton, Weyl & Beven, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Norton & Holyoke, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br /> +<br /> +Nossack & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Notes and Queries</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +Nurseries, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br /> +<br /> +Nutmeg in c., <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br /> +<br /> +Nutrio Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Nutt, Jr., F.T., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Oaxaca c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Brien, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Brien, E.H., <a href="#Page_455">455</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Brien, Jonas P., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Brien, Joseph A., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Oceana</i>, Harrington, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue, Charles A., <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue, John, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue, John B., <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue, Joseph J., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue, Peter, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue & Co., J.B., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Dononue & Sons, John, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue & Sons, Joseph J., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue & Stewart, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Donohue's Sons, John, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Oelschlager (<a href="#Olearius"><i>see</i> Olearius</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Of the Excellent Qualities</i>, etc., Rumford, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a><br /> +<br /> +Ogden & Co., George, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Ogilby, <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br /> +<br /> +Ohio Coffee & Spice Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Oils, Coffee, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Krassa, R.F.E., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<br /> +Olavarria, J.D., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Old Dutch Mills, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Old Ground Coffee Works, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Old Judge (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Old Homestead (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Old Master (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Old Reserve (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Oldys, William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Olearius" id="Olearius"></a>Olearius, Adam, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Olendorf, Case & Gillespie, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Olivier, Abbé, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Omar, Sheik, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a><br /> +<br /> +Opera: <i>Le Café du Roi</i>, Meilhat and Deffes, <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Opposition" id="Opposition"></a>Opposition<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Commercial</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">England, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Medical</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cairo, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marseilles, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mecca, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Political</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">England (c. houses), <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Proclamation, Charles II, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">London, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Religious</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cairo, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mecca, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venice, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Controversies"><i>See also</i> Controversies</a>; <a href="#Coffee_houses">Coffee-houses</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Options, <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> +<br /> +Orange Juice, peel, in c., <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Ordinaries (<a href="#Taverns"><i>see</i> Taverns</a>)<br /> +<br /> +O'Reilly, Count, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Organon salutis</i> (1657), Rumsey's, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Oriental Trip</i>, Mandelsloh, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Origin" id="Origin"></a>Origin of c., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13–16</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541–542</a><br /> +<br /> +Orizaba c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Orleans, Regent of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Osborn, Lewis A., <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a><br /> +<br /> +Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java (brand), <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a><br /> +<br /> +Oseretzkowsky, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Shaughnessy, John W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Shaughnessy & Co., John W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Ostrander, Loomis & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Sullivan, Eugene, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Sullivan, James, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Sullivan & Co., Eugene, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Otis, James, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +Otis, McAllister & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Otter <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Otto, Carl Alexander, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br /> +<br /> +Outlandish drink, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Over the Black Coffee</i>, Gray, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a><br /> +<br /> +Overton, John B., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Ovington, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Oxford Coffee Club, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Oxford, Lord, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Pacific Mail Co., <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> +<br /> +Package coffees<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Advantages, disadvantages, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Deterioration, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early (U.S.), <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First crude (1791), <a href="#Page_491">491</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great Britain, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Packaging economics, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +Packaging machinery, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402–404</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States patents, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Packard & James, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Padang, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br /> +<br /> +Padang Interior c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +Page, Judge, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Page, Thomas, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Painter, John (<a href="#Paynter"><i>see</i> Paynter</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Pal, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Palaces, C. (<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>see</i> Coffee houses</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Paladino, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Palais Royal (Paris), <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Palambang c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> +<br /> +Palatability aid to digestion, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Palgrave, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658–661</a><br /> +<br /> +Palmer, David, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Palmer, Harvey H., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Palmer & Co., H.H., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Palmer, Warner & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Paludanus, Bernard Ten Broeke, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pamela</i>, Richardson, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<br /> +Pamphlets (<a href="#Broad-sides_and_pamphlets"><i>see</i> Broad-sides</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Panamas (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a><br /> +<br /> +Pan-American Congress, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_787" id="Page_787">[Pg 787]</a></span>Panics, U.S., <a href="#Page_528">528–530</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Booms"><i>See also</i> Booms and panics</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Panter, William, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Paradise Lost</i>, Milton, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Parché, Café, en (Guadeloupe), <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +<br /> +Parchment, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Pardon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Parent & Co., J.A., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Parini, Guiseppe, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +Park, Fellowes & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Park & Tilford, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Parker, Charles, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Parker, Edmund, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a><br /> +<br /> +Parker, Gilman L., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Parker, John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Parker & Dixon, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Parker & Harrison, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Parker Co., Charles, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Parkes, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br /> +<br /> +Parkinson, John, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Parlin, Charles Coolidge, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Parmentier, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Parr, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Parrott & Co., <a href="#Page_487">487</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Parry (Welsh harper), <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Parry, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Parson, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Pascal, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Paschius, George, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Patents, U.S., <a href="#Page_654">654</a><br /> +<br /> +Patrick (lexicographer), <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Patterson, Robert W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Pavoni, Desiderio, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Pawinski, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Payen, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Paynter" id="Paynter"></a>Paynter, Jonathan, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Peabody, B.F., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Peaberry" id="Peaberry"></a>Peaberry, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botanical description, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Peaberries, 1st and 2d (grades), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Pears in c. (Russia), <a href="#Page_686">686</a><br /> +<br /> +Pearson, George, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Pearson, Peter, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Pechey, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Peck, Edwin H., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Peck, Walter J., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Peck, E.H. & W.J., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Peck & Co., Edwin H., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Peck & Kellum, Benj., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co., <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Pedling" id="Pedling"></a>Pedling<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Florence, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Padua, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vienna, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pedrocchi, Antonio, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br /> +<br /> +Peeling (<a href="#Hulling_machinery"><i>see</i> Hulling</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Pellicularia tokeroga</i> (<a href="#Diseases_and_pests"><i>see</i> Diseases</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Pemberton, John, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Penn, John, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Penn, Letitia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> +<br /> +Penn, William, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pennsylvania Gazette</i>, <i>newsp.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pennsylvania Journal</i>, <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> +<br /> +Penny-change plan, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Penny Magazine</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br /> +<br /> +Penny universities, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> +<br /> +Peonage (<a href="#Labor"><i>see</i> Labor</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Pepion, John, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Pepys, Samuel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Percolator, The</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +Percolators<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Acker's Mo-Kof-Fee, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">testing-table, <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">two cylinder (1905), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andrews's pumping (1841), <a href="#Page_700">700</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bohemian, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bouillon Muller's steam, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bowman's valve-type (1876), <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bruning's vacuum jacket (1920), <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cafetière Sené (1815), <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carlsbad, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamberlain's automatic, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Belloy's (1800), <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a>, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Santais' hydrostatic, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durant's pumping, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First French patent (1806), <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Galt (1914), <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gandais' pumping, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German (plug in spout), <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Glass "balloons", <a href="#Page_627">627</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hadrot's "filter", <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Half-minute (1881), <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hutchinson's, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jones's pumping, <a href="#Page_704">704</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kellum (1906), <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kin-Hee (1900), <a href="#Page_701">701</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laurens' pumping, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laurent's steam "whistling," <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malen's, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marion Harland, <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mo-Kof-Fee (Acker's), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morize's reversible, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nason's fluid-joint (1865), <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nelson's patents (1912–13), <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Phylax (1914), <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a>, <a href="#Page_702">702</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Potsdam, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Preterre's vacuum (1849), <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pumping discussed, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(first, 1819), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rabauts reversed (1822), <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Raparlier's glass "filter", <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Reversible double drip, <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rumford's (1806–12), <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rumford type, <a href="#Page_705">705</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russian egg-shaped, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Savage's patent (1906), <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Smart's patent (1919), <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Star (1886), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sternau's patent (1904), <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Universal (1901), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vanderweyde's patent (1866), <a href="#Page_637">637</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vardy's vacuum urn, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vassieux' glass (1842), <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_700">700</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vienna, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Viennese type, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Warner's patent (1906), <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Percolation<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Defined, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Discussed (Trigg), <a href="#Page_720">720</a>, <a href="#Page_721">721</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.C.R.A. recommendations, <a href="#Page_718">718</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Percy, Reuben, <i>pseud.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Percy, Sholto, <i>pseud.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Perez & Sons, Juan Pablo, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Perfect cup of c., <a href="#Page_721">721–723</a><br /> +<br /> +Perfect Vacuum Canning Co., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Perfumed c., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a><br /> +<br /> +Pergamino, Café en (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Perieri, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Persecution (<a href="#Opposition"><i>see</i> Opposition</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Persian letters</i>, Montesquieu, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Perus (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +Pests (<a href="#Diseases_and_pests"><i>see</i> Diseases</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Peters, J., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Petit, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Petring, G.H., <a href="#Page_510">510</a><br /> +<br /> +Petty, Sir William, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pharmaceutical Journal</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pharmaceutice Rationalis</i>, Willis, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Pharmacological-chemical brewing device, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pharmacology</i>, Cushing, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Pharmacology of c., <a href="#Page_174">174–188</a><br /> +<br /> +Phelps, Jr., Edward A., <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Philadelphia Commission of Inspection, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Philidor, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Philipp, John, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Philippines (c.), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Philios, Ambrose, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Phillipi, Peter, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Phillips, Sir Richard, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Phillips & Co., M., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Philology (<a href="#Etymology"><i>see</i> Etymology</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Phipps, Sir William, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +Phipps & Co., J.L., <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Phoenix, John, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Phoenix & Co., J.W., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Phoenix Electrical Heating Co., <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Phyfe, James W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Phyfe & Co., Jas. W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Phonetic difficulties, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Physique Sacrée, on Histoire Naturelle de la Bible</i>, Scheuzer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Piccander, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br /> +<br /> +Picking c., <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pickslay, Joseph D., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Pictures<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Afternoon in the court gardens, Munich, Walle's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Afternoon at the coffee table, Meith's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Button's coffee house, Shepherd's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Café en Asia Mineure, De Ternamine's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Café sur un route de Syrie, Marilhat's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Café Turc, Descamp's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse, Ruffio's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee house at Cairo, Gérôme's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorative panel for Paris House, Mazerolles', <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dutch coffee house of 1650, Van Ostade's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">First coffee house in Vienna, Schams', <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Four times of the day, Hogarth's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French coffee house, Rowlandson's, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Goldoni in a Venetian café, Longhi's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kaffeebesuch Phillipi's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lion's head at Button's, Shepherd's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mad dog in a coffee house, Rowlandson's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manager Classen and his family, Milde's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mme. de Pompadour, Van Loo's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mme. Du Barry at Versailles, Decreuse's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Napoleon and the curé, Charlet's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Old woman with coffee cup, Philipp's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oriental coffee house, Meyerhelm's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parisian boulevard café, Menzel's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pastor Rautenberg and his Family, Milde's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petit déjeuner, Boucher's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rake's progress, Hogarth's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Slaughter's coffee house, Shepherd's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sweets shop of Josty in Berlin, Schmidt's, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tom's coffee house, Shepherd's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tontine coffee house, Guy's, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Washington's official welcome to New York, Gruppe's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pictures, C. in, <a href="#Page_587">587–593</a><br /> +<br /> +Pierce, Jr., O.W., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Pierce, Sr., Oliver Webster, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Pierce & Co., O.W., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Piers, steel-roofed (N.O.), <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br /> +<br /> +Pilcher, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Pinzon & Co., <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Pioneer Mills, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Pique, R., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<br /> +Piron, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Pitt, William, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Pitt & Sons, C.F., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Place, E.B., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Place, J.K., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Places, names of (<i>see</i> Note, p. <a href="#Page_769">769</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Plantation machinery, <a href="#Page_245">245–248</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Plantation machines<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guardiola drier, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Planet Junior, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Plantation preparation, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Plantation processes, <a href="#Page_245">245–271</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angola, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_258">258–261</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_788" id="Page_788">[Pg 788]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haiti, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Plantations" id="Plantations"></a>Plantations<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, yield per acre, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angola</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cazengo, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, yield per acre, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil (fazendas)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Araqua, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Azevedo, L. de O., <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Caféeria São Paulo, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capital invested, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">do Val, F.S., <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dumont, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ellis, Alfredo, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Irmaos, Alves, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oliveira, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Principal, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ribeirao Preto, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">São Martinho, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">São Paulo Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schmidt, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, first British, (1825) <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Namay, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba, number, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, yield per acre, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii, yield per acre, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cannon's Baloor, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hoskahn, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mylemoney, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Santaverre, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sumpigay Kahn, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Yield per acre, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jakatra, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kedawoeng estate, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Typical, A., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Orduna, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Capital invested, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Yield per acre, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, first (1876), <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sumatra</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gadoeng Batoe, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela (haciendas)</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Altamira, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Carmen, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Yield per acre, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Planting (<a href="#Propagation"><i>see also</i> Propagation</a>), <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Plants of Egypt</i>, Alpini, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Plants, Roasting, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br /> +<br /> +Platow, Moritz, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Platt, Jr., James, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +Plays<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Autocrat of the Coffee Stall, The</i>, Chapin, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Beaux' Stratagem</i>, Farquhar, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Bold Stroke for a Wife, A</i>, Centlivre, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston, first performed in, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Bottega di Caffè, La</i>, Goldoni, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Café; ou, l'Ecossaise, Le</i>, Voltaire, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Caffè, Le</i>, Rosseau, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Caffè di Campagna, Il</i>, Galuppi, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Caffettiéra da Spirito, La</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coffee House, The</i>, Rosseau, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coffee House; or, Fair Fugitive, The</i>, Voltaire, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coffee-House Politician, The</i>, Fielding, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Devin du Village</i>, Rousseau, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"English comedy," <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Foire St. Germain, La</i>, Dancourt (1696), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Hamilton</i>, Hamlin and Arliss, <i>q</i>., <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Persian Wife, The</i>, Goldoni, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Socrates</i>, Voltaire, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Tarugo's Wiles; or, the Coffee House</i>, St. Serf, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pleasure gardens (<a href="#Gardens"><i>see</i> Gardens</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Pletzer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Pluehart, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a><br /> +<br /> +Plunket (highwayman), <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Pneumatic Scale Corp., <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Pneumatic Scale Corp., Ltd., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Pocoke, Edward, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Pods, <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Poemata Didascalia</i>, d'Olivet, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Poems<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"<i>As long as Mocha's happy tree</i>," Pope's, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Ballad of the South Sea Scheme</i>, Swift, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Bouquet Blanc et le Bouquet Noir, Le</i>, Mery, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Café, Le</i> (anon.), <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Café, Le</i>, Berchoux, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Caffè, Il</i>, Barotti, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Cap and Bells</i>, Keats, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Carmen Caffaeum</i>, Massieu, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_544">544–547</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>City Mouse and Country Mouse</i>, Prior and Montague, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coffee</i>, Saltus, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coffee—a Chanson</i> (music by Colet), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coffee and Crumpets</i>, "Littledo," <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>C. Companion</i> (from Arabic), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Coffee Slips, The</i>, Hood, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Comus</i>, Milton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>de Clieu</i>, Esménard, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Flogé du Café</i>, L'Estienne, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Frugality</i>, Pope Leo XIII, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Gilbert K. Chesterton Rises to the Toast of C.</i>, Untermeyer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Giorno, Il</i>, Parini, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Grandeur de Dieu dans les Merveilles de la Nature, La</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>In Praise of C.</i> (from Arabic), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_542">542</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Like His Mother Used to Make</i>, Riley, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Lines</i> (appended to broadside) Morton, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Lines on C.</i> (<i>from</i> French), <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Long Story, A</i>, Gray, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Ode to Coffee</i>, Price, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Over the Black Coffee</i>, Gray, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Pity for Poor Africans</i>, Cowper, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Plantes, Les</i>, Castel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Rape of the Lock</i>, Pope, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Recipe for Making C.</i>, Hodhat, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Royal Drummer</i> (Paris) <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Rules and orders of the C. house</i> (broadside) <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Song</i> from <i>The Coffee House</i>, Fielding, <i>q.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Three Reigns of Nature</i>, Delille, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>To the Mighty Monarch, King Kauhee</i>, Sephton, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>To the Coffee House</i>, Altenberg, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>To Pasqua Rosée</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Unnamed), Belighi, <a href="#Page_547">547</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Unnamed), Lloyd, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Verses</i>, Maumenet, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Wealthy Shopkeeper; or, Charitable Christian</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>What Every Wife Knows</i>, Rowland, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553–554</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Poetry, C. in, <a href="#Page_542">542–554</a><br /> +<br /> +Poffenberger, Jr., A.T., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a><br /> +<br /> +Poison, C. a, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /> +<br /> +Polished C., rulings (U.S.), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Polishing machinery, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> +<br /> +Political liberty; England's won in coffee houses, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Politics" id="Politics"></a>Politics, C. and, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +Polli, Pietro, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Pollitzer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Polstorff, K., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Ponfold, Schuyler & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Poore, G.W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a>, <a href="#Page_707">707</a><br /> +<br /> +Pop open, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Pope, Alexander, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Life of</i>, Carruthers, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Popularity of c. in U.S.; reasons for, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Portable c. making devices<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French (1691–1754), <a href="#Page_618">618</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turkish, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Portable grinding machines, <a href="#Page_685">685</a><br /> +<br /> +Portal, Antoine, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Porthandling_charges" id="Porthandling_charges"></a>Porthandling charges<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Porthandling methods, U.S., <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Porter, David (Capt.), <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Porter, David D. (Admiral), <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Porter, Horace, Gen., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Porter & Co., W.J., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Porto Rico Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Porto Rico Planters' Protective Ass'n, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> +<br /> +Porto Ricos (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Posadas, J.Z., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Postman</i>, London, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a><br /> +<br /> +Postulart, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Pot and Kettle, The</i>, Lally, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Potter, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Potter, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Potter, Ellis M., <a href="#Page_498">498</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Potter & Parlin, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Potter Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Potter-Parlin Co., <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br /> +<br /> +Potter-Parlin Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Potter, Sloan, O'Donohue Co., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Pounding c., <a href="#Page_697">697</a>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a><br /> +<br /> +Poursine & Co., P., <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Poursini & Co., R., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Powdered (<a href="#Grinds"><i>see</i> Grinds</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Power, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Power-Chestnut method, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<br /> +Prado, Paulo da Silva, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Praedium Rusticum</i>, Vaniére, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Pratt, A.H., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Pratt, David S., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Preanger c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +Pregnancy, Effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Premium for early shipping (Santos), <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> +<br /> +Premium distribution, retail, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +Premiums, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arbuckle, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Prendergast Bros., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Prentiss & Page, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Prepared Coffee, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br /> +<br /> +Prescott, Prof. S.C., <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Preterre, Apoleoni P., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Price, William A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a><br /> +<br /> +Prices<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Advance notice of change, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Beverage</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">London, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1662), <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1677), <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blends, retail, U.S. (1922), <a href="#Page_722">722</a>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Green</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">American colonies, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Amsterdam (1810–12), <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">England (1719), <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York (1670), <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1683), <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1898), <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1903), <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1919), <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Netherlands (early), <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">United States</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Early, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1814), <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1880–93), <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1911), <a href="#Page_532">532</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1913), <a href="#Page_538">538</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">(1921), <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">War-time, <a href="#Page_536">536–538</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guaranteeing, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roasted</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New York (1791), <a href="#Page_492">492</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roasting (1885), <a href="#Page_509">509</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Prideaux, W.F., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Priest, William, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Primera (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_789" id="Page_789">[Pg 789]</a></span>Primero (grade), <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> +<br /> +Prims, J.C., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a><br /> +<br /> +Prior <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pritchard, George W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Pritchard & Sons, Geo. W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Private Estate (brand), <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Private estates<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Probst & Co., F., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Proceedings, Society of Antiquaries</i> (1889), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br /> +<br /> +Procope, François, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Proctor, Charles E., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Producing countries, leading, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +<br /> +Production<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Africa, British E., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">German E. (1913), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angola (1913), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentina, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1850), <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1887–1902), <a href="#Page_528">528–530</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1903, 1906), <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1906–07), <a href="#Page_534">534</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos passes Rio (1900–01), <a href="#Page_530">530</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cape Verde Islands (1916), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Celebes, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congo, Belgian, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dominican Republic, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ecuador, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eritrea (1918), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federated Malay States, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gold Coast, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guam, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guiana, British and French, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dutch, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Haiti, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honduras, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">British, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jamaica, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberia (1917), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Madagascar (1918), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Martinique, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mauritius, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nigeria, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nyasaland, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oaxaca (Mex.), <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panama, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philippines, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Réunion (Bourbon), <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sierra Leone, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Somali Coast (French), <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Somaliland (Fr. and It.), <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(British), <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Thomas and Princes I.'s, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uganda, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uruguay, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World (1883–1921), <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1901–02), <a href="#Page_531">531</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(Statistical Table), <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Production and Consumption, <a href="#Page_273">273–285</a><br /> +<br /> +Prohibition, U.S.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Effect on consumption, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Prolongation of Life</i>, Metchnikoff, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Propagation" id="Propagation"></a>Propagation<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuttings, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grafting, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Seeds, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Proteins in c., <a href="#Page_693">693</a>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dearth in beverage, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Provang, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Pruning, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angola, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Publick Adviser</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Public Ledger</i>, London, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a><br /> +<br /> +Publicity, National campaign, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Publishers' Information Bureau, <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Puerto Cabello c., <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +Puhl, John, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Puhl-Webb Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Pulp, uses, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<br /> +Pulping, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<br /> +Pulping machinery, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +<br /> +Puna c., <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Pupke, John F., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Pupke & Reid, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Pupke, Reid & Phelps, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Purcell, Alexander H., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Purcell, Joseph, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Purcell & Co., Alex. H., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Purser (artist), <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Purchas his pilgrimes</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Purchas, Samuel, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Purdy, L.J., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Pure_Food" id="Pure_Food"></a>Pure Food and Drugs Act, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs</i>, Hall, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Purity Dried Fruits Cleansing Co., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Purpurescens, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Pyriform c.-pot, <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br /> +<br /> +Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Qăhvăh, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Qahwah, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> +<br /> +Quadri, Giorgio, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Quakers (imperfections), <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> +<br /> +Quarry, Col., <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Queen Anne, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +Queen Mary, <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br /> +<br /> +Queensberry, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Quelle, Ralph J., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a><br /> +<br /> +Quick roast, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Quillou, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Quillouensis, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Quin, James, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Quinby & Co., W.S., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Quincy, Dr., <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Quotation relationship (table), <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br /> +<br /> +Quotations<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Daily, how determined, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foreign, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Rabaut, L.B., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Racine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Radcliffe, John, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Rainfall requirements, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<br /> +Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +<br /> +Rambaldi, Angelo, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Rameau's Nephew</i>, Diderot, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Ramos, Augusto, <a href="#Page_531">531</a><br /> +<br /> +Ramos, Francisco F., <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +Ramponaux, Jean, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Rand, George, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Randall, John, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Ranelagh (<a href="#Gardens"><i>see</i> Gardens</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Ransom, Amos, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Raparlier, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Rape of the lock</i>, Pope, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Rapid-filtration" id="Rapid-filtration"></a>Rapid-filtration devices<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">de Mattel's patent (1920), <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Express, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italiana Sovereign, L., <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">J. & S. (Still's), <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Victoria Arduino, La, (1909–20), <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Rapid-infusion" id="Rapid-infusion"></a>Rapid-infusion devices<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bezzara system, <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ideale, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Malthey-Zorn centrif., <a href="#Page_653">653</a>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rapid-percolation device<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loysel's hydrostatic, <a href="#Page_708">708</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rasch, Anthony, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Rasis ad Almans (<a href="#Rhazes"><i>see</i> Rhazes</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Rauwolf, Leonhard, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ray, John, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Ray & Co., Winthrop G., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Razi, El (<a href="#Rhazes"><i>see</i> Rhazes</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Ready and easy way to establish a free commonwealth</i>, Milton, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +Reamer, Sr., Abraham, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Reamer, Turner & Co., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Rebagging<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rebellious antidote (broadside), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Recipes, dessert's, etc., <a href="#Page_723">723</a>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br /> +<br /> +Reconditioning, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> +<br /> +Recovery, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +Red Can (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Red D Line, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Red E (brand), <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Red pottage, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Red Ribbon (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Reed, Charles, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Reed, Charles B., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Reed, Nathan, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> +<br /> +Reeve, Daniel, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Reeve & Van Riper, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Reeve, Case & Banks, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Re-exports<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States (1921), <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Refining device<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Johnston's patent (1913), <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Reichert, E.T., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Reid, Thomas, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a><br /> +<br /> +Reid & Co., Thomas, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Reid, Murdoch & Fischer, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Reiger, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Reimers & Meyer, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Religious associations<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christian, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mohammedan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Remi c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Remington, J.R., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br /> +<br /> +Remington, Mortimer, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> +<br /> +Remmer, Oscar, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Renan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Renovating, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +Renshaw, William, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +<br /> +Rentschler, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> +<br /> +Repassing machine, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> +<br /> +Research, Scientific<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brewing, comparative test, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dawson and Wetherill (1855), <a href="#Page_711">711</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Grinds, comparative test, <a href="#Page_716">716</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">University of Kansas, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mass. Inst. of Technology, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716–718</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mellon Institute, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.C.R.A., <a href="#Page_513">513–515</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>, <a href="#Page_713">713–718</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prescott, <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716–718</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Robison, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trigg, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Restaurants" id="Restaurants"></a>Restaurants<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A, B, C (chain), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brit. Tea Table Ass'n., <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buzard's cake house, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cabin, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Carlton, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corner Houses (chain), <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Express Dairy Co., <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Groom's, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lipton's, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lyons (chain), <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Peel's, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Slater's, <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Temple Bar, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Trust-houses, Ltd., <a href="#Page_675">675</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ye Mecca Co., <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Childs (chain), <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dorlon's, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thompson (chain), <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Restrepo, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Retailing, <a href="#Page_415">415–429</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blending, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Channels of distribution, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Retaliation</i>, Goldsmith, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Reuter-Jones Mfg. Co., <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Revere, Paul, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>, <a href="#Page_611">611</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>, <a href="#Page_613">613</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_790" id="Page_790">[Pg 790]</a></span>Revett, William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Revolution<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Revolution, C. and, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>See also</i> <a href="#Democracy">Democracy</a>: <a href="#Politics">Politics</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Rewards, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +Reynolds, J. B, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Reynolds, Sir Joshua, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Reynolds, Hatcher & Pierce, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Rhazes" id="Rhazes"></a>Rhazes, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_541">541</a><br /> +<br /> +Rheumatism, remedy, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Rhodes, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Rice, W.S., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Richards, Charles, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Richardson, Charles, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Richardson & Lane, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Richelieu, Duke of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Richheimer, I.D., <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Richter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Ricker, Harvey, <a href="#Page_701">701</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ridenour, Baker Gro. Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Riechelmann, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Ries, Maurice, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Riggs, J. H, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Riley, James Whitcomb, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a><br /> +<br /> +Rinehart & Stevens, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Rios (c.), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Ripley, D.C., <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Risley, Christopher, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Risley, Leander S., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Risley & Co., C., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a><br /> +<br /> +Rittenhouse, John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br /> +<br /> +Ritz, <a href="#Page_678">678</a><br /> +<br /> +Rivarol, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Rivers, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roach, Tiger, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Roasters<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baltimore, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston, <a href="#Page_501">501</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicago, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cleveland, <a href="#Page_507">507</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Detroit, <a href="#Page_508">508</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louisville, <a href="#Page_505">505</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milwaukee, <a href="#Page_506">506</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_505">505</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York (1790–94), <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1805–1922), <a href="#Page_492">492–501</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_501">501</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_507">507</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Louis, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Toledo, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Other cities, <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_492">492–509</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Dealers_Wholesale"><i>See also</i> Dealers, wholesale</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Roasting<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_658">658–662</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great Britain, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(18th century), <a href="#Page_695">695</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(19th century), <a href="#Page_704">704</a>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a>, <a href="#Page_707">707</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_679">679</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greece, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Zealand, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_709">709</a>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roasting, Chemistry of, <a href="#Page_165">165–167</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Roasting economies, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Roasting, Household<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decline of, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Devices</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Braziers, <a href="#Page_615">615</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clay dishes, <a href="#Page_615">615</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corn-poppers, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cylinder, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Earthenware, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Extemporized, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Glass flasks (Italy), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Iron dippers, spiders, <a href="#Page_616">616</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Metal plates, <a href="#Page_615">615</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stirrers (spatula), <a href="#Page_616">616</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Roasting_machinery" id="Roasting_machinery"></a>Roasting machinery, <a href="#Page_381">381–386</a>, <a href="#Page_615">615–654</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coal, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Development of, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Direct-flame, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#Page_678">678–680</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Glass cylinder, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gas, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640–643</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German (1860–1897), <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Imports from Gt. Brit., <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indirect-flame, <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inner-heated, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retail, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sample (France), <a href="#Page_679">679</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wholesale,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Burns, J.; improvements, <a href="#Page_634">634–637</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">French patents, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">German patent, first, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fullard's heated fresh air, <a href="#Page_643">643</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Steam-power, <a href="#Page_631">631</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roasting machines<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Household</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bernard's cylinder (1841), <a href="#Page_629">629</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bull's coal (1704), <a href="#Page_620">620</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elford's white iron (1660), <a href="#Page_616">616</a>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gee's (1852), <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Home (1908), <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hyde's combined (1862), <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ittel's glass sphere (1874), <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuhlemann's electric, <a href="#Page_648">648</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lacoux's combined, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lauzaune's cylinder (1829), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lauzaune's "rocking" (1873), <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lawton's perforated, gas (1912), <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lawton's quick gas (1912), <a href="#Page_651">651</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marchand's fan roaster (1866), <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Martin's cylinder (1860), <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preterre's weighing (1849), <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ransom's (1833), <a href="#Page_625">625</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Remington's wheel of buckets, <a href="#Page_633">633</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Savo (1917), <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schick's method (1812), <a href="#Page_623">623</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Williamson's (1820), <a href="#Page_624">624</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wood's spherical (1849), <a href="#Page_634">634</a>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retail</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lambert's 50-pound, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lester's electric (1903), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moegling's electric (1906), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sales promotion value, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Seymour's electric (1921), <a href="#Page_648">648</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">St. Louis, Jr., <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Talbutt's electric (1911), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Uno electric (1909–20), <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Warner's mill (1905), <a href="#Page_648">648</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sample roasting</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Burns, <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Improved (1883), <a href="#Page_645">645</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Swing-gate (1900), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Tilting (1909), <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wholesale, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arbuckle's first (1903), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Aromatic (electric power), <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Burns Balanced-front (1908), <a href="#Page_651">651</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Coal, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Direct-flame (1900), <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">First patent (1864), <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Special gas (1897), <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Carter Pull-out (1846), <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Combination (quick gas), <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Comet, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crawley patents, <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dakin (1848), <a href="#Page_633">633</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Delphine tubular (1870), <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Economic, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Evans cylindrical (1824), <a href="#Page_624">624</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Faulder, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First direct flame (U.S.), <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fleury gas (1880–81), <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fraser gas (1897–98), <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giacomini process (1903), <a href="#Page_648">648</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hamsley direct-flame (1898), <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Henneman direct-flame (1888), <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Holmes patent (1906), <a href="#Page_643">643</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hungerford patent (1882), <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hyde combined (1862), <a href="#Page_634">634</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ideal-Rapid, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Johnston patent (1905), <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jubilee (1915–19), <a href="#Page_643">643</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jumbo, <a href="#Page_522">522</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Knickerbocker, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Knowlys's cylinder (1848), <a href="#Page_633">633</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kuchelmeister drum, <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lambert indirect-flame (1901), <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Self-contained, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lambert (French), <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Magic, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marchand ball (1877), <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Meteor, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moderne, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Monitor direct-flame, <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Morewood sliding-burner (1901), <a href="#Page_642">642</a>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Muhlberg patents (1878), <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Otto spiral-tubular (1889), <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Page Pull-out (1868), <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pearson patents, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Perfekt, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Postulart gas (1888), <a href="#Page_640">640</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Potter direct-flame (1899), <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Probat, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rekord (quick gas), <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Resson, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal (1905), <a href="#Page_643">643</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schmidt patent (1906), <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Schnuck gas (1919), <a href="#Page_653">653</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shortt electric (1919), <a href="#Page_647">647</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sirocco, <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Thurmer quirk-gas (1891–93), <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tornado quick-gas, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tubermann (1877), <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tupholme direct-flame (1887), <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Typhoon, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Uno, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Van den Brouck cylinder, <a href="#Page_646">646</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">von Gumborn gas (1892), <a href="#Page_639">639</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Van Gulpen (1870), <a href="#Page_638">638</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roasting methods<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Automatic control, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Better C.-making com., <a href="#Page_713">713</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burns, Jabez; views on, <a href="#Page_636">636</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Butter; use in Gt. Brit., <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early, <a href="#Page_694">694</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electric, <a href="#Page_386">386</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Goldsworthy's process, <a href="#Page_702">702</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lard; use in Gt. Brit., <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Natural gas, <a href="#Page_642">642</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Quick <i>vs.</i> slow, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roasting plants<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_679">679</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arbuckle, <a href="#Page_524">524</a>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First and second, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Number (1914–1919), <a href="#Page_515">515</a>, <a href="#Page_516">516</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Early (1790–95), <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Number (1855–56), <a href="#Page_496">496</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roasting trade<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_678">678</a>, <a href="#Page_679">679</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italy, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_379">379–406</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491–515</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beginning of, <a href="#Page_522">522</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Methods and prices (1845), <a href="#Page_635">635</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Retail, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">St. Louis (1857), <a href="#Page_629">629–633</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roasts, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian preferences, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">British preferences, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French preferences, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek preferences, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian preferences, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roberts, Mrs., <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Robertson, Joseph C., <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Robespierre, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Robinson Crusoe</i>, Defoe, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<br /> +Robinson, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Robinson, Edward Forbes, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Robinson, Tanered, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Robinson & Co., N., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Robison, Floyd W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Robusta, C.</i><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botanical description, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cup-tests, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_791" id="Page_791">[Pg 791]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">India, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indo-China, French, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands E. Indies, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Caledonia, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, Exchange excludes, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Trees; height (Java), <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">yield (Java), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uganda, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, imports, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Varieties, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Robusta-achtigen</i> (robusta-like), <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Robusta</i> hybrid (Ceylon), <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Robusta</i> × <i>Maragogipe</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Rochester, Earl of, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Rodney, William, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Roe, Sir T., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Roettier, John, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Rogers, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<br /> +Rolamb, Nicholas, <i>q.</i> <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> +<br /> +Rollins, Thornton, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Romance of Trade</i>, Bourne, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> +<br /> +Romero, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<br /> +Ronan, James, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Roodbessige, C.</i> (Java), <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<br /> +Roome, Luke, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Roome, William P., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Roome & Co., William P., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Rooney, John, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Roosevelt family, <a href="#Page_690">690</a><br /> +<br /> +Ropes, Joseph, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<br /> +Ropes, Ripley, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Roque, P. de la, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Rosary, The</i>, Barclay, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Rosebault, Charles J., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a><br /> +<br /> +Roseburg, William, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_522">522</a><br /> +<br /> +Rosée, Pasqua, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Handbill, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Roselius, Ludwig, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Ross, C.J., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> +<br /> +Rossbach & Bro., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Rosseau, Jean Baptiste, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Rosseter, J.H., <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> +<br /> +Rossi, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Rossignon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_707">707</a><br /> +<br /> +Rossini, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +Rota (<a href="#Clubs"><i>see</i> Clubs</a>, <a href="#Coffee_houses">C.-house</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Roth, <a href="#Page_510">510</a><br /> +<br /> +Roth Grocery Co., Adam, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Rothschilds, <a href="#Page_531">531</a><br /> +<br /> +Roubiliac, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Rouch, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br /> +<br /> +Roure, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Rousseau, Baron Antoine, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br /> +<br /> +Rousseau, J.J., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Routh, Harold, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a><br /> +<br /> +Rowland, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Rowland, Helen, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Rowland & Humphreys, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Rowland, Humphreys & Co., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Rowland, Terry & Humphreys, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Rowlandson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Rowley, Levi, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Roxbury "hourlies", <a href="#Page_10">10</a><br /> +<br /> +Royal Exchange Lloyd's, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +Royal Exchange (London), <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +Royal Exchange (New York, 1752), <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Royal Scarlet (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Royal Society, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Royal, Thomas M., <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Rubia Mills, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Ruffio, P.A., <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Ruffner, W.R., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Rule & Bro., Robert J., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Ruliff, Clark & Co., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Rulings (U.S.), <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Rumford" id="Rumford"></a>Rumford, Count, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rumsey, Walter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Runkle & Co., J.C., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Rupert, Prince, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> +<br /> +Russell, Edward C., <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Russell, Frank C., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Russell, Robert, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Russell, Robert S., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Russell & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Russell & Fessenden, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Ruth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> +<br /> +Ruth, Sylvester, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Rutter & Co., Thomas, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Ryan & Co., James, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Saccharin in c., <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Saffron in c., <a href="#Page_660">660</a><br /> +<br /> +Saint-Foix, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +Saint-Victor, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Salaman, Malcolm C., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br /> +<br /> +Salant, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Salazar, Alfredo M., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +Salazar c., <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Sales by candle, <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br /> +<br /> +Salesmanship, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br /> +<br /> +Sales promotion<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retail, <a href="#Page_423">423–426</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wholesale, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Saltero, Don, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a><br /> +<br /> +Saltus, Francis S., <a href="#Page_541">541</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Salvadors (c.), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br /> +<br /> +Salvandy, Narcisse-Achille, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +Samoa c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Sample distribution, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +Samplers (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> +<br /> +Sampling<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sanani c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Sanborn, Chas. E., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Sanborn, James S., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Sandys, Sir George, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sandys's Travels</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Sand, George, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Sanger, Abraham, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Sanger, Beers & Fisher, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Sanger & Wells, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Ana c., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Cecilia, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Santo Domingos (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Santos c., <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Saportas Bros., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Saturday Evening Post</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Sauvage c., <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> +<br /> +Savage, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Savage, George E., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Savage, Richard, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br /> +<br /> +Saxe, Marshall, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /> +<br /> +Saxon Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Sayre, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Schadheli" id="Schadheli"></a>Schadheli, Sheik, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<br /> +Schaefer, Henry, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Schaefer, J.H., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Schams, Franz, <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br /> +<br /> +Schanne, Alexandre, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Scharf, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Schemsi, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br /> +<br /> +Scheuzer, J.J., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Schick, Anthony, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a><br /> +<br /> +Schierenberg, A., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Schilling, A., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Schilling & Co., A., <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Schipano, Mario, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +Schittenhelm, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Schmelzel, James H., <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Schmidt, C., <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Schmidt, Francisco, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> +<br /> +Schmidt, Ludwig, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Schmidt & Ziegler, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Schmiedeberg, Dr. Oswald, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Schnuck, Edward F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +Schnull & Krag, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Schoepffwasser, Lorentz, <i>pseud.</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<br /> +School of Oratory, Macklin's, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Schools, information for, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Schools of the wise, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten, Christian, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten, Hubertus, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten, Jerome J., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten, Julius J., <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten, William, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten & Bro., William, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten & Co., Wm., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Schotten Coffee Co., Wm., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Schramm, Arnold, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Schramm, Inc., Arnold, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Schroeder, Bruno, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +Schroeder & Co., J. Henry, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +Schuler, John G., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Schulte, A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<br /> +Schultz & Ruckgaber, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Schultze, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Schumaniana, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Schumberg, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Schürhoff, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Schurtzkwer, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Schwartz, Joseph M., <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +Schwartz Bros., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Schweitzer & Co., M., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Scialdi, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<br /> +Scolfield, Henry, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott, Andrew, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott, Edwin, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott, Sir Walter, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott, William, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott & Dash, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott & Meiser, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott & Sons, William, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott, Dash & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott, Meiser & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Scott's Sons & Co., William, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Scotty, C. (chef), <a href="#Page_691">691</a><br /> +<br /> +Scriba, Schroppel & Starmen, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Scribner's Magazine</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br /> +<br /> +Scudder, Gale Gro. Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Scull, William S., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Scull & Co., W.S., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Scull Co., William S., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Sculpture, C. in, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br /> +<br /> +Seal (brand), <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +Secchi, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Seelye, Frank R., <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Segundo (grade), <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> +<br /> +Seidell, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Seifert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Selby, Thomas, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Selden, David, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Seligsberg, Louis, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Selim I, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Selling chart, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br /> +<br /> +Semarang c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +Sencial, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> +<br /> +Sené, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sense of Taste, The</i>, Hollingworth and Poffenberger, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a><br /> +<br /> +Separating machinery, <a href="#Page_383">383</a><br /> +<br /> +Sephton, Geoffrey, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Service" id="Service"></a>Service, C., <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_658">658–663</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Artistic and historic, <a href="#Page_599">599–614</a>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Britannia ware, etc., <a href="#Page_619">619</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clay bowls, first, <a href="#Page_616">616</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">English, c.-pots (1714–70), <a href="#Page_620">620</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lantern c.-pots, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sèvres c.-pots, <a href="#Page_607">607</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sheffield-plate c.-pots, <a href="#Page_607">607</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Silver c.-pots (18th cent.), <a href="#Page_619">619</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sino-Lowestoft c.-pot, <a href="#Page_607">607</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London cafés and restaurants, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oriental c.-pots, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York hotels, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paris (Pascal's, 1672), <a href="#Page_619">619</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turkish, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Seven Truths to Teach the Young in Regard to Life and Sex</i>, Abbey, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Sèvres c.-pots, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Seymour, Mark T., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a><br /> +<br /> +Shade, C.-growing under, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guam, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hawaii, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Requirements, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Shadli, Shaomer (<a href="#Schadheli"><i>see</i> Schadheli</a>), <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Shami c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Shapleigh Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Sharki c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Shaw, Daniel A., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Shaw, John W., <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Shaw, William, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Shaw's Louisiana Coffee and Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheaff, Henry, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheffield plate c.-pots, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheldon, Henry, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheldon & Co., Henry, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheldon Banks & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Shemsi, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br /> +<br /> +Shenstone, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Shephard, Fleetwood, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Shepherd, T.H., <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheppard, Alexander, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_792" id="Page_792">[Pg 792]</a></span>Sheppard & Sons, Inc., Alex., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherbet, <a href="#Page_562">562</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London c. houses sell, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sherif-Eddin-Omar-ben-Faredh, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherley, Sir Anthony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, Fred, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, Fred T., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, Henry B., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, Lewis, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, Jr., Lewis, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, Milo P., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, S.S., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, William, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, William H., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, William M., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman, William T. (Gen.), <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman & Taylor, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Sherman Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Shewbert" id="Shewbert"></a>Shewbert, John, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Shewbert, Mrs., <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Shields & Boucher, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Shihâb-ad-Dîn manuscript, <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br /> +<br /> +Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co., <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Shipping Board, U.S., <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Shipping c., <a href="#Page_312">312–327</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">American vessels, <a href="#Page_515">515</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Iron steamships (1868), <a href="#Page_476">476</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Longest voyage, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Time-table, port to port, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Shipping ports, principal, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> +<br /> +Shope, W.C., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Shortt, Everett T., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Shrinkage, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roasting, <a href="#Page_388">388</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Table (green c.), <a href="#Page_393">393</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Shubert (<a href="#Shewbert"><i>see</i> Shewbert</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Sias, Charles D., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Siddons, Mrs., <a href="#Page_569">569</a><br /> +<br /> +Siegfried, John C., <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Siegfried & Brandenstein, <a href="#Page_505">505</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Siegman, John G., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Sielcken, Hermann, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_518">518</a>, <a href="#Page_519">519</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_517">517</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Valorization, <a href="#Page_530">530–534</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Woolson Spice Co., <a href="#Page_506">506</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sielcken, Hermann (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_518">518</a><br /> +<br /> +Sielcken-Crossman contract, <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Sierra c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br /> +<br /> +Signs, Coffee-house<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bowman's, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Morat (Amurath), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rosée's, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Soliman, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">King's Arms, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Signs, Grocers'<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lowell, Ebenezer (New York), <a href="#Page_467">467</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Richards, Smith (New York), <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Silver c.-pots, <a href="#Page_619">619</a><br /> +<br /> +Silver skin, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> +<br /> +Silversmiths, American, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Silversmiths Society, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Simmonds, W. Lee, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Simmonds & Bayne, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Simmonds & Co., H., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Simmonds & Co., W. Lee, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Simmonds & Newton, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Simon, Jr., M., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Simonds H., <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Sinclair, Evans & Elliot, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Singleton, Esther, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a><br /> +<br /> +Sinnot, J.B., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Sino-Lowestoft c.-pot, <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br /> +<br /> +Sion & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sir Antoine Shirlies Trauelles</i>, Parry, <i>q.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Sirups (<a href="#Syrups"><i>see</i> Syrups</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Sizing (<a href="#Grading"><i>see</i> Grading</a>), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Skiddy, Francis, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Skiddy, Minford & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a><br /> +<br /> +Skinner, Cyriac, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> +<br /> +"Skyscraper" coffee house, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> +<br /> +Slacks, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> +<br /> +Slave auctions, Phila., <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> +<br /> +Slemmons & Conkling, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Sloane, Sir Hans, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Sloss, Robert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a><br /> +<br /> +Slow roast, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br /> +<br /> +Small, C.K., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Small, John, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Small Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Smalls & Bacon, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Smart, Joseph F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Adam, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Clarence <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Daniel, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Frank, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, George H., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, John (Capt.), <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>,;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Smith, John Thomas, <a href="#Page_583">583</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_569">569</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Michael E., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Mrs., <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Nathaniel, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Robert, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Robert A., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, Sidney, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, William T., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith, William V.R., <a href="#Page_523">523</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & Co., D., <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & Co., Thomas, <a href="#Page_700">700</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & Curtis, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & McKenna, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & McNell, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & Schipper, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & Son, Robert, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & Son, Thomas, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith & Sons, Robert, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith Bros., <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith Bros. & Co. Ltd., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith's Sons, M.V.R., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Smith's Sons, Robert, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Smoke screens (Guatemala), <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> +<br /> +Smollett, <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br /> +<br /> +Smooth (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Smout, Jules, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<br /> +Smyser, Henry L., <a href="#Page_523">523</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sobieranski, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Sobieski, King John, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Sociedade Promotora da Defesa do Café, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> +<br /> +Société de Café Soluble Belna, <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Société Generale, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +Society of Antiquaries, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br /> +<br /> +Society of the Friends of Music, <a href="#Page_597">597</a><br /> +<br /> +Soda fountains, <a href="#Page_689">689</a><br /> +<br /> +Soils<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Australia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Best, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Costa Rica, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Federated Malay States, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Soliman Aga, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +Soliman the Great, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +<br /> +Sollmann, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +<br /> +Soluble coffee, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brands, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">History of, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kato's patent, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Processes, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. Army war needs, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Washington's patent, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Soluble Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_539">539</a><br /> +<br /> +Somers, A.L., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Songs of Brittany</i>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br /> +<br /> +Sons of Liberty, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<br /> +Sorenson, John S., <a href="#Page_520">520</a><br /> +<br /> +Sorenson & Nielson, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_520">520</a><br /> +<br /> +Sorley, William, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Sorting machinery, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Sorver, Damon & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Soulie, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Soup, Coffee, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Sour (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +South Sea bubble, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Southern boom (1904), <a href="#Page_530">530</a><br /> +<br /> +Southern Coffee Mills, Inc., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Southern Coffee Polishing Mills, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Southern Cross, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Southern Pacific Co., <a href="#Page_489">489</a><br /> +<br /> +Souvestre, Emile, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Spatula (<a href="#Roasting_machinery"><i>see</i> Roasting machinery</a>), <a href="#Page_616">616</a><br /> +<br /> +Specialty stores, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Spectator</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Spencer, G.L., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Sperry Flour Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Spice Mill</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Spice-Mill Companion</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br /> +<br /> +Splitting nickels, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br /> +<br /> +Spot brokers, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +Spot of leaf and fruit (<a href="#Diseases_and_pests"><i>see</i> Diseases</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Spot Market, New York, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br /> +<br /> +Spot quotation committee (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague, Albert A., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague, Irvin A., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague, O.S.A., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague & Rhodes, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague & Stetson, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague & Warner, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague, Warner & Co., <a href="#Page_483">483</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Sprague, Warner & Griswold, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Spreckels & Bros. Co., J.D., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Spring Garden Iron Works, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br /> +<br /> +Spruce, Richard, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<br /> +Squier, George L., <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Squier Mfg. Co., Geo. L., <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a><br /> +<br /> +St. Germain's Fair (<a href="#Coffee_houses"><i>see</i> Coffee houses, Paris</a>)<br /> +<br /> +St. Serf, Thomas, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Stachan, John, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> +<br /> +Stacie, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_581">581</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Stadium (circus), New York, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +<br /> +Stage coaches, Boston, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Stamp Act (1765), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> +<br /> +Stamps, Trading, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +Stanton, Sheldon & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Star Coffee and Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Star</i>, London, <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Star Mills, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Starhemberg, Rudiger von, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +State of São Paulo Pure C. Co. Ltd., <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Statistical Abstract, U.S.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br /> +<br /> +Statue of Kolschitzky, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br /> +<br /> +Steam power for roasting, <a href="#Page_631">631</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Steel-cut, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Baker-Duncombe suit, <a href="#Page_649">649</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Steele, Mrs., <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<br /> +Steele, Sir Richard, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Steele & Co., E.L.G.S., <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Steele & Emery, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Steele & Price, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Steele, Wedeles Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Steele-Wedeles Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Steeping, <a href="#Page_720">720</a><br /> +<br /> +Ste.-Foix, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Steinwender, Julius, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Steinwender, Stoffregen, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co., <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Steinwender, Stoffregen Co., <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Stella (Esther Vanhomrigh), <a href="#Page_562">562</a><br /> +<br /> +Stenhouse, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Stenophylla, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botanical description, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Stenophylla</i> × <i>Abeokutæ</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Stenophylla Paris, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Stephen, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<br /> +Stephens, Alvan, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Stephens, Henry A., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Stephens Samuel R., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Stephens & Co., A., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Stephens & Sons, A., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Stephens & Widlar, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Steppe, J.P., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Sterility, C. and, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br /> +<br /> +Sternau, Sigmund, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Sternau & Co., S., <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Sterne, Richard, <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br /> +<br /> +Stetson, Z.B., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Stevens, Alfred, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +Stevens, Henry B., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Stevens, W. & S., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Stevens & Armstrong, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Stevens, Armstrong & Hartshorn, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Stevens Bros. & Co., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Stewart, C.H., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br /> +<br /> +Stewart, James, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Stewart, Robert C., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Stewart & Co., C.M., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Stewart & Co., R.C., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Stewart & Walker, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Stickney & Poor, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_793" id="Page_793">[Pg 793]</a></span>Still & Sons, W.M., <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a><br /> +<br /> +Stillman, Abel, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br /> +<br /> +Stiner & Co., Joseph, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br /> +<br /> +Stitt, William J., <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Stitt & Co., W.J., <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Stock Exchange, New York, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Stofffregen, Carl H., <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Stokes, John, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> +<br /> +Stoning machinery, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a><br /> +<br /> +Storage<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havre, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santos, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Storia di Venezia nella Vita Privata, La</i>, Molmenti, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +Storm, Walter, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Storm, Smith & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Story, Rufus G., <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Story & Co., R.G., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Story-tellers in c. houses, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a><br /> +<br /> +Stoufs, Joseph, <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br /> +<br /> +Stowe, Orson W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Strassberger, L., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Straus, Oscar, <a href="#Page_672">672</a><br /> +<br /> +Strauss & Sons, L., <a href="#Page_518">518</a><br /> +<br /> +Street brokers, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +Stringer, Mary, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +Strong, Joseph, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Strowbridge, Turner, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Stuart, Alexander, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Stump, Aug., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Stumpp & Co., August, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Suakurensis, C.</i> (Java), <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<br /> +Substitute, C., advertising, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Charts, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Substitute-fakers, <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br /> +<br /> +Substitutes, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Barley, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Betony, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bocket, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cereal (harmful to diabetics), <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chicory, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Corn, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Figs, dried, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russia, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Saloop (sassafras and sugar), <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States (1st patent), <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wheat, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Succory (<a href="#Chicory"><i>see</i> Chicory</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Succop & Lips, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Sucrose, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Suess-Oppenheimer, Joseph, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Sugar in c., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cairo (first use, 1625), <a href="#Page_657">657</a>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Consumption (U.S.), <a href="#Page_689">689</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great Britain (17th cent.), <a href="#Page_696">696</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greece, <a href="#Page_685">685</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">North America, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sugar of c., <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Sugar Trust fight, <a href="#Page_521">521–523</a><br /> +<br /> +Sullivan, Luke, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Sully, D.J., <a href="#Page_530">530</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Sultan, Café, <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br /> +<br /> +Sultane, Café, <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br /> +<br /> +Sumatras (c.), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370–372</a><br /> +<br /> +Sumerling & Co., <a href="#Page_674">674</a><br /> +<br /> +Sun, London, <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sun</i>, New York, <i>newsp.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sunshine</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Sutton & Vansant, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Swain, Earle & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Swaythling, Lord, <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br /> +<br /> +Swazey, S.L., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Sweated c., <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Artificial (U.S. rulings), <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sailing vessels, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sweeney, John, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Sweet (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Sweet c.'s, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> +<br /> +Sweet-bitter c.'s, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> +<br /> +Swett, E.H., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Swift, Jonathan, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_577">577</a>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Swift & Co., H.H., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Swift, Billings & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Sylva Sylvarum</i>, Bacon, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Syndicates<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arnold-Dash-Kimball, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German Trading Co., <a href="#Page_528">528</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Syria, The Holy Land</i>, Carne, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668–670</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Syrups" id="Syrups"></a>Syrups, Coffee; recipe for, <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br /> +<br /> +Szekacs, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Szyszka, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Tabasco c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Taber & Place, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Table, The</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Table Traits</i>, Doran, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_705">705</a><br /> +<br /> +Tachiras (c.), <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Tackaberry, William, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Tackaberry Co., Wm., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Taine, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Talbot, Winslow & Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Talbutt, Robert H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Talleyrand, Prince, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tampico c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br /> +<br /> +Tannin, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a><br /> +<br /> +Tapachula c., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +Tapperi, David, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +Tapping hands (Arabia), <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Tatler</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tatlock, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> +<br /> +Tavernier, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Taverns" id="Taverns"></a>Taverns<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boston</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blue Anchor (inn), <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bunch of Grapes, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cole's (Inn), <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Green Dragon, <a href="#Page_613">613</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Indian Queen, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">King's Head, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ship, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sun, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Red Lyon (inn), <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">London</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Barn, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Golden, <a href="#Page_583">583</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Locket's Ordinary, <a href="#Page_569">569</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mermaid, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rose, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shakespeare's Head, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Atlantic Garden House, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Black Horse, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fighting Cocks, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fraunces', <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Jamaica Pilot Boat, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">King's Head, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Queen's Head, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">White Lion, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Blue Anchor (first), <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">City, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Globe (inn), <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">New, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Smith's, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Taxation<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England (1714), <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal monopoly (1781), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Porto Rico (exemptions), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">São Paulo (valorization), <a href="#Page_534">534</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Turkey, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Duties"><i>See also</i> Duties</a>; <a href="#Fines">Fines</a>; <a href="#Licenses">Licenses</a>; <a href="#Pure_Food">Pure food</a>, etc.)</span><br /> +<br /> +Taylor, C.K., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Taylor, James H., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Taylor, John, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Taylor, William, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Taylor & Co., James H., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Taylor & Co., Moses, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Taylor & Levering, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Tea, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Action in stomach, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American colonies</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Introduction, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stamp act (1765) increases consumption, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Smuggled from Netherlands, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Antiquity, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Canada, <a href="#Page_687">687</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Discovery, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Great Britain</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consumption compared with c., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First sold in London (1657), <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Imports (1700–57), <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Introduced at Court, <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">National beverage, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Preferred to c., <a href="#Page_674">674</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prices (1662, 1714), <a href="#Page_582">582</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sold in c. houses, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Taxation, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eulogized by Mosely, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Johnson, Sam'l, <a href="#Page_568">568</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe (first used, 1610), <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Literary stimulus, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mental efficiency, Effect on, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philadelphia (introduction), <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Russia, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consumption per capita (1783), <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Consump. comp. with c., <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Imports (1783), <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Laws affecting, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tea and coffee pots, <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i>, <i>per.</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a>, <a href="#Page_679">679</a>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a>, <a href="#Page_720">720</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Begins publication (1901), <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ukers assumes editorship (1904), <a href="#Page_527">527</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Urges nat'l organization of roasters, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tea gardens (<a href="#Gardens"><i>see</i> Gardens</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Tea party (<a href="#Boston_tea_party"><i>see</i> Boston</a>; <a href="#New_York">New York</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Tea-rooms (London), <a href="#Page_675">675</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br /> +<br /> +Teeth, Effects of c. on, <a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> +<br /> +Tegals (<i>c.</i>), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +T'eh (tea), <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +Teixelra, Pedro, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Telephone in retail stores, <a href="#Page_424">424</a><br /> +<br /> +Tellicherry c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +Temperance, C. and, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +<br /> +Tennent, Robert Bowman, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Terminology, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Terms and credits, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513–515</a><br /> +<br /> +Terms and discounts (Brazil), <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br /> +<br /> +Terry, Edward, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Testing (France), <a href="#Page_679">679</a>, <a href="#Page_680">680</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Text Book of Physiology</i>, Flint, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Teyssonnier, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Thackeray, W.M., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Thannhauser & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Thayer, Byron T., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Theatrum botanicum</i>, Parkinson, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Thebaud, Joseph, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Thein, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +Theobromin, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Therapeutic Gazette</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br /> +<br /> +Thery, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Thévenot, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomas, C., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomas, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomas, Gov., <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomas, R.G., <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomas Co., R.G., <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomas & Son, J.W., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomas & Turner, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson, Benjamin, <i>inv.</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Rumford"><i>See also</i> Rumford</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Thompson, Dr., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson, James, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson, James Henry, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson, Patience, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson, W.D., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson & Bowers, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson & Davis, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson Bros., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson Co., J. Walter, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> +<br /> +Thompson, Shortridge & Co., <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomsen & Co., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomson, A.M., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomson, James, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomson, James (poet), <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomson, A.M. & James, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_794" id="Page_794">[Pg 794]</a></span>Thomson & Taylor, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomson & Taylor Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Thomson & Taylor Spice Co., <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Thorn, A.B., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Thornley, Jesse, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Thornley & Bro., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Thornley & Ryan, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Thornton, Richard J., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Thornton, Richard J. (Mrs.), <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Thornton & Co., R.J., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Thornton & Hawkins, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Thorpe, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Thousand and One Nights</i> (<a href="#Arabian_Nights"><i>see Arabian Nights</i></a>)<br /> +<br /> +<i>Three Reigns of Nature</i>, Delille, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_547">547</a><br /> +<br /> +Thum, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /> +<br /> +Thumb-piece on English c. pots, <a href="#Page_620">620</a><br /> +<br /> +Thurber, A.D., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Thurber, Francis B., <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Thurber, H.K., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Thurber & Co., H.K., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Thurber & Co., H.K. & F.B., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Thurlow, Lord, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Thurmer, Max, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br /> +<br /> +Tibiriçá, Jorge, <a href="#Page_531">531</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Times</i>, London, <i>newsp.</i> <a href="#Page_585">585</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Times</i>, New York, <i>newsp.</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a><br /> +<br /> +Tilloch, Dr., <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br /> +<br /> +Tillyard, Arthur, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Timbs, John, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570–585</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Timby, <i>pat.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> +<br /> +Timor c., <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br /> +<br /> +Tinned coffee (Great Britain), <a href="#Page_673">673</a><br /> +<br /> +Tinney, Henry C., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Tipping, origin of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> +<br /> +To arrive, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tobacco<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In c. houses, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intoxication, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Todd, Robert, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> +<br /> +Togami, K., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Toledo & Co., Filipe S., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Tolimas (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +Tolman Co., J.A., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Tomkyns, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Toms, G.W., <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Tone, Isaac E., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Tone, Jay E., <a href="#Page_508">508</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Tone, Jekiel, <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Tone, W.E., <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a><br /> +<br /> +Tone Bros., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Tonkin c., <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br /> +<br /> +Tonti, Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Torner, Richard, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Torro & Co., Louis M., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Totten & Bro., W.W., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Touches, Vicomte des, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +Tovars (c.), <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Town Eclogues</i>, Montagu, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br /> +<br /> +Townsend, <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Tractors, electric (Bush Co.), <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> +<br /> +Tracy & Avery Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Trade<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_485">485–487</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Overproduction disturbs (1898), <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_487">487–491</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shifting currents, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_475">475–515</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">(1921), <a href="#Page_299">299–302</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Aden and, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brazil and, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">Tariff preferentials, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Booms, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Central Am. and, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chronological review, <a href="#Page_467">467–474</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Colombia and, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Development (1865–1922), <a href="#Page_297">297–299</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mexico and, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Netherlands E. Ind. and, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Panic (1880), <a href="#Page_470">470</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venezuela and, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">West Indies and, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Trade and Statistics Committee (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> +<br /> +Trade Marks, U.S., <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Trade names of c.'s (<a href="#Characteristics"><i>see</i> Characteristics</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Trading, <a href="#Page_291">291–302</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amsterdam (1640), <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe, <a href="#Page_327">327–340</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germany (begins 1670), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havre, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Netherlands, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">First cargo sold (1640), <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York (early), <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. rulings, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco and Central Am., <a href="#Page_325">325</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sweden (begins 1674), <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Trading stamps, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +Traffic Assn. of St. Louis Coffee Importers (1910), <a href="#Page_510">510</a><br /> +<br /> +Trafton, C.K., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, etc.</i>, Dufour, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +Transhipping ports, Europe, <a href="#Page_289">289</a><br /> +<br /> +Transportation, Inland<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bolivia, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Central America, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Transportation, Seven stages of, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br /> +<br /> +Travancore c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Travels</i>, Herbert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Travels</i>, Rauwolf, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Travels</i>, Teixeira, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Travels and Adventure</i>, Smith, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Travels in Arabia Deserts</i>, Daughty, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Travels in India and Persia</i>, Della Valle, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Travels of Certayne Englishmen, etc., The</i>, Biddulph, <i>q.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> +<br /> +Travers & Son, Joseph, <a href="#Page_445">445</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Treatise in Latin</i>, Meisner, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Treatise on Modern Stimulants</i>, Balzac, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br /> +<br /> +Tree, Coffee<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Age, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Salvador, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemistry of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Height, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indigenous to Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Origin, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wood, uses for, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yield, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bolivia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">São Paulo, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Trees, Coffee<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Number of</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brazil, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ecuador, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Indo-China, French, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pernambuco, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">São Paulo, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Number to acre, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Colombia, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Haiti, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Venezuela, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tremont Coffee & Spice Mills, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Trentman & Bro., C.A., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Trentman & Son, B., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Triage (grade), <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Tribune</i>, New York, <i>newsp.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a><br /> +<br /> +Tricolator, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_701">701</a><br /> +<br /> +Tricolette, <a href="#Page_654">654</a><br /> +<br /> +Triers, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Trigg, C.W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_718">718–722</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Trillado (grade), <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> +<br /> +Trillo (grade), <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> +<br /> +Trinidad c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Triumph of C.</i>, Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Troemner, Henry, <a href="#Page_646">646</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>True Way of Making and Preparing C.</i>, Broadbent, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a><br /> +<br /> +Trujillos (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Trusdell & Phelps, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +"Truth in advertising" movement, <a href="#Page_435">435</a><br /> +<br /> +Truxtun, Scott, <a href="#Page_444">444</a><br /> +<br /> +Tubermann's Son, G., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a><br /> +<br /> +Tupholme, Beeston, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br /> +<br /> +Turguenieff, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> +<br /> +Turkey gruel, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<br /> +Turkish ewer, <a href="#Page_602">602</a>, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br /> +<br /> +Turkish pocket cylinder mill, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a><br /> +<br /> +Turner, A., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Turner, Robert, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Turner (or Torner) Richard, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br /> +<br /> +Turner, William F., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Tussac, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Twitchell, Champlin & Co., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Tyler, George C., <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br /> +<br /> +Tyler, Henry D., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Typhoid fever, Effects of c. on, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Typografia Pizzolato, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Uganda c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ugandæ</i>, <i>C.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Java, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Ungandae</i> × <i>Congensis</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Ukers, William H., <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br /> +<br /> +Ulman, Lewis & Co., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Umber, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Union Bag & Paper Corp., <a href="#Page_472">472</a><br /> +<br /> +Union Coffee Co., <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Union Pacific Tea Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Universal history of plants</i>, Ray, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +University of Kansas, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<br /> +University of Pittsburgh, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br /> +<br /> +Unloading, <a href="#Page_317">317–327</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_323">323–325</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, <a href="#Page_317">317–323</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_325">325–327</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Unloading machinery, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a><br /> +<br /> +Uno Co., Ltd., <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br /> +<br /> +Untermeyer, Louis, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a><br /> +<br /> +Urioste & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Urruella & Urioste, <a href="#Page_487">487</a><br /> +<br /> +Urwin, William, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>U.S. Dispensatory</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> +<br /> +Uses for c., New, <a href="#Page_457">457</a><br /> +<br /> +Utter, J.W., <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Utter, Adams & Ellen, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Vacuum-packed c., <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<a href="#Containers"><i>see also</i> Containers</a>)</span><br /> +<br /> +Vacuum-packing, Effect of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br /> +<br /> +Valentijn, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<br /> +Valorization (Brazil), <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_530">530–534</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">N.C.R.A., <a href="#Page_511">511</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Norris, Senator, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">São Paulo, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Surtax, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sielcken, H., <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531–534</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">U.S. gov't action, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Van Cortlandt museum, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Dam, Anthony, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Van dan Broeck, Pieter, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +Van den Bosch, Gov., <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Dessel, Rodo & Co., <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Essen, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Etten, E., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Gulpen, Alexius, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Gulpen & Co., <a href="#Page_638">638</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Gulpen, Lensing & von Gimborn, <a href="#Page_638">638</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Linschooten, Hans Hugo (John Huygen), <i>q.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Loan, Thomas, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Loan & Co., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffney, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Loo, <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Ommen, Adrian, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Ostade, Adriaen, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_587">587</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Outshoorn, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Vliet, C.W., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Van Zandt & Co., M.N., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Vancouver, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> +<br /> +Vanderhoef, George W., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Vanderhoef & Co., George W., <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Vanderweyde, P.H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br /> +<br /> +Vane, Gov., <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Vanessa (<a href="#Vanhomrigh"><i>see</i> Vanhomrigh</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_795" id="Page_795">[Pg 795]</a></span><a name="Vanhomrigh" id="Vanhomrigh"></a>Vanhomrigh, Esther, <a href="#Page_562">562</a><br /> +<br /> +Vaniére, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Vankorn, Guggenheimer & Co., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Vardy, James, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Variegata, C.</i>, <i>hyb.</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> +<br /> +Varnar, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +Vassieux, Madame, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_700">700</a><br /> +<br /> +Vatel, Charles, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br /> +<br /> +Vaughn, V.C., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> +<br /> +Vauxhall garden, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<br /> +Velloni, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<br /> +Venard, G., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Venetian Republic, The</i>, Hazlitt, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<br /> +Venezuelas (c.), <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br /> +<br /> +Verborg, Henry, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Verdier & Closset, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Verlaine, Paul, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Verri, Alexander, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Verri, Pietro, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Vertu and use of c.</i>, Bradley, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +Vesling (Veslingius), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Vickers. T.L., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Victoria Arduino-Societa Anonima, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Victorias (c.), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Vie privée d'autrefois, La</i>, Franklin, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Viehoever, A., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Vienna<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Besieged by Turks (1693), <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Coffee-makers' guild, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Vienna, Relation of the siege of</i>, Vulcaren, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +Villon, François, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> +<br /> +Vilain, <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br /> +<br /> +Vincent c.-pot, <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br /> +<br /> +Vintschgau, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Virey, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<br /> +Virgil, <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br /> +<br /> +Visconti, <a href="#Page_558">558</a><br /> +<br /> +Vitamins, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Vitamines, The</i>, Funk, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Viviani, Count, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br /> +<br /> +Voit, Carl V., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Volkman, George, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Voltaire, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Voyage de l' Arabie Heureuse</i>, La Roque, <a href="#Page_543">543</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i> <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Voyage into the Levant, A</i>, Blount, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<br /> +Vulcaren, John P.A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br /> +<br /> +Vyal, John, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Wagama, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Wagner & Co., H.M., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Wagon-route distributers<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">France, <a href="#Page_681">681</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Wagstaff, David, <a href="#Page_476">476</a><br /> +<br /> +Wahibis, <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br /> +<br /> +Waite, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +Waite, Creighton & Morrison, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Wakeful monastery, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<br /> +Wakeman, Abram, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Walbridge, Augustus, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Walbridge Inc., Augustus M., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Wales, Henry, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Walker, John, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> +<br /> +Walker, Joshua, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Walker Sons & Co. Ltd., <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Wall, Dr., <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallace, Alexander, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallace, Alfred Russel, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallace, C.L.H. (Mrs.), <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallace, Hugh, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallace, John William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallace, William, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a><br /> +<br /> +Walle, Friedrich, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallen, Geo. S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Wallen & Co., Geo S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Walpole, Sir Edward, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Walpole, Horace, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Walsh, Rev. Robert, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663–664</a><br /> +<br /> +Walton, William, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Wanni Rukula, C.</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> +<br /> +Ward, Ned, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Wardell, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Ware (architect), <a href="#Page_583">583</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br /> +<br /> +Warfield, John D., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Warfield. W.S., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Warne, E., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Warner, Alonzo A., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_648">648</a>, <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br /> +<br /> +Warner, C.M., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Warner, Ezra J., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Warnier, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a><br /> +<br /> +Warren, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +Warren & Bedwell, <a href="#Page_506">506</a><br /> +<br /> +Warren & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Warton, Joseph, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br /> +<br /> +Warwick, Lady, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br /> +<br /> +Wascana, <i>v.</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Wash-brew, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Washed <i>vs.</i> Unwashed, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<br /> +Washing machinery, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> +<br /> +Washington, G., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Washington, George (Gen.), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Official welcome, New York, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Washington, Martha, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> +<br /> +Washington Refining Co., George, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Washington and Jefferson college, <a href="#Page_521">521</a><br /> +<br /> +Washington's Prepared C., G., <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Wastell, <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br /> +<br /> +Water extract, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> +<br /> +Water power, Nicaragua, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> +<br /> +Waterbury & Force, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Water-supply requirements, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /> +<br /> +Watering, Excessive, <a href="#Page_513">513</a><br /> +<br /> +Watjen, Toel & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Watson, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Waygood, Tupholme Co., <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br /> +<br /> +Wear F.F., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +Webb, James R., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Webb, Rudolphus L., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Webb, Thomas J., <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a><br /> +<br /> +Webb & Son, James R., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Webb, Cheek & Co., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Webb, Hughes & Co., <a href="#Page_509">509</a><br /> +<br /> +Webb-Puhl Co., <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +Webber, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> +<br /> +Webster, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br /> +<br /> +Webster, Daniel, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +Webster, George, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> +<br /> +Wedding Breakfast (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Wedgwood, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +Wedmeyer, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> +<br /> +Weighing machinery, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a><br /> +<br /> +Weighmasters (N.Y. Exch.), <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br /> +<br /> +Weikel & Smith, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Weikel & Smith Spice Co., <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br /> +<br /> +Weir, J.B., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Weir, Ross W., <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>, <a href="#Page_513">513</a>, <a href="#Page_514">514</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Weir & Co., Ross W., <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Weir, Inc., Ross W., <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Weissman, John, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Weisweiller, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +<br /> +Weitzmann, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br /> +<br /> +Welch, Amos S., <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Welch & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Wellman, C.P., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br /> +<br /> +Wells, D. Henderson, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Wells, John, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Wells Bros., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Welsh, Ebenezer, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Wendroth, Clara, <a href="#Page_519">519</a><br /> +<br /> +Wessels & Bros., C., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Wessels, Kulenkampff & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +West Indies (c.), <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> +<br /> +West & Melchers, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Westcott, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> +<br /> +Westen T. & S. Co., Edw., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Westfal, J.R., <a href="#Page_496">496</a><br /> +<br /> +Westfeldt Bros., <a href="#Page_485">485</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a><br /> +<br /> +Weston & Gray, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Westphal, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Wet method, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +<br /> +Wet roast, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> +<br /> +Wetherill, Charles M., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a><br /> +<br /> +Weyl & Co., G., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Weyl & Norton, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Wheeler & Co., Ezra, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a><br /> +<br /> +Whieldon, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br /> +<br /> +White coffee, <a href="#Page_674">674</a><br /> +<br /> +White, A.E., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a><br /> +<br /> +White, Francis, <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> +<br /> +White, Herman M., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br /> +<br /> +White, Peregrine, <a href="#Page_616">616</a><br /> +<br /> +White House (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +White Rose (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a><br /> +<br /> +Whitefoord, Caleb, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br /> +<br /> +Whiting & Taylor, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Whiting, Goeble & Co., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Whitmarsh, Theodore F., <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Wholesale Grocers Corp., <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Wholesaling roasted c., <a href="#Page_407">407–413</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Capital invested, U.S., <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sales, annual, U.S., <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Wholesome advice against the abuse of hot liquors</i>, Duncan, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<br /> +Wickersham, Att'ney Gen., <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br /> +<br /> +Widlar, Francis, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Widlar & Co., F., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Widlar Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Wiji Kawih, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilcox, O.W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> +<br /> +Wild (<a href="#Flavors"><i>see</i> Flavors</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Wild c. (Abyssinia), <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> +<br /> +Wild, James, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilde, Herbert W., <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilde, John, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilde, Joseph, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilde, Samuel, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Wilde, Jr., Samuel, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilde & Sons, Samuel, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilde's Sons, Samuel, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilde's Sons Co., Samuel, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Wiley, Harvey W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilhelm, R.C., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilke, <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilkie, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br /> +<br /> +Willcox, O.W., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a><br /> +<br /> +Wille, Theodor, <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br /> +<br /> +William III, <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br /> +<br /> +Williams, Frank, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Williams & Co., R.C., <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Williams & Potter, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Williams & Taft, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Williams, Chapin & Russell, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Williams, Dimmond & Co., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Williams, Russell & Co., <a href="#Page_477">477</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Williamson, C.G., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> +<br /> +Williamson, Peregrine, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br /> +<br /> +Williamson, S.H., <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Willis, Thomas, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> +<br /> +Wills & Co., Alexander, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Willson, Wm. B., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilson, Increase, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilson, Woodrow, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilson & Bowers, <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Wilson & Co., J.W., <a href="#Page_480">480</a><br /> +<br /> +Wimmer, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a><br /> +<br /> +Windbreaks, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> +<br /> +Window-displays, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> +<br /> +Window-trimming contest, <a href="#Page_455">455</a><br /> +<br /> +Wine<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C. classed as, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">C. a substitute for, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Made from fruit, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Made from hulls and pulp, <a href="#Page_693">693</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Wing Bros. & Hart, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +Winter, H., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Winter & Smilie, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Winthrop, Gov., <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /> +<br /> +Winton, Andrew L., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> +<br /> +Wise, Capt., <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> +<br /> +Withington, Elijah, <i>biog.</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Withington & Pine, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Withington & Wilde, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Withington, Francis & Welch, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Withington, Wilde & Welch., <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Witsen, Nicolaas, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +Wittenagemott, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br /> +<br /> +Wogan, Sir Charles, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Wolf & Seligsberg, <a href="#Page_478">478</a><br /> +<br /> +Wolff. L., <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Wolseley, Viscountess, <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br /> +<br /> +Women as coffee sellers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>Women's petition against c., The</i>, <i>pamph.</i>, <i>ill.</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> +<br /> +Wood, Jr., H.C., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Wood, Jarvis A., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a><br /> +<br /> +Woods, Rufus, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Wood, Thomas R., <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br /> +<br /> +Wood & Co., Thomas, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Woodward (actor), <a href="#Page_579">579</a>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br /> +<br /> +Woolson, A.M., <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br /> +<br /> +Woolson Spice Co., <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_521">521</a>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a><br /> +<br /> +World War effects<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arabia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Consumption, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guatemala, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mexico, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States trade, <a href="#Page_534">534–538</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_796" id="Page_796">[Pg 796]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Imports, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">San Francisco, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">World trade, <a href="#Page_190">190–195</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>World's Commercial Products, The</i>, Freeman, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> +<br /> +<i>World's Work</i>, <i>per.</i>, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br /> +<br /> +Worth, J.G., <a href="#Page_499">499</a><br /> +<br /> +Wright, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> +<br /> +Wright, George C., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Wright, George S., <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br /> +<br /> +Wright, John S., <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Wright, John T., <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Wright, Warren M., <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Wright Hard & Co., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Wrightsville Hardware Co., <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br /> +<br /> +Wroth, Warwick, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<br /> +Wurffbain, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> +<br /> +Württemberg, Duke of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Wyatt, Charles, <i>pat.</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br /> +<br /> +Wycherly, <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br /> +<br /> +Wyld, F. Lehnhoff, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +XXXX (brand), <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Yaffey c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Yarrow, Mrs., <i>chk.</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a><br /> +<br /> +Yates & Dudley, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Yellow fever, effect of c. on, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Yemeni c., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a><br /> +<br /> +Yorke, Duke of, <a href="#Page_554">554</a><br /> +<br /> +Young, Arthur, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +Young, D.K., <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Young, Samuel, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Young, Mahood & Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Young-Mahood Co., <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Youngs & Amman, <a href="#Page_477">477</a><br /> +<br /> +Yuban (brand), <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a><br /> +<br /> +Yuban advertising, <a href="#Page_462">462–465</a><br /> +<br /> +Yuengling, D.G., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Yungas c., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Zamore, <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br /> +<br /> +Zamzam, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> +<br /> +Zanzibar c., <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br /> +<br /> +Zarf (cup-stand), <a href="#Page_661">661</a><br /> +<br /> +Zecchini, G.B., <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br /> +<br /> +Zenetz, <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> +<br /> +Ziegler Arctic expedition, <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br /> +<br /> +Zilmore & Co., A.G., <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Zinmeister Sr., Frank, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Zinsmeister, Jacob, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Zinsmeister, L.G., <i>q.</i>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +Zinmeister & Son, Frank, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Zinmeister & Sons, J., <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Zola, Emile, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br /> +<br /> +Zoller & Little, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Zwaardecroon, Henrious, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> +<br /> +Zwick, Charles, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /><br /><br /> +</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/pot.jpg" width="100" height="101" alt="Coffee Pot" title="" /><br /><br /> +</div> + +<hr /> +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> First written about tea; improperly claimed to have been +written of coffee.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> First written about tea; improperly claimed to have been +written of coffee.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Jardin, Édelestan. <i>Le Caféier et le Café.</i> Paris, 1895 (p. +55).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. <i>Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du +Café, du Thé, et du Chocolat.</i> Lyons, 1684.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Coffee covered with the skin is called <i>boun</i>, and the +coffee-tree, <i>boun</i>-tree (<i>sejar et boun</i>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Notice must be taken of the similarity in the names of +coffee in Hindustan and Abyssinia, and of the name of the coffee-tree as +given by ancient authors.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <a href="#Footnote_3_3">See note 3 above.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Legal</i> and <i>Houri</i> mean tree.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Legal</i> and <i>Houri</i> mean tree.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> North-American Indian.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> La Roque, Jean. <i>Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse.</i> Paris, +1716.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Jardin, Édelestan. <i>Le Caféier et le Café.</i> Paris, 1895. +(p. 102).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Année Littéraire.</i> Paris, 1774 (vol. vi: p. 217).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Franklin, Alfred. <i>La Vie Privée d'Autrefois.</i> Paris, +1893.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Michaud, I.F. and L.G. <i>Biographie Universelle.</i> Paris.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Daney, Sidney. <i>Histoire de la Martinique.</i> Fort Royal, +1846.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <i>Inauguration du Jardin Desclicux.</i> Fort de France, 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. <i>Traités Nouveaux et Curieux +du Café, du Thé, et du Chocolat.</i> Lyons, 1684. (Title page has +<i>Traitez</i>; elsewhere, <i>Traités</i>.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Robinson, Edward Forbes. <i>The Early History of Coffee +Houses in England.</i> London, 1893.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Encyclopedia Britannica.</i> 1910. (vol. xv: p. 291.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Galland, Antoine. <i>Lettre sur l'Origine et le Progres du +Café.</i> Paris, 1699.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> The Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript is described and illustrated +in chapter XXXII.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Rauwolf, Leonhard. <i>Aigentliche beschreibung der Raisis so +er vor diser zeit gegen auffgang inn die morgenlaender volbracht.</i> +Lauwingen, 1582–83.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Della Valle, Pierre (Pietro). <i>De Constantinople à Bombay, +Lettres.</i> 1615. (vol. i: p. 90.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> "She mingled with the wine the wondrous juice of a plant +which banishes sadness and wrath from the heart and brings with it +forgetfulness of every woe."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Scheuzer, J.J. <i>Physique Sacrée, ou Histoire Naturelle de +la Bible.</i> Amsterdam, 1732, 1737.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Jardin, Édelestan. <i>Le Caféier et le Café.</i> Paris, 1895.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> La Roque, Jean. <i>Voyage dans l'Arabie Heureuse, de 1708 à +1713, et Traité Historique du Café.</i> Paris, 1715. (pp. 247, 251.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Adjam</i>, by many writers wrongly rendered Persia.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Scheuzer, J.J. <i>Physique Sacrée, ou Histoire Naturelle de +la Bible.</i> Amsterdam, 1732, 1737.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Harper's Weekly.</i> New York, 1911. (Jan. 21.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Nairon, Antoine Faustus. <i>De Saluberrimá Cahue seu Café +nuncupata Discursus.</i> Rome, 1671.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> de Sacy, Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre. <i>Chresto-nathie +Arabe.</i> Paris, 1806. (vol. ii: p. 224.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Olearius, Adam. <i>An Account of His Journeys.</i> London, +1669.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Niebuhr, Karstens. <i>Description of Arabia.</i> Amsterdam, +1774. (Heron trans., London, 1792: p. 266.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>A Collection of Voyages and Travels.</i> London, 1745. (vol. +iv: p. 690.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Molmenti, Pompeo. <i>La Storia di Venezia nella Vita +Privata.</i> Bergamo, 1908. (pt. 3: p. 245.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Goldoni, Carlo. <i>La Bottega di Caffè.</i> 1750.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Hazlitt, W. Carew. <i>The Venetian Republic.</i> London, 1905, +(vol. 2: pp. 1012–15.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Jardin, Édelestan. <i>Le Caféier et le Café.</i> Paris, 1895. +(p. 16.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> "Drop by drop they take it in," said Cotovicus.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Misprinted thus in the original Dutch and here. Read +<i>Chaoua</i>, i.e., Arabic <i>qahwah</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Laurel berry, of which the taste is bitter and +disagreeable. From Latin <i>bacca lauri</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Arabic, <i>bunn</i>; coffee berries.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>Brandewijn</i> in original Dutch.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Mead.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Purchas His Pilgrimes.</i> London, 1625.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Sandys, Sir George. <i>Sandys' Travels.</i> London, 1673. (p. +66.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Bacon, Francis. <i>Sylva Sylvarum.</i> London, 1627. (vol. v: +p. 26.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Burton, Robert. <i>The Anatomy of Melancholy.</i> Oxford, 1632. +(pt. 2: sec. 5: p. 397.) This reference does not appear in the earlier +editions of 1621, 24, 28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Herbert, Sir T. <i>Travels.</i> London, ed. 1638. (p. 241.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Blount, Sir Henry. <i>A Voyage Into the Levant.</i> London. +1671. (pp. 20, 21, 54, 55, 138, 139.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Gilbert, Gustav. <i>The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta +and Athens.</i> London, 1895. (p. 69.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> Aubrey, John. <i>Lives of Eminent Men.</i> London, 1813. (vol. +ii: pt. 2: pp. 384–85.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> <i>Works.</i> (vol. iv: p. 389.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> à Wood, Anthony. <i>Athenae Oxonienses.</i> London, 1692. (vol. +ii: col. 658.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Parkinson, John. <i>Theatrum Botanicum.</i> London, 1640. (p. +1622.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> D'Israeli, I. <i>Curiosities of Literature.</i> London, 1798. +(vol. i: p. 345.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> A weight of from 133 to 140 pounds.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_XXXII">See chapter XXXII.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Vulcaren,. John Peter A. <i>Relation of the Siege of +Vienna.</i> 1684.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Bermann, M. <i>Alt und Neu Wien.</i> Vienna, 1880. (p. 964.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Manuscript in the Bodleian Library.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_XXVIII">See also chapter XXVIII.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <i>The Romance of Trade.</i> London. (chap. ii; p. 31.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Pasqua Rosée's sign. Kitt's (or Bowman's) sign was a +coffee pot.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Hatton, Edward. <i>New View of London.</i> London, 1708. (vol. +i: p. 30.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> The prosecution came under the heading, "Disorders and +Annoys."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Rumsey (or Ramsey), W. <i>Organon Salutis.</i> London, 1657.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Also given as Sir James Muddiford, Murford, Mudford, +Moundeford, and Modyford.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The Dutch admiral who, in June, 1667, dashed into the +Downs with a fleet of eighty "sail", and many "fire-ships", blocked up +the mouths of the Medway and Thames, destroyed the fortifications at +Sheerness, cut away the paltry defenses of booms and chains drawn across +the rivers, and got to Chatham, on the one side, and nearly to Gravesend +on the other, the king having spent in debauchery the money voted by +Parliament for the proper support of the English navy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> General Monk and Prince Rupert were at this time +commanders of the English fleet.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Lillie (Lilly) was the celebrated astrologer of the +Protectorate, who earned great fame at that time by predicting, in June, +1645, "if now we fight, a victory stealeth upon us;" a lucky guess, +signally verified in the King's defeat at Naseby. Lilly thenceforth +always saw the stars favourable to the Puritans.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> This man was originally a fishing-tackle maker in Tower +Street during the reign of Charles I; but turning enthusiast, he went +about prognosticating "the downfall of the King and Popery;" and as he +and his predictions were all on the popular side, he became a great man +with the superstitious "godly brethren" of that day.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Turnball, or Turnbull-street, as it is still called, had +been for a century previous of infamous repute. In Beaumont and +Fletcher's play, the <i>Knight of the Burning Pestle</i>, one of the ladies +who is undergoing penance at the barber's, has her character +sufficiently pointed out to the audience, in her declaration, that she +had been "stolen from her friends in Turnball-street."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Anderson. Adam. <i>Historical and Chronological Deduction of +the Origin of Commerce.</i> London. 1787.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_III">See chapter III.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> More fully described in <a href="#Chapter_XXXII">chapter XXXII.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_XXXII">See chapter XXXII.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Wroth, Warwick. <i>The London Pleasure Gardens of the 18th +Century.</i> London, 1896.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> There were six places, all told, bearing the name "Man's". +Alexander Man was coffee maker to William III.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Salvandy, Narcisse-Achille. <i>Influence des Cafés sur les +Moeurs Politiques.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Singleton, Esther. <i>Dutch New York.</i> New York, 1909. (p. +132.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Bishop, J. Leander. <i>A History of American Manufactures, +1608 to 1860.</i> New York, 1864. (Vol. 1; p. 259.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> Patterson, Robert W. <i>Early Society in Southern Illinois.</i> +Chicago, 1881.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Andreas, A.T. <i>History of Chicago.</i> Chicago, 1884.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Singleton, Esther. <i>Dutch New York.</i> 1909. (p. 133.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> Bishop, J. Leander. <i>A History of American Manufactures, +1608 to 1860.</i> New York.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. <i>Philadelphia: a history of the +city and its people.</i> Philadelphia, 1912. (vol. 1: p. 106.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Freeman, W.G. <i>The World's Commercial Products.</i> Boston, +(p. 176.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1918. (vol. xxxv: no. 4.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Dr. Cramer considers <i>C. Maragogipe</i> "the finest coffee +known; it has a highly developed, splendid flavor."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> <i>Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural +Chemists</i>, Nov. 15, 1921. (vol. v: no. 2: pp. 274–288.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1912. (vol. xxiii: no. +3.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> <i>Die Menschlichen Genussmittel</i>, 1911. (p. 300.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_XVI">See chapter XVI.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> These and all other numbered drawings in this chapter are +from Andrew L. Winton's <i>The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods</i>, copyright +1916, and reprinted by permission.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> <i>Jour. Am. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1919 (vol. xli: p. 1306).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Anstead, R.D. <i>Annals on Applied Biology</i>, 1915 (vol. i: +pp. 299–302).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Huntington, L.M. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1917 (vol. +xxxiii: p. 228).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Gorter, <i>Ann.</i> (vol. ccclxxii: pp. 237–46). +</p><p> +Schulte, A. <i>Z. Nahr. Genussm.</i> (vol. xxvii: pp. 200–25). +</p><p> +Loew, Oscar. <i>Ann. Rep. P.R. Agr. Expt. Sta.</i>, 1907 (pp. 41–55).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Sencial. <i>El Hacendado Mex.</i> (vol. ix: p. 191).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Pique, R. <i>Bull. Assoc. Chim. sucr. dist.</i> (vol. xxiv: +pp. 1210–13).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <i>Pharm. Jour.</i>, 1886 (vol. xvii: p. 656).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 113,832, April 18, 1871.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 660,602, Oct. 30, 1900.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> French Pat., 379,036, Aug. 28, 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> French Pat., 359,451, Nov. 15, 1905.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> British Pat., 26,905, Dec. 9, 1904.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 843,530, Feb. 5, 1907.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 1,313,209, Aug. 12, 1919.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 134,792, Jan. 14, 1873.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> British Pat., 7,427, Mar. 24, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 997,431, July 11, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> British Pat., 23,087, Oct. 9, 1912. +</p><p> +French Pat., 449,343, Oct. 12, 1912.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> British Pat., 21,397, Sept. 26, 1907. +</p><p> +French Pat., 382,238, Sept. 26, 1907. +</p><p> +U.S. Pat., 982,902, Jan. 31, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> <i>Pharm. Zentralhalle</i>, 1915 (vol. lvi: pp. 343–48).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> <i>Münch. Med. Wochschr.</i>, (vol. lviii: pp. 1868–72).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Commercial Organic Analysis.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>Ann. Chem. Pharm.</i> 1867 (vol. cxlii: p. 230).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> <i>Inaugural Diss.</i>, Munich. 1903.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1897 (vol. cxxiv: p. 1458).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> <i>Dict. App. Chem.</i>, 1913 (vol. v: p. 393).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem. <i>Bull.</i> 105, 1907. (p. 42).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> <i>Ann.</i> (vol. cccviii: pp. 327–348). +</p><p> +<i>Ibid.</i> (vol. ccclxxii: pp. 237, 246). +</p><p> +<i>Arch. Pharm.</i> (vol. ccxlvii: pp. 184–196).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> <i>Jour. Soc. Chem., Ind.</i>, 1910 (vol. xxix: p. 138).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> <i>Z. Nahr. Genussm.</i> (vol. xxi: p. 295).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> Paladino, <i>Gazetta</i>, 1895 (vol. xxv: no. 1: p. 104). +</p><p> +Forster & Riechelmann, <i>Zeitsch. öffent. Chem.</i>, 1897 (vol. iii: p. +129). +</p><p> +Polstorff, K. <i>Wallach-Festschrift</i>, 1909 (pp. 569–83).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Private communication.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 716,878, Dec. 30, 1902.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1920 (vol. xxxviii: pp. +321–22).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> <i>Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1907 (vol. xxix: p. 1091).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> <i>Ber.</i>, 1895 (vol. xxviii: p. 3137); 1899 (vol. xxxii: p. +435); 1900 (vol. xxxiii: p. 3035).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Willcox & Rentschler. <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1910 +(vol. xix: p. 440).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Fricke, E. <i>Zeits. f. angew. Chemie.</i>, 1889 (pp. +121–122).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Willcox & Rentschler. <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1911 +(vol. xx: p. 355).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 897,840, Sept. 1, 1908.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> British Pat., 144,988, March 19, 1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> French Pat., 412,550, Feb. 12, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 947,577, Jan. 25, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> <i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1857 (vol. ix: p. 34).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> <i>Wien. Akad. Ber.</i> (<i>2 Abth.</i>) (vol. lxxxi: pp. +1032–1043). +</p><p> +<i>Monatsh, f. Chem.</i>, 1880 (vol. i: p. 456).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>Zeits. f. Untersuch. d. Nahr. u. Genussm.</i>, 1898 (vol. +vii: pp. 457–472)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> <i>Ber.</i>, 1901 (vol. xxxv: pp. 1846–1854).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> <i>Compt. rend.</i> (vol. clvii: pp. 212–13).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> <i>Bull. Pharm.</i>, 1916 (vol. xxx: pp. 276–78).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>Dict. App. Chem.</i>, 1913 (vol. ii: p. 99).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> <i>U.S. Dispensatory, 19th Ed.</i>, 1907 (p. 145).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> <i>Monatsh. f. Chem.</i> (vol. xxxiii: pp. 1389–1406).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> <i>Bull. Pharm.</i>, 1916 (vol. xxx: pp. 276–78).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>Apoth. Ztg.</i> (vol. xxii: pp. 919–20). +</p><p> +<i>Pharm. Weekbl.</i>, 1907 (vol. xxxvii).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> <i>Monatsh. f. Chem.</i> (vol. xxxi: p. 1227).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> <i>Jour. Landw.</i>, 1904 (vol. lii: p. 93).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> <i>Amer. Chem. Jour.</i>, 1892 (vol. xiv: p. 473).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>Analyst</i>, 1902 (vol. xxvi: p. 116).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> 58 <i>Mon. Sci.</i> (vol. iii: no. 6: p. 779).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> <i>J.P.C.</i>, 1867 (p. 307).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> <i>Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci.</i>, 1918 (vol. xxviii: pp. +136–141).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Feitler, S.: Eng. Pat., 19,845, Aug. 28, 1897.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 33,453, Oct. 8, 1861. +</p><p> +U.S. Pat., 75,829, March 24, 1868. +</p><p> +U.S. Pat., 701,750, June 3, 1902.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 943,238, Dec. 14, 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 703,508, July 1, 1902. +</p><p> +U.S. Pat., 865,203, Sept. 3, 1907.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Winter, H.: U.S. Pat., 997,431, Aug. 28, 1897.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Simon, M., Jr.: Ger. Pat., 253,419, Feb. 19, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Von Niessen: British Pat., 7,427, Mar. 24, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Eng. Pat., 5,776, Mar. 19, 1895.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 832,322.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> Eng. Pat., 8,270, April 24, 1893.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> U.S. Pat., 994,785, June 13, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> <i>Am. J. Pharm.</i>, 1915 (vol. lxxxvii: pp. 524–26).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> <i>Orig. Com. 8th Intern. Cong. Appl. Chem. (Appen.)</i> (vol. +xxvi: p. 389)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1920 (vol. xxxix: pp. +318–19).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> King, J.E.: U.S. Pat. 1,263,434.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: pp. +552–55).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_175_175">see 175</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1911 (vol. xx: p. 34).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> <i>Pharm. Weekbl. voor Nederl.</i>, 1899 (no. 13). +</p><p> +<i>Apoth. Ztg.</i>, 1899 (p. 14).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> <i>Jour. Assoc. Off. Agri. Chem.</i>, 1920 (vol. iii: p. +501).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Blyth, Wynter. <i>Foods</i>, 1909 (p. 359).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Petermann. <i>Bied. Zentr.</i>, 1899 (vol. ii: p. 211).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Sept., +1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Sept., +1920.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> U.S. Dept. Agri., Div. of Chem. <i>Bull. 13</i> (pt. 7: p. +908).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> Niles. G.M. <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1910 (vol. xix: +no. 1: p. 27).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> Through <i>The Sun</i>, New York, July 17, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> <i>Annales Politiques et Littéraires</i>, through <i>Tea & +Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1906 (vol. x: p. 303).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> <i>Jour. Am. Med. Assoc.</i>, 1891 (vol. xvi).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> <i>The Times</i>, London, Oct. 1, 1904; through <i>Tea & Coffee +Trade Jour.</i>, 1911 (vol. xxi: p. 36).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> <i>Good Housekeeping</i>, through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, +1912 (vol. xxiii: p. 237).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1913 (vol. xxiv: p. 455).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1912 (vol. xxiii: p. 356).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> <i>Good Housekeeping</i>, through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, +1915 (vol. xxviii: p. 533).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> <i>Good Housekeeping</i>, through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, +1915 (vol. xxviii: p. 533).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> <i>Atti. accad. Lincei</i>, 1915 (vol. xxiv: no. 2: pp. +543–48).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> Nalpasse, Dr. Valentin, <i>loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_190_190">see 190</a>). +</p><p> +Flint, Dr. Austin B. <i>Text Book of Physiology</i>. +</p><p> +Wood, H.C., Jr. <i>Therapeutic Gazette</i>, 1912 (vol. xxxvi: p. 13).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> <i>Compt. rend.</i> (vol. cxlviii: p. 1541).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1914 (vol. xxvi: p. 539).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> <i>Arch. exp. Path. Pharm.</i>, 1907 (vol. lvii: p. 214).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> <i>Universal Dictionary</i>, 1897 (vol. i: p. 1097).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> <i>Handbuch der Physiologie</i>, 1881 (vol. vi: p. 435).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> <i>The Coffee Club</i>, 1921 (vol. i: p. 4).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> <i>Saturday Evening Post</i>, through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade +Jour.</i>, 1914 (vol. xxvii: p. 586).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_192_192">see 192</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> <i>Seven Truths to Teach the Young in Regard to Life and +Sex</i>, No. 2.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_190_190">see 190</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, Dec., 1916 (p. 37).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_194_194">see 194</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> <i>Psych. Clin.</i> (vol. vi: pp. 56–58).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, June, 1905 (p. 274).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> <i>Ladies' Home Journal</i>, Dec., 1916 (p. 37).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> <i>The Prolongation of Life.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> Hekteon and LeConte.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1914 (vol. xxvi: pp. +29–32).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> <i>Old Age Deferred</i>, 1910.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_190_190">see 190</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> <i>Practical Dietetics</i>, 1917 (p. 254).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> <i>Zentr. Biochem Biophys.</i>, 1912 (vol. xiii: p. 504).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> <i>Jour. Anat. & Physi.</i>, through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade +Jour.</i>, 1913 (vol. xxv: p. 345).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> <i>Lancet</i>, Dec. 2, 1911.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> <i>Pharmacology</i>, 1913 (p. 258).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> Butler, <i>Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacology</i>, +1906 (p. 256).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> Togami, K. <i>Biochem. Zeit.</i>, 1908 (vol. ix: p. 453).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> <i>Münch. Med. Wochenschr.</i> (vol. lx: pp. 281–85, 357–61). +</p><p> +<i>Naturwiss. Umschau. d. Chem., Ztg.</i> 1913 (p. 4). +</p><p> +<i>Schweiz. Wochenschr.</i> (vol. li: pp. 490–92).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_197_197">see 197</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> Through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1916 (vol. xxx: p. +443).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1909 (vol. xvi: p. 271).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Frankel, F.H. <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1910 (vol. +xxxi: p. 446).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> <i>Food Values</i>, 1914 (p. 54).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> <i>Policlin.</i>, 1920 (no. 27: p. 1011).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> Funk, C. <i>The Vitamines</i>, 1922 (p. 270).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> Potter. <i>Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Therapeutics</i>, 10th +ed., 1906 (p. 187). +</p><p> +Culbreth. <i>Materia Medica and Pharmacology</i>, 2nd ed. (p. 520).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Nineteenth ed. (p. 254).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_220_220">see 220</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> Keable, B.B. <i>Coffee</i> (p. 97).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> Wallace, Mrs. C.L.H. "Cholera: Its Cause and Cure." <i>The +Herald of Health</i>, through <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1908 (vol. xiv: +p. 22).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> "S. Culapius", <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1913 (vol. +xxv: p. 239).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1913 (vol. xxv: p. 458).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> Thurber, F.B. <i>Coffee from Plantation to Cup</i> (p. 182).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> <i>Health and Longevity Through Rational Diet.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> Keable, B.B. <i>Coffee</i> (p. 98).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> Bulson, A.E.J. <i>Am. Jour. Opthal.</i>, 1905 (vol. xxii: pp +55–64) +</p><p> +<i>Handbook of Medical Science</i> (vol. iii: p. 190).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Keable, B.B. <i>Coffee</i> (p. 98).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> <i>A Manual of Pharmacology</i> (pp. 137, 215).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> Hawk, Philip B. <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_196_196">see 196</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> <i>Good Housekeeping</i>, Oct., 1917 (p. 144).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> <i>Med. News</i>, 1886 (p. 52).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> <i>Med. News</i>, 1890 (p. 56).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> <i>Centr. In. Med.</i>, 1900 (p. 21).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_220_220">see 220</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> <i>Arch. Exper. Path. Pharm.</i>, 1902 (bd. 48).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> <i>Bull. gen. therap.</i> (vol. clxvi: p. 379). +</p><p> +<i>Zentr. Biochem. Biophys.</i> (vol. xvi: p. 79).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <i>Bull. Pharm.</i>, 1916 (vol. xxx: pp. 276–78).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> 1907 (p. 176).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> <i>U.S. Dispensatory</i>, 19th ed. (p. 253).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> Hall. I.W. <i>The Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs</i>, 1904 (p. +98).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> <i>Terapia moderna</i>, Dec., 1891.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> <i>Arch. intern. physiol.</i> (vol. xiii: pp. 107–14).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> <i>J. Pharmachol.</i> (vol. iii: p. 609).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> <i>J. Pharmachol.</i> (vol. iii: p. 468).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> <i>J. Pharmachol.</i> (vol. iii: p. 455).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> <i>Wien. Deut. med. Wochenschr.</i> (vol. xxxviii: pp. +1774–76).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> <i>Comp. rend. soc. biol.</i> (vol. lxxiv: p. 32).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> <i>D.A. Apoth.-Ztg.</i>, 1911–12 (vol. xxxii: p. 4).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> <i>Med. Record, N.Y.</i>, 1916 (vol. xxx: p. 68).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> <i>Therap. Gazette.</i> 1912 (vol. xxxvi: pp. 6–13).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> <i>Deut. Arch. Klin. Med.</i>, 1920 (vol. cxxxiv: pp. +174–84).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> <i>Z. physiol. Chem.</i> (vol. lxxvii: p. 259).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> <i>Bull. Bur. of Chem.</i> (no. 157).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> <i>Pharm. J.</i>, Mar. 31, 1900, through <i>Brit. Med. J.</i>, +<i>Epit.</i>, 1900 (vol. i: p. 35).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> <i>Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol.</i>, 1895 (vol. xxxv: +p. 449).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, 1895 (vol. xxxvi: p. 45). <i>Ibid.</i>, 1896 (vol. +xxxvii: p. 385).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> <i>Arch. de physiol. norm. et path.</i>, 1868 (vol. i: p. +179).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a> <i>Inaug. Diss.</i>, Königsberg, 1882.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a> <i>Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol.</i>, 1898 (vol. xli: p. +375).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a> <i>Jour. Am. Med. Assoc.</i>, 1917 (vol. lxviii: pp. +1805–07).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a> <i>Berliner Klin. Wochenschrift</i>, 1889 (no. 40).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a> <i>Encyc. der Therapie</i>, 1896 (vol. i).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a> Pester, <i>Med.-Chir. Presse</i>, 1885 (no. 39). <i>Orvosi +Hetilap</i>, 1885 (nos. 32–33).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a> <i>Zeitschrift f. Klin. Med.</i>, 1893 (vol. xxiii).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a> <i>Mitt. aus der Würzburger Med. Klinik</i>, 1885 (vol. 1).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a> <i>New York Herald</i>, Mar. 24. 1912.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a> <i>Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1914 (vol. xxvi: pp. +537–41).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a> <i>The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a> "The Influence of Caffeine on Mental and Motor +Efficiency." <i>Archives of Psychology</i>, 1912 (no. 22).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a> <i>Revista sper. di. Freniatria</i> (vol. xviii: p. 1).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a> <i>Archiv. ital. de Biol.</i>, 1893 (vol. xix: p. 241).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a> <i>Inaug. Diss.</i>, Marburg, 1894.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a> <i>Revista sper. di Freniatria</i>, 1894 (vol. xx: p. 458).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a> <i>Centralbl. f. Physiol.</i>, 1896 (vol. x: p. 126).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a> <i>Psychol. Arbeit.</i>, 1896 (vol. i: p. 378).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a> <i>Jour. Med. de Bruxelles</i>, 1897.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a> <i>Molcschott's Untersuchungen</i>, 1899 (vol. xvi: p. 170).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a> <i>Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abth.), Suppl. +Bd.</i>, 1899 (p. 289).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a> <i>Skand. Arch. f. Physiol.</i>, 1904 (vol. xvi: p. 197).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a> <i>Travaux du Lab. de Physiol. Inst. Solray</i>, 1904 (vol. +vi: p. 361).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a> <i>Psychol. Arbeit.</i>, 1901 (vol. iii: p. 617).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a> <i>C.R. de la Soc. de Biol. Paris</i>, 1901 (pp. 593–627).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a> <i>Op. Cit.</i> (p. 38). (<a href="#Footnote_285_285">See 285.</a>)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a> <i>Pflügers Archiv.</i>, 1877 (vol. xvi: p. 316).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a> <i>Diss.</i>, Dorpat., 1887.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a> <i>Psychol. Arbeit.</i>, 1896 (vol. i: p. 431).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a> <i>Psychol. Arbeit.</i>, 1901 (pp. 203–289).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a> <i>Psychol. Rev.</i>, 1911 (vol. xviii: p. 424).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a> <i>Op. Cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_285_285">see 285</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a> <i>Ueber die Beeinflüssung einfacher psychischer Vorgünge +durch einige Arzeneimittel</i> (p. 224).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a> <i>Arch, exp. Path. Pharm.</i>, 1920 (vol. lxxxv: pp. +339–58).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> (p. 50). (<a href="#Footnote_287_287">See 287.</a>)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a> <i>Loc. cit.</i> (<a href="#Footnote_285_285">see 285</a>).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_XXX">See chapter XXX.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a> La Roque, Jean, <i>Voyage de l'Arabic Heureuse</i>, Paris, +1715. (p. 280.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a> <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, 11 ed., Cambridge, 1910. (vol. +i: p. 118.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a> La Roque, Jean. <i>Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse</i>, Paris, +1715 (p. 285).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a> The 1921 figures for all countries given are +preliminary.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a> Broadbent, Humphrey. <i>The Domestick Coffee Man.</i> London, +1720. +</p><p> +Bradley, Richard. <i>The vertu and use of coffee with regard to the plague +and other infectious distempers.</i> London, 1721.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a> Since changed. There is now a Clearing Association.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1911 (vol. xx: no. 4: p. +284).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, July, 1911 (vol. xxiii: no. +1; p. 28).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, Nov., 1910 (vol. xix: no. +5: p. 380).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, Nov., 1914 (vol. xxv; no. +5: p. 397).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a> Stewart, C.H. "The Coffee Status of Venezuela." <i>Tea and +Coffee Trade Jour.</i> Jan. 1922 (vol. xlii: no. 1: pp. 29–35.)</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a> Wilhelm, R.C. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1916 (vol. +xxxi: no. 5: p. 429).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a> Willcox. O.W. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1914 (vol. +xxvi: no. 2: p. 38).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a> Zinsmeister, L.G. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1914 +(vol. xxvii: no. 6: pp. 558–562).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1910 (vol. xviii: no. 2: p. +161; and no. 4: p. 319).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1910 (vol. xvii: no. 8: p. +242).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1915 (vol. xxviii: pp. +415–416).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a> "Making Coffee for the Consumer", <i>Tea and Coffee Trade +Jour.</i>, 1914 (vol. xxvi: pp. 335–338).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a> "Coffee-Making Questionnaire", <i>Tea and Coffee Trade +Jour.</i>, 1917 (vol. xxx: no. 1: pp. 31–34).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a> King, John E., <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1917 (vol. +xxxiii: no. 6: pp. 552–555).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a> Ach, F.J., <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1912, 1919 (vol. +xxiii: no. 4: pp. 133–135; vol. xxxvi: no. 4: pp. 344–345).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a> Gillies, E.J., <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1913 (vol. +xxv: pp. 574–576).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a> Wellman, C.P., <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1918 (vol. +xxxiv: no. 6: p. 560).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1922 (vol. xlii: no. 1: pp. +75, 76).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a> Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a> Duryee, P.S. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1911 (Vol. +xxi: no. 2: pp. 106–110).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a> Findlay, Paul. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1916 (vol. +xxx: no. 1: pp. 72–74).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a> Atha, F.P. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1919 (vol. +xxxvii: no. 1: p. 50).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a> Weir, Ross W. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1913 (vol. +xxv: pp. 566–568).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a> McCreery, R.W. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1913 (vol. +xxv: no. 6: pp. 603–604).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a> Schaefer, J.H. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>,1917 (vol. +xxxiii: no. 1: p. 72).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a> Chamberliane, John, translation, London, 1685, from +Dufour's <i>Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du Thé, et du Chocolat</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a> The agreement with the São Paulo planters comprehended +their furnishing yearly the proceeds of a tax of 100 reis per bag. This +actually amounted to $20,000 per month up to January, 1921. During 1921, +by reason of a short crop and the advance rate of exchange, the +remittances were reduced almost half. In January, 1922, the São Paulo +legislature on petition of the <i>Sociedade</i> increased the tax to 200 reis +per bag to run for 3 years. In spite of this, the probability is that +another short crop and a continued low rate of exchange will keep the +Brazil contribution in 1922 down to about $180,000 net. By November, +1921, a total of $671,000 was expended on advertising. Of this, $551,000 +was contributed by the planters of São Paulo, and $120,000 by the coffee +trade of the United States.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a> About this time, the country was flooded with paper +money, worth about 1 to 75, forcing the price of commodities to +unheard-of heights, shoes for instance, being sold at £20 per pair.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a> Much of the information that follows is from an article +by M.E. Goetzinger in the <i>Percolator</i>, February, 1921.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a> What follows on "Trade Brooms and Panics" is from an +article prepared, under the author's direction, by C.K. Trafton, and +published in <i>The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal</i>, Nov., 1920 (vol. xxxix: +no. 5: p. 563).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a> Kauhee (or <i>kahvé</i>) is the Turkish for coffee.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a> Copyright, 1913. Used by special permission of the +publishers, the Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, Ind.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a> Copyright, 1916, by Henry Holt & Co., New York. Reprinted +by permission.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a> Chatfield-Taylor, II. C. <i>Goldoni.</i> New York, 1916 (p. +607).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a> Copyright, 1903, by G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York. Used by +courtesy of the author and the publisher.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a> Copyright, 1893, by Harper Bros., and 1921, by John +Kendrick Bangs. Reprinted by permission.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a> <i>Beverages Past and Present</i>, New York, copyright 1908. +By courtesy of G.P. Putnam's, Sons, Publishers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a> <i>The Pot and Kettle</i>, Boston, 1920 (vol. iii: no. 2).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_XXXIII">See Chapter XXXIII.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_X">See chapter X.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_X">See chapter X.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a> <i>Proceedings: Second Series</i>, 1899 (vol. xvii: no. 2; p. +390).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a> A mechanical contrivance that took the place of a boy.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a> Jardin, Édelestan. <i>Le Caféier et Le Café</i>, Paris, 1895 +(p. 290).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a> In his patent specification, Mr. Carter said on this +point: "Small holes should be made through the roaster in sufficient +number to allow of the escape of the vapors and volatile matters which +escape from the coffee while undergoing the process of being roasted."</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1912 (vol. xxiii: no. 6: p. +592).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a> <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, 11th Ed. (vol. 11: p. 285).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a> London; 1888 (vol. 1: pp. 222, 224).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a> de Sacy. Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre. <i>Chréstomathie +Arabe.</i> Paris, 1806, (vol. 2).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a> <i>Scribner's Magazine</i>, 1918 (vol. liii: no. 5: p. 620); +and Dwight, H.G., <i>Constantinople, Old and New</i>, New York, 1915. +Copyright by Charles Scribner's Sons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a> Carne, John. <i>Syria, the Holy Land.</i> London, 1836 (p. +69).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a> New York, 1857 (p. 276).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a> "The Coffee Cup and the Sugar Bowl." <i>Tea and Coffee +Trade Jour.</i>, 1921 (vol. xli: no. 6: p. 809).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a> Frankel, F. Hulton, Ph.D. <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, +1917 (vol. xxxii: p. 142).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_III">See chapter III.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a> Broadbent, Humphrey. <i>The Domestick Coffee Man</i>, London, +1722.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a> <i>Dutch New York</i>, 1909 (p. 132).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a> Earle. Alice Morse. <i>Customs and Fashions in Old New +England</i>, 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a> In 1921, Professor S.C. Prescott, in charge of the +research work for the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee at the +Massachusetts Institute of Technology, said that a brew made with the +water considerably below the boiling point, was preferable.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a> Meaning the pumping percolator.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: no. 5: +pp. 339–40).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1921 (vol. xli: no. 5: p. +688).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a> <a href="#Chapter_XVII">See chapter XVII.</a></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a> <i>Pharm. Weekbl. voor Nederl.</i>, No. 13, 1899. <i>Apoth. +Ztg.</i>, 1899 (p. 14).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a> <i>Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.</i>, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: pp. +552–55).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a> Hollingworth, H.L. and Poffenberger, A.T., Jr. <i>The Sense +of Taste</i>, 1917 (p. 13).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a> <i>Not Édelestan as elsewhere in the volume</i>.</p></div> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of All About Coffee, by William H. 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