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diff --git a/28500-8.txt b/28500-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f26506 --- /dev/null +++ b/28500-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,64676 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of All About Coffee, by William H. Ukers + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: All About Coffee + +Author: William H. Ukers + +Release Date: April 4, 2009 [EBook #28500] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ALL ABOUT COFFEE *** + + + + +Produced by K.D. Thornton, Suzanne Lybarger, Greg Bergquist +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully +preserved. Only obvious typographical errors have been corrected. + + +_All About + +Coffee_ + +[Illustration] + + +ALL ABOUT COFFEE + +[Illustration: COFFEE BRANCHES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT + +SHOWING THE BERRY IN ITS VARIOUS RIPENING STAGES FROM FLOWER TO CHERRY + +(Inset: 1, green bean; 2, silver skin; 3, parchment; 4, fruit pulp.) + +Painted from life by Blendon Campbell] + + + + +_ALL ABOUT +COFFEE_ + +_By_ + +_WILLIAM H. UKERS, M.A._ + +_Editor_ + +THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL + +[Illustration] + +NEW YORK + +THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY + +1922 + + + + +COPYRIGHT 1922 + +BY + +THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY + +NEW YORK + +_International Copyright Secured_ + +_All Rights Reserved in U.S.A. and +Foreign Countries_ + +PRINTED IN U.S.A. + + + + +_To My Wife_ + +_HELEN DE GRAFF UKERS_ + + + + +PREFACE + + +Seventeen years ago the author of this work made his first trip abroad +to gather material for a book on coffee. Subsequently he spent a year in +travel among the coffee-producing countries. After the initial surveys, +correspondents were appointed to make researches in the principal +European libraries and museums; and this phase of the work continued +until April, 1922. Simultaneous researches were conducted in American +libraries and historical museums up to the time of the return of the +final proofs to the printer in June, 1922. + +Ten years ago the sorting and classification of the material was begun. +The actual writing of the manuscript has extended over four years. + +Among the unique features of the book are the Coffee Thesaurus; the +Coffee Chronology, containing 492 dates of historical importance; the +Complete Reference Table of the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the +World; and the Coffee Bibliography, containing 1,380 references. + +The most authoritative works on this subject have been Robinson's _The +Early History of Coffee Houses in England_, published in London in 1893; +and Jardin's _Le Café_, published in Paris in 1895. The author wishes to +acknowledge his indebtedness to both for inspiration and guidance. Other +works, Arabian, French, English, German, and Italian, dealing with +particular phases of the subject, have been laid under contribution; and +where this has been done, credit is given by footnote reference. In all +cases where it has been possible to do so, however, statements of +historical facts have been verified by independent research. Not a few +items have required months of tracing to confirm or to disprove. + +There has been no serious American work on coffee since Hewitt's +_Coffee: Its History, Cultivation and Uses_, published in 1872; and +Thurber's _Coffee from Plantation to Cup_, published in 1881. Both of +these are now out of print, as is also Walsh's _Coffee: Its History, +Classification and Description_, published in 1893. + +The chapters on The Chemistry of Coffee and The Pharmacology of Coffee +have been prepared under the author's direction by Charles W. Trigg, +industrial fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. + +The author wishes to acknowledge, with thanks, valuable assistance and +numerous courtesies by the officials of the following institutions: + +British Museum, and Guildhall Museum, London; Bibliothéque Nationale, +Paris; Congressional Library, Washington; New York Public Library, +Metropolitan Museum of Art, and New York Historical Society, New York; +Boston Public Library, and Boston Museum of Fine Arts; Smithsonian +Institution, Washington; State Historical Museum, Madison, Wis.; Maine +Historical Society, Portland; Chicago Historical Society; New Jersey +Historical Society, Newark; Harvard University Library; Essex Institute, +Salem, Mass.; Peabody Institute, Baltimore. + +Thanks and appreciation are due also to: + +Charles James Jackson, London, for permission to quote from his +_Illustrated History of English Plate_; + +Francis Hill Bigelow, author; and The Macmillan Company, publishers, for +permission to reproduce illustrations from _Historic Silver of the +Colonies_; + +H.G. Dwight, author; and Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers, for +permission to quote from _Constantinople, Old and New_, and from the +article on "Turkish Coffee Houses" in _Scribner's Magazine_; + +Walter G. Peter, Washington, D.C., for permission to photograph and +reproduce pictures of articles in the Peter collection at the United +States National Museum; + +Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, authors, and George C. Tyler, +producer, for permission to reproduce the Exchange coffee-house setting +of the first act of _Hamilton_; + +Judge A.T. Clearwater, Kingston N.Y.; R.T. Haines Halsey, and Francis P. +Garvan, New York, for permission to publish pictures of historic silver +coffee pots in their several collections; + +The secretaries of the American Chambers of Commerce in London, Paris, +and Berlin; + +Charles Cooper, London, for his splendid co-operation and for his +special contribution to chapter XXXV; + +Alonzo H. De Graff, London, for his invaluable aid and unflagging zeal +in directing the London researches; + +To the Coffee Trade Association, London, for assistance rendered; + +To G.J. Lethem, London, for his translations from the Arabic; + +Geoffrey Sephton, Vienna, for his nice co-operation; + +L.P. de Bussy of the Koloniaal Institute, Amsterdam, Holland, for +assistance rendered; + +Burton Holmes and Blendon R. Campbell, New York, for courtesies; + +John Cotton Dana, Newark, N.J., for assistance rendered; + +Charles H. Barnes, Medford, Mass., for permission to publish the +photograph of Peregrine White's Mayflower mortar and pestle; + +Andrew L. Winton, Ph.D., Wilton, Conn., for permission to quote from his +_The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods_ in the chapter on The Microscopy of +Coffee and to reprint Prof. J. Moeller's and Tschirch and Oesterle's +drawings; + +F. Hulton Frankel, Ph.D., Edward M. Frankel, Ph.D., and Arno Viehoever, +for their assistance in preparing the chapters on The Botany of Coffee +and The Microscopy of Coffee; + +A.L. Burns, New York, for his assistance in the correction and revision +of chapters XXV, XXVI, XXVII, and XXXIV, and for much historical +information supplied in connection with chapters XXX and XXXI; + +Edward Aborn, New York, for his help in the revision of chapter XXXVI; + +George W. Lawrence, former president, and T.S.B. Nielsen, president, of +the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, for their assistance in the +revision of chapter XXXI; + +Helio Lobo, Brazilian consul general, New York; Sebastião Sampaio, +commercial attaché of the Brazilian Embassy, Washington; and Th. +Langgaard de Menezes, American representative of the Sociedade Promotora +da Defeza do Café; + +Felix Coste, secretary and manager, the National Coffee Roasters +Association; and C.B. Stroud, superintendent, the New York Coffee and +Sugar Exchange, for information supplied and assistance rendered in the +revision of several chapters; + +F.T. Holmes, New York, for his help in the compilation of chronological +and descriptive data on coffee-roasting machinery; + +Walter Chester, New York, for critical comments on chapter XXVIII. + +The author is especially indebted to the following, who in many ways +have contributed to the successful compilation of the Complete Reference +Table in chapter XXIV, and of those chapters having to do with the early +history and development of the green coffee and the wholesale +coffee-roasting trades in the United States: + +George S. Wright, Boston; A.E. Forbes, William Fisher, Gwynne Evans, +Jerome J. Schotten, and the late Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis; James H. +Taylor, William Bayne, Jr., A.J. Dannemiller, B.A. Livierato, S.A. +Schonbrunn, Herbert Wilde, A.C. Fitzpatrick, Charles Meehan, Clarence +Creighton, Abram Wakeman, A.H. Davies, Joshua Walker, Fred P. Gordon, +Alex. H. Purcell, George W. Vanderhoef, Col. William P. Roome, W. Lee +Simmonds, Herman Simmonds, W.H. Aborn, B. Lahey, John C. Loudon, J.R. +Westfal, Abraham Reamer, R.C. Wilhelm, C.H. Stewart, and the late August +Haeussler, New York; John D. Warfield, Ezra J. Warner, S.O. Blair, and +George D. McLaughlin, Chicago; W.H. Harrison, James Heekin, and Charles +Lewis, Cincinnati; Albro Blodgett and A.M. Woolson, Toledo; R.V. +Engelhard and Lee G. Zinsmeister, Louisville; E.A. Kahl, San Francisco; +S. Jackson, New Orleans; Lewis Sherman, Milwaukee; Howard F. Boardman, +Hartford; A.H. Devers, Portland, Ore.; W. James Mahood, Pittsburgh; +William B. Harris, East Orange, N.J. + +New York, June 17, 1922. + +[Illustration] + + + + +FOREWORD + + _Some introductory remarks on the lure of coffee, its place in a + rational dietary, its universal psychological appeal, its use and + abuse_ + + +Civilization in its onward march has produced only three important +non-alcoholic beverages--the extract of the tea plant, the extract of +the cocoa bean, and the extract of the coffee bean. + +Leaves and beans--these are the vegetable sources of the world's +favorite non-alcoholic table-beverages. Of the two, the tea leaves lead +in total amount consumed; the coffee beans are second; and the cocoa +beans are a distant third, although advancing steadily. But in +international commerce the coffee beans occupy a far more important +position than either of the others, being imported into non-producing +countries to twice the extent of the tea leaves. All three enjoy a +world-wide consumption, although not to the same extent in every nation; +but where either the coffee bean or the tea leaf has established itself +in a given country, the other gets comparatively little attention, and +usually has great difficulty in making any advance. The cocoa bean, on +the other hand, has not risen to the position of popular favorite in any +important consuming country, and so has not aroused the serious +opposition of its two rivals. + +Coffee is universal in its appeal. All nations do it homage. It has +become recognized as a human necessity. It is no longer a luxury or an +indulgence; it is a corollary of human energy and human efficiency. +People love coffee because of its two-fold effect--the pleasurable +sensation and the increased efficiency it produces. + +Coffee has an important place in the rational dietary of all the +civilized peoples of earth. It is a democratic beverage. Not only is it +the drink of fashionable society, but it is also a favorite beverage of +the men and women who do the world's work, whether they toil with brain +or brawn. It has been acclaimed "the most grateful lubricant known to +the human machine," and "the most delightful taste in all nature." + +No "food drink" has ever encountered so much opposition as coffee. Given +to the world by the church and dignified by the medical profession, +nevertheless it has had to suffer from religious superstition and +medical prejudice. During the thousand years of its development it has +experienced fierce political opposition, stupid fiscal restrictions, +unjust taxes, irksome duties; but, surviving all of these, it has +triumphantly moved on to a foremost place in the catalog of popular +beverages. + +But coffee is something more than a beverage. It is one of the world's +greatest adjuvant foods. There are other auxiliary foods, but none that +excels it for palatability and comforting effects, the psychology of +which is to be found in its unique flavor and aroma. + +Men and women drink coffee because it adds to their sense of well-being. +It not only smells good and tastes good to all mankind, heathen or +civilized, but all respond to its wonderful stimulating properties. The +chief factors in coffee goodness are the caffein content and the +caffeol. Caffein supplies the principal stimulant. It increases the +capacity for muscular and mental work without harmful reaction. The +caffeol supplies the flavor and the aroma--that indescribable Oriental +fragrance that wooes us through the nostrils, forming one of the +principal elements that make up the lure of coffee. There are several +other constituents, including certain innocuous so-called caffetannic +acids, that, in combination with the caffeol, give the beverage its rare +gustatory appeal. + +The year 1919 awarded coffee one of its brightest honors. An American +general said that coffee shared with bread and bacon the distinction of +being one of the three nutritive essentials that helped win the World +War for the Allies. So this symbol of human brotherhood has played a not +inconspicuous part in "making the world safe for democracy." The new +age, ushered in by the Peace of Versailles and the Washington +Conference, has for its hand-maidens temperance and self-control. It is +to be a world democracy of right-living and clear thinking; and among +its most precious adjuncts are coffee, tea, and cocoa--because these +beverages must always be associated with rational living, with greater +comfort, and with better cheer. + +Like all good things in life, the drinking of coffee may be abused. +Indeed, those having an idiosyncratic susceptibility to alkaloids should +be temperate in the use of tea, coffee, or cocoa. In every +high-tensioned country there is likely to be a small number of people +who, because of certain individual characteristics, can not drink coffee +at all. These belong to the abnormal minority of the human family. Some +people can not eat strawberries; but that would not be a valid reason +for a general condemnation of strawberries. One may be poisoned, says +Thomas A. Edison, from too much food. Horace Fletcher was certain that +over-feeding causes all our ills. Over-indulgence in meat is likely to +spell trouble for the strongest of us. Coffee is, perhaps, less often +abused than wrongly accused. It all depends. A little more tolerance! + +Trading upon the credulity of the hypochondriac and the +caffein-sensitive, in recent years there has appeared in America and +abroad a curious collection of so-called coffee substitutes. They are +"neither fish nor flesh, nor good red herring." Most of them have been +shown by official government analyses to be sadly deficient in food +value--their only alleged virtue. One of our contemporary attackers of +the national beverage bewails the fact that no palatable hot drink has +been found to take the place of coffee. The reason is not hard to find. +There can be no substitute for coffee. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley has ably +summed up the matter by saying, "A substitute should be able to perform +the functions of its principal. A substitute to a war must be able to +fight. A bounty-jumper is not a substitute." + +It has been the aim of the author to tell the whole coffee story for the +general reader, yet with the technical accuracy that will make it +valuable to the trade. The book is designed to be a work of useful +reference covering all the salient points of coffee's origin, +cultivation, preparation, and development, its place in the world's +commerce and in a rational dietary. + +Good coffee, carefully roasted and properly brewed, produces a natural +beverage that, for tonic effect, can not be surpassed, even by its +rivals, tea and cocoa. Here is a drink that ninety-seven percent of +individuals find harmless and wholesome, and without which life would be +drab indeed--a pure, safe, and helpful stimulant compounded in nature's +own laboratory, and one of the chief joys of life! + + + + +CONTENTS + +A COFFEE THESAURUS + +Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, and the +beverage Page XXVII + + +THE EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE + +Showing the various steps through which the bean passes from plantation to +cup Page XXIX + + +CHAPTER I + +DEALLING WITH THE ETYMOLOGY OF COFFEE + +Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various +languages--Views of many writers Page 1 + + +CHAPTER II + +HISTORY OF COFFEE PROPAGATION + +A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World, +and of its introduction into the New--A romantic coffee adventure + Page 5 + + +CHAPTER III + +EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE DRINKING + +Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries--Stories of its +origin--Discovery by physicians and adoption by the Church--Its spread +through Arabia, Persia, and Turkey--Persecutions and +Intolerances--Early coffee manners and customs Page 11 + + +CHAPTER IV + +INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO WESTERN EUROPE + +When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, came +to Europe--Coffee first mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582--Early days of +coffee in Italy--How Pope Clement VIII baptized it and made it a truly +Christian beverage--The first European coffee house, in Venice, +1645--The famous Caffè Florian--Other celebrated Venetian coffee houses +of the eighteenth century--The romantic story of Pedrocchi, the poor +lemonade-vender, who built the most beautiful coffee house in the world + Page 25 + + +CHAPTER V + +THE BEGINNINGS OF COFFEE IN FRANCE + +What French travelers did for coffee--the introduction of coffee by P. +de la Roque into Marseilles in 1644--The first commercial importation of +coffee from Egypt--The first French coffee house--Failure of the attempt +by physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee--Soliman Aga introduces +coffee into Paris--Cabarets à caffè--Celebrated works on coffee by +French writers Page 31 + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO ENGLAND + +The first printed reference to coffee in English--Early mention of +coffee by noted English travelers and writers--The Lacedæmonian "black +broth" controversy--How Conopios introduced coffee drinking at +Oxford--The first English coffee house in Oxford--Two English botanists +on coffee Page 35 + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO HOLLAND + +How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's market for +coffee--Activities of the Netherlands East India Company--The first +coffee house at the Hague--The first public auction at Amsterdam in +1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a pound, green + Page 43 + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO GERMANY + +The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the literature +of the early history of coffee--The first coffee house in Hamburg opened +by an English merchant--Famous coffee houses of old Berlin--The first +coffee periodical and the first kaffee-klatsch--Frederick the Great's +coffee roasting monopoly--Coffee persecutions--"Coffee-smellers"--The +first coffee king Page 45 + + +CHAPTER IX + +TELLING HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA + +The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitzky, who carried "a +message to Garcia" through the enemy's lines and won for himself the +honor of being the first to teach the Viennese the art of making coffee, +to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the green beans left +behind by the Turks; also the gift of a house from a grateful +municipality, and a statue after death--Affectionate regard in which +"Brother-heart" Kolschitzky is held as the patron saint of the Vienna +_Kaffee-sieder_--Life in the early Vienna café's Page 49 + + +CHAPTER X + +THE COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON + +One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee--The first +coffee house in London--The first coffee handbill, and the first +newspaper advertisement for coffee--Strange coffee mixtures--Fantastic +coffee claims--Coffee prices and coffee licenses--Coffee club of the +Rota--Early coffee-house manners and customs--Coffee-house keepers' +tokens--Opposition to the coffee house--"Penny universities"--Weird +coffee substitutes--The proposed coffee-house newspaper +monopoly--Evolution of the club--Decline and fall of the coffee +house--Pen pictures of coffee-house life--Famous coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--Some Old World pleasure +gardens--Locating the notable coffee houses Page 53 + + +CHAPTER XI + +HISTORY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES + +The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thévenot in 1657--How Soliman +Aga established the custom of coffee drinking at the court of Louis +XIV--Opening of the first coffee houses--How the French adaptation of +the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real French café of +François Procope--Important part played by the coffee houses in the +development of French literature and the stage--Their association with +the Revolution and the founding of the Republic--Quaint customs and +patrons--Historic Parisian café's Page 91 + + +CHAPTER XII + +INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO NORTH AMERICA + +Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the first to +bring to North America a knowledge of coffee in 1607--The coffee grinder +on the Mayflower--Coffee drinking in 1668--William Penn's coffee +purchase in 1683--Coffee in colonial New England--The psychology of the +Boston "tea party," and why the United States became a nation of coffee +drinkers instead of tea drinkers, like England--The first coffee license +to Dorothy Jones in 1670--The first coffee house in New England--Notable +coffee houses of old Boston--A skyscraper coffee-house Page 105 + + +CHAPTER XIII + +HISTORY OF COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK + +The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for "must," or +beer, for breakfast in 1668--William Penn makes his first purchase of +coffee in the green bean from New York merchants in 1683--The King's +Arms, the first coffee house--The historic Merchants, sometimes called +the "Birthplace of our Union"--The coffee house as a civic forum--The +Exchange, Whitehall, Burns, Tontine, and other celebrated coffee +houses--The Vauxhall and Ranelagh pleasure gardens Page 115 + + +CHAPTER XIV + +COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD PHILADELPHIA + +Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about +1700--The two London coffee houses--The City tavern, or Merchants coffee +house--How these, and other celebrated resorts, dominated the social, +political, and business life of the Quaker City in the eighteenth +century Page 125 + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE BOTANY OF THE COFFEE PLANT + +Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, genus, +and species--How the Coffea arabica grows, flowers, and bears--Other +species and hybrids described--Natural caffein-free coffee--Fungoid +diseases of coffee Page 131 + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE MICROSCOPY OF THE COFFEE FRUIT + +How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is +revealed--Structure of the berry, the green, and the roasted beans--The +coffee-leaf disease under the microscope--Value of microscopic analysis +in detecting adulteration Page 149 + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COFFEE BEAN + +_By Charles W. Trigg._ + +Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green bean--Artificial +aging--Renovating damaged coffees--Extracts--"Caffetannic +acid"--Caffein, caffein-free coffee--Caffeol--Fats and +oils--Carbohydrates--Roasting--Scientific aspects of grinding and +packaging--The coffee brew--Soluble coffee--Adulterants and +substitutes--Official methods of analysis Page 155 + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +PHARMACOLOGY OF THE COFFEE DRINK + +_By Charles W. Trigg_ + +General physiological action--Effect on children--Effect on +longevity--Behavior in the alimentary régime--Place in dietary--Action +on bacteria--Use in medicine--Physiological action of "caffetannic +acid"--Of caffeol--Of caffein--Effect of caffein on mental and motor +efficiency--Conclusions Page 174 + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE COMMERCIAL COFFEES OF THE WORLD + +The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America, +Central America, South America, the West India Islands, Asia, Africa, +the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies--A statistical study of the +distribution of the principal kinds--A commercial coffee chart of the +world's leading growths, with market names and general trade +characteristics Page 189 + + +CHAPTER XX + +CULTIVATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT + +The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia--Coffee +cultivation in general--Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation, +preparing the plantation, shade, wind breaks, fertilizing, pruning, +catch crops, pests, and diseases--How coffee is grown around the +world--Cultivation in all the principal producing countries + Page 197 + + +CHAPTER XXI + +PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET + +Early Arabian methods of preparation--How primitive devices were +replaced by modern methods--A chronological story of the development of +scientific plantation machinery, and the part played by English and +American inventors--The marvelous coffee package, one of the most +ingenious in all nature--How coffee is harvested--Picking--Preparation +by the dry and the wet methods--Pulping--Fermentation and +washing--Drying--Hulling, or peeling, and polishing--Sizing, or +grading--Preparation methods of different countries Page 245 + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE + +A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries--Per +capita figures of the leading consuming countries--Coffee-consumption +figures compared with tea-consumption figures in the United States and +the United Kingdom--Three centuries of coffee trading--Coffee drinking +in the United States, past and present--Reviewing the 1921 trade in the +United States Page 273 + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +HOW GREEN COFFEES ARE BOUGHT AND SOLD + +Buying coffee in the producing countries--Transporting coffee to the +consuming markets--Some record coffee cargoes shipped to the United +States--Transport over seas--Java coffee "ex-sailing vessels"--Handling +coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco--The coffee exchanges +of Europe and the United States--Commission men and brokers--Trade and +exchange contracts for delivery--Important rulings affecting coffee +trading--Some well-known green coffee marks Page 303 + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS + +The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the leading +coffees of commerce, with a "Complete Reference Table of the Principal +Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World"--Appearance, aroma, and flavor in +cup-testing--How experts test coffee--A typical sample-roasting and +cup-testing outfit Page 341 + + +CHAPTER XXV + +FACTORY PREPARATION OF ROASTED COFFEE + +Coffee roasting as a business--Wholesale coffee-roasting +machinery--Separating, milling, and mixing or blending green coffee, and +roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity--Facts about coffee +roasting--Cost of roasting--Green-coffee shrinkage table--"Dry" and +"wet" roasts--On roasting coffee efficiently--A typical coal +roaster--Cooling and stoning--Finishing or glazing--Blending roasted +coffees--Blends for restaurants--Grinding and packaging--Coffee +additions and fillers--Treated coffees, and dry extracts Page 379 + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING OF COFFEE + +How coffees are sold at wholesale--The wholesale salesman's place in +merchandising--Some coffee costs analyzed--Handy coffee-selling +chart--Terms and credits--About package coffees--Various types of coffee +containers--Coffee package labels--Coffee package economies--Practical +grocer helps--Coffee sampling--Premium method of sales promotion + Page 407 + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +RETAIL MERCHANDISING OF ROASTED COFFEE + +How coffees are sold at retail--The place of the grocer, the tea and +coffee dealer, the chain store, and the wagon-route distributer in the +scheme of distribution--Starting in the retail coffee business--Small +roasters for retail dealers--Model coffee departments--Creating a coffee +trade--Meeting competition--Splitting nickels--Figuring costs and +profits--A credit policy for retailers--Premiums Page 415 + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE ADVERTISING + +Early coffee advertising--The first coffee advertisement in 1587 was +frank propaganda for the legitimate use of coffee--The first printed +advertisement in English--The first newspaper advertisement--Early +advertisements in colonial America--Evolution of advertising--Package +coffee advertising--Advertising to the trade--Advertising by means of +newspapers, magazines, billboards, electric signs, motion pictures, +demonstrations, and by samples--Advertising for retailers--Advertising +by government propaganda--The Joint Coffee Trade publicity campaign in +the United States--Coffee advertising efficiency Page 431 + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +THE COFFEE TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES + +The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston--Some early +sales--Taxes imposed by Congress in war and peace--The first +coffee-plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-grinder, and +coffee-pot patents--Early trade marks for coffee--Beginnings of the +coffee urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee +business--Chronological record of the most important events in the +history of the trade from the eighteenth century to the twentieth + Page 467 + + +CHAPTER XXX + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE +BUSINESS IN THE UNITED STATES + +A brief history of the growth of coffee trading--Notable firms and +personalities that have played important parts in green coffee in the +principal coffee centers--Green coffee trade organizations--Growth of +the wholesale coffee-roasting trade, and names of those who have made +history in it--The National Coffee Roasters Association--Statistics of +distribution of coffee-roasting establishments in the United States + Page 475 + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +SOME BIG MEN AND NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS + +B.G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the American +"coffee kings"--John Arbuckle, the original package-coffee man--Jabez +Burns, the man who revolutionized the roasted-coffee business by his +contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and writer--Coffee trade booms +and panics--Brazil's first valorization enterprise--War-time government +control of coffee--The story of soluble coffee Page 517 + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +A HISTORY OF COFFEE IN LITERATURE + +The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, +history, drama, philosophic writing, and fiction of the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries and on the writers of today--Coffee quips and +anecdotes Page 541 + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +COFFEE IN RELATION TO THE FINE ARTS + +How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, +engraving, sculpture, caricature, lithography, and music--Epics, +rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee--Beautiful specimens of the +art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee service of +various periods in the world's history--Some historical relics + Page 587 + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +THE EVOLUTION OF COFFEE APPARATUS + +Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, +coffee-making, and coffee-serving devices from the earliest time to the +present day--The original coffee grinder, the first coffee roaster, and +the first coffee pot--The original French drip pot, the De Belloy +percolator--Count Rumford's improvement--How the commercial coffee +roaster was developed--The evolution of filtration devices--The old +Carter "pull-out" roaster--Trade customs in New York and St. Louis in +the sixties and seventies--The story of the evolution of the Burns +roaster--How the gas roaster was developed in France, Great Britain, and +the United States Page 615 + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +WORLD'S COFFEE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS + +How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading civilized +countries--The Arabian coffee ceremony--The present-day coffee houses of +Turkey--Twentieth century improvements in Europe and the United States + Page 655 + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +PREPARATION OF THE UNIVERSAL BEVERAGE + +The evolution of grinding and brewing methods--Coffee was first a food, +then a wine, a medicine, a devotional refreshment, a confection, and +finally a beverage--Brewing by boiling, infusion, percolation, and +filtration--Coffee making in Europe in the nineteenth century--Early +coffee making in the United States--Latest developments in better coffee +making--Various aspects of scientific coffee brewing--Advice to coffee +lovers on how to buy coffee, and how to make it in perfection + Page 693 + + +A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY + +Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, +literature, cultivation, plantation treatment, trading, and in the +preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the present + Page 725 + + +A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY + +A list of references gathered from the principal general and scientific +libraries--Arranged in alphabetic order of topics Page 738 + + +INDEX +Page 769 + +[Illustration] + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + +_Color Plates_ + + _Facing page_ + +Coffee branches, flowers, and fruit (painted +by Blendon Campbell) _Frontispiece_ v + +_Coffea arabica_; leaves, flowers, and fruit +(painted by M.E. Eaton) 1 + +The coffee tree bears fruit, leaf, and blossom +at the same time 16 + +A close-up of ripe coffee berries 32 + +Coffee under the Stars and Stripes 144 + +Coffee scenes in British India 160 + +Picking and sacking coffee in Brazil 176 + +Mild-coffee culture and preparation 192 + +Coffee scenes in Java 200 + +Coffee scenes in Sumatra 216 + +Coffee preparation in Central and South +America 248 + +Typical coffee scenes in Costa Rica 336 + +Principal varieties of green-coffee beans, +natural size and color 352 + +Coal-roasting plant, New York 408 + +Coffee scenes in the Near and Far East 544 + +Primitive transportation methods, Arabia 640 + +Hulling coffee in Aden, Arabia 656 + + +_Black and White Illustrations_ + + _Page_ + +Coffee tree in flower 4 + +De Clieu and his coffee plant 7 + +Legendary discovery of coffee drink 10 + +Title page of Dufour's book 13 + +Frontispiece from Dufour's book 15 + +Turkish coffee house, 17th century 21 + +Serving coffee to a guest, Arabia 23 + +First printed reference to coffee 24 + +An 18th-century Italian coffee house 26 + +Nobility in an early Venetian café 27 + +Goldoni in a Venetian coffee house 28 + +Florian's famous coffee house 29 + +Title page of La Roque's work 32 + +Coffee tree as pictured by La Roque 32 + +Coffee branch in La Roque's work 33 + +First printed reference in English 37 + +Reference in Sherley's travels 39 + +References in Biddulph's travels 40 + +Mol's coffee house at Exeter 41 + +Reference in Sandys' travels 42 + +Richter's coffee house, Leipsic 46 + +Coffee house, Germany, 17th century 47 + +Kolschitzky in his Blue Bottle coffee house 48 + +First coffee house in Leopoldstadt 50 + +Statue of Kolschitzky 51 + +First advertisement for coffee 55 + +First newspaper advertisement 57 + +Coffee house, time of Charles II 60 + +London coffee house, 17th century 61 + +Coffee house, Queen Anne's time 62 + +Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 1) 63 + +A broadside of 1663 64 + +Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 2) 65 + +A broadside of 1667 68 + +A broadside of 1670 70 + +A broadside of 1672 70 + +A broadside of 1674 71 + +White's and Brooke's coffee houses 78 + +London coffee-house politicians 78 + +Great Fair on the frozen Thames 79 + +Lion's head at Button's 80 + +Trio of notables at Button's 81 + +Vauxhall Gardens on a gala night 82 + +Rotunda in Ranelagh Gardens 83 + +Garraway's coffee house 84 + +Button's coffee house 84 + +Slaughter's coffee house 85 + +Tom's coffee house 85 + +Lloyd's coffee house 86 + +Dick's coffee house 87 + +Grecian coffee house 87 + +Don Saltero's coffee house 88 + +British coffee house 88 + +French coffee house in London 89 + +Ramponaux' Royal Drummer café 90 + +La Foire St.-Germain 92 + +Street coffee vender of Paris 92 + +Armenian decorations in Paris café 93 + +Corner of historic Café de Procope 93 + +Café de Procope, Paris 95 + +Cashier's desk in coffee house, Paris 96 + +Café Foy 97 + +Café des Mille Colonnes 99 + +Café de Paris 101 + +Interior of a typical Parisian café 103 + +Chess at the Café de la Régence 104 + +Types of colonial coffee roasters 106 + +Early family coffee roaster 106 + +Historic relics, early New England 107 + +Mayflower "coffee grinder" 108 + +Crown coffee house, Boston 108 + +Coffee devices, Massachusetts colony 109 + +Coffee devices of western pioneers 110 + +Coffee pots of colonial days 110 + +Green Dragon tavern, Boston 111 + +Metal coffee pots, New York colony 112 + +Exchange coffee house, Boston 113 + +President-elect Washington's official welcome +at Merchants Coffee House 114 + +King's Arms coffee house, New York 116 + +Burns coffee house 117 + +Merchants coffee house 119 + +Tontine coffee house 121 + +Tontine building of 1850 122 + +Niblo's Garden 122 + +Coffee relics, Dutch New York 122 + +New York's Vauxhall Garden of 1803 123 + +Tavern and grocers' signs, old New York 124 + +Second London coffee house, Philadelphia 127 + +Selling slaves, old London coffee house 128 + +City tavern, Philadelphia 129 + +Coffee-house scene in "Hamilton" 130 + +Coffee tree, flowers and fruit 132 + +Germination of the coffee plant 133 + +Brazil coffee plantation in flower 134 + +_Coffea arabica_, Porto Rico 135 + +_Coffea arabica_, flower and fruit, Costa Rica 135 + +Young _Coffea arabica_, Kona, Hawaii 136 + +Survivors of first Liberian trees in Java 136 + +_Coffea arabica_ in flower, Java 137 + +Liberian coffee tree, Lamoa, P.I. 138 + +_Coffea congensis_, 2-1/2 years old 138 + +Flowering of 5-year-old _Coffea excelsa_ 139 + +Branches of _Coffea excelsa_ 140 + +_Coffea stenophylla_ 140 + +Near view of _Coffea arabica_ berries 141 + +Wild caffein-free coffee tree 142 + +Coffee bean characteristics 142 + +_Coffea arabica_ berries 143 + +_Robusta_ coffee in flower 144 + +One-year-old _robusta_ estate 145 + +_Coffea Quillou_ flowers 146 + +_Quillou_ coffee tree in blossom 147 + +_Coffea Ugandæ_ 148 + +_Coffea arabica_ under the microscope 149 + +Cross-section of coffee bean 150 + +Cross-section of hull and bean 150 + +Epicarp and pericarp under microscope 151 + +Endocarp and endosperm under microscope 152 + +Spermoderm under microscope 152 + +Tissues of embryo under microscope 152 + +Coffee-leaf disease under microscope 153 + +Green and roasted coffee under microscope 153 + +Green and roasted Bogota under microscope 154 + +Cross-section of endosperm 156 + +Portion of the investing membrane 157 + +Structure of the green bean 157 + +Ground coffee under microscope 167 + +Coffee tree in bearing, Lamoa, P.I. 196 + +Early coffee implements 198 + +Cross-section of mountain slope, Yemen 198 + +First steps in coffee-growing 199 + +Coffee nursery, Guatemala 200 + +Coffee under shade, Porto Rico 201 + +Boekit Gompong estate, Sumatra 202 + +Estate in Antioquia, Colombia 203 + +Weeding and harrowing, São Paulo 204 + +Fazenda Dumont, São Paulo 205 + +Fazenda Guatapara, São Paulo 206 + +Picking coffee, São Paulo 207 + +Intensive cultivation, São Paulo 207 + +Private railroad, São Paulo 208 + +Coffee culture in São Paulo 209 + +Heavily laden coffee tree, Bogota 210 + +Picking coffee, Bogota 211 + +Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela 212 + +Carmen Hacienda, Venezuela 213 + +Heavy fruiting, _Coffea robusta_, Java 214 + +Road through coffee estate, Java 215 + +Native picking coffee, Sumatra 216 + +Administrator's bungalow, Java 216 + +Administrator's bungalow, Sumatra 217 + +Coffee culture in Guatemala 218 + +Indians picking coffee, Guatemala 219 + +Bungalow, coffee estate, Guatemala 220 + +Thirty-year-old coffee trees, Mexico 221 + +Mexican coffee picker 222 + +Receiving coffee, Mexico 223 + +Heavily laden coffee tree, Porto Rico 224 + +Coffee cultivation, Costa Rica 225 + +Picking Costa Rica coffee 226 + +Mountain coffee estate, Costa Rica 226 + +Mysore coffee estate 227 + +Coffee growing under shade, India 228 + +Coffee estate at Harar 229 + +Wild coffee near Adis Abeba 231 + +Mocha coffee growing on terraces 232 + +Picking Blue Mountain berries, Jamaica 233 + +Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe 234 + +Coffee in blossom, Panama 235 + +_Robusta_ coffee, Cochin-China 237 + +Bourbon trees, French Indo-China 238 + +Picking coffee in Queensland 239 + +Coffee in bloom, Kona, Hawaii 240 + +Coffee at Hamakua, Hawaii 241 + +Coffee trees, South Kona, Hawaii 242 + +Plantation near Sagada, P.I. 243 + +Coffee preparation, São Paulo 244 + +Walker's original disk pulper 246 + +Early English coffee peeler 246 + +Group of English cylinder pulpers 247 + +Copper covers for pulper cylinders 248 + +Granada unpulped coffee separator 249 + +Hand-power double-disk pulper 249 + +Tandem coffee pulper 250 + +Horizontal coffee washer 251 + +Vertical coffee washer 251 + +Cobán pulper, Venezuela 252 + +Niagara power coffee huller 252 + +British and American coffee driers 253 + +American Guardiola drier 254 + +Smout peeler and polisher 254 + +Smout peeler and polisher, exposed 255 + +O'Krassa's coffee drier 255 + +Six well-known hullers and separators 256 + +El Monarca coffee classifier 257 + +Hydro-electric installation, Guatemala 258 + +Preparing Brazil coffee for market 259 + +Working coffee on the drying flats 260 + +Fermenting and washing tanks, São Paulo 260 + +Drying grounds, Fazenda Schmidt 261 + +Preparing Colombian coffee for market 262 + +Old-fashioned ox-power huller 263 + +Street-car coffee transport, Orizaba 264 + +Coffee on drying floors, Porto Rico 264 + +Sun-drying coffee 265 + +Drying patio, Costa Rica 266 + +Early Guardiola steam drier 266 + +Indian women cleaning Mocha coffee 267 + +Cleaning-and-grading machinery, Aden 268 + +Drying coffee at Harar 269 + +Preparing Java coffee for market 270 + +Coffee transport in Java 271 + +Meeting of Amsterdam coffee brokers, 1820 291 + +Bill of public sale of coffee, 1790 292 + +Last sample before export, Santos 304 + +Stamping bags for export 304 + +Preparing Brazil coffee for export 305 + +Grading coffee at Santos 306 + +The test by the cups, Santos 306 + +New York importers' warehouse, Santos 307 + +Pack-mule transport in Venezuela 308 + +Coffee-carrying cart, Guatemala 308 + +Pack-oxen fording stream, Colombia 308 + +Coffee transport, Mexico and South America 309 + +Donkey coffee-transport at Harar 310 + +Coffee camels at Harar 310 + +Selling coffee by tapping hands, Aden 310 + +Packing and transporting coffee, Aden 311 + +Coffee camel train at Hodeida 312 + +Methods of loading coffee, Santos 313 + +Coffee freighter, Cauca River, Colombia 314 + +Coffee steamers on the Magdalena 314 + +Loading heavy cargo on Santa Cecilia 315 + +Unloading Java coffee from sailing vessel 317 + +Receiving piers for coffee, New York 318 + +Unloading coffee, covered pier, New York 319 + +Receiving and storing coffee, New York 320 + +Tester at work, Bush Terminal, New York 321 + +Loading lighters, Bush Docks, Brooklyn 321 + +New Terminal system on Staten Island 322 + +Motor tractor, Bush piers 322 + +Unloading with modern conveyor 323 + +Coffee handling, New Orleans piers 324 + +Coffee in steel-covered sheds, New Orleans 325 + +Unloading and storing coffee, San Francisco 326 + +Modern device for handling green coffee 327 + +Handling green coffee at European ports 328 + +New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange 329 + +Coffee section, Coffee and Sugar Exchange 330 + +Blackboards, Coffee Exchange 331 + +"Coffee afloat" blackboard 332 + +Well known green-coffee marks 339 + +Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted 343 + +Flat and Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted 343 + +Rio beans, roasted 343 + +Mexican beans, roasted 347 + +Guatemala beans, roasted 347 + +Bogota (Colombia) beans, roasted 348 + +Maracaibo beans, roasted 349 + +Mocha beans, roasted 351 + +Washed Java beans, roasted 353 + +Sample-roasting and cup-testing outfit 357 + +Modern gas coffee-roasting plant 380 + +Sixteen-cylinder coal roasting plant 382 + +Green-coffee separating and milling machines 384 + +English gas coffee-roasting plant 385 + +German gas coffee-roasting plant 386 + +French gas coffee-roasting plant 387 + +Jumbo coffee roaster, Arbuckle plant 388 + +Roasting plant of Reid, Murdoch & Co. 389 + +Complete gas coffee-plant installation 390 + +Burns Jubilee gas roaster 391 + +Burns coal roaster 392 + +Open perforated cylinder with flexible back head 392 + +Trying the roast 394 + +Monitor gas roaster 394 + +A group of roasting-room accessories 394 + +Dumping the roast 395 + +A four-bag coffee finisher 396 + +Burns sample-coffee roaster 396 + +Lambert coal coffee-roasting outfit 397 + +Coles No. 22 grinding mill 398 + +Monitor coffee-granulating machine 398 + +Challenge pulverizer 398 + +Burns No. 12 grinding mill 399 + +Monitor steel-cut grinder, separator, etc 399 + +Johnson carton-filling, weighing, and sealing machine 400 + +Ideal steel-cut mill 400 + +Smyser package-making and filling machine 401 + +Automatic coffee-packing machine 402 + +Complete coffee-cartoning outfit 403 + +Automatic coffee-weighing machines 404 + +Units in manufacture of soluble coffee 405 + +Types of coffee containers 411 + +Fresh-roasted-coffee idea in retailing 414 + +Premium tea and coffee dealer's display 416 + +Chain-store interior 417 + +Familiar A & P store front 418 + +Specialist idea in coffee merchandising 419 + +Monitor gas roaster, cooler, and stoner 420 + +Royal gas coffee roaster for retailers 420 + +Burns half-bag roaster, cooler, and stoner 421 + +Lambert Jr. roasting outfit for retailers 421 + +Faulder and Simplex gas roasters 422 + +Coffee roasters used in Paris shops 423 + +Small German roasters 424 + +Popular French retail roaster 424 + +Uno cabinet gas roaster and cooler 424 + +Educational window exhibit 425 + +Better-class American grocery, interior 426 + +Prize-winning window display 427 + +Americanized English grocer's shop 429 + +Famous package coffees 430 + +First coffee advertisement in U.S. 433 + +Coffee advertisement of 1790 434 + +First colored handbill for package coffee 435 + +Reverse side of colored handbill 435 + +St. Louis handbill of 1854 436 + +Advertising-card copy, 1873 437 + +Handbill copy of the seventies 437 + +Box-end sticker, 1833 438 + +Chase & Sanborn advertisement, 1888 438 + +A Goldberg cartoon, 1910 439 + +Copy used by Chase & Sanborn, 1900 439 + +An effective cut-out 442 + +How coffee is advertised to the trade 443 + +Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee 447 + +Magazine and newspaper copy, 1919 449 + +Copy that stressed helpfulness of coffee, 1919-20 450 + +Joint Committee's house organ 451 + +Introductory medical-journal copy 451 + +Telling the doctors the truth, 1920 452 + +Joint Committee's attractive booklets 453 + +More medical journal copy, 1920 454 + +Magazine and newspaper copy, 1921 455 + +Educating the doctor, 1922 456 + +Magazine and newspaper copy, 1922 457 + +Specimen of early Yuban copy 459 + +Historical association in advertising 459 + +Package coffee advertising in 1922 460 + +The social distinction argument 461 + +Drawing upon history for atmosphere 461 + +An impressive electric sign, Chicago 462 + +How coffee is advertised outdoors 463 + +Attractive car cards, spring of 1922 464 + +Effective iced-coffee copy 465 + +European advertising novelty, New York 465 + +Coenties Slip, in days of sailing vessels 466 + +First U.S. coffee-grinder patent 469 + +Carter's Pull-out roaster patent 469 + +First registered trade mark for coffee 470 + +Original Arbuckle coffee packages 471 + +Merchants coffee house tablet 473 + +Departed dominant figures in New York green coffee trade 476 + +"Their association with New York green coffee trade +dates back nearly fifty years" 477 + +Green coffee trade-builders who have passed on 478 + +"Their race is run, their course is done" 479 + +112 Front Street, New York, 1879 480 + +At 87 Wall Street, New York, years ago 480 + +Wall and Front Streets, New York, 1922 481 + +Front Street, New York, 1922 483 + +In the New Orleans coffee district 486 + +Green coffee district, New Orleans 487 + +California Street, San Francisco 488 + +San Francisco's coffee district 489 + +Pioneer coffee roasters, New York City 493 + +Oldtime New York coffee roasters 495 + +Pioneer coffee roasters of the North and East, U.S. 500 + +Pioneer coffee roasters of the South and West, U.S. 504 + +Ground coffee price list of 1862 507 + +Organization convention, N.C.R.A., 1911 510 + +Former presidents, N.C.R.A. 512 + +Earliest coffee manuscript 540 + +Song from "The Coffee House" 555 + +Dr. Johnson's seat, the Cheshire Cheese 567 + +Original coffee room, old Cock Tavern 568 + +Morning gossip in the coffee room 569 + +"His Warmest Welcome at an Inn" 571 + +Alexander Pope at Button's, 1730 577 + +Dutch coffee house, 1650 (by Van Ostade) 586 + +White's coffee house, 1733 (by Hogarth) 588 + +Tom King's, 1738 (by Hogarth) 589 + +Petit Déjeuner (by Boucher) 590 + +Coffee service in the home of Madame de Pompadour +(by Van Loo) 590 + +Madame Du Barry (by Decreuse) 591 + +Coffee house at Cairo (by Gérôme) 592 + +Kaffeebesuch (by Philippi) 593 + +Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse (by Ruffio) 593 + +Mad dog in a coffee house (by Rowlandson) 594 + +Napoleon and the Curé (by Charlet) 595 + +Coffee, a chanson (music by Colet) 596 + +Statue of Kolschitzky 597 + +Betty's Aria, Bach's coffee cantata 598 + +Café Pedrocchi, Padua 599 + +Coffee grinder set with jewels 600 + +Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster 600 + +Seventeenth-century tea and coffee pots 601 + +Lantern coffee pot, 1692 602 + +Folkingham pot, 1715-16 602 + +Wastell pot, 1720-21 603 + +Dish of coffee-boy design, 1692 603 + +Chinese porcelain coffee pot 604 + +Silver coffee pots, early 18th century 604 + +Silver coffee pots, 18th century 605 + +Pottery and porcelain pots 606 + +Silver coffee pots, late 18th century 607 + +Porcelain pots, Metropolitan Museum 608 + +Vienna coffee pot, 1830 609 + +Spanish coffee pot, 18th century 609 + +Silver coffee pots in American collections 610 + +Coffee pot by Win. Shaw and Wm. Priest 611 + +Pot of Sheffield plate, 18th century 611 + +Pot by Ephraim Brasher 611 + +French silver coffee pot 612 + +Green Dragon tavern coffee urn 612 + +Coffee pots by American silversmiths 613 + +Twentieth-century American coffee service 613 + +Turkish coffee set, Peter collection 614 + +Oldest coffee grinder 616 + +Grain mill used by Greeks and Romans 616 + +First coffee roaster 616 + +First cylinder roaster, 1650 616 + +Historical relics, U.S. National Museum 617 + +Turkish coffee mill 618 + +Early French wall and table grinders 618 + +Bronze and brass mortars, 17th century 619 + +Early American coffee roasters 619 + +Roaster with three-sided hood 620 + +Roasting, making, and serving devices, 17th century 620 + +English and French coffee grinders 621 + +Eighteenth-century roaster 621 + +Original French drip pot 621 + +Belgian, Russian, and French pewter pots 622 + +17th and 18th century pewter pots 623 + +Count Rumford's percolator 623 + +Drawings of early French coffee makers 624 + +Early French filtration devices 624 + +Early American coffee-maker patents 625 + +French coffee makers, 19th century 625 + +First English commercial roaster patent 626 + +Early French coffee-roasting machines 627 + +Battery of Carter pull-out machines 628 + +Early English and American roasters 630 + +Early Foreign and American coffee-making devices 632 + +Dakin roasting machine of 1848 633 + +Globe stove roaster of 1860 634 + +Hyde's combined roaster and stove 634 + +Original Burns roaster, 1864 635 + +Burns granulating mill, 1872-74 636 + +Napier's vacuum machine 637 + +German gas and coal roasting machines 638 + +Other German coffee roasters 639 + +Original Enterprise mill 640 + +Max Thurmer's quick gas roaster 640 + +An English gas coffee-roasting plant 641 + +French globular roaster 642 + +Sirocco machine (French) 642 + +English roasting and grinding equipment 643 + +Magic gas machine (French) 644 + +Burns Jubilee gas machine 644 + +Double gas roasting outfit (French) 645 + +Lambert's Victory gas machine 646 + +One of the first electric mills 647 + +English electric-fuel roaster 648 + +Ben Franklin electric coffee roaster 648 + +Enterprise hand store mill 649 + +Latest types electric store mills 650 + +Italian rapid coffee-making machines 651 + +Working of Italian rapid machines 652 + +La Victoria Arduino Mignonne 652 + +N.C.R.A. Home coffee mill 653 + +Manthey-Zorn rapid infuser and dispenser 653 + +Tricolette, single-cup filter device 654 + +Moorish coffee house in Algiers 656 + +Coffee house in Cairo 656 + +Coffee service in Cairo barber shop 657 + +Coffee-laden camels, Arabia 658 + +Arabian coffee house 658 + +Mahommedan brewing coffee for guest 659 + +Native café, Harar 661 + +Early coffee, tea, and chocolate service 661 + +Nubian slave girl with coffee service 662 + +Persian coffee service, 1737 663 + +In a Turkish coffee house 664 + +Roasting coffee outside a Turkish café 664 + +Turkish caffinet, early 19th century 665 + +Coffee-making in Turkey 666 + +Street coffee vender in the Levant 666 + +A coffee house in Syria 667 + +Cafetan--garb of oriental café-keeper 668 + +Street coffee service in Constantinople 668 + +Riverside café in Damascus 669 + +Coffee _al fresco_ in Jerusalem 671 + +Café Schrangl, Vienna 672 + +Favorite English way of making coffee 673 + +A café of Ye Mecca Company, London 673 + +Groom's coffee house, London 674 + +Café Monico, Piccadilly Circus, London 674 + +Gatti's, The Strand, London 675 + +Tea lounge, Hotel Savoy, London 675 + +Two popular places for coffee in London 676 + +Temple Bar restaurant, London 677 + +Tea balcony, Hotel Cecil, London 677 + +One of Slater's chain-shops, London 677 + +St. James's restaurant, Picadilly, London 678 + +An A.B.C. shop, London 678 + +Halt of caravaners at a serai, Bulgaria 678 + +Café de la Paix, Paris 679 + +Sidewalk annex, Café de la Paix 680 + +Café de la Régence, Paris 681 + +Café de la Régence in 1922 682 + +One of the Biard cafés, Paris 683 + +Restaurant Procope, 1922 683 + +Morning coffee at a Boulevard café 684 + +Café Bauer, Unter den Linden, Berlin 684 + +Café Bauer, exterior 685 + +Kranzler's Unter den Linden, Berlin 685 + +Swedish coffee boilers 687 + +Sidewalk café, Lisbon 687 + +Coffee rooms replacing hotel bars, U.S. 688 + +Britannia coffee pot--a Lincoln relic 690 + +Coffee service, Hotel Astor, New York 691 + +Early coffee-making in Persia 694 + +Napier vacuum coffee maker 700 + +Napier-List steam coffee machine 700 + +Finley Acker's filter-paper coffee pot 700 + +Kin-Hee pot in operation 701 + +Tricolator in operation 701 + +King percolator 701 + +Three American coffee-making machines in operation 702 + +How the Tru-Bru pot operates 702 + +Coffee-making devices used in U.S. 703 + +English hotel coffee-making machines 706 + +Well-known makes of large coffee urns 707 + +Popular German drip pot 708 + +Section of roasted bean, magnified 719 + +Cross-section of roasted bean, magnified 720 + +Coarse grind under the microscope 720 + +Medium grind under the microscope 721 + +Fine-meal grind under the microscope 721 + + +_Portraits_ + +Ach, F.J. 447, 512 + +Akers, Fred 495 + +Ames, Allan P. 447 + +Arbuckle, John 523 + +Arnold, Benjamin Greene 476, 517 + +Arnold, F.B. 476 + +Bayne, William 479 + +Bayne, William, Jr. 447 + +Beard, Eli 493 + +Beard, Samuel 493 + +Bennett, William H. 479 + +Bickford, C.E. 478 + +Boardman, Thomas J. 500 + +Boardman, William 500 + +Brand, Carl W. 512 + +Brandenstein, M.J. 504 + +Burns, Jabez 527 + +Canby, Edward 500 + +Casanas, Ben C. 512 + +Cauchois. F.A. 493 + +Chase, Caleb 500 + +Cheek, J.O. 504, 515 + +Closset, Joseph 504 + +Coste, Felix 447 + +Crossman, Geo. W. 479 + +Devers, A.H. 504 + +Dwinell, James F. 500 + +Eppens, Fred 495 + +Eppens, Julius A. 495, 497 + +Eppens, W.H. 493, 495 + +Evans, David G. 504 + +Fischer, Benedickt 493 + +Flint, J.G. 500 + +Folger, J.A., Jr. 504 + +Folger, J.A., Sr. 504 + +Forbes, A.E. 504 + +Forbes, Jas. H. 504 + +Geiger, Frank J. 500 + +Gillies, Jas. W. 493 + +Gillies, Wright 493 + +Grossman, William 500 + +Harrison, D.Y. 500 + +Harrison, W.H. 500 + +Haulenbeek, Peter 493 + +Hayward, Martin 500 + +Heekin, James 500 + +Jones, W.T. 504 + +Kimball, O.G. 478 + +Kinsella, W.J. 504 + +Kirkland, Alexander 495 + +Kolschitzky, Franz George 50 + +McLaughlin, W.F. 500 + +Mahood, Samuel 500 + +Mayo, Henry 495 + +Meehan, P.C. 477 + +Menezes, Th. Langgaard de 446 + +Meyer, Robert 511 + +Peck, Edwin H. 477 + +Phyfe, Jas. W. 478 + +Pierce, O.W., Sr. 500 + +Pupke, John F. 495 + +Purcell, Joseph 476 + +Reid, Fred 495 + +Reid, Thomas 493, 495 + +Roome, Col. William P. 499 + +Russell, James C. 478 + +Sanborn, James S. 500 + +Schilling, A. 504 + +Schotten, Julius J. 504, 512 + +Schotten, William 504 + +Seelye, Frank R. 512 + +Sielcken, Hermann 476, 519 + +Simmonds, H. 477 + +Sinnot, J.B. 504 + +Smith, L.B. 493 + +Smith, M.E. 504 + +Sprague, Albert A. 500 + +Stephens, Henry A. 500 + +Stoffregen, Charles 504 + +Stoffregen, C.H. 447 + +Taylor, James H. 477 + +Thomson, A.M. 500 + +Van Loan, Thomas 498 + +Weir, Ross W. 447, 512 + +Westfeldt, George 479 + +Widlar, Francis 500 + +Wilde, Samuel 493 + +Withington, Elijah 493 + +Woolson, Alvin M. 500 + +Wright, George C. 500 + +Wright, George S. 447 + +Young, Samuel 500 + +Zinsmeister, J. 504 + + +_Maps, Charts, and Diagrams_ + +Map of London coffee-house district, 1748 76 + +Formula for Caffein 160 + +Commercial coffee chart 191 + +Eiffel and Woolworth towers in coffee 272 + +World's coffee cup and largest ship 275 + +Coffee exports, 1850-1920 277 + +Coffee exports, 1916-1920 277 + +Brazil coffee exports, 1850-1920 278 + +World's coffee consumption, 1850 286 + +Coffee imports, 1916-1920 286 + +World trend of consumption of tea and coffee, 1860-1920 288 + +Coffee map of World (folded insert) _facing_ 288 + +Pre-war annual average production of coffee by continents 294 + +Pre-war annual average production of coffee by countries 294 + +Pre-war average annual imports of coffee into U.S. by continents 295 + +Pre-war average annual imports of coffee into U.S. by countries 295 + +Pre-war coffee-imports chart 297 + +Pre-war consumption and price chart 297 + +Coffee map, Brazil 342 + +Coffee map, São Paulo, Minãs, and Rio 344 + +Mild-coffee map, 1 346 + +Coffee map, Africa and Arabia 352 + +Mild-coffee map, 2 354 + +Complete reference table (21 pp.) 358 + +Plan of milling-machine connections 381 + +Plan of green-coffee-mixer connections 383 + +Layout for coffee and tea department 418 + +Chart, advertising of coffee and coffee substitutes, 1911-20 440 + +Charts, per capita consumption of coffee, and coffee and substitute +advertising 441 + +Chart, plan of advertising campaign 448 + +Chart, private-brand advertising, 1921 458 + + + + +A COFFEE THESAURUS + +_Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, and +the beverage_ + + +_The Plant_ + +The precious plant +This friendly plant +Mocha's happy tree +The gift of Heaven +The plant with the jessamine-like flowers +The most exquisite perfume of Araby the blest +Given to the human race by the gift of the Gods + + +_The Berry_ + +The magic bean +The divine fruit +Fragrant berries +Rich, royal berry +Voluptuous berry +The precious berry +The healthful bean +The Heavenly berry +The marvelous berry +This all-healing berry +Yemen's fragrant berry +The little aromatic berry +Little brown Arabian berry +Thought-inspiring bean of Arabia +The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends +That wild fruit which gives so beloved a drink + + +_The Beverage_ + +Nepenthe +Festive cup +Juice divine +Nectar divine +Ruddy mocha +A man's drink +Lovable liquor +Delicious mocha +The magic drink +This rich cordial +Its stream divine +The family drink +The festive drink +Coffee is our gold +Nectar of all men +The golden mocha +This sweet nectar +Celestial ambrosia +The friendly drink +The cheerful drink +The essential drink +The sweet draught +The divine draught +The grateful liquor +The universal drink +The American drink +The amber beverage +The convivial drink +The universal thrill +King of all perfumes +The cup of happiness +The soothing draught +Ambrosia of the Gods +The intellectual drink +The aromatic draught +The salutary beverage +The good-fellow drink +The drink of democracy +The drink ever glorious +Wakeful and civil drink +The beverage of sobriety +A psychological necessity +The fighting man's drink +Loved and favored drink +The symbol of hospitality +This rare Arabian cordial +Inspirer of men of letters +The revolutionary beverage +Triumphant stream of sable +Grave and wholesome liquor +The drink of the intellectuals +A restorative of sparkling wit +Its color is the seal of its purity +The sober and wholesome drink +Lovelier than a thousand kisses +This honest and cheering beverage +A wine which no sorrow can resist +The symbol of human brotherhood +At once a pleasure and a medicine +The beverage of the friends of God +The fire which consumes our griefs +Gentle panacea of domestic troubles +The autocrat of the breakfast table +The beverage of the children of God +King of the American breakfast table +Soothes you softly out of dull sobriety +The cup that cheers but not inebriates[1] +Coffee, which makes the politician wise +Its aroma is the pleasantest in all nature +The sovereign drink of pleasure and health[2] +The indispensable beverage of strong nations +The stream in which we wash away our sorrows +The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has brought +Favored liquid which fills all my soul with delight +The delicious libation we pour on the altar of friendship +This invigorating drink which drives sad care from the heart + + + + +EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE + +_Showing the various steps through which the bean passes from plantation +to cup_ + + +1 Planting the seed in nursery +2 Transplanting into rows +3 Cultivating and pruning +4 Picking the cherries +5 Pulping +6 Fermenting +7 Washing +8 Drying in the parchment +9 Hulling +10 Polishing +11 Grading +12 Transporting to the seaport +13 Buying and selling for export +14 Transhipment overseas +15 Buying and selling at wholesale +16 Shipment to the point of manufacture +17 Separating +18 Milling +19 Mixing or blending +20 Roasting +21 Cooling and stoning +22 Buying and selling at retail +23 Grinding +24 Making the beverage + +[Illustration: COFFEE ARABICA; LEAVES, FLOWERS AND FRUIT + +Painted from nature by M.E. Eaton--Detail sketches show anther, pistil, +and section of corolla] + + + + +CHAPTER I + +DEALING WITH THE ETYMOLOGY OF COFFEE + + _Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various + languages--Views of many writers_ + + +The history of the word coffee involves several phonetic difficulties. +The European languages got the name of the beverage about 1600 from the +original Arabic [Arabic] _qahwah_, not directly, but through its +Turkish form, _kahveh_. This was the name, not of the plant, but the +beverage made from its infusion, being originally one of the names +employed for wine in Arabic. + +Sir James Murray, in the _New English Dictionary_, says that some have +conjectured that the word is a foreign, perhaps African, word disguised, +and have thought it connected with the name Kaffa, a town in Shoa, +southwest Abyssinia, reputed native place of the coffee plant, but that +of this there is no evidence, and the name _qahwah_ is not given to the +berry or plant, which is called [Arabic] _bunn_, the native name in +Shoa being _bun_. + +Contributing to a symposium on the etymology of the word coffee in +_Notes and Queries_, 1909, James Platt, Jr., said: + + The Turkish form might have been written _kahvé_, as its final _h_ + was never sounded at any time. Sir James Murray draws attention to + the existence of two European types, one like the French _café_, + Italian _caffè_, the other like the English _coffee_, Dutch + _koffie_. He explains the vowel _o_ in the second series as + apparently representing _au_, from Turkish _ahv_. This seems + unsupported by evidence, and the _v_ is already represented by the + _ff_, so on Sir James's assumption _coffee_ must stand for + _kahv-ve_, which is unlikely. The change from _a_ to _o_, in my + opinion, is better accounted for as an imperfect appreciation. The + exact sound of a in Arabic and other Oriental languages is that + of the English short U, as in "cuff." This sound, so easy to us, is + a great stumbling-block to other nations. I judge that Dutch + _koffie_ and kindred forms are imperfect attempts at the notation + of a vowel which the writers could not grasp. It is clear that the + French type is more correct. The Germans have corrected their + _koffee_, which they may have got from the Dutch, into _kaffee_. + The Scandinavian languages have adopted the French form. Many must + wonder how the _hv_ of the original so persistently becomes _ff_ in + the European equivalents. Sir James Murray makes no attempt to + solve this problem. + +Virendranath Chattopádhyáya, who also contributed to the _Notes and +Queries_ symposium, argued that the _hw_ of the Arabic _qahwah_ becomes +sometimes _ff_ and sometimes only _f_ or _v_ in European translations +because some languages, such as English, have strong syllabic accents +(stresses), while others, as French, have none. Again, he points out +that the surd aspirate _h_ is heard in some languages, but is hardly +audible in others. Most Europeans tend to leave it out altogether. + +Col. W.F. Prideaux, another contributor, argued that the European +languages got one form of the word coffee directly from the Arabic +_qahwah_, and quoted from Hobson-Jobson in support of this: + + _Chaoua_ in 1598, _Cahoa_ in 1610, _Cahue_ in 1615; while Sir + Thomas Herbert (1638) expressly states that "they drink (in Persia) + ... above all the rest, _Coho_ or _Copha_: by Turk and Arab called + _Caphe_ and _Cahua_." Here the Persian, Turkish, and Arabic + pronunciations are clearly differentiated. + +Col. Prideaux then calls, as a witness to the Anglo-Arabic +pronunciation, one whose evidence was not available when the _New +English Dictionary_ and Hobson-Jobson articles were written. This is +John Jourdain, a Dorsetshire seaman, whose _Diary_ was printed by the +Hakluyt Society in 1905. On May 28, 1609, he records that "in the +afternoone wee departed out of Hatch (Al-Hauta, the capital of the Lahej +district near Aden), and travelled untill three in the morninge, and +then wee rested in the plaine fields untill three the next daie, neere +unto a cohoo howse in the desert." On June 5 the party, traveling from +Hippa (Ibb), "laye in the mountaynes, our camells being wearie, and our +selves little better. This mountain is called Nasmarde (Nakil +Sumara), where all the cohoo grows." Farther on was "a little +village, where there is sold cohoo and fruite. The seeds of this cohoo +is a greate marchandize, for it is carried to grand Cairo and all other +places of Turkey, and to the Indias." Prideaux, however, mentions that +another sailor, William Revett, in his journal (1609) says, referring to +Mocha, that "Shaomer Shadli (Shaikh 'Ali bin 'Omar esh-Shadil) was +the fyrst inventour for drynking of coffe, and therefor had in +esteemation." This rather looks to Prideaux as if on the coast of +Arabia, and in the mercantile towns, the Persian pronunciation was in +vogue; whilst in the interior, where Jourdain traveled, the Englishman +reproduced the Arabic. + +Mr. Chattopádhyáya, discussing Col. Prideaux's views as expressed above, +said: + + Col. Prideaux may doubt "if the worthy mariner, in entering the + word in his log, was influenced by the abstruse principles of + phonetics enunciated" by me, but he will admit that the change from + _kahvah_ to _coffee_ is a phonetic change, and must be due to the + operation of some phonetic principle. The average man, when he + endeavours to write a foreign word in his own tongue, is + handicapped considerably by his inherited and acquired phonetic + capacity. And, in fact, if we take the quotations made in + "Hobson-Jobson," and classify the various forms of the word + _coffee_ according to the nationality of the writer, we obtain very + interesting results. + + Let us take Englishmen and Dutchmen first. In Danvers's _Letters_ + (1611) we have both "_coho_ pots" and "_coffao_ pots"; Sir T. Roe + (1615) and Terry (1616) have _cohu_; Sir T. Herbert (1638) has + _coho_ and _copha_; Evelyn (1637), _coffee_; Fryer (1673) _coho_; + Ovington (1690), _coffee_; and Valentijn (1726), _coffi_. And from + the two examples given by Col. Prideaux, we see that Jourdain + (1609) has _cohoo_, and Revett (1609) has _coffe_. + +To the above should be added the following by English writers, given in +Foster's _English Factories in India_ (1618-21, 1622-23, 1624-29): cowha +(1619), cowhe, couha (1621), coffa (1628). + +Let us now see what foreigners (chiefly French and Italian) write. The +earliest European mention is by Rauwolf, who knew it in Aleppo in 1573. +He has the form _chaube_. Prospero Alpini (1580) has _caova_; Paludanus +(1598) _chaoua_; Pyrard de Laval (1610) _cahoa_; P. Della Valle (1615) +_cahue_; Jac. Bontius (1631) _caveah_; and the _Journal d'Antoine +Galland_ (1673) _cave_. That is, Englishmen use forms of a certain +distinct type, _viz._, cohu, coho, coffao, coffe, copha, coffee, which +differ from the more correct transliteration of foreigners. + +In 1610 the Portuguese Jew, Pedro Teixeira (in the Hakluyt Society's +edition of his _Travels_) used the word _kavàh_. + +The inferences from these transitional forms seem to be: 1. The word +found its way into the languages of Europe both from the Turkish and +from the Arabic. 2. The English forms (which have strong stress on the +first syllable) have _o_ instead of _a_, and _f_ instead of _h_. +3. The foreign forms are unstressed and have no _h_. The original _v_ or +_w_ (or labialized _u_) is retained or changed into _f_. + +It may be stated, accordingly, that the chief reason for the existence +of two distinct types of spelling is the omission of _h_ in unstressed +languages, and the conversion of _h_ into _f_ under strong stress in +stressed languages. Such conversion often takes place in Turkish; for +example, _silah dar_ in Persian (which is a highly stressed language) +becomes _zilif dar_ in Turkish. In the languages of India, on the other +hand, in spite of the fact that the aspirate is usually very clearly +sounded, the word _qahvah_ is pronounced _kaiva_ by the less +educated classes, owing to the syllables being equally stressed. + +Now for the French viewpoint. Jardin[3] opines that, as regards the +etymology of the word coffee, scholars are not agreed and perhaps never +will be. Dufour[4] says the word is derived from _caouhe_, a name given +by the Turks to the beverage prepared from the seed. Chevalier +d'Arvieux, French consul at Alet, Savary, and Trevoux, in his +dictionary, think that coffee comes from the Arabic, but from the word +_cahoueh_ or _quaweh_, meaning to give vigor or strength, because, says +d'Arvieux, its most general effect is to fortify and strengthen. +Tavernier combats this opinion. Moseley attributes the origin of the +word coffee to Kaffa. Sylvestre de Sacy, in his _Chréstomathie Arabe_, +published in 1806, thinks that the word _kahwa_, synonymous with +_makli_, roasted in a stove, might very well be the etymology of the +word coffee. D'Alembert in his encyclopedic dictionary, writes the word +_caffé_. Jardin concludes that whatever there may be in these various +etymologies, it remains a fact that the word coffee comes from an +Arabian word, whether it be _kahua_, _kahoueh_, _kaffa_ or _kahwa_, and +that the peoples who have adopted the drink have all modified the +Arabian word to suit their pronunciation. This is shown by giving the +word as written in various modern languages: + +French, _café_; Breton, _kafe_; German, _kaffee_ (coffee tree, +_kaffeebaum_); Dutch, _koffie_ (coffee tree, _koffieboonen_); Danish, +_kaffe_; Finnish, _kahvi_; Hungarian, _kavé_; Bohemian, _kava_; Polish, +_kawa_; Roumanian, _cafea_; Croatian, _kafa_; Servian, _kava_; Russian, +_kophe_; Swedish, _kaffe_; Spanish, _café_; Basque, _kaffia_; Italian, +_caffè_; Portuguese, _café_; Latin (scientific), _coffea_; Turkish, +_kahué_; Greek, _kaféo_; Arabic, _qahwah_ (coffee berry, _bun_); +Persian, _qéhvé_ (coffee berry, _bun_[5]); Annamite, _ca-phé_; +Cambodian, _kafé_; Dukni[6], _bunbund_[7]; Teluyan[8], _kapri-vittulu_; +Tamil[9], _kapi-kottai_ or _kopi_; Canareze[10], _kapi-bija_; Chinese, +_kia-fey_, _teoutsé_; Japanese, _kéhi_; Malayan, _kawa_, _koppi_; +Abyssinian, _bonn_[11]; Foulak, _legal café_[12]; Sousou, _houri +caff_[13]; Marquesan, _kapi_; Chinook[14], _kaufee_; Volapuk, _kaf_; +Esperanto, _kafva_. + +[Illustration: THE FAIRY BEAUTY OF A COFFEE TREE IN FLOWER] + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HISTORY OF COFFEE PROPAGATION + + _A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old + World and its introduction into the New--A romantic coffee + adventure_ + + +The history of the propagation of the coffee plant is closely interwoven +with that of the early history of coffee drinking, but for the purposes +of this chapter we shall consider only the story of the inception and +growth of the cultivation of the coffee tree, or shrub, bearing the +seeds, or berries, from which the drink, coffee, is made. + +Careful research discloses that most authorities agree that the coffee +plant is indigenous to Abyssinia, and probably Arabia, whence its +cultivation spread throughout the tropics. The first reliable mention of +the properties and uses of the plant is by an Arabian physician toward +the close of the ninth century A.D., and it is reasonable to suppose +that before that time the plant was found growing wild in Abyssinia and +perhaps in Arabia. If it be true, as Ludolphus writes,[15] that the +Abyssinians came out of Arabia into Ethiopia in the early ages, it is +possible that they may have brought the coffee tree with them; but the +Arabians must still be given the credit for discovering and promoting +the use of the beverage, and also for promoting the propagation of the +plant, even if they found it in Abyssinia and brought it to Yemen. + +Some authorities believe that the first cultivation of coffee in Yemen +dates back to 575 A.D., when the Persian invasion put an end to the +Ethiopian rule of the negus Caleb, who conquered the country in 525. + +Certainly the discovery of the beverage resulted in the cultivation of +the plant in Abyssinia and in Arabia; but its progress was slow until +the 15th and 16th centuries, when it appears as intensively carried on +in the Yemen district of Arabia. The Arabians were jealous of their new +found and lucrative industry, and for a time successfully prevented its +spread to other countries by not permitting any of the precious berries +to leave the country unless they had first been steeped in boiling water +or parched, so as to destroy their powers of germination. It may be that +many of the early failures successfully to introduce the cultivation of +the coffee plant into other lands was also due to the fact, discovered +later, that the seeds soon lose their germinating power. + +However, it was not possible to watch every avenue of transport, with +thousands of pilgrims journeying to and from Mecca every year; and so +there would appear to be some reason to credit the Indian tradition +concerning the introduction of coffee cultivation into southern India by +Baba Budan, a Moslem pilgrim, as early as 1600, although a better +authority gives the date as 1695. Indian tradition relates that Baba +Budan planted his seeds near the hut he built for himself at Chickmaglur +in the mountains of Mysore, where, only a few years since, the writer +found the descendants of these first plants growing under the shade of +the centuries-old original jungle trees. The greater part of the plants +cultivated by the natives of Kurg and Mysore appear to have come from +the Baba Budan importation. It was not until 1840 that the English began +the cultivation of coffee in India. The plantations extend now from the +extreme north of Mysore to Tuticorin. + + +_Early Cultivation by the Dutch_ + +In the latter part of the 16th century, German, Italian, and Dutch +botanists and travelers brought back from the Levant considerable +information regarding the new plant and the beverage. In 1614 +enterprising Dutch traders began to examine into the possibilities of +coffee cultivation and coffee trading. In 1616 a coffee plant was +successfully transported from Mocha to Holland. In 1658 the Dutch +started the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon, although the Arabs are said +to have brought the plant to the island prior to 1505. In 1670 an +attempt was made to cultivate coffee on European soil at Dijon, France, +but the result was a failure. + +In 1696, at the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen, then burgomaster of +Amsterdam, Adrian Van Ommen, commander at Malabar, India, caused to be +shipped from Kananur, Malabar, to Java, the first coffee plants +introduced into that island. They were grown from seed of the _Coffea +arabica_ brought to Malabar from Arabia. They were planted by +Governor-General Willem Van Outshoorn on the Kedawoeng estate near +Batavia, but were subsequently lost by earthquake and flood. In 1699 +Henricus Zwaardecroon imported some slips, or cuttings, of coffee trees +from Malabar into Java. These were more successful, and became the +progenitors of all the coffees of the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch were +then taking the lead in the propagation of the coffee plant. + +In 1706 the first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown in +Java, were received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens. Many plants were +afterward propagated from the seeds produced in the Amsterdam gardens, +and these were distributed to some of the best known botanical gardens +and private conservatories in Europe. + +While the Dutch were extending the cultivation of the plant to Sumatra, +the Celebes, Timor, Bali, and other islands of the Netherlands Indies, +the French were seeking to introduce coffee cultivation into their +colonies. Several attempts were made to transfer young plants from the +Amsterdam botanical gardens to the botanical gardens at Paris; but all +were failures. + +In 1714, however, as a result of negotiations entered into between the +French government and the municipality of Amsterdam, a young and +vigorous plant about five feet tall was sent to Louis XIV at the chateau +of Marly by the burgomaster of Amsterdam. The day following, it was +transferred to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, where it was received +with appropriate ceremonies by Antoine de Jussieu, professor of botany +in charge. This tree was destined to be the progenitor of most of the +coffees of the French colonies, as well as of those of South America, +Central America, and Mexico. + + +_The Romance of Captain Gabriel de Clieu_ + +Two unsuccessful attempts were made to transport to the Antilles plants +grown from the seed of the tree presented to Louis XIV; but the honor of +eventual success was won by a young Norman gentleman, Gabriel Mathieu de +Clieu, a naval officer, serving at the time as captain of infantry at +Martinique. The story of de Clieu's achievement is the most romantic +chapter in the history of the propagation of the coffee plant. + +His personal affairs calling him to France, de Clieu conceived the idea +of utilizing the return voyage to introduce coffee cultivation into +Martinique. His first difficulty lay in obtaining several of the plants +then being cultivated in Paris, a difficulty at last overcome through +the instrumentality of M. de Chirac, royal physician, or, according to a +letter written by de Clieu himself, through the kindly offices of a lady +of quality to whom de Chirac could give no refusal. The plants selected +were kept at Rochefort by M. Bégon, commissary of the department, until +the departure of de Clieu for Martinique. Concerning the exact date of +de Clieu's arrival at Martinique with the coffee plant, or plants, there +is much conflict of opinion. Some authorities give the date as 1720, +others 1723. Jardin[16] suggests that the discrepancy in dates may arise +from de Clieu, with praiseworthy perseverance, having made the voyage +twice. The first time, according to Jardin, the plants perished; but the +second time de Clieu had planted the seeds when leaving France and these +survived, "due, they say, to his having given of his scanty ration of +water to moisten them." No reference to a preceding voyage, however, is +made by de Clieu in his own account, given in a letter written to the +_Année Littéraire_[17] in 1774. There is also a difference of opinion as +to whether de Clieu arrived with one or three plants. He himself says +"one" in the letter referred to. + +According to the most trustworthy data, de Clieu embarked at Nantes, +1723.[18] He had installed his precious plant in a box covered with a +glass frame in order to absorb the rays of the sun and thus better to +retain the stored-up heat for cloudy days. Among the passengers one man, +envious of the young officer, did all in his power to wrest from him the +glory of success. Fortunately his dastardly attempt failed of its +intended effect. + +"It is useless," writes de Clieu in his letter to the _Année +Littéraire_, "to recount in detail the infinite care that I was obliged +to bestow upon this delicate plant during a long voyage, and the +difficulties I had in saving it from the hands of a man who, basely +jealous of the joy I was about to taste through being of service to my +country, and being unable to get this coffee plant away from me, tore +off a branch." + +[Illustration: CAPTAIN DE CLIEU SHARES HIS DRINKING WATER WITH THE +COFFEE PLANT HE IS CARRYING TO MARTINIQUE] + +The vessel carrying de Clieu was a merchantman, and many were the trials +that beset passengers and crew. Narrowly escaping capture by a corsair +of Tunis, menaced by a violent tempest that threatened to annihilate +them, they finally encountered a calm that proved more appalling than +either. The supply of drinking water was well nigh exhausted, and what +was left was rationed for the remainder of the voyage. + +"Water was lacking to such an extent," says de Clieu, "that for more +than a month I was obliged to share the scanty ration of it assigned to +me with this my coffee plant upon which my happiest hopes were founded +and which was the source of my delight. It needed such succor the more +in that it was extremely backward, being no larger than the slip of a +pink." Many stories have been written and verses sung recording and +glorifying this generous sacrifice that has given luster to the name of +de Clieu. + +Arrived in Martinique, de Clieu planted his precious slip on his estate +in Prêcheur, one of the cantons of the island; where, says Raynal, "it +multiplied with extraordinary rapidity and success." From the seedlings +of this plant came most of the coffee trees of the Antilles. The first +harvest was gathered in 1726. + +De Clieu himself describes his arrival as follows: + + Arriving at home, my first care was to set out my plant with great + attention in the part of my garden most favorable to its growth. + Although keeping it in view, I feared many times that it would be + taken from me; and I was at last obliged to surround it with thorn + bushes and to establish a guard about it until it arrived at + maturity ... this precious plant which had become still more dear + to me for the dangers it had run and the cares it had cost me. + +Thus the little stranger thrived in a distant land, guarded day and +night by faithful slaves. So tiny a plant to produce in the end all the +rich estates of the West India islands and the regions bordering on the +Gulf of Mexico! What luxuries, what future comforts and delights, +resulted from this one small talent confided to the care of a man of +rare vision and fine intellectual sympathy, fired by the spirit of real +love for his fellows! There is no instance in the history of the French +people of a good deed done by stealth being of greater service to +humanity. + +De Clieu thus describes the events that followed fast upon the +introduction of coffee into Martinique, with particular reference to +the earthquake of 1727: + + Success exceeded my hopes. I gathered about two pounds of seed + which I distributed among all those whom I thought most capable of + giving the plants the care necessary to their prosperity. + + The first harvest was very abundant; with the second it was + possible to extend the cultivation prodigiously, but what favored + multiplication, most singularly, was the fact that two years + afterward all the cocoa trees of the country, which were the + resource and occupation of the people, were uprooted and totally + destroyed by horrible tempests accompanied by an inundation which + submerged all the land where these trees were planted, land which + was at once made into coffee plantations by the natives. These did + marvelously and enabled us to send plants to Santo Domingo, + Guadeloupe, and other adjacent islands, where since that time they + have been cultivated with the greatest success. + +By 1777 there were 18,791,680 coffee trees in Martinique. + +De Clieu was born in Angléqueville-sur-Saane, Seine-Inférieure +(Normandy), in 1686 or 1688.[19] In 1705 he was a ship's ensign; in 1718 +he became a chevalier of St. Louis; in 1720 he was made a captain of +infantry; in 1726, a major of infantry; in 1733 he was a ship's +lieutenant; in 1737 he became governor of Guadeloupe; in 1746 he was a +ship's captain; in 1750 he was made honorary commander of the order of +St. Louis; in 1752 he retired with a pension of 6000 francs; in 1753 he +re-entered the naval service; in 1760 he again retired with a pension of +2000 francs. + +In 1746 de Clieu, having returned to France, was presented to Louis XV +by the minister of marine, Rouillé de Jour, as "a distinguished officer +to whom the colonies, as well as France itself, and commerce generally, +are indebted for the cultivation of coffee." + +Reports to the king in 1752 and 1759 recall his having carried the first +coffee plant to Martinique, and that he had ever been distinguished for +his zeal and disinterestedness. In the _Mercure de France_, December, +1774, was the following death notice: + + Gabriel d'Erchigny de Clieu, former Ship's Captain and Honorary + Commander of the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis, died in + Paris on the 30th of November in the 88th year of his age. + +A notice of his death appeared also in the _Gazette de France_ for +December 5, 1774, a rare honor in both cases; and it has been said that +at this time his praise was again on every lip. + +One French historian, Sidney Daney,[20] records that de Clieu died in +poverty at St. Pierre at the age of 97; but this must be an error, +although it does not anywhere appear that at his death he was possessed +of much, if any, means. Daney says: + + This generous man received as his sole recompense for a noble deed + the satisfaction of seeing this plant for whose preservation he had + shown such devotion, prosper throughout the Antilles. The + illustrious de Clieu is among those to whom Martinique owes a + brilliant reparation. + +Daney tells also that in 1804 there was a movement in Martinique to +erect a monument upon the spot where de Clieu planted his first coffee +plant, but that the undertaking came to naught. + +Pardon, in his _La Martinique_ says: + + Honor to this brave man! He has deserved it from the people of two + hemispheres. His name is worthy of a place beside that of + Parmentier who carried to France the potato of Canada. These two + men have rendered immense service to humanity, and their memory + should never be forgotten--yet alas! Are they even remembered? + +Tussac, in his _Flora de las Antillas_, writing of de Clieu, says, +"Though no monument be erected to this beneficent traveler, yet his name +should remain engraved in the heart of every colonist." + +In 1774 the _Année Littéraire_ published a long poem in de Clieu's +honor. In the feuilleton of the _Gazette de France_, April 12, 1816, we +read that M. Donns, a wealthy Hollander, and a coffee connoisseur, +sought to honor de Clieu by having painted upon a porcelain service all +the details of his voyage and its happy results. "I have seen the cups," +says the writer, who gives many details and the Latin inscription. + +That singer of navigation, Esménard, has pictured de Clieu's devotion in +the following lines: + +Forget not how de Clieu with his light vessel's sail, +Brought distant Moka's gift--that timid plant and frail. +The waves fell suddenly, young zephyrs breathed no more, +Beneath fierce Cancer's fires behold the fountain store, +Exhausted, fails; while now inexorable need +Makes her unpitying law--with measured dole obeyed. + +Now each soul fears to prove Tantalus torment first. +De Clieu alone defies: While still that fatal thirst, +Fierce, stifling, day by day his noble strength devours, +And still a heaven of brass inflames the burning hours. +With that refreshing draught his life he will not cheer; +But drop by drop revives the plant he holds more dear. +Already as in dreams, he sees great branches grow, +One look at his dear plant assuages all his woe. + +The only memorial to de Clieu in Martinique is the botanical garden at +Fort de France, which was opened in 1918 and dedicated to de Clieu, +"whose memory has been too long left in oblivion.[21]" + +In 1715 coffee cultivation was first introduced into Haiti and Santo +Domingo. Later came hardier plants from Martinique. In 1715-17 the +French Company of the Indies introduced the cultivation of the plant +into the Isle of Bourbon (now Réunion) by a ship captain named +Dufougeret-Grenier from St. Malo. It did so well that nine years later +the island began to export coffee. + +The Dutch brought the cultivation of coffee to Surinam in 1718. The +first coffee plantation in Brazil was started at Pará in 1723 with +plants brought from French Guiana, but it was not a success. The English +brought the plant to Jamaica in 1730. In 1740 Spanish missionaries +introduced coffee cultivation into the Philippines from Java. In 1748 +Don José Antonio Gelabert introduced coffee into Cuba, bringing the seed +from Santo Domingo. In 1750 the Dutch extended the cultivation of the +plant to the Celebes. Coffee was introduced into Guatemala about +1750-60. The intensive cultivation in Brazil dates from the efforts +begun in the Portuguese colonies in Pará and Amazonas in 1752. Porto +Rico began the cultivation of coffee about 1755. In 1760 João Alberto +Castello Branco brought to Rio de Janeiro a coffee tree from Goa, +Portuguese India. The news spread that the soil and climate of Brazil +were particularly adapted to the cultivation of coffee. Molke, a Belgian +monk, presented some seeds to the Capuchin monastery at Rio in 1774. +Later, the bishop of Rio, Joachim Bruno, became a patron of the plant +and encouraged its propagation in Rio, Minãs, Espirito Santo, and São +Paulo. The Spanish voyager, Don Francisco Xavier Navarro, is credited +with the introduction of coffee into Costa Rica from Cuba in 1779. In +Venezuela the industry was started near Caracas by a priest, José +Antonio Mohedano, with seed brought from Martinique in 1784. + +Coffee cultivation in Mexico began in 1790, the seed being brought from +the West Indies. In 1817 Don Juan Antonio Gomez instituted intensive +cultivation in the State of Vera Cruz. In 1825 the cultivation of the +plant was begun in the Hawaiian Islands with seeds from Rio de Janeiro. +As previously noted, the English began to cultivate coffee in India in +1840. In 1852 coffee cultivation was begun in Salvador with plants +brought from Cuba. In 1878 the English began the propagation of coffee +in British Central Africa, but it was not until 1901 that coffee +cultivation was introduced into British East Africa from Réunion. In +1887 the French introduced the plant into Tonkin, Indo-China. Coffee +growing in Queensland, introduced in 1896, has been successful in a +small way. + +In recent years several attempts have been made to propagate the coffee +plant in the southern United States, but without success. It is +believed, however, that the topographic and climatic conditions in +southern California are favorable for its cultivation. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: OMAR AND THE MARVELOUS COFFEE BIRD] + +[Illustration: KALDI AND HIS DANCING GOATS] + +[Illustration: THE LEGENDARY DISCOVERY OF THE COFFEE DRINK + +From drawings by a modern French artist] + + + + +CHAPTER III + +EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE DRINKING + + _Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries--Stories of its + origin--Discovery by physicians and adoption by the Church--Its + spread through Arabia, Persia and Turkey--Persecutions and + intolerances--Early coffee manners and customs_ + + +The coffee drink had its rise in the classical period of Arabian +medicine, which dates from Rhazes (Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya El +Razi) who followed the doctrines of Galen and sat at the feet of +Hippocrates. Rhazes (850-922) was the first to treat medicine in an +encyclopedic manner, and, according to some authorities, the first +writer to mention coffee. He assumed the poetical name of Razi because +he was a native of the city of Raj in Persian Irak. He was a great +philosopher and astronomer, and at one time was superintendent of the +hospital at Bagdad. He wrote many learned books on medicine and surgery, +but his principal work is _Al-Haiwi_, or _The Continent_, a collection +of everything relating to the cure of disease from Galen to his own +time. + +Philippe Sylvestre Dufour (1622-87)[22], a French coffee merchant, +philosopher, and writer, in an accurate and finished treatise on coffee, +tells us (see the early edition of the work translated from the Latin) +that the first writer to mention the properties of the coffee bean under +the name of _bunchum_ was this same Rhazes, "in the ninth century after +the birth of our Saviour"; from which (if true) it would appear that +coffee has been known for upwards of 1000 years. Robinson[23], however, +is of the opinion that _bunchum_ meant something else and had nothing to +do with coffee. Dufour, himself, in a later edition of his _Traitez +Nouveaux et Curieux du Café_ (the Hague, 1693) is inclined to admit that +_bunchum_ may have been a root and not coffee, after all; however, he is +careful to add that there is no doubt that the Arabs knew coffee as far +back as the year 800. Other, more modern authorities, place it as early +as the sixth century. + +_Wiji Kawih_ is mentioned in a Kavi (Javan) inscription A.D. 856; and it +is thought that the "bean broth" in David Tapperi's list of Javanese +beverages (1667-82) may have been coffee[24]. + +While the true origin of coffee drinking may be forever hidden among the +mysteries of the purple East, shrouded as it is in legend and fable, +scholars have marshaled sufficient facts to prove that the beverage was +known in Ethiopia "from time immemorial," and there is much to add +verisimilitude to Dufour's narrative. This first coffee merchant-prince, +skilled in languages and polite learning, considered that his character +as a merchant was not inconsistent with that of an author; and he even +went so far as to say there were some things (for instance, coffee) on +which a merchant could be better informed than a philosopher. + +Granting that by _bunchum_ Rhazes meant coffee, the plant and the drink +must have been known to his immediate followers; and this, indeed, seems +to be indicated by similar references in the writings of Avicenna (Ibn +Sina), the Mohammedan physician and philosopher, who lived from 980 to +1037 A.D. + +Rhazes, in the quaint language of Dufour, assures us that "_bunchum_ +(coffee) is hot and dry and very good for the stomach." Avicenna +explains the medicinal properties and uses of the coffee bean (_bon_ or +_bunn_), which he, also, calls _bunchum_, after this fashion: + + As to the choice thereof, that of a lemon color, light, and of a + good smell, is the best; the white and the heavy is naught. It is + hot and dry in the first degree, and, according to others, cold in + the first degree. It fortifies the members, it cleans the skin, and + dries up the humidities that are under it, and gives an excellent + smell to all the body. + +The early Arabians called the bean and the tree that bore it, _bunn_; +the drink, _bunchum_. A. Galland[25] (1646-1715), the French Orientalist +who first analyzed and translated from the Arabic the Abd-al-Kâdir +manuscript[26], the oldest document extant telling of the origin of +coffee, observes that Avicenna speaks of the _bunn_, or coffee; as do +also Prospero Alpini and Veslingius (Vesling). Bengiazlah, another great +physician, contemporary with Avicenna, likewise mentions coffee; by +which, says Galland, one may see that we are indebted to physicians for +the discovery of coffee, as well as of sugar, tea, and chocolate. + +Rauwolf[27] (d. 1596), German physician and botanist, and the first +European to mention coffee, who became acquainted with the beverage in +Aleppo in 1573, telling how the drink was prepared by the Turks, says: + + In this same water they take a fruit called _Bunnu_, which in its + bigness, shape, and color is almost like unto a bayberry, with two + thin shells surrounded, which, as they informed me, are brought + from the _Indies_; but as these in themselves are, and have within + them, two yellowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides, + being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and name with the + _Bunchum_ of Avicenna and _Bunco_, of _Rasis ad Almans_ exactly: + therefore I take them to be the same. + +In Dr. Edward Pocoke's translation (Oxford, 1659) of _The Nature of the +Drink Kauhi, or Coffee, and the Berry of which it is Made, Described by +an Arabian Phisitian_, we read: + + _Bun_ is a plant in _Yaman_ [Yemen], which is planted in _Adar_, + and groweth up and is gathered in _Ab_. It is about a cubit high, + on a stalk about the thickness of one's thumb. It flowers white, + leaving a berry like a small nut, but that sometimes it is broad + like a bean; and when it is peeled, parteth in two. The best of it + is that which is weighty and yellow; the worst, that which is + black. It is hot in the first degree, dry in the second: it is + usually reported to be cold and dry, but it is not so; for it is + bitter, and whatsoever is bitter is hot. It may be that the scorce + is hot, and the Bun it selfe either of equall temperature, or cold + in the first degree. + + That which makes for its coldnesse is its stipticknesse. In summer + it is by experience found to conduce to the drying of rheumes, and + flegmatick coughes and distillations, and the opening of + obstructions, and the provocation of urin. It is now known by the + name of _Kohwah_. When it is dried and thoroughly boyled, it + allayes the ebullition of the blood, is good against the small poxe + and measles, the bloudy pimples; yet causeth vertiginous headheach, + and maketh lean much, occasioneth waking, and the Emrods, and + asswageth lust, and sometimes breeds melancholly. + + He that would drink it for livelinesse sake, and to discusse + slothfulnesse, and the other properties that we have mentioned, let + him use much sweat meates with it, and oyle of pistaccioes, and + butter. Some drink it with milk, but it is an error, and such as + may bring in danger of the leprosy. + +Dufour concludes that the coffee beans of commerce are the same as the +_bunchum_ (_bunn_) described by Avicenna and the _bunca_ (_bunchum_) of +Rhazes. In this he agrees, almost word for word, with Rauwolf, +indicating no change in opinion among the learned in a hundred years. + +Christopher Campen thinks Hippocrates, father of medicine, knew and +administered coffee. + +Robinson, commenting upon the early adoption of coffee into materia +medica, charges that it was a mistake on the part of the Arab +physicians, and that it originated the prejudice that caused coffee to +be regarded as a powerful drug instead of as a simple and refreshing +beverage. + + +_Homer, the Bible, and Coffee_ + +In early Grecian and Roman writings no mention is made of either the +coffee plant or the beverage made from the berries. Pierre (Pietro) +Delia Valle[28] (1586-1652), however, maintains that the _nepenthe_, +which Homer says Helen brought with her out of Egypt, and which she +employed as surcease for sorrow, was nothing else but coffee mixed with +wine.[29] This is disputed by M. Petit, a well known physician of Paris, +who died in 1687. Several later British authors, among them, Sandys, +the poet; Burton; and Sir Henry Blount, have suggested the probability +of coffee being the "black broth" of the Lacedæmonians. + +George Paschius, in his Latin treatise of the _New Discoveries Made +since the Time of the Ancients_, printed at Leipsic in 1700, says he +believes that coffee was meant by the five measures of parched corn +included among the presents Abigail made to David to appease his wrath, +as recorded in the _Bible_, 1 Samuel, xxv, 18. The _Vulgate_ translates +the Hebrew words _sein kali_ into _sata polentea_, which signify wheat, +roasted, or dried by fire. + +[Illustration: TITLE PAGE OF DUFOUR'S BOOK, EDITION OF 1693] + +Pierre Étienne Louis Dumant, the Swiss Protestant minister and author, +is of the opinion that coffee (and not lentils, as others have supposed) +was the red pottage for which Esau sold his birthright; also that the +parched grain that Boaz ordered to be given Ruth was undoubtedly roasted +coffee berries. + +Dufour mentions as a possible objection against coffee that "the use and +eating of beans were heretofore forbidden by Pythagoras," but intimates +that the coffee bean of Arabia is something different. + +Scheuzer,[30] in his _Physique Sacrée_, says "the Turks and the Arabs +make with the coffee bean a beverage which bears the same name, and many +persons use as a substitute the flour of roasted barley." From this we +learn that the coffee substitute is almost as old as coffee itself. + + +_Some Early Legends_ + +After medicine, the church. There are several Mohammedan traditions that +have persisted through the centuries, claiming for "the faithful" the +honor and glory of the first use of coffee as a beverage. One of these +relates how, about 1258 A.D., Sheik Omar, a disciple of Sheik Abou'l +hasan Schadheli, patron saint and legendary founder of Mocha, by chance +discovered the coffee drink at Ousab in Arabia, whither he had been +exiled for a certain moral remissness. + +Facing starvation, he and his followers were forced to feed upon the +berries growing around them. And then, in the words of the faithful Arab +chronicle in the Bibliothéque Nationale at Paris, "having nothing to eat +except coffee, they took of it and boiled it in a saucepan and drank of +the decoction." Former patients in Mocha who sought out the good +doctor-priest in his Ousab retreat, for physic with which to cure their +ills, were given some of this decoction, with beneficial effect. As a +result of the stories of its magical properties, carried back to the +city, Sheik Omar was invited to return in triumph to Mocha where the +governor caused to be built a monastery for him and his companions. + +Another version of this Oriental legend gives it as follows: + + The dervish Hadji Omar was driven by his enemies out of Mocha into + the desert, where they expected he would die of starvation. This + undoubtedly would have occurred if he had not plucked up courage to + taste some strange berries which he found growing on a shrub. While + they seemed to be edible, they were very bitter; and he tried to + improve the taste by roasting them. He found, however, that they + had become very hard, so he attempted to soften them with water. + The berries seemed to remain as hard as before, but the liquid + turned brown, and Omar drank it on the chance that it contained + some of the nourishment from the berries. He was amazed at how it + refreshed him, enlivened his sluggishness, and raised his drooping + spirits. Later, when he returned to Mocha, his salvation was + considered a miracle. The beverage to which it was due sprang into + high favor, and Omar himself was made a saint. + +A popular and much-quoted version of Omar's discovery of coffee, also +based upon the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript, is the following: + + In the year of the Hegira 656, the mollah Schadheli went on a + pilgrimage to Mecca. Arriving at the mountain of the Emeralds + (Ousab), he turned to his disciple Omar and said: "I shall die in + this place. When my soul has gone forth, a veiled person will + appear to you. Do not fail to execute the command which he will + give you." + + The venerable Schadheli being dead, Omar saw in the middle of the + night a gigantic specter covered by a white veil. + + "Who are you?" he asked. + + The phantom drew back his veil, and Omar saw with surprise + Schadheli himself, grown ten cubits since his death. The mollah dug + in the ground, and water miraculously appeared. The spirit of his + teacher bade Omar fill a bowl with the water and to proceed on his + way and not to stop till he reached the spot where the water would + stop moving. + + "It is there," he added, "that a great destiny awaits you." + + Omar started his journey. Arriving at Mocha in Yemen, he noticed + that the water was immovable. It was here that he must stop. + + The beautiful village of Mocha was then ravaged by the plague. Omar + began to pray for the sick and, as the saintly man was close to + Mahomet, many found themselves cured by his prayers. + + The plague meanwhile progressing, the daughter of the King of Mocha + fell ill and her father had her carried to the home of the dervish + who cured her. But as this young princess was of rare beauty, after + having cured her, the good dervish tried to carry her off. The king + did not fancy this new kind of reward. Omar was driven from the + city and exiled on the mountain of Ousab, with herbs for food and a + cave for a home. + + "Oh, Schadheli, my dear master," cried the unfortunate dervish one + day; "if the things which happened to me at Mocha were destined, + was it worth the trouble to give me a bowl to come here?" + + To these just complaints, there was heard immediately a song of + incomparable harmony, and a bird of marvelous plumage came to rest + in a tree. Omar sprang forward quickly toward the little bird which + sang so well, but then he saw on the branches of the tree only + flowers and fruit. Omar laid hands on the fruit, and found it + delicious. Then he filled his great pockets with it and went back + to his cave. As he was preparing to boil a few herbs for his + dinner, the idea came to him of substituting for this sad soup, + some of his harvested fruit. From it he obtained a savory and + perfumed drink; it was coffee. + +The Italian _Journal of the Savants_ for the year 1760 says that two +monks, Scialdi and Ayduis, were the first to discover the properties of +coffee, and for this reason became the object of special prayers. "Was +not this Scialdi identical with the Sheik Schadheli?" asks Jardin.[31] + +The most popular legend ascribes the discovery of the drink to an +Arabian herdsman in upper Egypt, or Abyssinia, who complained to the +abbot of a neighboring monastery that the goats confided to his care +became unusually frolicsome after eating the berries of certain shrubs +found near their feeding grounds. The abbot, having observed the fact, +determined to try the virtues of the berries on himself. He, too, +responded with a new exhilaration. Accordingly, he directed that some be +boiled, and the decoction drunk by his monks, who thereafter found no +difficulty in keeping awake during the religious services of the night. +The abbé Massieu in his poem, _Carmen Caffaeum_, thus celebrates the +event: + +The monks each in turn, as the evening draws near, +Drink 'round the great cauldron--a circle of cheer! +And the dawn in amaze, revisiting that shore, +On idle beds of ease surprised them nevermore! + +According to the legend, the news of the "wakeful monastery" spread +rapidly, and the magical berry soon "came to be in request throughout +the whole kingdom; and in progress of time other nations and provinces +of the East fell into the use of it." + +The French have preserved the following picturesque version of this +legend: + + A young goatherd named Kaldi noticed one day that his goats, whose + deportment up to that time had been irreproachable, were abandoning + themselves to the most extravagant prancings. The venerable buck, + ordinarily so dignified and solemn, bounded about like a young kid. + Kaldi attributed this foolish gaiety to certain fruits of which the + goats had been eating with delight. + + The story goes that the poor fellow had a heavy heart; and in the + hope of cheering himself up a little, he thought he would pick and + eat of the fruit. The experiment succeeded marvelously. He forgot + his troubles and became the happiest herder in happy Arabia. When + the goats danced, he gaily made himself one of the party, and + entered into their fun with admirable spirit. + + One day, a monk chanced to pass by and stopped in surprise to find + a ball going on. A score of goats were executing lively pirouettes + like a ladies' chain, while the buck solemnly _balancé-ed_, and the + herder went through the figures of an eccentric pastoral dance. + + The astonished monk inquired the cause of this saltatorial madness; + and Kaldi told him of his precious discovery. + + Now, this poor monk had a great sorrow; he always went to sleep in + the middle of his prayers; and he reasoned that Mohammed without + doubt was revealing this marvelous fruit to him to overcome his + sleepiness. + +[Illustration: ARAB DRINKING COFFEE; CHINAMAN, TEA; AND INDIAN, +CHOCOLATE + +Frontispiece from Dufour's work] + + Piety does not exclude gastronomic instincts. Those of our good + monk were more than ordinary; because he thought of drying and + boiling the fruit of the herder. This ingenious concoction gave us + coffee. Immediately all the monks of the realm made use of the + drink, because it encouraged them to pray and, perhaps, also + because it was not disagreeable. + +In those early days it appears that the drink was prepared in two ways; +one in which the decoction was made from the hull and the pulp +surrounding the bean, and the other from the bean itself. The roasting +process came later and is an improvement generally credited to the +Persians. There is evidence that the early Mohammedan churchmen were +seeking a substitute for the wine forbidden to them by the Koran, when +they discovered coffee. The word for coffee in Arabic, _qahwah_, is the +same as one of those used for wine; and later on, when coffee drinking +grew so popular as to threaten the very life of the church itself, this +similarity was seized upon by the church-leaders to support their +contention that the prohibition against wine applied also to coffee. + +La Roque,[32] writing in 1715, says that the Arabian word _cahouah_ +signified at first only wine; but later was turned into a generic term +applied to all kinds of drink. "So there were really three sorts of +coffee; namely, wine, including all intoxicating liquors; the drink made +with the shells, or cods, of the coffee bean; and that made from the +bean itself." + +Originally, then, the coffee drink may have been a kind of wine made +from the coffee fruit. In the coffee countries even today the natives +are very fond, and eat freely, of the ripe coffee cherries, voiding the +seeds. The pulp surrounding the coffee seeds (beans) is pleasant to +taste, has a sweetish, aromatic flavor, and quickly ferments when +allowed to stand. + +Still another tradition (was the wish father to the thought?) tells how +the coffee drink was revealed to Mohammed himself by the Angel Gabriel. +Coffee's partisans found satisfaction in a passage in the _Koran_ which, +they said, foretold its adoption by the followers of the Prophet: + + They shall be given to drink an excellent wine, sealed; its seal is + that of the musk. + +The most diligent research does not carry a knowledge of coffee back +beyond the time of Rhazes, two hundred years after Mohammed; so there is +little more than speculation or conjecture to support the theory that it +was known to the ancients, in Bible times or in the days of The Praised +One. Our knowledge of tea, on the other hand, antedates the Christian +era. We know also that tea was intensively cultivated and taxed under +the Tang dynasty in China, A.D. 793, and that Arab traders knew of it in +the following century. + + +_The First Reliable Coffee Date_ + +About 1454 Sheik Gemaleddin Abou Muhammad Bensaid, mufti of Aden, +surnamed Aldhabani, from Dhabhan, a small town where he was born, became +acquainted with the virtues of coffee on a journey into Abyssinia.[33] +Upon his return to Aden, his health became impaired; and remembering the +coffee he had seen his countrymen drinking in Abyssinia, he sent for +some in the hope of finding relief. He not only recovered from his +illness; but, because of its sleep-dispelling qualities, he sanctioned +the use of the drink among the dervishes "that they might spend the +night in prayers or other religious exercises with more attention and +presence of mind.[34]" + +It is altogether probable that the coffee drink was known in Aden before +the time of Sheik Gemaleddin; but the endorsement of the very learned +imam, whom science and religion had already made famous, was sufficient +to start a vogue for the beverage that spread throughout Yemen, and +thence to the far corners of the world. We read in the Arabian +manuscript at the Bibliothéque Nationale that lawyers, students, as well +as travelers who journeyed at night, artisans, and others, who worked at +night, to escape the heat of the day, took to drinking coffee; and even +left off another drink, then becoming popular, made from the leaves of a +plant called _khat_ or _cat_ (_catha edulis_). + +Sheik Gemaleddin was assisted in his work of spreading the gospel of +this the first propaganda for coffee by one Muhammed Alhadrami, a +physician of great reputation, born in Hadramaut, Arabia Felix. + +A recently unearthed and little known version of coffee's origin shows +how features of both the Omar tradition and the Gemaleddin story may be +combined by a professional Occidental tale-writer[35]: + + Toward the middle of the fifteenth century, a poor Arab was + traveling in Abyssinia. Finding himself weak and weary, he stopped + near a grove. For fuel wherewith to cook his rice, he cut down a + tree that happened to be covered with dried berries. His meal being + cooked and eaten, the traveler discovered that these half-burnt + berries were fragrant. He collected a number of them and, on + crushing them with a stone, found that the aroma was increased to a + great extent. While wondering at this, he accidentally let the + substance fall into an earthen vessel that contained his scanty + supply of water. + + A miracle! The almost putrid water was purified. He brought it to + his lips; it was fresh and agreeable; and after a short rest the + traveler so far recovered his strength and energy as to be able to + resume his journey. The lucky Arab gathered as many berries as he + could, and having arrived at Aden, informed the mufti of his + discovery. That worthy was an inveterate opium-smoker, who had been + suffering for years from the influence of the poisonous drug. He + tried an infusion of the roasted berries, and was so delighted at + the recovery of his former vigor that in gratitude to the tree he + called it _cahuha_ which in Arabic signifies "force". + +Galland, in his analysis of the Arabian manuscript, already referred to, +that has furnished us with the most trustworthy account of the origin of +coffee, criticizes Antoine Faustus Nairon, Maronite professor of +Oriental languages at Rome, who was the author of the first printed +treatise on coffee only,[36] for accepting the legends relating to Omar +and the Abyssinian goatherd. He says they are unworthy of belief as +facts of history, although he is careful to add that there is _some_ +truth in the story of the discovery of coffee by the Abyssinian goats +and the abbot who prescribed the use of the berries for his monks, "the +Eastern Christians being willing to have the honor of the invention of +coffee, for the abbot, or prior, of the convent and his companions are +only the mufti Gemaleddin and Muhammid Alhadrami, and the monks are the +dervishes." + +Amid all these details, Jardin reaches the conclusion that it is to +chance we must attribute the knowledge of the properties of coffee, and +that the coffee tree was transported from its native land to Yemen, as +far as Mecca, and possibly into Persia, before being carried into Egypt. + +Coffee, being thus favorably introduced into Aden, it has continued +there ever since, without interruption. By degrees the cultivation of +the plant and the use of the beverage passed into many neighboring +places. Toward the close of the fifteenth century (1470-1500) it reached +Mecca and Medina, where it was introduced, as at Aden, by the dervishes, +and for the same religious purpose. About 1510 it reached Grand Cairo in +Egypt, where the dervishes from Yemen, living in a district by +themselves, drank coffee on the nights they intended to spend in +religious devotion. They kept it in a large red earthen vessel--each in +turn receiving it, respectfully, from their superior, in a small bowl, +which he dipped into the jar--in the meantime chanting their prayers, +the burden of which was always: "There is no God but one God, the true +King, whose power is not to be disputed." + +[Illustration: A BOUQUET OF RIPE FRUIT] + +[Illustration: FLOWERS, FRUIT, AND LEAVES] + +[Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE BEARS FRUIT, LEAF, AND BLOSSOM AT THE +SAME TIME] + +After the dervishes, the bowl was passed to lay members of the +congregation. In this way coffee came to be so associated with the act +of worship that "they never performed a religious ceremony in public and +never observed any solemn festival without taking coffee." + +Meanwhile, the inhabitants of Mecca became so fond of the beverage that, +disregarding its religious associations, they made of it a secular drink +to be sipped publicly in _kaveh kanes_, the first coffee houses. Here +the idle congregated to drink coffee, to play chess and other games, to +discuss the news of the day, and to amuse themselves with singing, +dancing, and music, contrary to the manners of the rigid Mahommedans, +who were very properly scandalized by such performances. In Medina and +in Cairo, too, coffee became as common a drink as in Mecca and Aden. + + +_The First Coffee Persecution_ + +At length the pious Mahommedans began to disapprove of the use of coffee +among the people. For one thing, it made common one of the best +psychology-adjuncts of their religion; also, the joy of life, that it +helped to liberate among those who frequented the coffee houses, +precipitated social, political, and religious arguments; and these +frequently developed into disturbances. Dissensions arose even among the +churchmen themselves. They divided into camps for and against coffee. +The law of the Prophet on the subject of wine was variously construed as +applying to coffee. + +About this time (1511) Kair Bey was governor of Mecca for the sultan of +Egypt. He appears to have been a strict disciplinarian, but lamentably +ignorant of the actual conditions obtaining among his people. As he was +leaving the mosque one evening after prayers, he was offended by seeing +in a corner a company of coffee drinkers who were preparing to pass the +night in prayer. His first thought was that they were drinking wine; and +great was his astonishment when he learned what the liquor really was +and how common was its use throughout the city. Further investigation +convinced him that indulgence in this exhilarating drink must incline +men and women to extravagances prohibited by law, and so he determined +to suppress it. First he drove the coffee drinkers out of the mosque. + +The next day, he called a council of officers of justice, lawyers, +physicians, priests, and leading citizens, to whom he declared what he +had seen the evening before at the mosque; and, "being resolved to put a +stop to the coffee-house abuses, he sought their advice upon the +subject." The chief count in the indictment was that "in these places +men and women met and played tambourines, violins, and other musical +instruments. There were also people who played chess, mankala, and other +similar games, for money; and there were many other things done contrary +to our sacred law--may God keep it from all corruption until the day +when we shall all appear before him![37]" + +The lawyers agreed that the coffee houses needed reforming; but as to +the drink itself, inquiry should be made as to whether it was in any way +harmful to mind or body; for if not, it might not be sufficient to close +the places that sold it. It was suggested that the opinion of the +physicians be sought. + +Two brothers, Persian physicians named Hakimani, and reputed the best in +Mecca, were summoned, although we are told they knew more about logic +than they did about physic. One of them came into the council fully +prejudiced, as he had already written a book against coffee, and filled +with concern for his profession, being fearful lest the common use of +the new drink would make serious inroads on the practise of medicine. +His brother joined with him in assuring the assembly that the plant +_bunn_, from which coffee was made, was "cold and dry" and so +unwholesome. When another physician present reminded them that +Bengiazlah, the ancient and respected contemporary of Avicenna, taught +that it was "hot and dry," they made arbitrary answer that Bengiazlah +had in mind another plant of the same name, and that anyhow, it was not +material; for, if the coffee drink disposed people to things forbidden +by religion, the safest course for Mahommedans was to look upon it as +unlawful. + +The friends of coffee were covered with confusion. Only the mufti spoke +out in the meeting in its favor. Others, carried away by prejudice or +misguided zeal, affirmed that coffee clouded their senses. One man arose +and said it intoxicated like wine; which made every one laugh, since he +could hardly have been a judge of this if he had not drunk wine, which +is forbidden by the Mohammedan religion. Upon being asked whether he had +ever drunk any, he was so imprudent as to admit that he had, thereby +condemning himself out of his own mouth to the bastinado. + +The mufti of Aden, being both an officer of the court and a divine, +undertook, with some heat, a defense of coffee; but he was clearly in an +unpopular minority. He was rewarded with the reproaches and affronts of +the religious zealots. + +So the governor had his way, and coffee was solemnly condemned as thing +forbidden by the law; and a presentment was drawn up, signed by a +majority of those present, and dispatched post-haste by the governor to +his royal master, the sultan, at Cairo. At the same time, the governor +published an edict forbidding the sale of coffee in public or private. +The officers of justice caused all the coffee houses in Mecca to be +shut, and ordered all the coffee found there, or in the merchants' +warehouses, to be burned. + +Naturally enough, being an unpopular edict, there were many evasions, +and much coffee drinking took place behind closed doors. Some of the +friends of coffee were outspoken in their opposition to the order, being +convinced that the assembly had rendered a judgment not in accordance +with the facts, and above all, contrary to the opinion of the mufti who, +in every Arab community, is looked up to as the interpreter, or +expounder, of the law. One man, caught in the act of disobedience, +besides being severely punished, was also led through the most public +streets of the city seated on an ass. + +However, the triumph of the enemies of coffee was short-lived; for not +only did the sultan of Cairo disapprove the "indiscreet zeal" of the +governor of Mecca, and order the edict revoked; but he read him a severe +lesson on the subject. How dared he condemn a thing approved at Cairo, +the capital of his kingdom, where there were physicians whose opinions +carried more weight than those of Mecca, and who had found nothing +against the law in the use of coffee? The best things might be abused, +added the sultan, even the sacred waters of Zamzam, but this was no +reason for an absolute prohibition. The fountain, or well, of Zamzam, +according to the Mohammedan teaching, is the same which God caused to +spring up in the desert to comfort Hagar and Ishmael when Abraham +banished them. It is in the enclosure of the temple at Mecca; and the +Mohammedans drink of it with much show of devotion, ascribing great +virtues to it. + +It is not recorded whether the misguided governor was shocked at this +seeming profanity; but it is known that he hastened to obey the orders +of his lord and master. The prohibition was recalled, and thereafter he +employed his authority only to preserve order in the coffee houses. The +friends of coffee, and the lovers of poetic justice, found satisfaction +in the governor's subsequent fate. He was exposed as "an extortioner and +a public robber," and "tortured to death," his brother killing himself +to avoid the same fate. The two Persian physicians who had played so +mean a part in the first coffee persecution, likewise came to an unhappy +end. Being discredited in Mecca they fled to Cairo, where, in an +unguarded moment, having cursed the person of Selim I, emperor of the +Turks, who had conquered Egypt, they were executed by his order. + +Coffee, being thus re-established at Mecca, met with no opposition until +1524, when, because of renewed disorders, the kadi of the town closed +the coffee houses, but did not seek to interfere with coffee drinking at +home and in private. His successor, however, re-licensed them; and, +continuing on their good behavior since then, they have not been +disturbed. + +In 1542 a ripple was caused by an order issued by Soliman the Great, +forbidding the use of coffee; but no one took it seriously, especially +as it soon became known that the order had been obtained "by surprise" +and at the desire of only one of the court ladies "a little too nice in +this point." + +One of the most interesting facts in the history of the coffee drink is +that wherever it has been introduced it has spelled revolution. It has +been the world's most radical drink in that its function has always been +to make people think. And when the people began to think, they became +dangerous to tyrants and to foes of liberty of thought and action. +Sometimes the people became intoxicated with their new found ideas; and, +mistaking liberty for license, they ran amok, and called down upon their +heads persecutions and many petty intolerances. So history repeated +itself in Cairo, twenty-three years after the first Mecca persecution. + + +_Coffee's Second Religious Persecution_ + +Selim I, after conquering Egypt, had brought coffee to Constantinople in +1517. The drink continued its progress through Syria, and was received +in Damascus (about 1530), and in Aleppo (about 1532), without +opposition. Several coffee houses of Damascus attained wide fame, among +them the Café of the Roses, and the Café of the Gate of Salvation. + +Its increasing popularity and, perhaps, the realization that the +continued spread of the beverage might lessen the demand for his +services, caused a physician of Cairo to propound (about 1523) to his +fellows this question: + + What is your opinion concerning the liquor called coffee which is + drank in company, as being reckoned in the number of those we have + free leave to make use of, notwithstanding it is the cause of no + small disorders, that it flies up into the head and is very + pernicious to health? Is it permitted or forbidden? + +At the end he was careful to add, as his own opinion (and without +prejudice?), that coffee was unlawful. To the credit of the physicians +of Cairo as a class, it should be recorded that they looked with +unsympathetic eyes upon this attempt on the part of one of their number +to stir up trouble for a valuable adjunct to their materia medica, and +so the effort died a-borning. + +If the physicians were disposed to do nothing to stop coffee's progress, +not so the preachers. As places of resort, the coffee houses exercised +an appeal that proved stronger to the popular mind than that of the +temples of worship. This to men of sound religious training was +intolerable. The feeling against coffee smouldered for a time; but in +1534 it broke out afresh. In that year a fiery preacher in one of +Cairo's mosques so played upon the emotions of his congregation with a +preachment against coffee, claiming that it was against the law and that +those who drank it were not true Mohammedans, that upon leaving the +building a large number of his hearers, enraged, threw themselves into +the first coffee house they found in their way, burned the coffee pots +and dishes, and maltreated all the persons they found there. + +Public opinion was immediately aroused; and the city was divided into +two parties; one maintaining that coffee was against the law of +Mohammed, and the other taking the contrary view. And then arose a +Solomon in the person of the chief justice, who summoned into his +presence the learned physicians for consultation. Again the medical +profession stood by its guns. The medical men pointed out to the chief +justice that the question had already been decided by their predecessors +on the side of coffee, and that the time had come to put some check "on +the furious zeal of the bigots" and the "indiscretions of ignorant +preachers." Whereupon, the wise judge caused coffee to be served to the +whole company and drank some himself. By this act he "re-united the +contending parties, and brought coffee into greater esteem than ever." + + +_Coffee in Constantinople_ + +The story of the introduction of coffee into Constantinople shows that +it experienced much the same vicissitudes that marked its advent at +Mecca and Cairo. There were the same disturbances, the same unreasoning +religious superstition, the same political hatreds, the same stupid +interference by the civil authorities; and yet, in spite of it all, +coffee attained new honors and new fame. The Oriental coffee house +reached its supreme development in Constantinople. + +Although coffee had been known in Constantinople since 1517, it was not +until 1554 that the inhabitants became acquainted with that great +institution of early eastern democracy--the coffee house. In that year, +under the reign of Soliman the Great, son of Selim I, one Schemsi of +Damascus and one Hekem of Aleppo opened the first two coffee houses in +the quarter called Taktacalah. They were wonderful institutions for +those days, remarkable alike for their furnishings and their comforts, +as well as for the opportunity they afforded for social intercourse and +free discussion. Schemsi and Hekem received their guests on "very neat +couches or sofas," and the admission was the price of a dish of +coffee--about one cent. + +Turks, high and low, took up the idea with avidity. Coffee houses +increased in number. The demand outstripped the supply. In the seraglio +itself special officers (_kahvedjibachi_) were commissioned to prepare +the coffee drink for the sultan. Coffee was in favor with all classes. + +The Turks gave to the coffee houses the name _kahveh kanes_ +(_diversoria_, Cotovicus called them); and as they grew in popularity, +they became more and more luxurious. There were lounges, richly +carpeted; and in addition to coffee, many other means of entertainment. +To these "schools of the wise" came the "young men ready to enter upon +offices of judicature; kadis from the provinces, seeking re-instatement +or new appointments; muderys, or professors; officers of the seraglio; +bashaws; and the principal lords of the port," not to mention merchants +and travelers from all parts of the then known world. + + +_Coffee House Persecutions_ + +About 1570, just when coffee seemed settled for all time in the social +scheme, the imams and dervishes raised a loud wail against it, saying +the mosques were almost empty, while the coffee houses were always full. +Then the preachers joined in the clamor, affirming it to be a greater +sin to go to a coffee house than to enter a tavern. The authorities +began an examination; and the same old debate was on. This time, +however, appeared a mufti who was unfriendly to coffee. The religious +fanatics argued that Mohammed had not even known of coffee, and so could +not have used the drink, and, therefore, it must be an abomination for +his followers to do so. Further, coffee was burned and ground to +charcoal before making a drink of it; and the _Koran_ distinctly forbade +the use of charcoal, including it among the unsanitary foods. The mufti +decided the question in favor of the zealots, and coffee was forbidden +by law. + +The prohibition proved to be more honored in the breach than in the +observance. Coffee drinking continued in secret, instead of in the open. +And when, about 1580, Amurath III, at the further solicitation of the +churchmen, declared in an edict that coffee should be classed with wine, +and so prohibited in accordance with the law of the Prophet, the people +only smiled, and persisted in their secret disobedience. Already they +were beginning to think for themselves on religious as well as political +matters. The civil officers, finding it useless to try to suppress the +custom, winked at violations of the law; and, for a consideration, +permitted the sale of coffee privately, so that many Ottoman +"speak-easies" sprung up--places where coffee might be had behind shut +doors; shops where it was sold in back-rooms. + +This was enough to re-establish the coffee houses by degrees. Then came +a mufti less scrupulous or more knowing than his predecessor, who +declared that coffee was not to be looked upon as coal, and that the +drink made from it was not forbidden by the law. There was a general +renewal of coffee drinking; religious devotees, preachers, lawyers, and +the mufti himself indulging in it, their example being followed by the +whole court and the city. + +After this, the coffee houses provided a handsome source of revenue to +each succeeding grand vizier; and there was no further interference with +the beverage until the reign of Amurath IV, when Grand Vizier Kuprili, +during the war with Candia, decided that for political reasons, the +coffee houses should be closed. His argument was much the same as that +advanced more than a hundred years later by Charles II of England, +namely, that they were hotbeds of sedition. Kuprili was a military +dictator, with nothing of Charles's vacillating nature; and although, +like Charles, he later rescinded his edict, he enforced it, while it was +effective, in no uncertain fashion. Kuprili was no petty tyrant. For a +first violation of the order, cudgeling was the punishment; for a second +offense, the victim was sewn in a leather bag and thrown into the +Bosporus. Strangely enough, while he suppressed the coffee houses, he +permitted the taverns, that sold wine forbidden by the _Koran_, to +remain open. Perhaps he found the latter produced a less dangerous kind +of mental stimulation than that produced by coffee. Coffee, says Virey, +was too intellectual a drink for the fierce and senseless administration +of the pashas. + +Even in those days it was not possible to make people good by law. +Paraphrasing the copy-book, suppressed desires will arise, though all +the world o'erwhelm them, to men's eyes. An unjust law was no more +enforceable in those centuries than it is in the twentieth century. Men +are humans first, although they may become brutish when bereft of +reason. But coffee does not steal away their reason; rather, it sharpens +their reasoning faculties. As Galland has truly said: "Coffee joins men, +born for society, in a more perfect union; protestations are more +sincere in being made at a time when the mind is not clouded with fumes +and vapors, and therefore not easily forgotten, which too frequently +happens when made over a bottle." + +[Illustration: CHARACTERISTIC SCENE IN A TURKISH COFFEE HOUSE OF THE +SEVENTEENTH CENTURY] + +Despite the severe penalties staring them in the face, violations of the +law were plentiful among the people of Constantinople. Venders of the +beverage appeared in the market-places with "large copper vessels with +fire under them; and those who had a mind to drink were invited to step +into any neighboring shop where every one was welcome on such an +account." + +Later, Kuprili, having assured himself that the coffee houses were no +longer a menace to his policies, permitted the free use of the beverage +that he had previously forbidden. + + +_Coffee and Coffee Houses in Persia_ + +Some writers claim for Persia the discovery of the coffee drink; but +there is no evidence to support the claim. There are, however, +sufficient facts to justify a belief that here, as in Ethiopia, coffee +has been known from time immemorial--which is a very convenient phrase. +At an early date the coffee house became an established institution in +the chief towns. The Persians appear to have used far more intelligence +than the Turks in handling the political phase of the coffee-house +question, and so it never became necessary to order them suppressed in +Persia. + +The wife of Shah Abbas, observing that great numbers of people were wont +to gather and to talk politics in the leading coffee house of Ispahan, +appointed a mollah--an ecclesiastical teacher and expounder of the +law--to sit there daily to entertain the frequenters of the place with +nicely turned points of history, law, and poetry. Being a man of wisdom +and great tact, he avoided controversial questions of state; and so +politics were kept in the background. He proved a welcome visitor, and +was made much of by the guests. This example was generally followed, and +as a result disturbances were rare in the coffee houses of Ispahan. + +Adam Olearius[38] (1599-1671), who was secretary to the German Embassy +that traveled in Turkey in 1633-36, tells of the great diversions made +in Persian coffee houses "by their poets and historians, who are seated +in a high chair from whence they make speeches and tell satirical +stories, playing in the meantime with a little stick and using the same +gestures as our jugglers and legerdemain men do in England." + +At court conferences conspicuous among the shah's retinue were always to +be seen the "kahvedjibachi," or "coffee-pourers." + + +_Early Coffee Manners and Customs_ + +Karstens Niebuhr[39] (1733-1815), the Hanoverian traveler, furnishes the +following description of the early Arabian, Syrian, and Egyptian coffee +houses: + + They are commonly large halls, having their floors spread with + mats, and illuminated at night by a multitude of lamps. Being the + only theaters for the exercise of profane eloquence, poor scholars + attend here to amuse the people. Select portions are read, _e.g._ + the adventures of Rustan Sal, a Persian hero. Some aspire to the + praise of invention, and compose tales and fables. They walk up and + down as they recite, or assuming oratorial consequence, harangue + upon subjects chosen by themselves. + + In one coffee house at Damascus an orator was regularly hired to + tell his stories at a fixed hour; in other cases he was more + directly dependant upon the taste of his hearers, as at the + conclusion of his discourse, whether it had consisted of literary + topics or of loose and idle tales, he looked to the audience for a + voluntary contribution. + + At Aleppo, again, there was a man with a soul above the common, + who, being a person of distinction, and one that studied merely for + his own pleasure, had yet gone the round of all the coffee houses + in the city to pronounce moral harangues. + +In some coffee houses there were singers and dancers, as before, and +many came to listen to the marvelous tales, of the _Thousand and One +Nights_. + +In Oriental countries it was once the custom to offer a cup of "bad +coffee," i.e., coffee containing poison, to those functionaries or other +persons who had proven themselves embarrassing to the authorities. + +While coffee drinking started as a private religious function, it was +not long after its introduction by the coffee houses that it became +secularized still more in the homes of the people, although for +centuries it retained a certain religious significance. Galland says +that in Constantinople, at the time of his visit to the city, there was +no house, rich or poor, Turk or Jew, Greek or Armenian, where it was not +drunk at least twice a day, and many drank it oftener, for it became a +custom in every house to offer it to all visitors; and it was considered +an incivility to refuse it. Twenty dishes a day, per person, was not an +uncommon average. + +Galland observes that "as much money must be spent in the private +families of Constantinople for coffee as for wine at Paris," and relates +that it is as common for beggars to ask for money to buy coffee, as it +is in Europe to ask for money to buy wine or beer. + +At this time to refuse or to neglect to give coffee to their wives was a +legitimate cause for divorce among the Turks. The men made promise when +marrying never to let their wives be without coffee. "That," says +Fulbert de Monteith, "is perhaps more prudent than to swear fidelity." + +Another Arabic manuscript by Bichivili in the Bibliothéque Nationale at +Paris furnishes us with this pen picture of the coffee ceremony as +practised in Constantinople in the sixteenth century: + + In all the great men's houses, there are servants whose business it + is only to take care of the coffee; and the head officer among + them, or he who has the inspection over all the rest, has an + apartment allowed him near the hall which is destined for the + reception of visitors. The Turks call this officer _Kavveghi_, that + is, Overseer or Steward of the Coffee. In the harem or ladies' + apartment in the seraglio, there are a great many such officers, + each having forty or fifty _Baltagis_ under them, who, after they + have served a certain time in these coffee-houses, are sure to be + well provided for, either by an advantageous post, or a sufficient + quantity of land. In the houses of persons of quality likewise, + there are pages, called _Itchoglans_, who receive the coffee from + the stewards, and present it to the company with surprising + dexterity and address, as soon as the master of the family makes a + sign for that purpose, which is all the language they ever speak to + them.... The coffee is served on salvers without feet, made + commonly of painted or varnished wood, and sometimes of silver. + They hold from 15 to 20 china dishes each; and such as can afford + it have these dishes half set in silver ... the dish may be easily + held with the thumb below and two fingers on the upper edge. + +[Illustration: SERVING COFFEE TO A GUEST.--AFTER A DRAWING IN AN EARLY +EDITION OF "ARABIAN NIGHTS"] + +In his _Relation of a Journey to Constantinople in 1657_, Nicholas +Rolamb, the Swedish traveler and envoy to the Ottoman Porte, gives us +this early glimpse of coffee in the home life of the Turks:[40] + + This [coffee] is a kind of pea that grows in _Egypt_, which the + _Turks_ pound and boil in water, and take it for pleasure instead + of brandy, sipping it through the lips boiling hot, persuading + themselves that it consumes catarrhs, and prevents the rising of + vapours out of the stomach into the head. The drinking of this + coffee and smoking tobacco (for tho' the use of tobacco is + forbidden on pain of death, yet it is used in _Constantinople_ more + than any where by men as well as women, tho' secretly) makes up all + the pastime among the _Turks_, and is the only thing they treat one + another with; for which reason all people of distinction have a + particular room next their own, built on purpose for it, where + there stands a jar of coffee continually boiling. + +It is curious to note that among several misconceptions that were held +by some of the peoples of the Levant was one that coffee was a promoter +of impotence, although a Persian version of the Angel Gabriel legend +says that Gabriel invented it to restore the Prophet's failing +metabolism. Often in Turkish and Arabian literature, however, we meet +with the suggestion that coffee drinking makes for sterility and +barrenness, a notion that modern medicine has exploded; for now we know +that coffee stimulates the racial instinct, for which tobacco is a +sedative. + +[Illustration: THE FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE, AS IT APPEARS IN +RAUWOLF'S WORK, 1582] + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO WESTERN EUROPE + + _When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, + came to Europe--Coffee first mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582--Early + days of coffee in Italy--How Pope Clement VIII baptized it and made + it a truly Christian beverage--The first European coffee house, in + Venice, 1645--The famous Caffè Florian--Other celebrated Venetian + coffee houses of the eighteenth century--The romantic story of + Pedrocchi, the poor lemonade-vender, who built the most beautiful + coffee house in the world_ + + +Of the world's three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, +cocoa was the first to be introduced into Europe, in 1528, by the +Spanish. It was nearly a century later, in 1610, that the Dutch brought +tea to Europe. Venetian traders introduced coffee into Europe in 1615. + +Europe's first knowledge of coffee was brought by travelers returning +from the Far East and the Levant. Leonhard Rauwolf started on his famous +journey into the Eastern countries from Marseilles in September, 1573, +having left his home in Augsburg, the 18th of the preceding May. He +reached Aleppo in November, 1573; and returned to Augsburg, February 12, +1576. He was the first European to mention coffee; and to him also +belongs the honor of being the first to refer to the beverage in print. + +Rauwolf was not only a doctor of medicine and a botanist of great +renown, but also official physician to the town of Augsburg. When he +spoke, it was as one having authority. The first printed reference to +coffee appears as _chaube_ in chapter viii of _Rauwolf's Travels_, which +deals with the manners and customs of the city of Aleppo. The exact +passage is reproduced herewith as it appears in the original German +edition of Rauwolf published at Frankfort and Lauingen in 1582-83. The +translation is as follows: + + If you have a mind to eat something or to drink other liquors, + there is commonly an open shop near it, where you sit down upon the + ground or carpets and drink together. Among the rest they have a + very good drink, by them called _Chaube_ [coffee] that is almost as + black as ink, and very good in illness, chiefly that of the + stomach; of this they drink in the morning early in open places + before everybody, without any fear or regard, out of _China_ cups, + as hot as they can; they put it often to their lips but drink but + little at a time, and let it go round as they sit. + + In this same water they take a fruit called _Bunnu_ which in its + bigness, shape and color is almost like unto a bayberry, with two + thin shells surrounded, which, as they informed me, are brought + from the _Indies_; but as these in themselves are, and have within + them, two yellowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides, + being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and name with the + _Bunchum_ of _Avicenna_, and _Bunca_, of _Rasis ad Almans_ exactly; + therefore I take them to be the same, until I am better informed by + the learned. This liquor is very common among them, wherefore there + are a great many of them that sell it, and others that sell the + berries, everywhere in their _Batzars_. + + +_The Early Days of Coffee in Italy_ + +It is not easy to determine just when the use of coffee spread from +Constantinople to the western parts of Europe; but it is more than +likely that the Venetians, because of their close proximity to, and +their great trade with, the Levant, were the first acquainted with it. + +Prospero Alpini (Alpinus; 1553-1617), a learned physician and botanist +of Padua, journeyed to Egypt in 1580, and brought back news of coffee. +He was the first to print a description of the coffee plant and drink in +his treatise _The Plants of Egypt_, written in Latin, and published in +Venice, 1592. He says: + + I have seen this tree at Cairo, it being the same tree that + produces the fruit, so common in Egypt, to which they give the name + _bon_ or _ban_. The Arabians and the Egyptians make a sort of + decoction of it, which they drink instead of wine; and it is sold + in all their public houses, as wine is with us. They call this + drink _caova_. The fruit of which they make it comes from "Arabia + the Happy," and the tree that I saw looks like a spindle tree, but + the leaves are thicker, tougher, and greener. The tree is never + without leaves. + +Alpini makes note of the medicinal qualities attributed to the drink by +dwellers in the Orient, and many of these were soon incorporated into +Europe's materia medica. + +Johann Vesling (Veslingius; 1598-1649), a German botanist and traveler, +settled in Venice, where he became known as a learned Italian physician. +He edited (1640) a new edition of Alpini's work; but earlier (1638) +published some comments on Alpini's findings, in the course of which he +distinguished certain qualities found in a drink made from the husks +(skins) of the coffee berries from those found in the liquor made from +the beans themselves, which he calls the stones of the coffee fruit. He +says: + + Not only in Egypt is coffee in much request, but in almost all the + other provinces of the Turkish Empire. Whence it comes to pass that + it is dear even in the Levant and scarce among the Europeans, who + by that means are deprived of a very wholesome liquor. + +From this we may conclude that coffee was not wholly unknown in Europe +at that time. Vesling adds that when he visited Cairo, he found there +two or three thousand coffee houses, and that "some did begin to put +sugar in their coffee to correct the bitterness of it, and others made +sugar-plums of the berries." + + +_Coffee Baptized by the Pope_ + +Shortly after coffee reached Rome, according to a much quoted legend, it +was again threatened with religious fanaticism, which almost caused its +excommunication from Christendom. It is related that certain priests +appealed to Pope Clement VIII (1535-1605) to have its use forbidden +among Christians, denouncing it as an invention of Satan. They claimed +that the Evil One, having forbidden his followers, the infidel Moslems, +the use of wine--no doubt because it was sanctified by Christ and used +in the Holy Communion--had given them as a substitute this hellish black +brew of his which they called coffee. For Christians to drink it was to +risk falling into a trap set by Satan for their souls. + +[Illustration: AN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN COFFEE HOUSE + +After Goldoni, by Zatta] + +It is further related that the pope, made curious, desired to inspect +this Devil's drink, and had some brought to him. The aroma of it was so +pleasant and inviting that the pope was tempted to try a cupful. After +drinking it, he exclaimed, "Why, this Satan's drink is so delicious that +it would be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive use of it. We +shall fool Satan by baptizing it, and making it a truly Christian +beverage." + +Thus, whatever harmfulness its opponents try to attribute to coffee, the +fact remains (if we are to credit the story) that it has been baptized +and proclaimed unharmful, and a "truly Christian beverage," by his +holiness the pope. + +The Venetians had further knowledge of coffee in 1585, when +Gianfrancesco Morosini, city magistrate at Constantinople, reported to +the Senate that the Turks "drink a black water as hot as they can suffer +it, which is the infusion of a bean called _cavee_, which is said to +possess the virtue of stimulating mankind." + +Dr. A. Couguet, in an Italian review, asserts that Europe's first cup of +coffee was sipped in Venice, toward the close of the sixteenth century. +He is of the opinion that the first berries were imported by Mocengio, +who was called the _pevere_, because he made a huge fortune trading in +spices and other specialties of the Orient. + +In 1615 Pierre (Pietro) Delia Valle (1586-1652), the well known Italian +traveler and author of _Travels in India and Persia_, wrote a letter +from Constantinople to his friend Mario Schipano at Venice: + + The Turks have a drink of black color, which during the summer is + very cooling, whereas in the winter it heats and warms the body, + remaining always the same beverage and not changing its substance. + They swallow it hot as it comes from the fire and they drink it in + long draughts, not at dinner time, but as a kind of dainty and + sipped slowly while talking with one's friends. One cannot find any + meetings among them where they drink it not.... With this drink, + which they call _cahue_, they divert themselves in their + conversations.... It is made with the grain or fruit of a certain + tree called _cahue_.... When I return I will bring some with me and + I will impart the knowledge to the Italians. + +[Illustration: NOBILITY IN AN EARLY VENETIAN CAFFÈ + +From the Grevembroch collection in the Museo Civico] + +Della Valle's countrymen, however, were in a fair way to become well +acquainted with the beverage, for already (1615) it had been introduced +into Venice. At first it was used largely for medicinal purposes; and +high prices were charged for it. Vesling says of its use in Europe as a +medicine, "the first step it made from the cabinets of the curious, as +an exotic seed, being into the apothecaries' shops as a drug." + +The first coffee house in Italy is said to have been opened in 1645, but +convincing confirmation is lacking. In the beginning, the beverage was +sold with other drinks by lemonade-venders. The Italian word +_aquacedratajo_ means one who sells lemonade and similar refreshments; +also one who sells coffee, chocolate, liquor, etc. Jardin says the +beverage was in general use throughout Italy in 1645. It is certain, +however, that a coffee shop was opened in Venice in 1683 under the +_Procuratie Nuove_. The famous Caffè Florian was opened in Venice by +Floriono Francesconi in 1720. + +The first authoritative treatise devoted to coffee only appeared in +1671. It was written in Latin by Antoine Faustus Nairon (1635-1707), +Maronite professor of the Chaldean and Syrian languages in the College +of Rome. + +During the latter part of the seventeenth century and the first half of +the eighteenth, the coffee house made great progress in Italy. It is +interesting to note that this first European adaptation of the Oriental +coffee house was known as a _caffè_. The double _f_ is retained by the +Italians to this day, and by some writers is thought to have been taken +from _coffea_, without the double _f_ being lost, as in the case of the +French and some other Continental forms. + +To Italy, then, belongs the honor of having given to the Western world +the real coffee house, although the French and Austrians greatly +improved upon it. It was not long after its beginning that nearly every +shop on the Piazza di San Marco in Venice was a _caffè_[41]. Near the +Piazza was the Caffè della Ponte dell' Angelo, where in 1792 died the +dog Tabacchio, celebrated by Vincenzo Formaleoni in a satirical eulogy +that is a parody of the oration of Ubaldo Bregolini upon the death of +Angelo Emo. + +In the Caffè della Spaderia, kept by Marco Ancilloto, some radicals +proposed to open a reading-room to encourage the spread of liberal +ideas. The inquisitors sent a foot-soldier to notify the proprietor that +he should inform the first person entering the room that he was to +present himself before their tribunal. The idea was thereupon abandoned. + +[Illustration: GOLDONI IN A VENETIAN CAFFÈ + +From a painting by P. Longhi] + +Among other celebrated coffee houses was the one called Menegazzo, from +the name of the rotund proprietor, Menico. This place was much +frequented by men of letters; and heated discussions were common there +between Angelo Maria Barbaro, Lorenzo da Ponte, and others of their +time. + +The coffee house gradually became the common resort of all classes. In +the mornings came the merchants, lawyers, physicians, brokers, workers, +and wandering venders; in the afternoons, and until the late hours of +the nights, the leisure classes, including the ladies. + +For the most part, the rooms of the first Italian _caffè_ were low, +simple, unadorned, without windows, and only poorly illuminated by +tremulous and uncertain lights. Within them, however, joyous throngs +passed to and fro, clad in varicolored garments, men and women chatting +in groups here and there, and always above the buzz there were to be +heard such choice bits of scandal as made worthwhile a visit to the +coffee house. Smaller rooms were devoted to gaming. + +In the "little square" described by Goldoni[42] in his comedy _The +Coffee House_, where the combined barber-shop and gambling house was +located, Don Marzio, that marvelous type of slanderous old romancer, is +shown as one typical of the period, for Goldoni was a satirist. The +other characters of the play were also drawn from the types then to be +seen every day in the coffee houses on the Piazza. + +In the square of St. Mark's, in the eighteenth century, under the +_Procuratie Vecchie_, were the _caffè_ Re di Francia, Abbondanza, Pitt, +l'eroe, Regina d'Ungheria, Orfeo, Redentore, Coraggio-Speranza, Arco +Celeste, and Quadri. The last-named was opened in 1775 by Giorgio Quadri +of Corfu, who served genuine Turkish coffee for the first time in +Venice. + +Under the _Procuratie Nuove_ were to be found the _caffè_ Angelo +Custode, Duca di Toscana, Buon genio-Doge, Imperatore Imperatrice della +Russia, Tamerlano, Fontane di Diana, Dame Venete, Aurora Piante d'oro, +Arabo-Piastrelle, Pace, Venezia trionfante, and Florian. + +Probably no coffee house in Europe has acquired so world-wide a +celebrity as that kept by Florian, the friend of Canova the sculptor, +and the trusted agent and acquaintance of hundreds of persons in and out +of the city, who found him a mine of social information and a convenient +city directory. Persons leaving Venice left their cards and itineraries +with him; and new-comers inquired at Florian's for tidings of those whom +they wished to see. "He long concentrated in himself a knowledge more +varied and multifarious than that possessed by any individual before or +since," says Hazlitt[43], who has given us this delightful pen picture +of _caffè_ life in Venice in the eighteenth century: + + Venetian coffee was said to surpass all others, and the article + placed before his visitors by Florian was the best in Venice. Of + some of the establishments as they then existed, Molmenti has + supplied us with illustrations, in one of which Goldoni the + dramatist is represented as a visitor, and a female mendicant is + soliciting alms. + + So cordial was the esteem of the great sculptor Canova for him, + that when Florian was overtaken by gout, he made a model of his + leg, that the poor fellow might be spared the anguish of fitting + himself with boots. The friendship had begun when Canova was + entering on his career, and he never forgot the substantial + services which had been rendered to him in the hour of need. + + In later days, the Caffè Florian was under the superintendence of a + female chef, and the waitresses used, in the case of certain + visitors, to fasten a flower in the button-hole, perhaps allusively + to the name. In the Piazza itself girls would do the same thing. A + good deal of hospitality is, and has ever been, dispensed at Venice + in the cafés and restaurants, which do service for the domestic + hearth. + + There were many other establishments devoted, more especially in + the latest period of Venetian independence, to the requirements of + those who desired such resorts for purposes of conversation and + gossip. These houses were frequented by various classes of + patrons--the patrician, the politician, the soldier, the artist, + the old and the young--all had their special haunts where the + company and the tariff were in accordance with the guests. The + upper circles of male society--all above the actually + poor--gravitated hither to a man. + + For the Venetian of all ranks the coffee house was almost the last + place visited on departure from the city, and the first visited on + his return. His domicile was the residence of his wife and the + repository of his possessions; but only on exceptional occasions + was it the scene of domestic hospitality, and rare were the + instances when the husband and wife might be seen abroad together, + and when the former would invite the lady to enter a café or a + confectioner's shop to partake of an ice. + +[Illustration: FLORIAN'S FAMOUS CAFFÈ IN THE PIAZZA DI SAN MARCO, +VENICE, NINETEENTH CENTURY] + +The Caffè Florian has undergone many changes, but it still survives as +one of the favorite _caffè_ in the Piazza San Marco. + +By 1775 coffee-house history had begun to repeat itself in Venice. +Charges of immorality, vice, and corruption, were preferred against the +_caffè_; and the Council of Ten in 1775, and again in 1776, directed the +Inquisitors of State to eradicate these "social cankers." However, they +survived all attempts of the reformers to suppress them. + +The Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua was another of the early Italian coffee +houses that became famous. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776-1852) was a +lemonade-vender who, in the hope of attracting the gay youth, the +students of his time, bought an old house with the idea of converting +the ground floor into a series of attractive rooms. He put all his ready +money and all he could borrow into the venture, only to find there were +no cellars, indispensable for making ices and beverages on the premises, +and that the walls and floors were so old that they crumbled when +repairs were started. + +He was in despair; but, nothing daunted, he decided to have a cellar +dug. What was his surprise to find the house was built over the vault +of an old church, and that the vault contained considerable treasure. +The lucky proprietor found himself free to continue his trade of +lemonade-vender and coffee-seller, or to live a life of ease. Being a +wise man, he adhered to his original plan; and soon his luxurious rooms +became the favorite rendezvous for the smart set of his day. In this +period lemonade and coffee frequently went together. The Caffè Pedrocchi +is considered one of the finest pieces of architecture erected in Italy +in the nineteenth century. It was begun in 1816, opened in 1831, and +completed in 1842. + +Coffee houses were early established in other Italian cities, +particularly in Rome, Florence, and Genoa. + +In 1764, _Il Caffè_, a purely philosophical and literary periodical, +made its appearance in Milan, being founded by Count Pietro Verri +(1728-97). Its chief editor was Cesare Beccaria. Its object was to +counteract the influence and superficiality of the Arcadians. It +acquired its title from the fact that Count Verri and his friends were +wont to meet at a coffee house in Milan kept by a Greek named Demetrio. +It lived only two years. + +Other periodicals of the same name appeared at later periods. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE BEGINNINGS OF COFFEE IN FRANCE + + _What French travelers did for coffee--The introduction of coffee + by P. de la Roque into Marseilles in 1644--The first commercial + importation of coffee from Egypt--The first French coffee + house--Failure of the attempt by physicians of Marseilles to + discredit coffee--Soliman Aga introduces coffee into + Paris--Cabarets à caffè--Celebrated works on coffee by French + writers_ + + +We are indebted to three great French travelers for much valuable +knowledge about coffee; and these gallant gentlemen first fired the +imagination of the French people in regard to the beverage that was +destined to play so important a part in the French revolution. They are +Tavernier (1605-89), Thévenot (1633-67), and Bernier (1625-88). + +Then there is Jean La Roque (1661-1745), who made a famous "Voyage to +Arabia the Happy" (_Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse_) in 1708-13 and to +whose father, P. de la Roque, is due the honor of having brought the +first coffee into France in 1644. Also, there is Antoine Galland +(1646-1715), the French Orientalist, first translator of the _Arabian +Nights_ and antiquary to the king, who, in 1699, published an analysis +and translation from the Arabic of the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript (1587), +giving the first authentic account of the origin of coffee. + +Probably the earliest reference to coffee in France is to be found in +the simple statement that Onorio Belli (Bellus), the Italian botanist +and author, in 1596 sent to Charles de l'Écluse (1526-1609), a French +physician, botanist and traveler, "seeds used by the Egyptians to make a +liquid they call _cave_.[44]" + +P. de la Roque accompanied M. de la Haye, the French ambassador, to +Constantinople; and afterward traveled into the Levant. Upon his return +to Marseilles in 1644, he brought with him not only some coffee, but +"all the little implements used about it in Turkey, which were then +looked upon as great curiosities in France." There were included in the +coffee service some findjans, or china dishes, and small pieces of +muslin embroidered with gold, silver, and silk, which the Turks used as +napkins. + +Jean La Roque gives credit to Jean de Thévenot for introducing coffee +privately into Paris in 1657, and for teaching the French how to use +coffee. + +De Thévenot writes in this entertaining fashion concerning the use of +the drink in Turkey in the middle of the seventeenth century: + + They have another drink in ordinary use. They call it _cahve_ and + take it all hours of the day. This drink is made from a berry + roasted in a pan or other utensil over the fire. They pound it into + a very fine powder. + + When they wish to drink it, they take a boiler made expressly for + the purpose, which they call an _ibrik_; and having filled it with + water, they let it boil. When it boils, they add to about three + cups of water a heaping spoonful of the powder; and when it boils, + they remove it quickly from the fire, or sometimes they stir it, + otherwise it would boil over, as it rises very quickly. When it has + boiled up thus ten or twelve times, they pour it into porcelain + cups, which they place upon a platter of painted wood and bring it + to you thus boiling. + + One must drink it hot, but in several instalments, otherwise it is + not good. One takes it in little swallows[45] for fear of burning + one's self--in such fashion that in a _cavekane_ (so they call the + places where it is sold ready prepared), one hears a pleasant + little musical sucking sound.... There are some who mix with it a + small quantity of cloves and cardamom seeds; others add sugar. + +[Illustration: TITLE PAGE OF LA ROQUE'S WORK, 1716] + +It was really out of curiosity that the people of France took to coffee, +says Jardin; "they wanted to know this Oriental beverage, so much +vaunted, although its blackness at first sight was far from attractive." + +About the year 1660 several merchants of Marseilles, who had lived for a +time in the Levant and felt they were not able to do without coffee, +brought some coffee beans home with them; and later, a group of +apothecaries and other merchants brought in the first commercial +importation of coffee in bales from Egypt. The Lyons merchants soon +followed suit, and the use of coffee became general in those parts. In +1671 certain private persons opened a coffee house in Marseilles, near +the Exchange, which at once became popular with merchants and travelers. +Others started up, and all were crowded. The people did not, however, +drink any the less at home. "In fine," says La Roque, "the use of the +beverage increased so amazingly that, as was inevitable, the physicians +became alarmed, thinking it would not agree with the inhabitants of a +country hot and extremely dry." + +[Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE AS PICTURED BY LA ROQUE IN HIS "VOYAGE DE +L'ARABIE HEUREUSE"] + +The age-old controversy was on. Some sided with the physicians, others +opposed them, as at Mecca, Cairo, and Constantinople; only here the +argument turned mainly on the medicinal question, the Church this time +having no part in the dispute. "The lovers of coffee used the physicians +very ill when they met together, and the physicians on their side +threatened the coffee drinkers with all sorts of diseases." + +[Illustration: A CLOSE-UP OF RIPE COFFEE BERRIES] + +Matters came to a head in 1679, when an ingenious attempt by the +physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee took the form of having a +young student, about to be admitted to the College of Physicians, +dispute before the magistrate in the town hall, a question proposed by +two physicians of the Faculty of Aix, as to whether coffee was or was +not prejudicial to the inhabitants of Marseilles. + +The thesis recited that coffee had won the approval of all nations, had +almost wholly put down the use of wine, although it was not to be +compared even with the lees of that excellent beverage; that it was a +vile and worthless foreign novelty; that its claim to be a remedy +against distempers was ridiculous, because it was not a bean but the +fruit of a tree discovered by goats and camels; that it was hot and not +cold, as alleged; that it burned up the blood, and so induced palsies, +impotence, and leanness; "from all of which we must necessarily conclude +that coffee is hurtful to the greater part of the inhabitants of +Marseilles." + +Thus did the good doctors of the Faculty of Aix set forth their +prejudices, and this was their final decision upon coffee. Many thought +they overreached themselves in their misguided zeal. They were handled +somewhat roughly in the disputation, which disclosed many false +reasonings, to say nothing of blunders as to matters of fact. The world +had already advanced too far to have another decision against coffee +count for much, and this latest effort to stop its onward march was of +even less force than the diatribes of the Mohammedan priests. The coffee +houses continued to be as much frequented as before, and the people +drank no less coffee in their homes. Indeed, the indictment proved a +boomerang, for consumption received such an impetus that the merchants +of Lyons and Marseilles, for the first time in history, began to import +green coffee from the Levant by the ship-load in order to meet the +increased demand. + +Meanwhile, in 1669, Soliman Aga, the Turkish ambassador from Mohammed IV +to the court of Louis XIV, had arrived in Paris. He brought with him a +considerable quantity of coffee, and introduced the coffee drink, made +in Turkish style, to the French capital. + +[Illustration: A COFFEE BRANCH WITH FLOWERS AND FRUIT AS ILLUSTRATED IN +LA ROQUE'S "VOYAGE DE L'ARABIE HEUREUSE"] + +The ambassador remained in Paris only from July, 1669, to May, 1670, but +long enough firmly to establish the custom he had introduced. Two years +later, Pascal, an Armenian, opened his coffee-drinking booth at the fair +of St.-Germain, and this event marked the beginning of the Parisian +coffee houses. The story is told in detail in chapter XI. + +The custom of drinking coffee having become general in the capital, as +well as in Marseilles and Lyons, the example was followed in all the +provinces. Every city soon had its coffee houses, and the beverage was +largely consumed in private homes. La Roque writes: "None, from the +meanest citizen to the persons of the highest quality, failed to use it +every morning or at least soon after dinner, it being the custom +likewise to offer it in all visits." + +"The persons of highest quality" encouraged the fashion of having +_cabaréts à caffé_; and soon it was said that there could be seen in +France all that the East could furnish of magnificence in coffee houses, +"the china jars and other Indian furniture being richer and more +valuable than the gold and silver with which they were lavishly +adorned." + +In 1671 there appeared in Lyons a book entitled _The Most Excellent +Virtues of the Mulberry, Called Coffee_, showing the need for an +authoritative work on the subject--a need that was ably filled that same +year and in Lyons by the publication of Philippe Sylvestre Dufour's +admirable treatise, _Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate_. +Again at Lyons, Dufour published (1684) his more complete work on _The +Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate_. This was followed (1715) +by the publication in Paris of Jean La Roque's _Voyage de l'Arabie +Heureuse_, containing the story of the author's journey to the court of +the king of Yemen in 1711, a description of the coffee tree and its +fruit, and a critical and historical treatise on its first use and +introduction to France. + +La Roque's description of his visit to the king's gardens is interesting +because it shows the Arabs still held to the belief that coffee grew +only in Arabia. Here it is: + + There was nothing remarkable in the King's Gardens, except the + great pains taken to furnish it with all the kinds of trees that + are common in the country; amongst which there were the coffee + trees, the finest that could be had. When the deputies represented + to the King how much that was contrary to the custom of the Princes + of Europe (who endeavor to stock their gardens chiefly with the + rarest and most uncommon plants that can be found) the King + returned them this answer: That he valued himself as much upon his + good taste and generosity as any Prince in Europe; the coffee tree, + he told them, was indeed common in his country, but it was not the + less dear to him upon that account; the perpetual verdure of it + pleased him extremely; and also the thoughts of its producing a + fruit which was nowhere else to be met with; and when he made a + present of that that came from his own Gardens, it was a great + satisfaction to him to be able to say that he had planted the trees + that produced it with his own hands. + +The first merchant licensed to sell coffee in France was one Damame +François, a bourgeois of Paris, who secured the privilege through an +edict of 1692. He was given the sole right for ten years to sell coffees +and teas in all the provinces and towns of the kingdom, and in all +territories under the sovereignty of the king, and received also +authority to maintain a warehouse. + +To Santo Domingo (1738) and other French colonies the café was soon +transported from the homeland, and thrived under special license from +the king. + +In 1858 there appeared in France a leaflet-periodical, entitled _The +Café, Literary, Artistic, and Commercial_. Ch. Woinez, the editor, said +in announcing it: "The Salon stood for privilege, the Café stands for +equality." Its publication was of short duration. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO ENGLAND + + _The first printed reference to coffee in English--Early mention of + coffee by noted English travelers and writers--The Lacedæmonian + "black broth" controversy--How Conopios introduced coffee drinking + at Oxford--The first English coffee house in Oxford--Two English + botanists on coffee_ + + +English travelers and writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries +were quite as enterprising as their Continental contemporaries in +telling about the coffee bean and the coffee drink. The first printed +reference to coffee in English, however, appears as _chaoua_ in a note +by a Dutchman, Paludanus, in _Linschoten's Travels_, the title of an +English translation from the Latin of a work first published in Holland +in 1595 or 1596, the English edition appearing in London in 1598. A +reproduction made from a photograph of the original work, with the +quaint black-letter German text and the Paludanus notation in roman, is +shown herewith. + +Hans Hugo (or John Huygen) Van Linschooten (1563-1611) was one of the +most intrepid of Dutch travelers. In his description of Japanese manners +and customs we find one of the earliest tea references. He says: + + Their manner of eating and drinking is: everie man hath a table + alone, without table-clothes or napkins, and eateth with two pieces + of wood like the men of Chino: they drinke wine of Rice, wherewith + they drink themselves drunke, and after their meat they use a + certain drinke, which is a pot with hote water, which they drinke + as hote as ever they may indure, whether it be Winter or Summer. + +Just here Bernard Ten Broeke Paludanus (1550-1633), Dutch savant and +author, professor of philosophy at the University of Leyden, himself a +traveler over the four quarters of the globe, inserts his note +containing the coffee reference. He says: + + The Turks holde almost the same manner of drinking of their + _Chaona_[46], which they make of certaine fruit, which is like unto + the Bakelaer[47], and by the Egyptians called _Bon_ or _Ban_[48]: + they take of this fruite one pound and a half, and roast them a + little in the fire and then sieth them in twenty pounds of water, + till the half be consumed away: this drinke they take every morning + fasting in their chambers, out of an earthen pot, being verie hote, + as we doe here drinke _aquacomposita_[49] in the morning: and they + say that it strengtheneth and maketh them warme, breaketh wind, and + openeth any stopping. + +Van Linschooten then completes his tea reference by saying: + + The manner of dressing their meat is altogether contrarie unto + other nations: the aforesaid warme water is made with the powder of + a certaine hearbe called _Chaa_, which is much esteemed, and is + well accounted among them. + +The _chaa_ is, of course, tea, dialect _t'eh_. + +In 1599, "Sir" Antony (or Anthony) Sherley (1565-1630), a picturesque +gentleman-adventurer, the first Englishman to mention coffee drinking in +the Orient, sailed from Venice on a kind of self-appointed, informal +Persian mission, to invite the shah to ally himself with the Christian +princes against the Turks, and incidentally, to promote English trade +interests in the East. The English government knew nothing of the +arrangement, disavowed him, and forbade his return to England. However, +the expedition got to Persia; and the account of the voyage thither was +written by William Parry, one of the Sherley party, and was published in +London in 1601. It is interesting because it contains the first printed +reference to coffee in English employing the more modern form of the +word. The original reference was photographed for this work in the Worth +Library of the British Museum, and is reproduced herewith on page 39. + +The passage is part of an account of the manners and customs of the +Turks (who, Parry says, are "damned infidells") in Aleppo. It reads: + + They sit at their meat (which is served to them upon the ground) as + Tailers sit upon their stalls, crosse-legd; for the most part, + passing the day in banqueting and carowsing, untill they surfet, + drinking a certaine liquor, which they do call _Coffe_, which is + made of seede much like mustard seede, which will soone intoxicate + the braine like our Metheglin.[50] + +Another early English reference to coffee, wherein the word is spelled +"coffa", is in Captain John Smith's book of _Travels and Adventure_, +published in 1603. He says of the Turks: "Their best drink is _coffa_ of +a graine they call _coava_." + +This is the same Captain John Smith who in 1607 became the founder of +the Colony of Virginia and brought with him to America probably the +earliest knowledge of the beverage given to the new Western world. + +Samuel Purchas (1527-1626), an early English collector of travels, in +_Purchas His Pilgrimes_, under the head of "Observations of William +Finch, merchant, at Socotra" (Sokotra--an island in the Indian Ocean) in +1607, says of the Arab inhabitants: + + Their best entertainment is a china dish of _Coho_, a blacke + bitterish drinke, made of a berry like a bayberry, brought from + Mecca, supped off hot, good for the head and stomache.[51] + +Still other early and favorite English references to coffee are those to +be found in the _Travels_ of William Biddulph. This work was published +in 1609. It is entitled _The Travels of Certayne Englishmen in Africa, +Asia, etc.... Begunne in 1600 and by some of them finished--this yeere +1608_. These references are also reproduced herewith from the +black-letter originals in the British Museum (see page 40). + +Biddulph's description of the drink, and of the coffee-house customs of +the Turks, was the first detailed account to be written by an +Englishman. It also appears in _Purchas His Pilgrimes_ (1625). But, to +quote: + + Their most common drinke is _Coffa_, which is a blacke kinde of + drinke, made of a kind of Pulse like Pease, called _Coaua_; which + being grownd in the Mill, and boiled in water, they drinke it as + hot as they can suffer it; which they finde to agree very well with + them against their crudities, and feeding on hearbs and rawe + meates. Other compounded drinkes they have, called _Sherbet_, made + of Water and Sugar, or Hony, with Snow therein to make it coole; + for although the Countrey bee hot, yet they keepe Snow all the + yeere long to coole their drinke. It is accounted a great curtesie + amongst them to give unto their frends when they come to visit + them, a Fin-ion or Scudella of _Coffa_, which is more holesome than + toothsome, for it causeth good concoction, and driveth away + drowsinesse. + + Some of them will also drinke Bersh or Opium, which maketh them + forget themselves, and talk idely of Castles in the Ayre, as though + they saw Visions, and heard Revelations. Their _Coffa_ houses are + more common than Ale-houses in England; but they use not so much to + sit in the houses, as on benches on both sides the streets, neere + unto a Coffa house, every man with his Fin-ionful; which being + smoking hot, they use to put it to their Noses & Eares, and then + sup it off by leasure, being full of idle and Ale-house talke + whiles they are amongst themselves drinking it; if there be any + news, it is talked of there. + +Among other early English references to coffee we find an interesting +one by Sir George Sandys (1577-1644), the poet, who gave a start to +classical scholarship in America by translating Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ +during his pioneer days in Virginia. In 1610 he spent a year in Turkey, +Egypt, and Palestine, and records of the Turks:[52] + + Although they be destitute of Taverns, yet have they their + Coffa-houses, which something resemble them. There sit they + chatting most of the day; and sippe of a drinke called Coffa (of + the berry that it is made of) in little _China_ dishes as hot as + they can suffer it: blacke as soote, and tasting not much unlike it + (why not that blacke broth which was in use amongst the + _Lacedemonians_?) which helpeth, as they say, digestion, and + procureth alacrity: many of the Coffa-men keeping beautifull boyes, + who serve as stales to procure them customers. + +Edward Terry (1590-1660), an English traveler, writes, under date of +1616, that many of the best people in India who are strict in their +religion and drink no wine at all, "use a liquor more wholesome than +pleasant, they call coffee; made by a black Seed boyld in water, which +turnes it almost into the same colour, but doth very little alter the +taste of the water [!], notwithstanding it is very good to help +Digestion, to quicken the Spirits and to cleanse the Blood." + +[Illustration#: FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE IN ENGLISH, 1598 + +It appears as _Chaona_ (_chaoua_) in the second line of the roman text +notation by Paludanus] + +In 1623, Francis Bacon (1561-1626), in his _Historia Vitae et Mortis_ +says: "The Turkes use a kind of herb which they call _caphe_"; and, in +1624, in his _Sylva Sylvarum_[53] (published in 1627, after his death), +he writes: + + They have in Turkey a drink called _coffa_ made of a berry of the + same name, as black as soot, and of a strong scent, but not + aromatical; which they take, beaten into powder, in water, as hot + as they can drink it: and they take it, and sit at it in their + coffa-houses, which are like our taverns. This drink comforteth the + brain and heart, and helpeth digestion. Certainly this berry coffa, + the root and leaf betel, the leaf tobacco, and the tear of poppy + (opium) of which the Turks are great takers (supposing it expelleth + all fear), do all condense the spirits, and make them strong and + aleger. But it seemeth they were taken after several manners; for + coffa and opium are taken down, tobacco but in smoke, and betel is + but champed in the mouth with a little lime. + +Robert Burton (1577-1640), English philosopher and humorist, in his +_Anatomy of Melancholy_[54] writes in 1632: + + The Turkes have a drinke called coffa (for they use no wine), so + named of a berry as blacke as soot and as bitter (like that blacke + drinke which was in use amongst the Lacedemonians and perhaps the + same), which they sip still of, and sup as warme as they can + suffer; they spend much time in those coffa-houses, which are + somewhat like our Ale-houses or Taverns, and there they sit, + chatting and drinking, to drive away the time, and to be merry + together, because they find, by experience, that kinde of drinke so + used, helpeth digestion and procureth alacrity. + +Later English scholars, however, found sufficient evidence in the works +of Arabian authors to assure their readers that coffee sometimes breeds +melancholy, causes headache, and "maketh lean much." One of these, Dr. +Pocoke, (1659: see chapter III) stated that, "he that would drink it for +livelinesse sake, and to discusse slothfulnesse ... let him use much +sweet meates with it, and oyle of pistaccioes, and butter. Some drink it +with milk, but it is an error, and such as may bring in danger of the +leprosy." Another writer observed that any ill effects caused by coffee, +unlike those of tea, etc., ceased when its use was discontinued. In this +connection it is interesting to note that in 1785 Dr. Benjamin Mosely, +physician to the Chelsea Hospital, member of the College of Physicians, +etc., probably having in mind the popular idea that the Arabic original +of the word coffee meant force, or vigor, once expressed the hope that +the coffee drink might return to popular favor in England as "a cheap +substitute for those enervating teas and beverages which produce the +pernicious habit of dram-drinking." + +About 1628, Sir Thomas Herbert (1606-1681), English traveler and writer, +records among his observations on the Persians that: + + "They drink above all the rest _Coho_ or _Copha_: by Turk and Arab + called _Caphe_ and _Cahua_: a drink imitating that in the Stigian + lake, black, thick, and bitter: destrain'd from _Bunchy_, _Bunnu_, + or Bay berries; wholesome, they say, if hot, for it expels + melancholy ... but not so much regarded for those good properties, + as from a Romance that it was invented and brew'd by Gabriel ... to + restore the decayed radical Moysture of kind hearted Mahomet."[55] + +In 1634, Sir Henry Blount (1602-82), sometimes referred to as "the +father of the English coffee house," made a journey on a Venetian galley +into the Levant. He was invited to drink _cauphe_ in the presence of +Amurath IV; and later, in Egypt, he tells of being served the beverage +again "in a porcelaine dish". This is how he describes the drink in +Turkey:[56] + + They have another drink not good at meat, called _Cauphe_, made of + a _Berry_ as big as a small _Bean_, dried in a Furnace, and beat to + Pouder, of a Soot-colour, in taste a little bitterish, that they + seeth and drink as hot as may be endured: It is good all hours of + the day, but especially morning and evening, when to that purpose, + they entertain themselves two or three hours in _Cauphe-houses_, + which in all Turkey abound more than _Inns_ and _Ale-houses_ with + us; it is thought to be the old black broth used so much by the + _Lacedemonians_, and dryeth ill Humours in the stomach, comforteth + the Brain, never causeth Drunkenness or any other Surfeit, and is a + harmless entertainment of good Fellowship; for there upon Scaffolds + half a yard high, and covered with Mats, they sit Cross-leg'd after + the _Turkish_ manner, many times two or three hundred together, + talking, and likely with some poor musick passing up and down. + +[Illustration: FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO "COFFEE" IN ENGLISH, IN ITS +MODERN FORM, 1601 + +Photographed from the black-letter original of W. Parry's book in the +Worth Library of the British Museum] + +This reference to the Lacedæmonian black broth, first by Sandys, then +by Burton, again by Blount, and concurred in by James Howell +(1595-1666), the first historiographer royal, gave rise to considerable +controversy among Englishmen of letters in later years. It is, of +course, a gratuitous speculation. The black broth of the Lacedæmonians +was "pork, cooked in blood and seasoned with salt and vinegar.[57]" + +[Illustration: REFERENCES TO COFFEE AS FOUND IN BIDDULPH'S TRAVELS 1609 + +From the black-letter original in the British Museum] + +William Harvey (1578-1657), the famous English physician who discovered +the circulation of the blood, and his brother are reputed to have used +coffee before coffee houses came into vogue in London--this must have +been previous to 1652. "I remember", says Aubrey[58], "he was wont to +drinke coffee; which his brother Eliab did, before coffee houses were +the fashion in London." Houghton, in 1701, speaks of "the famous +inventor of the circulation of the blood, Dr. Harvey, who some say did +frequently use it." + +Although it seems likely that coffee must have been introduced into +England sometime during the first quarter of the seventeenth century, +with so many writers and travelers describing it, and with so much +trading going on between the merchants of the British Isles and the +Orient, yet the first reliable record we have of its advent is to be +found in the _Diary and Correspondence of John Evelyn, F.R.S._[59], +under "Notes of 1637", where he says: + + There came in my time to the college (Baliol, Oxford) one Nathaniel + Conopios, out of Greece, from Cyrill, the Patriarch of + Constantinople, who, returning many years after was made (as I + understand) Bishop of Smyrna. He was the first I ever saw drink + coffee; which custom came not into England till thirty years + thereafter. + +Evelyn should have said thirteen years after; for then it was that the +first coffee house was opened (1650). + +Conopios was a native of Crete, trained in the Greek church. He became +_primore_ to Cyrill, Patriarch of Constantinople. When Cyrill was +strangled by the vizier, Conopios fled to England to avoid a like +barbarity. He came with credentials to Archbishop Laud, who allowed him +maintenance in Balliol College. + + It was observed that while he continued in Balliol College he made + the drink for his own use called Coffey, and usually drank it every + morning, being the first, as the antients of that House have + informed me, that was ever drank in Oxon.[60] + +[Illustration: MOL'S COFFEE HOUSE, EXETER, ENGLAND, NOW WORTH'S ART +ROOMS] + +In 1640 John Parkinson (1567-1650), English botanist and herbalist, +published his _Theatrum Botanicum_[61], containing the first botanical +description of the coffee plant in English, referred to as "_Arbor Bon +cum sua Buna._ The Turkes Berry Drinke". + +His work being somewhat rare, it may be of historical interest to quote +the quaint description here: + + Alpinus, in his Booke of Egiptian plants, giveth us a description + of this tree, which as hee saith, hee saw in the garden of a + certain Captaine of the _Ianissaries_, which was brought out of + _Arabia felix_ and there planted as a rarity, never seene growing + in those places before. + + The tree, saith _Alpinus_, is somewhat like unto the _Evonymus_ + Pricketimber tree, whose leaves were thicker, harder, and greener, + and always abiding greene on the tree; the fruite is called _Buna_ + and is somewhat bigger then an Hazell Nut and longer, round also, + and pointed at the end, furrowed also on both sides, yet on one + side more conspicuous than the other, that it might be parted in + two, in each side whereof lyeth a small long white kernell, flat on + that side they joyne together, covered with a yellowish skinne, of + an acid taste, and somewhat bitter withall and contained in a + thinne shell, of a darkish ash-color; with these berries generally + in _Arabia_ and _Egipt_, and in other places of the _Turkes_ + Dominions, they make a decoction or drinke, which is in the stead + of Wine to them, and generally sold in all their tappe houses, + called by the name of _Caova_; _Paludanus_ saith _Chaova_, and + _Rauwolfius_ _Chaube_. + + This drinke hath many good physical properties therein; for it + strengthened a week stomacke, helpeth digestion, and the tumors and + obstructions of the liver and spleene, being drunke fasting for + some time together. + +In 1650, a certain Jew from Lebanon, in some accounts Jacob or Jacobs by +name, in others Jobson[62], opened "at the Angel in the parish of St. +Peter in the East", Oxford, the earliest English coffee house and "there +it [coffee] was by some who delighted in noveltie, drank". Chocolate was +also sold at this first coffee house. + +Authorities differ, but the confusion as to the name of the coffee-house +keeper may have arisen from the fact that there were two--Jacobs, who +began in 1650; and another, Cirques Jobson, a Jewish Jacobite, who +followed him in 1654. + +The drink at once attained great favor among the students. Soon it was +in such demand that about 1655 a society of young students encouraged +one Arthur Tillyard, "apothecary and Royalist," to sell "coffey +publickly in his house against All Soules College." It appears that a +club composed of admirers of the young Charles met at Tillyard's and +continued until after the Restoration. This Oxford Coffee Club was the +start of the Royal Society. + +Jacobs removed to Old Southhampton Buildings, London, where he was in +1671. + +Meanwhile, the first coffee house in London had been opened by Pasqua +Rosée in 1652; and, as the remainder of the story of coffee's rise and +fall in England centers around the coffee houses of old London, we shall +reserve it for a separate chapter. + +[Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH REFERENCE TO COFFEE BY SIR GEORGE SANDYS + +From the seventh edition of _Sandys' Travels_, London, 1673] + +Of course, the coffee-house idea, and the use of coffee in the home, +quickly spread to other cities in Great Britain; but all the coffee +houses were patterned after the London model. Mol's coffee house at +Exeter, Devonshire, which is pictured on page 41, was one of the first +coffee houses established in England, and may be regarded as typical of +those that sprang up in the provinces. It had previously been a noted +club house; and the old hall, beautifully paneled with oak, still +displays the arms of noted members. Here Sir Walter Raleigh and +congenial friends regaled themselves with smoking tobacco. This was one +of the first places where tobacco was smoked in England. It is now an +art gallery. + +When the Bishop of Berytus (Beirut) was on his way to Cochin China in +1666, he reported that the Turks used coffee to correct the +indisposition caused in the stomach by the bad water. "This drink," he +says, "imitates the effect of wine ... has not an agreeable taste but +rather bitter, yet it is much used by these people for the good effects +they find therein." + +In 1686, John Ray (1628-1704), one of the most celebrated of English +naturalists, published his _Universal History of Plants_, notable among +other things for being the first work of its kind to extol the virtues +of coffee in a scientific treatise. + +R. Bradley, professor of botany at Cambridge, published (1714) _A Short +Historical Account of Coffee_, all trace of which appears to be lost. + +Dr. James Douglas published in London (1727) his _Arbor Yemensis fructum +Cofe ferens; or, a description and History of the Coffee Tree_, in which +he laid under heavy contribution the Arabian and French writers that had +preceded him. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO HOLLAND + + _How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's + market for coffee--Activities of the Netherlands East India + Company--The first coffee house at the Hague--The first public + auction at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven + cents a pound, green_ + + +The Dutch had early knowledge of coffee because of their dealings with +the Orient and with the Venetians, and of their nearness to Germany, +where Rauwolf first wrote about it in 1582. They were familiar with +Alpini's writings on the subject in 1592. Paludanus, in his coffee note +on _Linschoten's Travels_, furnished further enlightenment in 1598. + +The Dutch were always great merchants and shrewd traders. Being of a +practical turn of mind, they conceived an ambition to grow coffee in +their colonial possessions, so as to make their home markets +headquarters for a world's trade in the product. In considering modern +coffee-trading, the Netherlands East India Company may be said to be the +pioneer, as it established in Java one of the first experimental gardens +for coffee cultivation. + +The Netherlands East India Company was formed in 1602. As early as 1614, +Dutch traders visited Aden to examine into the possibilities of coffee +and coffee-trading. In 1616 Pieter Van dan Broeck brought the first +coffee from Mocha to Holland. In 1640 a Dutch merchant, named Wurffbain, +offered for sale in Amsterdam the first commercial shipment of coffee +from Mocha. As indicating the enterprise of the Dutch, note that this +was four years before the beverage was introduced into France, and only +three years after Conopios had privately instituted the breakfast coffee +cup at Oxford. + +About 1650, Varnar, the Dutch minister resident at the Ottoman Porte, +published a treatise on coffee. + +When the Dutch at last drove the Portuguese out of Ceylon in 1658, they +began the cultivation of coffee there, although the plant had been +introduced into the island by the Arabs prior to the Portuguese invasion +in 1505. However, it was not until 1690 that the more systematic +cultivation of the coffee plant by the Dutch was undertaken in Ceylon. + +Regular imports of coffee from Mocha to Amsterdam began in 1663. Later, +supplies began to arrive from the Malabar coast. + +Pasqua Rosée, who introduced the coffee house into London in 1652, is +said to have made coffee popular as a beverage in Holland by selling it +there publicly in 1664. The first coffee house was opened in the Korten +Voorhout, the Hague, under the protection of the writer Van Essen; +others soon followed in Amsterdam and Haarlem. + +At the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen, burgomaster of Amsterdam and +governor of the East India Company, Adrian Van Ommen, commander of +Malabar, sent the first Arabian coffee seedlings to Java in 1696, +recorded in the chapter on the history of coffee propagation. These were +destroyed by flood, but were followed in 1699 by a second shipment, from +which developed the coffee trade of the Netherlands East Indies, that +made Java coffee a household word in every civilized country. + +A trial shipment of the coffee grown near Batavia was received at +Amsterdam in 1706, also a plant for the botanical gardens. This plant +subsequently became the progenitor of most of the coffees of the West +Indies and America. + +The first Java coffee for the trade was received at Amsterdam 1711. The +shipment consisted of 894 pounds from the Jakatra plantations and from +the interior of the island. At the first public auction, this coffee +brought twenty-three and two-thirds _stuivers_ (about forty-seven cents) +per Amsterdam pound. + +The Netherlands East India Company contracted with the regents of +Netherlands India for the compulsory delivery of coffee; and the natives +were enjoined to cultivate coffee, the production thus becoming a forced +industry worked by government. A "general system of cultivation" was +introduced into Java in 1832 by the government, which decreed the +employment of forced labor for different products. Coffee-growing was +the only forced industry that existed before this system of cultivation, +and it was the only government cultivation that survived the abolition +of the system in 1905-08. The last direct government interest in coffee +was closed out in 1918. From 1870 to 1874, the government plantations +yielded an average of 844,854 piculs[63] a year; from 1875 to 1878, the +average was 866,674 piculs. Between 1879 and 1883, it rose to 987,682 +piculs. From 1884 to 1888, the average annual yield was only 629,942 +piculs. + +Holland readily adopted the coffee house; and among the earliest coffee +pictures preserved to us is one depicting a scene in a Dutch coffee +house of the seventeenth century, the work of Adriaen Van Ostade +(1610-1675), shown on page 586. + +History records no intolerance of coffee in Holland. The Dutch attitude +was ever that of the constructionist. Dutch inventors and artisans gave +us many new designs in coffee mortars, coffee roasters, and coffee +serving-pots. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO GERMANY + + _The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the + literature of the early history of coffee--The first coffee house + in Hamburg opened by an English merchant--Famous coffee houses of + old Berlin--The first coffee periodical, and the first + kaffee-klatsch--Frederick the Great's coffee-roasting + monopoly--Coffee persecutions--"Coffee-smellers"--The first coffee + king_ + + +As we have already seen, Leonhard Rauwolf, in 1573, made his memorable +trip to Aleppo and, in 1582, won for Germany the honor of being the +first European country to make printed mention of the coffee drink. + +Adam Olearius (or Oelschlager), a German Orientalist (1599-1671), +traveled in Persia as secretary to a German embassy in 1633-36. Upon his +return he published an account of his journeys. In it, under date of +1637, he says of the Persians: + + They drink with their tobacco a certain black water, which they + call _cahwa_, made of a fruit brought out of Egypt, and which is in + colour like ordinary wheat, and in taste like Turkish wheat, and is + of the bigness of a little bean.... The Persians think it allays + the natural heat. + +In 1637, Joh. Albrecht von Mandelsloh, in his _Oriental Trip_, mentions +"the black water of the Persians called _Kahwe_", saying "it must be +drunk hot." + +Coffee drinking was introduced into Germany about 1670. The drink +appeared at the court of the great elector of Brandenburg in 1675. +Northern Germany got its first taste of the beverage from London, an +English merchant opening the first coffee house in Hamburg in 1679-80. +Regensburg followed in 1689; Leipsic, in 1694; Nuremberg, in 1696; +Stuttgart, in 1712; Augsburg, in 1713; and Berlin, in 1721. In that year +(1721) King Frederick William I granted a foreigner the privilege of +conducting a coffee house in Berlin free of all rental charges. It was +known as the English coffee house, as was also the first coffee house in +Hamburg. And for many years, English merchants supplied the coffees +consumed in northern Germany; while Italy supplied southern Germany. + +Other well known coffee houses of old Berlin were, the Royal, in Behren +_Strasse_; that of the Widow Doebbert, in the Stechbahn; the City of +Rome, in Unter-den-Linden; Arnoldi, in Kronen _Strasse_; Miercke, in +Tauben _Strasse_, and Schmidt, in Post _Strasse_. + +Later, Philipp Falck opened a Jewish coffee house in Spandauer +_Strasse_. In the time of Frederick the Great (1712-1786) there were at +least a dozen coffee houses in the metropolitan district of Berlin. In +the suburbs were many tents where coffee was served. + +The first coffee periodical, _The New and Curious Coffee House_, was +issued in Leipsic in 1707 by Theophilo Georgi. The full title was _The +New and Curious Coffee House, formerly in Italy but now opened in +Germany. First water debauchery. "City of the Well." Brunnenstadt by +Lorentz Schoepffwasser_ [draw-water] 1707. The second issue gave the +name of Georgi as the real publisher. It was intended to be in the +nature of an organ for the first real German kaffee-klatsch. It was a +chronicle of the comings and goings of the savants who frequented the +"Tusculum" of a well-to-do gentleman in the outskirts of the city. At +the beginning the master of the house declared: + + I know that the gentlemen here speak French, Italian and other + languages. I know also that in many coffee and tea meetings it is + considered requisite that French be spoken. May I ask, however, + that he who calls upon me should use no other language but German. + We are all Germans, we are in Germany; shall we not conduct + ourselves like true Germans? + +In 1721 Leonhard Ferdinand Meisner published at Nuremberg the first +comprehensive German treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate. + +During the second half of the eighteenth century coffee entered the +homes, and began to supplant flour-soup and warm beer at breakfast +tables. + +Meanwhile coffee met with some opposition in Prussia and Hanover. +Frederick the Great became annoyed when he saw how much money was paid +to foreign coffee merchants for supplies of the green bean, and tried to +restrict its use by making coffee a drink of the "quality". Soon all the +German courts had their own coffee roasters, coffee pots, and coffee +cups. + +Many beautiful specimens of the finest porcelain cups and saucers made +in Meissen, and used at court fêtes of this period, survive in the +collections at the Potsdam and Berlin museums. The wealthy classes +followed suit; but when the poor grumbled because they could not afford +the luxury, and demanded their coffee, they were told in effect: "You +had better leave it alone. Anyhow, it's bad for you because it causes +sterility." Many doctors lent themselves to a campaign against coffee, +one of their favorite arguments being that women using the beverage must +forego child-bearing. Bach's _Coffee Cantata_[64] (1732) was a notable +protest in music against such libels. + +On September 13, 1777, Frederick issued a coffee and beer manifesto, a +curious document, which recited: + + It is disgusting to notice the increase in the quantity of coffee + used by my subjects, and the amount of money that goes out of the + country in consequence. Everybody is using coffee. If possible, + this must be prevented. My people must drink beer. His Majesty was + brought up on beer, and so were his ancestors, and his officers. + Many battles have been fought and won by soldiers nourished on + beer; and the King does not believe that coffee-drinking soldiers + can be depended upon to endure hardship or to beat his enemies in + case of the occurrence of another war. + +[Illustration: RICHTER'S COFFEE HOUSE IN LEIPSIC--SEVENTEENTH CENTURY] + +For a time beer was restored to its honored place; and coffee continued +to be a luxury afforded only by the rich. Soon a revulsion of feeling +set in; and it was found that even Prussian military rule could not +enforce coffee prohibition. Whereupon, in 1781, finding that all his +efforts to reserve the beverage for the exclusive court circles, the +nobility, and the officers of his army, were vain, the king created a +royal monopoly in coffee, and forbade its roasting except in royal +roasting establishments. At the same time, he made exceptions in the +cases of the nobility, the clergy, and government officials; but +rejected all applications for coffee-roasting licenses from the common +people. His object, plainly, was to confine the use of the drink to the +elect. To these representatives of the cream of Prussian society, the +king issued special licenses permitting them to do their own roasting. +Of course, they purchased their supplies from the government; and as the +price was enormously increased, the sales yielded Frederick a handsome +income. Incidentally, the possession of a coffee-roasting license became +a kind of badge of membership in the upper class. The poorer classes +were forced to get their coffee by stealth; and, failing this, they fell +back upon numerous barley, wheat, corn, chicory, and dried-fig +substitutes, that soon appeared in great numbers. + +This singular coffee ordinance was known as the "_Déclaration du Roi +concernant la vente du café brûlé_", and was published January 21, 1781. + +[Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE IN GERMANY--MIDDLE OF THE SEVENTEENTH +CENTURY] + +After placing the coffee _regie_ (revenue) in the hands of a Frenchman, +Count de Lannay, so many deputies were required to make collections that +the administration of the law became a veritable persecution. Discharged +wounded soldiers were mostly employed, and their principal duty was to +spy upon the people day and night, following the smell of roasting +coffee whenever detected, in order to seek out those who might be found +without roasting permits. The spies were given one-fourth of the fine +collected. These deputies made themselves so great a nuisance, and +became so cordially disliked, that they were called "coffee-smellers" by +the indignant people. + +Taking a leaf out of Frederick's book, the elector of Cologne, +Maximilian Frederick, bishop of Münster, (Duchy of Westphalia) on +February 17, 1784, issued a manifesto which said: + + To our great displeasure we have learned that in our Duchy of + Westphalia the misuse of the coffee beverage has become so extended + that to counteract the evil we command that four weeks after the + publication of this decree no one shall sell coffee roasted or not + roasted under a fine of one hundred dollars, or two years in + prison, for each offense. + + Every coffee-roasting and coffee-serving place shall be closed, and + dealers and hotel-keepers are to get rid of their coffee supplies + in four weeks. It is only permitted to obtain from the outside + coffee for one's own consumption in lots of fifty pounds. House + fathers and mothers shall not allow their work people, especially + their washing and ironing women, to prepare coffee, or to allow it + in any manner under a penalty of one hundred dollars. + + All officials and government employees, to avoid a penalty of one + hundred gold florins, are called upon closely to follow and to keep + a watchful eye over this decree. To the one who reports such + persons as act contrary to this decree shall be granted one-half of + the said money fine with absolute silence as to his name. + +This decree was solemnly read in the pulpits, and was published besides +in the usual places and ways. There immediately followed a course of +"telling-ons", and of "coffee-smellings", that led to many bitter +enmities and caused much unhappiness in the Duchy of Westphalia. +Apparently the purpose of the archduke was to prevent persons of small +means from enjoying the drink, while those who could afford to purchase +fifty pounds at a time were to be permitted the indulgence. As was to be +expected, the scheme was a complete failure. + +While the king of Prussia exploited his subjects by using the state +coffee monopoly as a means of extortion, the duke of Württemberg had a +scheme of his own. He sold to Joseph Suess-Oppenheimer, an unscrupulous +financier, the exclusive privilege of keeping coffee houses in +Württemberg. Suess-Oppenheimer in turn sold the individual coffee-house +licenses to the highest bidders, and accumulated a considerable fortune. +He was the first "coffee king." + +But coffee outlived all these unjust slanders and cruel taxations of too +paternal governments, and gradually took its rightful place as one of +the favorite beverages of the German people. + +[Illustration: KOLSCHITZKY, THE GREAT BROTHER-HEART, IN HIS BLUE BOTTLE +CAFÉ, VIENNA, 1683 + +From a lithograph after the painting by Franz Schams, entitled "Das +Erste (Kulczycki'sche) Kaffee Haus"] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +TELLING HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA + + _The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitzky, who carried "a + message to Garcia" through the enemy's lines and won for himself + the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese the art of + making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of + the green beans left behind by the Turks; also the gift of a house + from a grateful municipality, and a statue after + death--Affectionate regard in which "brother-heart" Kolschitzky is + held as the patron saint of the Vienna kaffee-sieder--Life in the + early Vienna cafés_ + + +A romantic tale has been woven around the introduction of coffee into +Austria. When Vienna was besieged by the Turks in 1683, so runs the +legend, Franz George Kolschitzky, a native of Poland, formerly an +interpreter in the Turkish army, saved the city and won for himself +undying fame, with coffee as his principal reward. + +It is not known whether, in the first siege of Vienna by the Turks in +1529, the invaders boiled coffee over their camp fires that surrounded +the Austrian capital; although they might have done so, as Selim I, +after conquering Egypt in 1517, had brought with him to Constantinople +large stores of coffee as part of his booty. But it is certain that when +they returned to the attack, 154 years later, they carried with them a +plentiful supply of the green beans. + +Mohammed IV mobilized an army of 300,000 men and sent it forth under his +vizier, Kara Mustapha, (Kuprili's successor) to destroy Christendom and +to conquer Europe. Reaching Vienna July 7, 1683, the army quickly +invested the city and cut it off from the world. Emperor Leopold had +escaped the net and was several miles away. Nearby was the prince of +Lorraine, with an army of 33,000 Austrians, awaiting the succor promised +by John Sobieski, king of Poland, and an opportunity to relieve the +besieged capital. Count Rudiger von Starhemberg, in command of the +forces in Vienna, called for a volunteer to carry a message through the +Turkish lines to hurry along the rescue. He found him in the person of +Franz George Kolschitzky, who had lived for many years among the Turks +and knew their language and customs. + +On August 13, 1683, Kolschitzky donned a Turkish uniform, passed through +the enemy's lines and reached the Emperor's army across the Danube. +Several times he made the perilous journey between the camp of the +prince of Lorraine and the garrison of the governor of Vienna. One +account says that he had to swim the four intervening arms of the Danube +each time he performed the feat. His messages did much to keep up the +morale of the city's defenders. At length King John and his army of +rescuing Poles arrived and were consolidated with the Austrians on the +summit of Mount Kahlenberg. It was one of the most dramatic moments in +history. The fate of Christian Europe hung in the balance. Everything +seemed to point to the triumph of the crescent over the cross. Once +again Kolschitzky crossed the Danube, and brought back word concerning +the signals that the prince of Lorraine and King John would give from +Mount Kahlenberg to indicate the beginning of the attack. Count +Starhemberg was to make a sortie at the same time. + +[Illustration: FRANZ GEORGE KOLSCHITZKY, PATRON SAINT OF VIENNA COFFEE +LOVERS] + +The battle took place September 12, and thanks to the magnificent +generalship of King John, the Turks were routed. The Poles here rendered +a never-to-be-forgotten service to all Christendom. The Turkish invaders +fled, leaving 25,000 tents, 10,000 oxen, 5,000 camels, 100,000 bushels +of grain, a great quantity of gold, and many sacks filled with +coffee--at that time unknown in Vienna. The booty was distributed; but +no one wanted the coffee. They did not know what to do with it; that is, +no one except Kolschitzky. He said, "If nobody wants those sacks, I will +take them", and every one was heartily glad to be rid of the strange +beans. But Kolschitzky knew what he was about, and he soon taught the +Viennese the art of preparing coffee. Later, he established the first +public booth where Turkish coffee was served in Vienna. + +This, then, is the story of how coffee was introduced into Vienna, where +was developed that typical Vienna café which has become a model for a +large part of the world. Kolschitzky is honored in Vienna as the patron +saint of coffee houses. His followers, united in the guild of coffee +makers (_kaffee-sieder_), even erected a statue in his honor. It still +stands as part of the facade of a house where the Kolschitzygasse merges +into the Favoritengasse, as shown in the accompanying picture. + +Vienna is sometimes referred to as the "mother of cafés". Café Sacher is +world-renowned. Tart à la Sacher is to be found in every cook-book. The +Viennese have their "_jause_" every afternoon. When one drinks coffee at +a Vienna café one generally has a _kipfel_ with it. This is a +crescent-shaped roll--baked for the first time in the eventful year +1683, when the Turks besieged the city. A baker made these crescent +rolls in a spirit of defiance of the Turk. Holding sword in one hand and +_kipfel_ in the other, the Viennese would show themselves on top of +their redoubts and challenge the cohorts of Mohammed IV. + +Mohammed IV was deposed after losing the battle, and Kara Mustapha was +executed for leaving the stores--particularly the sacks of coffee +beans--at the gates of Vienna; but Vienna coffee and Vienna _kipfel_ are +still alive, and their appeal is not lessened by the years. + +[Illustration: THE FIRST COFFEE HOUSE IN THE LEOPOLDSTADT + +From a cut so titled in Bermann's _Alt und Neu Wien_] + +The hero Kolschitzky was presented with a house by the grateful +municipality; and there, at the sign of the Blue Bottle, according to +one account, he continued as a coffee-house keeper for many years.[65] +This, in brief, is the story that--although not authenticated in all +its particulars--is seriously related in many books, and is firmly +believed throughout Vienna. + +It seems a pity to discredit the hero of so romantic an adventure; but +the archives of Vienna throw a light upon Kolschitzky's later conduct +that tends to show that, after all, this Viennese idol's feet were of +common clay. + +It is said that Kolschitzky, after receiving the sacks of green coffee +left behind by the Turks, at once began to peddle the beverage from +house to house, serving it in little cups from a wooden platter. Later +he rented a shop in Bischof-hof. Then he began to petition the municipal +council, that, in addition to the sum of 100 ducats already promised him +as further recognition of his valor, he should receive a house with good +will attached; that is, a shop in some growing business section. "His +petitions to the municipal council", writes M. Bermann[66], "are amazing +examples of measureless self-conceit and the boldest greed. He seemed +determined to get the utmost out of his own self-sacrifice. He insisted +upon the most highly deserved reward, such as the Romans bestowed upon +their Curtius, the Lacedæmonians upon their Pompilius, the Athenians +upon Seneca, with whom he modestly compared himself." + +At last, he was given his choice of three houses in the Leopoldstadt, +any one of them worth from 400 to 450 gulden, in place of the money +reward, that had been fixed by a compromise agreement at 300 gulden. But +Kolschitzky was not satisfied with this; and urged that if he was to +accept a house in full payment it should be one valued at not less than +1000 gulden. Then ensued much correspondence and considerable haggling. +To put an end to the acrimonious dispute, the municipal council in 1685 +directed that there should be deeded over to Kolschitzky and his wife, +Maria Ursula, without further argument, the house known at that time as +30 (now 8) Haidgasse. + +It is further recorded that Kolschitzky sold the house within a year; +and, after many moves, he died of tuberculosis, February 20, 1694, aged +fifty-four years. He was courier to the emperor at the time of his +death, and was buried in the Stefansfreithof Cemetery. + +[Illustration: STATUE OF KOLSCHITZKY ERECTED BY THE COFFEE MAKERS GUILD +OF VIENNA] + +Kolschitzky's heirs moved the coffee house to Donaustrand, near the +wooden Schlagbrücke, later known as Ferdinand's _brücke_ (bridge). The +celebrated coffee house of Franz Mosee (d. 1860) stood on this same +spot. + +In the city records for the year 1700 a house in the +Stock-im-Eisen-Platz (square) is designated by the words "_allwo das +erste kaffeegewölbe_" ("here was the first coffee house"). +Unfortunately, the name of the proprietor is not given. + +Many stories are told of Kolschitzky's popularity as a coffee-house +keeper. He is said to have addressed everyone as _bruderherz_ +(brother-heart) and gradually he himself acquired the name _bruderherz_. +A portrait of Kolschitzky, painted about the time of his greatest vogue, +is carefully preserved by the Innung der Wiener Kaffee-sieder (the +Coffee Makers' Guild of Vienna). + +Even during the lifetime of the first _kaffee-sieder_, a number of +others opened coffee houses and acquired some little fame. Early in the +eighteenth century a tourist gives us a glimpse of the progress made by +coffee drinking and by the coffee-house idea in Vienna. We read: + + The city of Vienna is filled with coffee houses, where the + novelists or those who busy themselves with the newspapers delight + to meet, to read the gazettes and discuss their contents. Some of + these houses have a better reputation than others because such + _zeitungs-doctors_ (newspaper doctors--an ironical title) gather + there to pass most unhesitating judgment on the weightiest events, + and to surpass all others in their opinions concerning political + matters and considerations. + + All this wins them such respect that many congregate there because + of them, and to enrich their minds with inventions and foolishness + which they immediately run through the city to bring to the ears of + the said personalities. It is impossible to believe what freedom is + permitted, in furnishing this gossip. They speak without reverence + not only of the doings of generals and ministers of state, but also + mix themselves in the life of the Kaiser (Emperor) himself. + +Vienna liked the coffee house so well that by 1839 there were eighty of +them in the city proper and fifty more in the suburbs. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON + + _One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee--The + first coffee house in London--The first coffee handbill, and the + first newspaper advertisement for coffee--Strange coffee + mixtures--Fantastic coffee claims--Coffee prices and coffee + licenses--Coffee club of the Rota--Early coffee-house manners and + customs--Coffee-house keepers' tokens--Opposition to the coffee + house--"Penny universities"--Weird coffee substitutes--The proposed + coffee-house newspaper monopoly--Evolution of the club--Decline and + fall of the coffee house--Pen pictures of coffee-house life--Famous + coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--Some Old + World pleasure gardens--Locating the notable coffee houses_ + + +The two most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee have to do +with the period of the old London and Paris coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Much of the poetry and romance of +coffee centers around this time. + +"The history of coffee houses," says D'Israeli, "ere the invention of +clubs, was that of the manners, the morals and the politics of a +people." And so the history of the London coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is indeed the history of the +manners and customs of the English people of that period. + + +_The First London Coffee House_ + +"The first coffee house in London," says John Aubrey (1626-97), the +English antiquary and folklorist, "was in St. Michael's Alley, in +Cornhill, opposite to the church, which was sett up by one ... Bowman +(coachman to Mr. Hodges, a Turkey merchant, who putt him upon it) in or +about the yeare 1652. 'Twas about four years before any other was sett +up, and that was by Mr. Farr. Jonathan Paynter, over-against to St. +Michael's Church, was the first apprentice to the trade, viz., to +Bowman."[67] + +Another account, for which we are indebted to William Oldys (1696-1761), +the bibliographer, relates that Mr. Edwards, a London merchant, acquired +the coffee habit in Turkey, and brought home with him from Ragusa, in +Dalmatia, Pasqua Rosée, an Armenian or Greek youth, who prepared the +beverage for him. "But the novelty thereof," says Oldys, "drawing too +much company to him, he allowed the said servant with another of his +son-in-law to set up the first coffee house in London at St. Michael's +Alley, in Cornhill." + +From this it would appear that Pasqua Rosée had as partner in this +enterprise, the Bowman, who, according to Aubrey, was coachman to Mr. +Hodges, the son-in-law of Mr. Edwards, and a fellow merchant traveler. + +Oldys tells us that Rosée and Bowman soon separated. John Timbs +(1801-1875), another English antiquary, says they quarreled, Rosée +keeping the house, and his partner Bowman obtaining leave to pitch a +tent and to sell the drink in St. Michael's churchyard. + +Still another version of this historic incident is to be found in +_Houghton's Collection_, 1698. It reads: + + It appears that a Mr. Daniel Edwards, an English merchant of + Smyrna, brought with him to this country a Greek of the name of + Pasqua, in 1652, who made his coffee; this Mr. Edwards married one + Alderman Hodges's daughter, who lived in Walbrook, and set up + Pasqua for a coffee man in a shed in the churchyard in St. Michael, + Cornhill, which is now a scrivener's brave-house, when, having + great custom, the ale-sellers petitioned the Lord Mayor against him + as being no freeman. This made Alderman Hodges join his coachman, + Bowman, who was free, as Pasqua's partner; but Pasqua, for some + misdemeanor, was forced to run the country, and Bowman, by his + trade and a contribution of 1000 sixpences, turned the shed to a + house. Bowman's apprentices were first, John Painter, then Humphry, + from whose wife I had this account. + +This account makes it appear that Edwards was Hodges' son-in-law. +Whatever the relationship, most authorities agree that Pasqua Rosée was +the first to sell coffee publicly, whether in a tent or shed, in London +in or about the year 1652. His original shop-bill, or handbill, the +first advertisement for coffee, is in the British Museum, and from it +the accompanying photograph was made for this work. It sets forth in +direct fashion: "The Vertue of the _COFFEE_ Drink First publiquely made +and sold in England, by _Pasqua Rosée_ ... in St. _Michaels Alley_ in +_Cornhill_ ... at the Signe of his own Head."[68] + +H.R. Fox Bourne[69] (about 1870) is alone in an altogether different +version of this historic event. He says: + +"In 1652 Sir Nicholas Crispe, a Levant merchant, opened in London the +first coffee house known in England, the beverage being prepared by a +Greek girl brought over for the work." + +There is nothing to substantiate this story; the preponderance of +evidence is in support of the Edwards-Rosée version. + +Such then was the advent of the coffee house in London, which introduced +to English-speaking people the drink of democracy. Oddly enough, coffee +and the Commonwealth came in together. The English coffee house, like +its French contemporary, was the home of liberty. + +Robinson, who accepts that version of the event wherein Edwards marries +Hodges's daughter, says that after the partners Rosée and Bowman +separated, and Bowman had set up his tent opposite Rosée, a zealous +partisan addressed these verses "To Pasqua Rosée, at the Sign of his own +Head and half his Body in St. Michael's Alley, next the first +Coffee-Tent in London": + +Were not the fountain of my Tears + Each day exhausted by the steam +Of your Coffee, no doubt appears + But they would swell to such a stream +As could admit of no restriction +To see, poor Pasqua, thy Affliction. + +What! Pasqua, you at first did broach + This Nectar for the publick Good, +Must you call Kitt down from the Coach + To drive a Trade he understood +No more than you did then your creed, +Or he doth now to write or read? + +Pull Courage, Pasqua, fear no Harms + From the besieging Foe; +Make good your Ground, stand to your Arms, + Hold out this summer, and then tho' +He'll storm, he'll not prevail--your Face[70] +Shall give the Coffee Pot the chace. + +Eventually Pasqua Rosée disappeared, some say to open a coffee house on +the Continent, in Holland or Germany. Bowman, having married Alderman +Hodges's cook, and having also prevailed upon about a thousand of his +customers to lend him sixpence apiece, converted his tent into a +substantial house, and eventually took an apprentice to the trade. + +Concerning London's second coffee-house keeper, James Farr, proprietor +of the Rainbow, who had as his most distinguished visitor Sir Henry +Blount, Edward Hatton[71] says: + + I find it recorded that one James Farr, a barber, who kept the + coffee-house which is now the Rainbow, by the Inner Temple Gate + (one of the first in England), was in the year 1657, prosecuted by + the inquest of St Dunstan's in the West, for making and selling a + sort of liquor called coffe, as a great nuisance and prejudice to + the neighborhood, etc., and who would then have thought London + would ever have had near three thousand such nuisances, and that + coffee would have been, as now, so much drank by the best of + quality and physicians? + +[Illustration: FIRST ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE--1652 + +Handbill used by Pasqua Rosée, who opened the first coffee house in +London From the original in the British Museum] + +Hatton evidently attributed Fair's nuisance to the coffee itself, +whereas the presentment[72] clearly shows it was in Farr's chimney and +not in the coffee. + +Mention has already been made that Sir Henry Blount was spoken of as +"the father of English coffee houses" and his claim to this distinction +would seem to be a valid one, for his strong personality "stamped itself +upon the system." His favorite motto, "_Loquendum est cum vulgo, +sentiendum cum sapientibus_" (the crowd may talk about it; the wise +decide it), says Robinson, "expresses well their colloquial purpose, and +was natural enough on the lips of one whose experience had been world +wide." Aubrey says of Sir Henry Blount, "He is now neer or altogether +eighty yeares, his intellectuals good still and body pretty strong." + +Women played a not inconspicuous part in establishing businesses for the +sale of the coffee drink in England, although the coffee houses were not +for both sexes, as in other European countries. The London City +_Quaeries_ for 1660 makes mention of "a she-coffee merchant." Mary +Stringar ran a coffee house in Little Trinity Lane in 1669; Anne Blunt +was mistress of one of the Turk's-Head houses in Cannon Street in 1672. +Mary Long was the widow of William Long, and her initials, together with +those of her husband, appear on a token issued from the Rose tavern in +Bridge Street, Covent Garden. Mary Long's token from the "Rose coffee +house by the playhouse" in Covent Garden is shown among the group of +coffee-house keepers' tokens herein illustrated. + + +_The First Newspaper Advertisement_ + +The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appeared, May 26, 1657, in +the _Publick Adviser_ of London, one of the first weekly pamphlets. The +name of this publication was erroneously given as the _Publick +Advertiser_ by an early writer on coffee, and the error has been copied +by succeeding writers. The first newspaper advertisement was contained +in the issue of the _Publick Adviser_ for the week of May 19 to May 26, +and read: + + In _Bartholomew_ Lane on the back side of the Old Exchange, the + drink called _Coffee_, (which is a very wholsom and Physical drink, + having many excellent vertues, closes the Orifice of the Stomack, + fortifies the heat within, helpeth Digestion, quickneth the + Spirits, maketh the heart lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, + Coughs, or Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Dropsie, Gout, + Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others is to be sold both in the + morning, and at three of the clock in the afternoon). + +Chocolate was also advertised for sale in London this same year. The +issue of the _Publick Adviser_ for June 16, 1657, contained this +announcement: + + In Bishopgate Street, in Queen's Head Alley, at a Frenchman's house + is an excellent West India drink called chocolate, to be sold, + where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade at + reasonable rates. + +Tea was first sold publicly at Garraway's (or Garway's) in 1657. + + +_Strange Coffee Mixtures_ + +The doctors were loath to let coffee escape from the mysteries of the +pharmacopoeia and become "a simple and refreshing beverage" that any +one might obtain for a penny in the coffee houses, or, if preferred, +might prepare at home. In this they were aided and abetted by many +well-meaning but misguided persons (some of them men of considerable +intelligence) who seemed possessed of the idea that the coffee drink was +an unpleasant medicine that needed something to take away its curse, or +else that it required a complex method of preparation. Witness "Judge" +Walter Rumsey's _Electuary of Cophy_, which appeared in 1657 in +connection with a curious work of his called _Organon Salutis: an +instrument to cleanse the stomach_.[73] The instrument itself was a +flexible whale-bone, two or three feet long, with a small linen or silk +button at the end, and was designed to be introduced into the stomach to +produce the effect of an emetic. The electuary of coffee was to be taken +by the patient before and after using the instrument, which the "judge" +called his _Provang_. And this was the "judge's" "new and superior way +of preparing coffee" as found in his prescription for making electuary +of cophy: + + Take equal quantity of Butter and Sallet-oyle, melt them well + together, but not boyle them: Then stirre them well that they may + incorporate together: Then melt therewith three times as much + Honey, and stirre it well together: Then add thereunto powder of + Turkish Cophie, to make it a thick Electuary. + +A little consideration will convince any one that the electuary was most +likely to achieve the purpose for which it was recommended. + +[Illustration: THE FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE--1657] + +Another concoction invented by the "judge" was known as "wash-brew", +and included oatmeal, powder of "cophie", a pint of ale or any wine, +ginger, honey, or sugar to please the taste; to these ingredients butter +might be added and any cordial powder or pleasant spice. It was to be +put into a flannel bag and "so keep it at pleasure like starch." This +was a favorite medicine among the common people of Wales. + +The book contained in a prefix an interesting historical document in the +shape of a letter from James Howell (1595-1666) the writer and +historiographer, which read: + + Touching coffee, I concurre with them in opinion, who hold it to be + that black-broth which was us'd of old in Lacedemon, whereof the + Poets sing; Surely it must needs be salutiferous, because so many + sagacious, and the wittiest sort of Nations use it so much; as they + who have conversed with Shashes and Turbants doe well know. But, + besides the exsiccant quality it hath to dry up the crudities of + the Stomach, as also to comfort the Brain, to fortifie the sight + with its steem, and prevent Dropsies, Gouts, the Scurvie, together + with the Spleen and Hypocondriacall windes (all which it doth + without any violance or distemper at all.) I say, besides all these + qualities, 'tis found already, that this Coffee-drink hath caused a + greater sobriety among the nations; for whereas formerly + Apprentices and Clerks with others, used to take their mornings' + draught in Ale, Beer or Wine, which by the dizziness they cause in + the Brain, make many unfit for business, they use now to play the + Good-fellows in this wakefull and civill drink: Therefore that + worthy Gentleman, Mr. Mudiford[74], who introduced the practice + hereof first to London, deserves much respect of the whole nation. + +The coffee drink at one time was mixed with sugar candy, and also with +mustard. In the coffee houses, however, it was usually served black; +"few people then mixed it with either sugar or milk." + + +_Fantastic Coffee Claims_ + +One can not fail to note in connection with the introduction of coffee +into England that the beverage suffered most from the indiscretions of +its friends. On the one hand, the quacks of the medical profession +sought to claim it for their own; and, on the other, more or less +ignorant laymen attributed to the drink such virtues as its real +champions among the physicians never dreamed of. It was the favorite +pastime of its friends to exaggerate coffee's merits; and of its +enemies, to vilify its users. All this furnished good "copy" for and +against the coffee house, which became the central figure in each new +controversy. + +From the early English author who damned it by calling it "more +wholesome than toothsome", to Pasqua Rosée and his contemporaries, who +urged its more fantastic claims, it was forced to make its way through a +veritable morass of misunderstanding and intolerance. No harmless drink +in history has suffered more at hands of friend and foe. + +Did its friends hail it as a panacea, its enemies retorted that it was a +slow poison. In France and in England there were those who contended +that it produced melancholy, and those who argued it was a cure for the +same. Dr. Thomas Willis (1621-1673), a distinguished Oxford physician +whom Antoine Portal (1742-1832) called "one of the greatest geniuses +that ever lived", said he would sometimes send his patients to the +coffee house rather than to the apothecary's shop. An old broadside, +described later in this chapter, stressed the notion that if you "do but +this Rare ARABIAN cordial use, and thou may'st all the Doctors Slops +Refuse." + +As a cure for drunkenness its "magic" power was acclaimed by its +friends, and grudgingly admitted by its foes. This will appear presently +in a description of the war of the broadsides and the pamphlets. Coffee +was praised by one writer as a deodorizer. Another (Richard Bradley), in +his treatise concerning its use with regard to the plague, said if its +qualities had been fully known in 1665, "Dr. Hodges and other learned +men of that time would have recommended it." As a matter of fact, in +Gideon Harvey's _Advice against the Plague_, published in 1665, we find, +"coffee is commended against the contagion." + +This is how the drink's sobering virtue was celebrated by the author of +the _Rebellious Antidote_: + +Come, Frantick Fools, leave off your Drunken fits. +Obsequious be and I'll recall your Wits, +From perfect Madness to a modest Strain +For farthings four I'll fetch you back again, +Enable all your mene with tricks of State, +Enter and sip and then attend your Fate; +Come Drunk or Sober, for a gentle Fee, +Come n'er so Mad, I'll your Physician be. + +Dr. Willis, in his _Pharmaceutice Rationalis_ (1674), was one of the +first to attempt to do justice to both sides of the coffee question. At +best, he thought it a somewhat risky beverage, and its votaries must, +in some cases, be prepared to suffer languor and even paralysis; it may +attack the heart and cause tremblings in the limbs. On the other hand it +may, if judiciously used, prove a marvelous benefit; "being daily drunk +it wonderfully clears and enlightens each part of the Soul and disperses +all the clouds of every Function." + +It was a long time before recognition was obtained for the truth about +the "novelty drink"; especially that, if there were any beyond purely +social virtues to be found in coffee, they were "political rather than +medical." + +Dr. James Duncan, of the Faculty of Montpellier, in his book _Wholesome +Advice against the Abuse of Hot Liquors_, done into English in 1706, +found coffee no more deserving of the name of panacea than that of +poison. + +George Cheyne (1671-1743), the noted British physician, proclaimed his +neutrality in the words, "I have neither great praise nor bitter blame +for the thing." + + +_Coffee Prices and Coffee Licenses_ + +Coffee, with tea and chocolate, was first mentioned in the English +Statute books in 1660, when a duty of four pence was laid upon every +gallon made and sold, "to be paid by the maker." Coffee was classed by +the House of Commons with "other outlandish drinks." + +It is recorded in 1662 that "the right coffee powder" was being sold at +the Turk's Head coffee house in Exchange Alley for "4s. to 6s. 8d. per +pound; that pounded in a mortar, 2s; East India berry, 1s. 6d.; and the +right Turkie berry, well garbled [ground] at 3s. The ungarbled [in the +bean] for less with directions how to use the same." Chocolate was also +to be had at "2s. 6d. the pound; the perfumed from 4s. to 10s." + +At one time coffee sold for five guineas a pound in England, and even +forty crowns (about forty-eight dollars) a pound was paid for it. + +In 1663, all English coffee houses were required to be licensed; the fee +was twelve pence. Failure to obtain a license was punished by a fine of +five pounds for every month's violation of the law. The coffee houses +were under close surveillance by government officials. One of these was +Muddiman, a good scholar and an "arch rogue", who had formerly "written +for the Parliament" but who later became a paid spy. L'Estrange, who had +a patent on "the sole right of intelligence", wrote in his +_Intelligencer_ that he was alarmed at the ill effects of "the ordinary +written papers of Parliament's news ... making coffee houses and all the +popular clubs judges of those councils and deliberations which they have +nothing to do with at all." + +The first royal warrant for coffee was given by Charles II to Alexander +Man, a Scotsman who had followed General Monk to London, and set up in +Whitehall. Here he advertised himself as "coffee man to Charles II." + +Owing to increased taxes on tea, coffee, and newspapers, near the end of +Queen Anne's reign (1714) coffee-house keepers generally raised their +prices as follows: Coffee, two pence per dish; green tea, one and a half +pence per dish. All drams, two pence per dram. At retail, coffee was +then sold for five shillings per pound; while tea brought from twelve to +twenty-eight shillings per pound. + + +_Coffee Club of The Rota_ + +"Coffee and Commonwealth", says a pamphleteer of 1665, "came in together +for a Reformation, to make 's a free and sober nation." The writer +argues that liberty of speech should be allowed, "where men of differing +judgements croud"; and he adds, "that's a coffee-house, for where should +men discourse so free as there?" Robinson's comments are apt: + + Now perhaps we do not always connect the ideas of sociableness and + freedom of discussion with the days of Puritan rule; yet it must be + admitted that something like geniality and openness characterized + what Pepys calls the Coffee Club of the Rota. This "free and open + Society of ingenious gentlemen" was founded in the year 1659 by + certain members of the Republican party, whose peculiar opinions + had been timidly expressed and not very cordially tolerated under + the Great Oliver. By the weak Government that followed, these views + were regarded with extreme dislike and with some amount of terror. + +"They met", says Aubrey, who was himself of their number, "at the Turk's +Head [Miles's coffee house] in New Palace Yard, Westminster, where they +take water, at one Miles's, the next house to the staires, where was +made purposely a large ovall table, with a passage in the middle for +Miles to deliver his coffee." + +Robinson continues: + + This curious refreshment bar and the interest with which the + beverage itself was regarded, were quite secondary to the + excitement caused by another novelty. When, after heated + disputation, a member desired to test the opinion of the meeting, + any particular point might, by agreement, be put to the vote and + then everything depended upon "our wooden oracle," the first + balloting-box ever seen in England. Formal methods of procedure and + the intensely practical nature of the subjects discussed, combined + to give a real importance to this Amateur Parliament. + +[Illustration: A COFFEE HOUSE IN THE TIME OF CHARLES II + +From a wood cut of 1674] + +The Rota, or Coffee Club, as Pepys called it, was essentially a debating +society for the dissemination of republican opinions. It was preceded +only, in the reign of Henry IV, by the club called La Court de Bone +Compagnie; by Sir Walter Raleigh's Friday Street, or Bread Street, club; +the club at the Mermaid tavern in Bread Street, of which Shakespeare, +Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh, Selden, Donne, _et al._, were members; and +"rare" Ben Jonson's Devil tavern club, between Middle Temple Gate and +Temple Bar. + +The Rota derived its name from a plan, which it was designed to promote, +for changing a certain number of members of parliament annually by +rotation. It was founded by James Harrington, who had painted it in +fairest colors in his _Oceana_, that ideal commonwealth. + +Sir William Petty was one of its members. Around the table, "in a room +every evening as full as it could be crammed," says Aubrey, sat Milton +(?) and Marvell, Cyriac Skinner, Harrington, Nevill, and their friends, +discussing abstract political questions. + +The Rota became famous for its literary strictures. Among these was "The +censure of the Rota upon Mr. Milton's book entitled _The ready and easie +way to establish a free commonwealth_" (1660), although it is doubtful +if Milton was ever a visitor to this "bustling coffee club." The Rota +also censured "Mr. Driden's _Conquest of Granada_" (1673). + + +_Early Coffee-House Manners and Customs_ + +Among many of the early coffee-house keepers there was great anxiety +that the coffee house, open to high and low, should be conducted under +such restraints as might secure the better class of customers from +annoyance. The following set of regulations in somewhat halting rhyme +was displayed on the walls of several of the coffee houses in the +seventeenth century: + +THE RULES AND ORDERS OF THE COFFEE HOUSE. + +Enter, Sirs, freely, but first, if you please, +Peruse our civil orders, which are these. + +First, gentry, tradesmen, all are welcome hither, +And may without affront sit down together: +Pre-eminence of place none here should mind, +But take the next fit seat that he can find: +Nor need any, if finer persons come, +Rise up to assigne to them his room; +To limit men's expence, we think not fair, +But let him forfeit twelve-pence that shall swear; +He that shall any quarrel here begin, +Shall give each man a dish t' atone the sin; +And so shall he, whose compliments extend +So far to drink in _coffee_ to his friend; +Let noise of loud disputes be quite forborne, +No maudlin lovers here in corners mourn, +But all be brisk and talk, but not too much, +On sacred things, let none presume to touch. +Nor profane Scripture, nor sawcily wrong +Affairs of state with an irreverent tongue: +Let mirth be innocent, and each man see +That all his jests without reflection be; +To keep the house more quiet and from blame, +We banish hence cards, dice, and every game; +Nor can allow of wagers, that exceed +Five shillings, which ofttimes much trouble breed; +Let all that's lost or forfeited be spent +In such good liquor as the house doth vent. +And customers endeavour, to their powers, +For to observe still, seasonable hours. +Lastly, let each man what he calls for pay, +And so you're welcome to come every day. + +The early coffee houses were often up a flight of stairs, and consisted +of a single large room with "tables set apart for divers topics." There +is a reference to this in the prologue to a comedy of 1681 (quoted by +Malone): + +In a coffee house just now among the rabble +I bluntly asked, which is the treason table? + +This was the arrangement at Man's and others favored by the wits, the +_literati_, and "men of fashionable instincts." In the distinctly +business coffee houses separate rooms were provided at a later time for +mercantile transactions. The introduction of wooden partitions--wooden +boxes, as at a tavern--was also of somewhat later date. + +A print of 1674 shows five persons of different ranks in life, one of +them smoking, sitting on chairs around a coffee-house table, on which +are small basins, or dishes, without saucers, and tobacco pipes, while a +coffee boy is serving coffee. + +In the beginning, only coffee was dispensed in the English coffee +houses. Soon chocolate, sherbert, and tea were added; but the places +still maintained their status as social and temperance factors. +Constantine Jennings (or George Constantine) of the Grecian advertised +chocolate, sherbert and tea at retail in 1664-65; also free instruction +in the part of preparing these liquors. "Drams and cordial waters were +to be had only at coffee houses newly set up," says Elford the younger, +writing about 1689. "While some few places added ale and beer as early +as 1669, intoxicating liquors were not items of importance for many +years." + +[Illustration: A LONDON COFFEE HOUSE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY + +From a wood cut of the period] + +After the fire of 1666, many new coffee houses were opened that were not +limited to a single room up a flight of stairs. Because the coffee-house +keepers over-emphasized the sobering qualities of the coffee drink, they +drew many undesirable characters from the taverns and ale houses after +the nine o'clock closing hour. These were hardly calculated to improve +the reputation of the coffee houses; and, indeed, the decline of the +coffee houses as a temperance institution would seem to trace back to +this attitude of false pity for the victims of tavern vices, evils that +many of the coffee houses later on embraced to their own undoing. The +early institution was unique, its distinctive features being unlike +those of any public house in England or on the Continent. Later on, in +the eighteenth century, when these distinctive features became +obscured, the name coffee house became a misnomer. + +[Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE, QUEEN ANNE'S TIME--1702-14 + +Showing coffee pots, coffee dishes, and coffee boy] + +However, Robinson says, "the close intercourse between the habitués of +the coffee house, before it lost anything of its generous social +traditions and whilst the issue of the struggle for political liberty +was as yet uncertain, was to lead to something more than a mere jumbling +or huddling together of opposites. The diverse elements gradually united +in the bonds of common sympathy, or were forcibly combined by +persecution from without until there resulted a social, political and +moral force of almost irresistible strength." + + +_Coffee-House Keepers' Tokens_ + +The great London fire of 1666 destroyed some of the coffee houses; but +prominent among those that survived was the Rainbow, whose proprietor, +James Farr, issued one of the earliest coffee-house tokens, doubtless in +grateful memory of his escape. Farr's token shows an arched rainbow +emerging from the clouds of the "great fire," indicating that all was +well with him, and the Rainbow still radiant. On the reverse the medal +was inscribed, "In Fleet Street--His Half Penny." + +A large number of these trade coins were put out by coffee-house keepers +and other tradesmen in the seventeenth century as evidence of an amount +due, as stated thereon, by the issuer to the holder. Tokens originated +because of the scarcity of small change. They were of brass, copper, +pewter, and even leather, gilded. They bore the name, address, and +calling of the issuer, the nominal value of the piece, and some +reference to his trade. They were readily redeemed, on presentation, at +their face value. They were passable in the immediate neighborhood, +seldom reaching farther than the next street. C.G. Williamson writes: + + Tokens are essentially democratic; they would never have been + issued but for the indifference of the Government to a public need; + and in them we have a remarkable instance of a people forcing a + legislature to comply with demands at once reasonable and + imperative. Taken as a whole series, they are homely and quaint, + wanting in beauty, but not without a curious domestic art of their + own. + +Robinson finds an exception to the general simplicity in the tokens +issued by one of the Exchange Alley houses. The dies of these tokens are +such as to have suggested the skilled workmanship of John Roettier. The +most ornate has the head of a Turkish sultan at that time famed for his +horrible deeds, ending in suicide; its inscription runs: + +Morat ye Great Men did mee call; +Where Eare I came I conquer'd all. + +A number of the most interesting coffee-house keepers' tokens in the +Beaufoy collection in the Guildhall Museum were photographed for this +work, and are shown herewith. It will be observed that many of the +traders of 1660-75 adopted as their trade sign a hand pouring coffee +from a pot, invariably of the Turkish-ewer pattern. Morat (Amurath) and +Soliman were frequent coffee-house signs in the seventeenth century. + +J.H. Burn, in his _Catalogue of Traders' Tokens_, recites that in 1672 +"divers persons who presumed ... to stamp, coin, exchange and distribute +farthings, halfpence and pence of brass and copper" were "taken into +custody, in order to a severe prosecution"; but upon submission, their +offenses were forgiven, and it was not until the year 1675 that the +private token ceased to pass current. + +[Illustration: PLATE 1--COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH +CENTURY + +Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the +Beaufoy collection at the Guildhall Museum] + +A royal proclamation at the close of 1674 enjoined the prosecution of +any who should "utter base metals with private stamps," or "hinder the +vending of those half pence and farthings which are provided for +necessary exchange." After this, tokens were issued stamped "necessary +change." + +[Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1663] + + +_Opposition to the Coffee House_ + +It is easy to see why the coffee houses at once found favor among men of +intelligence in all classes. Until they came, the average Englishman had +only the tavern as a place of common resort. But here was a public house +offering a non-intoxicating beverage, and its appeal was instant and +universal. As a meeting place for the exchange of ideas it soon attained +wide popularity. But not without opposition. The publicans and ale-house +keepers, seeing business slipping away from them, made strenuous +propaganda against this new social center; and not a few attacks were +launched against the coffee drink. Between the Restoration and the year +1675, of eight tracts written upon the subject of the London coffee +houses, four have the words "character of a coffee house" as part of +their titles. The authors appear eager to impart a knowledge of the +town's latest novelty, with which many readers were unacquainted. + +One of these early pamphlets (1662) was entitled _The Coffee Scuffle_, +and professed to give a dialogue between "a learned knight and a +pitifull pedagogue," and contained an amusing account of a house where +the Puritan element was still in the ascendant. A numerous company is +present, and each little group being occupied with its own subject, the +general effect is that of another Babel. While one is engaged in quoting +the classics, another confides to his neighbors how much he admires +Euclid; + +A third's for a lecture, a fourth a conjecture, +A fifth for a penny in the pound. + +Theology is introduced. Mask balls and plays are condemned. Others again +discuss the news, and are deep in the store of "mercuries" here to be +found. One cries up philosophy. Pedantry is rife, and for the most part +unchecked, when each 'prentice-boy "doth call for his coffee in Latin" +and all are so prompt with their learned quotations that "'t would make +a poor Vicar to tremble." + +The first noteworthy effort attacking the coffee drink was a satirical +broadside that appeared in 1663. It was entitled _A Cup of Coffee: or, +Coffee in its Colours_. It said: + +For men and Christians to turn Turks, and think +T'excuse the Crime because 'tis in their drink, +Is more than Magick.... +Pure English Apes! Ye may, for ought I know, +Would it but mode, learn to eat Spiders too. + +The writer wonders that any man should prefer coffee to canary, and +refers to the days of Beaumont, Fletcher, and Ben Jonson. He says: + +They drank pure nectar as the gods drink too, +Sublim'd with rich Canary.... + shall then +These less than coffee's self, these coffee-men, +These sons of nothing, that can hardly make +Their Broth, for laughing how the jest doth take; +Yet grin, and give ye for the Vine's pure Blood +A loathsome potion, not yet understood, +Syrrop of soot, or Essence of old Shooes, +Dasht with Diurnals and the Books of news? + +The author of _A Cup of Coffee_, it will be seen, does not shrink from +using epithets. + +[Illustration: PLATE 2--COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH +CENTURY + +Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the +Beaufoy collection at the Guildhall Museum] + +_The Coffee Man's Granado Discharged upon the Maiden's Complaint +Against Coffee_, a dialogue in verse, also appeared in 1663. + +_The Character of a Coffee House, by an Eye and Ear Witness_ appeared in +1665. It was a ten-page pamphlet, and proved to be excellent propaganda +for coffee. It is so well done, and contains so much local color, that +it is reproduced here, the text Museum. The title page reads: + +The +CHARACTER +OF A +COFFEE-HOUSE +wherein +Is contained a Description of the Persons +usually frequenting it, with their Discourse +and Humors, +As Also +The Admirable Vertues of +COFFEE +By an Eye and Ear Witness + +_When Coffee once was vended here, +The Alc'ron shortly did appear, +For our Reformers were such Widgeons. +New Liquors brought in new Religions._ + +Printed in the Year, 1665. + +The text and the arrangement of the body of the pamphlet are as follows: + +THE +CHARACTER +OF A +COFFEE-HOUSE + +THE DERIVATION OF +A COFFEE-HOUSE + +A _Coffee-house_, the learned hold +It is a place where _Coffee's_ sold; +This derivation cannot fail us, +For where _Ale's_ vended, that's an _Ale-house_. + + This being granted to be true, +'Tis meet that next the _Signs_ we shew +Both _where_ and _how_ to find this house +Where men such _cordial broth_ carowse. +And if _Culpepper_ woon some glory +In turning the _Dispensatory_ +From _Latin_ into _English_; then +Why should not all good _English men_ +Give him much thanks who shews a _cure_ +For all diseases men endure? + +SIGNS: HOW TO +FIND IT OUT + +As you along the streets do trudge, +To take the pains you must not grudge, +To view the Posts or Broomsticks where +The Signs of _Liquors_ hanged are. +And if you see the great _Morat_ +With Shash on's head instead of hat, +Or any _Sultan_ in his dress, +Or picture of a _Sultaness_, +Or _John's_ admir'd curled pate, +Or th' great _Mogul_ in's Chair of State, +Or _Constantine_ the _Grecian_, +Who fourteen years was th' onely man +That made _Coffee_ for th' great _Bashaw_, +Although the man he never saw; +Or if you see a _Coffee_-cup +Fil'd from a Turkish pot, hung up +Within the clouds, and round it _Pipes_, +_Wax Candles_, _Stoppers_, these are types +And certain signs (with many more +Would be too long to write them 'ore,) +Which plainly do Spectators tell +That in that house they _Coffee_ sell. +Some wiser than the rest (no doubt,) +Say they can by the smell find't out; +In at a door (say they,) but thrust +Your Nose, and if you scent _burnt Crust_, +Be sure there's _Coffee_ sold that's good, +For so by most 'tis understood. + + Now being enter'd, there's no needing +Of complements or gentile breeding, +For you may seat you any where, +There's no respect of persons there; +Then comes the _Coffee-man_ to greet you, +With welcome Sir, let me entreat you, +To tell me what you'l please to have, +For I'm your humble, humble slave; +But if you ask, what good does Coffee? +He'l answer, Sir, don't think I scoff yee, +If I affirm there's no disease +Men have that drink it but find ease. + +THE VERTUES +OF COFFEE + + Look, there's a man who takes the steem +In at his Nose, has an extreme +_Worm_ in his pate, and giddiness, +Ask him and he will say no less. +There sitteth one whose Droptick belly +Was hard as flint, now's soft as jelly. +There stands another holds his head +'Ore th' _Coffee_-pot, was almost dead +Even now with Rhume; ask him hee'l say +That all his Rhum's now past away. +See, there's a man sits now demure +And sober, was within this hour +Quite drunk, and comes here frequently, +For 'tis his daily Malady, +More, it has such reviving power +'Twill keep a man awake an houre, +Nay, make his eyes wide open stare +Both Sermon time and all the prayer. +Sir, should I tell you all the rest +O' th' cures 't has done, two hours at least +In numb'ring them I needs must spend, +Scarce able then to make an end. +Besides these vertues that's therein. +For any kind of _Medicine_, +The _Commonwealth-Kingdom_ I'd say, +Has mighty reason for to pray +That still _Arabia_ may produce +Enough of Berry for it's use: +For't has such strange magnetick force, +That it draws after't great concourse +Of all degrees of persons, even +From high to low, from morn till even; +Especially the _sober Party_, +And News-mongers do drink't most hearty +Here you'r not thrust into a _Box_ +As _Taverns_ do to catch the _Fox_, +But as from th' top of _Pauls_ high steeple, +Th' whole _City's_ view'd, even so all _people_ +May here be seen; no secrets are +At th' _Court_ for _Peace_, or th' _Camp_ for _War_, +But straight they'r here disclos'd and known; +Men in this Age so wise are grown. +Now (Sir) what profit may accrew +By this, to all good men, judge you. +With that he's loudly call'd upon +For _Coffee_, and then whip he's gone. + +THE COMPANY + + Here at a Table sits (perplext) +A griping _Usurer_, and next +To him a gallant _Furioso_, +Then nigh to him a _Virtuoso_; +A _Player_ then (full fine) sits down, +And close to him a _Country Clown_. +O' th' other side sits some _Pragmatick_, +And next to him some sly _Phanatick_. + +THE SEVERAL +LIQUORS + + The gallant he for _Tea_ doth call, +The _Usurer_ for nought at all. +The _Pragmatick_ he doth intreat +That they will fill him some _Beau-cheat_, +The _Virtuoso_ he cries hand me +Some _Coffee_ mixt with _Sugar-candy_. +_Phanaticus_ (at last) says come, +Bring me some _Aromaticum_. +The _Player_ bawls for _Chocolate_, +All which the _Bumpkin_ wond'ring at, +Cries, ho, my _Masters_, what d' ye speak, +D' ye call for drink in Heathen Greek? +Give me some good old _Ale_ or _Beer_, +Or else I will not drink, I swear. +Then having charg'd their _Pipes_ around. + +THEIR DISCOURSE + + They silence break; First the profound +And sage _Phanatique_, Sirs what news? +Troth says the _Us'rer_ I ne'r use +To tip my tongue with such discourse, +'Twere news to know how to disburse +A summ of mony (makes me sad) +To get ought by't, times are so bad. +The other answers, truly Sir +You speak but truth, for I'le aver +They ne'r were worse; did you not hear +What _prodigies_ did late appear +At _Norwich, Ipswich, Grantham, Gotam_? +And though prophane ones do not not'em, +Yet we--Here th' _Virtuoso_ stops +The current of his speech, with hopes +Quoth he, you will not tak'd amiss, +I say all's lies that's news like this, +For I have Factors all about +The Realm, so that no _Stars_ peep out +That are unusual, much less these +Strange and unheard-of _prodigies_ +You would relate, but they are tost +To me in letters by first Post. +At which the _Furioso_ swears +Such chat as this offends his ears +It rather doth become this Age +To talk of bloodshed, fury, rage, +And t' drink stout healths in brim-fill'd _Nogans_. +To th' downfall of the _Hogan Mogans_. +With that the _Player_ doffs his Bonnet, +And tunes his voice as if a Sonnet +Were to be sung; then gently says, +O what delight there is in _Plays_! +Sure if we were but all in _Peace_, +This noise of _Wars_ and _News_ would cease; +All sorts of people then would club +Their pence to see a Play that's good. +You'l wonder all this while (perhaps) +The _Curioso_ holds his chaps. +But he doth in his thoughts devise, +How to the rest he may seem wise; +Yet able longer not to hold, +His tedious tale too must be told, +And thus begins, Sirs unto me +It reason seems that liberty +Of speech and words should be allow'd +Where men of differing judgements croud, +And that's a _Coffee-house_, for where +Should men discourse so free as there? +_Coffee_ and _Commonwealth_ begin +Both with one letter, both came in +Together for a _Reformation_, +To make's a free and sober _Nation_. +But now--With that _Phanaticus_ +Gives him a nod, and speaks him thus, +Hold brother, I know your intent, +That's no dispute convenient +For this same place, truths seldome find +Acceptance here, they'r more confin'd +To _Taverns_ and to _Ale-house_ liquor, +Where men do vent their minds more quicker +If that may for a truth but pass +What's said, _In vino veritas_. +With that up starts the _Country Clown_, +And stares about with threatening frown. +As if he would even eat them all up. +Then bids the boy run quick and call up, +A _Constable_, for he has reason +To fear their Latin may be _treason_ +But straight they all call what's to pay, +Lay't down, and march each several way. + +THE COMPANY + + At th' other table sits a Knight, +And here _a grave old man_ ore right +Against his _worship_, then perhaps +That _by_ and _by_ a _Drawer_ claps +His bum close by them, there down squats +_A dealer in old shoes and hats_; +And here withouten any panick +Fear, dread or care a bold _Mechanick_. + +HEIR DISCOURSE + + The _Knight_ (because he's so) he prates +Of matters far beyond their pates. +_The grave old man_ he makes a bustle, +And his wise sentence in must justle. +Up starts th' _Apprentice boy_ and he +Says boldly so and so't must be. +_The dealer in old shoes to_ utter +His saying too makes no small sputter. +Then comes the pert _mechanick blade_, +And contradicts what all have said. + + * * * * * + + There by the fier-side doth sit, +One freezing in an _Ague_ fit. +Another poking in't with th' tongs, +Still ready to cough up his lungs +Here sitteth one that's melancolick, +And there one singing in a frolick. +Each one hath such a prety gesture, +At Smithfield fair would yield a tester. +Boy reach a pipe cries he that shakes, +The songster no Tobacco takes, +Says he who coughs, nor do I smoak, +Then _Monsieur Mopus_ turns his cloak +Off from his face, and with a grave +Majestick beck his pipe doth crave. +They load their guns and fall a smoaking +Whilst he who coughs sits by a choaking, +Till he no longer can abide. +And so removes from th' fier side. +Now all this while none calls to drink, +Which makes the _Coffee boy_ to think +Much they his pots should so enclose, +He cannot pass but tread on toes. +With that as he the _Nectar_ fills +From pot to pot, some on't he spills +Upon the _Songster_. Oh cries he. +Pox, what dost do? thou'st burnt my knee; +No says the boy, (to make a bald +And blind excuse.) _Sir 'twill not scald_. +With that the man lends him a cuff +O' th' ear, and whips away in snuff. +The other two, their pipes being out, +Says _Monsieur Mopus_ I much doubt +My friend I wait for will not come, +But if he do, say I'm gone home. +Then says the _Aguish man_ I must come +According to my wonted custome, +To give ye' a visit, although now +I dare not drink, and so _adieu_. +The boy replies, O Sir, however +You'r very welcome, we do never +Our _Candles_, _Pipes_ or _Fier_ grutch +To daily customers and such, +They'r _Company_ (without expence,) +For that's sufficient recompence. +Here at a table all alone, +Sits (studying) _a spruce youngster_, (one +Who doth conceipt himself fully witty, +And's counted _one o' th' wits o' th' City_,) +Till by him (with a stately grace,) +A Spanish _Don_ himself doth place. +Then (cap in hand) a brisk _Monsieur_ +He takes his seat, and crowds as near +As possibly that he can come. +Then next a _Dutchman_ takes his room. +The Wits glib tongue begins to chatter, +Though't utters more of noise than matter, +Yet 'cause they seem to mind his words, +His lungs more battle still affords +At last says he to _Don_, I trow +You understand me? _Sennor no_ +Says th' other. Here the Wit doth pause +A little while, then opes his jaws, +And says to _Monsieur_, you enjoy +Our tongue I hope? _Non par ma foy_, +Replies the _Frenchman_: nor you, Sir? +Says he to th' _Dutchman, Neen mynheer_, +With that he's gone, and cries, why sho'd +He stay where _wit's_ not understood? +There in a place of his own chusing +(Alone) some _lover_ sits a musing, +With arms across, and's eyes up lift, +As if he were of sence bereft. +Till sometimes to himself he's speaking, +Then sighs as if his heart were breaking. +Here in a corner sits a _Phrantick_, +And there stands by a frisking Antick, +Of all sorts some and all conditions +Even _Vintners_, _Surgeons_ and _Physicians_. +The _blind_, the _deaf_, and _aged cripple_ +Do here resort and Coffee tipple. + + Now here (perhaps) you may expect +My _Muse_ some trophies should erect +In high flown verse, for to set forth +The _noble praises_ of its _worth_. + + Truth is, _old Poets_ beat their brains +To find out high and lofty strains +To praise the (now too frequent) use +Of the bewitching _grapes strong juice_, +Some have strain'd hard for to exalt +The _liquor_ of our _English Mault_ +Nay _Don_ has almost crackt his _nodle_ +Enough t'applaud his _Caaco Caudle_. +The _Germans Mum_, _Teag's Usquebagh_, +(Made him so well defend _Tredagh_,) +_Metheglin_, which the _Brittains_ tope, +Hot _Brandy_ wine, the _Hogans_ hope. +Stout _Meade_ which makes the _Russ_ to laugh, +Spic'd _Punch_ (in bowls) the _Indians quaff_. +All these have had their pens to raise +Them _Monuments_ of lasting praise, +Onely poor _Coffee_ seems to me +No subject fit for _Poetry_ +At least 'tis one that none of mine is, +So I do wave 't, and here write-- + FINIS. + +[Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1667] + +_News from the Coffe House; in which is shewn their several sorts of +Passions_ appeared in 1667. It was reprinted in 1672 as _The Coffee +House or News-mongers' Hall_. + +Several stanzas from these broadsides have been much quoted. They serve +to throw additional light upon the manners of the time, and upon the +kind of conversation met with in any well frequented coffee house of the +seventeenth century, particularly under the Stuarts. They are finely +descriptive of the company characteristics of the early coffee houses. +The fifth stanza of the edition of 1667, inimical to the French, was +omitted when the broadside was amended and reprinted in 1672, the year +that England joined with France and again declared war on the Dutch. The +following verses with explanatory notes are from Timbs: + +NEWS FROM THE COFFE HOUSE + +You that delight in Wit and Mirth, + And long to hear such News, +As comes from all Parts of the _Earth_, + _Dutch_, _Danes_, and _Turks_, and _Jews_, +I'le send yee to a Rendezvouz, + Where it is smoaking new; +Go hear it at a _Coffe-house_, + _It cannot but be true_. + +There Battles and Sea-Fights are Fought, + And bloudy Plots display'd; +They know more Things then ere was thought + Or ever was betray'd: +No Money in the Minting-house + Is halfe so Bright and New; +And comming from a _Coffe-house_ + _It cannot but be true_. + +Before the _Navyes_ fall to Work, + They know who shall be Winner; +They there can tell ye what the _Turk_ + Last _Sunday_ had to Dinner; +Who last did Cut _Du Ruitters_[75] Corns, + Amongst his jovial Crew; +Or Who first gave the _Devil_ Horns, + _Which cannot but be true_. + +A _Fisherman_ did boldly tell, + And strongly did avouch, +He Caught a Shoal of Mackarel, + That Parley'd all in _Dutch_, +And cry'd out _Yaw, yaw, yaw Myne Here_; + But as the Draught they Drew +They Stunck for fear, that _Monck[76] was there_, + _Which cannot but be true_. + + * * * * * + +There's nothing done in all the World, + From _Monarch_ to the _Mouse_ +But every Day or Night 'tis hurld + Into the _Coffe-house_. +What _Lillie_[77] or what _Booker_[78] can + By Art, not bring about, +At _Coffe-house_ you'l find a Man, + _Can quickly find it out_. + +They know who shall in Times to come, + Be either made, or undone, +From great _St. Peters street_ in _Rome_, + To _Turnbull-street_[79] in _London_; + + * * * * * + +They know all that is Good, or Hurt, + To Dam ye, or to Save ye; +There is the _Colledge_, and the _Court_, + The _Country_, _Camp_ and _Navie_; +So great a _Universitie_, + I think there ne're was any; +In which you may a Schoolar be + For spending of a Penny. + + * * * * * + +Here Men do talk of every Thing, + With large and liberal Lungs, +Like Women at a Gossiping, + With double tyre of Tongues; +They'l give a Broad-side presently, + Soon as you are in view, +With Stories that, you'l wonder at, + Which they will swear are true. + +The Drinking there of _Chockalat_, + Can make a _Fool_ a _Sophie_: +'Tis thought the _Turkish Mahomet_ + Was first Inspir'd with _Coffe_, +By which his Powers did Over-flow + The Land of _Palestine_: +Then let us to, the _Coffe-house_ go, + 'Tis Cheaper farr then Wine. + +You shall know there, what Fashions are; + How Perrywiggs are Curl'd; +And for a Penny you shall heare, + All Novells in the World. +Both Old and Young, and Great and Small, + And Rich, and Poore, you'l see; +Therefore let's to the _Coffe_ All, + Come All away with Mee. + + FINIS. + +Robert Morton made a contribution to the controversy in _Lines Appended +to the Nature, Quality and Most Excellent Vertues of Coffee_ in 1670. + +There was published in 1672 _A Broad-side Against Coffee, or the +Marriage of the Turk_, verses that attained considerable fame because of +their picturesque invective. They also stressed the fact that Pasqua +Rosées partner was a coachman, and imitated the broken English of the +Ragusan youth: + +A BROAD-SIDE AGAINST COFFEE; + OR, THE + MARRIAGE OF THE TURK + +_Coffee_, a kind of _Turkish Renegade_, +Has late a match with _Christian water_ made; +At first between them happen'd a Demur, +Yet joyn'd they were, but not without great _stir_; + + * * * * * + +_Coffee_ was cold as _Earth, Water_ as _Thames_, +And stood in need of recommending Flames; + + * * * * * + +_Coffee_ so brown as berry does appear, +Too swarthy for a Nymph so fair, so clear: + + * * * * * + +A Coachman was the first (here) _Coffee_ made, +And ever since the rest _drive on_ the trade; +_Me no good Engalash_! and sure enough, +He plaid the Quack to salve his Stygian stuff; +_Ver boon for de stomach, de Cough, de Ptisick_ +And I believe him, for it looks like Physick. +_Coffee_ a crust is charkt into a coal, +The smell and taste of the Mock _China_ bowl; +Where huff and puff, they labour out their lungs, +Lest _Dives_-like they should bewail their tongues. +And yet they tell ye that it will not burn, +Though on the Jury Blisters you return; +Whose furious heat does make the water rise, +And still through the Alembicks of your eyes. +Dread and desire, ye fall to't snap by snap, +As hungry Dogs do scalding porrige lap, +But to cure Drunkards it has got great Fame; +_Posset_ or _Porrige_, will't not do the same? +Confusion huddles all into one Scene, +Like _Noah's_ Ark, the clean and the unclean. +But now, alas! the Drench has credit got, +And he's no Gentleman that drinks it not; +That such a _Dwarf_ should rise to such a stature! +But Custom is but a remove from Nature. +A _little_ Dish, and a _large_ Coffee-house, +What is it, but a _Mountain_ and a _Mouse_? + + * * * * * + +_Mens humana novitatis avidissima._ + +[Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1670] + +And so it came to pass that coffee history repeated itself in England. +Many good people became convinced that coffee was a dangerous drink. The +tirades against the beverage in that far-off time sound not unlike the +advertising patter employed by some of our present-day coffee-substitute +manufacturers. It was even ridiculed by being referred to as "ninny +broth" and "Turkey gruel." + +[Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1672] + +_A brief description of the excellent vertues of that sober and +wholesome drink called coffee_ appeared in 1674 and proved an able and +dignified answer to the attacks that had preceded it. That same year, +for the first time in history, the sexes divided in a coffee +controversy, and there was issued _The Women's Petition against Coffee, +representing to public consideration the grand inconveniences accruing +to their sex from the excessive use of the drying and enfeebling +Liquor_, in which the ladies, who had not been accorded the freedom of +the coffee houses in England, as was the custom in France, Germany, +Italy, and other countries on the Continent, complained that coffee made +men as "unfruitful as the deserts where that unhappy berry is said to be +bought." Besides the more serious complaint that the whole race was in +danger of extinction, it was urged that "on a domestic message a husband +would stop by the way to drink a couple of cups of coffee." + +This pamphlet is believed to have precipitated the attempt at +suppression by the crown the following year, despite the prompt +appearing, in 1674, of _The Men's Answer to the Women's Petition Against +Coffee, vindicating ... their liquor, from the undeserved aspersion +lately cast upon them, in their scandalous pamphlet_. + +The 1674 broadside in defense of coffee was the first to be illustrated; +and for all its air of pretentious grandeur and occasional bathos, it +was not a bad rhyming advertisement for the persecuted drink. It was +printed for Paul Greenwood and sold "at the sign of the coffee mill and +tobacco-roll in Cloath-fair near West-Smithfield, who selleth the best +Arabian coffee powder and chocolate in cake or roll, after the Spanish +fashion, etc." The following extracts will serve to illustrate its epic +character: + +When the sweet Poison of the Treacherous Grape, +Had Acted on the world a General Rape; +Drowning our very Reason and our Souls +In such deep Seas of large o'reflowing Bowls. + + * * * * * + +When Foggy Ale, leavying up mighty Trains +Of muddy Vapours, had besieg'd our Brains; + + * * * * * + +Then Heaven in Pity, to Effect our Cure. + + * * * * * + +First sent amongst us this _All-healing-Berry_, +At once to make us both _Sober_ and _Merry_. + + _Arabian_ Coffee, a Rich Cordial +To Purse and Person Beneficial, +Which of so many Vertues doth partake, +Its Country's called Felix for its sake. +From the Rich Chambers of the Rising Sun, +Where Arts, and all good Fashions first begun, +Where Earth with choicest Rarities is blest, +And dying _Phoenix_ builds Her wondrous Nest: +COFFEE arrives, that Grave and wholesome Liquor, +That heals the Stomack, makes the Genius quicker, +Relieves the Memory, Revives the Sad. + + * * * * * + +Do but this Rare ARABIAN Cordial Use, +And thou may'st all the Doctors Slops Refuse. +Hush then, dull QUACKS, your Mountebanking cease, +COFFEE'S a speedier Cure for each Disease; +How great its Vertues are, we hence may think, +The Worlds third Part makes it their common Drink: +In Breif, all you who Healths Rich Treasures Prize, +And Court not Ruby Noses, or blear'd Eyes, +But own Sobriety to be your Drift. +And Love at once good Company and Thrift; +To Wine no more make Wit and Coyn a Trophy, +But come each Night and Frollique here in Coffee. + +[Illustration: A BROAD-SIDE OF 1674 + +The first one to be illustrated] + +An eight-page folio, the last argument to be issued in defense of coffee +before Charles II sought to follow in the footsteps of Kair Bey and +Kuprili, was issued in the early part of 1675. It was entitled _Coffee +Houses Vindicated. In answer to the late published Character of a Coffee +House. Asserting from Reason, Experience and good Authors the Excellent +Use and physical Virtues of that Liquor ... With the Grand Convenience +of such civil Places of Resort and ingenious Conversation_. + +The advantage of a coffee house compared with a "publick-house" is thus +set forth: + + First, In regard of easy expense. Being to wait for or meet a + friend, a tavern-reckoning soon breeds a purse-consumption: in an + ale house, you must gorge yourself with pot after pot.... But here, + for a penny or two, you may spend two or three hours, have the + shelter of a house, the warmth of a fire, the diversion of company; + and conveniency, if you please, of taking a pipe of tobacco; and + all this without any grumbling or repining. Secondly. For sobriety. + It is grown, by the ill influences of I know not what hydropick + stars, almost a general custom amongst us, that no bargain can be + drove, or business concluded between man and man, but it must be + transacted at some publick-house ... where continual sippings ... + would be apt to fly up into their brains, and render them drowsy + and indisposed ... whereas, having now the opportunity of a + coffee-house, they repair thither, take each man a dish or two (so + far from causing, that it cures any dizziness, or disturbant + fumes): and so, dispatching their business, go out more sprightly + about their affairs, than before.... Lastly, For diversion ... + where can young gentlemen, or shop-keepers, more innocently and + advantageously spend an hour or two in the evening than at a + coffee-house? Where they shall be sure to meet company, and, by the + custom of the house, not such as at other places stingy and + reserved to themselves, but free and communicative, where every man + may modestly begin his story, and propose to, or answer another, as + he thinks fit.... So that, upon the whole matter, spight of the + idle sarcasms and paltry reproaches thrown upon it, we may, with no + less truth than plainness, give this brief character of a + well-regulated coffee-house, (for our pen disdains to be an + advocate for any sordid holes, that assume that name to cloke the + practice of debauchery,) that it is the sanctuary of health, the + nursery of temperance, the delight of frugality, and academy of + civility, and free-school of ingenuity. + +_The Ale Wives' Complaint Against the Coffee-houses_, a dialogue between +a victualer's wife and a coffee man, at difference about spiriting away +each other's trade, also was issued in 1675. + +As early as 1666, and again in 1672, we find the government planning to +strike a blow at the coffee houses. By the year 1675, these "seminaries +of sedition" were much frequented by persons of rank and substance, who, +"suitable to our native genius," says Anderson,[80] "used great freedom +therein with respect to the courts' proceedings in these and like +points, so contrary to the voice of the people." + +In 1672, Charles II, seemingly eager to emulate the Oriental intolerants +that preceded him, determined to try his hand at suppression. "Having +been informed of the great inconveniences arising from the great number +of persons that resort to coffee-houses," the king "desired the Lord +Keeper and the Judges to give their opinion in writing as to how far he +might lawfully proceed against them." + +Roger North in his _Examen_ gives the full story; and D'Israeli, +commenting on it, says, "it was not done without some apparent respect +for the British constitution." The courts affected not to act against +the law, and the judges were summoned to a consultation; but the five +who met could not agree in opinion. + +Sir William Coventry spoke against the proposed measure. He pointed out +that the government obtained considerable revenue from coffee, that the +king himself owed to these seemingly obnoxious places no small debt of +gratitude in the matter of his own restoration; for they had been +permitted in Cromwell's time, when the king's friends had used more +liberty of speech than "they dared to do in any other." He urged, also, +that it might be rash to issue a command so likely to be disobeyed. + +At last, being hard pressed for a reply, the judges gave such a halting +opinion in favor of the king's policy as to remind us of the reluctant +verdict wrung from the physicians and lawyers of Mecca on the occasion +of coffee's first persecution.[81] "The English lawyers, in language +which, for its civility and indefiniteness," says Robinson, "would have +been the envy of their Eastern brethren," declared that: + + Retailing coffee _might_ be an innocent trade, as it _might_ be + exercised; but as it is used at present, in the nature of a common + assembly, to discourse of matters of State, news and _great + Persons_, as they are Nurseries of Idleness and Pragmaticalness, + and hinder the expence of our native Provisions, they _might_ be + thought common nuisances. + +An attempt was made to mold public opinion to a favorable consideration +of the attempt at suppression in _The Grand Concern of England +explained_, which was good propaganda for his majesty's enterprise, but +utterly failed to carry conviction to the lovers of liberty. + +After much backing and filling, the king, on December 23, 1675, issued a +proclamation which in its title frankly stated its object--"for the +suppression of coffee houses." It is here given in a somewhat condensed +form: + + +BY THE KING: A PROCLAMATION +FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF +COFFEE HOUSES + + _Charles R._ + + Whereas it is most apparent that the multitude of Coffee Houses of + late years set up and kept within this kingdom, the dominion of + Wales, and town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and the great resort of Idle + and disaffected persons to them, have produced very evil and + dangerous effects; as well for that many tradesmen and others, do + herein mispend much of their time, which might and probably would + be employed in and about their Lawful Calling and Affairs; but + also, for that in such houses ... divers false, malitious and + scandalous reports are devised and spread abroad to the Defamation + of his Majestie's Government, and to the Disturbance of the Peace + and Quiet of the Realm; his Majesty hath thought fit and necessary, + that the said Coffee Houses be (for the future) Put down, and + suppressed, and doth ... strictly charge and command all manner of + persons, That they or any of them do not presume from and after the + Tenth Day of January next ensuing, to keep any Public Coffee House, + or to utter or sell by retail, in his, her or their house or houses + (to be spent or consumed within the same) any Coffee, Chocolet, + Sherbett or Tea, as they will answer the contrary at their utmost + perils ... (all licenses to be revoked). + + Given at our Court at Whitehall, this third-and-twentieth day of + Dec., 1675, in the seven-and-twentieth year of our Reign. + + GOD SAVE THE KING. + +And then a remarkable thing happened. It is not usual for a royal +proclamation issued on the 29th of one month to be recalled on the 8th +day of the next; but this is the record established by Charles II. The +proclamation was made on December 23, 1675, and issued December 29, +1675. It forbade the coffee houses to operate after January 10, 1676. +But so intense was the feeling aroused, that eleven days was sufficient +time to convince the king that a blunder had been made. Men of all +parties cried out against being deprived of their accustomed haunts. The +dealers in coffee, tea, and chocolate demonstrated that the proclamation +would greatly lessen his majesty's revenues. Convulsion and discontent +loomed large. The king heeded the warning, and on January 8, 1676, +another proclamation was issued by which the first proclamation was +recalled. + +In order to save the king's face, it was solemnly recited that "His +Gracious Majesty," out of his "princely consideration and royal +compassion" would allow the retailers of coffee liquor to keep open +until the 24th of the following June. But this was clearly only a royal +subterfuge, as there was no further attempt at molestation, and it is +extremely doubtful if any was contemplated at the time the second +proclamation was promulgated. + +"Than both which proclamations nothing could argue greater guilt nor +greater weakness," says Anderson. Robinson remarks, "A battle for +freedom of speech was fought and won over this question at a time when +Parliaments were infrequent and when the liberty of the press did not +exist." + + +"_Penny Universities_" + +We read in 1677 that "none dare venture into the coffee houses unless he +be able to argue the question whether Parliament were dissolved or not." + +All through the years remaining in the seventeenth century, and through +most of the eighteenth century, the London coffee houses grew and +prospered. As before stated, they were originally temperance +institutions, very different from the taverns and ale houses. "Within +the walls of the coffee house there was always much noise, much clatter, +much bustle, but decency was never outraged." + +At prices ranging from one to two pence per dish, the demand grew so +great that coffee-house keepers were obliged to make the drink in pots +holding eight or ten gallons. + +The seventeenth-century coffee houses were sometimes referred to as the +"penny universities"; because they were great schools of conversation, +and the entrance fee was only a penny. Two pence was the usual price of +a dish of coffee or tea, this charge also covering newspapers and +lights. It was the custom for the frequenter to lay his penny on the +bar, on entering or leaving. Admission to the exchange of sparkling wit +and brilliant conversation was within the reach of all. + +So great a _Universitie_ +I think there ne're was any; +In which you may a Schoolar be +For spending of a Penny. + +"Regular customers," we are told, "had particular seats and special +attention from the fair lady at the bar, and the tea and coffee boys." + +It is believed that the modern custom of tipping, and the word "tip," +originated in the coffee houses, where frequently hung brass-bound boxes +into which customers were expected to drop coins for the servants. The +boxes were inscribed "To Insure Promptness" and from the initial letters +of these words came "tip." + +The _National Review_ says, "before 1715 the number of coffee houses in +London was reckoned at 2000." Dufour, who wrote in 1683, declares, upon +information received from several persons who had staid in London, that +there were 3000 of these places. However, 2000 is probably nearer the +fact. + +In that critical time in English history, when the people, tired of the +misgovernment of the later Stuarts, were most in need of a forum where +questions of great moment could be discussed, the coffee house became a +sanctuary. Here matters of supreme political import were threshed out +and decided for the good of Englishmen for all time. And because many of +these questions were so well thought out then, there was no need to +fight them out later. England's great struggle for political liberty was +really fought and won in the coffee house. + +To the end of the reign of Charles II, coffee was looked upon by the +government rather as a new check upon license than an added luxury. +After the revolution, the London coffee merchants were obliged to +petition the House of Lords against new import duties, and it was not +until the year 1692 that the government, "for the greater encouragement +and advancement of trade and the greater importation of the said +respective goods or merchandises," discharged one half of the obnoxious +tariff. + + +_Weird Coffee Substitutes_ + +Shortly after the "great fire," coffee substitutes began to appear. +First came a liquor made with betony, "for the sake of those who could +not accustom themselves to the bitter taste of coffee." Betony is a herb +belonging to the mint family, and its root was formerly employed in +medicine as an emetic or purgative. In 1719, when coffee was 7s. a +pound, came bocket, later known as saloop, a decoction of sassafras and +sugar, that became such a favorite among those who could not afford tea +or coffee, that there were many saloop stalls in the streets of London. +It was also sold at Read's coffee house in Fleet Street. + + +_The Coffee Men Overreach Themselves_ + +The coffee-house keepers had become so powerful a force in the community +in 1729 that they lost all sense of proportion; and we find them +seriously proposing to usurp the functions of the newspapers. The +vainglorious coffee men requested the government to hand over to them a +journalistic monopoly; the argument being that the newspapers of the day +were choked with advertisements, filled with foolish stories gathered by +all-too enterprising newswriters, and that the only way for the +government to escape "further excesses occasioned by the freedom of the +press" and to rid itself of "those pests of society, the unlicensed +newsvendors," was for it to intrust the coffee men, as "the chief +supporters of liberty" with the publication of a _Coffee House Gazette_. +Information for the journal was to be supplied by the habitués of the +houses themselves, written down on brass slates or ivory tablets, and +called for twice daily by the _Gazette's_ representatives. All the +profits were to go to the coffee men--including the expected increase of +custom. + +Needless to say, this amazing proposal of the coffee-house masters to +have the public write its own newspapers met with the scorn and the +derision it invited, and nothing ever came of it. + +The increasing demand for coffee caused the government tardily to seek +to stimulate interest in the cultivation of the plant in British +colonial possessions. It was tried out in Jamaica in 1730. By 1732 the +experiment gave such promise that Parliament, "for encouraging the +growth of coffee in His Majesty's plantations in America," reduced the +inland duty on coffee coming from there, "but of none other," from two +shillings to one shilling six pence per pound. "It seems that the French +at Martinico, Hispaniola, and at the Isle de Bourbon, near Madagascar, +had somewhat the start of the English in the new product as had also the +Dutch at Surinam, yet none had hitherto been found to equal coffee from +Arabia, whence all the rest of the world had theirs." Thus writes Adam +Anderson in 1787, somewhat ungraciously seeking to damn England's +business rivals with faint praise. Java coffee was even then in the +lead, and the seeds of Bourbon-Santos were multiplying rapidly in +Brazilian soil. + +The British East India Company, however, was much more interested in tea +than in coffee. Having lost out to the French and Dutch on the "little +brown berry of Arabia," the company engaged in so lively a propaganda +for "the cup that cheers" that, whereas the annual tea imports from 1700 +to 1710 averaged 800,000 pounds, in 1721 more than 1,000,000 pounds of +tea were brought in. In 1757, some 4,000,000 pounds were imported. And +when the coffee house finally succumbed, tea, and not coffee, was firmly +intrenched as the national drink of the English people. + +A movement in 1873 to revive the coffee house in the form of a coffee +"palace," designed to replace the public house as a place of resort for +working men, caused the Edinburgh Castle to be opened in London. The +movement attained considerable success throughout the British Isles, and +even spread to the United States. + + +_Evolution of the Club_ + +Every profession, trade, class, and party had its favorite coffee house. +"The bitter black drink called coffee," as Mr. Pepys described the +beverage, brought together all sorts and conditions of men; and out of +their mixed association there developed groups of patrons favoring +particular houses and giving them character. It is easy to trace the +transition of the group into a clique that later became a club, +continuing for a time to meet at the coffee house or the chocolate +house, but eventually demanding a house of its own. + + +_Decline and Fall of the Coffee House_ + +Starting as a forum for the commoner, "the coffee house soon became the +plaything of the leisure class; and when the club was evolved, the +coffee house began to retrograde to the level of the tavern. And so the +eighteenth century, which saw the coffee house at the height of its +power and popularity, witnessed also its decline and fall. It is said +there were as many clubs at the end of the century as there were coffee +houses at the beginning." + +For a time, when the habit of reading newspapers descended the social +ladder, the coffee house acquired a new lease of life. Sir Walter Besant +observes: + + They were then frequented by men who came, not to talk, but to + read; the smaller tradesmen and the better class of mechanic now + came to the coffee-house, called for a cup of coffee, and with it + the daily paper, which they could not afford to take in. Every + coffee-house took three or four papers; there seems to have been in + this latter phase of the once social institution no general + conversation. The coffee-house as a place of resort and + conversation gradually declined; one can hardly say why, except + that all human institutions do decay. Perhaps manners declined; the + leaders in literature ceased to be seen there; the city clerk began + to crowd in; the tavern and the club drew men from the + coffee-house. + +A few houses survived until the early years of the nineteenth century, +but the social side had disappeared. As tea and coffee entered the +homes, and the exclusive club house succeeded the democratic coffee +forum, the coffee houses became taverns or chop houses, or, convinced +that they had outlived their usefulness, just ceased to be. + + +_Pen Pictures of Coffee-House Life_ + +From the writings of Addison in the _Spectator_, Steele in the _Tatler_, +Mackay in his _Journey Through England_, Macaulay in his history, and +others, it is possible to draw a fairly accurate pen-picture of life in +the old London coffee house. + +In the seventeenth century the coffee room usually opened off the +street. At first only tables and chairs were spread about on a sanded +floor. Later, this arrangement was succeeded by the boxes, or booths, +such as appear in the Rowlandson caricatures, the picture of the +interior of Lloyds, etc. + +The walls were decorated with handbills and posters advertising the +quack medicines, pills, tinctures, salves, and electuaries of the +period, all of which might be purchased at the bar near the entrance, +presided over by a prototype of the modern English barmaid. There were +also bills of the play, auction notices, etc., depending upon the +character of the place. + +Then, as now, the barmaids were made much of by patrons. Tom Brown +refers to them as charming "Phillises who invite you by their amorous +glances into their smoaky territories." + +Messages were left and letters received at the bar for regular +customers. Stella was instructed to address her letters to Swift, "under +cover to Addison at the St. James's coffee house." Says Macaulay: + + Foreigners remarked that it was the coffee house which specially + distinguished London from all other cities; that the coffee house + was the Londoner's home, and that those who wished to find a + gentleman commonly asked, not whether he lived in Fleet Street or + Chancery Lane, but whether he frequented the Grecian or the + Rainbow. + +[Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF MANY OF THE OLD LONDON +COFFEE HOUSES PREVIOUS TO THE FIRE OF 1748] + +So every man of the upper or middle classes went daily to his coffee +house to learn the news and to discuss it. The better class houses were +the meeting places of the most substantial men in the community. Every +coffee house had its orator, who became to his admirers a kind of +"fourth estate of the realm." + +Macaulay gives us the following picture of the coffee house of 1685: + + Nobody was excluded from these places who laid down his penny at + the bar. Yet every rank and profession, and every shade of + religious and political opinion had its own headquarters. + + There were houses near St. James' Park, where fops congregated, + their heads and shoulders covered with black or flaxen wigs, not + less ample than those which are now worn by the Chancellor and by + the Speaker of the House of Commons. The atmosphere was like that + of a perfumer's shop. Tobacco in any form than that of richly + scented snuff was held in abomination. If any clown, ignorant of + the usages of the house, called for a pipe, the sneers of the whole + assembly and the short answers of the waiters soon convinced him + that he had better go somewhere else. + + Nor, indeed, would he have far to go. For, in general, the + coffee-houses reeked with tobacco like a guard room. Nowhere was + the smoking more constant than at Will's. That celebrated house, + situated between Covent Garden and Bow street, was sacred to polite + letters. There the talk was about poetical justice and the unities + of place and time. Under no roof was a greater variety of figures + to be seen. There were earls in stars and garters, clergymen in + cassocks and bands, pert Templars, sheepish lads from universities, + translators and index makers in ragged coats of frieze. The great + press was to get near the chair where John Dryden sate. In winter + that chair was always in the warmest nook by the fire; in summer it + stood in the balcony. To bow to the Laureate, and to hear his + opinion of Racine's last tragedy, or of Bossu's treatise on epic + poetry, was thought a privilege. A pinch from his snuff-box was an + honour sufficient to turn the head of a young enthusiast. + + There were coffee-houses where the first medical men might be + consulted. Dr. John Radcliffe, who, in the year 1685, rose to the + largest practice in London, came daily, at the hour when the + Exchange was full, from his house in Bow street, then a fashionable + part of the capital, to Garraway's, and was to be found, surrounded + by surgeons and apothecaries, at a particular table. + + There were Puritan coffee-houses where no oath was heard, and where + lank-haired men discussed election and reprobation through their + noses; Jew coffee-houses, where dark-eyed money changers from + Venice and Amsterdam greeted each other; and Popish coffee-houses, + where, as good Protestants believed, Jesuits planned over their + cups another great fire, and cast silver bullets to shoot the King. + +Ned Ward gives us this picture of the coffee house of the seventeenth +century. He is describing Old Man's, Scotland Yard: + + We now ascended a pair of stairs, which brought us into an + old-fashioned room, where a gaudy crowd of odoriferous Tom-Essences + were walking backwards and forwards, with their hats in their + hands, not daring to convert them to their intended use lest it + should put the foretops of their wigs into some disorder. We + squeezed through till we got to the end of the room, where, at a + small table, we sat down, and observed that it was as great a + rarity to hear anybody call for a dish of politicians porridge, or + any other liquor, as it is to hear a beau call for a pipe of + tobacco; their whole exercise being to charge and discharge their + nostrils and keep the curls of their periwigs in their proper + order. The clashing of their snush-box lids, in opening and + shutting, made more noise than their tongues. Bows and cringes of + the newest mode were here exchanged 'twixt friend and friend with + wonderful exactness. They made a humming like so many hornets in a + country chimney, not with their talking, but with their whispering + over their new Minuets and Bories, with the hands in their pockets, + if only freed from their snush-box. We now began to be thoughtful + of a pipe of tobacco, whereupon we ventured to call for some + instruments of evaporation, which were accordingly brought us, but + with such a kind of unwillingness, as if they would much rather + been rid of our company; for their tables were so very neat, and + shined with rubbing like the upper-leathers of an alderman's shoes, + and as brown as the top of a country housewife's cupboard. The + floor was as clean swept as a Sir Courtly's dining room, which made + us look round to see if there were no orders hung up to impose the + forfeiture of so much mop-money upon any person that should spit + out of the chimney-corner. Notwithstanding we wanted an example to + encourage us in our porterly rudeness, we ordered them to light the + wax candle, by which we ignified our pipes and blew about our + whiffs; at which several Sir Foplins drew their faces into as many + peevish wrinkles as the beaux at the Bow Street Coffee-house, near + Covent Garden, did when the gentleman in masquerade came in amongst + them, with his oyster-barrel muff and turnip-buttons, to ridicule + their foperies. + +In _A Brief and Merry History of Great Britain_ we read: + + There is a prodigious number of Coffee-Houses in London, after the + manner I have seen some in Constantinople. These Coffee-Houses are + the constant Rendezvous for Men of Business as well as the idle + People. Besides Coffee, there are many other Liquors, which People + cannot well relish at first. They smoak Tobacco, game and read + Papers of Intelligence; here they treat of Matters of State, make + Leagues with Foreign Princes, break them again, and transact + Affairs of the last Consequence to the whole World. They represent + these Coffee-Houses as the most agreeable things in London, and + they are, in my Opinion, very proper Places to find People that a + Man has Business with, or to pass away the Time a little more + agreeably than he can do at home; but in other respects they are + loathsome, full of smoak, like a Guard-Room, and as much crowded. I + believe 'tis these Places that furnish the Inhabitants with + Slander, for there one hears exact Account of everything done in + Town, as if it were but a Village. + + At those Coffee-Houses, near the Courts, called White's, St. + James's, Williams's, the Conversation turns chiefly upon the + Equipages, Essence, Horse-Matches, Tupees, Modes and Mortgages; the + Cocoa-Tree upon Bribery and Corruption, Evil ministers, Errors and + Mistakes in Government; the Scotch Coffee-Houses towards Charing + Cross, on Places and Pensions; the Tiltyard and Young Man's on + Affronts, Honour, Satisfaction, Duels and Rencounters. I was + informed that the latter happen so frequently, in this part of the + Town, that a Surgeon and a Sollicitor are kept constantly in + waiting; the one to dress and heal such Wounds as may be given, and + the other in case of Death to bring off the Survivor with a Verdict + of Se Devendendo or Manslaughter. In those Coffee-Houses about the + Temple the Subjects are generally on Causes, Costs, Demurrers, + Rejoinders and Exceptions; Daniel's the Welch Coffee-House in Fleet + Street, on Births, Pedigrees and Descents; Child's and the Chapter + upon Glebes, Tithes, Advowsons, Rectories and Lectureships; North's + Undue Elections, False Polling, Scrutinies, etc.; Hamlin's, + Infant-Baptism, Lay-Ordination, Free-Will, Election and + Reprobation; Batson's, the Prices of Pepper, Indigo and Salt-Petre; + and all those about the Exchange, where the Merchants meet to + transact their Affairs, are in a perpetual hurry about + Stock-Jobbing, Lying, Cheating, Tricking Widows and Orphans, and + committing Spoil and Rapine on the Publick. + +[Illustration: WHITE'S AND BROOKES', ST. JAMES'S STREET] + +In the eighteenth century beer and wine were commonly sold at the coffee +houses in addition to tea and chocolate. Daniel Defoe, writing of his +visit to Shrewsbury in 1724, says, "I found there the most coffee houses +around the Town Hall that ever I saw in any town, but when you come into +them they are but ale houses, only they think that the name coffee house +gives a better air." + +Speaking of the coffee houses of the city, Besant says: + + Rich merchants alone ventured to enter certain of the coffee + houses, where they transacted business more privately and more + expeditiously than on the Exchange. There were coffee houses where + officers of the army alone were found; where the city shopkeeper + met his chums; where actors congregated; where only divines, only + lawyers, only physicians, only wits and those who came to hear them + were found. In all alike the visitor put down his penny and went + in, taking his own seat if he was an habitue; he called for a cup + of tea or coffee and paid his twopence for it; he could call also, + if he pleased, for a cordial; he was expected to talk with his + neighbour whether he knew him or not. Men went to certain coffee + houses in order to meet the well-known poets and writers who were + to be found there, as Pope went in search of Dryden. The daily + papers and the pamphlets of the day were taken in. Some of the + coffee houses, but not the more respectable, allowed the use of + tobacco. + +[Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE POLITICIANS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY] + +[Illustration: THE GREAT FAIR ON THE FROZEN THAMES--1683 + +From a broadside entitled _Wonders on the Deep_. Figure 2 is the Duke of +York's Coffee House] + +Mackay, in his _Journey Through England_ (1724), says: + + We rise by nine, and those that frequent great men's levees find + entertainment at them till eleven, or, as in Holland, go to + tea-tables; about twelve the _beau monde_ assemble in several + coffee or chocolate houses; the best of which are the Cocoatree and + White's chocolate houses, St. James', the Smyrna, Mrs. Rochford's + and the British coffee houses; and all these so near one another + that in less than an hour you see the company of them all. We are + carried to these places in chairs (or sedans), which are here very + cheap, a guinea a week, or a shilling per hour, and your chairmen + serve you for porters to run on errands, as your gondoliers do at + Venice. + + If it be fine weather we take a turn into the park till two, when + we go to dinner; and if it be dirty, you are entertained at picquet + or basset at White's, or you may talk politics at the Smyrna or St. + James'. I must not forget to tell you that the parties have their + different places, where, however, a stranger is always well + received; but a Whig will no more go to the Cocoatree than a Tory + will be seen at the Coffee House, St James'. + + The Scots go generally to the British, and a mixture of all sorts + go to the Smyrna. There are other little coffee houses much + frequented in this neighborhood--Young Man's for officers; Old + Man's for stock jobbers, paymasters and courtiers, and Little Man's + for sharpers. I never was so confounded in my life as when I + entered into this last. I saw two or three tables full at faro, and + was surrounded by a set of sharp faces that I was afraid would have + devoured me with their eyes. I was glad to drop two or three half + crowns at faro to get off with a clear skin, and was overjoyed I so + got rid of them. + + At two we generally go to dinner; ordinaries are not so common here + as abroad, yet the French have set up two or three good ones for + the convenience of foreigners in Suffolk street, where one is + tolerably well served; but the general way here is to make a party + at the coffee house to go to dine at the tavern, where we sit till + six, when we go to the play, except you are invited to the table of + some great man, which strangers are always courted to and nobly + entertained. + +Mackay writes that "in all the coffee houses you have not only the +foreign prints but several English ones with foreign occurrences, +besides papers of morality and party disputes." + +"After the play," writes Defoe, "the best company generally go to Tom's +and Will's coffee houses, near adjoining, where there is playing at +picquet and the best of conversation till midnight. Here you will see +blue and green ribbons and stars sitting familiarly and talking with the +same freedom as if they had left their equality and degrees of distance +at home." + +[Illustration: THE LION'S HEAD AT BUTTON'S COFFEE HOUSE + +Designed by Hogarth, and put up by Addison, 1713 From a water color by +T.H. Shepherd] + +Before entering the coffee house every one was recommended by the +_Tatler_ to prepare his body with three dishes of bohea and to purge his +brains with two pinches of snuff. Men had their coffee houses as now +they have their clubs--sometimes contented with one, sometimes belonging +to three or four. Johnson, for instance, was connected with St. James's, +the Turk's Head, the Bedford, Peele's, besides the taverns which he +frequented. Addison and Steele used Button's; Swift, Button's, the +Smyrna, and St. James's; Dryden, Will's; Pope, Will's and Button's; +Goldsmith, the St. James's and the Chapter; Fielding, the Bedford; +Hogarth, the Bedford and Slaughter's; Sheridan, the Piazza; Thurlow, +Nando's. + + +_Some Famous Coffee Houses_ + +Among the famous English coffee houses of the seventeenth-eighteenth +century period were St. James's, Will's, Garraway's, White's, +Slaughter's, the Grecian, Button's, Lloyd's, Tom's, and Don Saltero's. + +St. James's was a Whig house frequented by members of Parliament, with a +fair sprinkling of literary stars. Garraway's catered to the gentry of +the period, many of whom naturally had Tory proclivities. + +One of the notable coffee houses of Queen Anne's reign was Button's. +Here Addison could be found almost every afternoon and evening, along +with Steele, Davenant, Carey, Philips, and other kindred minds. Pope was +a member of the same coffee house club for a year, but his inborn +irascibility eventually led him to drop out of it. + +At Button's a lion's head, designed by Hogarth after the Lion of Venice, +"a proper emblem of knowledge and action, being all head and paws," was +set up to receive letters and papers for the _Guardian_.[82] The +_Tatler_ and the _Spectator_ were born in the coffee house, and probably +English prose would never have received the impetus given it by the +essays of Addison and Steele had it not been for coffee house +associations. + +Pope's famous _Rape of the Lock_ grew out of coffee-house gossip. The +poem itself contains one charming passage on coffee.[83] + +Another frequenter of the coffee houses of London, when he had the money +to do so, was Daniel Defoe, whose _Robinson Crusoe_ was the precursor of +the English novel. Henry Fielding, one of the greatest of all English +novelists, loved the life of the more bohemian coffee houses, and was, +in fact, induced to write his first great novel, _Joseph Andrews_, +through coffee-house criticisms of Richardson's _Pamela_. + +Other frequenters of the coffee houses of the period were Thomas Gray +and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Garrick was often to be seen at Tom's in +Birchin Lane, where also Chatterton might have been found on many an +evening before his untimely death. + + +_The London Pleasure Gardens_ + +The second half of the eighteenth century was covered by the reigns of +the Georges. The coffee houses were still an important factor in London +life, but were influenced somewhat by the development of gardens in +which were served tea, chocolate, and other drinks, as well as coffee. +At the coffee houses themselves, while coffee remained the favorite +beverage, the proprietors, in the hope of increasing their patronage, +began to serve wine, ale, and other liquors. This seems to have been the +first step toward the decay of the coffee house. + +[Illustration: A TRIO OF NOTABLES AT BUTTON'S IN 1730 + +The figure in the cloak is Count Viviani; of the figures facing the +reader, the draughts player is Dr. Arbuthnot, and the figure standing is +assumed to be Pope] + +The coffee houses, however, continued to be the centers of intellectual +life. When Samuel Johnson and David Garrick came together to London, +literature was temporarily in a bad way, and the hack writers of the +time dwelt in Grub Street. + +It was not until after Johnson had met with some success, and had +established the first of his coffee-house clubs at the Turk's Head, that +literature again became a fashionable profession. + +This really famous literary club met at the Turk's Head from 1763 to +1783. Among the most notable members were Johnson, the arbiter of +English prose; Oliver Goldsmith; Boswell, the biographer; Burke, the +orator; Garrick, the actor; and Sir Joshua Reynolds, the painter. Among +the later members were Gibbon, the historian; and Adam Smith, the +political economist. + +Certain it is that during the sway of the English coffee house, and at +least partly through its influence, England produced a better prose +literature, as embodied alike in her essays, literary criticisms, and +novels, than she ever had produced before. + +The advent of the pleasure garden brought coffee out into the open in +England; and one of the reasons why gardens, such as Ranelagh and +Vauxhall, began to be more frequented than the coffee houses was that +they were popular resorts for women as well as for men. All kinds of +beverages were served in them; and soon the women began to favor tea as +an afternoon drink. At least, the great development in the use of tea +dates from this period; and many of these resorts called themselves tea +gardens. + +The use of coffee by this time, however, was well established in the +homes as a breakfast and dinner beverage, and such consumption more than +made up for any loss sustained through the gradual decadence of the +coffee house. Yet signs of the change in national taste that arrived +with the Georges were not wanting; for the active propaganda of the +British East India Company was fairly well launched during Queen Anne's +reign. + +The London pleasure gardens of the eighteenth century were unique. At +one time there was a "mighty maze" of them. Their season extended from +April or May to August or September. At first there was no charge for +admission, but Warwick Wroth[84] tells us that visitors usually +purchased cheese cakes, syllabubs, tea, coffee and ale. + +The four best-known London gardens were Vauxhall; Marylebone; Cuper's, +where the charge for admission subsequently was fixed at not less than a +shilling; and Ranelagh, where the charge of half a crown included "the +Elegant Regale" of tea, coffee, and bread and butter. + +The pleasure gardens provided walks, rooms for dancing, skittle grounds, +bowling greens, variety entertainments, and promenade concerts; and not +a few places were given over to fashionable gambling and racing. + +The Vauxhall Gardens, one of the most favored resorts of +pleasure-seeking Londoners, were located on the Surrey side of the +Thames, a short distance east of Vauxhall Bridge. They were originally +known as the New Spring Gardens (1661), to distinguish them from the old +Spring Gardens at Charing Cross. They became famous in the reign of +Charles II. Vauxhall was celebrated for its walks, lit with thousands of +lamps, its musical and other performances, suppers, and fireworks. High +and low were to be found there, and the drinking of tea and coffee in +the arbors was a feature. The illustration shows the garden brightly +illuminated by lanterns and lamps on some festival occasion. Coffee and +tea were served in the arbors. + +[Illustration: VAUXHALL GARDENS ON A GALA NIGHT] + +The Ranelagh, "a place of public entertainment," erected at Chelsea in +1742, was a kind of Vauxhall under cover. The principal room, known as +the Rotunda, was circular in shape, 150 feet in diameter, and had an +orchestra in the center and tiers of boxes all around. Promenading and +taking refreshments in the boxes were the principal divertisements. +Except on gala nights of masquerades and fireworks, only tea, coffee, +bread and butter were to be had at Ranelagh. + +[Illustration: THE ROTUNDA IN RANELAGH GARDENS WITH THE COMPANY AT +BREAKFAST--1751] + +In the group of gardens connected with mineral springs was the Dog and +Duck (St. George's Spa), which became at last a tea garden and a dancing +saloon of doubtful repute. + +Still another division, recognized by Wroth, consisted mainly of tea +gardens, among them Highbury Barn, The Canonbury House, Hornsey and +Copenhagen House, Bagnigge Wells, and White Conduit House. The two last +named were the classic tea gardens of the period. Both were provided +with "long rooms" in case of rain, and for indoor promenades with organ +music. Then there were the Adam and Eve tea gardens, with arbors for +tea-drinking parties, which subsequently became the Adam and Eve Tavern +and Coffee House. Well known were the Bayswater Tea Gardens and the Jews +Harp House and Tea Gardens. All these were provided with neat, "genteel" +boxes, let into the hedges and alcoves, for tea and coffee drinkers. + + +_Locating the Notable Coffee Houses_ + +GARRAWAY'S, 3 'Change Alley, Cornhill, was a place for great mercantile +transactions. Thomas Garway, the original proprietor, was a tobacconist +and coffee man, who claimed to be the first that sold tea in England, +although not at this address. The later Garraway's was long famous as a +sandwich and drinking room for sherry, pale ale, and punch, in addition +to tea and coffee. It is said that the sandwich-maker was occupied two +hours in cutting and arranging the sandwiches for the day's consumption. +After the "great fire" of 1666 GARRAWAY'S moved into the same place in +Exchange Alley where Elford had been before the fire. Here he claimed to +have the oldest coffee house in London; but the ground on which BOWMAN'S +had stood was occupied later by the VIRGINIA and the JAMAICA coffee +houses. The latter was damaged by the fire of 1748 which consumed +GARRAWAY'S and ELFORD'S (see map of the 1748 fire). + +WILL'S, the predecessor of BUTTON'S, first had the title of the RED COW, +then of the ROSE. It was kept by William Urwin, and was on the north +side of Russell Street at the corner of Bow Street. "It was Dryden who +made Will's coffee house the great resort of the wits of his time." +(_Pope_ and _Spence_.) The room in which the poet was accustomed to sit +was on the first floor; and his place was the place of honor by the +fireside in the winter, and at the corner of the balcony, looking over +the street, in fine weather; he called the two places his winter and his +summer seat. This was called the dining-room floor. The company did not +sit in boxes as subsequently, but at various tables which were dispersed +through the room. Smoking was permitted in the public room; it was then +so much in vogue that it does not seem to have been considered a +nuisance. Here, as in other similar places of meeting, the visitors +divided themselves into parties; and we are told by Ward that the young +beaux and wits, who seldom approached the principal table, thought it a +great honor to have a pinch out of Dryden's snuff-box. After Dryden's +death WILL'S was transferred to a house opposite, and became BUTTON'S, +"over against THOMAS'S in Covent Garden." Thither also Addison +transferred much company from THOMAS'S. Here Swift first saw Addison. +Hither also came "Steele, Arbuthnot and many other wits of the time." +BUTTON'S continued in vogue until Addison's death and Steele's +retirement into Wales, after which the coffee drinkers went to the +BEDFORD, dinner parties to the SHAKESPEARE. BUTTON'S was subsequently +known as the CALEDONIEN. + +[Illustration: GARRAWAY'S COFFEE HOUSE IN 'CHANGE ALLEY + +Garway (or Garraway) claimed to have been first to sell Tea in England] + +[Illustration: BUTTON'S COFFEE HOUSE, GREAT RUSSELL STREET + +Afterward it became the Caledonien + +From a water color by T.H. Shepherd] + +SLAUGHTER'S, famous as the resort of painters and sculptors in the +eighteenth century, was situated at the upper end of the west side of +St. Martin's Lane. Its first landlord was Thomas Slaughter, 1692. A +second SLAUGHTER'S (NEW SLAUGHTER'S) was established in the same street +in 1760, when the original SLAUGHTER'S adopted the name of OLD +SLAUGHTER'S. It was torn down in 1843-44. Among the notables who +frequented it were Hogarth; young Gainsborough; Cipriani; Haydon; +Roubiliac; Hudson, who painted the Dilettanti portraits; M'Ardell, the +mezzotinto-scraper; Luke Sullivan, the engraver; Gardell, the portrait +painter; and Parry, the Welsh harper. + +TOM'S, in Birchin Lane, Cornhill, though in the main a mercantile +resort, acquired some celebrity from having been frequented by Garrick. +TOM'S was also frequented by Chatterton, as a place "of the best +resort." Then there was TOM'S in Devereux Court, Strand, and TOM'S at 17 +Great Russell Street, Covent Garden, opposite BUTTON'S, a celebrated +resort during the reign of Queen Anne and for more than a century after. + +THE GRECIAN, Devereux Court, Strand, was originally kept by one +Constantine, a Greek. From this house Steele proposed to date his +learned articles in the _Tatler_; it is mentioned in No. 1 of the +_Spectator_, and it was much frequented by Goldsmith. The GRECIAN was +Foote's morning lounge. In 1843 the premises became the Grecian +Chambers, with a bust of Lord Devereux, earl of Essex, over the door. + +[Illustration: SLAUGHTER'S COFFEE HOUSE, ST. MARTIN'S LANE + +It was taken down in 1843 + +From a water color by T.H. Shepherd, 1841] + +[Illustration: TOM'S COFFEE HOUSE, 17 GREAT RUSSELL STREET + +Used as a coffee house until 1804 and razed in 1865 + +From a water color by T.H. Shepherd] + +LLOYD'S, Royal Exchange, celebrated for its priority of shipping +intelligence and its marine insurance, originated with Edward Lloyd, who +about 1688 kept a coffee house in Tower Street, later in Lombard Street +corner of Abchurch Lane. It was a modest place of refreshment for +seafarers and merchants. As a matter of convenience, Edward Lloyd +prepared "ships' lists" for the guidance of the frequenters of the +coffee house. "These lists, which were written by hand, contained," +according to Andrew Scott, "an account of vessels which the underwriters +who met there were likely to have offered them for insurance." Such was +the beginning of two institutions that have since exercised a dominant +influence on the sea-carrying trade of the whole world--the Royal +Exchange Lloyd's, the greatest insurance institution in the world, and +Lloyd's Register of Shipping. Lloyd's now has 1400 agents in all parts +of the world. It receives as many as 100,000 telegrams a year. It +records through its intelligence service the daily movements of 11,000 +vessels. + +In the beginning one of the apartments in the Exchange was fitted up as +LLOYD'S coffee room. Edward Lloyd died in 1712. Subsequently the coffee +house was in Pope's Head Alley, where it was called NEW LLOYD'S coffee +house, but on September 14, 1784, it was removed to the northwest corner +of the Royal Exchange, where it remained until the partial destruction +of that building by fire. + +[Illustration: LLOYD'S COFFEE HOUSE IN THE ROYAL EXCHANGE, SHOWING THE +SUBSCRIPTION ROOM] + +In rebuilding the Exchange there were provided the Subscribers' or +Underwriters' room, the Merchants' room, and the Captains' room. _The +City_, second edition, 1848, contains the following description of this +most famous rendezvous of eminent merchants, shipowners, underwriters, +insurance, stock and exchange brokers: + + Here is obtained the earliest news of the arrival and sailing of + vessels, losses at sea, captures, recaptures, engagements and other + shipping intelligence; and proprietors of ships and freights are + insured by the underwriters. The rooms are in the Venetian style + with Roman enrichments. At the entrance of the room are exhibited + the Shipping Lists, received from Lloyd's agents at home and + abroad, and affording particulars of departures or arrivals of + vessels, wrecks, salvage, or sale of property saved, etc. To the + right and left are "Lloyd's Books," two enormous ledgers. Right + hand, ships "spoken with" or arrived at their destined ports; left + hand, records of wrecks, fires or severe collisions, written in a + fine Roman hand in "double lines." To assist the underwriters in + their calculations, at the end of the room is an Anemometer, which + registers the state of the wind day and night; attached is a rain + gauge. + +THE BRITISH, Cockspur Street, "long a house of call for Scotchmen," was +fortunate in its landladies. In 1759 it was kept by the sister of Bishop +Douglas, so well known for his works against Lauder and Bower, which may +explain its Scottish fame. At another period it was kept by Mrs. +Anderson, described in Mackenzie's _Life of Home_ as "a woman of +uncommon talents and the most agreeable conversation." + +DON SALTERO'S, 18 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, was opened by a barber named +Salter in 1695. Sir Hans Sloane contributed of his own collection some +of the refuse gimcracks that were to be found in Salter's "museum." +Vice-Admiral Munden, who had been long on the coast of Spain, where he +had acquired a fondness for Spanish titles, named the keeper of the +house Don Saltero, and his coffee house and museum DON SALTERO'S. + +SQUIRE'S was in Fulwood's Rents, Holburn, running up to Gray's Inn. It +was one of the receiving houses of the _Spectator_. In No. 269 the +_Spectator_ accepts Sir Roger de Coverley's invitation to "smoke a pipe +with him over a dish of coffee at Squire's. As I love the old man, I +take delight in complying with everything that is agreeable to him, and +accordingly waited on him to the coffee-house, where his venerable +figure drew upon us the eyes of the whole room. He had no sooner seated +himself at the upper end of the high table, but he called for a clean +pipe, a paper of tobacco, a dish of coffee, a wax candle and the +'Supplement' (a periodical paper of that time), with such an air of +cheerfulness and good humour, that all the boys in the coffee room (who +seemed to take pleasure in serving him) were at once employed on his +several errands, insomuch that nobody else could come at a dish of tea +until the Knight had got all his conveniences about him." Such was the +coffee room in the _Spectator's_ day. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF DICK'S COFFEE HOUSE + +From the frontispiece to "The Coffee House--a dramatick Piece" (see +chapter XXXII)] + +THE COCOA-TREE was originally a coffee house on the south side of Pall +Mall. When there grew up a need for "places of resort of a more elegant +and refined character," chocolate houses came into vogue, and the +COCOA-TREE was the most famous of these. It was converted into a club in +1746. + +[Illustration: THE GRECIAN COFFEE HOUSE, DEVEREUX COURT + +It was closed in 1843. From a drawing dated 1809] + +WHITE'S chocolate house, established by Francis White about 1693 in St. +James's Street, originally open to any one as a coffee house, soon +became a private club, composed of "the most fashionable exquisites of +the town and court." In its coffee-house days, the entrance was +sixpence, as compared with the average penny fee of the other coffee +houses. Escott refers to WHITE'S as being "the one specimen of the class +to which it belongs, of a place at which, beneath almost the same roof, +and always bearing the same name, whether as coffee house or club, the +same class of persons has congregated during more than two hundred +years." + +Among hundreds of other coffee houses that flourished during the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the following more notable ones are +deserving of mention: + +[Illustration: DON SALTERO'S COFFEE HOUSE, CHEYNE WALK + +From a steel engraving in the British Museum] + +[Illustration: THE BRITISH COFFEE HOUSE + +IN COCKSPUR STREET + +From a print published in 1770] + +BAKER'S, 58 'Change Alley, for nearly half a century noted for its chops +and steaks broiled in the coffee room and eaten hot from the gridiron; +the BALTIC, in Threadneedle Street, the rendezvous of brokers and +merchants connected with the Russian trade; the BEDFORD, "under the +Piazza, in Covent Garden," crowded every night with men of parts and +"signalized for many years as the emporium of wit, the seat of criticism +and the standard of taste"; the CHAPTER, in Paternoster Row, frequented +by Chatterton and Goldsmith; CHILD'S, in St. Paul's Churchyard, one of +the _Spectator's_ houses, and much frequented by the clergy and fellows +of the Royal Society; DICK'S, in Fleet Street, frequented by Cowper, and +the scene of Rousseau's comedietta, entitled _The Coffee House_; ST. +JAMES'S, in St. James's Street, frequented by Swift, Goldsmith, and +Garrick; JERUSALEM, in Cowper's Court, Cornhill, frequented by merchants +and captains connected with the commerce of China, India, and Australia; +JONATHAN'S, in 'Change Alley, described by the _Tatler_ as "the general +mart of stock jobbers"; the LONDON, in Ludgate Hill, noted for its +publishers' sales of stock and copyrights; MAN'S, in Scotland Yard, +which took its name from the proprietor, Alexander Man, and was +sometimes known as OLD MAN'S, or the ROYAL, to distinguish it from YOUNG +MAN'S, LITTLE MAN'S, NEW MAN'S, etc., minor establishments in the +neighborhood;[85] NANDO'S, in Fleet Street, the favorite haunt of Lord +Thurlow and many professional loungers, attracted by the fame of the +punch and the charms of the landlady; NEW ENGLAND AND NORTH AND SOUTH +AMERICAN, in Threadneedle Street, having on its subscription list +representatives of Barings, Rothschilds, and other wealthy +establishments; PEELE'S, in Fleet Street, having a portrait of Dr. +Johnson said to have been painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds; the PERCY, in +Oxford Street, the inspiration for the _Percy Anecdotes_; the PIAZZA, in +Covent Garden, where Macklin fitted up a large coffee room, or theater, +for oratory, and Fielding and Foote poked fun at him; the RAINBOW, in +Fleet Street, the second coffee house opened in London, having its token +money; the SMYRNA, in Pall Mall, a "place to talk politics," and +frequented by Prior and Swift; TOM KING'S, one of the old night houses +of Covent Garden Market, "well known to all gentlemen to whom beds are +unknown"; the TURK'S HEAD, 'Change Alley, which also had its tokens; the +TURK'S HEAD, in the Strand, which was a favorite supping house for Dr. +Johnson and Boswell; the FOLLY, a coffee house on a house-boat on the +Thames, which became quite notorious during Queen Anne's reign. + +[Illustration: THE FRENCH COFFEE HOUSE IN LONDON, SECOND HALF OF THE +EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + +From the original water-color drawing by Thomas Rowlandson] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: RAMPONAUX' ROYAL DRUMMER, ONE OF THE MOST POPULAR OF THE +EARLY PARISIAN CAFÉS + +Started originally as a tavern, this hostelry added coffee to its +cuisine and became famous in the reign of Louis XV The illustration is +from an early print used to advertise the "Royal Drummer's" attractions] + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +HISTORY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES + + _The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thévenot in 1657--How + Soliman Aga established the custom of coffee drinking at the court + of Louis XIV--Opening the first coffee houses--How the French + adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real + French café of François Procope--The important part played by the + coffee houses in the development of French literature and the + stage--Their association with the Revolution and the founding of + the Republic--Quaint customs and patrons--Historic Parisian cafés_ + + +If we are to accept the authority of Jean La Roque, "before the year +1669 coffee had scarcely been seen in Paris, except at M. Thévenot's and +at the homes of some of his friends. Nor had it been heard of except in +the writings of travelers." + +As noted in chapter V, Jean de Thévenot brought coffee into Paris in +1657. One account says that a decoction, supposed to have been coffee, +was sold by a Levantine in the Petit Châtelet under the name of _cohove_ +or _cahoue_ during the reign of Louis XIII, but this lacks confirmation. +Louis XIV is said to have been served with coffee for the first time in +1664. + +Soon after the arrival, in July, 1669, of the Turkish ambassador, +Soliman Aga, it became noised abroad that he had brought with him for +his own use, and that of his retinue, great quantities of coffee. He +"treated several persons with it, both in the court and the city." At +length "many accustomed themselves to it with sugar, and others who +found benefit by it could not leave it off." + +Within six months all Paris was talking of the sumptuous coffee +functions of the ambassador from Mohammed IV to the court of Louis XIV. + +Isaac D'Israeli best describes them in his _Curiosities of Literature_: + + On bended knee, the black slaves of the Ambassador, arrayed in the + most gorgeous Oriental costumes, served the choicest Mocha coffee + in tiny cups of egg-shell porcelain, hot, strong and fragrant, + poured out in saucers of gold and silver, placed on embroidered + silk doylies fringed with gold bullion, to the grand dames, who + fluttered their fans with many grimaces, bending their piquant + faces--be-rouged, be-powdered and be-patched--over the new and + steaming beverage. + +It was in 1669 or 1672 that Madame de Sévigné (Marie de Rabutin-Chantal; +1626-96), the celebrated French letter-writer, is said to have made that +famous prophecy, "There are two things Frenchmen will never +swallow--coffee and Racine's poetry," sometimes abbreviated into, +"Racine and coffee will pass." What Madame really said, according to one +authority, was that Racine was writing for Champmeslé, the actress, and +not for posterity; again, of coffee she said, "_s'en dégoûterait comme; +d'un indigne favori_" (People will become disgusted with it as with an +unworthy favorite). + +Larousse says the double judgment was wrongly attributed to Mme. de +Sévigné. The celebrated aphorism, like many others, was forged later. +Mme. de Sévigné said, "Racine made his comedies for the Champmeslé--not +for the ages to come." This was in 1672. Four years later, she said to +her daughter, "You have done well to quit coffee. Mlle. de Mere has also +given it up." + +[Illustration: COFFEE WAS FIRST SOLD AND SERVED PUBLICLY IN THE FAIR OF +ST.-GERMAIN + +From a Seventeenth-Century Print] + +However it may have been, the amiable letter-writer was destined to live +to see Frenchmen yielding at once to the lure of coffee and to the +poetical artifices of the greatest dramatic craftsman of his day. + +While it is recorded that coffee made slow progress with the court of +Louis XIV, the next king, Louis XV, to please his mistress, du Barry, +gave it a tremendous vogue. It is related that he spent $15,000 a year +for coffee for his daughters. + +Meanwhile, in 1672, one Pascal, an Armenian, first sold coffee publicly +in Paris. Pascal, who, according to one account, was brought to Paris by +Soliman Aga, offered the beverage for sale from a tent, which was also a +kind of booth, in the fair of St.-Germain, supplemented by the service +of Turkish waiter boys, who peddled it among the crowds from small cups +on trays. The fair was held during the first two months of spring, in a +large open plot just inside the walls of Paris and near the Latin +Quarter. As Pascal's waiter boys circulated through the crowds on those +chilly days the fragrant odor of freshly made coffee brought many ready +sales of the steaming beverage; and soon visitors to the fair learned to +look for the "little black" cupful of cheer, or _petit noir_, a name +that still endures. + +When the fair closed, Pascal opened a small coffee shop on the Quai de +l'École, near the Pont Neuf; but his frequenters were of a type who +preferred the beers and wines of the day, and coffee languished. Pascal +continued, however, to send his waiter boys with their large coffee +jugs, that were heated by lamps, through the streets of Paris and from +door to door. Their cheery cry of "_café! café!_" became a welcome call +to many a Parisian, who later missed his _petit noir_ when Pascal gave +up and moved on to London, where coffee drinking was then in high favor. + +[Illustration: STREET COFFEE VENDER OF PARIS--PERIOD, 1672 TO 1689--TWO +SOUS PER DISH, SUGAR INCLUDED] + +Lacking favor at court, coffee's progress was slow. The French smart set +clung to its light wines and beers. In 1672, Maliban, another Armenian, +opened a coffee house in the rue Bussy, next to the Metz tennis court +near St.-Germain's abbey. He supplied tobacco also to his customers. +Later he went to Holland, leaving his servant and partner, Gregory, a +Persian, in charge. Gregory moved to the rue Mazarine, to be near the +Comédie Française. He was succeeded in the business by Makara, another +Persian, who later returned to Ispahan, leaving the coffee house to one +Le Gantois, of Liége. + +About this period there was a cripple boy from Candia, known as le +Candiot, who began to cry "coffee!" in the streets of Paris. He carried +with him a coffee pot of generous size, a chafing-dish, cups, and all +other implements necessary to his trade. He sold his coffee from door to +door at two sous per dish, sugar included. + +[Illustration: MANY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES FOLLOWED +PASCAL'S LEAD AND AFFECTED ARMENIAN DECORATIONS + +From a Seventeenth-Century Print] + +A Levantine named Joseph also sold coffee in the streets, and later had +several coffee shops of his own. Stephen, from Aleppo, next opened a +coffee house on Pont au Change, moving, when his business prospered, to +more pretentious quarters in the rue St.-André, facing St.-Michael's +bridge. + +[Illustration: A CORNER OF THE HISTORIC CAFÉ DE PROCOPE SHOWING VOLTAIRE +AND DIDEROT IN DEBATE + +From a rare water color] + +All these, and others, were essentially the Oriental style of coffee +house of the lower order, and they appealed principally to the poorer +classes and to foreigners. "Gentlemen and people of fashion" did not +care to be seen in this type of public house. But when the French +merchants began to set up, first at St.-Germain's fair, "spacious +apartments in an elegant manner, ornamented with tapestries, large +mirrors, pictures, marble tables, branches for candles, magnificent +lustres, and serving coffee, tea, chocolate, and other refreshments", +they were soon crowded with people of fashion and men of letters. + +In this way coffee drinking in public acquired a badge of +respectability. Presently there were some three hundred coffee houses in +Paris. The principal coffee men, in addition to plying their trade in +the city, maintained coffee rooms in St.-Germain's and St.-Laurence's +fairs. These were frequented by women as well as men. + + +_The Progenitor of the Real Parisian Café_ + +It was not until 1689, that there appeared in Paris a real French +adaptation of the Oriental coffee house. This was the Café de Procope, +opened by François Procope (Procopio Cultelli, or Cotelli) who came from +Florence or Palermo. Procope was a _limonadier_ (lemonade vender) who +had a royal license to sell spices, ices, barley water, lemonade, and +other such refreshments. He early added coffee to the list, and +attracted a large and distinguished patronage. + +Procope, a keen-witted merchant, made his appeal to a higher class of +patrons than did Pascal and those who first followed him. He established +his café directly opposite the newly opened Comédie Française, in the +street then known as the rue des Fossés-St.-Germain, but now the rue de +l'Ancienne Comédie. A writer of the period has left this description of +the place: "The Café de Procope ... was also called the Antre [cavern] +de Procope, because it was very dark even in full day, and ill-lighted +in the evenings; and because you often saw there a set of lank, sallow +poets, who had somewhat the air of apparitions." + +Because of its location, the Café de Procope became the gathering place +of many noted French actors, authors, dramatists, and musicians of the +eighteenth century. It was a veritable literary salon. Voltaire was a +constant patron; and until the close of the historic café, after an +existence of more than two centuries, his marble table and chair were +among the precious relics of the coffee house. His favorite drink is +said to have been a mixture of coffee and chocolate. Rousseau, author +and philosopher; Beaumarchais, dramatist and financier; Diderot, the +encyclopedist; Ste.-Foix, the abbé of Voisenon; de Belloy, author of the +_Siege of Callais_; Lemierre, author of _Artaxerce_; Crébillon; Piron; +La Chaussée; Fontenelle; Condorcet; and a host of lesser lights in the +French arts, were habitués of François Procope's modest coffee saloon +near the Comédie Française. + +Naturally, the name of Benjamin Franklin, recognized in Europe as one of +the world's foremost thinkers in the days of the American Revolution, +was often spoken over the coffee cups of Café de Procope; and when the +distinguished American died in 1790, this French coffee house went into +deep mourning "for the great friend of republicanism." The walls, inside +and out, were swathed in black bunting, and the statesmanship and +scientific attainments of Franklin were acclaimed by all frequenters. + +The Café de Procope looms large in the annals of the French Revolution. +During the turbulent days of 1789 one could find at the tables, drinking +coffee or stronger beverages, and engaged in debate over the burning +questions of the hour, such characters as Marat, Robespierre, Danton, +Hébert, and Desmoulins. Napoleon Bonaparte, then a poor artillery +officer seeking a commission, was also there. He busied himself largely +in playing chess, a favorite recreation of the early Parisian +coffee-house patrons. It is related that François Procope once compelled +young Bonaparte to leave his hat for security while he sought money to +pay his coffee score. + +After the Revolution, the Café de Procope lost its literary prestige and +sank to the level of an ordinary restaurant. During the last half of the +nineteenth century, Paul Verlaine, bohemian, poet, and leader of the +symbolists, made the Café de Procope his haunt; and for a time it +regained some of its lost popularity. The Restaurant Procope still +survives at 13 rue de l'Ancienne Comédie. + +History records that, with the opening of the Café de Procope, coffee +became firmly established in Paris. In the reign of Louis XV there were +600 cafés in Paris. At the close of the eighteenth century there were +more than 800. By 1843 the number had increased to more than 3000. + + +_The Development of the Cafés_ + +Coffee's vogue spread rapidly, and many cabaréts and famous eating +houses began to add it to their menus. Among these was the Tour d'Argent +(silver tower), which had been opened on the Quai de la Tournelle in +1582, and speedily became Paris's most fashionable restaurant. It still +is one of the chief attractions for the epicure, retaining the +reputation for its cooking that drew a host of world leaders, from +Napoleon to Edward VII, to its quaint interior. + +[Illustration: THE CAFÉ DE PROCOPE IN 1743 + +From an engraving by Bosredon] + +Another tavern that took up coffee after Procope, was the Royal +Drummer, which Jean Ramponaux established at the Courtille des +Porcherons and which followed Magny's. His hostelry rightly belongs to +the tavern class, although coffee had a prominent place on its menu. It +became notorious for excesses and low-class vices during the reign of +Louis XV, who was a frequent visitor. Low and high were to be found in +Ramponaux's cellar, particularly when some especially wild revelry was +in prospect. Marie Antoinette once declared she had her most enjoyable +time at a wild _farandole_ in the Royal Drummer. Ramponaux was taken to +its heart by fashionable Paris; and his name was used as a trade mark on +furniture, clothes, and foods. + +[Illustration: THE CASHIER'S COUNTER IN A PARIS COFFEE HOUSE OF 1782 + +From a drawing by Rétif de la Bretonne] + +The popularity of Ramponaux's Royal Drummer is attested by an +inscription on an early print showing the interior of the café. +Translated, it reads: + +The pleasures of ease untroubled to taste, + The leisure of home to enjoy without haste, +Perhaps a few hours at Magny's to waste, + Ah, that was the old-fashioned way! +Today all our laborers, everyone knows, + Go running away ere the working hours close, +And why? They must be at Monsieur Ramponaux'! + Behold, the new style of café! + +When coffee houses began to crop up rapidly in Paris, the majority +centered in the Palais Royal, "that garden spot of beauty, enclosed on +three sides by three tiers of galleries," which Richelieu had erected in +1636, under the name of Palais Cardinal, in the reign of Louis XIII. It +became known as the Palais Royal in 1643; and soon after the opening of +the Café de Procope, it began to blossom out with many attractive coffee +stalls, or rooms, sprinkled among the other shops that occupied the +galleries overlooking the gardens. + + +_Life In The Early Coffee Houses_ + +Diderot tells in 1760, in his _Rameau's Nephew_, of the life and +frequenters of one of the Palais Royal coffee houses, the Regency (_Café +de la Régence_): + + In all weathers, wet or fine, it is my practice to go toward five + o'clock in the evening to take a turn in the Palais Royal.... If + the weather is too cold or too wet I take shelter in the Regency + coffee house. There I amuse myself by looking on while they play + chess. Nowhere in the world do they play chess as skillfully as in + Paris and nowhere in Paris as they do at this coffee house; 'tis + here you see Légal the profound, Philidor the subtle, Mayot the + solid; here you see the most astounding moves, and listen to the + sorriest talk, for if a man be at once a wit and a great chess + player, like Légal, he may also be a great chess player and a sad + simpleton, like Joubert and Mayot. + +The beginnings of the Regency coffee house are associated with the +legend that Lefévre, a Parisian, began peddling coffee in the streets of +Paris about the time Procope opened his café in 1689. The story has it +that Lefévre later opened a café near the Palais Royal, selling it in +1718 to one Leclerc, who named it the Café de la Régence, in honor of +the regent of Orleans, a name that still endures on a broad sign over +its doors. The nobility had their rendezvous there after having paid +their court to the regent. + +[Illustration: THE CAFÉ FOY IN THE PALAIS ROYAL, 1789 + +From an engraving by Bosredon] + +To name the patrons of the Café de la Régence in its long career would +be to outline a history of French literature for more than two +centuries. There was Philidor the "greatest theoretician of the +eighteenth century, better known for his chess than his music"; +Robespierre, of the Revolution, who once played chess with a +girl--disguised as a boy--for the life of her lover; Napoleon, who was +then noted more for his chess than his empire-building propensities; and +Gambetta, whose loud voice, generally raised in debate, disturbed one +chess player so much that he protested because he could not follow his +game. Voltaire, Alfred de Musset; Victor Hugo, Théophile Gautier, J.J. +Rousseau, the Duke of Richelieu, Marshall Saxe, Buffon, Rivarol, +Fontenelle, Franklin, and Henry Murger are names still associated with +memories of this historic café: Marmontel and Philidor played there at +their favorite game of chess. Diderot tells in his _Memoirs_ that his +wife gave him every day nine sous to get his coffee there. It was in +this establishment that he worked on his _Encyclopedia_. + +Chess is today still in favor at the Régence, although the players are +not, as were the earlier patrons, obliged to pay by the hour for their +tables with extra charges for candles placed by the chess-boards. The +present Café de la Régence is in the rue St.-Honoré, but retains in +large measure its aspect of olden days. + +Michelet, the historian, has given us a rhapsodic pen picture of the +Parisian cafés under the regency: + + Paris became one vast café. Conversation in France was at its + zenith. There were less eloquence and rhetoric than in '89. With + the exception of Rousseau, there was no orator to cite. The + intangible flow of wit was as spontaneous as possible. For this + sparkling outburst there is no doubt that honor should be ascribed + in part to the auspicious revolution of the times, to the great + event which created new customs, and even modified human + temperament--the advent of coffee. + + Its effect was immeasurable, not being weakened and neutralized as + it is today by the brutalizing influence of tobacco. They took + snuff, but did not smoke. The cabarét was dethroned, the ignoble + cabarét, where, during the reign of Louis XIV, the youth of the + city rioted amid wine-casks in the company of light women. The + night was less thronged with chariots. Fewer lords found a resting + place in the gutter. The elegant shop, where conversation flowed, a + salon rather than a shop, changed and ennobled its customs. The + reign of coffee is that of temperance. Coffee, the beverage of + sobriety, a powerful mental stimulant, which, unlike spirituous + liquors, increases clearness and lucidity; coffee, which suppresses + the vague, heavy fantasies of the imagination, which from the + perception of reality brings forth the sparkle and sunlight of + truth; coffee anti-erotic.... + + The three ages of coffee are those of modern thought; they mark the + serious moments of the brilliant epoch of the soul. + + Arabian coffee is the pioneer, even before 1700. The beautiful + ladies that you see in the fashionable rooms of Bonnard, sipping + from their tiny cups--they are enjoying the aroma of the finest + coffee of Arabia. And of what are they chatting? Of the seraglio, + of Chardin, of the Sultana's coiffure, of the _Thousand and One + Nights_ (1704). They compare the ennui of Versailles with the + paradise of the Orient. + + Very soon, in 1710-1720, commences the reign of Indian coffee, + abundant, popular, comparatively cheap. Bourbon, our Indian island, + where coffee was transplanted, suddenly realizes unheard-of + happiness. This coffee of volcanic lands acts as an explosive on + the Regency and the new spirit of things. This sudden cheer, this + laughter of the old world, these overwhelming flashes of wit, of + which the sparkling verse of Voltaire, the _Persian Letters_, give + us a faint idea! Even the most brilliant books have not succeeded + in catching on the wing this airy chatter, which comes, goes, flies + elusively. This is that spirit of ethereal nature which, in the + _Thousand and One Nights_, the enchanter confined in his bottle. + But what phial would have withstood that pressure? + + The lava of Bourbon, like the Arabian sand, was unequal to the + demand. The Regent recognized this and had coffee transported to + the fertile soil of our Antilles. The strong coffee of Santo + Domingo, full, coarse, nourishing as well as stimulating, sustained + the adult population of that period, the strong age of the + encyclopedia. It was drunk by Buffon, Diderot, Rousseau, added its + glow to glowing souls, its light to the penetrating vision of the + prophets gathered in the cave of Procope, who saw at the bottom of + the black beverage the future rays of '89. Danton, the terrible + Danton, took several cups of coffee before mounting the tribune. + 'The horse must have its oats,' he said. + +The vogue of coffee popularized the use of sugar, which was then bought +by the ounce at the apothecary's shop. Dufour says that in Paris they +used to put so much sugar in the coffee that "it was nothing but a syrup +of blackened water." The ladies were wont to have their carriages stop +in front of the Paris cafés and to have their coffee served to them by +the porter on saucers of silver. + +Every year saw new cafés opened. When they became so numerous, and +competition grew so keen, it was necessary to invent new attractions for +customers. Then was born the _café chantant_, where songs, monologues, +dances, little plays and farces (not always in the best taste), were +provided to amuse the frequenters. Many of these _cafés chantants_ were +in the open air along the Champs-Elysées. In bad weather, Paris provided +the pleasure-seeker with the Eldorado, Alcazar d'Hiver, Scala, Gaieté, +Concert du XIXme Siécle, Folies Bobino, Rambuteau, Concert Européen, +and countless other meeting places where one could be served with a cup +of coffee. + +[Illustration: THE CAFÉ DES MILLE COLONNES IN 1811 + +From an engraving by Bosredon] + +As in London, certain cafés were noted for particular followings, like +the military, students, artists, merchants. The politicians had their +favorite resorts. Says Salvandy:[86] + + These were senates in miniature; here mighty political questions + were discussed; here peace and war were decided upon; here generals + were brought to the bar of justice ... distinguished orators were + victoriously refuted, ministers heckled upon their ignorance, their + incapacity, their perfidy, their corruption. The café is in reality + a French institution; in them we find all these agitations and + movements of men, the like of which is unknown in the English + tavern. No government can go against the sentiment of the cafés. + The Revolution took place because they were for the Revolution. + Napoleon reigned because they were for glory. The Restoration was + shattered, because they understood the Charter in a different + manner. + +In 1700 appeared the _Portefeuille Galant_, containing conversations of +the cafés. + + +_The Cafés in the French Revolution_ + +The Palais Royal coffee houses were centers of activity in the days +preceding and following the Revolution. A picture of them in the July +days of 1789 has been left by Arthur Young, who was visiting Paris at +that time: + + The coffee houses present yet more singular and astounding + spectacles; they are not only crowded within, but other expectant + crowds are at the doors and windows, listening _à gorge déployée_ + to certain orators who from chairs or tables harangue each his + little audience; the eagerness with which they are heard, and the + thunder of applause they receive for every sentiment of more than + common hardiness or violence against the government, cannot easily + be imagined. + +The Palais Royal teemed with excited Frenchmen on the fateful Sunday of +July 12, 1789. The moment was a tense one, when, coming out of the Café +Foy, Camille Desmoulins, a youthful journalist, mounted a table and +began the harangue that precipitated the first overt act of the French +Revolution. Blazing with a white hot frenzy, he so played upon the +passions of the mob that at the conclusion of his speech he and his +followers "marched away from the Café on their errand of Revolution." +The Bastille fell two days later. + +As if abashed by its reputation as the starting point of the mob spirit +of the Revolution, Café Foy became in after years a sedate +gathering-place of artists and literati. Up to its close it was +distinguished among other famous Parisian cafés for its exclusiveness +and strictly enforced rule of "no smoking." + +Even from the first the Parisian cafés catered to all classes of +society; and, unlike the London coffee houses, they retained this +distinctive characteristic. A number of them early added other liquid +and substantial refreshments, many becoming out-and-out restaurants. + + +_Coffee-House Customs and Patrons_ + +Coffee's effect on Parisians is thus described by a writer of the latter +part of the eighteenth century: + + I think I may safely assert that it is to the establishment of so + many cafés in Paris that is due the urbanity and mildness + discernible upon most faces. Before they existed, nearly everybody + passed his time at the cabarét, where even business matters were + discussed. Since their establishment, people assemble to hear what + is going on, drinking and playing only in moderation, and the + consequence is that they are more civil and polite, at least in + appearance. + +Montesquieu's satirical pen pictured in his _Persian Letters_ the +earliest cafés as follows: + + In some of these houses they talk news; in others, they play + draughts. There is one where they prepare the coffee in such a + manner that it inspires the drinkers of it with wit; at least, of + all those who frequent it, there is not one person in four who does + not think he has more wit after he has entered that house. But what + offends me in these wits is that they do not make themselves useful + to their country. + +Montesquieu encountered a geometrician outside a coffee house on the +Pont Neuf, and accompanied him inside. He describes the incident in this +manner: + + I observe that our geometrician was received there with the utmost + officiousness, and that the coffee house boys paid him much more + respect than two musqueteers who were in a corner of the room. As + for him, he seemed as if he thought himself in an agreeable place; + for he unwrinkled his brows a little and laughed, as if he had not + the least tincture of geometrician in him.... He was offended at + every start of wit, as a tender eye is by too strong a light.... At + last I saw an old man enter, pale and thin, whom I knew to be a + coffee house politician before he sat down; he was not one of those + who are never to be intimidated by disasters, but always prophesy + of victories and success; he was one of those timorous wretches who + are always boding ill. + +Café Momus and Café Rotonde figure conspicuously in the record of French +bohemianism. The Momus stood near the right bank of the River Seine in +rue des Prêtres St.-Germain, and was known as the home of the bohemians. +The Rotonde stood on the left bank at the corner of the rue de l'École +de Médecine and the rue Hautefeuille. + +[Illustration: THE CAFÉ DE PARIS IN 1843 + +From an engraving by Bosredon] + +Alexandre Schanne has given us a glimpse of bohemian life in the early +cafés. He lays his scene in the Café Rotonde, and tells how a number of +poor students were wont to make one cup of coffee last the coterie a +full evening by using it to flavor and to color the one glass of water +shared in common. He says: + + Every evening, the first comer at the waiter's inquiry, "What will + you take, sir?" never failed to reply, "Nothing just at present, I + am waiting for a friend." The friend arrived, to be assailed by the + brutal question, "Have you any money?" He would make a despairing + gesture in the negative, and then add, loud enough to be heard by + the _dame du comptoir_, "By Jove, no; only fancy, I left my purse + on my console-table, with gilt feet, in the purest Louis XV style. + Ah! what a thing it is to be forgetful." He would sit down, and the + waiter would wipe the table as if he had something to do. A third + would come, who was sometimes able to reply, "Yes. I have ten + sous." "Good!" we would reply; "order a cup of coffee, a glass and + a water bottle; pay and give two sous to the waiter to secure his + silence." This would be done. Others would come and take their + places beside us, repeating to the waiter the same chorus, "We are + with this gentleman." Frequently we would be eight or nine sitting + at the same table, and only one customer. Whilst smoking and + reading the papers we would, however, pass the glass and bottle. + When the water began to run short, as on a ship in distress, one of + us would have the impudence to call out, "Waiter, some water!" The + master of the establishment, who understood our situation, had no + doubt given orders for us to be left alone, and made his fortune + without our help. He was a good fellow and an intelligent one, + having subscribed to all the scientific journals of Europe, which + brought him the custom of foreign students. + +Another café perpetuating the best traditions of the Latin Quarter was +the Vachette, which survived until the death of Jean Moréas in 1911. The +Vachette is usually cited by antiquarians as a model of circumspection +as compared with the scores of cafés in the Quarter that were given up +to debaucheries. One writer puts it: "The Vachette traditions leaned +more to scholarship than sensuality." + +In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries the Parisian café +was truly a coffee house; but as many of the patrons began to while away +most of their waking hours in them, the proprietors added other +beverages and food to hold their patronage. Consequently, we find listed +among the cafés of Paris some houses that are more accurately described +as restaurants, although they may have started their careers as coffee +houses. + + +_Historic Parisian Cafés_ + +Some of the historic cafés are still thriving in their original +locations, although the majority have now passed into oblivion. Glimpses +of the more famous houses are to be found in the novels, poetry, and +essays written by the French literati who patronized them. These +first-hand accounts give insights that are sometimes stirring, often +amusing, and frequently revolting--such as the assassination of +St.-Fargean in Février's low-vaulted cellar café in the Palais Royal. + +There is Magny's, originally the haunt of such literary men as Gautier, +Taine, Saint-Victor, Turguenieff, de Goncourt, Soulie, Renan, Edmond. In +recent years the old Magny's was razed, and on its site was built the +modern restaurant of the same name, but in a style that has no +resemblance to its predecessor. Even the name of the street has been +changed, from rue Contrescarpe to the rue Mazet. + +Méot's, the Véry, Beauvilliers', Massé's, the Café Chartres, the Troi +Fréres Provençaux, and the du Grand Commun, all situated in the Palais +Royal, are cafés that figured conspicuously in the French Revolution, +and are closely identified with the French stage and literature. Méot's +and Massé's were the trysting places of the Royalists in the days +preceding the outbreak, but welcomed the Revolutionists after they came +in power. The Chartres was notorious as the gathering place of young +aristocrats who escaped the guillotine, and, thus made bold, often +called their like from adjoining cafés to partake in some of their plans +for restoration of the empire. The Trois Fréres Provençaux, well known +for its excellent and costly dinners, is mentioned by Balzac, Lord +Lytton, and Alfred de Musset in some of their novels. The Café du Grand +Commun appears in Rousseau's _Confessions_ in connection with the play +_Devin du Village_. + +Among the most famous of the cafés on the Rue St. Honoré were Venua's, +patronized by Robespierre and his companions of the Revolution, and +perhaps the scene of the inhuman murder of Berthier and its revolting +aftermath; the Mapinot, which has gone down in café history as the scene +of the banquet to Archibald Alison, the 22-year-old historian; and +Voisin's café, around which still cling traditions of such literary +lights as Zola, Alphonse Daudet, and Jules de Goncourt. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A TYPICAL PARISIAN CAFÉ OF THE EARLY +NINETEENTH CENTURY] + +Perhaps the boulevard des Italiens had, and still has, more fashionable +cafés than any other section of the French capital. The Tortoni, opened +in the early days of the Empire by Velloni, an Italian lemonade vender, +was the most popular of the boulevard cafés, and was generally thronged +with fashionables from all parts of Europe. Here Louis Blanc, historian +of the Revolution, spent many hours in the early days of his fame. +Talleyrand; Rossini, the musician; Alfred Stevens and Edouard Manet, +artists, are some of the names still linked with the traditions of the +Tortoni. Farther down the boulevard were the Café Riche, Maison Dorée, +Café Anglais, and the Café de Paris. The Riche and the Dorée, standing +side by side, were both high-priced and noted for their revelries. The +Anglais, which came into existence after the snuffing out of the Empire, +was also distinguished for its high prices, but in return gave an +excellent dinner and fine wines. It is told that even during the siege +of Paris the Anglais offered its patrons "such luxuries as ass, mule, +peas, fried potatoes, and champagne." + +Probably the Café de Paris, which came into existence in 1822, in the +former home of the Russian Prince Demidoff, was the most richly equipped +and elegantly conducted of any café in Paris in the nineteenth century. +Alfred de Musset, a frequenter, said, "you could not open its doors for +less than 15 francs." + +The Café Littéraire, opened on boulevard Bonne Nouvelle late in the +nineteenth century, made a direct appeal to literary men for patronage, +printing this footnote on its menu: "Every customer spending a franc in +this establishment is entitled to one volume of any work to be selected +from our vast collection." + +The names of Parisian cafés once more or less famous are legion. Some of +them are: + +The Café Laurent, which Rousseau was forced to leave after writing an +especially bitter satire; the English café in which eccentric Lord +Wharton made merry with the Whig habitués; the Dutch café, the haunt of +Jacobites; Terre's, in the rue Neuve des Petits Champs, which Thackeray +described in _The Ballad of Bouillabaisse_; Maire's, in the boulevard +St.-Denis, which dates back beyond 1850; the Café Madrid, in the +boulevard Montmartre, of which Carjat, the Spanish lyric poet, was an +attraction; the Café de la Paix, in the boulevard des Capucines, the +resort of Second Empire Imperialists and their spies; the Café Durand, +in the place de la Madeleine, which started on a plane with the +high-priced Riche, and ended its career early in the twentieth century; +the Rocher de Cancale, memorable for its feasts and high-living patrons +from all over Europe; the Café Guerbois, near the rue de St. Petersburg, +where Manet, the impressionist, after many vicissitudes, won fame for +his paintings and held court for many years; the Chat Noir, on the rue +Victor Massé at Montmartre, a blend of café and concert hall, which has +since been imitated widely, both in name and feature. + +[Illustration: CHESS HAS BEEN A FAVORITE PASTIME AT THE CAFÉ DE LA +RÉGENCE FOR TWO HUNDRED YEARS.] + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO NORTH AMERICA + + _Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the + first to bring to North America a knowledge of coffee in 1607--The + coffee grinder on the Mayflower--Coffee drinking in 1668--William + Penn's coffee purchase in 1683--Coffee in colonial New England--The + psychology of the Boston "tea party," and why the United States + became a nation of coffee drinkers instead of tea drinkers, like + England--The first coffee license to Dorothy Jones in 1670--The + first coffee house in New England--Notable coffee houses of old + Boston--A skyscraper coffee house_ + + +Undoubtedly the first to bring a knowledge of coffee to North America +was Captain John Smith, who founded the Colony of Virginia at Jamestown +in 1607. Captain Smith became familiar with coffee in his travels in +Turkey. + +Although the Dutch also had early knowledge of coffee, it does not +appear that the Dutch West India Company brought any of it to the first +permanent settlement on Manhattan Island (1624). Nor is there any record +of coffee in the cargo of the Mayflower (1620), although it included a +wooden mortar and pestle, later used to make "coffee powder." + +In the period when New York was New Amsterdam, and under Dutch occupancy +(1624-64), it is possible that coffee may have been imported from +Holland, where it was being sold on the Amsterdam market as early as +1640, and where regular supplies of the green bean were being received +from Mocha in 1663; but positive proof is lacking. The Dutch appear to +have brought tea across the Atlantic from Holland before coffee. The +English may have introduced the coffee drink into the New York colony +between 1664 and 1673. The earliest reference to coffee in America is +1668[87], at which time a beverage made from the roasted beans, and +flavored with sugar or honey, and cinnamon, was being drunk in New York. + +Coffee first appears in the official records of the New England colony +in 1670. In 1683, the year following William Penn's settlement on the +Delaware, we find him buying supplies of coffee in the New York market +and paying for them at the rate of eighteen shillings and nine pence per +pound.[88] + +Coffee houses patterned after the English and Continental prototypes +were soon established in all the colonies. Those of New York and +Philadelphia are described in separate chapters. The Boston houses are +described at the end of this chapter. + +Norfolk, Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans also had them. Conrad +Leonhard's coffee house at 320 Market Street. St. Louis, was famous for +its coffee and coffee cake, from 1844 to 1905, when it became a bakery +and lunch room, removing in 1919 to Eighth and Pine Streets. + +In the pioneer days of the great west, coffee and tea were hard to get; +and, instead of them, teas were often made from garden herbs, spicewood, +sassafras-roots, and other shrubs, taken from the thickets[89]. In +1839, in the city of Chicago, one of the minor taverns was known as the +Lake Street coffee house. It was situated at the corner of Lake and +Wells Streets. A number of hotels, which in the English sense might more +appropriately be called inns, met a demand for modest accommodation[90]. +Two coffee houses were listed in the Chicago directories for 1843 and +1845, the Washington coffee house, 83 Lake Street; and the Exchange +coffee house, Clarke Street between La Salle and South Water Streets. + +[Illustration: TYPES OF COLONIAL COFFEE ROASTERS + +The cylinder at the top of the picture was revolved by hand in the +fireplace; the skillets were set in the smouldering ashes] + +The old-time coffee houses of New Orleans were situated within the +original area of the city, the section bounded by the river, Canal +Street, Esplanade Avenue and Rampart Street. In the early days most of +the big business of the city was transacted in the coffee houses. The +_brûleau_, coffee with orange juice, orange peel, and sugar, with cognac +burned and mixed in it, originated in the New Orleans coffee house, and +led to its gradual evolution into the saloon. + + +_How the United States Became a Nation of Coffee Drinkers_ + +Coffee, tea, and chocolate were introduced into North America almost +simultaneously in the latter part of the seventeenth century. In the +first half of the eighteenth century, tea had made such progress in +England, thanks to the propaganda of the British East India Company, +that, being moved to extend its use in the colonies, the directors +turned their eyes first in the direction of North America. Here, +however, King George spoiled their well-laid plans by his unfortunate +stamp act of 1765, which caused the colonists to raise the cry of "no +taxation without representation." + +Although the act was repealed in 1766, the right to tax was asserted, +and in 1767 was again used, duties being laid on paints, oils, lead, +glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted; and, by refusing to +import any goods of English make, so distressed the English +manufacturers that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. +Despite the growing fondness for the beverage in America, the colonists +preferred to get their tea elsewhere to sacrificing their principles and +buying it from England. A brisk trade in smuggling tea from Holland was +started. + +In a panic at the loss of the most promising of its colonial markets, +the British East India Company appealed to Parliament for aid, and was +permitted to export tea, a privilege it had never before enjoyed. +Cargoes were sent on consignment to selected commissioners in Boston, +New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. The story of the subsequent +happenings properly belongs in a book on tea. It is sufficient here to +refer to the climax of the agitation against the fateful tea tax, +because it is undoubtedly responsible for our becoming a nation of +coffee drinkers instead of one of tea drinkers, like England. + +[Illustration: AN EARLY FAMILY COFFEE ROASTER + +This machine, known in Holland as a "Coffee Burner," was used late in +the 18th century in New England. It hung in the fireplace or stood in +the embers] + +The Boston "tea party" of 1773, when citizens of Boston, disguised as +Indians, boarded the English ships lying in Boston harbor and threw +their tea cargoes into the bay, cast the die for coffee; for there and +then originated a subtle prejudice against "the cup that cheers", which +one hundred and fifty years have failed entirely to overcome. Meanwhile, +the change wrought in our social customs by this act, and those of like +nature following it, in the New York, Pennsylvania, and Charleston +colonies, caused coffee to be crowned "king of the American breakfast +table", and the sovereign drink of the American people. + +[Illustration: HISTORICAL RELICS ASSOCIATED WITH THE EARLY DAYS OF +COFFEE IN NEW ENGLAND + +These exhibits are in the Museum of the Maine Historical Society at +Portland. On the left is Kenrick's Patent coffee mill. In the center is +a Britannia urn with an iron bar for heating the liquid. The bar was +encased in a tin receptacle that hung inside the cover. On the right is +a wall type of coffee or spice grinder] + + +_Coffee in Colonial New England_ + +The history of coffee in colonial New England is so closely interwoven +with the story of the inns and taverns that it is difficult to +distinguish the genuine coffee house, as it was known in England, from +the public house where lodgings and liquors were to be had. The coffee +drink had strong competition from the heady wines, the liquors, and +imported teas, and consequently it did not attain the vogue among the +colonial New Englanders that it did among Londoners of the late +seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. + +Although New England had its coffee houses, these were actually taverns +where coffee was only one of the beverages served to patrons. "They +were", says Robinson, "generally meeting places of those who were +conservative in their views regarding church and state, being friends of +the ruling administration. Such persons were terms 'Courtiers' by their +adversaries, the Dissenters and Republicans." + +Most of the coffee houses were established in Boston, the metropolis of +the Massachusetts Colony, and the social center of New England. While +Plymouth, Salem, Chelsea, and Providence had taverns that served coffee, +they did not achieve the name and fame of some of the more celebrated +coffee houses in Boston. + +It is not definitely known when the first coffee was brought in; but it +is reasonable to suppose that it came as part of the household supplies +of some settler (probably between 1660 and 1670), who had become +acquainted with it before leaving England. Or it may have been +introduced by some British officer, who in London had made the rounds of +the more celebrated coffee houses of the latter half of the seventeenth +century. + + +_The First Coffee License_ + +According to early town records of Boston, Dorothy Jones was the first +to be licensed to sell "coffee and cuchaletto," the latter being the +seventeenth-century spelling for chocolate or cocoa. This license is +dated 1670, and is said to be the first written reference to coffee in +the Massachusetts Colony. It is not stated whether Dorothy Jones was a +vender of the coffee drink or of "coffee powder," as ground coffee was +known in the early days. + +[Illustration: THE MAYFLOWER "COFFEE GRINDER" + +Mortar and pestle for "braying" coffee to make coffee powder, brought +over in the Mayflower by the parents of Peregrine White] + +There is some question as to whether Dorothy Jones was the first to sell +coffee as a beverage in Boston. Londoners had known and drunk coffee for +eighteen years before Dorothy Jones got her coffee license. British +government officials were frequently taking ship from London to the +Massachusetts Colony, and it is likely that they brought tidings and +samples of the coffee the English gentry had lately taken up. No doubt +they also told about the new-style coffee houses that were becoming +popular in all parts of London. And it may be assumed that their tales +caused the landlords of the inns and taverns of colonial Boston to add +coffee to their lists of beverages. + + +_New England's First Coffee House_ + +The name coffee house did not come into use in New England until late in +the seventeenth century. Early colonial records do not make it clear +whether the London coffee house or the Gutteridge coffee house was the +first to be opened in Boston with that distinctive title. In all +likelihood the London is entitled to the honor, for Samuel Gardner Drake +in his _History and Antiquities of the City of Boston_, published in +1854, says that "Benj. Harris sold books there in 1689." Drake seems to +be the only historian of early Boston to mention the London coffee +house. + +Granting that the London coffee house was the first in Boston, then the +Gutteridge coffee house was the second. The latter stood on the north +side of State Street, between Exchange and Washington Streets, and was +named after Robert Gutteridge, who took out an innkeeper's license in +1691. Twenty-seven years later, his widow, Mary Gutteridge, petitioned +the town for a renewal of her late husband's permit to keep a public +coffee house. + +The British coffee house, which became the American coffee house when +the crown officers and all things British became obnoxious to the +colonists, also began its career about the time Gutteridge took out his +license. It stood on the site that is now 66 State Street, and became +one of the most widely known coffee houses in colonial New England. + +Of course, there were several inns and taverns in existence in Boston +long before coffee and coffee houses came to the New England metropolis. +Some of these taverns took up coffee when it became fashionable in the +colony, and served it to those patrons who did not care for the stronger +drinks. + +[Illustration: THE CROWN COFFEE HOUSE, BOSTON + +One of the first in New England to bear the distinctive name of coffee +house; opened in 1711 and burned down in 1780] + +The earliest known inn was set up by Samuel Cole in Washington Street, +midway between Faneuil Hall and State Street. Cole was licensed as a +"comfit maker" in 1634, four years after the founding of Boston; and two +years later, his inn was the temporary abiding place of the Indian +chief Miantonomoh and his red warriors, who came to visit Governor Vane. +In the following year, the Earl of Marlborough found that Cole's inn was +so "exceedingly well governed," and afforded so desirable privacy, that +he refused the hospitality of Governor Winthrop at the governor's +mansion. + +[Illustration: COFFEE MAKING AND SERVING DEVICES USED IN THE +MASSACHUSETTS COLONY + +These exhibits are in the Museum of the Essex Institute at Salem, Mass. +Top row, left and right, Britannia serving pots; center, Britannia table +urn; bottom row, left end, tin coffee making pot; center, Britannia +serving pots; right end, tin French drip pot] + +Another popular inn of the day was the Red Lyon, which was opened in +1637 by Nicholas Upshall, the Quaker, who later was hanged for trying to +bribe a jailer to pass some food into the jail to two Quakeresses who +were starving within. + +Ship tavern, erected in 1650, at the corner of North and Clark Streets, +then on the waterfront, was a haunt of British government officials. The +father of Governor Hutchinson was the first landlord, to be succeeded in +1663 by John Vyal. Here lived the four commissioners who were sent to +these shores by King Charles II to settle the disputes then beginning +between the colonies and England. + +Another lodging and eating place for the gentlemen of quality in the +first days of Boston was the Blue Anchor, in Cornhill, which was +conducted in 1664 by Robert Turner. Here gathered members of the +government, visiting officials, jurists, and the clergy, summoned into +synod by the Massachusetts General Court. It is assumed that the clergy +confined their drinking to coffee and other moderate beverages, leaving +the wines and liquors to their confrères. + + +_Some Notable Boston Coffee Houses_ + +In the last quarter of the seventeenth century quite a number of taverns +and inns sprang up. Among the most notable that have obtained +recognition in Boston's historical records were the King's Head, at the +corner of Fleet and North Streets; the Indian Queen, on a passageway +leading from Washington Street to Hawley Street; the Sun, in Faneuil +Hall Square, and the Green Dragon, which became one of the most +celebrated coffee-house taverns. + +The King's Head, opened in 1691, early became a rendezvous of crown +officers and the citizens in the higher strata of colonial society. + +The Indian Queen also became a favorite resort of the crown officers +from Province House. Started by Nathaniel Bishop about 1673, it stood +for more than 145 years as the Indian Queen, and then was replaced by +the Washington coffee house, which became noted throughout New England +as the starting place for the Roxbury "hourlies," the stage coaches that +ran every hour from Boston to nearby Roxbury. + +[Illustration: COFFEE DEVICES THAT FIGURED IN THE PIONEERING OF THE +GREAT WEST + +Photographed for this work in the Museum of the State Historical Society +of Wisconsin. Left to right, English decorated tin pot; coffee and spice +mill from Lexington, Mass.; Globe roaster built by Rays & Wilcox Co., +Berlin, Conn., under Wood's patent; sheet brass coffee mill from +Lexington, Mass.; John Luther's coffee mill, Warren, R.I.; cast-iron +hopper mill] + +The Sun tavern lived a longer life than any other Boston inn. Started in +1690 in Faneuil Hall Square, it was still standing in 1902, according to +Henry R. Blaney; but has since been razed to make way for a modern +skyscraper. + +[Illustration: METAL AND CHINA COFFEE POTS USED IN NEW ENGLAND'S +COLONIAL DAYS + +From the collection in the Museum of the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial +Association, Deerfield, Mass.] + + +_New England's Most Famous Coffee House_ + +The Green Dragon, the last of the inns that were popular at the close of +the seventeenth century, was the most celebrated of Boston's +coffee-house taverns. It stood on Union Street, in the heart of the +town's business center, for 135 years, from 1697 to 1832, and figured in +practically all the important local and national events during its long +career. Red-coated British soldiers, colonial governors, bewigged crown +officers, earls and dukes, citizens of high estate, plotting +revolutionists of lesser degree, conspirators in the Boston Tea Party, +patriots and generals of the Revolution--all these were wont to gather +at the Green Dragon to discuss their various interests over their cups +of coffee, and stronger drinks. In the words of Daniel Webster, this +famous coffee-house tavern was the "headquarters of the Revolution." It +was here that Warren, John Adams, James Otis, and Paul Revere met as a +"ways and means committee" to secure freedom for the American colonies. +Here, too, came members of the Grand Lodge of Masons to hold their +meetings under the guidance of Warren, who was the first grand master of +the first Masonic lodge in Boston. The site of the old tavern, now +occupied by a business block, is still the property of the St. Andrew's +Lodge of Free Masons. The old tavern was a two-storied brick structure +with a sharply pitched roof. Over its entrance hung a sign bearing the +figure of a green dragon. + +[Illustration: THE GREEN DRAGON, THE CENTER OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE +IN BOSTON FOR 135 YEARS + +This tavern figured in practically all the important national affairs +from 1697 to 1832, and, according to Daniel Webster, was the +"headquarters of the Revolution"] + +Patrons of the Green Dragon and the British coffee house were decidedly +opposed in their views on the questions of the day. While the Green +Dragon was the gathering place of the patriotic colonials, the British +was the rendezvous of the loyalists, and frequent were the encounters +between the patrons of these two celebrated taverns. It was in the +British coffee house that James Otis was so badly pummeled, after being +lured there by political enemies, that he never regained his former +brilliancy as an orator. + +It was there, in 1750, that some British red coats staged the first +theatrical entertainment given in Boston, playing Otway's _Orphan_. +There, the first organization of citizens to take the name of a club +formed the Merchants' Club in 1751. The membership included officers of +the king, colonial governors and lesser officials, military and naval +leaders, and members of the bar, with a sprinkling of high-ranking +citizens who were staunch friends of the crown. However, the British +became so generally disliked that as soon as the king's troops evacuated +Boston in the Revolution, the name of the coffee house was changed to +the American. + +The Bunch of Grapes, that Francis Holmes presided over as early as 1712, +was another hot-bed of politicians. Like the Green Dragon over the way, +its patrons included unconditional freedom seekers, many coming from the +British coffee house when things became too hot for them in that Tory +atmosphere. The Bunch of Grapes became the center of a stirring +celebration in 1776, when a delegate from Philadelphia read the +Declaration of Independence from the balcony of the inn to the crowd +assembled in the street below. So enthusiastic did the Bostonians become +that, in the excitement that followed, the inn was nearly destroyed when +one enthusiast built a bonfire too close to its walls. Another anecdote +told of the Bunch of Grapes concerns Sir William Phipps, governor of +Massachusetts from 1692-94, who was noted for his irascibility. He had +his favorite chair and window in the inn, and in the accounts of the +period it is written that on any fine afternoon his glowering +countenance could be seen at the window by the passers-by on State +Street. + +After the beginning of the eighteenth century the title of coffee house +was applied to a number of hostelries opened in Boston. One of these was +the Crown, which was opened in the "first house on Long Wharf" in 1711 +by Jonathan Belcher, who later became governor of Massachusetts, and +still later of New Jersey. The first landlord of the Crown was Thomas +Selby, who by trade was a periwig maker, but probably found the selling +of strong drink and coffee more profitable. Selby's coffee house was +also used as an auction room. The Crown stood until 1780, when it was +destroyed in a fire that swept the Long Wharf. On its site now stands +the Fidelity Trust Company at 148 State Street. + +Another early Boston coffee house on State Street was the Royal +Exchange. How long it had been standing before it was first mentioned in +colonial records in 1711 is unknown. It occupied an ancient two-story +building, and was kept in 1711 by Benjamin Johns. This coffee house +became the starting place for stage coaches running between Boston and +New York, the first one leaving September 7, 1772. In the _Columbian +Centinel_ of January 1, 1800, appeared an advertisement in which it was +said: "New York and Providence Mail Stage leaves Major Hatches' Royal +Exchange Coffee House in State Street every morning at 8 o'clock." + +In the latter half of the eighteenth century the North-End coffee house +was celebrated as the highest-class coffee house in Boston. It occupied +the three-storied brick mansion which had been built about 1740 by +Edward Hutchinson, brother of the noted governor. It stood on the west +side of North Street, between Sun Court and Fleet Street, and was one of +the most pretentious of its kind. An eighteenth century writer, in +describing this coffee-house mansion, made much of the fact that it had +forty-five windows and was valued at $4,500, a large sum for those days. +During the Revolution, Captain David Porter, father of Admiral David D. +Porter, was the landlord, and under him it became celebrated throughout +the city as a high-grade eating place. The advertisements of the +North-End coffee house featured its "dinners and suppers--small and +retired rooms for small company--oyster suppers in the nicest manner." + +[Illustration: METAL COFFEE POTS USED IN THE NEW YORK COLONY + +Left, tin coffee pot, dark brown, with "love apple" decoration in red, +New Jersey Historical Society, Newark; right, weighted bottom tin pot +with rose decoration, private owner] + + +_A "Skyscraper" Coffee House_ + +The Boston coffee-house period reached its height in 1808, when the +doors of the Exchange coffee house were thrown open after three years of +building. This structure, situated on Congress Street near State +Street, was the skyscraper of its day, and probably was the most +ambitious coffee-house project the world has known. Built of stone, +marble, and brick, it stood seven stories high, and cost a half-million +dollars. Charles Bulfinch, America's most noted architect of that +period, was the designer. + +[Illustration: EXCHANGE COFFEE HOUSE, BOSTON, 1808, PROBABLY THE LARGEST +AND MOST COSTLY IN THE WORLD + +Built of stone, marble and brick, it stood seven stories high and cost +$500,000. It was patterned after Lloyd's of London, and was the center +of marine intelligence in Boston] + +Like Lloyd's coffee house in London, the Exchange was the center of +marine intelligence, and its public rooms were thronged all day and +evening with mariners, naval officers, ship and insurance brokers, who +had come to talk shop or to consult the records of ship arrivals and +departures, manifests, charters, and other marine papers. The first +floor of the Exchange was devoted to trading. On the next floor was the +large dining room, where many sumptuous banquets were given, notably the +one to President Monroe in July, 1817, which was attended by former +President John Adams, and by many generals, commodores, governors, and +judges. The other floors were given over to living and sleeping rooms, +of which there were more than 200. The Exchange coffee house was +destroyed by fire in 1818; and on its site was erected another, bearing +the same name, but having slight resemblance to its predecessor. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: PRESIDENT-ELECT WASHINGTON WELCOMED AT THE MERCHANTS +COFFEE HOUSE, NEW YORK + +The reception took place April 23, 1789, one week before his +inauguration. From a painting by Charles P. Gruppe, owned by the author] + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +HISTORY OF COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK + + _The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for + "must," or beer, at breakfast in 1668--William Penn makes his first + purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York merchants in + 1683--The King's Arms, the first coffee house--The historic + Merchants, sometimes called the "Birthplace of our Union"--The + coffee house as a civic forum--The Exchange, Whitehall, Burns, + Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses--The Vauxhall and + Ranelagh pleasure gardens_ + + +The Dutch founders of New York seem to have introduced tea into New +Amsterdam before they brought in coffee. This was somewhere about the +middle of the seventeenth century. We find it recorded that about 1668 +the burghers succumbed to coffee[91]. Coffee made its way slowly, first +in the homes, where it replaced the "must", or beer, at breakfast. +Chocolate came about the same time, but was more of a luxury than tea or +coffee. + +After the surrender of New York to the British in 1674, English manners +and customs were rapidly introduced. First tea, and later coffee, were +favorite beverages in the homes. By 1683 New York had become so central +a market for the green bean, that William Penn, as soon as he found +himself comfortably settled in the Pennsylvania Colony, sent over to New +York for his coffee supplies[92]. It was not long before a social need +arose that only the London style of coffee house could fill. + +The coffee houses of early New York, like their prototypes in London, +Paris, and other old world capitals, were the centers of the business, +political and, to some extent, of the social life of the city. But they +never became the forcing-beds of literature that the French and English +houses were, principally because the colonists had no professional +writers of note. + +There is one outstanding feature of the early American coffee houses, +particularly of those opened in New York, that is not distinctive of the +European houses. The colonists sometimes held court trials in the long, +or assembly, room of the early coffee houses; and often held their +general assembly and council meetings there. + + +_The Coffee House as a Civic Forum_ + +The early coffee house was an important factor in New York life. What +the perpetuation of this public gathering place meant to the citizens is +shown by a complaint (evidently designed to revive the declining +fortunes of the historic Merchants coffee house) in the _New York +Journal_ of October 19, 1775, which, in part, said: + + To the Inhabitants of New York: + + It gives me concern, in this time of public difficulty and danger, + to find we have in this city no place of daily general meeting, + where we might hear and communicate intelligence from every quarter + and freely confer with one another on every matter that concerns + us. Such a place of general meeting is of very great advantage in + many respects, especially at such a time as this, besides the + satisfaction it affords and the sociable disposition it has a + tendency to keep up among us, which was never more wanted than at + this time. To answer all these and many other good and useful + purposes, coffee houses have been universally deemed the most + convenient places of resort, because, at a small expense of time or + money, persons wanted may be found and spoke with, appointments may + be made, current news heard, and whatever it most concerns us to + know. In all cities, therefore, and large towns that I have seen in + the British dominions, sufficient encouragement has been given to + support one or more coffee houses in a genteel manner. How comes it + then that New York, the most central, and one of the largest and + most prosperous cities in British America, cannot support one + coffee house? It is a scandal to the city and its inhabitants to be + destitute of such a convenience for want of due encouragement. A + coffee house, indeed, there is, a very good and comfortable one, + extremely well tended and accommodated, but it is frequented but by + an inconsiderable number of people; and I have observed with + surprise, that but a small part of those who do frequent it, + contribute anything at all to the expense of it, but come in and go + out without calling for or paying anything to the house. In all the + coffee houses in London, it is customary for every one that comes + in to call for at least a dish of coffee, or leave the value of + one, which is but reasonable, because when the keepers of these + houses have been at the expense of setting them up and providing + all necessaries for the accommodation of company, every one that + comes to receive the benefit of these conveniences ought to + contribute something towards the expense of them. + +A FRIEND TO THE CITY. + + +_New York's First Coffee House_ + +Some chroniclers of New York's early days are confident that the first +coffee house in America was opened in New York; but the earliest +authenticated record they have presented is that on November 1, 1696, +John Hutchins bought a lot on Broadway, between Trinity churchyard and +what is now Cedar Street, and there built a house, naming it the King's +Arms. Against this record, Boston can present the statement in Samuel +Gardner Drake's _History and Antiquities of the City of Boston_ that +Benj. Harris sold books at the "London Coffee House" in 1689. + +[Illustration: NEW YORK'S PIONEER COFFEE HOUSE, THE KING'S ARMS, OPENED +IN 1696 + +This view shows the garden side of the historic old house as it was +conducted by John Hutchins, near Trinity Church, on Broadway. The +observatory may have been added later] + +The King's Arms was built of wood, and had a front of yellow brick, said +to have been brought from Holland. The building was two stories high, +and on the roof was an "observatory," arranged with seats, and +commanding a fine view of the bay, the river, and the city. Here the +coffee-house visitors frequently sat in the afternoons. It is not shown +in the illustration. + +[Illustration: BURNS COFFEE HOUSE AS IT APPEARED ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF THE +NINETEENTH CENTURY + +It stood for many years on Broadway, opposite Bowling Green, in the old +De Lancey House, becoming known in 1763 as the King's Arms, and later +the Atlantic Garden House] + +The sides of the main room on the lower floor were lined with booths, +which, for the sake of greater privacy, were screened with green +curtains. There a patron could sip his coffee, or a more stimulating +drink, and look over his mail in the same exclusiveness affected by the +Londoner of the time. + +The rooms on the second floor were used for special meetings of +merchants, colonial magistrates and overseers, or similar public and +private business. + +The meeting room, as above described, seems to have been one of the +chief features distinguishing a coffee house from a tavern. Although +both types of houses had rooms for guests, and served meals, the coffee +house was used for business purposes by permanent customers, while the +tavern was patronized more by transients. Men met at the coffee house +daily to carry on business, and went to the tavern for convivial +purposes or lodgings. Before the front door hung the sign of "the lion +and the unicorn fighting for the crown." + +For many years the King's Arms was the only coffee house in the city; or +at least no other seems of sufficient importance to have been mentioned +in colonial records. For this reason it was more frequently designated +as "the" coffee house than the King's Arms. Contemporary records of the +arrest of John Hutchins of the King's Arms, and of Roger Baker, for +speaking disrespectfully of King George, mention the King's Head, of +which Baker was proprietor. But it is generally believed that this +public house was a tavern and not rightfully to be considered as a +coffee house. The White Lion, mentioned about 1700, was also a tavern, +or inn. + + +_The New Coffee House_ + +Under date of September 22, 1709, the _Journal of the General Assembly +of the Colony of New York_ refers to a conference held in the "New +Coffee House." About this date the business section of the city had +begun to drift eastward from Broadway to the waterfront; and from this +fact it is assumed that the name "New Coffee House" indicates that the +King's Arms had been removed from its original location near Cedar +Street, or that it may have lost favor and have been superseded in +popularity by a newer coffee house. The _Journal_ does not give the +location of the "New" coffee house. Whatever the case may be, the name +of the King's Arms does not again appear in the records until 1763, and +then it had more the character of a tavern, or roadhouse. + +The public records from 1709 up to 1729 are silent in regard to coffee +houses in New York. In 1725 the pioneer newspaper in the city, the _New +York Gazette_, came into existence; and four years later, 1729, there +appeared in it an advertisement stating that "a competent bookkeeper may +be heard of" at the "Coffee House." In 1730 another advertisement in the +same journal tells of a sale of land by public vendue (auction) to be +held at the Exchange coffee house. + + +_The Exchange Coffee House_ + +By reason of its name, the Exchange Coffee House is thought to have been +located at the foot of Broad Street, abutting the sea-wall and near the +Long Bridge of that day. At that time this section was the business +center of the city, and here was a trading exchange. + +That the Exchange coffee house was the only one of its kind in New York +in 1732 is inferred from the announcement in that year of a meeting of +the conference committee of the Council and Assembly "at the Coffee +House." In seeming confirmation of this conclusion, is the advertisement +in 1733 in the _New York Gazette_ requesting the return of "lost sleeve +buttons to Mr. Todd, next door to the Coffee House." The records of the +day show that a Robert Todd kept the famous Black Horse tavern which was +located in this part of the city. + +Again we hear of the Exchange coffee house in 1737, and apparently in +the same location, where it is mentioned in an account of the "Negro +plot" as being next door to the Fighting Cocks tavern by the Long +Bridge, at the foot of Broad Street. Also in this same year it is named +as the place of public vendue of land situated on Broadway. + +By this time the Exchange coffee house had virtually become the city's +official auction room, as well as the place to buy and to drink coffee. +Commodities of many kinds were also bought and sold there, both within +the house and on the sidewalk before it. + + +_The Merchants Coffee House_ + +In the year 1750, the Exchange coffee house had begun to lose its +long-held prestige, and its name was changed to the Gentlemen's Exchange +coffee house and tavern. A year later it had migrated to Broadway under +the name of the Gentlemens' coffee house and tavern. In 1753 it was +moved again, to Hunter's Quay, which was situated on what is now Front +Street, somewhere between the present Old Slip and Wall Street. The +famous old coffee house seems to have gone out of existence about this +time, its passing hastened, no doubt, by the newer enterprise, the +Merchants coffee house, which was to become the most celebrated in New +York, and, according to some writers, the most historic in America. + +It is not certain just when the Merchants coffee house was first opened. +As near as can be determined, Daniel Bloom, a mariner, in 1737 bought +the Jamaica Pilot Boat tavern from John Dunks and named it the Merchants +coffee house. The building was situated on the northwest corner of the +present Wall Street and Water (then Queen) Street; and Bloom was its +landlord until his death, soon after the year 1750. He was succeeded by +Captain James Ackland, who shortly sold it to Luke Roome. The latter +disposed of the building in 1758 to Dr. Charles Arding. The doctor +leased it to Mrs. Mary Ferrari, who continued as its proprietor until +she moved, in 1772, to the newer building diagonally across the street, +built by William Brownejohn, on the southeast corner of Wall and Water +Streets. Mrs. Ferrari took with her the patronage and the name of the +Merchants coffee house, and the old building was not used again as a +coffee house. + +The building housing the original Merchants coffee house was a two-story +structure, with a balcony on the roof, which was typical of the middle +eighteenth century architecture in New York. On the first floor were the +coffee bar and booths described in connection with the King's Arms +coffee house. The second floor had the typical long room for public +assembly. + +During Bloom's proprietorship the Merchants coffee house had a long, +hard struggle to win the patronage away from the Exchange coffee house, +which was flourishing at that time. But, being located near the Meal +Market, where the merchants were wont to gather for trading purposes, it +gradually became the meeting place of the city, at the expense of the +Exchange coffee house, farther down the waterfront. + +[Illustration: MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE (AT THE RIGHT) AS IT APPEARED FROM +1772 TO 1804 + +The original coffee house of this name was opened on the northwest +corner of Wall and Water Streets about 1737, the business being moved to +the southeast corner in 1772] + +Widow Ferrari presided over the original Merchants coffee house for +fourteen years, until she moved across the street. She was a keen +business woman. Just before she was ready to open the new coffee house +she announced to her old patrons that she would give a house-warming, at +which arrack, punch, wine, cold ham, tongue, and other delicacies of the +day would be served. The event was duly noted in the newspapers, one +stating that "the agreeable situation and the elegance of the new house +had occasioned a great resort of company to it." + +Mrs. Ferrari continued in charge until May 1, 1776, when Cornelius +Bradford became proprietor and sought to build up the patronage, that +had dwindled somewhat during the stirring days immediately preceding the +Revolution. In his announcement of the change of ownership, he said, +"Interesting intelligence will be carefully collected and the greatest +attention will be given to the arrival of vessels, when trade and +navigation shall resume their former channels." He referred to the +complete embargo of trade to Europe which the colonists were enduring. +When the American troops withdrew from the city during the Revolution, +Bradford went also, to Rhinebeck on the Hudson. + +During the British occupation, the Merchants coffee house was a place of +great activity. As before, it was the center of trading, and under the +British régime it became also the place where the prize ships were sold. +The Chamber of Commerce resumed its sessions in the upper long room in +1779, having been suspended since 1775. The Chamber paid fifty pounds +rent per annum for the use of the room to Mrs. Smith, the landlady at +the time. + +In 1781 John Stachan, then proprietor of the Queen's Head tavern, became +landlord of the Merchants coffee house, and he promised in a public +announcement "to pay attention not only as a Coffee House, but as a +tavern, in the truest; and to distinguish the same as the City Tavern +and Coffee House, with constant and best attendance. Breakfast from +seven to eleven; soups and relishes from eleven to half-past one. Tea, +coffee, etc., in the afternoon, as in England." But when he began +charging sixpence for receiving and dispatching letters by man-o'-war to +England, he brought a storm about his ears, and was forced to give up +the practise. He continued in charge until peace came, and Cornelius +Bradford came with it to resume proprietorship of the coffee house. + +Bradford changed the name to the New York coffee house, but the public +continued to call it by its original name, and the landlord soon gave +in. He kept a marine list, giving the names of vessels arriving and +departing, recording their ports of sailing. He also opened a register +of returning citizens, "where any gentleman now resident in the city," +his advertisement stated, "may insert their names and place of +residence." This seems to have been the first attempt at a city +directory. By his energy Bradford soon made the Merchants coffee house +again the business center of the city. When he died, in 1786, he was +mourned as one of the leading citizens. His funeral was held at the +coffee house over which he had presided so well. + +The Merchants coffee house continued to be the principal public +gathering place until it was destroyed by fire in 1804. During its +existence it had figured prominently in many of the local and national +historic events, too numerous to record here in detail. + +Some of the famous events were: The reading of the order to the +citizens, in 1765, warning them to stop rioting against the Stamp Act; +the debates on the subject of not accepting consignments of goods from +Great Britain; the demonstration by the Sons of Liberty, sometimes +called the "Liberty Boys," made before Captain Lockyer of the tea ship +Nancy which had been turned away from Boston and sought to land its +cargo in New York in 1774; the general meeting of citizens on May 19, +1774, to discuss a means of communicating with the Massachusetts colony +to obtain co-ordinated effort in resisting England's oppression, out of +which came the letter suggesting a congress of deputies from the +colonies and calling for a "virtuous and spirited Union;" the mass +meeting of citizens in the days immediately following the battles at +Concord and Lexington in Massachusetts; and the forming of the Committee +of One Hundred to administer the public business, making the Merchants +coffee house virtually the seat of government. + +When the American Army held the city in 1776, the coffee house became +the resort of army and navy officers. Its culminating glory came on +April 23, 1789, when Washington, the recently elected first president of +the United States, was officially greeted at the coffee house by the +governor of the State, the mayor of the city, and the lesser municipal +officers. + +As a meeting place for societies and lodges the Merchants coffee house +was long distinguished. In addition to the purely commercial +organizations that gathered in its long room, these bodies regularly met +there in their early days: The Society of Arts, Agriculture and Economy; +Knights of Corsica; New York Committee of Correspondence; New York +Marine Society; Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York; Lodge 169, +Free and Accepted Masons; Whig Society; Society of the New York +Hospital; St. Andrew's Society; Society of the Cincinnati; Society of +the Sons of St. Patrick; Society for Promoting the Manumission of +Slaves; Society for the Relief of Distressed Debtors; Black Friars +Society; Independent Rangers; and Federal Republicans. + +Here also came the men who, in 1784, formed the Bank of New York, the +first financial institution in the city; and here was held, in 1790, the +first public sale of stocks by sworn brokers. Here, too, was held the +organization meeting of subscribers to the Tontine coffee house, which +in a few years was to prove a worthy rival. + + +_Some Lesser Known Coffee Houses_ + +Before taking up the story of the famous Tontine coffee house it should +be noted that the Merchants coffee house had some prior measure of +competition. For four years the Exchange coffee room sought to cater to +the wants of the merchants around the foot of Broad Street. It was +located in the Royal Exchange, which had been erected in 1752 in place +of the old Exchange, and until 1754 had been used as a store. Then +William Keen and Alexander Lightfoot got control and started their +coffee room, with a ball room attached. The partnership split up in +1756, Lightfoot continuing operations until he died the next year, when +his widow tried to carry it on. In 1758 it had reverted into its +original character of a mercantile establishment. + +[Illustration: THE TONTINE COFFEE HOUSE (SECOND BUILDING AT THE LEFT), +OPENED IN 1792 + +This is the original structure, northwest corner of Wall and Water +Streets, which was succeeded about 1850 by a five-story building (see +page 122) that in turn was replaced by a modern office building] + +Then there was the Whitehall coffee house, which two men, named Rogers +and Humphreys, opened in 1762, with the announcement that "a +correspondence is settled in London and Bristol to remit by every +opportunity all the public prints and pamphlets as soon as published; +and there will be a weekly supply of New York, Boston and other American +newspapers." This enterprise had a short life. + +The early records of the city infrequently mention the Burns coffee +house, sometimes calling it a tavern. It is likely that the place was +more an inn than a coffee house. It was kept for a number of years by +George Burns, near the Battery, and was located in the historic old De +Lancey house, which afterward became the City hotel. + +Burns remained the proprietor until 1762, when it was taken over by a +Mrs. Steele, who gave it the name of the King's Arms. Edward Barden +became the landlord in 1768. In later years it became known as the +Atlantic Garden house. Traitor Benedict Arnold is said to have lodged in +the old tavern after deserting to the enemy. + +The Bank coffee house belonged to a later generation, and had few of the +characteristics of the earlier coffee houses. It was opened in 1814 by +William Niblo, of Niblo's Garden fame, and stood at the corner of +William and Pine Streets, at the rear of the Bank of New York. The +coffee house endured for probably ten years, and became the gathering +place of a coterie of prominent merchants, who formed a sort of club. +The Bank coffee house became celebrated for its dinners and dinner +parties. + +Fraunces' tavern, best known as the place where Washington bade farewell +to his army officers, was, as its name states, a tavern, and can not be +properly classed as a coffee house. While coffee was served, and there +was a long room for gatherings, little, if any, business was done there +by merchants. It was largely a meeting place for citizens bent on a +"good time." + +Then there was the New England and Quebec coffee house, which was also a +tavern. + +[Illustration: THE TONTINE BUILDING OF 1850 + +Northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets; an omnibus of the +Broadway-Wall-Street Ferry line is passing] + + +_The Tontine Coffee House_ + +The last of the celebrated coffee houses of New York bore the name, +Tontine coffee house. For several years after the burning of the +Merchants coffee house, in 1804, it was the only one of note in the +city. + +Feeling that they should have a more commodious coffee house for +carrying on their various business enterprises, some 150 merchants +organized, in 1791, the Tontine coffee house. This enterprise was based +on the plan introduced into France in 1653 by Lorenzo Tonti, with slight +variations. According to the New York Tontine plan, each holder's share +reverted automatically to the surviving shareholders in the association, +instead of to his heirs. There were 157 original shareholders, and 203 +shares of stock valued at £200 each. + +[Illustration: NIBLO'S GARDEN, BROADWAY AND PRINCE STREET, 1828] + +The directors bought the house and lot on the northwest corner of Wall +and Water Streets, where the original Merchants coffee house stood, +paying £1,970. They next acquired the adjoining lots on Wall and Water +Streets, paying £2,510 for the former, and £1,000 for the latter. + +The cornerstone of the new coffee house was laid June 5, 1792; and a +year later to the day, 120 gentlemen sat down to a banquet in the +completed coffee house to celebrate the event of the year before. John +Hyde was the first landlord. The house had cost $43,000. + +[Illustration: COFFEE RELICS OF DUTCH NEW YORK + +Spice-grinder boat, coffee roaster, and coffee pots at the Van Cortlandt +Museum] + +A contemporary account of how the Tontine coffee house looked in 1794 is +supplied by an Englishman visiting New York at the time: + + The Tontine tavern and coffee house is a handsome large brick + building; you ascend six or eight steps under a portico, into a + large public room, which is the Stock Exchange of New York, where + all bargains are made. Here are two books kept, as at Lloyd's [in + London] of every ship's arrival and clearance. This house was built + for the accommodation of the merchants by Tontine shares of two + hundred pounds each. It is kept by Mr. Hyde, formerly a woolen + draper in London. You can lodge and board there at a common table, + and you pay ten shillings currency a day, whether you dine out or + not. + +[Illustration: NEW YORK'S VAUXHALL GARDEN OF 1803 + +From an old print] + +The stock market made its headquarters in the Tontine coffee house in +1817, and the early organization was elaborated and became the New York +Stock and Exchange Board. It was removed in 1827 to the Merchants +Exchange Building, where it remained until that place was destroyed by +fire in 1835. + +It was stipulated in the original articles of the Tontine Association +that the house was to be kept and used as a coffee house, and this +agreement was adhered to up to the year 1834, when, by permission of the +Court of Chancery, the premises were let for general business-office +purposes. This change was due to the competition offered by the +Merchants Exchange, a short distance up Wall Street, which had been +opened soon after the completion of the Tontine coffee house building. + +As the city grew, the business-office quarters of the original Tontine +coffee house became inadequate; and about the year 1850 a new five-story +building, costing some $60,000, succeeded it. By this time the building +had lost its old coffee-house characteristics. This new Tontine +structure is said to have been the first real office building in New +York City. Today the site is occupied by a large modern office building, +which still retains the name of Tontine. It was owned by John B. and +Charles A. O'Donohue, well known New York coffee merchants, until 1920, +when it was sold for $1,000,000 to the Federal Sugar Refining Company. + +The Tontine coffee house did not figure so prominently in the historic +events of the nation and city as did its neighbor, the Merchants coffee +house. However, it became the Mecca for visitors from all parts of the +country, who did not consider their sojourn in the city complete until +they had at least inspected what was then one of the most pretentious +buildings in New York. Chroniclers of the Tontine coffee house always +say that most of the leaders of the nation, together with distinguished +visitors from abroad, had foregathered in the large room of the old +coffee house at some time during their careers. + +It was on the walls of the Tontine coffee house that bulletins were +posted on Hamilton's struggle for life after the fatal duel forced on +him by Aaron Burr. + +The changing of the Tontine coffee house into a purely mercantile +building marked the end of the coffee-house era in New York. Exchanges +and office buildings had come into existence to take the place of the +business features of the coffee houses; clubs were organized to take +care of the social functions; and restaurants and hotels had sprung up +to cater to the needs for beverages and food. + + +_New York's Pleasure Gardens_ + +There was a fairly successful attempt made to introduce the London +pleasure-garden idea into New York. First, tea gardens were added to +several of the taverns already provided with ball rooms. Then, on the +outskirts of the city, were opened the Vauxhall and the Ranelagh +gardens, so named after their famous London prototypes. The first +Vauxhall garden (there were three of this name) was on Greenwich Street, +between Warren and Chambers Streets. It fronted on the North River, +affording a beautiful view up the Hudson. Starting as the Bowling Green +garden, it changed to Vauxhall in 1750. + +Ranelagh was on Broadway, between Duane and Worth Streets, on the site +where later the New York Hospital was erected. From advertisements of +the period (1765-69) we learn that there were band concerts twice a week +at the Ranelagh. The gardens were "for breakfasting as well as the +evening entertainment of ladies and gentlemen." There was a commodious +hall in the garden for dancing. Ranelagh lasted twenty years. Coffee, +tea, and hot rolls could be had in the pleasure gardens at any hour of +the day. Fireworks were featured at both Ranelagh and Vauxhall gardens. +The second Vauxhall was near the intersection of the present Mulberry +and Grand Streets, in 1798; the third was on Bowery Road, near Astor +Place, in 1803. The Astor library was built upon its site in 1853. + +William Niblo, previously proprietor of the Bank coffee house in Pine +Street, opened, in 1828, a pleasure garden, that he named Sans Souci, on +the site of a circus building called the Stadium at Broadway and Prince +Street. In the center of the garden remained the stadium, which was +devoted to theatrical performances of "a gay and attractive character." +Later, he built a more pretentious theater that fronted on Broadway. The +interior of the garden was "spacious, and adorned with shrubbery and +walks, lighted with festoons of lamps." It was generally known as +Niblo's garden. + +Among other well known pleasure gardens of old New York were Contoit's, +later the New York garden, and Cherry gardens, on old Cherry Hill. + +[Illustration: TAVERN AND GROCERS' SIGNS USED IN OLD NEW YORK + +Left, Smith Richards, grocer and confectioner, "at the sign of the tea +canister and two sugar loaves" (1773); center, the King's Arms, +originally Burns coffee house (1767); right, George Webster, Grocer, "at +the sign of the three sugar loaves"] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD PHILADELPHIA + + _Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about + 1700--The two London coffee houses--The City tavern, or Merchants + coffee house--How these, and other celebrated resorts, dominated + the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City in the + eighteenth century_ + + +William Penn is generally credited with the introduction of coffee into +the Quaker colony which he founded on the Delaware in 1682. He also +brought to the "city of brotherly love" that other great drink of human +brotherhood, tea. At first (1700), "like tea, coffee was only a drink +for the well-to-do, except in sips."[93] As was the case in the other +English colonies, coffee languished for a time while tea rose in favor, +more especially in the home. + +Following the stamp act of 1765, and the tea tax of 1767, the +Pennsylvania Colony joined hands with the others in a general tea +boycott; and coffee received the same impetus as elsewhere in the +colonies that became the thirteen original states. + +The coffee houses of early Philadelphia loom large in the history of the +city and the republic. Picturesque in themselves, with their distinctive +colonial architecture, their associations also were romantic. Many a +civic, sociological, and industrial reform came into existence in the +low-ceilinged, sanded-floor main rooms of the city's early coffee +houses. + +For many years, Ye coffee house, the two London coffee houses, and the +City tavern (also known as the Merchants coffee house) each in its turn +dominated the official and social life of Philadelphia. The earlier +houses were the regular meeting places of Quaker municipal officers, +ship captains, and merchants who came to transact public and private +business. As the outbreak of the Revolution drew near, fiery colonials, +many in Quaker garb, congregated there to argue against British +oppression of the colonies. After the Revolution, the leading citizens +resorted to the coffee house to dine and sup and to hold their social +functions. + +When the city was founded in 1682, coffee cost too much to admit of its +being retailed to the general public at coffee houses. William Penn +wrote in his _Accounts_ that in 1683 coffee in the berry was sometimes +procured in New York at a cost of eighteen shillings nine pence the +pound, equal to about $4.68. He told also that meals were served in the +ordinaries at six pence (equal to twelve cents), to wit: "We have seven +ordinaries for the entertainment of strangers and for workmen that are +not housekeepers, and a good meal is to be had there for six pence +sterling." With green coffee costing $4.68 a pound, making the price of +a cup about seventeen cents, it is not likely that coffee was on the +menus of the ordinaries serving meals at twelve cents each. Ale was the +common meal-time beverage. + +There were four classes of public houses--inns, taverns, ordinaries, and +coffee houses. The inn was a modest hotel that supplied lodgings, food, +and drink, the beverages consisting mostly of ale, port, Jamaica rum, +and Madeira wine. The tavern, though accommodating guests with bed and +board, was more of a drinking place than a lodging house. The ordinary +combined the characteristics of a restaurant and a boarding house. The +coffee house was a pretentious tavern, dispensing, in most cases, +intoxicating drinks as well as coffee. + + +_Philadelphia's First Coffee House_ + +The first house of public resort opened in Philadelphia bore the name of +the Blue Anchor tavern, and was probably established in 1683 or 1684; +colonial records do not state definitely. As its name indicates, this +was a tavern. The first coffee house came into existence about the year +1700. Watson, in one place in his _Annals_ of the city, says 1700, but +in another 1702. The earlier date is thought to be correct, and is +seemingly substantiated by the co-authors Scharf and Westcott in their +_History_ of the city, in which they say, "The first public house +designated as a coffee house was built in Penn's time [1682-1701] by +Samuel Carpenter, on the east side of Front Street, probably above +Walnut Street. That it was the first of its kind--the only one in fact +for some years--seems to be established beyond doubt. It was always +referred to in old times as 'Ye Coffee House.'" + +Carpenter owned also the Globe inn, which was separated from Ye coffee +house by a public stairway running down from Front Street to Water +Street, and, it is supposed, to Carpenter's Wharf. The exact location of +the old house was recently established from the title to the original +patentee, Samuel Carpenter, by a Philadelphia real-estate +title-guarantee company, as being between Walnut and Chestnut Streets, +and occupying six and a half feet of what is now No. 137 South Front +Street and the whole of No. 139. + +How long Ye coffee house endured is uncertain. It was last mentioned in +colonial records in a real estate conveyance from Carpenter to Samuel +Finney, dated April 26, 1703. In that document it is described as "That +brick Messuage, or Tenement, called Ye Coffee House, in the possession +of Henry Flower, and situate, lying and being upon or before the bank of +the Delaware River, containing in length about thirty feet and in +breadth about twenty-four." + +The Henry Flower mentioned as the proprietor of Philadelphia's first +coffee house, was postmaster of the province for a number of years, and +it is believed that Ye coffee house also did duty as the post-office for +a time. Benjamin Franklin's _Pennsylvania Gazette_, in an issue +published in 1734, has this advertisement: + + _All persons who are indebted to Henry Flower, late postmaster of + Pennsylvania, for Postage of Letters or otherwise, are desir'd to + pay the same to him at the old Coffee House in Philadelphia._ + +Flower's advertisement would indicate that Ye coffee house, then +venerable enough to be designated as old, was still in existence, and +that Flower was to be found there. Franklin also seems to have been in +the coffee business, for in several issues of the _Gazette_ around the +year 1740 he advertised: "Very good coffee sold by the Printer." + + +_The First London Coffee House_ + +Philadelphia's second coffee house bore the name of the London coffee +house, which title was later used for the resort William Bradford opened +in 1754. The first house of this name was built in 1702, but there seems +to be some doubt about its location. Writing in the _American Historical +Register_, Charles H. Browning says: "William Rodney came to +Philadelphia with Penn in 1682, and resided in Kent County, where he +died in 1708; he built the old London coffee house at Front and Market +Streets in 1702." Another chronicler gives its location as "above Walnut +Street, either on the east side of Water Street, or on Delaware Avenue, +or, as the streets are very close together, it may have been on both. +John Shewbert, its proprietor, was a parishioner of Christ Church, and +his establishment was largely patronized by Church of England people." +It was also the gathering place of the followers of Penn and the +Proprietary party, while their opponents, the political cohorts of +Colonel Quarry, frequented Ye coffee house. + +The first London coffee house resembled a fashionable club house in its +later years, suitable for the "genteel" entertainments of the well-to-do +Philadelphians. Ye coffee house was more of a commercial or public +exchange. Evidence of the gentility of the London is given by John +William Wallace: + + The appointments of the London Coffee House, if we may infer what + they were from the will of Mrs. Shubert [Shewbert] dated November + 27, 1751, were genteel. By that instrument she makes bequest of + two silver quart tankards; a silver cup; a silver porringer; a + silver pepper pot; two sets of silver castors; a silver soup spoon; + a silver sauce spoon, and numerous silver tablespoons and tea + spoons, with a silver tea-pot. + +[Illustration: THE SECOND LONDON COFFEE HOUSE, OPENED IN 1754 BY WILLIAM +BRADFORD, THE PRINTER + +Up to the outbreak of the American Revolution, it was more frequented +than any other tavern in the Quaker city as a place of resort and +entertainment, and was famous throughout the colonies] + +One of the many historic incidents connected with this old house was the +visit there by William Penn's eldest son, John, in 1733, when he +entertained the General Assembly of the province on one day and on the +next feasted the City Corporation. + + +_Roberts' Coffee House_ + +Another house with some fame in the middle of the eighteenth century was +Roberts' coffee house, which stood in Front Street near the first London +house. Though its opening date is unknown, it is believed to have come +into existence about 1740. In 1744 a British army officer recruiting +troops for service in Jamaica advertised in the newspaper of the day +that he could be seen at the Widow Roberts' coffee house. During the +French and Indian War, when Philadelphia was in grave danger of attack +by French and Spanish privateers, the citizens felt so great relief when +the British ship Otter came to the rescue, that they proposed a public +banquet in honor of the Otter's captain to be held at Roberts' coffee +house. For some unrecorded reason the entertainment was not given; +probably because the house was too small to accommodate all the citizens +desiring to attend. Widow Roberts retired in 1754. + + +_The James Coffee House_ + +Contemporary with Roberts' coffee house was the resort run first by +Widow James, and later by her son, James James. It was established in +1744, and occupied a large wooden building on the northwest corner of +Front and Walnut Streets. It was patronized by Governor Thomas and many +of his political followers, and its name frequently appeared in the news +and advertising columns of the _Pennsylvania Gazette_. + + +_The Second London Coffee House_ + +Probably the most celebrated coffee house in Penn's city was the one +established by William Bradford, printer of the _Pennsylvania Journal_. +It was on the southwest corner of Second and Market Streets, and was +named the London coffee house, the second house in Philadelphia to bear +that title. The building had stood since 1702, when Charles Reed, later +mayor of the city, put it up on land which he bought from Letitia Penn, +daughter of William Penn, the founder. Bradford was the first to use the +structure for coffee-house purposes, and he tells his reason for +entering upon the business in his petition to the governor for a +license: "Having been advised to keep a Coffee House for the benefit of +merchants and traders, and as some people may at times be desirous to be +furnished with other liquors besides coffee, your petitioner apprehends +it is necessary to have the Governor's license." This would indicate +that in that day coffee was drunk as a refreshment between meals, as +were spirituous liquors for so many years before, and thereafter up to +1920. + +[Illustration: SELLING SLAVES AT THE OLD LONDON COFFEE HOUSE] + +Bradford's London coffee house seems to have been a joint-stock +enterprise, for in his _Journal_ of April 11, 1754, appeared this +notice: "Subscribers to a public coffee house are invited to meet at the +Courthouse on Friday, the 19th instant, at 3 o'clock, to choose trustees +agreeably to the plan of subscription." + +The building was a three-story wooden structure, with an attic that some +historians count as the fourth story. There was a wooden awning +one-story high extending out to cover the sidewalk before the coffee +house. The entrance was on Market (then known as High) Street. + +The London coffee house was "the pulsating heart of excitement, +enterprise, and patriotism" of the early city. The most active citizens +congregated there--merchants, shipmasters, travelers from other colonies +and countries, crown and provincial officers. The governor and persons +of equal note went there at certain hours "to sip their coffee from the +hissing urn, and some of those stately visitors had their own stalls." +It had also the character of a mercantile exchange--carriages, horses, +foodstuffs, and the like being sold there at auction. It is further +related that the early slave-holding Philadelphians sold negro men, +women, and children at vendue, exhibiting the slaves on a platform set +up in the street before the coffee house. + +The resort was the barometer of public sentiment. It was in the street +before this house that a newspaper published in Barbados, bearing a +stamp in accordance with the provisions of the stamp act, was publicly +burned in 1765, amid the cheers of bystanders. It was here that Captain +Wise of the brig Minerva, from Pool, England, who brought news of the +repeal of the act, was enthusiastically greeted by the crowd in May, +1766. Here, too, for several years the fishermen set up May poles. + +Bradford gave up the coffee house when he joined the newly formed +Revolutionary army as major, later becoming a colonel. When the British +entered the city in September, 1777, the officers resorted to the London +coffee house, which was much frequented by Tory sympathizers. After the +British had evacuated the city, Colonel Bradford resumed proprietorship; +but he found a change in the public's attitude toward the old resort, +and thereafter its fortunes began to decline, probably hastened by the +keen competition offered by the City tavern, which had been opened a few +years before. + +Bradford gave up the lease in 1780, transferring the property to John +Pemberton, who leased it to Gifford Dally. Pemberton was a Friend, and +his scruples about gambling and other sins are well exhibited in the +terms of the lease in which said Dally "covenants and agrees and +promises that he will exert his endeavors as a Christian to preserve +decency and order in said house, and to discourage the profanation of +the sacred name of God Almighty by cursing, swearing, etc., and that the +house on the first day of the week shall always be kept closed from +public use." It is further covenanted that "under a penalty of £100 he +will not allow or suffer any person to use, or play at, or divert +themselves with cards, dice, backgammon, or any other unlawful game." + +[Illustration: THE CITY TAVERN, BUILT IN 1773, AND KNOWN AS THE +MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE + +The tavern (at the left) was regarded as the largest inn of the colonies +and stood next to the Bank of Pennsylvania (center). From a print made +from a rare Birch engraving] + +It would seem from the terms of the lease that what Pemberton thought +were ungodly things, were countenanced in other coffee houses of the +day. Perhaps the regulations were too strict; for a few years later the +house had passed into the hands of John Stokes, who used it as dwelling +and a store. + + +_City Tavern or Merchants Coffee House_ + +The last of the celebrated coffee houses in Philadelphia was built in +1773 under the name of the City tavern, which later became known as the +Merchants coffee house, possibly after the house of the same name that +was then famous in New York. It stood in Second Street near Walnut +Street, and in some respects was even more noted than Bradford's London +coffee house, with which it had to compete in its early days. + +The City tavern was patterned after the best London coffee houses; and +when opened, it was looked upon as the finest and largest of its kind in +America. It was three stories high, built of brick, and had several +large club rooms, two of which were connected by a wide doorway that, +when open, made a large dining room fifty feet long. + +Daniel Smith was the first proprietor, and he opened it to the public +early in 1774. Before the Revolution, Smith had a hard struggle trying +to win patronage from Bradford's London coffee house, standing only a +few blocks away. But during and after the war, the City tavern gradually +took the lead, and for more than a quarter of a century was the +principal gathering place of the city. At first, the house had various +names in the public mind, some calling it by its proper title, the City +tavern, others attaching the name of the proprietor and designating it +as Smith's tavern, while still others used the title, the New tavern. + +The gentlefolk of the city resorted to the City tavern after the +Revolution as they had to Bradford's coffee house before. However, +before reaching this high estate, it once was near destruction at the +hands of the Tories, who threatened to tear it down. That was when it +was proposed to hold a banquet there in honor of Mrs. George Washington, +who had stopped in the city in 1776 while on the way to meet her +distinguished husband, then at Cambridge in Massachusetts, taking over +command of the American army. Trouble was averted by Mrs. Washington +tactfully declining to appear at the tavern. + +After peace came, the house was the scene of many of the fashionable +entertainments of the period. Here met the City Dancing Assembly, and +here was held the brilliant fête given by M. Gerard, first accredited +representative from France to the United States, in honor of Louis XVI's +birthday. Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, and other leaders of public +thought were more or less frequent visitors when in Philadelphia. + +The exact date when the City tavern became the Merchants coffee house is +unknown. When James Kitchen became proprietor, at the beginning of the +nineteenth century, it was so called. In 1806 Kitchen turned the house +into a bourse, or mercantile exchange. By that time clubs and hotels had +come into fashion, and the coffee-house idea was losing caste with the +élite of the city. + +In the year 1806 William Renshaw planned to open the Exchange coffee +house in the Bingham mansion on Third Street. He even solicited +subscriptions to the enterprise, saying that he proposed to keep a +marine diary and a registry of vessels for sale, to receive and to +forward ships' letter bags, and to have accommodations for holding +auctions. But he was persuaded from the idea, partly by the fact that +the Merchants coffee house seemed to be satisfactorily filling that +particular niche in the city life, and partly because the hotel business +offered better inducements. He abandoned the plan, and opened the +Mansion House hotel in the Bingham residence in 1807. + +[Illustration: EXCHANGE COFFEE HOUSE SCENE IN "HAMILTON" + +In this setting for the first act of the play by Mary P. Hamlin and +George Arliss, produced in 1918, the scenic artist aimed to give a true +historical background, and combined the features of several inns and +coffee houses in Philadelphia, Virginia, and New England as they existed +in Washington's first administration] + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE BOTANY OF THE COFFEE PLANT + + _Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, + genus, and species--How the Coffea arabica grows, flowers, and + bears--Other species and hybrids described--Natural caffein-free + coffee--Fungoid diseases of coffee_ + + +The coffee tree, scientifically known as _Coffea arabica_, is native to +Abyssinia and Ethiopia, but grows well in Java, Sumatra, and other +islands of the Dutch East Indies; in India, Arabia, equatorial Africa, +the islands of the Pacific, in Mexico, Central and South America, and +the West Indies. The plant belongs to the large sub-kingdom of plants +known scientifically as the Angiosperms, or _Angiospermæ_, which means +that the plant reproduces by seeds which are enclosed in a box-like +compartment, known as the ovary, at the base of the flower. The word +Angiosperm is derived from two Greek words, _sperma_, a seed, and +_aggeion_, pronounced angeion, a box, the box referred to being the +ovary. + +This large sub-kingdom is subdivided into two classes. The basis for +this division is the number of leaves in the little plant which develops +from the seed. The coffee plant, as it develops from the seed, has two +little leaves, and therefore belongs to the class _Dicotyledoneæ_. This +word _dicotyledoneæ_ is made up of the two Greek words, _di(s)_, two, +and _kotyledon_, cavity or socket. It is not necessary to see the young +plant that develops from the seed in order to know that it had two seed +leaves; because the mature plant always shows certain characteristics +that accompany this condition of the seed. + +In every plant having two seed leaves, the mature leaves are +netted-veined, which is a condition easily recognized even by the +layman; also the parts of the flowers are in circles containing two or +five parts, but never in threes or sixes. The stems of plants of this +class always increase in thickness by means of a layer of cells known as +a cambium, which is a tissue that continues to divide throughout its +whole existence. The fact that this cambium divides as long as it lives, +gives rise to a peculiar appearance in woody stems by which we can, on +looking at the stem of a tree of this type when it has been sawed +across, tell the age of the tree. + +In the spring the cambium produces large open cells through which large +quantities of sap can run; in the fall it produces very thick-walled +cells, as there is not so much sap to be carried. Because these +thin-walled open cells of one spring are next to the thick-walled cells +of the last autumn, it is very easy to distinguish one year's growth +from the next; the marks so produced are called annual rings. + +We have now classified coffee as far as the class; and so far we could +go if we had only the leaves and stem of the coffee plant. In order to +proceed farther, we must have the flowers of the plant, as botanical +classification goes from this point on the basis of the flowers. The +class _Dicotyledoneæ_ is separated into sub-classes according to whether +the flower's corolla (the showy part of the flower which ordinarily +gives it its color) is all in one piece, or is divided into a number of +parts. The coffee flower is arranged with its corolla all in one piece, +forming a tube-shaped arrangement, and accordingly the coffee plant +belongs to the sub-class _Sympetalæ_, or _Metachlamydeæ_, which means +that its petals are united. + +[Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE, SHOWING DETAILS OF FLOWERS AND FRUIT + +From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's _Le Caféier et Le Café_] + +The next step in classification is to place the plant in the proper +division under the sub-class, which is the order. Plants are separated +into orders according to their varied characteristics. The coffee plant +belongs to an order known as _Rubiales_. These orders are again divided +into families. Coffee is placed in the family _Rubiaceæ_, or Madder +Family, in which we find herbs, shrubs or trees, represented by a few +American plants, such as bluets, or Quaker ladies, small blue spring +flowers, common to open meadows in northern United States; and partridge +berries (_Mitchella repens_). + +The Madder Family has more foreign representatives than native genera, +among which are _Coffea_, _Cinchona_, and _Ipecacuanha_ (_Uragoga_), all +of which are of economic importance. The members of this family are +noted for their action on the nervous system. Coffee, as is well known, +contains an active principle known as caffein which acts as a stimulant +to the nervous system and in small quantities is very beneficial. +_Cinchona_ supplies us with quinine, while _Ipecacuanha_ produces +ipecac, which is an emetic and purgative. + +The families are divided into smaller sections known as genera, and to +the genus _Coffea_ belongs the coffee plant. Under this genus _Coffea_ +are several sub-genera, and to the sub-genus _Eucoffea_ belongs our +common coffee, _Coffea arabica_. _Coffea arabica_ is the original or +common Java coffee of commerce. The term "common" coffee may seem +unnecessary, but there are many other species of coffee besides +_arabica_. These species have not been described very frequently; +because their native haunts are the tropics, and the tropics do not +always offer favorable conditions for the study of their plants. + +All botanists do not agree in their classification of the species and +varieties of the _coffea_ genus. M.E. de Wildman, curator of the royal +botanical gardens at Brussels, in his _Les Plantes Tropicales de Grande +Culture_, says the systematic division of this interesting genus is far +from finished; in fact, it may be said hardly to be begun. + +_Coffea arabica_ we know best because of the important rôle it plays in +commerce. + +COMPLETE CLASSIFICATION OF COFFEE + +Kingdom _Vegetable_ +Sub-Kingdom _Angiospermæ_ +Class _Dicotyledoneæ_ +Sub-class _Sympetalæ or Metachlamydeæ_ +Order _Rubiales_ +Family _Rubiaceæ_ +Genus _Coffea_ +Sub-genus _Eucoffea_ +Species _C. arabica_ + +The coffee plant most cultivated for its berries is, as already stated, +_Coffea arabica_, which is found in tropical regions, although it can +grow in temperate climates. Unlike most plants that grow best in the +tropics, it can stand low temperatures. It requires shade when it grows +in hot, low-lying districts; but when it grows on elevated land, it +thrives without such protection. Freeman[94] says there are about eight +recognized species of _coffea_. + +[Illustration: DETAILS OF THE GERMINATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT + +From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's _Le Caféier et Le Café_] + + +_Coffea Arabica_ + +_Coffea arabica_ is a shrub with evergreen leaves, and reaches a height +of fourteen to twenty feet when fully grown. The shrub produces +dimorphic branches, _i.e._, branches of two forms, known as uprights and +laterals. When young, the plants have a main stem, the upright, which, +however, eventually sends out side shoots, the laterals. The laterals +may send out other laterals, known as secondary laterals; but no lateral +can ever produce an upright. The laterals are produced in pairs and are +opposite, the pairs being borne in whorls around the stem. The laterals +are produced only while the joint of the upright, to which they are +attached, is young; and if they are broken off at that point, the +upright has no power to reproduce them. The upright can produce new +uprights also; but if an upright is cut off, the laterals at that +position tend to thicken up. This is very desirable, as the laterals +produce the flowers, which seldom appear on the uprights. This fact is +utilized in pruning the coffee tree, the uprights being cut back, the +laterals then becoming more productive. Planters generally keep their +trees pruned down to about six feet. + +The leaves are lanceolate, or lance-shaped, being borne in pairs +opposite each other. They are three to six inches in length, with an +acuminate apex, somewhat attenuate at the base, with very short petioles +which are united with the short interpetiolar stipules at the base. The +coffee leaves are thin, but of firm texture, slightly coriaceous. They +are very dark green on the upper surface, but much lighter underneath. +The margin of the leaf is entire and wavy. In some tropical countries +the natives brew a coffee tea from the leaves of the coffee tree. + +[Illustration: BRAZIL COFFEE PLANTATION IN FLOWER] + +The coffee flowers are small, white, and very fragrant, having a +delicate characteristic odor. They are borne in the axils of the leaves +in clusters, and several crops are produced in one season, depending on +the conditions of heat and moisture that prevail in the particular +season. The different blossomings are classed as main blossoming and +smaller blossomings. In semi-dry high districts, as in Costa Rica or +Guatemala, there is one blossoming season, about March, and flowers and +fruit are not found together, as a rule, on the trees. But in lowland +plantations where rain is perennial, blooming and fruiting continue +practically all the year; and ripe fruits, green fruits, open flowers, +and flower buds are to be found at the same time on the same branchlet, +not mixed together, but in the order indicated. + +[Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA--PORTO RICO] + +The flowers are also tubular, the tube of the corolla dividing into five +white segments. Dr. P.J.S. Cramer, chief of the division of plant +breeding, Department of Agriculture, Netherlands India, says the number +of petals is not at all constant, not even for flowers of the same tree. +The corolla segments are about one-half inch in length, while the tube +itself is about three-eighths of an inch long. The anthers of the +stamens, which are five in number, protrude from the top of the corolla +tube, together with the top of the two-cleft pistil. The calyx, which is +so small as to escape notice unless one is aware of its existence, is +annular, with small, tooth-like indentations. + +While the usual color of the coffee flower is white, the fresh stamens +and pistils may have a greenish tinge, and in some cultivated species +the corolla is pale pink. + +The size and condition of the flowers are entirely dependent on the +weather. The flowers are sometimes very small, very fragrant, and very +numerous; while at other times, when the weather is not hot and dry, +they are very large, but not so numerous. Both sets of flowers mentioned +above "set fruit," as it is called; but at times, especially in a very +dry season, they bear flowers that are few in number, small, and +imperfectly formed, the petals frequently being green instead of white. +These flowers do not set fruit. The flowers that open on a dry sunny day +show a greater yield of fruit than those that open on a wet day, as the +first mentioned have a better chance of being pollinated by the insects +and the wind. The beauty of a coffee estate in flower is of a very +fleeting character. One day it is a snowy expanse of fragrant white +blossoms for miles and miles, as far as the eye can see, and two days +later it reminds one of the lines from Villon's _Des Dames du Temps +Jadis_. + +Where are the snows of yesterday? +The winter winds have blown them all away. + +[Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA, FLOWER AND FRUIT--COSTA RICA] + +But here, the winter winds are not to blame: the soft, gentle breezes of +the perpetual summer have wrought the havoc, leaving, however, a not +unpleasing picture of dark, cool, mossy green foliage. + +The flowers are beautiful, but the eye of the planter sees in them not +alone beauty and fragrance. He looks far beyond, and in his mind's eye +he sees bags and bags of green coffee, representing to him the goal and +reward of all his toil. After the flowers droop, there appear what are +commercially known as the coffee berries. Botanically speaking, "berry" +is a misnomer. These little fruits are not berries, such as are well +represented by the grape; but are drupes, which are better exemplified +by the cherry and the peach. In the course of six or seven months, these +coffee drupes develop into little red balls about the size of an +ordinary cherry; but, instead of being round, they are somewhat +ellipsoidal, having at the outer end a small umbilicus. The drupe of the +coffee usually has two locules, each containing a little "stone" (the +seed and its parchment covering) from which the coffee bean (seed) is +obtained. Some few drupes contain three, while others, at the outer ends +of the branches, contain only one round bean, known as the peaberry. The +number of pickings corresponds to the different blossomings in the same +season; and one tree of the species _arabica_ may yield from one to +twelve pounds a year. + +[Illustration: YOUNG COFFEA ARABICA TREE AT KONA, HAWAII] + +In countries like India and Africa, the birds and monkeys eat the ripe +coffee berries. The so-called "monkey coffee" of India, according to +Arnold, is the undigested coffee beans passed through the alimentary +canal of the animal. + +[Illustration: SURVIVORS OF THE FIRST LIBERIAN COFFEE TREES INTRODUCED +INTO JAVA IN 1876] + +The pulp surrounding the coffee beans is at present of no commercial +importance. Although efforts have been made at various times by natives +to use it as a food, its flavor has not gained any great popularity, and +the birds are permitted a monopoly of the pulp as a food. From the human +standpoint the pulp, or sarcocarp, as it is scientifically called, is +rather an annoyance, as it must be removed in order to procure the +beans. This is done in one of two ways. The first is known as the dry +method, in which the entire fruit is allowed to dry, and is then cracked +open. The second way is called the wet method; the sarcocarp is removed +by machine, and two wet, slimy seed packets are obtained. These packets, +which look for all the world like seeds, are allowed to dry in such a +way that fermentation takes place. This rids them of all the slime; and, +after they are thoroughly dry, the endocarp, the so-called parchment +covering, is easily cracked open and removed. At the same time that the +parchment is removed, a thin silvery membrane, the silver skin, beneath +the parchment, comes off, too. There are always small fragments of this +silver skin to be found in the groove of the coffee bean contained +within the parchment packet. + +[Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA IN FLOWER ON A JAVA ESTATE + +From a photograph made at Dramaga, Preanger, Java, in 1907] + +[Illustration: LIBERIAN COFFEE TREE AT LAMOA, P.I.] + +We have said that the coffee tree yields from one to twelve pounds a +year, but of course this varies with the individual tree and also with +the region. In some countries the whole year's yield is less than 200 +pounds per acre, while there is on record a patch in Brazil which yields +about seventeen pounds to the tree, bringing the yield per acre much +higher. + +The beans do not retain their vitality for planting for any considerable +length of time; and, if they are thoroughly dried, or are kept for +longer than three or four months, they are useless for that purpose. It +takes the seed about six weeks to germinate and to appear above ground. +Trees raised from seed begin to blossom in about three years; but a good +crop can not be expected of them for the first five or six years. Their +usefulness, save in exceptional cases, is ended in about thirty years. + +The coffee tree can be propagated in a way other than by seeds. The +upright branches can be used as slips, which, after taking root, will +produce seed-bearing laterals. The laterals themselves can not be used +as slips. In Central America the natives sometimes use coffee uprights +for fences and it is no uncommon sight to see the fence posts "growing." + +The wood of the coffee tree is used also for cabinet work, as it is much +stronger than many of the native woods, weighing about forty-three +pounds to the cubic foot, having a crushing strength of 5,800 pounds per +square inch, and a breaking strength of 10,900 pounds per square inch. + +The propagation of the coffee plant by cutting has two distinct +advantages over propagation by seed, in that it spares the expense of +seed production, which is enormous, and it gives also a method of +hybridization, which, if used, might lead not only to very interesting +but also to very profitable results. + +[Illustration: TWO-AND-ONE-HALF-YEAR-OLD C. CONGENSIS] + +The hybridization of the coffee plant was taken up in a thoroughly +scientific manner by the Dutch government at the experimental garden +established at Bangelan, Java, in 1900. In his studies, twelve varieties +of _Coffea arabica_ are recognized by Dr. P.J.S. Cramer[95], namely: + + _Laurina_, a hybrid of _Coffea arabica_ with C. _mauritiana_, + having small narrow leaves, stiff, dense branches, young leaves + almost white, berry long and narrow, and beans narrow and oblong. + + _Murta_, having small leaves, dense branches, beans as in the + typical _Coffea arabica_, and the plant able to stand bitter cold. + + _Menosperma_, a distinct type, with narrow leaves and bent-down + branches resembling a willow, the berries seldom containing more + than one seed. + +[Illustration: A HEAVY FLOWERING OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD COFFEA EXCELSA + +This is a comparatively new species, discovered in the Tchad Lake +district of West Africa in 1905. It is a small-beaned variety of _Coffea +liberica_] + +[Illustration: BRANCHES OF COFFEA EXCELSA GROWN AT THE LAMAO EXPERIMENT +STATION, P.I.] + + _Mokka_ (_Coffea Mokkæ_), having small leaves, dense foliage, small + round berries, small round beans resembling split peas, and + possessed of a stronger flavor than _Coffea arabica_. + + _Purpurescens_, a red-leaved variety, comparable with the + red-leaved hazel and copper beech, a little less productive than + the _Coffea arabica_. + + _Variegata_, having variegated leaves striped and spotted with + white. + + _Amarella_, having yellow berries, comparable with the + white-fruited variety of the strawberry, raspberry, etc. + + _Bullata_, having broad, curled leaves; stiff, thick, fragile + branches, and round, fleshy berries containing a high percentage of + empty beans. + + _Angustifolia_, a narrow-leaved variety, with berries somewhat more + oblong and, like the foregoing, a poor producer. + + _Erecta_, a variety that is sturdier than the typical _arabica_, + better suited to windy places, and having a production as in the + common _arabica_. + + _Maragogipe_, a well-defined variety with light green leaves having + colored edges: berries large, broad, sometimes narrower in the + middle; a light bearer, the whole crop sometimes being reduced to a + couple of berries per tree.[96] + +[Illustration: C. STENOPHYLLA, FROM WHICH IS OBTAINED THE HIGHLAND +COFFEE OF SIERRA LEONE] + + _Columnaris_, a vigorous variety, sometimes reaching a height of 25 + feet, having leaves rounded at the base and rather broad, but a shy + bearer, recommended for dry climates. + + +_Coffea Stenophylla_ + +_Coffea arabica_ has a formidable rival in the species _stenophylla_. +The flavor of this variety is pronounced by some as surpassing that of +_arabica_. The great disadvantage of this plant is the fact that it +requires so long a time before a yield of any value can be secured. +Although the time required for the maturing of the crop is so long, when +once the plantation begins to yield, the crop is as large as that of +_Coffea arabica_, and occasionally somewhat larger. The leaves are +smaller than any of the species described, and the flowers bear their +parts in numbers varying from six to nine. The tree is a native of +Sierra Leone, where it grows wild. + +[Illustration: Copyright, 1909, by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal + +NEAR VIEW OF COFFEE BERRIES OF COFFEA ARABICA] + + +_Coffea Liberica_ + +The bean of _Coffea arabica_, although the principal bean used in +commerce, is not the only one; and it may not be out of place here to +describe briefly some of the other varieties that are produced +commercially. _Coffea liberica_ is one of these plants. The quality of +the beverage made from its berries is inferior to that of _Coffea +arabica_, but the plant itself offers distinct advantages in its hardy +growing qualities. This makes it attractive for hybridization. + +[Illustration: WILD "CAFFEIN-FREE" COFFEE TREE + +_Mantsaka_ or _Café Sauvage_--Madagascar] + +The _Coffea liberica_ tree is much larger and sturdier than the _Coffea +arabica_, and in its native haunts it reaches a height of 30 feet. It +will grow in a much more torrid climate and can stand exposure to strong +sunlight. The leaves are about twice as long as those of _arabica_, +being six to twelve inches in length, and are very thick, tough, and +leathery. The apex of the leaf is acute. The flowers are larger than +those of _arabica_, and are borne in dense clusters. At any time during +the season, the same tree may bear flowers, white or pinkish, and +fragrant, or even green, together with fruits, some green, some ripe and +of a brilliant red. The corolla has been known to have seven segments, +though as a rule it has five. The fruits are large, round, and dull red; +the pulps are not juicy, and are somewhat bitter. Unlike _Coffea +arabica_, the ripened drupes do not fall from the trees, and so the +picking can be delayed at the planter's convenience. + +[Illustration: DIFFERENTIATING CHARACTERISTICS OF COFFEE BEANS, IN +CROSS-SECTION + +Col. I. Mature bean. Col. II. Embryo. + +_A. Coffea arabica, R. Coffea robusta, L. Coffea liberica_] + +Among the allied Liberian species Dr. Cramer recognizes: + + _Abeokutæ_, having small leaves of a bright green, flower buds + often pink just before opening (in Liberian coffee never), fruit + smaller with sharply striped red and yellow shiny skin, and + producing somewhat smaller beans than Liberian coffee, but beans + whose flavor and taste are praised by brokers; + + _Dewevrei_, having curled edged leaves, stiff branches, + thick-skinned berries, sometimes pink flowers, beans generally + smaller than in _C. liberica_, but of little interest to the trade; + + _Arnoldiana_, a species near to _Coffea Abeokutæ_ having darker + foliage and the even colored small berries; + + _Laurentii Gillet_, a species not to be confused with the _C. + Laurentii_ belonging to the _robusta_ coffee, but standing near to + _C. liberica_, characterized by oblong rather than thin-skinned + berries; + + _Excelsa_, a vigorous, disease-resisting species discovered in 1905 + by Aug. Chevalier in West Africa, in the region of the Chari River, + not far from Lake Tchad. The broad, dark-green leaves have an under + side of light green with a bluish tinge; the flowers are large and + white, borne in axillary clusters of one to five; the berries are + short and broad, in color crimson, the bean smaller than _robusta_, + very like _Mocha_, but in color a bright yellow like _liberica_. + The caffein content of the coffee is high, and the aroma is very + pronounced; + + _Dybowskii_, another disease-resisting variety similar to + _excelsa_, but having different leaf and fruit characteristics; + + _Lamboray_, having bent gutter-like leaves, and soft-skinned, + oblong fruit; + + _Wanni Rukula_, having large leaves, a vigorous growth, and small + berries; + + _Coffea aruwimensis_, being a mixture of different types. + +[Illustration: COFFEA ARABICA BERRIES GROWN IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS] + +The last three types were received by Dr. Cramer at Bangelan from Frère +Gillet in the Belgian Congo, and were still under trial in Java in 1919. + + +_Coffea Robusta_ + +Emil Laurent, in 1898, discovered a species of coffee growing wild in +Congo. This was taken up by a horticultural firm of Brussels, and +cultivated for the market. This firm gave to the coffee the name _Coffea +robusta_, although it had already been given the name of the discoverer, +being known as _Coffea Laurentii_. The plant differs widely from both +_arabica_ and _liberica_, being considerably larger than either. The +tree is umbrella-shaped, due to the fact that its branches are very long +and bend toward the ground. + +The leaves of _robusta_ are much thinner than those of _liberica_, +though not as thin as those of _arabica_. The tree, as a whole, is a +very hardy variety and even bears blossoms when it is less than a year +old. It blossoms throughout the entire year, the flowers having +six-parted corollas. The drupes are smaller than those of _liberica;_ +but are much thinner skinned, so that the coffee bean is actually not +any smaller. The drupes mature in ten months. Although the plants bear +as early as the first year, the yield for the first two years is of no +account; but by the fourth year the crop is large. + +[Illustration: ROBUSTA COFFEE IN FLOWER, PREANGER, JAVA] + +[Illustration: COFFEE ESTATE IN THE LUQUILLO MOUNTAINS, PORTO RICO] + +[Illustration: JAPANESE LABORERS PICKING COFFEE ON KONA SIDE, ISLAND OF +HAWAII] + +[Illustration: COFFEE UNDER THE STARS AND STRIPES] + +Arno Viehoever, pharmacognosist in charge of the pharmacognosy +laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of +Agriculture, has recently announced findings confirming Hartwich which +appear to permit of differentiation between _robusta, arabica_, and +_liberica_.[97] These are mainly the peculiar folding of the endosperm, +showing quite generally a distinct hook in the case of the _robusta_ +coffee bean. The size of the embryo, and especially the relation of the +rootlet to hypercotyl, will be found useful in the differentiation of +the species _Coffea arabica, liberica_, and _robusta_ (see cut, page +142). + +[Illustration: ONE-YEAR-OLD ROBUSTA ESTATE, ON SUMATRA'S WEST COAST] + +Viehoever and Lepper carried on a series of cup tests of _robusta_, the +results as to taste and flavor being distinctly favorable. They +summarized their studies and tests as follows: + + The time when coffee could be limited to beans obtained from plants + of _Coffea arabica_ and _Coffea liberica_ has passed. Other + species, with qualities which make them desirable, even in + preference to the well reputed named ones, have been discovered and + cultivated. Among them, the species or group of _Coffea robusta_ + has attained a great economic significance, and is grown in + increasing amounts. While it has, as reports seem to indicate, not + as yet been possible to obtain a strain that would be as desirable + in flavor as the old "standard" _Coffea_ _arabica_, well known as + Java or "Fancy Java" coffee, its merits have been established. + + The botanical origin is not quite cleared up, and the + classification of the varieties belonging to the _robusta_ group + deserves further study. Anatomical means of differentiating + _robusta_ coffee from other species or groups, may be applied as + distinctly helpful.... + + As is usual in most of the coffee species, caffein is present. The + amount appears to be, on an average, somewhat larger (even + exceeding 2.0 percent) than in the South American coffee species. + In no instance, however, did the amount exceed the maximum limits + observed in coffee in general.... + + Due to its rapid growth, early and prolific yield, resistance to + coffee blight, and many other desirable qualities, _Coffea robusta_ + has established "its own". In the writers' judgment, _robusta_ + coffee deserves consideration and recognition. + +Among the _robusta_ varieties, _Coffea canephora_ is a distinct species, +well characterized by growth, leaves, and berries. The branches are +slender and thinner than _robusta_; the leaves are dark green and +narrower; the flowers are often tinged with red; the unripe berries are +purple, the ripe berries bright red and oblong. The produce is like +_robusta_, only the shape of the bean, somewhat narrower and more +oblong, makes it look more attractive. _Coffea canephora_, like _C. +robusta_, seems better fitted to higher altitudes. + +Other _canephora_ varieties include: + +_Madagascar_, having small, slightly striped, bright red berries and +small round beans; + +_Quillouensis_, having dark green foliage and reddish brown young +leaves; and, + +_Stenophylla Paris_, with purplish young berries. + +These last two named were under test at the Bangelan gardens in 1919. + +Among other allied _robusta_ species are: + +_Ugandæ_:, whose produce is said to possess a better flavor than +_robusta_; + +_Bukobensis_, different from _Ugandæ_ in the color of its berries, which +are a dark red; and + +_Quillou_, having bright red fruit, a copper-colored silver skin, three +pounds of fruit producing one pound of market coffee. Some people prefer +_Quillou_ to _robusta_ because of the difference in the taste of the +roasted bean. + + +_Some Interesting Hybrids_ + +The most popular hybrid belongs to a crossing of _liberica_ and +_arabica_. Cramer states that the beans of this hybrid make an excellent +coffee combining the strong taste of the _liberica_ with the fine flavor +of the old Government Java _(arabica_), adding: + + The hybrids are not only of value to the roaster, but also to the + planter. They are vigorous trees, practically free from leaf + disease; they stand drought well and also heavy rains; they are not + particular in regard to shade and upkeep; never fail to give a fair + and often a rather heavy crop. The fruit ripens all the year + around, and does not fall so easily as in the case of _arabica_. + +Among other hybrids (many were still under trial in 1919) may be +mentioned: _Coffea excelsia x liberica_; _C. Abeokutæ x liberica_; _C. +Dybowskii x excelsa_; _C. stenophylla x Abeokutæ_; _C. congensis x +Ugandæ_; _C. Ugandæ x congensis_; and _C. robusta x Maragogipe_. + +There are many species of _Coffea_ that stand quite apart from the main +groups, _arabica, robusta_ and _liberica_; but while some are of +commercial value, most of them are interesting only from the scientific +point of view. Among the latter may be mentioned: _Coffea bengalensis_, +_C. Perieri_, _C. mauritiana_, _C. macrocarpa_, _C. madagascariensis_, +and _C. schumanniana_. + +[Illustration: COFFEA QUILLOU FLOWERS IN FULL BLOOM] + +M. Teyssonnier, of the experimental garden at Camayenne, French Guinea, +West Africa, has produced a promising species of coffee known as +_affinis_. It is a hybrid of _C. stenophylla_ with a species of +_liberica_. + +Among other promising species recognized by Dr. Cramer are: + +_Coffea congensis_, whose berry resembles that of _C. arabica_, when +well prepared for the market being green or bluish; and + +_Coffea congensis var. Chalotii_, probably a hybrid of _C. congensis_ +with _C. canephora_. + + +_Caffein-free Coffee_ + +Certain trees growing wild in the Comoro Islands and Madagascar are +known as caffein-free coffee trees. Just whether they are entitled to +this classification or not is a question. Some of the French and German +investigators have reported coffee from these regions that was +absolutely devoid of caffein. It was thought at first that they must +represent an entirely new genus; but upon investigation, it was found +that they belonged to the genus _Coffea_, to which all our common +coffees belong. Professor Dubard, of the French National Museum and +Colonial Garden, studied these trees botanically and classified them as +_C. Gallienii_, _C. Bonnieri_, _C. Mogeneti_, and _C. Augagneuri_. The +beans of berries from these trees were analyzed by Professor Bertrand +and pronounced caffein-free; but Labroy, in writing of the same coffee, +states that, while the bean is caffein-free, it contains a very bitter +substance, cafamarine, which makes the infusion unfit for use. Dr. O.W. +Willcox[98], in examining some specimens of wild coffee from Madagascar, +found that the bean was not caffein-free; and though the caffein content +was low, it was no lower than in some of the Porto Rican varieties. + +Hartwich[99] reports that Hanausek found no caffein in _C. mauritiana_, +_C. humboltiana_, _C. Gallienii_, _C. Bonnerii_, and _C. Mogeneti_. + + +_Fungoid Disease of Coffee_ + +The coffee tree, like every other living thing, has specific diseases +and enemies, the most common of which are certain fungoid diseases where +the mycelium of the fungus grows into the tissue and spots the leaves, +eventually causing them to fall, thus robbing the plant of its only +means of elaborating food. Its most deadly enemy in the insect world is +a small insect of the lepidopterous variety, which is known as the +coffee-leaf miner. It is closely related to the clothes moth and, like +the moth, bores in its larval stage, feeding on the mesophyl of the +leaves. This gives the leaves an appearance of being shriveled or dried +by heat. + +[Illustration: AN EIGHTEEN-MONTHS'-OLD COFFEA QUILLOU TREE IN BLOSSOM] + +There are three principal diseases, due to fungi, from which the coffee +plants suffer. The most common is known as the leaf-blight fungus, +_Pellicularia tokeroga_, which is a slow-spreading disease, but one that +causes great loss. Although the fungus does not produce spores, the +leaves die and dry, and are blown away, carrying with them the dried +mycelium of the fungus. This mycelium will start to grow as soon as it +is supplied with a new moist coffee leaf to nourish it. The method of +getting rid of this disease is to spray the trees in seasons of drought. + +It was a fungoid disease known as the _Hemileia vastatrix_ that attacked +Ceylon's coffee industry in 1869, and eventually destroyed it. It is a +microscopic fungus whose spores, carried by the wind, adhere to and +germinate upon the leaves of the coffee tree[100]. + +Another common disease is known as the root disease, which eventually +kills the tree by girdling it below the soil. It spreads slowly, but +seems to be favored by collections of decaying matter around the base of +the tree. Sometimes the digging of ditches around the roots is +sufficient to protect it. The other common disease is due to _Stilbium +flavidum_, and is found only in regions of great humidity. It affects +both the leaf and the fruit and is known as the spot of leaf and fruit. + +[Illustration: COFFEA UGANDÆ BENT OVER BY A HEAVY CROP] + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE MICROSCOPY OF THE COFFEE FRUIT + + _How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is + revealed--Structure of the berry, the green, and the roasted + bean--The coffee leaf disease under the microscope--Value of + microscopic analysis in detecting adulteration_ + + +The microscopy of coffee is, on the whole, more important to the planter +than to the consumer and the dealer; while, on the other hand, the +microscopy is of paramount importance to the consumer and the dealer as +furnishing the best means of determining whether the product offered is +adulterated or not. Also, from this standpoint, the microscopy of the +plant is less important than that of the bean. + +[Illustration: Fig. 331. Coffee (_Coffea arabica_). I--Cross-section of +berry, natural size; _Pk_, outer pericarp; _Mk_, endocarp; _Ek_, +spermoderm; _Sa_, hard endosperm; Sp, soft endosperm. II--Longitudinal +section of berry, natural size; _Dis_, bordered disk; _Se_, remains of +sepals; _Em_, embryo. III--Embryo, enlarged; _cot_, cotyledon; _rad_, +radicle. (Tschirch and Oesterle.)] + + +_The Fruit and the Bean_ + +The fruit, as stated in chapter XV, consists of two parts, each one +containing a single seed, or bean. These beans are flattened laterally, +so as to fit together, except in the following instances: in the +peaberry, where one of the ovules never develops, the single ovule, +having no pressure upon it, is spherical; in the rare instances where +three seeds are found, the grains are angular. + +The coffee bean with which the consumer is familiar is only a small part +of the fruit. The fruit, which is the size of a small cherry, has, like +the cherry, an outer fleshy portion called the pericarp. Beneath this is +a part like tissue paper, spoken of technically as the parchment, but +known scientifically as the endocarp. Next in position to this, and +covering the seed, is the so-called spermoderm, which means the seed +skin, referred to in the trade as the silver skin. Small portions of +this silver skin are always to be found in the cleft of the coffee bean. + +The coffee bean is the embryo and its food supply; the embryo is that +part of the seed which, when supplied with food and moisture, develops +into a new plant. The embryo of the coffee is very minute (Fig. 331, +II, _Em_)[101]; and the greater part of the seed is taken up by the food +supply, consisting of hard and soft endosperm (Fig. 331, I and II, _Sa_, +_Sp_). The minute embryo consists of two small thick leaves, the +cotyledons (Fig. 331, III, _cot_), a short stem, invisible in the +undissected embryo, and a small root, the radicle (Fig. 331, III, +_rad_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross section of bean showing folded +endosperm with hard and soft tissues. x6. (Moeller)] + + +_Fruit Structure_ + +In order to examine the structure of these layers of the fruit under the +microscope, it is necessary to use the pericarp dry, as it is not easily +obtainable in its natural condition. If desired, an alcoholic specimen +may be used, but it has been found that the dry method gives more +satisfactory results. The dried pericarp is about 0.5 mm thick. Great +difficulty is experienced in cutting microtome sections of pericarp when +the specimen is embedded in paraffin, because the outer layers are soft +and the endocarp is hard, and the two parts of the section separate at +this point. To overcome this, the sections might also be embedded in +celloidin. When the sections are satisfactory, they may be stained with +any of the double stains ordinarily used in the study of plant +histology. + +[Illustration: Fig. 333. Coffee. Cross section of hull and bean. +Pericarp consists of: 1, epicarp; 2-3, layers of mesocarp, with 4, +fibro-vascular bundle; 5, palisade layer; and 6, endocarp; _ss_, +spermoderm, consists of 8, sclerenchyma, and 9, parenchyma; _End_, +endosperm (Tschirch and Oesterle)] + +A section cut crosswise through the entire fruit would present the +appearance shown in Fig. 333. The cells of the epicarp are broad and +polygonal, sometimes regularly four-sided, about 15-35 µ broad. At +intervals along the surface of the epicarp are stomata, or breathing +pores, surrounded by guard cells. The next layer of the pericarp is the +mesocarp (Figs. 333, 334, 335), the cells of which are larger and more +regular in outline than the epicarp. The cells of the mesocarp become as +large as 100 µ broad, but in the inner parts of the layer they become +very much flattened. Fibrovascular bundles are scattered through the +compressed cells of the mesocarp. The cell walls are thick; and large, +amorphous, brown masses are found within the cell; occasionally, large +crystals are found in the outer part of the layer. The fibro-vascular +bundles consist mainly of bast and wood fibers and vessels. The bast +fibers are as large as 1 mm long and 25 µ broad, with thick walls and +very small _lumina_. Spiral and pitted vessels are also present. + +[Illustration: Fig. 334. Coffee. Surface view of _ep_, epicarp, and _p_, +outer parenchyma of mesocarp. x160. (Moeller)] + +The layer next to this is a soft tissue, parenchyma (Fig. 333, 5; Fig. +334, _p_). The parenchyma, or palisade cells as they are called, is a +thin-walled tissue in which the cells are elongated, from which fact +they receive their name. The walls of these cells, though very thin, are +mucilaginous, and capable of taking up large amounts of water. They +stain well with the aniline stains. + +The endocarp (Fig. 336) is closely connected with the palisade layer and +has thin-walled cells that closely resemble, in all respects, the +endocarp of the apple. The outer layer consists of thick-walled fibers, +which are remarkably porous (Fig. 333, 6; Fig. 336) while the fibers of +the inner layer are thin-walled and run in the transverse direction. + + +_The Bean Structure_ + +Spermoderm, or silver skin, is not difficult to secure for microscopic +analysis; because shreds of it remain in the groove of the berry, and +these shreds are ample for examination. It can readily be removed +without tearing, if soaked in water for a few hours. The spermoderm is +thin enough not to need sectioning. It consists of two +elements--sclerenchyma and parenchyma cells. (Figs. 333, 337, _st_, +_p_). + +[Illustration: Fig. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarp in surface view. +_p_, parenchyma; _bp_, parenchyma of fibro-vascular bundle; _b_, bast +fiber; _sp_, spiral vessel. x160. (Moeller)] + +Sclerenchyma forms an uninterrupted covering in the early stages of the +seed; but as the seed develops, surrounding tissues grow more rapidly +than the sclerenchyma, and the cells are pushed apart and scattered. The +cells occurring in the cleft of the berry are straight, narrow, and +long, becoming as long as 1 mm, and resemble bast fibers somewhat. On +the surface of the berry, and sometimes in the cleft, there are found +smaller, thicker cells, which are irregular in outline, club-shaped and +vermiform types predominating. + +Parenchyma cells form the remainder of the spermoderm; and these are +partially obliterated, so that the structure is not easily seen, +appearing almost like a solid membrane. The raphe runs through the +parenchyma found in the cleft of the berry. + +The endosperm (Figs. 333; 338) consist of small cells in the outer part, +and large cells, frequently as thick as 100 µ, in the inner part. The +cell walls are thickened and knotted. Certain of the inner cells have +mucilaginous walls which when treated with water disappear, leaving only +the middle lamellae, which gives the section a peculiar appearance. The +cells contain no starch, the reserve food supply being stored cellulose, +protein, and aleurone grains. Various investigators report the presence +of sugar, tannin, iron, salts, and caffein. + +The embryo (Fig. 331, III) may be obtained by soaking the bean in water +for several hours, cutting through the cleft and carefully breaking +apart the endosperm. If it is now soaked in diluted alkali, the embryo +protrudes through the lower end of the endosperm. It is then cleared in +alkali, or in chloral hydrate. The cotyledons shown have three pairs of +veins, which are slightly netted. The radicle is blunt and is about 3/4 +mm in length, while the cotyledons are 1/2 mm long. + +[Illustration: Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of endocarp. x160. +(Moeller)] + + +_The Coffee-Leaf Disease_ + +The coffee tree has many pests and diseases; but the disease most feared +by planters is that generally referred to as the coffee-leaf disease, +and by this is meant the fungoid _Hemileia vastatrix_, which as told in +chapter XV, destroyed Ceylon's once prosperous coffee industry. As it +has since been found in nearly all coffee-producing countries, it has +become a nightmare in the dreams of all coffee planters. The microscope +shows how the spores of this dreaded fungus, carried by the winds upon a +leaf of the coffee tree, proceed to germinate at the expense of the +leaf; robbing it of its nourishment, and causing it to droop and to die. +A mixture of powdered lime and sulphur has been found to be an effective +germicide, if used in time and diligently applied. + +[Illustration: Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view. _st._ +sclerenchyma; _p_, compressed parenchyma. x160. (Moeller)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 338. Coffee. Cross-section of outer layers of +endosperm, showing knotty thickenings of cell walls. x160. (Moeller)] + +[Illustration: Fig. 339. Coffee. Tissues of embryo in section. x160. +(Moeller)] + + +_Value of Microscopic Analysis_ + +The value of the microscopic analysis of coffee may not be apparent at +first sight; but when one realizes that in many cases the microscopic +examination is the only way to detect adulteration in coffee, its +importance at once becomes apparent. In many instances the chemical +analysis fails to get at the root of the trouble, and then the only +method to which the tester has recourse is the examination of the +suspected material under the scope. The mixing of chicory with coffee +has in the past been one of the commonest forms of adulteration. The +microscopic examination in this connection is the most reliable. The +coffee grain will have the appearance already described. +Microscopically, chicory shows numerous thin-walled parenchymatous +cells, lactiferous vessels, and sieve tubes with transverse plates. +There are also present large vessels with huge, well-defined pits. + +[Illustration: COFFEE LEAF DISEASE (HEMILEIA VASTATRIX) + +1. under surface of affected leaf, x 1/2; 2, section through same +showing mycelium, haustoria, and a spore-cluster; 3, a spore-cluster +seen from below; 4, a uredospore; 5, germinating uredospore; 6, +appressorial swellings at tips of germ-tubes; 7, infection through stoma +of leaf; 8, teleutospores; 9, teleutospore germinating with promycelium +and sporidia; 10, sporidia and their germination (2 after Zimmermann, 3 +after Delacroix, 4-10 after Ward)] + +Roasted date stones have been used as adulterants, and these can be +detected quite readily with the aid of the microscope, as they have a +very characteristic microscopic appearance. The epidermal cells are +almost oblong, while the parenchymatous cells are large, irregular and +contain large quantities of tannin. + +Adulteration and adulterants are considered more fully in chapter XVII. + +[Illustration: GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE + +Green bean, showing the size and form of the cells as well as the drops +of oil contained within their cavities. Drawn with the camera lucida, +and magnified 140 diameters. + +A fragment of roasted coffee under the microscope. Drawn with the camera +lucida, and magnified 140 diameters.] + +[Illustration: BOGOTA, GREEN + +Longitudinal--Magnified 200 diameters] + +[Illustration: BOGOTA, GREEN + +Cross Section--Magnified 200 diameters] + +[Illustration: BOGOTA, GREEN + +Tangential--Magnified 200 diameters] + +[Illustration: BOGOTA, ROASTED + +Tangential--Magnified 200 diameters] + +[Illustration: GREEN AND ROASTED BOGOTA COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE + +These pictures serve to demonstrate that the coffee bean is made up of +minute cells that are not broken down to any extent by the roasting +process. Note that the oil globules are more prominent in the green than +in the roasted product] + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COFFEE BEAN + + _Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green + bean--Artificial aging--Renovating damaged + coffees--Extracts--"Caffetannic acid"--Caffein, caffein-free + coffee--Caffeol--Fats and oils--Carbohydrates--Roasting--Scientific + aspects of grinding and packaging--The coffee brew--Soluble + coffee--Adulterants and substitutes--Official methods of analysis_ + +By Charles W. Trigg + +Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, +Pittsburgh, 1916-1920 + + +When the vast extent of the coffee business is considered, together with +the intimate connection which coffee has with the daily life of the +average human, the relatively small amount of accurate knowledge which +we possess regarding the chemical constituents and the physiological +action of coffee is productive of amazement. + +True, a painstaking compilation of all the scientific and +semi-scientific work done upon coffee furnishes quite a compendium of +data, the value of which is not commensurate with its quantity, because +of the spasmodic nature of the investigations and the non-conclusive +character of the results so far obtained. The following general survey +of the field argues in favor of the promulgation of well-ordered and +systematic research, of the type now in progress at several places in +the United States, into the chemical behavior of coffee throughout the +various processes to which it is subjected in the course of its +preparation for human consumption. + + +_Green Coffee_ + +One of the few chemical investigations of the growing tree is the +examination by Graf of flowers from 20-year-old coffee trees, in which +he found 0.9 percent caffein, a reducing sugar, caffetannic acid, and +phytosterol. Power and Chestnut[102] found 0.82 percent caffein in +air-dried coffee leaves, but only 0.087 percent of the alkaloid in the +stems of the plant separated from the leaves. In the course of a +study[103] instituted for the purpose of determining the best +fertilizers for coffee trees, it developed that the cherries in +different stages of growth show a preponderance of potash throughout, +while the proportion of P_2_O_5 attains a maximum in the fourth month +and then steadily declines. + +Experiments are still in progress to ascertain the precise mineral +requirements of the crop as well as the most suitable stage at which to +apply them. During the first five months the moisture content undergoes +a steady decrease, from 87.13 percent to 65.77 percent, but during the +final ripening stage in the last month there is a rise of nearly 1 +percent. This may explain the premature falling and failure to ripen of +the crop on certain soils, especially in years of low rainfall. +Malnutrition of the trees may result also in the production of oily +beans.[104] + +The coffee berry comprises about 68 percent pulp, 6 percent parchment, +and 26 percent clean coffee beans. The pulp is easily removed by +mechanical means; but in order to separate the soft, glutinous, +saccharine parchment, it is necessary to resort to fermentation, which +loosens the skin so that it may be removed easily, after which the +coffee is properly dried and aged. There is first a yeast fermentation +producing alcohol; and then a bacterial action giving mainly inactive +lactic acid, which is the main factor in loosening the parchment. For +the production of the best coffee, acetic acid fermentation (which +changes the color of the bean) and temperature above 60° should be +avoided, as these inhibit subsequent enzymatic action.[105] + +Various schemes have been proposed for utilizing the large amount of +pulp so obtained in preparing coffee for market. Most of these depend +upon using the pulp as fertilizer, since fresh pulp contains 2.61 +percent nitrogen, 0.81 percent P_2_O_5, 2.38 percent potassium, and +0.57 percent calcium. One procedure[106] in particular is to mix pulp +with sawdust, urine, and a little lime, and then to leave this mixture +covered in a pit for a year before using. In addition to these mineral +matters, the pulp also contains about 0.88 percent of caffein and 18 to +37 percent sugars. Accordingly, it has been proposed[107] to extract the +caffein with chloroform, and the sugars with acidulated water. The +aqueous solution so obtained is then fermented to alcohol. The insoluble +portion left after extraction can be used as fuel, and the resulting ash +as fertilizer. + +The pulp has been dried and roasted for use in place of the berry, and +has been imported to England for this purpose. It is stated that the +Arabs in the vicinity of Jiddah discard the kernel of the coffee berries +and make an infusion of the husk.[108] + +Quality of green coffee is largely dependent upon the methods used and +the care taken in curing it, and upon the conditions obtaining in +shipment and storage. True, the soil and climatic conditions play a +determinative rôle in the creation of the characteristics of coffee, but +these do not offer any greater opportunity for constructive research and +remunerative improvement than does the development of methods and +control in the processes employed in the preparation of green coffee for +the market. + +[Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF THE ENDOSPERM OR HARD STRUCTURE OF THE +GREEN BEAN] + +Storage prior and subsequent to shipment, and circumstances existing +during transportation, are not to be disregarded as factors contributory +to the final quality of the coffee. The sweating of mules carrying bags +of poorly packed coffee, and the absorption of strong foreign aromas and +flavors from odoriferous substances stored in too close proximity to the +coffee beans, are classic examples of damage that bear iterative +mention. Damage by sea water, due more to the excessive moisture than to +the salt, is not so common an occurrence now as heretofore. However, a +cheap and thoroughly effective means of ethically renovating coffee +which has been damaged in this manner would not go begging for +commercial application. + +That green coffee improves with age, is a tenet generally accepted by +the trade. Shipments long in transit, subjected to the effects of +tropical heat under closely battened hatches in poorly ventilated holds, +have developed into much-prized yellow matured coffee. Were it not for +the large capital required and the attendant prohibitive carrying +charges, many roasters would permit their coffees to age more thoroughly +before roasting. In fact, some roasters do indulge this desire in regard +to a portion of their stock. But were it feasible to treat and hold +coffees long enough to develop their attributes to a maximum, still the +exact conditions which would favor such development are not definitely +known. What are the optimum temperature and the correct humidity to +maintain, and should the green coffee be well ventilated or not while in +storage? How long should coffee be stored under the most favorable +conditions best to develop it? Aging for too long a period will develop +flavor at the expense of body; and the general cup efficiency of some +coffees will suffer if they be kept too long. + +[Illustration: PORTION OF THE INVESTING MEMBRANE, SHOWING ITS STRUCTURE + +Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140 diameters] + +The exact reason for improvement upon aging is in no wise certain, but +it is highly probable that the changes ensuing are somewhat analogous to +those occurring in the aging of grain. Primarily an undefined enzymatic +and mold action most likely occurs, the nature of the enzymes and molds +being largely dependent upon the previous treatment of the coffee. Along +with this are a loss of moisture and an oxidation, all three actions +having more evident effects with the passage of time. + + +_Artificial Aging_ + +In consideration of the higher prices which aged products demand, +attempts have naturally been made to shorten by artificial means the +time necessary for their natural production. Some of these methods +depend upon obtaining the most favorable conditions for acceleration of +the enzyme action; others, upon the effects of micro-organisms; and +still others, upon direct chemical reaction or physical alteration of +the green bean. + +One of the first efforts toward artificial maturing was that of +Ashcroft[109], who argued from the improved nature of coffee which had +experienced a delayed voyage. His method consisted of inclosing the +coffee in sweat-boxes having perforated bottoms and subjecting it to the +sweating action of steam, the boxes being enclosed in an oven or room +maintained at the temperature of steam. + +[Illustration: STRUCTURE OF THE GREEN BEAN + +Showing thick-walled cells enclosing drops of oil] + +Timby[110] claimed to remove dusts, foreign odors, and impurities, while +attaining in a few hours or days a ripening effect normally secured only +in several seasons. In this process, the bagged coffee is placed in +autoclaves and subjected to the action of air at a pressure of 2 to 3 +atmospheres and a temperature of 40° to 100° F. The temperature should +seldom be allowed to rise above 150° F. The pressure is then allowed to +escape and a partial vacuum created in the apparatus. This alteration of +pressure and vacuum is continued until the desired maturation is +obtained. Desvignes[111] employs a similar procedure, although he +accomplishes seasoning by treating the coffee also with oxygen or +ozone.[112] First the coffee is rendered porous by storage in a hot +chamber, which is then exhausted prior to admission of the oxygen. The +oxygen can be ozonized in the closed vessel while in contact with the +coffee. Complete aging in a few days is claimed. + +Weitzmann[113] adopts a novel operation, by exposing bags of raw coffee +to the action of a powerful magnetic field, obtained with two adjustable +electro-magnets. The claim that a maturation naturally produced in +several years is thus obtained in 1/2 to 2 hours is open to considerable +doubt. A process that is probably attended with more commercial success +is that of Gram[114] in which the coffee is treated with gaseous +nitrogen dioxid. + +By far the most notable progress in this field, both scientifically and +commercially, has been made by Robison[115] with his "culturing" method. +Here the green coffee is washed with water, and then inoculated with +selected strains of micro-organisms, such as _Ochraeceus_ or +_Aspergillus Wintii_. Incubation is then conducted for 6 to 7 days at +90° F. and 85 percent relative humidity. Subsequent to this incubation, +the coffee is stored in bins for about ten days; after which it is +tumbled and scoured. With this process it is possible to improve the +cupping qualities of a coffee to a surprising degree. + + +_Renovating Damaged Coffees_ + +Sophistication has often been resorted to in order ostensibly to improve +damaged or cheap coffee. Glazing, coloring, and polishing of the green +beans was openly and covertly practised until restricted by law. The +steps employed did not actually improve the coffee by any means, but +merely put it into condition for more ready sale. An apparently sincere +endeavor to renovate damaged coffee was made by Evans[116] when he +treated it with an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid having a density +of 10.5° Baumé. After agitation in this solution, the beans were washed +free from acid and dried. In this manner discolorations and impurities +were removed and the beans given a fuller appearance. + +The addition of glucose, sucrose, lactose, or dextrin to green coffees +is practised by von Niessen[117] and by Winter[118], with the object of +giving a mild taste and strong aroma to "hard" coffees. The addition is +accomplished by impregnating, with or without the aid of vacuum, the +beans with a moderately concentrated solution of the sugar, the liquid +being of insufficient quantity to effect extraction. When the solution +has completely disseminated through the kernels, they are removed and +dried. Upon subsequent roasting, a decided amelioration of flavor is +secured. + +Another method developed by von Niessen[119] comprises the softening of +the outer layers of the beans by steam, cold or warm water, or brine, +and then surrounding them with an absorbent paste or powder, such as +china clay, to which a neutralizing agent such as magnesium oxid may be +added. After drying, the clay can be removed by brushing or by causing +the beans to travel between oppositely reciprocated wet cloths. In the +development of this process, von Niessen evidently argued that the +so-called "caffetannic acid" is the "harmful" substance in coffee, and +that it is concentrated in the outer layers of the coffee beans. If +these be his precepts, the question of their correctness and of the +efficiency of his process becomes a moot one. + +A procedure which aims at cleaning and refining raw coffee, and which +has been the subject of much polemical discussion, is that of Thum[120]. +It entails the placing of the green beans in a perforated drum; just +covering them with water, or a solution of sodium chloride or sodium +carbonate, at 65° to 70° C.; and subjecting them to a vigorous brushing +for from 1 to 5 minutes, according to the grade of coffee being treated. +The value of this method is somewhat doubtful, as it would not seem to +accomplish any more than simple washing. In fact, if anything, the +process is undesirable; as some of the extractive matters present in the +coffee, and particularly caffein, will be lost. Both Freund[121] and +Harnack[122] hold briefs for the product produced by this method, and +the latter endeavors analytically to prove its merits; but as his +experimental data are questionable, his conclusions do not carry much +weight. + + +_The Acids of Coffee_ + +The study of the acids of coffee has been productive of much controversy +and many contradictory results, few of which possess any value. The acid +of coffee is generally spoken of as "caffetannic acid." Quite a few +attempts have been made to determine the composition and structure of +this compound and to assign it a formula. Among them may be noted those +of Allen,[123] who gives it the empirical formula C_14_H_16_O_7; +Hlasiwetz,[124] who represents it as C_15_H_18_O_8; Richter, as +C_30_H_18_O_16; Griebel,[125] as C_18_H_24_O_10, and Cazeneuve +and Haddon,[126] as C_21_H_28_O_14. It is variously supposed to +exist in coffee as the potassium, calcium, or magnesium salt. In regard +to the physical appearance of the isolated substance there is also some +doubt, Thorpe[127] describing it as an amorphous powder, and Howard[128] +as a brownish, syrup-like mass, having a slight acid and astringent +taste. + +The chemical reactions of "caffetannic acid" are generally agreed upon. +A dark green coloration is given with ferric chloride; and upon boiling +it with alkalies or dilute acids, caffeic acid and glucose are formed. +Fusion with alkali produces protocatechuic acid. + +K. Gorter[129] has made an extensive and accurate investigation into the +matter, and in reporting upon the same has made some very pertinent +observations. His claim is that the name "caffetannic acid" is a +misnomer and should be abandoned. The so-called "caffetannic acid" is +really a mixture which has among its constituents chlorogenic acid +(C_32_H_38_O_19), which is not a tannic acid, and coffalic acid. +Tatlock and Thompson[130] have expressed the opinion that roasted coffee +contains no tannin, and that the lead precipitate contains mostly +coloring matter. They found only 4.5 percent of tannin (precipitable by +gelatin or alkaloids) in raw coffee. + +Hanausek[131] demonstrated the presence of oxalic acid in unripe beans, +and citric acid has been isolated from Liberian coffee. It also has been +claimed that viridic acid, C_14_H_20_O_11, is present in coffee. In +addition to these, the fat of coffee contains a certain percentage of +free fatty acids. + +It is thus apparent that even in green coffee there is no definite +compound "caffetannic acid," and there is even less likelihood of its +being present in roasted coffee. The conditions, high heat and +oxidation, to which coffee is subjected in roasting would suffice to +decompose this hypothetical acid if it were present. + +In the method of analysis for caffetannic acid (No. 24) given at the end +of this chapter, there are many chances of error, although this +procedure is the best yet devised. Lead acetate forms three different +compounds with "caffetannic acid," so that this reagent must be added +with extreme care in order to precipitate the compound desired. The +precipitate, upon forming, mechanically carries down with it any fats +which may be present, and which are removed from it only with +difficulty. The majority of the mineral salts in the solution will come +down simultaneously. All of the above-mentioned organic acids form +insoluble salts with lead acetate, and there will also be a tendency +toward precipitation of certain of the components of caramel, the acidic +polymerization products of acrolein, glycerol, etc., and of the proteins +and their decomposition products. + +In view of this condition of uncertainty in composition, necessity for +great care in manipulation, and ever-present danger of contamination, +the significance of "caffetannic acid analysis" fades. It is highly +desirable that the nomenclature relevant to this analytical procedure be +changed to one, such as "lead number," which will be more truly +indicative of its significance. + + +_The Alkaloids of Coffee_ + +In addition to caffein, the main alkaloid of coffee, trigonellin--the +methylbetaine of nicotinic acid--sometimes known as caffearine, has been +isolated from coffee.[132] This alkaloid, having the formula +C_14_H_16_O_4_N_2, is also found in fenugreek, _Trigonella +foenum-græcum_, in various leguminous plants, and in the seeds of +strophanthus. When pure it forms colorless needles melting at 140° C., +and, as with all alkaloids, gives a weak basic reaction. It is very +soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, and only very slightly +soluble in ether, chloroform or benzol, so that it does not contaminate +the caffein in the determination of the latter. Its effects on the body +have not been studied, but they are probably not very great, as +Polstorff obtained only 0.23 percent from the coffee which he examined. + +Caffein, thein, trimethylxanthin, or C_5_H(CH_3)_3_N_4_O_2, in +addition to being in the coffee bean is also found in guarana leaves, +the kola nut, maté, or Paraguay tea, and, in small quantities, in cocoa. +It is also found in other parts of these plants besides those commonly +used for food purposes. + +A neat test for detecting the presence of caffein is that of A. +Viehoever,[133] in which the caffein is sublimed directly from the plant +tissue in a special apparatus. The presence of caffein in the sublimate +is verified by observing its melting point, determined on a special +heating stage used in connection with a microscope. + +The chief commercial source of this alkaloid is waste and damaged tea, +from which it is prepared by extraction with boiling water, the tannin +precipitated from the solution with litharge, and the solution then +concentrated to crystallize out the caffein. It is further purified by +sublimation or recrystallization from water. Coffee chaff and +roaster-flue dust have been proposed as sources for medicinal caffein, +but the extraction of the alkaloid from the former has not proven to be +a commercial success. Several manufacturers of pharmaceuticals are now +extracting caffein from roaster-flue dust, probably by an adaptation of +the Faunce[134] process. The recovery of caffein from roaster-flue gases +may be facilitated and increased by the use of a condenser such as +proposed Ewé.[135] + +Pure caffein forms long, white, silky, flexible needles, which readily +felt together to form light, fleecy masses. It melts at 235-7° C. and +sublimes completely at 178° C., though the sublimation starts at 120°. +Salts of an unstable nature are formed with caffein by most acids. The +solubility of caffein as determined by Seidell[136] is given in Table I. + +TABLE I--THE SOLUBILITY OF CAFFEIN + + Solubility: + Grm. Caffein + per 100 + Grm. of Sp. Gr. of + Sp. Gr. of Temperature Saturated Saturated +Solvent Solvent of Solution Solution Solution + +Water 0.997 25 2.14 +Ether 0.716 25 0.27 +Chloroform 1.476 25 11.0 +Acetone 0.809 30-1 2.18 0.832 +Benzene 0.872 30-1 1.22 0.875 +Benzaldehyde 1.055 30-1 11.62 1.087 +Amylacetate 0.860 30-1 0.72 0.862 +Aniline 1.02 30-1 22.89 1.080 +Amyl alcohol 0.814 25 0.49 0.810 +Acetic acid 1.055 21.5 2.44 +Xylene 0.847 32.5 1.11 0.847 +Toluene 0.862 25 0.57 0.861 + +The similarity between caffein and theobromin (the chief alkaloid of +cocoa), xanthin (one of the constituents of meat), and uric acid, is +shown by the accompanying structural formulæ. + +These formulæ show merely the relative position occupied by caffein in +the purin group, and do not in any wise indicate, because of its +similarity of structure to the other compounds, that it has the same +physiological action. The presence and position of the methyl groups +(CH_3) in caffein is probably the controlling factor which makes its +action differ from the behavior of other members of the series. The +structure of these compounds was established, and their syntheses +accomplished, in the course of various classic researches by Emil +Fischer.[137] + +[Illustration: FORMULA FOR CAFFEIN, SHOWING ITS RELATION TO THE PURIN +GROUP] + +Gorter states that caffein exists in coffee in combination with +chlorogenic acid as a potassium chlorogenate, C_32_H_36_O_19, +K_2(C_8_H_10_O_2_N_4)_2·2H_2_O, which he isolated in colorless +prisms. This compound is water-soluble, but caffein can not be extracted +from the crystals with anhydrous solvents. To this behavior can probably +be attributed the difficulty experienced in extracting caffein from +coffee with dry organic solvents. However, the fact that a small +percentage can be extracted from the green bean in this manner indicates +that some of the caffein content exists therein in a free state. This +acid compound of caffein will be largely decomposed during the process +of torrefaction, so that in roasted coffee a larger percentage will be +present in the free state. Microscopical examination of the roasted bean +lends verisimilitude to this contention. + +[Illustration: PLANTER'S BUNGALOW WITH COFFEE TREES IN FLOWER, MYSORE] + +[Illustration: COOLIES BAGGING COFFEE ON THE DRYING GROUNDS] + +[Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN BRITISH INDIA] + +TABLE II--COFFEE ANALYSES + + Santos Green + | Santos Roasted + | | Padang Green + | | | Padang Roasted + | | | | Guatemala Green + | | | | | Guatemala Roasted + | | | | | | Mocha Green + | | | | | | | Mocha + | | | | | | | Roasted + | | | | | | | | +Moisture 8.75 3.75 8.78 2.72 9.59 3.40 9.06 3.36 + April 20th +Moisture + September 20th 8.12 6.45 8.05 6.03 8.68 6.92 8.15 7.10 +Ash 4.41 4.49 4.23 4.70 3.93 4.48 4.20 4.43 +Oil 12.96 13.76 12.28 13.33 12.42 13.07 14.04 14.18 +Caffein 1.87 1.81 1.56 1.47 1.26 1.22 1.31 1.28 +Caffein, + dry basis 2.03 .... 1.69 .... 1.39 .... 1.44 .... +Crude fiber 20.70 14.75 21.92 14.95 22.23 15.23 22.46 15.41 +Protein 9.50 12.93 12.62 14.75 10.43 11.69 8.56 9.57 +Protein, + dry basis 10.41 .... 13.68 .... 11.53 .... 9.41 .... +Water extract 31.11 30.30 30.83 30.21 31.04 30.47 31.27 30.44 +Specific + gravity, + 10 percent + extract 1.0109 1.0101 1.0107 1.0104 1.0105 1.0104 1.0108 1.0108 +Bushelweight 47.0 28.2 45.2 27.8 52.2 27.2 48.8 30.2 +1,000 kernel + weight 130.60 120.20 167.30 151.35 189.20 165.80 119.52 100.00 +1,000 kernel + weight, + dry basis 119.1 115.7 154.1 147.2 171.0 160.1 108.6 96.6 +Dextrose .... 0.72 .... 0.81 .... 0.54 .... 0.46 +Caffetannic + acid 15.58 17.44 15.37 16.93 16.27 17.13 15.61 16.89 +Acidity by + titration + apparent 1.50 2.08 1.47 2.00 1.39 2.13 1.11 1.87 + +As may be seen in Table II,[138] the caffein content of coffee varies +with the different kinds, a fair average of the caffein content being +about 1.5 percent for _C. arabica_, to which class most of our coffees +belong. However, aside from these may be mentioned _C. canephora_, which +yields 1.97 percent caffein; _C. mauritiana_, which contains 0.07 +percent of the alkaloid (less than the average "caffein-free coffee"); +and _C. humboltiana_, which contains no caffein, but a bitter principle, +cafemarin. Neither do the berries of _C. Gallienii_, _C. Bonnieri_, or +_C. Mogeneti_ contain any caffein; and there has also been reported[139] +a "Congo coffee" which contained no crystallizable alkaloid whatever. + +Apparently the variation in caffein content is largely due to the genus +of the tree from which the berry comes, but it is also quite probable +that the nature of the soil and climatic conditions play an important +part. In the light of what has been accomplished in the field of +agricultural research, it does not seem improbable that a man of +Burbank's ability and foresight could successfully develop a series of +coffees possessed of all the cup qualities inherent in those now used, +but totally devoid of caffein. Whether this is desirable or not is a +question to be considered in an entirely different light from the +possibility of its accomplishment. + +TABLE III--CAFFEIN IN DIFFERENT ROASTS + + Rio Santos Guatemala + +Green 1.68% 1.85% 1.82% +Cinnamon 1.70 1.72 1.80 +Medium 1.66 1.66 1.56 +City 1.36 1.66 1.46 + +The variation in the caffein content of coffee at different intensities +of roasting, as shown in Table III[140] is, of course, primarily +dependent upon the original content of the green. A considerable portion +of the caffein is sublimed off during roasting, thus decreasing the +amount in the bean. The higher the roast is carried, the greater the +shrinkage; but, as the analyses in the above table show, the loss of +caffein proceeds out of proportion to the shrinkage, for the percentage +of caffein constantly decreases with the increase in color. If the roast +be carried almost to the point of carbonization, as in the case of the +"Italian roast," the caffein content will be almost nil. This is not a +suitable coffee for one desiring an almost caffein-free drink, for the +empyreumatic products produced by this excessive roasting will be more +toxic by far than the caffein itself would have been. + + +_Caffein-free Coffee_ + +The demand for a caffein-free coffee may be attributed to two causes, +namely: the objectionable effect which caffein has upon neurasthenics; +and the questionable advertising of the "coffee-substitute" dealers, who +have by this means persuaded many normal persons into believing that +they are decidedly sub-normal. As a result of this demand, a variety of +decaffeinated coffees have been placed on the market. Just why the +coffee men have not taken advantage of naturally caffein-free coffees, +or of the possibility of obtaining coffees low in caffein content by +chemical selection from the lines now used, is a difficult question to +answer. + +In the endeavor to develop a commercial decaffeinated coffee the first +method of procedure was to extract the caffein from roasted coffee. This +method had its advantages and its disadvantages, of which the latter +predominated. The caffein in the roasted coffee is not as tightly bound +chemically as in the green coffee, and is, therefore, more easily +extracted. Also, the structure of the roasted bean renders it more +readily penetrable by solvents than does that of the green bean. +However, the great objection to this method arises from the fact that at +the same time as the caffein is extracted, the volatile aromatic and +flavoring constituents of the coffee are removed also. These substances, +which are essential for the maintenance of quality by the coffee, though +readily separated from the caffein, can not be returned to the roasted +bean with any degree of certainty. This virtually insurmountable +obstacle forced the abandonment of this mode of attack. + +In order to avoid this action, the attention of investigators was +directed to extraction of the alkaloid in question from the green bean. +Because of the difficulty of causing the solvent to penetrate the bean, +recourse to grinding resulted. This greatly facilitated the desired +extraction, but a difficulty was encountered when the subsequent +roasting was attempted. The irregular and broken character of the ground +green beans resisted all attempts to produce practically a uniformly +roasted, highly aromatic product from the ground material. + +Avoidance of this lack of uniformity in the product, and the great +desirability to duplicate the normal bean as far as possible, +necessitated the development of a method of extraction of the caffein +from the whole raw bean without a permanent alteration of the shape +thereof. The close structure of the green bean, and its consequent +resistance to penetration by solvents, and the existence of the caffein +in the bean as an acid salt, which is not easily soluble, offered +resistance to successful extraction. + +As a means of overcoming the difficulty of structure, the beans were +allowed to stand in water in order to swell, or the cells were expanded +by treatment with steam, or the beans were subjected to the action of +some "cellulose-softening acids," such as acetic acid or sulphur dioxid. +As a method of facilitating the mechanical side of extraction without +deleterious effects, the treatment of the coffee with steam under +pressure, as utilized in the patented process of Myer, Roselius, and +Wimmer,[141] is probably the safest. + +Many ingenious methods have been devised for the ready removal of the +caffein from this point on. Several processes employ an alkali, such as +ammonium hydroxid, to free the caffein from the acid; or an acid, such +as acetic, hydrochloric, or sulphurous, is used to form a more soluble +salt of caffein. Other procedures effect the dissociation of the +caffein-acid salt by dampening or immersion in a liquid and subjecting +the mass to the action of an electric current. + +The caffein is usually extracted from the beans by benzol or chloroform, +but a variety of solvents may be employed, such as petrolic ether, +water, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, ethylene chloride, acetone, ethyl +ether, or mixtures or emulsions of these. After extraction, the beans +may be steam distilled to remove and to recover any residual traces of +solvent, and then dried and roasted. It is said[142] that by heating the +beans before bringing them into contact with steam, not only is an +economy of steam effected, but the quality of the resultant product is +improved. + +One clever but expensive method[143] of preparing caffein-free coffee +consists in heating the beans under pressure, with some substance, such +as sodium salicylate, with the resultant formation of a more soluble and +more easily steam-distillable compound of caffein. The beans are then +steam distilled to remove the caffein, dried, and roasted. + +Another process of peculiar interest is that of Hubner,[144] in which +the coffee beans are well washed and then spread in layers and kept +covered with water at 15° C. until limited germination has taken place, +whereupon the beans are removed and the caffein extracted with water at +50° C. It is claimed by the inventor that sprouting serves to remove +some of the caffein, but it is quite probable that the process does +nothing more than accomplish simple aqueous extraction. + +In the majority of these processes the flavor of the resultant product +should be very similar to natural roasted coffee. However, in the cases +where aqueous extraction is employed, other substances besides caffein +are removed that are replaced in the bean only with difficulty. The +resultant product accordingly is very likely to have a flavor not +entirely natural. On the other hand, beans from which the caffein is +extracted with volatile solvents, if the operation be conducted +carefully, should give a natural-tasting roast. Any residual traces of +the solvent left in the bean are volatilized upon roasting. + +Some of the caffein-free coffees on the market show upon analysis almost +as much caffein as the natural bean. Those manufactured by reliable +concerns, however, are virtually caffein-free, their content of the +alkaloid varying from 0.3 to 0.07 percent as opposed to 1.5 percent in +the untreated coffee. Thus, although actually only caffein-poor, in +order to get the reaction of one cup of ordinary coffee one would have +to drink an unusual amount of the brew made from these coffees. + + +_The Aromatic Principles of Coffee_ + +To ascertain just what substance or substances give the pleasing and +characteristic aroma to coffee has long been the great desire of both +practical and scientific men interested in the coffee business. This +elusive material has been variously called caffeol, caffeone, "the +essential oil of coffee," etc., the terms having acquired an ambiguous +and incorrect significance. It is now generally agreed that the aromatic +constituent of coffee is not an essential oil, but a complex of +compounds which usage has caused to be collectively called "caffeol." + +These substances are not present in the green bean, but are produced +during the process of roasting. Attempts at identification and location +of origin have been numerous; and although not conclusive, still have +not proven entirely futile. One of the first observations along this +line was that of Benjamin Thompson in 1812. "This fragrance of coffee is +certainly owing to the escape of a volatile aromatic substance which did +not originally exist as such in the grain, but which is formed in the +process of roasting it." Later, Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell started +on the way to the identification of this aroma by noting that "in common +with all the valuable constituents of coffee, caffeone is found to come +from the soluble portion of the roasted seed."[145] + +Comparison of the aroma given off by coffee during the roasting process +with that of fresh-ground roasted coffee shows that the two aromas, +although somewhat different, may be attributed to the same substances +present in different proportions in the two cases. Recovery and +identification of the aromatic principles escaping from the roaster +would go far toward answering the question regarding the nature of the +aroma. Bernheimer[146] reported water, caffein, caffeol, acetic acid, +quinol, methylamin, acetone, fatty acids and pyrrol in the distillate +coming from roasting coffee. The caffeol obtained by Bernheimer in this +work was believed by him to be a methyl derivative of saligenin. +Jaeckle[147] examined a similar product and found considerable +quantities of caffein, furfurol, and acetic acid, together with small +amounts of acetone, ammonia, trimethylamin, and formic acid. The caffeol +of Bernheimer could not be detected. Another substance was separated +also, but in too small a quantity to permit complete identification. +This substance consisted of colorless crystals, which readily sublimed, +melted at 115° to 117° C., and contained sulphur. The crystals were +insoluble in water, almost insoluble in alcohol, but readily soluble in +ether. + +By distilling roasted coffee with superheated steam, Erdmann[148] +obtained an oil consisting of an indifferent portion of 58 percent and +an acid portion of 42 percent, consisting mainly of a valeric acid, +probably alphamethylbutyric acid. The indifferent portion was found to +contain about 50 percent furfuryl alcohol, together with a number of +phenols. The fraction containing the characteristic odorous constituent +of coffee boiled at 93° C. under 13 mm. pressure. The yield of this +latter principle was extremely small, only about 0.89 gram being +procured from 65 kilos of coffee. + +Pyridin was also shown to be present in coffee by Betrand and +Weisweiller[149] and by Sayre.[150] As high as 200 to 500 milligrams of +this toxic compound have been obtained from 1 kilogram of freshly +roasted coffee. + +As stated above, the empyreumatic volatile aromatic constituents of the +coffee are without question formed during and by the roasting process. +According to Thorpe,[151] the most favorable temperature for development +of coffee odor and flavor is about 200° C. Erdmann claimed to have +produced caffeol by gently heating together caffetannic acid, caffein, +and cane sugar. Other investigators have been unable to duplicate this +work. Another authority,[152] giving it the empirical formula +C_8_H_10_O_2, states that it is produced during roasting, probably +at the expense of a portion of the caffein. These conceptions are in the +main incomplete and inaccurate. + +By means of careful work, Grafe[153] came closer to ascertaining the +origin of the fugacious aromatic materials. His work with normal, +caffein-free coffee and with Thum's purified coffee led him to state +that a part of these substances was derived from the crude fiber, +probably from the hemi-cellulose of the thick endosperm cells. +Sayre[154] makes the most plausible proposal regarding the origin of +caffeol. He considers the roasting of coffee as a destructive +distillation process, summarizing the results, briefly, as the +production of furfuraldehyde from the carbohydrates, acrolein from the +fats, catechol and pyrogallol from the tannins, and ammonia, amins, and +pyrrols from the proteins. The products of roasting inter-react to +produce many compounds of varying degrees of complexity and toxicity. + +The great difficulty which arises in the attempt to identify the +aromatic constituents of coffee is that the caffeols of no two coffees +may be said to be the same. The reason for this is apparent; for the +green coffees themselves vary in composition, and those of the same +constitution are not roasted under identical conditions. Therefore, it +is not to be expected that the decomposition products formed by the +action of the different greens would be the same. Also, these volatile +products occur in the roasted coffee in such a small amount that the +ascertaining of their percentage relationship and the recognition of all +that are present are not possible with the methods of analysis at +present at our disposal. Until better analytical procedures have been +developed we can not hope to establish a chemical basis for the grading +of coffees from this standpoint. + + +_Coffee Oil and Fat_ + +It is well to distinguish between the "coffee oils," as they are termed +by the trade, and true coffee oil. In speaking of the qualities of +coffee, connoisseurs frequently use erroneous terms, particularly when +they designate certain of the flavoring and aromatic constituents of +coffee as "oils" or "essential oils." Coffee does not contain any +essential oils, the aromatic constituent corresponding to essential oil +in coffee being caffeol, a complex which is water-soluble, a property +not possessed by any true oil. True, the oil when isolated from roasted +coffee does possess, before purification, considerable of the aromatic +and flavoring constituents of coffee. They are, however, no part of the +coffee fat, but are held in it no doubt by an enfleurage action in much +the same way that perfumes of roses, etc., are absorbed and retained by +fats and oils in the commercial preparation of pomades and perfumes. +This affinity of the coffee oil for caffeol assists in the retention of +aromatic substances by the whole roasted bean. However, upon extraction +of ground roasted coffee with water, the caffeol shows a preferential +solubility in water, and is dissolved out from the oil, going into the +brew. + +The true oil of coffee has been investigated to a fair degree and has +been found to be inodorous when purified. Analysis of green and roasted +coffees shows them to possess between 12 percent and 20 percent fat. +Warnier[155] extracted ground unroasted coffee with petroleum ether, +washed the extract with water, and distilled off the solvent, obtaining +a yellow-brownish oil possessing a sharp taste. From his examination of +this oil he reported these constants: d_24-5, 0.942; refraction at +25°, 81.5; solidifying point, 6° to 5°; melting point, 8° to 9°; +saponification number, 177.5; esterification number, 166.7; acid number, +6.2; acetyl number, 0; iodin number, 84.5 to 86.3. Meyer and Eckert[156] +carefully purified coffee oil and saponified it with Li_2_O in alcohol. +In the saponifiable portion, glycerol was the only alcohol present, the +acids being carnaubic, 10 percent; daturinic acid, 1 to 1.5 percent; +palmitic acid, 25 to 28 percent; capric acid, 0.5 percent; oleic acid, +2 percent, and linoleic acid, 50 percent. The unsaponifiable wax +amounted to 21.2 percent, was nitrogen-free, gave a phytostearin +reaction, and saponification and oxidation indicated that it was +probably a tannol carnaubate. Von-Bitto[157] examined the fat extracted +from the inner husk of the coffee berry and found it to be faint yellow +in color, and to solidify only gradually after melting. Upon analysis, +it showed: saponification value, 141.2; palmitic acid, 37.84 percent, +and glycerids as tripalmitin, 28.03 percent. + + +_Carbohydrates of the Coffee Berry_ + +There has been considerable diversity of opinion regarding the sugar of +coffee. Bell believed the sugar to be of a peculiar species allied to +melezitose, but Ewell,[158] G.L. Spencer, and others definitely proved +the presence of sucrose in coffee. In fat-free coffee 6 percent of +sucrose was found extractable by 70 percent alcohol. Baker[159] claimed +that manno-arabinose, or manno-xylose, formed one of the most important +constituents of the coffee-berry substance and yielded mannose on +hydrolysis. Schultze and Maxwell state that raw coffee contains +galactan, mannan, and pentosans, the latter present to the extent of 5 +percent in raw and 3 percent in roasted coffee. By distilling coffee +with hydrochloric acid Ewell obtained furfurol equivalent to 9 percent +pentose. He also obtained a gummy substance which, on hydrolysis, gave +rise to a reducing sugar; and as it gave mucic acid and furfurol on +oxidation, he concluded that it was a compound of pentose and galactose. +In undressed Mysore coffee Commaille[160] found 2.6 percent of glucose +and no dextrin. This claim of the presence of glucose in coffee was +substantiated by the work of Hlasiwetz,[161] who resolved a caffetannic +acid, which he had isolated, into glucose and a peculiar crystallizable +acid, C_8_H_8_O_4, which he named caffeic acid. + +The starch content of coffee is very low. Cereals may readily be +detected and identified in coffee mixtures by the presence and +characteristics of their starch, in view of the fact that coffee +(chicory, too) is practically free from starch. On this score it is +inadvisable for diabetics to use any of the many cereal substitutes for +coffee. It is pertinent to note in this connection that persons +suffering from diabetes may sweeten their coffee with saccharin (1/2 to +1 grain per cup) or glycerol, thus obtaining perfect satisfaction +without endangering their health. + +The cellulose in coffee is of a very hard and horny character in the +green bean, but it is made softer and more brittle during the process of +roasting. It is rather difficult to define under the microscope, +particularly after roasting, even though the chief characteristics of +the cellular tissue are more or less retained. Coffee cellulose gives a +blue color with sulphuric acid and iodin, and is dissolved by an +ammoniacal solution of copper oxid. Even after roasting, remnants of the +silver skin are always present, the structure of which, a thin membrane +with adherent, thick-walled, spindle-shaped, hollow cells, is peculiar +to coffee. + + +_The Chemistry of Roasting_ + +The effect of the heat in the roasting of coffee is largely evidenced as +a destructive distillation and also as a partial dehydration. At the +same time, oxidizing and reducing reactions probably occur within the +bean, as well as some polymerization and inter-reactions. + +A loss of water is to be expected as the natural outcome of the +application of heat; and analyses show that the moisture content of raw +coffee varies from 8 to 14 percent, while after roasting it rarely +exceeds 3 percent, and frequently falls as low as 0.5 percent. The loss +of the original water content of the green bean is not the only moisture +loss; for many of the constituents of coffee, notably the carbohydrates, +are decomposed upon heating to give off water, so that analysis before +and after roasting is no direct indication of the exact amount of water +driven off in the process. If it be desired to ascertain this quantity +accurately, catching of the products which are driven off and +determination of their water content becomes necessary. + +The carbohydrates both dehydrate and decompose. The result of the +dehydration is the formation of caramel and related products, which +comprise the principal coloring matters in coffee infusion. That portion +of the carbohydrates known as pentosans gives rise to furfuraldehyde, +one of the important components of caffeol. + +The effect of roasting upon the fat content of the beans is to reduce +its actual weight, but not to change appreciably the percentage +present, since the decrease in quantity keeps pace fairly well with the +shrinkage. Some of the more volatile fatty acids are driven off, and the +fats break down to give a larger percentage of free fatty acids, some +light esters, acrolein, and formic acid. If the roast be a very heavy +one, or is brought up too rapidly, the fat will come to the surface, +through breaking of the fat cells, with a decided alteration in the +chemical nature of the fat and with pronounced expansion and cracking. + +Decomposition of the caffein acid-salt and considerable sublimation of +the caffein also occur. The majority of the caffein undergoes this +volatilization unchanged, but a portion of it is probably oxidized with +the formation of ammonia, methylamin, di-methylparabanic acid, and +carbon dioxid. This reaction partly explains why the amount of caffein +recovered from the roaster flues is not commensurate with the amount +lost from the roasting coffee; although incomplete condensation is also +an important factor. Microscopic examination of the roasted beans will +show occasional small crystals of caffein in the indentations on the +surface, where they have been deposited during the cooling process. + +The compound, or compounds, known as "caffetannic acid" are probably the +source of catechol, as the proteins are of ammonia, amins, and pyrrols. +The crude fiber and other unnamed constituents of the raw beans react +analogously to similar compounds in the destructive distillation of +wood, giving rise to acetone, various fatty acids, carbon dioxid and +other uncondensable gases, and many compounds of unknown identity. + +During the course of roasting and subsequent cooling these decomposition +products probably interact and polymerize to form aromatic tar-like +materials and other complexes which play an important rôle among the +delicate flavors of coffee. In fact, it is not unlikely that these +reactions continue throughout the storage time after roasting, and that +upon them the deterioration of roasted coffee is largely dependent. +Speculation upon what complex compounds are thus formed offers much +attraction. A notable one by Sayre[162] postulates the reaction between +acrolein and ammonia to give methyl pyridin, which in turn with furfurol +forms furfurol vinyl pyridin. This upon reduction would produce the +alkaloid, conin, traces of which have been found in coffee. + +Although furfuraldehyde is the natural decomposition product of +pentosans, furfuryl alcohol is the main furane body of coffee aroma. +This would indicate that active reducing conditions prevail within the +bean during roasting; and the further fact that carbon monoxid is given +off during roasting makes this seem quite probable. If one admits that +caffetannic acid exists in the green bean; that upon oxidation it gives +viridic acid; and that it is concentrated in the outer layers of the +bean, as certain investigators have claimed, then there is chemical +proof of the existence of oxidizing conditions about the exterior of the +bean. In any event, however, the fact that oxidizing conditions +predominate on the external portion of the bean is obvious. Accordingly, +our meager knowledge of the chemistry of roasting indicates that while +the external layers of the roasting beans are subjected to oxidizing +conditions, reducing ones exist in the interior. Future experimentation +will, no doubt, prove this to be the case. + +Attempts have been made to retain in the beans the volatile products, +which normally escape, both by coating previous to roasting[163] and by +conducting the process under pressure.[164] However, the results so +obtained were not practical, since the cup values were decreased in the +majority of cases, and the physiological effects produced were +undesirable. In cases where the quality was improved, the gain was not +sufficient to recompense the roaster for the additional expense and +difficulty of operation. + +Various persons have essayed to control the roasting process +automatically; but the extreme variance in composition of different +coffees, the effect of changing atmospheric conditions, and the lack of +constancy in the calorific power of fuels have conspired to defeat the +automatic roasting machine.[165] It is even doubtful whether De +Mattia's[166] process for roasting until the vapors evolved produce a +violet color when passed into a solution of fuchsin decolorized with +sulphur dioxid is commercially reliable. + +Many patents have been granted for the treatment of coffees immediately +prior to or during roasting with the object of thus improving the +product. The majority of these depend upon adding solutions of +sugar,[167] calcium saccharate,[168] or other carbohydrates,[169] and in +the case of Eckhardt,[170] of small percentages of tannic acid and fat. +In direct opposition to this latter practise, Jurgens and Westphal[171] +apply alkali, ostensibly to lessen the "tannic acid" content. +Brougier[172] sprays a solution containing caffein upon the roasting +berries; and Potter[173] roasts the coffee together with chicory, +effecting a separation at the end. + +[Illustration: GROUND COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] + +The exact effect which roasting with sugars has upon the flavor is not +well understood; but it is known that it causes the beans to absorb more +moisture, due to the hygroscopicity of the caramel formed. For instance, +berries roasted with the addition of glucose syrup hold an additional 7 +percent of water and give a darker infusion than normally roasted +coffee. When the green coffee is glazed with cane sugar prior to +roasting, the losses during the process are much higher than ordinarily, +on account of the higher temperature required to attain the desired +results. Losses for ordinary coffee taken to a 16-percent roast are 9.7 +percent of the original fat and 21.1 percent of the original caffein; +while for "sugar glazed" coffee the losses were 18.3 percent of the +original fat and 44.3 percent of the original caffein, using 8 to 9 +percent sugar with Java coffee. + + +_Grinding and Packaging_ + +It is a curious fact that green coffee improves upon aging, whereas +after roasting it deteriorates with time. Even when packed in the best +containers, age shows to a disadvantage on the roasted bean. This is due +to a number of causes, among which are oxidation, volatilization of the +aroma, absorption of moisture and consequent hydrolysis, and alteration +in the character of the aromatic principles. Doolittle and Wright[174] +in the course of some extensive experiments found that roasted coffee +showed a continual gain in weight throughout 60 weeks, this gain being +mostly due to moisture absorption. An investigation by Gould[175] also +demonstrated that roasted coffee gives off carbon dioxid and carbon +monoxid upon standing. The latter, apparently produced during roasting +and retained by the cellular structure of the bean, diffuses therefrom; +whereas the former comes from an ante-roasting decomposition of unstable +compounds present.[176] + +The surface of the whole bean forms a natural protection against +atmospheric influences, and as soon as this is broken, deterioration +sets in. On this account, coffee should be ground immediately before +extraction if maximum efficiency is to be obtained. The cells of the +beans tend to retain the fugacious aromatic principles to a certain +extent; so that the more of these which are broken in grinding, the +greater will be the initial loss and the more rapid the vitiation of the +coffee. It might, therefore, seem desirable to grind coarsely in order +to avoid this as much as possible. However, the coarser the grind, the +slower and more incomplete will be the extraction. A patent[177] has +been granted for a grind which contains about 90 percent fine coffee and +10 percent coarse, the patentee's claim being that in his "irregular +grind" the coarse coffee retains enough of the volatile constituents to +flavor the beverage, while the fine coffee gives a very high +extraction, thus giving an efficient brew without sacrificing +individuality. + +In packaging roasted coffee the whole bean is naturally the best form to +employ, but if the coffee is ground first, King[178] found that +deterioration is most rapid with the coarse ground coffee, the speed +decreasing with the size of the ground particles. He explains this on +the ground of "ventilation"--the finer the grind, the closer the +particles pack together, the less the circulation of air through the +mass, and the smaller the amount of aroma which is carried away. He also +found that glass makes the best container for coffee, with the tin can, +and the foil-lined bag with an inner lining of glassine, not greatly +inferior. + +Considerable publicity has been given recently to the method of packing +coffee in a sealed tin under reduced pressure. While thus packing in a +partial vacuum undoubtedly retards oxidation and precludes escape of +aroma from the original package, it would seem likely to hasten the +initial volatilizing of the aroma. Also, it would appear from +Gould's[179] work that roasted coffee evolves carbon dioxid until a +certain positive pressure is attained, regardless of the initial +pressure in the container. Accordingly, vacuum-packing apparently +enhances decomposition of certain constituents of coffee. Whether this +result is beneficial or otherwise is not quite clear. + + +_Brewing_ + +The old-time boiling method of making coffee has gone out of style, +because the average consumer is becoming aware of the fact that it does +not give a drink of maximum efficiency. Boiling the ground coffee with +water results in a large loss of aromatic principles by steam +distillation, a partial hydrolysis of insoluble portions of the grounds, +and a subsequent extraction of the products thus formed, which give a +bitter flavor to the beverage. Also, the maintenance of a high +temperature by the direct application of heat has a deleterious effect +upon the substances in solution. This is also true in the case of the +pumping percolator, and any other device wherein the solution is caused +to pass directly into steam at the point where heat is applied. Warm and +cold water extract about the same amount of material from coffee; but +with different rates of speed, an increase in temperature decreasing the +time necessary to effect the desired result. + +It is a well known fact that re-warming a coffee brew has an undesirable +effect upon it. This is very probably due to the precipitation of some +of the water-soluble proteins when the solution cools, and their +subsequent decomposition when heat is applied directly to them in +reheating the solution. The absorption of air by the solution upon +cooling, with attendant oxidation, which is accentuated by the +application of heat in re-warming, must also be considered. It is +likewise probable that when an extract of coffee cools upon standing, +some of the aromatic principles separate out and are lost by +volatilization. + +The method of extracting coffee which gives the most satisfaction is +practised by using a grind just coarse enough to retain the +individualistic flavoring components, retaining the ground coffee in a +fine cloth bag, as in the urn system, or on a filter paper, as in the +Tricolator, and pouring water at boiling temperature over the coffee. +During the extraction, a top should be kept on the device to minimize +volatilization, and the temperature of the extract should be maintained +constant at about 200° F. after being made. Whether a repouring is +necessary or not is dependent upon the speed with which the water passes +through the coffee, which in turn is controlled by the fineness of the +grind and of the filtering medium. + + +_The Water Extract_ + +Although many analyses of the whole coffee bean are available, but +little work has been reported upon the aqueous extracts. The total water +extract of roasted coffee varies from 20 to 31 percent in different +kinds of coffee. The following analysis of the extract from a Santos +coffee may be taken as a fair average example of the water-soluble +material.[180] + +TABLE IV--ANALYSIS OF SANTOS COFFEE EXTRACT +(DRY BASIS) + +Ether extract, fixed 1.06% +Total nitrogen 3.40% +Caffein 5.42% +Crude fiber 0.25% +Total ash 17.43% +Reducing sugar 2.70% +Caffetannic acid 15.33% +Protein 7.71% + +It is difficult to make the trade terms, such as acidity, astringency, +etc., used in describing a cup of coffee, conform with the chemical +meanings of the same terms. However, a fair explanation of the cause of +some of these qualities can be made. Careful work by Warnier[181] showed +the actual acidities of some East India coffees to be: + +TABLE V--ACIDITY OF SOME EAST INDIA COFFEES + +Coffee from Acid Content + Sindjai 0.033% + Timor 0.028% + Bauthain 0.019% + Boengei 0.016% + Loewae 0.021% + Waloe Pengenten 0.018% + Kawi Redjo 0.015% + Palman Tjiasem 0.022% + Malang 0.013% + +These figures may be taken as reliable examples of the true acid content +of coffee; and though they seem very low, it is not at all +incomprehensible that the acids which they indicate produce the acidity +in a cup of coffee. They probably are mainly volatile organic acids, +together with other acidic-natured products of roasting. We know that +very small quantities of acids are readily detected in fruit juices and +beer, and that variation in their percentage is quickly noticed, while +the neutralization of this small amount of acidity leaves an insipid +drink. Hence, it seems quite likely that this small acid content gives +to the coffee brew its essential acidity. A few minor experiments on +neutralization have proven that a very insipid beverage is produced by +thus treating a coffee infusion. + +The body, or what might be called the licorice-like character, of +coffee, is due conceivably to the presence of bodies of a glucosidic +nature and to caramel. Astringency, or bitterness, is dependent upon the +decomposition products of crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, and upon the +soluble mineral content of the bean. The degree to which a coffee is +sweet-tasting or not is, of course, dependent upon its other +characteristics, but probably varies with the reducing sugar content. +Aside from the effects of these constituents upon cup quality, the +influence of volatile aromatic and flavoring constituents is always +evident in the cup valuation, and introduces a controlling factor in the +production of an individualistic drink. + + +_Coffee Extracts_ + +The uncertainty of the quality of coffee brews as made from day to day, +the inconvenience to the housewife of conducting the extraction, and the +inevitable trend of the human race toward labor-saving devices, have +combined their influences to produce a demand for a substance which will +give a good cup of coffee when added to water. This gave rise to a +number of concentrated liquid and solid "extracts of coffee," which, +because of their general poor quality, soon brought this type of product +into disrepute. This is not surprising; for these preparations were +mainly mixtures of caramel and carelessly prepared extracts of chicory, +roasted cereals, and cheap coffee. + +Liquid extracts of coffee galore have appeared on the market only soon +to disappear. Difficulty is experienced in having them maintain their +quality over a protracted period of time, primarily due to the +hydrolyzing action of water on the dissolved substances. They also +ferment readily, although a small percentage of preservative, such as +benzoate of soda, will halt spoilage.[182] + +So much trouble is not encountered with coffee-extract powders--the +so-called "soluble" or "instant" coffees. The majority of these powdered +dry extracts do, however, show great affinity for atmospheric moisture. +Their hygroscopicity necessitates packing and keeping them in air-tight +containers to prevent them running into a solid, slowly soluble mass. + +The general method of procedure employed in the preparation of these +powders is to extract ground roasted coffee with water, and to evaporate +the aqueous solution to dryness with great care. The major difficulty +which seems to arise is that the heat needed to effect evaporation +changes the character of the soluble material, at the same time driving +off some volatile constituents which are essential to a natural flavor. +Many complex and clever processes have been developed for avoiding these +difficulties, and quite a number of patents on processes, and several on +the resultant product, have been allowed; but the commercial production +of a soluble coffee of freshly-brewed-coffee-duplicating-power is yet to +be accomplished. However, there are now on the market several +coffee-extract powders which dissolve readily in water, giving quite a +fair approximation of freshly brewed coffee. The improvement shown +since they first appeared augurs well for the eventual attainment of +their ultimate goal. + + +_Adulterants and Substitutes_ + +There would appear to be three reasons why substitutes for coffee are +sought--the high cost, or absence, of the real product; the acquiring of +a preferential taste, by the consumer, for the substitute; and the +injurious effects of coffee when used to excess. Makers of coffee +substitutes usually emphasize the latter reason; but many substitutes, +which are, or have been, on the market, seem to depend for their +existence on the other two. Properly speaking, there are scarcely any +real substitutes for coffee. The substances used to replace it are +mostly like it only in appearance, and barely simulate it in taste. +Besides, many of them are not used alone, but are mixed with real coffee +as adulterants. + +The two main coffee substitutes are chicory and cereals. Chicory, +succory, _Cichorium Intybus_, is a perennial plant, growing to a height +of about three feet, bearing blue flowers, having a long tap root, and +possessing a foliage which is sometimes used as cattle food. The plant +is cultivated generally for the sake of its root, which is cut into +slices, kiln-dried, and then roasted in the same manner as coffee, +usually with the addition of a small proportion of some kind of fat. The +preparation and use of roasted chicory originated in Holland, about +1750. Fresh chicory[183] contains about 77 percent water, 7.5 gummy +matter, 1.1 of glucose, 4.0 of bitter extractive, 0.6 fat, 9.0 +cellulose, inulin and fiber, and 0.8 ash. Pure roasted chicory[184] +contains 74.2 percent water-soluble material, comprised of 16.3 percent +water, 26.1 glucose, 9.6 dextrin and inulin, 3.2 protein, 16.4 coloring +matter, and 2.6 ash; and 25.8 percent insoluble substances, namely, 3.2 +percent protein, 5.7 fat, 12.3 cellulose, and 4.6 ash. The effect of +roasting upon chicory is to drive off a large percentage of water, +increasing the reducing sugars, changing a large proportion of the +bitter extractives and inulin, and forming dextrin and caramel as well +as the characteristic chicory flavor. + +The cereal substitutes contain almost every type of grain, mainly wheat, +rye, oats, buckwheat, and bran. They are prepared in two general ways, +by roasting the grains, or the mixtures of grains, with or without the +addition of such substances as sugar, molasses, tannin, citric acid, +etc., or by first making the floured grains into a dough, and then +baking, grinding, and roasting. Prior to these treatments, the grains +may be subjected to a variety of other treatments, such as impregnation +with various compounds, or germination. The effect of roasting on these +grains and other substitutes is the production of a destructive +distillation, as in the case of coffee; the crude fiber, starches, and +other carbohydrates, etc., being decomposed, with the production of a +flavor and an aroma faintly suggesting coffee. + +The number, of other substitutes and imitations which have been employed +are too numerous to warrant their complete description; but it will +prove interesting to enumerate a few of the more important ones, such as +malt, starch, acorns, soya beans, beet roots, figs, prunes, date stones, +ivory nuts, sweet potatoes, beets, carrots, peas, and other vegetables, +bananas, dried pears, grape seeds, dandelion roots, rinds of citrus +fruits, lupine seeds, whey, peanuts, juniper berries, rice, the fruit of +the wax palm, cola nuts, chick peas, cassia seeds, and the seeds of any +trees and plants indigenous to the country in which the substitute is +produced. + +Aside from adulteration by mixing substitutes with ground coffee, and an +occasional case of factitious molded berries, the main sophistications +of coffee comprise coating and coloring the whole beans. Coloring of +green and roasted coffees is practised to conceal damaged and inferior +beans. Lead and zinc chromates, Prussian blue, ferric oxid, coal-tar +colors, and other substances of a harmful nature, have been employed for +this purpose, being made to adhere to the beans with adhesives. As +glazes and coatings, a variety of substances have been employed, such as +butter, margarin, vegetable oils, paraffin, vaseline, gums, dextrin, +gelatin, resins, glue, milk, glycerin, salt, sodium bicarbonate, +vinegar, Irish moss, isinglass, albumen, etc. It is usually claimed that +coating is applied to retain aroma and to act as a clarifying agent; but +the real reasons are usually to increase weight through absorption of +water, to render low-grade coffees more attractive, to eliminate +by-products, and to assist in advertising. + + +METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF COFFEES[185] + +(_Official and Tentative_) + + (Sole responsibility for any errors in compilation or printing of + these methods is assumed by the author.) + +GREEN COFFEE + +1. _Macroscopic Examination--Tentative_ + +A macroscopic examination is usually sufficient to show the presence of +excessive amounts of black and blighted coffee beans, coffee hulls, +stones, and other foreign matter. These can be separated by hand-picking +and determined gravi-metrically. + +2. _Coloring Matters--Tentative_ + +Shake vigorously 100 grams or more of the sample with cold water or 70 +percent alcohol by volume. Strain through a coarse sieve and allow to +settle. Identify soluble colors in the solution and insoluble pigments +in the sediment. + + +ROASTED COFFEE + +3. _Macroscopic Examination--Tentative_ + +Artificial coffee beans are apparent from their exact regularity of +form. Roasted legumes and lumps of chicory, when present in whole +roasted coffee, can be picked out and identified microscopically. In the +case of ground coffee, sprinkle some of the sample on cold water and +stir lightly. Fragments of pure coffee, if not over-roasted, will float; +while fragments of chicory, legumes, cereals, etc., will sink +immediately, chicory coloring the water a decided brown. In all cases +identify the particles that sink by microscopical examination. + +4. _Preparation of Sample--Official_ + +Grind the sample to pass through a sieve having holes 0.5 mm. in +diameter and preserve in a tightly stoppered bottle. + +5. _Moisture--Tentative_ + +Dry 5 grams of the sample at 105°--110°C. for 5 hours and subsequent +periods of an hour each until constant weight is obtained. The same +procedure may be used, drying _in vacuo_ at the temperature of boiling +water. In the case of whole coffee, grind rapidly to a coarse powder and +weigh at once portions for the determination without sifting and without +unnecessary exposure to the air. + +6. _Soluble Solids--Tentative_ + +Place 4 grams of the sample in a 200-cc. flask, add water to the mark, +and allow the mass to infuse for eight hours, with occasional shaking; +let stand 16 hours longer without shaking, filter, evaporate 50 cc. of +filtrate to dryness in a flat-bottomed dish, dry at 100° C., cool and +weigh. + +7. _Ash--Official_ + +Char a quantity of the substance, representing about 2 grams of the dry +material, and burn until free of carbon at a low heat, not to exceed +dull redness. If a carbon-free ash can not be obtained in this manner, +exhaust the charred mass with hot water, collect the insoluble residue +on a filter, burn till the ash is white or nearly so, and then add the +filtrate to the ash and evaporate to dryness. Heat to low redness, until +ash is white or grayish white, and weigh. + +8. _Ash Insoluble in Acid--Official_ + +Boil the water-insoluble residue, obtained as directed under 9, or the +total ash obtained as directed under 7, with 25 cc. of 10-percent +hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.050) for 5 minutes, collect the insoluble +matter on a Gooch crucible or an ashless filter, wash with hot water, +ignite and weigh. + +9. _Soluble and Insoluble Ash--Official_ + +Heat 5 to 10 grams of the sample in a platinum dish of from 50 to 100 +cc. capacity at 100° C. until the water is expelled, and add a few drops +of pure olive oil and heat slowly over a flame until swelling ceases. +Then place the dish in a muffle and heat at low redness until a white +ash is obtained. Add water to the ash, in the platinum dish, heat nearly +to boiling, filter through ash-free filter paper, and wash with hot +water until the combined filtrate and washings measure to about 60 cc. +Return the filter and contents to the platinum dish, carefully ignite, +cool and weigh. Compute percentages of water-insoluble ash and +water-soluble ash. + +10. _Alkalinity of the Soluble Ash--Official_ + +Cool the filtrate from 9 and titrate with N/10 hydrochloric acid, using +methyl orange as an indicator. + +Express the alkalinity in terms of the number of cc. of N/10 acid per 1 +gram of the sample. + +11. _Soluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash--Official_ + +Acidify the solution of soluble ash, obtained in 9, with dilute nitric +acid and determine phosphoric acid (P_2_O_5). For percentages up to 5 +use an aliquot corresponding to 0.4 gram of substance, for percentages +between 5 and 20 use an aliquot corresponding to 0.2 gram of substance, +and for percentages above 20 use an aliquot corresponding to 0.1 gram of +substance. Dilute to 75-100 cc., heat in a water-bath to 60°-65° C., and +for percentages below 5 add 20-25 cc. of freshly filtered molybdate +solution. For percentages between 5 and 20 add 30-35 cc. of molybdate +solution. For percentages greater than 20 add sufficient molybdate +solution to insure complete precipitation. Stir, let stand in the bath +for about 15 minutes, filter _at once_, wash once or twice with water by +decantation, using 25-30 cc. each time, agitate the precipitate +thoroughly and allow to settle; transfer to the filter and wash with +cold water until the filtrate from two fillings of the filter yields a +pink color upon the addition of phenolphthalein and one drop of the +standard alkali. Transfer the precipitate and filter to the beaker, or +precipitating vessel, dissolve the precipitate in a small excess of the +standard alkali, add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution, and +titrate with the standard acid. + +12. _Insoluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash--Official_ + +Determine phosphoric acid (P_2_O_5) in the Insoluble ash by the +foregoing method. + +13. _Chlorides--Official_ + +Moisten 5 grams of the substance in a platinum dish with 20 cc. of a +5-percent solution of sodium carbonate, evaporate to dryness and ignite +as thoroughly as possible at a temperature not exceeding dull redness. +Extract with hot water, filter and wash. Return the residue to the +platinum dish and ignite to an ash; dissolve in nitric acid, and add +this solution to the water extract. Add a known volume of N/10 silver +nitrate in slight excess to the combined solutions. Stir well, filter +and wash the silver chloride precipitate thoroughly. To the filtrate and +washings add 5 cc. of a saturated solution of ferric alum and a few cc. +of nitric acid. Titrate the excess silver with N/10 ammonium or +potassium thiocyanate until a permanent light brown color appears. +Calculate the amount of chlorin. + +14. _Caffein--The Fendler and Stüber Method--Tentative_ + +Pulverize the coffee to pass without residue through a sieve having +circular openings 1 mm. in diameter. Treat a 10-gram sample with 10 +grams of 10-percent ammonium hydroxid and 200 grams of chloroform in a +glass-stoppered bottle and shake continuously by machine or hand for +one-half hour. Pour the entire contents of the bottle on a 12.5-cm. +folded filter, covering with a watch glass. Weigh 150 grams of the +filtrate into a 250-cc. flask and evaporate on the steam bath, removing +the last chloroform with a blast of air. Digest the residue with 80 cc. +of hot water for ten minutes on a steam bath with frequent shaking, and +let cool. Treat the solution with 20 cc. (for roasted coffee) or 10 cc. +(for unroasted coffee) of 1-percent potassium permanganate and let stand +for 15 minutes at room temperature. Add 2 cc. of 3-percent hydrogen +peroxid (containing 1 cc. of glacial acetic acid in 100 cc.). If the +liquid is still red or reddish, add hydrogen peroxid, 1 cc. at a time, +until the excess of potassium permanganate is destroyed. Place the flask +on the steam bath for 15 minutes, adding hydrogen peroxid in 0.5-cc. +portions until the liquid becomes no lighter in color. Cool and filter +into a separatory funnel, washing with cold water. Extract four times +with 25 cc. of chloroform. Evaporate the chloroform extract from a +weighed flask with aid of an air blast and dry at 100° C. to constant +weight (one-half hour is usually sufficient). Weigh the residue as +caffein and calculate on 7.5 grams of coffee. Test the purity of the +residue by determining nitrogen and multiplying by 3.464 to obtain +caffein. + +15. _Caffein--Power-Chestnut Method--Official_ + +Moisten 10 grams of the finely powdered sample with alcohol, transfer to +a Soxhlet, or similar extraction apparatus, and extract with alcohol for +8 hours. (Care should be exercised to assure complete extraction.) +Transfer the extract with the aid of hot water to a porcelain dish +containing 10 grams of heavy magnesium oxid in suspension in 100 cc. of +water. (This reagent should meet the U.S.P. requirements.) Evaporate +slowly on the steam bath with frequent stirring to a dry, powdery mass. +Rub the residue with a pestle into a paste with boiling water. Transfer +with hot water to a smooth filter, cleaning the dish with a +rubber-tipped glass rod. Collect the filtrate in a liter flask marked at +250 cc. and wash with boiling water until the filtrate reaches the mark. +Add 10 cc. of 10-percent sulphuric acid and boil gently for 30 minutes +with a funnel in the neck of the flask. Cool and filter through a +moistened double paper into a separatory funnel and wash with small +portions of 0.5-percent sulphuric acid. Extract with six successive +25-cc. portions of chloroform. Wash the combined chloroform extracts in +a separatory funnel with 5 cc. of 1-percent potassium hydroxid solution. +Filter the chloroform into an Erlenmeyer flask. Wash the potassium +hydroxid with 2 portions of chloroform of 10 cc. each, adding them to +the flask together with the chloroform washings of the filter paper. +Evaporate or distil on the steam bath to a small volume (10-15 cc.), +transfer with chloroform to a tared beaker, evaporate carefully, dry for +30 minutes in a water oven, and weigh. The purity of the residue can be +tested by determining nitrogen and multiplying by the factor 3.464. + +16. _Crude Fiber--Official_ + +Prepare solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxid of exactly +1.25-percent strength, determined by titration. Extract a quantity of +the substance representing about 2 grams of the dry material with +ordinary ether, or use residue from the determination of the ether +extract. To this residue in a 500-cc. flask add 200 cc. of boiling +1.25-percent sulphuric acid; connect the flask with a reflux condenser, +the tube of which passes only a short distance beyond the rubber stopper +into the flask, or simply cover a tall conical flask, which is well +suited for this determination, with a watch glass or short stemmed +funnel. Boil at once and continue boiling gently for thirty minutes. A +blast of air conducted into the flask may serve to reduce the frothing +of the liquid. Filter through linen, and wash with boiling water until +the washings are no longer acid; rinse the substance back into the flask +with 200 cc. of the boiling 1.25-percent solution of sodium hydroxid +free, or nearly so, of sodium carbonate; boil at once and continue +boiling gently for thirty minutes in the same manner as directed above +for the treatment with acid. Filter at once rapidly, wash with boiling +water until the washings are neutral. The last filtration may be +performed upon a Gooch crucible, a linen filter, or a tared filter +paper. If a linen filter is used, rinse the crude fiber, after washing +is completed, into a flat-bottomed platinum dish by means of a jet of +water; evaporate to dryness on a steam bath, dry to constant weight at +110° C., weigh, incinerate completely, and weigh again. The loss in +weight is considered to be crude fiber. If a tared filter paper is used, +weigh in a weighing bottle. In any case, the crude fiber after drying to +constant weight at 110° C., must be incinerated and the amount of the +ash deducted from the original weight. + +17. _Starch--Tentative_ + +Extract 5 grams of the finely pulverized sample on a hardened filter +with five successive portions (10 cc. each) of ether, wash with small +portions of 95-percent alcohol by volume until a total of 200 cc. have +passed through, place the residue in a beaker with 50 cc. of water, +immerse the beaker in boiling water and stir constantly for 15 minutes +or until all the starch is gelatinized; cool to 55° C., add 20 cc. of +malt extract and maintain at this temperature for an hour. Heat again to +boiling for a few minutes, cool to 55° C., add 20 cc. of malt extract +and maintain at this temperature for an hour or until the residue +treated with iodin shows no blue color upon microscopic examination. +Cool, make up directly to 250 cc., and filter. Place 200 cc. of the +filtrate in a flask with 20 cc. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.125); +connect with a reflux condenser and heat in a boiling water bath for 2.5 +hours. Cool, nearly neutralize with sodium hydroxid solution, and make +up to 500 cc. Mix the solution well, pour through a dry filter and +determine the dextrose in an aliquot. Conduct a blank determination upon +the same volume of the malt extract as used upon the sample, and correct +the weight of reduced copper accordingly. The weight of the dextrose +obtained multiplied by 0.90 gives the weight of starch. + +18. _Sugars--Tentative_ + +See original.[186] + +19. _Petroleum Ether Extract--Official_ + +Dry 2 grams of coffee at 100° C., extract with petroleum ether (boiling +point 35° to 50° C.) for 16 hours, evaporate the solvent, dry the +residue at 100° C., cool, and weigh. + +20. _Total Acidity--Tentative_ + +Treat 10 grams of the sample, prepared as directed under 4, with 75 cc. +of 80-percent alcohol by volume in an Erlenmeyer flask, stopper, and +allow to stand 16 hours, shaking occasionally. Filter and transfer an +aliquot of the filtrate (25 cc. in the case of green coffee, 10 cc. in +the case of roasted coffee) to a beaker, dilute to about 100 cc. with +water and titrate with N/10 alkali, using phenolphthalein as an +indicator. Express the result as the number of cc. of N/10 alkali +required to neutralize the acidity of 100 grams of the sample. + +21. _Volatile Acidity--Tentative_ + +Into a volatile acid apparatus introduce a few glass beads, and over +these place 20 grams of the unground sample. Add 100 cc. of recently +boiled water to the sample, place a sufficient quantity of recently +boiled water in the outer flask and distil until the distillate is no +longer acid to litmus paper. Usually 100 cc. of distillate will be +collected. Titrate the distillate with N/10 alkali, using +phenolphthalein as an indicator. Express the result as the number of cc. +of N/10 alkali required to neutralize the acidity of 100 grams of the +sample. + + +UNOFFICIAL METHODS + +22. _Protein_ + +Determine nitrogen in 3 grams of the sample by the Kjeldahl or Gunning +method. This gives the total nitrogen due to both the proteids and the +caffein. To obtain the protein nitrogen, subtract from the total +nitrogen the nitrogen due to caffein, obtained by direct determination +on the separated caffein or by calculation (caffein divided by 3.464 +gives nitrogen). Multiply by 6.25 to obtain the amount of protein. + +23. _Ten Percent Extract--McGill Method_ + +Weigh into a tared flask the equivalent of 10 grains of the dried +substance, add water until the contents of the flask weigh 110 grams, +connect with a reflux condenser and heat, beginning the boiling in 10 to +15 minutes. Boil for 1 hour, cool for 15 minutes, weigh again, making up +any loss by the addition of water, filter, and take the specific gravity +of the filtrate at 15° C. + +According to McGill, a 10-percent extract of pure coffee has a specific +gravity of 1.00986 at 15° C., and under the same treatment chicory gives +an extract with a specific gravity of 1.02821. In mixtures of coffee and +chicory the approximate percentage of chicory may be calculated by the +following formula: + + (1.02821 - sp. gr.) +Percent of chicory = 100 ------------------ + 0.01835 + +The index of refraction of the above solution may be taken with the +Zeiss immersion refractometer or with the Abbe refractometer. + +With a 10-percent coffee extract, n_d 20° = 1.3377. + +With a 10-percent chicory extract, n_d 20° = 1.3448. + +Determinations of the solids, ash, sugar, nitrogen, etc., may be made in +the 10-percent extract, if desired. + +24. _Caffetannic Acid--Krug's Method_[187] + +Treat 2 grains of the coffee with 10 cc. of water and digest for 36 +hours; add 25 cc. of 90-percent alcohol and digest 24 hours more, +filter, and wash with 90-percent alcohol. The filtrate contains tannin, +caffein, color, and fat. Heat the filtrate to the boiling point and add +a saturated solution of lead acetate. If this is carefully done, a +caffetannate of lead will be precipitated containing 49 percent of lead. +As soon as the precipitate has become flocculent, collect on a tared +filter, wash with 90-percent alcohol until free from lead, wash with +ether, dry and weigh. The precipitate multiplied by 0.51597 gives the +weight of the caffetannic acid. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +PHARMACOLOGY OF THE COFFEE DRINK + + _General physiological action--Effect on children--Effect on + longevity--Behavior in the alimentary régime--Place in + dietary--Action on bacteria--Use in medicine--Physiological action + of "caffetannic acid"--Of caffeol--Of caffein--Effect of caffein on + mental and motor efficiency--Conclusions_ + + +By Charles W. Trigg + +Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, +Pittsburgh, 1916-1920 + + +The published information regarding the effects of coffee drinking on +the human system is so contradictory in its nature that it is hazardous +to make many generalizations about the physiological behavior of coffee. +Most of the investigations that have been conducted to date have been +characterized by incompleteness and a failure to be sufficiently +comprehensive to eliminate the element of individual idiosyncrasy from +the results obtained. Accordingly, it is possible to select statements +from literature to the effect either that coffee is an "elixir of life," +or even a poison. + +This is a deplorable state of affairs, not calculated to promote the +dissemination of accurate knowledge among the consuming public, but it +may be partly excused upon the grounds that experimental apparatus has +not always been at the level of perfection that it now occupies. Also, +to do justice to some of the able men who have interested themselves in +this problem, it should be said that some of their results were obtained +in researches, distinguished by painstaking accuracy, which have +effected the establishment of the major reactions of ingested coffee. + + +_The Physiological Action of Coffee_ + +Drinking of coffee by mankind may be attributed to three causes: the +demand for, and the pleasing effects of, a hot drink (a very small +percentage of the coffee consumed is taken cold), the pleasing reaction +which its flavors excite on the gustatory nerve, and the stimulating +effect which it has upon the body. The flavor is due largely to the +volatile aromatic constituents, "caffeol," which, when isolated, have a +general depressant action on the system; and the stimulation is caused +by the caffein. The general and specific actions of these individual +components, together with that of the hypothetical "caffetannic acid," +are considered under separate headings. + +Coffee may be considered a member of the general class of adjuvant, or +auxiliary, foods to which other beverages and condiments of negligible +inherent food value belong. Its position on the average menu may be +attributed largely to its palatability and comforting effects. However, +the medicinal value of coffee in the dietary and _per se_ must not be +overlooked. + +The ingestion of coffee infusion is always followed by evidences of +stimulation. It acts upon the nervous system as a powerful +cerebro-spinal stimulant, increasing mental activity and quickening the +power of perception, thus making the thoughts more precise and clear, +and intellectual work easier without any evident subsequent depression. +The muscles are caused to contract more vigorously, increasing their +working power without there being any secondary reaction leading to a +diminished capacity for work. Its action upon the circulation is +somewhat antagonistic; for while it tends to increase the rate of the +heart by acting directly on the heart muscle, it tends to decrease it by +stimulating the inhibitory center in the medulla.[188] + +The effect on the kidneys is more marked, the diuretic effect being +shown by an increase in water, soluble solids, and of uric acid directly +attributable to the caffein content of the coffee taken. In the +alimentary tract coffee seems to stimulate the oxyntic cells and +slightly to increase the secretion of hydrochloric acid, as well as to +favor intestinal peristalsis. It is difficult to accept reports of +coffee accomplishing both a decrease in metabolism and an increase in +body heat; but if the production of heat by the demethylation of caffein +to form uric acid and a possible repression of perspiration by coffee be +considered, the simultaneous occurrence of these two physiological +reactions may be credited. + +The disagreement of medical authorities over the physiological effects +of coffee is quite pronounced. This may be observed by a careful perusal +of the following statements made by these men. It will be noticed that +the majority opinion is that coffee in moderation is not harmful. Just +how much coffee a person may drink, and still remain within the limits +of moderation and temperance, is dependent solely upon the individual +constitution, and should be decided from personal experience rather than +by accepting an arbitrary standard set by some one who professes to be +an authority on the matter. + +A writer in the _British Homeopathic Review_[189] says that "the +exciting effects of coffee upon the nervous system exhibit themselves in +all its departments as a temporary exaltation. The emotions are raised +in pitch, the fancies are lively and vivid, benevolence is excited, the +religious sense is stimulated, there is great loquacity.... The +intellectual powers are stimulated, both memory and judgment are +rendered more keen and unusual vivacity of verbal expression rules for a +short time." He continues: + + Hahnemann gives a characteristically careful account of the coffee + headache. If the quantity of coffee taken be immoderately great and + the body be very excitable and quite unused to coffee, there occurs + a semilateral headache from the upper part of the parietal bone to + the base of the brain. The cerebral membranes of this side also + seem to be painfully sensitive, the hands and feet becoming cold, + and sweat appears on the brows and palms. The disposition becomes + irritable and intolerant, anxiety, trembling and restlessness are + apparent.... I have met with headaches of this type which yielded + readily to coffee and with many more in which the indicated remedy + failed to act until the use of coffee as a beverage was abandoned. + The eyes and ears suffer alike from the super-excitation of coffee. + There is a characteristic toothache associated with coffee. + +In apparent contradiction of this opinion, Dr. Valentin Nalpasse,[190] +of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, states: + + When coffee is properly made and taken in moderation, it is a most + valuable drink. It facilitates the digestion because it produces a + local excitement. Its principal action gives clear and stable + imaginative power to the brain. By doing that, it makes + intellectual work easy, and, to a certain extent, regulates the + functions of the brain. The thoughts become more precise and clear, + and mental combinations are formed with much greater rapidity. + Under the influence of coffee, the memory is sometimes surprisingly + active, and ideas and words flow with ease and elegance.... Many + people abuse coffee without feeling any bad effect. + +Discussing the use and abuse of coffee, I.N. Love[191] says: + + The world has in the infusion of coffee one of its most valuable + beverages. It is a prompt diffusible stimulant, antiseptic and + encourager of elimination. In season it supports, tides over + danger, helps the appropriate powers of the system, whips up the + flagging energies, enhances the endurance; but it is in no sense a + food, and for this reason it should be used temperately. + +Also Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson[192] makes the following weighty +pronouncement: + + In reference to my suggestion to give children tea and coffee. I + may explain that it is done advisedly. There is probably no + objection to their use even at early ages. They arouse the dull, + calm the excitable, prevent headaches, and fit the brain for work. + They preserve the teeth, keep them tight in their place, strengthen + the vocal chords, and prevent sore throat. To stigmatize these + invaluable articles of diet as "nerve stimulants" is an erroneous + expression, for they undoubtedly have a right to rank as nerve + nutrients. + +But Dr. Harvey Wiley[193] comes forth with evidence on the other side, +saying: + + The effects of the excessive use of coffee, tea, and other natural + caffein beverages is well known. Although the caffein is combined + in these beverages naturally, and they are as a rule taken at meal + times, which mitigates the effects of the caffein, they are + recognized by every one as tending to produce sleeplessness, and + often indigestion, stomach disorders, and a condition which, for + lack of a better term, is described as nervousness.... The + excessive drinking of tea and coffee is acknowledged to be + injurious by practically all specialists. + +Dr. V.C. Vaughn,[194] of the University of Michigan, speaking of tea and +coffee, expresses this opinion: + + I believe that caffein used as a beverage and in moderation not + only is harmless to the majority of adults, but is beneficial. + +This verdict is upheld by the results of a symposium[195] conducted by +the _Medical Times_, in which a large majority of the medical experts +participating, among whom may be enumerated Drs. Lockwood, Wood, +Hollingworth, Robinson, and Barnes, agreed that the drinking of coffee +is not harmful _per se_, but that over-indulgence is the real cause of +any ill effects. This is also true of any ingested material. + +Insomnia is a condition frequently attributed to coffee, but that the +authorities disagree on this ground is shown by Wiley's[196] contention, +"We know beyond doubt that the caffein (in coffee) makes a direct attack +on the nerves and causes insomnia." While Woods Hutchinson[197] +observes: + + Oddly enough, a cup of hot, weak tea or coffee, with plenty of + cream and sugar, will often help you to sleep, for the grateful + warmth and stimulus to the lining of the stomach, drawing the blood + into it and away from the head, will produce more soothing effects + than the small amount of caffein will produce stimulating and + wakeful ones. + +The writer has often had people remark to him that while black coffee +sometimes kept them awake, coffee with cream or sugar or both made them +drowsy. + +In the course of experiments conducted by Montuori and Pollitzer[198] it +was found that coffee prepared by hot infusion when given by mouth or +hypodermically with the addition of a small dose of alcohol proved an +efficient means of combating the pernicious effects of low temperatures. +Coffee prepared by boiling, and tea, showed negative effects. + +The value of coffee as a strength-conserver, and its function of +increasing endurance, morale, and healthfulness, was demonstrated by the +great stress which the military authorities, in the late and in previous +wars, placed upon furnishing the soldiers with plenty of good coffee, +particularly at times when they were under the greatest strain. Various +articles[199] record this fact; and these statements are further borne +out by the data given below in the discussion of the physiological +effects of caffein, to which the majority of the stimulating effects of +coffee may be attributed. + +According to Fauvel,[200] with a healthy patient on a vegetable diet, +chocolate and coffee increase the excretion of purins, diminishing the +excretion of uric acid and apparently hindering the precipitation of +uric acid in the organism. This diminution, however, was not due to +retention of uric acid in the organism. + +"Habit-forming" is one of the adjectives often used in describing +coffee, but it is a fact that coffee is much less likely than alcoholic +liquors to cause ill effects. A man rarely becomes a slave of coffee; +and excessive drinking of this beverage never produces a state of moral +irresponsibility or leads to the commission of crime. Dr. J.W. +Mallet,[201] in testimony given before a Federal Court, stated that +caffein and coffee were not habit-forming in the correct sense of the +term. His definition of the expression is that the habit formed must be +a detrimental and injurious one--one which becomes so firmly fixed upon +a person forming it that it is thrown off with great difficulty and with +considerable suffering, continuous exercise of the habit increasing the +demand for the habit-forming drug. It is well known that the desire +ceases in a very short period of time after cessation of use of +caffein-containing beverages, so that in that sense, coffee is not +habit-forming. + +[Illustration: MEN AND WOMEN LABORERS PICKING COFFEE ON A SÃO PAULO +ESTATE] + +[Illustration: SACKING COFFEE IN A WAREHOUSE AT THE PORT OF SANTOS] + +[Illustration: PICKING AND SACKING COFFEE IN BRAZIL] + +It has been shown by Gourewitsch[202] that the daily administration of +coffee produces a certain degree of tolerance, and that the doses must +be increased to obtain toxic results. Harkness[203] has been quoted as +stating that "taken in moderation; coffee is one of the most wholesome +beverages known. It assists digestion, exhilarates the spirits, and +counteracts the tendency to sleep." Carl V. Voit,[204] the German +physiological chemist, says this about coffee: + + + The effect of coffee is that we are bothered less by unpleasant + experiences and become more able to conquer difficulties; + therefore, for the feasting rich, it makes intestinal work after a + meal less evident and drives away the deadly ennui; for the student + it is a means to keep wide awake and fresh; for the worker it makes + the day's fatigue more bearable. + +Dr. Brady[205] believes that the so-called harmfulness of coffee is +mainly psychological, as evidenced by his expression, "Most of the +prejudice which exists against coffee as a beverage is based upon +nothing more than morbid fancy. People of dyspeptic or neurotic +temperament are fond of assuming that coffee must be bad because it is +so good, and accordingly, denying themselves the pleasure of drinking +it." + +The recounting of evidence, both _pro_ and _con_, relevant to the +general effects of coffee could continue almost _ad infinitum_, but the +fairest unification of the various opinions is best quoted from Woods +Hutchinson[206]: + + Somewhere from 1 to 3 percent of the community are distinctly + injured or poisoned by tea or coffee, even small amounts producing + burning of the stomach, palpitation of the heart, headache, + eruptions of the skin, sensations of extreme nervousness, and so + on; though the remaining 97 percent are not injured by them in any + appreciable way if consumed in moderation. + +So, if one is personally satisfied that he belongs to the abnormal +minority, and has not been argued by fallacious reasoning into his +belief that coffee injures him, he should either reduce his consumption +of coffee or let it alone. Even those most vitally interested in the +commercial side of coffee will admit that this is the logical procedure. + + +_Effects of Coffee on Children_ + +The same sort of controversy has raged around the question of the +advisability of giving coffee to children as has occurred regarding its +general action. Dr. J. Hutchinson[207] advocates furnishing children +with coffee, while Dr. Charlotte Abbey[208] is strongly against such a +practise, claiming that use of caffein-containing beverages before the +attainment of full growth will weaken nerve power. Nalpasse[209] +observes that until fully developed the young are immoderately excited +by coffee; and Hawk[210] is of the opinion that to give such a stimulant +to an active school-child is both logically and dietetically incorrect. +Dr. Vaughn[211] advances this scientific argument against the drinking +of coffee by children under seven years of age: + + In proportion to body weight the young contain more of the xanthin + bases than adults. They are already laden with these physiological + stimulants, and the additional dose given in tea or coffee may be + harmful. + +In a study of the effects of coffee drinking upon 464 school children, +C.K. Taylor[212] found a slight difference in mental ability and +behavior, unfavorable to coffee. About 29 percent of these children +drank no coffee; 46 percent drank a cup a day; 12 percent, 2 cups; 8 +percent, 3 cups; and the remainder, 4 or more cups a day. The +measurements of height, weight, and hand strength also showed a slight +advantage in favor of the non-coffee drinkers. If these results be taken +as truly representative, their indication is obvious. However, it seems +desirable to repeat these experiments upon other groups; at the same +time noting carefully the factors of environment, and other diet, before +any criterion is made. + +As a refutation to this experimental evidence is the practical +experience of the inhabitants of the Island of Groix, off the Brittany +coast, whose annual consumption of coffee is nearly 30 pounds per +capita, being ingested both as the roasted bean and as an infusion. It +is reported that many of the children are nourished almost entirely on +coffee soup up to ten years of age, yet the mentality and physique of +the populace does not fall below that of others of the same stock and +educational opportunities.[213] + +Pertinent in this connection is Hawk's[214] statement that young mothers +should refrain from the use of coffee, as caffein stimulates the action +of the kidneys and tends to bring about a loss from the body of some of +the salts necessary to the development of the unborn child as well as +for the proper production of milk during the nursing period. The caffein +of coffee also increases the flow of milk, but the milk produced is +correspondingly dilute and a later decreased secretion may be expected. +Furthermore, some of the caffein of the coffee may pass into the +mother's milk, thus reaching the child, so that the use of coffee during +the nursing period is undesirable on this ground also. Naturally, the +question arises as to whether this arraignment is purely theoretical or +based upon analytical and clinical data. + +It is a difficult matter definitely to set an age below which coffee +should not be drunk, as the time of reaching maturity varies with +climate and ancestral origin. Yet, from a theoretical standpoint, +children before or during the adolescent period should be limited to the +use of a rather small amount of tea and coffee as beverages, as their +poise and nerve control have not reached a stage of development +sufficient to warrant the stimulation incident to the consumption of an +appreciable quantity of caffein. + + +_Coffee Drinking and Longevity_ + +There are many who would have us believe that the use of coffee is only +a means toward the end of quickly reaching the great beyond; but it is +known that the habitual coffee drinker generally enjoys good health, and +some of the longest-lived people have used it from their earliest youth +without any apparent injury to their health. Nearly every one has an +acquaintance who has lived to a ripe old age despite the use of coffee. +Quoting Metchnikoff[215]: + + In some cases centenarians have been much addicted to the drinking + of coffee. The reader will recall Voltaire's reply when his doctor + described the grave harm that comes from the abuse of coffee, which + acts as a real poison. "Well", said Voltaire, "I have been + poisoning myself for nearly eighty years." There are centenarians + who have lived longer than Voltaire and have drunk still more + coffee. Elizabeth Durieux, a native of Savoy, reached the age of + 114. Her principal food was coffee, of which she took daily as many + as forty small cups. She was jovial and a boon table companion, and + used black coffee in quantities that would have surprised an Arab. + Her coffee-pot was always on the fire, like the tea-pot in an + English cottage (Lejoncourt, p. 84; Chemin, p. 147). + +The entire matter resolves itself into one of individual tolerance, +resistivity, and constitution. Numerous examples of young abstainers who +have died and coffee drinkers who have still lived on can be found, and +_vice versa_, the preponderance of instances being in neither direction. +Bodies of persons killed by accident have been painstakingly examined +for physiological changes attributable to coffee; but no difference +between those of coffee and of non-coffee drinkers (ascertained by +careful investigation of their life history) could be discerned.[216] In +the long run, it is safe to say that the effect of coffee drinking upon +the prolongation or shortening of life is neutral. + + +_Coffee in the Alimentary Tract_ + +When coffee is taken _per os_ it passes directly to the stomach, where +its sole immediate action is to dilute the previous contents, just as +other ingested liquids do. Eventually the caffein content is absorbed by +the system, and from thence on a stimulation is apparent. Considerable +conjecture has occurred over the difference in the effects of tea and +coffee, the most feasible explanation advanced being one appearing in +the London _Lancet_.[217] + + The caffein tannate of tea is precipitated by weak acids, and the + presumption is that it is precipitated by the gastric juice and, + therefore, the caffein is probably not absorbed until it reaches + the alkaline alimentary tract. In the case of coffee, however, in + whatever form the caffein may be present, it is soluble in both + alkaline and acid fluids, and, therefore, the absorption of the + alkaloid probably takes place in the stomach. + +This theory, if true, goes far toward explaining the more rapid +stimulation of coffee. + +The statement has sometimes been made that milk or cream causes the +coffee liquid to become coagulated when it comes into contact with the +acids of the stomach. This is true, but does not carry with it the +inference that indigestibility accompanies this coagulation. Milk and +cream, upon reaching the stomach, are coagulated by the gastric juice; +but the casein product formed is not indigestible. These liquids, when +added to coffee, are partially acted upon by the small acid content of +the brew, so that the gastric juice action is not so pronounced, for the +coagulation was started before ingestion, and the coagulable +constituent, casein, is more dilute in the cup as consumed than it is in +milk. Accordingly, the particles formed by it in the stomach will be +relatively smaller and more quickly and easily digested than milk _per +se_. It has been observed that coffee containing milk or cream is not as +stimulating as black coffee. The writer believes that this is probably +due to mechanical inclusion of caffein in the casein and fat particles, +and also to some adsorption of the alkaloid by them. This would +materially retard the absorption of the caffein by the body, spread the +action over a longer period of time, and hence decrease the maximum +stimulation attained. + +In a few instances, a small fraction of one percent of coffee users, +there is a certain type of distress, localized chiefly in the alimentary +tract, caused by coffee, which can not be blamed upon the much-maligned +caffein. The irritating elements may be generally classified as +compounds formed upon the addition of cream or milk to the coffee +liquor, volatile constituents, and products formed by hydrolysis of the +fibrous part of the grounds. It may be generally postulated that the +main causation of this discomfort is due to substances formed in the +incorrect brewing of coffee, the effect of which is accentuated by the +addition of cream or milk, when the condition of individual idiosyncrasy +is present. + +Without enlarging upon his reason, Lorand[218] concludes that neither +tea nor coffee is advisable for weak stomachs. Nalpasse,[219] however, +believes that coffee taken after meals makes the digestion more perfect +and more rapid, augmenting the secretions, and that it agrees equally +well with people inclined to embonpoint and heavy eaters whose digestion +is slow and difficult. Thompson[220] also observes that coffee drunk in +moderation is a mild stimulant to gastric digestion. + +Eder[221] reported, as the result of an inquiry into the action of +coffee on the activity of the stomachs of ruminants, that coffee +infusions produced a transitory increase in the number and intensity of +the movements of the paunch, but that the influence exercised was very +irregular. + +An elaborate investigation of the action of tea and coffee on digestion +in the stomach was made by Fraser,[222] in which he found that both +retard peptic digestion, the former to a greater degree than the latter. +The digestion of white of egg, ham, salt beef, and roast beef was much +less affected than that of lamb, fowl, or bread. Coffee seemed actually +to aid the digestion of egg and ham. He attributed the retarding effect +to the tannic acid of the tea and the volatile constituents of the +coffee--the caffein itself favoring digestion rather than otherwise. Tea +increased the production of gas in all but salt foods, whereas coffee +did not. Coffee is, therefore, to be preferred in cases of flatulent +dyspepsia. + +Hutchinson, in his _Food and Dietetics_, opines: + + As regards the practical inferences to be drawn from experiences + and observations, it may be said that in health the disturbance of + digestion produced by the infused beverages (tea and coffee) is + negligible. Roberts, indeed, goes so far as to suggest that the + slight slowing of digestion which they produce may be favored + rather than otherwise, as tending to compensate for too rapid + digestibility which refinements of manufacture and preparation have + made characteristic of modern foods. + +Regarding increase in secretory activity, Moore and Allanston[223] +report that in their experience meat extracts, tea, caffein solution, +and coffee call forth a greater gastric secretion than does water, while +with milk the flow of gastric juice seems to be retarded. Cushing[224] +and others support this statement. This action is partially explained by +Voit on the grounds that all tasty foods increase gastric secretion, the +action being partly psychological; but Cushing observed the same effects +upon introducing coffee directly into the stomachs of animals. + +In general, a moderate amount of coffee stimulates appetite, improves +digestion and relieves the sense of plenitude in the stomach. It +increases intestinal peristalsis, acts as a mild laxative, and slightly +stimulates secretion of bile. Excessive use, however, profoundly +disturbs digestive function, and promotes constipation and +hemorrhoids.[225] There is much evidence to support the view that +"neither tea, coffee, nor chicory in dilute solutions has any +deleterious action on the digestive ferments, although in strong +solutions such an action may be manifest."[226] After conducting +exhaustive experiments with various types of coffee, Lehmann[227] +concluded that ordinary coffee is without effect on the digestion of the +majority of sound persons, and may be used with impunity. + + +_Coffee in the Dietary--Food Value_ + +There are three things to be considered in deciding upon the inclusion +of a substance in the dietary--palatability, digestibility without +toxicity or disarrangement, and calorific value. Coffee is as +satisfactory from these viewpoints as any other food product. + +The palatability of a well-made cup of good coffee needs no eulogizing; +it speaks for itself. It adds enormously to the attractiveness of the +meal, and to our ability to eat with relish and appetite large amounts +of solid foods, without a subsequent uncomfortable feeling. Wiley[228] +says that the feeling of drowsiness after a full meal is a natural +condition incidental to the proper conduct of digestion, and that to +drive away this natural feeling with coffee must be an interference with +the normal condition. However, if by so doing, we can increase our +over-all efficiency without material harm to our digestive organs (and +we can and do), the procedure has much in its favor both psychologically +and dietetically. + +The fact that coffee favors digestion without eventual disarrangement +has been demonstrated above. On the subject of the relative agreement +with the constitution of foods of daily consumption, Dr. English[229] +said: + + It is well known that there is no species of diet which invariably + suits all constitutions, nor will that which is palatable and + salutary at one time be equally palatable and salutary at another + time to the same individual. I think the most natural food provided + for us is milk; yet I will engage to show twenty instances where + milk disagrees more than coffee. + +Further in this regard, Hutchinson[230] considers that ninety percent of +the "dyspepsias" attributed to coffee are due to malnutrition, or to +food simultaneously ingested, no disease known to the medical profession +being directly attributable to it. + +No one cognizant of the facts will contend that a cup of black coffee +has any direct food value; but not so with the roasted bean. This has +quite an appreciable content of protein and fat, both substances of high +calorific value. The inhabitants of the Island of Groix eat the whole +roasted coffee bean in considerable quantity, and seem to obtain +considerable nourishment therefrom. Also, the Galla, a wandering tribe +of Africa, make large use of food balls, about the size of billiard +balls, consisting of pulverized coffee held in shape with fat. One ball +is said to contain a day's ration; and, because of its food content and +stimulating power, serves to sustain them on long marches of days' +duration. + +When an infusion, or decoction, of roasted coffee is made, about 1.25 +percent of the extracted matter is protein, it being accompanied by +traces of dextrin and sugar. The same dearth of extraction of food +materials occurs upon infusing coffee substitutes. This small amount can +have but little dietetic significance. However, upon addition of sugar +and of milk or cream, with their content of protein, fat, and lactose, +the calorific value of the cup of coffee rises. Lusk and Gephart[231] +give the food value of an ordinary restaurant cup of coffee as 195.5 +calories, and Locke[232] gives it as 156. + +Mattei[233] found that 8 cc. of an infusion of roasted Mocha coffee of +five-percent strength suppressed incipient polyneuritis in pigeons +within a few hours' time. Their weight did not improve, but otherwise +they were completely restored to health. However, in from four to six +weeks after the apparent cure, the symptoms rapidly returned and the +pigeons perished, with symptoms of paralysis and cerebral complications. +The temporary cure was probably due to caffein stimulation and secondary +actions of the volatile constituents of coffee, which may be related to +the vitamines; for it is not likely that the vitamines would withstand +the heat of roasting. If B-vitamine does occur in roasted coffee, it is +present only in traces.[234] + +The inclusion of coffee in the average dietary is warranted because of +its evident worth as an aid to digestion and for its assimilating power, +thus earning its characterization as an "adjuvant food." + + +_Action of Coffee on Bacteria_ + +The employment of coffee as an aid to sanitation has been but little +considered. Coffee, when freshly roasted and ground, is deodorant, +antiseptic, and germicidal, probably due to the empyreumatic products +developed during the process of roasting. An infusion of 0.5 percent +inhibits the growth of many pathogenic organisms, and those of 10 +percent kill anthrax bacteria in three hours, cholera spirilla in four +hours, and many other bacteria, including those producing typhoid, in +two to six days.[235] + +The maintenance of a low rate of contraction of typhoid fever has often +been attributed to drinking of coffee instead of water, the action of +the coffee being partly due to the bactericidal effect of the caffeol +and partly to the boiling of the water before infusion. The stimulating +tendency of the caffein to sustain and to "tide over" those of low +vitalities is also evidenced. + + +_Use of Coffee in Medicine_ + +Coffee has been employed in medicinal practise as a direct specific, as +a preventive, and as an antidote. The _United States Dispensatory_[236] +summarizes the uses of caffein and coffee as follows: + + Caffein is a valuable remedy in practical medicine as a cerebral + and cardiac stimulant and as a diuretic. In undue _somnolence_, in + _nervous headache_, in _narcotism_, also, at times when the + exigencies of life require excessively prolonged wakefulness, + caffein may be used as the most powerful agent known for producing + wakefulness. In a series of experiments, J. Hughes Bennett found + that within narrow limits there is a direct physiological + antagonism between caffein and morphine. Coffee and caffein in + narcotic poisoning are of value as a means of keeping the patient + awake, and of stimulating the respiratory centres. + + As a cardiac stimulant, caffein may be used in any form of heart + failure; the indications for its use are those which call for the + employment of digitalis. It is superior to digitalis in never + disagreeing with the stomach, in having no distinctive cumulative + tendency, and in the promptness of its action. It is pronouncedly + inferior to digitalis in the power and certainty of its action, and + in the permanence of its influence once asserted. As a diuretic it + is superior; it is very valuable in the treatment of _cardiac + dropsies_, and is often useful in _chronic Bright's disease_ when + there is no irritation of the kidneys. + + On account of its tendency to produce wakefulness, it is usually + better to mass the doses early in the day, at least six hours being + left between the last dose and the ordinary time for sleep. From + eight to fifteen grams (of caffein) may be given in the course of a + day in severe cases. If tried, it would probably prove a useful + drug in cases of _sudden collapse_ from various causes. + +Good effects of coffee are recounted by Thompson.[237] + + It removes the sensation of fatigue in the muscles, and increases + their functional activity; it allays hunger to a limited extent; it + strengthens the heart action; it acts as a diuretic, and increases + the excretion of urea; it has a mildly sudorific influence; it + counteracts nervous exhaustion and stimulates nerve centers. It is + used sometimes as a nervine in cases of migraine, and there are + many persons who can sustain prolonged mental fatigue and strain + from anxiety and worry much better by the use of strong black + coffee. In low delirium, or when the nervous system is overcome by + the use of narcotics or by excessive hemorrhage, strong black + coffee is serviceable to keep the patient from falling into the + drowsiness which soon merges into coma. In such cases as much as + half a pint of strong black coffee may be injected into the rectum. + + Strong coffee with a little lemon juice or brandy is often useful + in overcoming a malarial chill or a paroxysm of asthma. It is a + useful temporary cardiac stimulant for children suffering collapse. + +Dr. Restrepo,[238] of Medellin, Colombia, claims to have cured many +cases of chronic malaria and related diseases with infusion of green +coffee, after quinine had failed. Wallace[239] states that tincture of +green coffee is a natural and efficacious specific for cholera, and that +she knows of more than a thousand eases of cholera and diarrhea which +have been treated with it without an isolated case of failure. +Landanabileo has been quoted as using raw coffee infusion in hepatic and +nephritic diseases, venal and hepatic colics, and in diabetes. + +In the Civil War, surgeons utilized coffee in allaying malarial fever +and other maladies with which they had to contend, often under the most +trying conditions, and with severely limited means of combating +disease.[240] Its effect is to counteract the depressant action of low +and miasmatic atmospheres, opening the secretions which they have +checked. Travelers from the colder climes soon find that the fragrant +cup of coffee is a corrective to derangements of the liver resulting +from climatic conditions.[241] + +Dr. Guillasse, of the French Navy, in a paper on typhoid fever, says: + + Coffee has given us unhoped for satisfaction, and after having + dispensed it we find, to our great surprise, that its action is as + prompt as it is decisive. No sooner have our patients taken a few + tablespoonfuls of it, than their features become relaxed and they + come to their senses. The next day the improvement is such that we + are tempted to look upon coffee as a specific against typhoid + fever. Under its influence the stupor is dispelled, and the patient + arouses from the state of somnolency in which he has been since + the invasion of the disease. Soon all the functions take their + natural course, and he enters upon convalescence.[242] + +Also it has been reported that in extreme cases of yellow fever, coffee +has been used most effectively by many physicians as the main reliance +after all other well known remedies have been administered and failed. + +According to Lorand,[243] the use of coffee in gout is strictly +prohibited by Umber and Schittenhelm; but he considered it a mistake +absolutely to forbid coffee, as, when a person has good kidneys, the +small amount of uric acid furnished by the caffein can readily be +eliminated. A curious remedy for gout and rheumatism, the efficacy of +which the writer scouts, is said to be[244]--a pint of hot, strong, +black coffee, which must be perfectly pure, and seasoned with a +teaspoonful of pure black pepper, thoroughly mixed before drinking, and +the preparation taken just before going to bed. If this has any value, +it is probably purely psychological in its function. + +Several writers[245] attribute amblyopia and other affections of the +sight to coffee and chicory, without giving much conclusive experimental +data. Beer,[246] a Vienna oculist, however, held that the vapor from +pure, hot, freshly-made coffee is beneficial to the eyes. + +Coffee and caffein are physiologically antagonistic to the common +narcotics, nicotine, morphine, opium, alcohol, etc., and are frequently +used as antidotes for these poisons. Binz found that dogs that have been +stupified with alcohol could be awakened with coffee. It may thus be +prescribed for hard drinkers to counteract the baleful excitability +produced by alcohol; in fact, many topers taper off after a long debauch +with coffee containing small amounts of alcoholic beverages. Considering +its ability to counteract the slow intoxication of tobacco, it may be +inferred that coffee is indispensable for hard smokers. + +In general, the medicinal value of coffee may be said to be directly +attributable to its caffein content, although its antiseptic properties +are dependent upon the volatile aromatic constituents. Its function is +to raise and to sustain vitalities which have been lowered by disease or +drugs. Although some of the cures attributed to it are probably purely +traditional; still, it must be admitted, that by utilizing its +stimulating qualities in many illnesses the patient may be carried past +the danger point into convalescence. + + +_Physiological Action of "Caffetannic Acid_" + +It has been demonstrated in chapter XVII that there is no definite +compound "caffetannic acid," and that the heterogeneous material +designated by this name does not possess the properties of tanning. +Further substantiation of this contention, and more evidence of the +innocuous character of the tannin-like compounds in coffee, are +contained in the testimony of Sollmann.[247] "Tannins precipitate +proteins, gelatine, and connective tissue, and thus act as astringents, +styptics, and antiseptics. The different tannins are not equivalent in +these respects. Some (which are perhaps misnamed) such as those of +coffee and ipecac, are practically non-precipitant.... On the whole, one +may say that the small quantities of tannin ordinarily taken with the +food and drink are not injurious, but that large quantities (excessive +tea drinking) are certainly deleterious. The tannin of coffee is +scarcely astringent, and, therefore, lacks this action," which is proven +by the fact that it does not precipitate proteins. + +"It has been claimed that 'caffetannic acid' injures the stomach walls, +but there is no evidence that this is so."[248] Wiley,[249] in reporting +some of his experiments, says: "Apparently the efforts to saddle the +injurious effects of coffee-drinking upon caffetannic acid in any form +in which it may exist in the coffee-extract are not supported by these +recent data." The fact that tannins retard intestinal peristalsis, +whereas coffee promotes this digestive action, lends further proof to +the non-existence of tannin in coffee. These statements by eminent +authorities may be consolidated into the verity that there is no tannin, +in the true sense of the term, in coffee; and that the constituents of +the coffee brew which have been so designated are physiologically +harmless. + + +_Physiological Action of Caffeol_ + +The evidence regarding the physiological action of caffeol is +contradictory in many cases. J. Lehmann found in 1853, that the +"empyreumatic oil of coffee, _caffeone_," is active; but more recent +investigations have yielded results at variance with this. Hare and +Marshall[250] believe that they proved it to be active. E.T. +Reichert,[251] however, found it inactive in dogs, excepting in so far +that, when given intravenously, it mechanically interfered with the +circulation. With it Binz[252] was able to produce in man only feeble +nervous excitement, with restlessness and increase in the rate and depth +of respirations. + +The general effects, as summated by Sollmann[253] are, for _small +doses_, pleasant stimulation; increased respiration; increased heart +rate, but fall of blood pressure; muscular restlessness; insomnia; +perspiration; congestion; for _large doses_, increased peristalsis and +defecation; depression of respiration and heart; fall of blood pressure +and temperature; paralytic phenomena. It is doubtful whether the +quantities taken in the beverage cause any direct central stimulation. + +Investigations have also been conducted with the various known +constituents of this "coffee oil." Erdmann[254] found that in doses of +between 0.5 and 0.6 gram per kilo of body weight, furane-alcohol kills a +rabbit by respiratory paralysis; and that the symptoms of poisoning are +a short primary excitement, salivation, diarrhea, respiratory +depression, continuous fall of the body temperature, and death from +collapse with respiratory failure. In man, doses of from 0.6 to 1 gram +of furane-alcohol increased respiratory activity without producing other +symptoms. + +However, man is not as susceptible to these compounds as are the smaller +animals. But even if their relative susceptibility be assumed to be the +same, the lethal dose given the rabbit is equivalent to giving a +140-pound man one dose containing the furane-alcohol content of over +5,000 cups of coffee. Thus, in view of the very apparent minuteness of +the quantity of this compound present in one cup of coffee, together +with the fact that it is not cumulative in its physiological action, the +importance of its toxic properties becomes very inconsequential to even +the most profuse and inveterate coffee drinkers. + +Burmann[255] reported the volatile principle to have a reducing action +on the hemoglobin; a depressing effect on the blood pressure; a +depressant action on the central nervous system, disturbing the cardiac +rhythm; and an action on the respiratory centers, causing dyspnea. The +report of Sayre[256] regarding the minimum lethal dose of the +concentrated combined active principles of coffee obtained from dry +distillation is, for frogs, administered intraperitoneally and +subcutaneously, 0.03 cubic centimeters per gram of body weight; for +guinea pigs per stomach, 7.0 cc. per kilogram of body weight, and +administered intravenously and intraperitoneally, about 1.0 cc. per +kilogram. + +This evidence regarding the physiological action of caffeol can not in +any wise be construed to indicate a harmfulness of coffee. The +percentage of these volatile substances in a cup of coffee infusion is +so low as to be relatively negligible in its action. And, again, the +caffein content of the brew, as will be seen, tends to counteract any +possible desultory effects of the caffeol. + + +_General Physiological Action of Caffein_ + +More attention has been given to the study of the physiological action +of caffein than to that of the other individual constituents of coffee. +Since certain of the effects of coffee drinking have been attributed to +this alkaloid, a brief presentment of the pharmacology of caffein will +be given as an exposition of the many statements made regarding it. +According to the _British Pharmaceutical Codex_[257]: + + Caffein exerts three important actions: (1) on the central nervous + system: (2) on muscles, including cardiac: and (3) on the kidney. + The action on the central nervous system is mainly on that part of + the brain connected with psychical functions. It produces a + condition of wakefulness and increased mental activity. The + interpretation of sensory impressions is more perfect and correct, + and thought becomes clearer and quicker. With larger doses of + caffein the action extends from the psychical areas to the motor + area and to the cord, and the patient becomes at first restless and + noisy, and later may show convulsive movements. + + Caffein facilitates the performance of all forms of physical work, + and actually increases the total work which can be obtained from + muscle. On the normal man, however, it is impossible to say how + much of the action on the muscle is central and how much + peripheral, but, as fatigue shows itself first by an action on the + center, it is probable that the action of caffein in diminishing + fatigue is mainly central. Caffein accelerates the pulse and + slightly raises blood pressure. It has no action in any way + resembling digitalis; by increasing the irritability of the cardiac + muscle, its prolonged use rather tends to fatigue than to rest the + heart. + + Caffein and its allies form a very important group of diuretics. + The urine is generally of a lower specific gravity than normal, + since it contains a lesser proportion of salt and urea; but the + total excretion of solids, both as regards urea, uric acid, and + salts, is increased. Caffein, by exciting the medulla, produces an + initial vaso-constriction of the kidneys, which tends at first to + retard the flow of urine. So in recent years, other drugs have been + introduced, allies of caffein, which act like it on the kidneys, + but are without the stimulant action on the brain. Theobromine is + such a drug. + +Another authority states that[258]: + + One of the most constant symptoms produced in man by over-doses of + caffein is excessive diuresis, and experiments made upon the lower + animals show that caffein acts as a diuretic not only by + influencing the circulation, but also by directly affecting the + secreting cells, the probabilities being in favor of the first of + these theories of action. According to Schroeder, not only the + water but also the solids of the urine are increased. + + The question whether caffein has an influence upon tissue changes + and the consequent nitrogenous elimination can not be considered as + distinctly answered, though the most probable conclusion is that + the action of caffein upon urea elimination and upon general + nutrition is not direct or pronounced. While the therapeutic dose + of caffein is broken up in the body with the formation of + methylxanthin, which escapes with the urine, the toxic dose is at + least in part eliminated by the kidney unchanged. + +The metabolism of the methyl purins, of which group caffein is a member, +appears to vary with the quantity ingested. The manner in which the +methyl group is liberated by the cell protoplasm is said[259] to +determine the amount of stimulus which the tissues receive from these +substances. The xanthin group is almost without any excitatory action, +and its metabolic end products are constant. Perhaps the variation in +the excretions of unchanged methylpurins is dependent upon the amount of +total reactive energy they invoke. + +Baldi[260] found that caffein in small doses increases muscular +excitability in dogs and frogs. The spinal and muscular hyperic +excitability produced by caffein is, in his opinion, due to the methyl +groups attached to the xanthin nucleus. Fredericq[261] states that +caffein increases the irritability of the cardiac vagus and accelerates +the appearance of pseudofatigue of the vagus which is produced by +prolonged stimulation of the nerve. The action of caffein on the +mammalian heart has also been investigated by Pilcher,[262] who found +that, following the rapid intravenous injection of caffein, there is an +acute fall of blood pressure; and with a maximal quantity of caffein, 10 +milligrams per kilogram, the cardiac volume and the amplitude of the +excursions are usually unchanged. With larger quantities, the volume +progressively increases and the amplitude of the excursion decreases. + +Salant[263] found that the intravenous injection of 15 to 25 milligrams +of caffein per kilogram in animals was followed by a fall of blood +pressure amounting to 7 to 35 percent in most cases, which was +transitory, although in some animals it remained unchanged. A moderate +rise was rarely observed. Caffein aids the action of nitrates, +acetanilid, ethyl alcohol and amyl alcohol, and increases the toxicity +of barium chloride. In a very thorough study of the toxicity of caffein +which he made with Reiger,[264] a greater toxicity of about 15 to 20 +percent by subcutaneous injection than by mouth, and but about one-half +this when injected peritoneally, was found. Intramuscularly the toxicity +is 30 percent greater than subcutaneously. In making the tests on +animals, they found that individuality, season, age, species, and +certain pathological conditions caused variation in the toxic effect of +the administered caffein. Low protein diet tends to decrease resistance +to caffein in dogs, and a milk or meat diet does the same for growing +dogs. Caffein is not cumulative for the rabbit or dog. + +As a result of experiments on the action of caffein on the bronchiospasm +caused by peptone (Witte), silk peptone, B-imidoazolyl-ethylamin, +curare, vasodilation, and mucarin, Pal[265] concluded that caffein +stimulates certain branches of the peripheral sympathetic and is thus +enabled to widen the bronchi or remove bronchiospasm. + +According to Lapicque[266], caffein produces a change in the +excitability of the medulla of the frog similar to that produced by +raising the temperature of the nerve centers. Schürhoff[267] has +pointed out that the continued use of large quantities of caffein will +produce cardiac irregularity and sleeplessness. + +Cochrane[268] cited three cases where caffein was hypodermically +administered in cases of acute indigestion, etc., and concluded that the +cases prove that caffein, or a compound containing it as a synergist, +does indirectly make the injection of morphia a safe proceeding, and +directly increases the force of the heart and arterial tension. However, +Wood[269] found that medium doses of caffein do not produce any marked +rise in blood pressure, and cause a reduction in pulse rate. He +attributes the contradictory results which prior investigations gave, to +employment of unusually large doses and to inaccurate experimental +methods. + +Caffein was found by Nonnenbruch and Szyszka[270] to have a slight +action toward accelerating the coagulation time of the blood, being +active over several hours. It inhibits coagulation _in vitrio_. Its +action in the body apparently rests on an increase of the fibrin +ferment. There is no reason to believe that the behavior is dependent on +a toxic action, but there is probably an action on the spleen; for in +several rabbits from which the spleen was removed, no action was +observed. + +Experiments conducted by Levinthal[271] gave no positive information as +to the formation of uric acid from caffein in the human organism. The +elimination of caffein has also been studied by Salant and Reiger[272], +who found that larger amounts of caffein are demethylated in carnivora +than in herbivora, and resistance to caffein is inversely as +demethylation, caffein being much more toxic in the former class. In a +similar investigation, Zenetz[273] observed that caffein is very +slightly eliminated from the system by the kidneys, and that its action +on the heart is cumulative; therefore he concludes that it is +contra-indicated in all renal diseases, in arterio-sclerosis, and in +cardiac affections secondary to them. The inaccuracy of these +conclusions regarding the non-elimination of caffein and those of +Albanese,[274] Bondzynski and Gottlieb[275], Leven[276], +Schurtzkwer[277], and Minkowski[278], has been shown by Mendel and +Wardell[279], who point out that many of these experimenters worked with +dogs, in which the chief end-product of purin metabolism is not uric +acid, but allantoin. They observe that the increase in excretion of uric +acid after the addition of caffein to the diet seems to be proportional +to the quantity of caffein taken, and equivalent to from 10 to 15 +percent of the ingested caffein. The remainder of the caffein is +probably eliminated as mono-methylpurins. + +Regarding the alleged cumulative action of caffein, Pletzer[280], +Liebreich,[281] Szekacs[282], Pawinski,[283] and Seifert[284] all +concluded from their investigations that the action of caffein is +usually of brief duration, and does not have a cumulative effect, +because of its rapid elimination; so that there is no danger of +intoxication. + +Dr. Oswald Schmiedeberg says: + + Caffein is a means of refreshing bodily and mental activity, so + that this may be prolonged when the condition of fatigue has + already begun to produce restraint, and to call for more severe + exertion of the will, a state which, as is well known, is painful + or disagreeable. + + This advantageous effect, in conditions of fatigue, of small + quantities of caffein, as it is commonly taken in coffee or tea, + might, however, by continued use become injurious, if it were in + all cases necessarily exerted; that is to say, if by caffein the + muscles and nerves were directly spurred on to increased activity. + This is not the case, however, and just in this lies the + peculiarity of the effect in question. The muscles and the + simultaneously-acting nerves only under the influence of caffein + respond more easily to the impulse of the will, but do not develop + spontaneous activity; that is, without the co-operation of the + will. + + The character of caffein action makes plain that these food + materials do not injure the organism by their caffein content, and + do not by continued use cause any chronic form of illness. + +According to Dr. Hollingworth's[285] deductions, caffein is the only +known stimulant that quickens the functions of the human body without a +subsequent period of depression. His explanation for this behavior is +that "caffein acts as a lubricator for the nervous system, having an +actual physical action whereby the nerves are enabled to do their work +more easily. Other stimulants act on the nerves themselves, causing a +waste of energy, and consequently, according to nature's law, a period +of depression follows, and the whole process tends to injure the human +machine." In not a single instance during his experiments at Columbia +University did depression follow the use of caffein. + +Of course, caffein, like any other alkaloid, if used to excess will +prove harmful, due to the over-stimulation induced by it. However, taken +in moderate quantities, as in coffee and tea by normal persons, the +conclusions of Hirsch[286] may be taken as correct, namely: caffein is a +mild stimulant, without direct effect on the muscles, the effect +resulting from its own destruction and being temporary and transitory; +it is not a depressant either initially or eventually; and is not +habit-forming but a true stimulant, as distinguished from sedatives and +habit-forming drugs. + + +_Caffein and Mental and Motor Efficiency_ + +The literature on the influence of caffein on fatigue has been +summarized, and the older experiments clearly pointed out, by +Rivers[287]. A summary of the most important researches which have had +as their object the determination of the influence of caffein on mental +and motor processes has been made by Hollingworth[288], from whose +monograph much of the following material has been taken. + +Increase in the force of muscular contractions was demonstrated in 1892 +by De Sarlo and Barnardini[289] for caffein and by Kraepelin for tea. +These investigators used the dynamometer as a measure of the force of +contraction; however, most of the subsequent work on motor processes has +been by the ergographic method. Ugolino Mosso[290], Koch[291]. +Rossi[292], Sobieranski[293], Hoch and Kraepelin,[294] Destrée,[295] +Benedicenti,[296] Schumberg,[297] Hellsten,[298] and Joteyko,[299] have +all observed a stimulating effect of caffein on ergographic performance. +Only one investigation of those reported by Rivers failed to find an +appreciable effect, that of Oseretzkowsky and Kraepelin,[300] while +Feré[301] affirms that the effect is only an acceleration of fatigue. + +In spite of the general agreement as to the presence of stimulation +there is some dissension regarding whether only the height of the +contractions or their number or both are affected. As might be expected +from the great diversity of methods employed, the quantitative results +also have varied considerably. Carefully controlled experiments by +Rivers and Webber[302] "confirm in general the conclusion reached by all +previous workers that caffein stimulates the capacity for muscular work; +and it is clear that this increase is not due to the various psychical +factors of interest, sensory stimulation, and suggestion, which the +experiments were especially designed to exclude. The greatest increase +... falls, however, far short of that described by some previous +workers, such as Mosso; and it is probable that part of the effect +described by these workers was due to the factors in question." + +Investigations of mental processes under the influence of caffein have +been much less frequent, most notable among which are those of Dietl and +Vintschgau,[303] Dehio,[304] Kraepelin and Hoch,[305] Ach,[306] +Langfeld,[307] and Rivers.[308] Kraepelin[309] observes: "We know that +tea and coffee increase our mental efficiency in a definite way, and we +use these as a means of overcoming mental fatigue ... In the morning +these drinks remove the last traces of sleepiness and in the evening +when we still have intellectual tasks to dispose of they aid in keeping +us awake." Their use induces a greater briskness and clearness of +thought, after which secondary fatigue is either entirely absent or is +very slight. + +Tendency toward habituation of the pyschic functions to caffein has been +studied by Wedemeyer[310], who found that in the regular administration +of it in the course of four to five weeks there is a measurable +weakening of its action on psychic processes. + +Rivers[311], who seems to have been the first to appreciate fully the +genuine and practical importance of thoroughly controlling the +psychological factors that are likely to play a rôle in such +experiments, concludes that "caffein increases the capacity for both +muscular and mental work, this stimulating action persisting for a +considerable time after the substance has been taken without there being +any evidence, with moderate doses, of reaction leading to diminished +capacity for work, the substance thus really diminishing and not merely +obscuring the effects of fatigue." + +EFFECT OF CAFFEIN ON MENTAL AND MOTOR PROCESSES + +Schematic Summary of All Results + +St.=Stimulation. 0=No effect. Ret.=Retardation. + + PRIMARY EFFECT + Small Doses + | Medium Doses + | | Large Doses + | | | Secondary Reaction + | | | | Action Time Hrs. + | | | | | Duration + | | | | | in Hrs. + Process Tests | | | | | | +Motor speed 1. Tapping St. St. St. None .75-1.5 2-4 +Coordination 2. Three-hole St. 0 Ret. None 1-1.5 3-4 + 3. Typewriting + (a) Speed St. 0 Ret. None Results show + (b) Errors Fewer for all None only in total + doses days' work +Association 4. Color-naming St. St. St. None 2-2.5 3-4 + 5. Opposites St. St. St. None 2.5-3 Next + day + 6. Calculation St. St. St. None 2.5 Next + day +Choice 7. Discrimination + reaction time Ret. 0 St. None 2-4 Next + day + 8. Cancellation Ret. ? St. None 3-5 No + data + 9. S-W illusion 0 0 0 +General 10. Steadiness ? Unsteadiness None 1-3 3-4 + 11. Sleep quality Individual differences + 12. Sleep quantity depending on body weight 2 ? + 13. General health and conditions of + administration + +Subsequent to these investigations was that of Hollingworth[312] which +is at once the most comprehensive, carefully conducted, and +scientifically accurate one yet performed. He employed an ample number +of subjects in his experimentation; and both his subjects, and the +assistants who recorded the observations, were in no wise cognizant of +the character or quantity of the dose of caffein administered, the other +experimental conditions being similarly rigorous and extensive. + +The purpose of his study was to determine both qualitatively and +quantitatively the effect of caffein on a wide range of mental and motor +processes, by studying the performance of a considerable number of +individuals for a long period of time, under controlled conditions; to +study the way in which this influence is modified by such factors as the +age, sex, weight, idiosyncrasy, and previous caffein habits of the +subjects, and the degree to which it depends on the amount of the dose +and the time and conditions of its administration; and to investigate +the influence of caffein on the general health, quality and amount of +sleep, and food habits of the individual tested. + +To obtain this information the chief tests employed were the steadiness, +tapping, coordination, typewriting, color-naming, calculations, +opposites, cancellation, and discrimination tests, the familiar +size-weight illusion, quality and amount of sleep, and general health +and feeling of well-being. A brief review of the results of these tests +is given in the tabular summary. + +From these Hollingworth concluded that caffein influenced all the tests +in a given group in much the same way. The effect on motor processes +comes quickly and is transient, while the effect on higher mental +processes comes more slowly and is more persistent. Whether this result +is due to quicker reaction on the part of motor-nerve centers, or +whether it is due to a direct peripheral effect on the muscle tissue is +uncertain, but the indications are that caffein has a direct action on +the muscle tissue, and that this effect is fairly rapid in appearance. +The two principal factors which seem to modify the degree of caffein +influence are _body weight_ and _presence of food_ in the stomach at the +time of ingestion of the caffein. In practically all of the tests the +magnitude of the caffein influence varied inversely with the body +weight, and was most marked when taken on an empty stomach or without +food substance. This variance in action was also true for both the +quality and amount of sleep, and seemed to be accentuated when taken on +successive days; but it did not appear to depend on the age, sex, or +previous caffein habits of the individual. Those who had given up the +use of caffein-containing beverages during the experiment did not report +any craving for the drinks as such, but several expressed a feeling of +annoyance at not having some sort of a warm drink for breakfast. + +It is interesting to note that he also found a complete absence of any +trace of secondary depression or of any sort of secondary reaction +consequent upon the stimulation which was so strikingly present in many +of the tests. The production of an increased capacity for work was +clearly demonstrated, the same being a genuine drug effect, and not +merely the effect of excitement, interest, sensory stimulation, +expectation, or suggestion. However, this study does not show whether +this increased capacity comes from a new supply of energy introduced or +rendered available by the drug action, or whether energy already +available comes to be employed more effectively, or whether fatigue +sensations are weakened and the individual's standard of performance +thereby raised. But they do show that from a standpoint of mental and +productive physical efficiency "the widespread consumption of caffeinic +beverages, even under circumstances in which and by individuals for whom +the use of other drugs is stringently prohibited or decried, is +justified." + + +_Conclusion_ + +Brief summarization of the information available on the pharmacology of +coffee indicates that it should be used in moderation, particularly by +children, the permissible quantity varying with the individual and +ascertainable only through personal observation. Used in moderation, it +will prove a valuable stimulant increasing personal efficiency in mental +and physical labor. Its action in the alimentary régime is that of an +adjuvant food, aiding digestion, favoring increased flow of the +digestive juices, promoting intestinal peristalsis, and not tanning any +portion of the digestive organs. It reacts on the kidneys as a diuretic, +and increases the excretion of uric acid, which, however, is not to be +taken as evidence that it is harmful in gout. Coffee has been indicated +as a specific for various diseases, its functions therein being the +raising and sustaining of low vitalities. Its effect upon longevity is +virtually _nil_. A small proportion of humans who are very nervous may +find coffee undesirable; but sensible consumption of coffee by the +average, normal, non-neurasthenic person will not prove harmful but +beneficial. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE COMMERCIAL COFFEES OF THE WORLD + + _The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North + America, Central America, South America, the West India Islands, + Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies--A + statistical study of the distribution of the principal kinds--A + commercial coffee chart of the world's leading growths, with market + names and general trade characteristics_ + + +A study of the geographical distribution of the coffee tree shows that +it is grown in well-defined tropical limits. The coffee belt of the +world lies between the tropic of cancer and the tropic of capricorn. The +principal coffee consuming countries are nearly all to be found in the +north temperate zone, between the tropic of cancer and the arctic +circle. + +The leading commercial coffees of the world are listed in the +accompanying commercial coffee chart, which shows at a glance their +general trade character. The cultural methods of the producing countries +are discussed in chapter XX; statistics in chapter XXII; and the trade +characteristics, in detail, in chapter XXIV, which considers also +countries and coffees not so important in a commercial sense. Mexico is +the principal producing country in the northern part of the western +continent, and Brazil in the southern part. In Africa, the eastern coast +furnishes the greater part of the supply; while in Asia, the Netherlands +Indies, British India, and Arabia lead. + +Within the last two decades there has been an expansion of the +production areas in South America, Africa, and in southeastern Asia; and +a contraction in British India and the Netherlands Indies. + + +_The Shifting Coffee Currents of the World_ + +Seldom does the coffee drinker realize how the ends of the earth are +drawn upon to bring the perfected beverage to his lips. The trail that +ends in his breakfast cup, if followed back, would be found to go a +devious and winding way, soon splitting up into half-a-dozen or more +straggling branches that would lead to as many widely scattered regions. +If he could mount to a point where he could enjoy a bird's-eye view of +these and a hundred kindred trails, he would find an intricate +criss-cross of streamlets and rivers of coffee forming a tangled pattern +over the tropics and reaching out north and south to all civilized +countries. This would be a picture of the coffee trade of the world. + +It would be a motion picture, with the rivulets swelling larger at +certain seasons, but seldom drying up entirely at any time. In the main +the streamlets and rivers keep pretty much the same direction and volume +one year after another, but then there is also a quiet shifting of these +currents. Some grow larger, and others diminish gradually until they +fade out entirely. In one of the regions from which they take their +source a tree disease may cause a decline; in another, a hurricane may +lay the industry low at one quick stroke; and in still another, a rival +crop may drain away the life-blood of capital. But for the most part, +when times are normal, the shift is gradual; for international trade is +conservative, and likes to run where it finds a well-worn channel. + +In recent times, of course, the big disturbing element in the coffee +trade was the World War. Whole countries were cut out of the market, +shipping was drained away from every sea lane, stocks were piled high in +exporting ports, prices were fixed, imports were sharply restricted, and +the whole business of coffee trading was thrown out of joint. To what +extent has the world returned to normal in this trade? Were the +stoppages in trade merely temporary suspensions, or are they to prove +permanent? How are the old, long-worn channels filling up again, now +that the dams have been taken away? + +We are now far enough removed from the war to begin to answer these +questions. We find our answer in the export figures of the chief +producing countries, which for the most part are now available in detail +for one or two post-war years. These figures are given in the tables +below; and for comparison, there are also given figures showing the +distribution of exports in 1913 and in an earlier year near the +beginning of the century. These figures, of course, do not necessarily +give an accurate index to normal trade; as in any given year some +abnormal happening, such as an exceptionally large crop or a revolution, +may affect exports drastically as compared with years before and after. +But normally the proportions of a country's exports going to its various +customers are fairly constant one year after another, and can be taken +for any given year as showing approximately the coffee currents of that +period. + +The figures following are for the calendar year unless the fiscal year +is indicated. Where figures could not be obtained from the original +statistical publications, they have been supplied as far as possible +from consular reports. + +BRAZIL. The war naturally increased the dependence of Brazil on its +chief customer, and the proportion of the total crop coming to this +country since the war has continued to be large. Shipments to United +States ports in 1920 represented about fifty-four percent of the total +exports. Figures for that year indicate also that France and Belgium +were working back to their normal trade; but that Spain, Great Britain, +and the Netherlands were taking much less coffee than in the year just +before the war. Germany was buying strongly again, her purchases of +72,000,000 pounds being about half as much as in 1913. Shipments to +Italy were four times as heavy as in 1913. The natural return to normal +was much interfered with by speculation and valorization. Brazil seems +to have come through the cataclysmic period of the war in better style +than might have been expected. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM BRAZIL + 1900 1913 1920 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 566,686,345 650,071,337 826,425,340 +France 78,408,862 244,295,282 203,694,212 +Great Britain 6,442,739 32,559,715 9,597,378 +Germany 235,131,881 246,767,144 72,196,934 +Aus.-Hungary 71,696,556 134,495,310 +Netherlands 102,711,887 196,169,240 49,760,767 +Italy 17,559,107 31,364,656 132,543,798 +Spain 868,617 14,407,906 6,057,833 +Belgium 41,500,638 58,858,562 42,309,469 +Other countries 59,432,882 145,896,327 181,796,919 + ------------- ------------- ------------- +Total 1,180,439,514 1,754,885,479 1,524,382,650 + +The 1900 figures are for the ports of Rio, Santos, Bahia, and Victoria. + +"Other countries" in 1913 included Argentina, 32,941,182 pounds; Sweden, +28,045,737 pounds; Cape Colony, 15,930,731 pounds; Denmark, 6,252,931 +pounds. In 1920 they included Argentina, 37,736,498 pounds; Sweden, +51,026,591 pounds; Denmark, 18,764,483 pounds; Cape Colony, 26,936,653 +pounds. + +VENEZUELA. Venezuela's coffee trade was deeply affected by the war; both +because the Germans were prominent in the industry, and because the +regular shipping service to Europe was discontinued. Large amounts of +coffee were piled up at the ports and elsewhere; and when the +restrictions were swept away in 1919, an abnormal exportation resulted. +Although Germany had been one of the chief buyers before the war, +Venezuela was by no means dependent on the German market. In fact, her +combined shipments to France and the United States, just before the war, +were three times as great as her exports to Germany. These two countries +took two-thirds of her total exports in 1920. Spain and the Netherlands +were also prominent buyers. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM VENEZUELA + 1906 1913 1920 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 35,704,398 45,570,268 43,670,191 +France 21,748,370 46,413,174 4,647,978 +Germany 5,270,814 32,203,972 546,363 +Aus.-Hungary 289,851 3,015,723 +Spain 3,133,012 7,372,839 15,210,756 +Netherlands 28,549,920 2,903,806 1,836,209 +Italy 315,293 2,805,948 719,850 +Great Britain 404,720 98,796 1,518,175 +Other countries 2,663,507 1,631,143 5,577,110 + ------------- ------------- ------------- +Total 98,079,885 142,015,669 73,726,632 + +COMMERCIAL COFFEE CHART + +_The World's Leading Growths, with Market Names and General +Trade Characteristics_ + +--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------------------- +Grand Division| Country |Principal|Best Known |Trade Characteristics + | | Shipping| Market | + | | Ports | Names | +--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------------------- +North |Mexico |Vera Cruz|Coatepec |Greenish to yellow +America | | |Huatusco |bean; mild flavor. + | | |Orizaba | +Central |Guatemala |Puerto |Cobán |Waxy, bluish bean; +America | | Barrios |Antigua |mellow flavor. + |Salvador |La |Santa Ana |Smooth, green bean; + | |Libertad |Santa Tecla|neutral flavor. + |Costa |Puerto |Costa Ricas|Blue-greenish bean; + |Rica |Limon | |mild flavor. +--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------------------- +West |Haiti |Cape |Haiti |Blue bean; rich, +Indies | |Haitien | |fairly acid; sweet + | | | |flavor. + |Santo |Santo |Santo |Flat, greenish-yellow + |Domingo |Domingo |Domingo |bean; strong flavor. + |Jamaica |Kingston |Blue |Bluish-green bean; + | | |Mountain |rich, full flavor. + |Porto | Ponce |Porto |Gray-blue bean; + |Rico | |Ricans |strong, heavy flavor. +--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------------------- +South |Colombia |Savanilla|Medellin |Greenish-yellow bean; +America | | |Manizales, |rich, mellow flavor. + | | |Bogota | + | | |Bucaramanga| + |Venezuela |La Guaira|Merida |Greenish-yellow bean; + | |Maracaibo|Cucuta |mild, mellow flavor. + | | |Caracas | + |Brazil |Santos |Santos |Small bean; mild + | | | |flavor. + | |Rio de |Rio |Large bean; strong + | |Janeiro | |cup. +--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------------------- +Asia |Arabia |Aden |Mocha |Small, short, green + | | | |to yellow bean; + | | | |unique, mild flavor. + |India |Madras |Mysore |Small to large, + | |Calicut |Coorg |blue-green bean; + | | |(Kurg) |strong flavor. +--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------------------- +East India |Malay |Penang |Straits |Liberian and Robusta +Islands |States |(Geo't'n)| |growths from + | |Singapore|Liberian, |Malaysia. + | | |Robusta | + |Sumatra |Padang |Mandheling |Large, yellow to + | | |Ankola |brown bean; heavy + | | |Ayer |body; exquisite + | | |Bangies |flavor. + |Java |Batavia |Preanger |Small, blue to + | | |Cheribon, |yellow bean; + | | |Kroe |light in cup. + |Celebes |Menado |Minahassa |Large, yellow bean; + | |Macassar | |aromatic cup. +--------------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------------------- +Africa |Abyssinia |Jibuti |Harar |Large, blue to yellow + | | |Abyssinia |bean; very like + | | | |Mocha. +Pacific |Hawaiian |Honolulu |Kona |Large, blue, flinty +Islands |Islands | |Puna |bean; mildly acid. + |Philippines|Manila |Manila |Yellow and brown large + | | | |bean; mild cup. +--------------+---------+-----------+-----------+--------------------- + +COLOMBIA. Colombian statistics of foreign trade are issued very +irregularly, and no figures are available to afford comparison between +pre-war and post-war trade. The figures below, however, will show the +comparative amounts of coffee going to the chief buying countries at +different periods. From these it will be seen that the countries mainly +interested in the trade in Colombian coffee are those prominent in the +trade in other tropical American sections. England, France, Germany, and +the United States took the great bulk of the exports. A consular report +written after the outbreak of the war says: + + Prior to the war the United States took about seventy percent of + Colombia's coffee crop; the remainder being about equally divided + between England, France, and Germany, with England taking the + largest share. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM COLOMBIA[A] +(From Barranquilla only) + + 1899 1905 1916 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +Great Britain 22,573,828 7,268,429 442,026 +France 6,873,722 496,120 1,685,454 +Germany 9,348,028 8,568,131 +United States 17,991,500 43,518,704 134,292,858 +Other countries 7,396,385 23,753,678 + ---------- ---------- ----------- +Total 56,787,078 67,247,769 160,174,016 + +[A] These figures are taken from a consular report, which gave +statistics only for the port of Barranquilla and did not include the +total shipments from that port. Shipments from Cartagena, the only other +exporting port of any consequence, amounted to 7,836,505 pounds, +destination not stated. The Barranquilla figures, in the absence of +official statistics, can be taken as fairly representative of the total +trade so far as destination is concerned. They are for fiscal years, +ending June 30. + +"Other countries" in 1916 included Italy, 1,135,137 pounds; Venezuela, +20,564,321 pounds; Dutch West Indies, 400,132 pounds. + +CENTRAL AMERICA. The three largest producing countries of Central +America, Guatemala, Salvador, and Costa Rica, were all closely linked to +Germany by the coffee trade before the war. German capital was heavily +invested in coffee plantations; German houses had branches in the +principal cities; and German ships regularly served the chief ports. +Accordingly, when the blockade became effective, these countries were +placed in a difficult position. But fortunately for them, a special +effort had been made shortly before by Pacific-coast interests in the +United States to divert a part of the coffee trade to San Francisco[313] +The market to the east being shut off, these countries turned naturally +to the north. This trade with the United States has apparently been +firmly established, and there has not yet been much of a return to +German ports. + +GUATEMALA. Of the three countries named, Guatemala was the most heavily +involved in German trade. In 1913 she sent to Germany 53,000,000 pounds +of coffee, a fifth more than in 1900. Her shipments of more than +10,000,000 pounds to the United Kingdom were about the same as at the +beginning of the century. The war turned both these currents into United +States ports, and they continued to flow in that direction through 1920. +The figures follow: + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM GUATEMALA + + 1900 1913 1920 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +Germany 44,416,064 53,232,910 452,206 +United States 14,057,120 21,188,444 78,226,508 +United Kingdom 11,467,680 10,666,604 2,341,217 +Other countries 3,041,584 6,641,936 13,185,638 + ---------- ---------- ---------- +Total 72,982,448 91,729,894 94,205,569 + +"Other countries" in 1913 included Austria-Hungary, 4,205,400 pounds; +Netherlands, 407,900 pounds. In 1920, they included Netherlands, +10,355,625 pounds; Sweden, 422,421 pounds; Norway, 57,408 pounds; Spain, +97,519 pounds; France, 27,956 pounds. + +SALVADOR. Salvador is one of the countries in which the publication of +foreign-trade statistics has been irregular in the past, and none is +available to show the full trade in coffee at the beginning of the +century. A consular report gives figures for the first half of 1900. The +most recent statistics show that the United States still holds much of +the trade gained during the war, although Salvador is sending to +Scandinavian countries many millions of pounds of her coffee that came +to the United States in war-time. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM SALVADOR + + 1900 (1st 6 mos.) 1913 1920 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 6,700,101 10,779,655 46,262,256 +France 22,948,712 15,955,920 6,686,714 +Germany 6,607,892 12,120,133 813,166 +Great Britain 4,396,465 3,415,187 4,226,061 +Italy 4,322,003 9,538,976 +Aus.-Hungary 1,335,626 3,557,482 +Belgium 210,834 5,508 3,104 +Spain 24,799 377,729 364,296 +Other countries 3,920 7,193,107 24,509,071 + ---------- ---------- ---------- +Total 46,550,352 62,943,697 82,864,668 + +"Other countries" in 1913 included Norway, 2,070,220 pounds; Sweden, +2,238,332 pounds; Netherlands, 738,694 pounds; Chile, 609,441 pounds; +Russia, 95,625 pounds; Denmark, 140,665 pounds. In 1920, they included +Norway, 10,726,375 pounds; Chile, 1,772,346 pounds; Netherlands, +1,071,614 pounds; Sweden, 9,635,947 pounds; Denmark, 1,061,772 pounds. + +[Illustration: A FLOURISHING COFFEE ESTATE IN CHIAPAS, MEXICO] + +[Illustration: LABORERS BRINGING IN THE DAY'S PICKINGS, NEAR BOGOTA, +COLOMBIA] + +[Illustration: MILD-COFFEE CULTURE AND PREPARATION] + +COSTA RICA. English, French, and German capital was heavily invested in +Costa Rica before the war, and all three nations were interested in the +coffee trade. For many years England had maintained the lead as a coffee +customer, and shipments continued in large volume after the war. The +following figures are for the crop year ending September 30: + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM COSTA RICA + 1903 1913 1921 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 6,388,236 1,625,866 14,137,605 +Great Britain 27,756,661 23,464,827 13,418,527 +France 1,241,816 741,548 313,538 +Germany 2,676,841 2,581,055 376,649 +Other countries 147,925 288,521 1,155,066 + ---------- ---------- ---------- +Total 38,211,479 28,701,817 29,401,385 + +In 1900 total shipments were 35,496,055 pounds, of which 20,587,712 +pounds went to Great Britain; 8,874,014 pounds to the United States; and +3,904,566 pounds to Germany. + +"Other countries" in 1903 included Spain, 49,189 pounds; Italy, 4,104 +pounds. In 1921, they included Netherlands, 837,496 pounds; Spain, +308,308 pounds; Chile, 9,259 pounds. + +MEXICO. Mexico has naturally sent most of her coffee across the border +into the United States, and she continued to do so during and after the +war. But she had worked up a very important trade with Europe, chiefly +with Germany; and German capital, and German planters and merchants were +prominent in the industry. France and England also were interested in +the trade, and purchased annually several million pounds. During the +war, as shown by the exports in its final year, this trade almost +entirely ceased, and the United States and Spain remained as the only +consumers of Mexican coffee. Details of the after-war trade are not yet +available in published statistics. In the following table, 1900 and 1918 +are calendar years, and 1913 is a fiscal year. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM MEXICO + 1900 1913 1918 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 28,882,954 28,012,655 23,816,044 +Germany 10,074,001 10,461,382 +Aus.-Hungary 163,934 30,864 +Belgium 25,855 39,722 +Spain 546,132 184,941 6,184,494 +France 3,927,294 4,482,011 +Netherlands 220,607 46,296 +Great Britain 3,848,605 2,170,669 +Cuba 467,201 37,921 171,527 +Italy 157,653 347,758 +Other countries 655,073 + ---------- ---------- ---------- +Total 48,314,236 46,469,292 30,172,065 + +In 1913 "other countries" included Panama, 342,131 pounds; Canada, +276,567 pounds; Sweden, 3,079 pounds; British Honduras, 33,179 pounds; +Denmark, 112 pounds. + +JAMAICA. The French, more than any other peoples in Europe, have +cultivated a taste for coffee from the West Indies; and France normally +has led all other countries in shipments from the larger producing +islands, including Jamaica, although the island is a British possession. +In the year before the war, France bought nearly 4,000,000 pounds of +Jamaican coffee, more than half the total production. In the year +1900-01 also she took about 4,000,000 pounds, leading all other +countries. This trade was very much cut down during the war, but was not +wiped out. As shown in the figures for 1918, England largely took the +place of France in that year, and Canada increased her purchases several +hundred percent. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM JAMAICA + 1901 (fis. yr.) 1913 1918 + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +Great Britain 1,849,456 671,440 6,919,808 +Canada 109,536 263,872 1,819,328 +United States 2,976,512 802,032 643,888 +France 3,958,304 3,743,264 729,120 +Aus.-Hungary 104,272 303,296 +Cuba 114,800 +Barbados 226,464 26,992 +Other countries 508,704 507,248 97,440 + ---------- ---------- ---------- +Total 9,621,584 6,517,616 10,236,576 + +"Other countries" in 1901 included British West Indies, 316,512 pounds. +In 1913, they included Netherlands, 125,216 pounds; Norway, 28,896 +pounds; Sweden, 70,224 pounds; Italy, 46,592 pounds; Australia, 71,456 +pounds. + +HAITI. Prior to the taking over of the administration of the customs of +Haiti by the United States, detailed statistics of the exports are +almost wholly lacking. France took most of the annual production, +continuing a trade that dated back to old colonial times. An American +consular report says: + + Before the war there was no market for Haitian coffee in the United + States, practically the entire crop going to Europe, with France as + the largest consumer. However, there has been for some time past a + determined effort made to create a demand in the United States, and + this is said to be meeting with ever-increasing success. + +The actual success achieved can be measured by the following figures for +the fiscal year ended September 30, 1920: + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM HAITI + + Exported to Pounds +United States 27,647,077 +France 23,921,083 +Great Britain 39,583 +Other countries 10,362,351 + __________ +Total 61,970,094 + +These figures do not include 6,322,167 pounds of coffee triage, or +waste, of which the United States took 2,028,352 pounds; France, +1,491,507 pounds. + +DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. The comparatively small production of the Dominican +Republic was divided among the United States and three or four European +countries before the war. Since the war the exports have been scattered +among the former customers in varying amounts. Germany is again a buyer, +although her purchases have not come back to anything like the pre-war +level. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC + + 1906 1913 1920 +Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 564,291 506,456 529,831 +France 569,215 1,248,418 454,165 +Germany 1,562,193 327,843 69,224 +Italy [B] 195,294 51,543 +Cuba [B] 25,628 132,569 +Great Britain [B] 660 54,114 +Other countries 221,028 8,154 70,220 + _________ _________ _________ +Total 2,916,727 2,312,453 1,361,666 + +[B] No shipments, or included in "other countries." + +"Other countries" in 1920 included only the Netherlands. + +PORTO RICO. In spite of several attempts on the part of Porto-Rican +planters to make their product popular in the markets of the United +States, the American consumer has never found the taste of that coffee +to his liking. The big market for the Porto-Rican product has been Cuba, +which has depended on her neighbor for most of her supply. This demand +takes a large part of the annual crop, including the lower grades. The +better grades, before the war, went largely to Europe, mostly to the +Latin countries. During the war, the Cuban market carried the +Porto-Rican planters through, although shipments of considerable size +continued to go to France and Spain. Recovery of the pre-war trade with +Europe, however, has been slow, Spain being the only country to take +over 1,000,000 pounds in 1920. Shipments to that country totaled +3,472,204 pounds; those to France, 900,868 pounds. Both countries +increased their purchases considerably in 1921. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM PORTO RICO + + 1900-01 (fis. yr.) 1913 1921 +Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 29,565 628,843 211,531 +France 3,348,025 6,020,170 1,625,065 +Spain 2,590,096 6,851,235 5,705,932 +Aus.-Hungary 386,158 6,729,726 +Germany 493,891 876,315 363,993 +Belgium 9,964 25,867 234,019 +Italy 611,033 3,498,157 43,484 +Netherlands 8,860 497,938 25,199 +Sweden 32,390[C] 633,046 266,550 +Cuba 4,633,538 23,179,690 21,135,397 +Other countries 13,720 393,586 356,709 + _________ _________ _________ +Total 12,157,240 49,334,573 29,967,879 + +[C] Includes Norway. + +HAWAII. The war disarranged Hawaii's coffee trade very little, as she +had for many years been shipping chiefly to continental United States. +Recently a considerable trade with the Philippines has developed. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM HAWAII + + 1901-02 (fis. yr.) 1913 1921 +Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +United States 1,082,994 3,393,009 4,183,046 +Canada 77,900 10,200 11,355 +Japan 24,155 49,167 23,950 +Germany 2,100 1,612 +Philippines [D] 932,640 747,700 +Other countries 23,349 49,179 13,070 + _________ _________ _________ +Total 1,210,498 4,435,807 4,979,121 + +[D] No exports, or included in "other countries." + +ADEN. Lying on the edge of the war area and on the road to India, Aden +felt the full force of the disarrangement of commercial traffic by the +war. Ordinarily, Aden is not only the chief outlet for the coffee of the +interior of Arabia--the original "Mocha"--but it is also the +transhipping point for large amounts from Africa and India. The figures +given below relate for the most part to this transhipped coffee. Exports +of coffee from Aden go chiefly to the United Kingdom, France, and the +United States, and to other ports of Arabia and Africa. Before the war +no great proportion went to the Central Powers. The following figures +apply to fiscal years ending March 31: + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM ADEN + + 1901 (fis. yr.) 1914 (fis. yr.) 1921 (fis. yr.) +Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +Great Britain 1,563,632 696,976 466,928 +United States 2,412,368 4,300,128 2,507,344 +France 3,789,296 2,975,840 814,016 +Egypt 1,024,576 3,108,336 +Arab. Gulf Pts. 860,160 852,320 606,592 +Germany 247,184 465,136 +Aus.-Hungary 341,152 553,952 +Italy 197,568 811,664 7,504 +Br. Somaliland 280,224 23,408 +[E] Africa 337,344 2,390,640 292,880 +Other countries 1,114,848 2,500,456 1,659,504 + _________ _________ _________ +Total 12,168,352 15,570,520 9,463,104 + +[E] Including adjacent islands, but exclusive of British territory. + +"Other countries" in 1914 included Australia, 222,320 pounds; Perim, +142,016 pounds; Zanzibar, 148,848 pounds; Mauritius, 154,672 pounds; +Seychelles, 116,704 pounds; Sweden, 118,720 pounds; Norway, 49,168 +pounds; Russia, 196,448 pounds. In 1921, they included Denmark, 120,624 +pounds; Spain, 124,208 pounds; Massowah, 410,704 pounds. + +BRITISH INDIA. As India's trade before the war was chiefly with the +mother country, with France, and with Ceylon, the return to normal has +been rapid. In the year following the war, these three customers were +again credited with the largest amounts exported from India, except for +shipments to Greece, which took little before the war. The following +figures are for the fiscal years ending March 31: + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM BRITISH INDIA + + 1901 (fis. yr.) 1914 (fis. yr.) 1920(fis. yr.) + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +Great Britain 15,678,768 10,343,536 8,138,144 +Ceylon 1,088,528 1,428,112 1,423,072 +France 8,430,016 10,924,816 9,256,352 +Belgium 617,792 1,021,664 +Germany 126,560 1,033,088 25,312 +Aus.-Hungary 123,312 1,358,896 8,400 +Italy 23,968 22,624 30,912 +United States 54,096 16,576 +Turkey in Asia 232,176 501,984 986,720 +[F] Africa 118,272 113,344 619,696 +Other countries 1,106,784 2,360,736 10,021,648 + ---------- ---------- ---------- +Total 27,600,272 29,108,800 30,526,832 + +[F] Including adjacent islands. + +"Other countries" in 1914 included Netherlands, 238,560 pounds; +Australia, 748,608 pounds; Bahrein Islands, 757,568 pounds. In 1920, +they included Greece, 6,487,376 pounds; Australia, 481,152 pounds; +Bahrein Islands, 1,081,696 pounds; Aden and dependencies, 459,984 +pounds; other Arabian ports, 890,176 pounds. + +DUTCH EAST INDIES. The war played havoc with the coffee trade of the +Dutch East Indies, taking away shipping, closing trade routes, and +causing immense quantities of coffee to pile up in the warehouses. When +the war ended, this coffee was released; and trade was consequently +again abnormal, although in the opposite direction from that it took +during war years. The 1920 figures indicate that the trade is working +back into its old channels. + +COFFEE EXPORTS FROM DUTCH EAST INDIES + 1900 1913 1920[G] + Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds +Netherlands 81,489,000 33,323,748[H] [H]50,028,815 +Great Britain 88,000 981,201 5,987,598 +France 2,560,000 9,081,715[H] 5,410,582 +Aus.-Hungary 1,153,000 996,988 +Germany 71,000 997,715[H] 75,699 +Egypt 5,494,000 104,868 1,418,313 +United States 8,408,000 5,695,180 17,274,522 +Singapore 9,952,000 4,785,580 8,349,415 +Other countries 2,965,000 7,831,732 10,475,509 + ----------- ---------- ----------- +Total 112,180,000 63,798,727 99,020,453 + +[G] These figures cover only Java and Madura. + +[H] Includes shipments "for orders." + +"Other countries" in 1920 included, Norway, 2,606,421 pounds; Sweden, +728,580 pounds; Australia, 1,553,495 pounds; British India, 1,912,541 +pounds; Italy, 1,964,109 pounds; Denmark, 1,191,643 pounds; Belgium, +166,092 pounds. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: COFFEE TREE IN BEARING AT THE GOVERNMENTAL EXPERIMENT +STATION AT LAMOA, NEAR MANILA, P.I.] + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +CULTIVATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT + + _The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia--Coffee + cultivation in general--Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, + propagation, preparing the plantation, shade and wind breaks, + fertilizing, pruning, catch crops, pests, and diseases--How coffee + is grown around the world--Cultivation in all the principal + producing countries_ + + +For the beginnings of coffee culture we must go back to the Arabian +colony of Harar in Abyssinia, for here it was, about the fifteenth +century, that the Arabs, having found the plant growing wild in the +Abyssinian highlands, first gave it intensive cultivation. The complete +story of the early cultivation of coffee in the old and new worlds is +told in chapter II, which deals with the history of the propagation of +the coffee plant. + +La Roque[314] was the first to tell how the plant was cultivated and the +berries prepared for market in Arabia, where it was brought from +Abyssinia. + +The Arabs raised it from seed grown in nurseries, transplanting it to +plantations laid out in the foot-hills of the mountains, to which they +conducted the mountain streams by ingeniously constructed small channels +to water the roots. They built trenches three feet wide and five feet +deep, lining them with pebbles to cause the water to sink deep into the +earth with which the trenches were filled, to preserve the moisture from +too rapid evaporation. These were so constructed that the water could be +turned off into other channels when the fruit began to ripen. In +plantations exposed to the south, a kind of poplar tree was planted +along the trenches to supply needful shade. + +La Roque noted that the coffee trees in Yemen were planted in lines, +like the apple trees in Normandy; and that when they were much exposed +to the sun, the shade poplars were regularly introduced between the +rows. + +Such cultivation as the plant received in early Abyssinia and Arabia was +crude and primitive at best. Throughout the intervening centuries, there +has been little improvement in Yemen; but modern cultural methods obtain +in the Harar district in Abyssinia. + +Like the Arabs in Yemen, the Harari cultivated in small gardens, +employing the same ingenious system of irrigation from mountain springs +to water the roots of the plants at least once a week during the dry +season. In Yemen and in Abyssinia the ripened berries were sun-dried on +beaten-earth barbecues. + +The European planters who carried the cultivation of the bean to the Far +East and to America followed the best Arabian practise, changing, and +sometimes improving it, in order to adapt it to local conditions. + + +_Coffee Cultivation in General_ + +Today the commercial growers of coffee on a large scale practise +intensive cultivation methods, giving the same care to preparing their +plantations and maintaining their trees as do other growers of grains +and fruits. As in the more advanced methods of arboriculture, every +effort is made to obtain the maximum production of quality coffee +consistent with the smallest outlay of money and labor. Experimental +stations in various parts of the world are constantly working to improve +methods and products, and to develop types that will resist disease and +adverse climatic conditions. + +While cultivation methods in the different producing countries vary in +detail of practise, the principles are unchanging. Where methods do +differ, it is owing principally to local economic conditions, such as +the supply and cost of labor, machinery, fertilizers, and similar +essential factors. + +[Illustration: IMPLEMENTS USED IN EARLY ARABIAN COFFEE CULTURE + +1, Plow. 2 and 3, Mattocks. 4, Hatchet and sickle. Top, Seeder +Implement] + +SOIL. Rocky ground that pulverizes easily--and, if possible, of volcanic +origin--is best for coffee; also, soil rich in decomposed mold. In +Brazil the best soil is known as _terra roxa_, a topsoil of red clay +three or four feet thick with a gravel subsoil. + +CLIMATE. The natural habitat of the coffee tree (all species) is +tropical Africa, where the climate is hot and humid, and the soil rich +and moist, yet sufficiently friable to furnish well drained seed beds. +These conditions must be approximated when the tree is grown in other +countries. Because the trees and fruit generally can not withstand +frost, they are restricted to regions where the mean annual temperature +is about 70° F., with an average minimum about 55°, and an average +maximum of about 80°. Where grown in regions subject to more or less +frost, as in the northernmost parts of Brazil's coffee-producing +district, which lie almost within the south temperate zone, the coffee +trees are sometimes frosted, as was the case in 1918, when about forty +percent of the São Paulo crop and trees suffered. + +Generally speaking, the most suitable climate for coffee is a temperate +one within the tropics; however, it has been successfully cultivated +between latitudes 28° north and 38° south. + +RAINFALL. Although able to grow satisfactorily only on well drained +land, the coffee tree requires an abundance of water, about seventy +inches of rainfall annually, and must have it supplied evenly throughout +the year. Prolonged droughts are fatal; while, on the other hand, too +great a supply of water tends to develop the wood of the tree at the +expense of the flowers and fruit, especially in low-lying regions. + +ALTITUDE. Coffee is found growing in all altitudes, from sea-level up to +the frost-line, which is about 6,000 feet in the tropics. _Robusta_ and +_liberica_ varieties of coffee do best in regions from sea-level up to +3,000 feet, while _arabica_ flourishes better at the higher levels. + +Carvalho says that the coffee plant needs sun, but that a few hours +daily exposure is sufficient. Hilly ground has the advantage of offering +the choice of a suitable exposure, as the sun shines on it for only a +part of the day. Whether it is the early morning or the afternoon sun +that enables the plant to attain its optimum conditions is a question of +locality. + +[Illustration: CROSS SECTION OF MOUNTAIN SLOPE IN YEMEN, ARABIA, SHOWING +COFFEE TERRACES + +These miniature plantations are found chiefly along the caravan route +between Hodeida and Sanaa] + +[Illustration: CLEARING VIRGIN FOREST FOR A COFFEE ESTATE IN MEXICO] + +[Illustration: COFFEE NURSERY UNDER A BAMBOO ROOF IN COLOMBIA] + +[Illustration: THE FIRST STEPS IN COFFEE GROWING] + +In Mexico, Romero tells us, the highlands of Soconusco have the +advantage that the sun does not shine on the trees during the whole of +the day. On the higher slopes of the Cordilleras--from 2,500 feet above +sea-level--clouds prevail during the summer season, when the sun is +hottest, and are frequently present in the other seasons, after ten +o'clock in the morning. These keep the trees from being exposed to the +heat of the sun during the whole of the day. Perhaps to this +circumstance is due the superior excellence of certain coffees grown in +Mexico, Colombia, and Sumatra at an altitude of 3,000 feet to 4,000 feet +above sea-level. + +Richard Spruce, the botanist, in his notes on South America, as quoted +by Alfred Russel Wallace,[315] refers to "a zone of the equatorial Andes +ranging between 4,000 and 6,000 feet altitude, where the best flavored +coffee is grown." + +PROPAGATION. Coffee trees are grown most generally from seeds selected +from trees of known productivity and longevity; although in some parts +of the world propagation is done from shoots or cuttings. The seed +method is most general, however, the seeds being either propagated in +nursery beds, or planted at once in the spot where the mature tree is to +stand. In the latter case--called planting at stake--four or five seeds +are planted, much as corn is sown; and after germination, all but the +strongest plant are removed. + +Where the nursery method is followed, the choicest land of the +plantation is chosen for its site; and the seeds are planted in forcing +beds, sometimes called cold-frames. When the plants are to be +transplanted direct to the plantation, the seeds are generally sown six +inches apart and in rows separated by the same distance, and are covered +with only a slight sprinkling of earth. When the plants are to be +transferred from the first bed to another, and then to the plantation, +the seeds are sown more thickly; and the plants are "pricked" out as +needed, and set out in another forcing bed. + +During the six to seven weeks required for the coffee seed to germinate, +the soil must be kept moist and shaded and thoroughly weeded. If the +trees are to be grown without shade, the young plants are gradually +exposed to the sun, to harden them, before they begin their existence in +the plantation proper. + +[Illustration: COFFEE TREE NURSERY, PANAJABAL, POCHUTA, GUATEMALA] + +[Illustration: DRYING GROUNDS AND FACTORY IN THE PREANGER REGENCY] + +[Illustration: NATIVE TRANSPORT, FIELD TO FACTORY, AT DRAMAGA, NEAR +BUITENZORG] + +[Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN JAVA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES] + +Considerable experimental work has been done in renewing trees by +grafting, notably in Java; but practically all commercial planters +follow the seed method. + +[Illustration: COFFEE GROWING UNDER SHADE, PORTO RICO] + +PREPARING THE PLANTATION. Before transplanting time has come, the +plantation itself has been made ready to receive the young plants. +Coffee plantations are generally laid out on heavily wooded and sloping +lands, most often in forests on mountainsides and plateaus, where there +is an abundance of water, of which large quantities are used in +cultivating the trees and in preparing the coffee beans for market. The +soil most suitable is friable, sandy, or even gravelly, with an +abundance of rocks to keep the soil comparatively cool and well drained, +as well as to supply a source of food by action of the weather. The +ideal soil is one that contains a large proportion of potassium and +phosphoric acid; and for that reason, the general practise is to burn +off the foliage and trees covering the land and to use the ashes as +fertilizer. + +In preparing the soil for the new plantation under the intensive +cultivation method, the surface of the land is lightly plowed, and then +followed up with thorough cultivation. When transplanting time comes, +which is when the plant is about a year old, and stands from twelve to +eighteen inches high with its first pairs of primary branches, the +plants are set out in shallow holes at regular intervals of from eight +to twelve, or even fourteen, feet apart. This gives room for the root +system to develop, provides space for sunlight to reach each tree, and +makes for convenience in cultivating and harvesting. _Liberica_ and +_robusta_ type trees require more room than _arabica._ When set twelve +feet apart, which is the general practise, with the same distance +maintained between rows, there are approximately four hundred and fifty +trees to the acre. In the triangle, or hexagon, system the trees are +planted in the form of an equilateral triangle, each tree being the same +distance (usually eight or nine feet) from its six nearest neighbors. +This system permits of 600 to 800 trees per acre. + +SHADE AND WIND BREAKS. Strong, chilly winds and intensely hot sunlight +are foes of coffee trees, especially of the _arabica_ variety. +Accordingly, in most countries it is customary to protect the plantation +with wind-breaks consisting of rugged trees, and to shade the coffee by +growing trees of other kinds between the rows. The shade trees serve +also to check soil erosion; and in the case of the leguminous kinds, to +furnish nutriment to the soil. Coffee does best in shade such as is +afforded by the silk oak (_Grevillea robusta_). In _Shade in Coffee +Culture_ (_Bulletin_ 25, 1901, division of botany, United States +Department of Agriculture), O.F. Cook goes extensively into this +subject. + +The methods employed in the care of a coffee plantation do not differ +materially from those followed by advanced orchardists in the colder +fruit-belts of the world. After the young plants have gained their +start, they are cultivated frequently, principally to keep out the +weeds, to destroy pests, and to aerate the earth. The implements used +range from crude hand-plows to horse-drawn cultivators. + +FERTILIZING. Comparatively little fertilizing is done on plantations +established on virgin soil until the trees begin to bear, which occurs +when they are about three years of age. Because the coffee tree takes +potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid from the soil, the scheme of +fertilizing is to restore these elements. The materials used to replace +the soil-constituents consist of stable manure, leguminous plants, +coffee-tree prunings, leaves, certain weeds, oil cake, bone and fish +meal, guano, wood ashes, coffee pulp and parchment, and such chemical +fertilizers as superphosphate of lime, basic slag, sulphate of ammonia, +nitrate of lime, sulphate of potash, nitrate of potash, and similar +materials. + +The relative values of these fertilizers depend largely upon local +climate and soil conditions, the supply, the cost, and other like +factors. The chemical fertilizers are coming into increasing use in the +larger and more economically advanced producing countries. Brazil, +particularly, is showing in late years a tendency toward their adoption +to make up for the dwindling supply of the so-called natural manures. As +the coffee tree grows older, it requires a larger supply of fertilizer. + +[Illustration: THE FAMOUS BOEKIT GOMPONG ESTATE, NEAR PADANG, ON +SUMATRA'S WEST COAST + +Showing the healthy, regular appearance of well-cultivated coffee +bushes, twenty-six years old. Also note the line of feathery bamboo +wind-breaks] + +PRUNING. On the larger plantations, pruning is an important part of the +cultivation processes. If left to their own devices, coffee trees +sometimes grow as high as forty feet, the strength being absorbed by the +wood, with a consequent scanty production of fruit. To prevent this +undesirable result, and to facilitate picking, the trees on the more +modern plantations are pruned down to heights ranging from six to twelve +feet. Except for pruning the roots when transplanting, the tree is +permitted to grow until after producing its first full crop before any +cutting takes place. Then, the branches are severely cut back; and +thereafter, pruning is carried on annually. Topping and pruning begin +between the first and the second years. + +[Illustration: COFFEE ESTATE IN ANTIOQUIA, COLOMBIA, SHOWING +WIND-BREAKS] + +Coffee trees as a rule produce full crops from the sixth to the +fifteenth year, although some trees have given a paying crop until +twenty or thirty years old. Ordinarily the trees bear from one-half +pound to eight pounds of coffee annually, although there are accounts of +twelve pounds being obtained per tree. Production is mostly governed by +the cultivation given the tree, and by climate, soil, and location. When +too old to bear profitable yields, the trees on commercial plantations +are cut down to the level of the ground; and are renewed by permitting +only the strongest sprout springing out of the stump to mature. + +CATCH CROPS. On some plantations it has become the practise to grow +catch crops between the rows of coffee trees, both as a means of +obtaining additional revenue and to shade the young coffee plants. Corn, +beans, cotton, peanuts, and similar plants are most generally used. + +PESTS AND DISEASES. The coffee tree, its wood, foliage, and fruit, have +their enemies, chief among which are insects, fungi, rodents (the +"coffee rat"), birds, squirrels, and--according to Rossignon--elephants, +buffalo, and native cattle, which have a special liking for the tender +leaves of the coffee plant. Insects and fungi are the most bothersome +pests on most plantations. Among the insects, the several varieties of +borers are the principal foes, boring into the wood of the trunk and +branches to lay _larvae_ which sap the life from the tree. There are +scale insects whose excretion forms a black mold on the leaves and +affects the nutrition by cutting off the sunlight. Numerous kinds of +beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and crickets attack the coffee-tree +leaves, the so-called "leaf-miner" being especially troublesome. The +Mediterranean fruit fly deposits _larvae_ which destroy or lessen the +worth of the coffee berry by tunneling within and eating the contents of +the parchment. The coffee-berry beetle and its grub also live within the +coffee berry. + +Among the most destructive fungoid diseases is the so-called Ceylon leaf +disease, which is caused by the _Hemileia vastatrix_, a fungus related +to the wheat rust. It was this disease which ruined the coffee industry +in Ceylon, where it first appeared in 1869, and since has been found in +other coffee-producing regions of Asia and Africa. America has a similar +disease, caused by the _Sphaerostilbe flavida_, that is equally +destructive if not vigilantly guarded against. (See chapters XV and +XVI.) + +The coffee-tree roots also are subject to attack. There is the root +disease, prevalent in all countries, and for which no cause has yet been +definitely assigned, although it has been determined that it is of a +fungoid nature. Brazil, and some other American coffee-producing +countries, have a serious disease caused by the eelworm, and for that +reason called the eelworm disease. + +Coffee planters combat pests and diseases principally with sprays, as in +other lines of advanced arboriculture. It is a constant battle, +especially on the large commercial plantations, and constitutes a large +item on the expense sheet. + + +_Cultivation by Countries_ + +Coffee-cultivation methods vary somewhat in detail in the different +producing countries. The foregoing description covers the underlying +principles in practise throughout the world; while the following is +intended to show the local variations in vogue in the principal +countries of production, together with brief descriptions of the main +producing districts, the altitudes, character of soil, climate, and +other factors that are peculiar to each country. In general, they are +considered in the order of their relative importance as producing +countries. + +BRAZIL. In Brazil, the Giant of South America, and the world's largest +coffee producer, the methods of cultivation naturally have reached a +high point of development, although the soil and the climate were not at +first regarded as favorable. The year 1723 is generally accepted as the +date of the introduction of the coffee plant into Brazil from French +Guiana. Coffee planting was slow in developing, however, until 1732, +when the governor of the states of Pará and Maranhao urged its +cultivation. Sixteen years later, there were 17,000 trees in Pará. From +that year on, slow but steady progress was made; and by 1770, an export +trade had been begun from the port of Pará to countries in Europe. + +[Illustration: UP-TO-DATE WEEDING AND HARROWING, SÃO PAULO] + +The spread of the industry began about this time. The coffee tree was +introduced into the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1770. From there its +cultivation was gradually extended into the states of São Paulo, Minãs +Geraes, Bahia, and Espirito Santo, which have become the great +coffee-producing sections of Brazil. The cultivation of the plant did +not become especially noteworthy until the third decade of the +nineteenth century. Large crops were gathered in the season of 1842-43; +and by the middle of the century, the plantations were producing +annually more than 2,000,000 bags. + +[Illustration: Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. + +GENERAL VIEW OF FAZENDA DUMONT, RIBEIRAO PRETO, SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL] + +Brazil's commercial coffee-growing region has an estimated area of +approximately 1,158,000 square miles, and extends from the river Amazon +to the southern border of the state of São Paulo, and from the Atlantic +coast to the western boundary of the state of Matto Grosso. This area is +larger than that section of the United States lying east of the +Mississippi River, with Texas added. In every state of the republic, +from Ceará in the north to Santa Catharina in the south, the coffee tree +can be cultivated profitably; and is, in fact, more or less grown in +every state, if only for domestic use. However, little attention is +given to coffee-growing in the north, except in the state of Pernambuco, +which has only about 1,500,000 trees, as compared, with the 764,000,000 +trees of São Paulo in 1922. + +The chief coffee-growing plantations in Brazil are situated on plateaus +seldom less than 1,800 feet above sea-level, and ranging up to 4,000 +feet. The mean annual temperature is approximately 70° F., ranging from +a mean of 60.8° in winter to a mean of 72° in summer. The temperature +has been known, however, to register 32° in winter and 97.7° in summer. + +While coffee trees will grow in almost any part of Brazil, experience +indicates that the two most fertile soils, the _terra roxa_ and the +_massape_, lie in the "coffee belts." The _terra roxa_ is a dark red +earth, and is practically confined to São Paulo, and to it is due the +predominant coffee productivity of that state. _Massape_ is a yellow, +dark red--or even black--soil, and occurs more or less contiguous to the +_terra roxa_. With a covering of loose sand, it makes excellent coffee +land. + +Brazil planters follow the nursery-propagated method of planting, and +cultivate, prune, and spray their trees liberally. Transplanting is done +in the months from November to February. + +Coffee-growing profits have shown a decided falling off in Brazil in +recent years. In 1900 it was not uncommon for a coffee estate to yield +an annual profit of from 100 to 250 percent. Ten years later the average +returns did not exceed twelve percent. + +[Illustration: FAZENDA GUATAPARA, SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL, WITH 800,000 TREES +IN BEARING] + +In Brazil's coffee belt there are two seasons--the wet, running from +September to March; and the dry, running from April to August. The +coffee trees are in bloom from September to December. The blossoms last +about four days, and are easily beaten off by light winds or rains. If +the rains or winds are violent, the green berries may be similarly +destroyed; so that great damage may be caused by unseasonable rains and +storms. + +The harvest usually begins in April or May, and extends well into the +dry season. Even in the picking season, heavy rains and strong +winds--especially the latter--may do considerable damage; for in Brazil +shade trees and wind-breaks are the exception. + +Approximately twenty-five percent of the São Paulo plantations are +cultivated by machinery. A type of cultivator very common is similar to +the small corn-plow used in the United States. The Planet Junior, +manufactured by a well known United States agricultural-machinery firm, +is the most popular cultivator. It is drawn by a small mule, with a boy +to lead it, and a man to drive and to guide the plow. + +The preponderance of the coffee over other industries in São Paulo is +shown in many ways. A few years ago the registration of laborers in all +industries was about 450,000; and of this total, 420,000 were employed +in the production and transportation of coffee alone. Of the capital +invested in all industries, about eighty-five percent was in coffee +production and commerce, including the railroads that depended upon it +directly. An estimated value of $482,500,000 was placed upon the +plantations in the state, including land, machinery, the residences of +owners, and laborers' quarters. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Brown & Dawson. + +PICKING COFFEE IN SÃO PAULO] + +In all Brazil, there are approximately 1,200,000,000 coffee trees. The +number of bearing coffee trees in São Paulo alone increased from +735,000,000 in 1914-15 to 834,000,000 in 1917-18. The crop in 1917-18 +was 1,615,000,000 pounds, one of the largest on record. In the +agricultural year of 1922-23 there were 764,969,500 coffee trees in +bearing in São Paulo, and in São Paulo, Minãs, and Parana, 824,194,500. + +[Illustration: Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. + +INTENSIVE CULTIVATION METHODS IN THE RIBEIRAO PRETO DISTRICT, SÃO PAULO] + +Plantations having from 300,000 to 400,000 trees are common. One +plantation near Ribeirao Preto has 5,000,000 trees, and requires an army +of 6,000 laborers to work it. Another planter owns thirty-two adjacent +plantations containing, in all, from 7,500,000 to 8,000,000 coffee trees +and gives employment to 8,000 persons. There are fifteen plantations +having more than 1,000,000 trees each, and five of these have more than +2,000,000 trees each. In the municipality of Ribeirao Preto there were +30,000,000 trees in 1922. + +[Illustration: Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. + +PRIVATE RAILROAD ON A SÃO PAULO COFFEE FAZENDA + +Showing coffee trees and laborers' houses in the middle distance at +right] + +The largest coffee plantations in the world are the Fazendas Dumont and +the Fazendas Schmidt. The Fazendas Dumont were valued, in 1915, in cost +of land and improvements, at $5,920,007; and since those figures were +given out, the value of the investment has much increased. Of the +various Fazendas Schmidt, the largest, owned by Colonel Francisco +Schmidt, in 1918 had 9,000,000 trees with an annual yield of 200,000 +bags, or 26,400,000 pounds, of coffee. Other large plantations in São +Paulo with a million or more trees, are the Companhia Agricola Fazenda +Dumont, 2,420,000 trees; Companhia São Martinho, 2,300,000 trees; +Companhia Dumont, 2,000,000 trees; São Paulo Coffee Company, 1,860,000 +trees; Christiana Oxorio de Oliveira, 1,790,000 trees; Companhia +Guatapara, 1,550,000 trees; Dr. Alfredo Ellis, 1,271,000 trees; +Companhia Agricola Araqua, 1,200,000 trees; Companhia Agricola Ribeirao +Preto, 1,138,000 trees; Rodriguez Alves Irmaos, 1,060,000 trees; +Francisca Silveira do Val, 1,050,000 trees; Luiza de Oliveira Azevedo, +1,045,000 trees; and the Companhia Caféeria São Paulo, 1,000,000 trees. + +The average annual yield in São Paulo is estimated at from 1,750 to +4,000 pounds from a thousand trees, while in exceptional instances it is +said that as much as 6,000 pounds per 1,000 trees have been gathered. +Differences in local climatic conditions, in ages of trees, in richness +of soil, and in the care exercised in cultivation, are given as the +reasons for the wide variation. + +The oldest coffee-growing district in São Paulo is Campinas. There are +136 others. + +Bahia coffee is not so carefully cultivated and harvested as the Santos +coffee. The introduction of capital and modern methods would do much for +Bahia, which has the advantage of a shorter haul to the New York and the +European markets. + +On the average, something like seventy percent of the world's coffee +crop is grown in Brazil, and two-thirds of this is produced in São +Paulo. Coffee culture in many districts of São Paulo has been brought to +the point of highest development; and yet its product is essentially a +quantity, not a quality, one. + +COLOMBIA. In Colombia, coffee is the principal crop grown for export. It +is produced in nearly all departments at elevations ranging from 3,500 +feet to 6,500 feet. Chief among the coffee-growing departments are +Antioquia (capital, Medellin); Caldas (capital, Manizales); Magdalena +(capital, Santa Marta); Santander (capital, Bucaramanga); Tolima +(capital, Ibague); and the Federal District (capital, Bogota). The +department of Cundinamarca produces a coffee that is counted one of the +best of Colombian grades. The finest grades are grown in the foot-hills +of the Andes, in altitudes from 3,500 to 4,500 feet above sea level. + +[Illustration: THE CONDUCTING SLUICEWAY AT GUATAPARA + +The running water carries the picked coffee berries to pulpers and +washing tanks] + +[Illustration: COFFEE PICKING AND FIELD TRANSPORT] + +[Illustration: COFFEE CULTURE IN SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL] + +[Illustration: A NEAR VIEW OF A HEAVILY LADEN COFFEE TREE ON A BOGOTA +PLANTATION] + +[Illustration: PICKING COFFEE ON A BOGOTA PLANTATION] + +Methods of planting, cultivation, gathering, and preparing the Colombian +coffee crop for the market are substantially those that are common in +all coffee-producing countries, although they differ in some small +particulars. About 700 trees are usually planted to the acre, and native +trees furnish the necessary shade. The average yield is one pound per +tree per year. + +While _Coffea arabica_ has been mostly cultivated in Colombia, as in the +other countries of South America, the _liberica_ variety has not been +neglected. Seeds of the _liberica_ tree were planted here soon after +1880, and were moderately successful. Since 1900, more attention has +been given to _liberica_, and attempts have been made to grow it upon +banana and rubber plantations, which seem to provide all the shade +protection that is needed. _Liberica_ coffee trees begin to bear in +their third year. From the fifth year, when a crop of about 650 pounds +to the acre can reasonably be expected, the productiveness steadily +increases until after fifteen or sixteen years, when a maximum of over +one thousand pounds an acre is attained. + +Antioquia is the largest coffee producing department in the republic, +and its coffee is of the highest grade grown. Medellin, the capital, +where the business interests of the industry are concentrated, is a +handsome white city located on the banks of the Aburra river, in a +picturesque valley that is overlooked by the high peaks of the Andean +range. It is a town of about 80,000 inhabitants, thriving as a +manufacturing center, abundant in modern improvements, and is the center +of a coffee production of 500,000 bags known in the market as Medellin +and Manizales. Another center in this coffee region is the town of +Manizales, perched on the crest of the Andean spurs to dominate the +valley extending to Medellin and the Cauca valley to the Pacific. +There-about many small coffee growers are settled, and several hundred +thousand bags of the beans pass through annually. + +One of the interesting plantations of the country was started a few +years ago in a remote region by an enterprising American investor. It +was located on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountains 3,000 to 5,000 +feet above sea-level, about twenty-five miles from the city of Santa +Marta. An extended acreage of forest-covered land was acquired, about +600 acres of which were cleared and either planted in coffee or reserved +for pasturage and other kinds of agriculture. When the plantation came +to maturity, it had nearly 300,000 trees. In 1919, there were 425,000 +trees producing 3,600 hundred-weight of coffee. + +A typical Colombian plantation is the Namay, owned by one of the bankers +of the Banco de Colombia of Bogota. It is located a good half day's +travel by rail and horseback from the city, about 5,000 feet above the +level of the sea. There are 1,000 acres in the plantation, with 250,000 +trees having an ultimate productive capacity of nearly 2,000 bags a +year. During crop times, which are from May to July, about two hundred +families are needed on an estate of this size. + +VENEZUELA. Seeds of the coffee plant were brought into Venezuela from +Martinique in 1784 by a priest who started a small plantation near +Caracas. Five years later, the first export of the bean was made, 233 +bags, or about 30,000 pounds. Within fifty years, production had +increased to upward of 50,000,000 pounds annually; and by the end of the +nineteenth century, to more than 100,000,000 pounds. + +Situated between the equator and the twelfth parallel of north latitude, +in the world's coffee belt, this country has an area equal to that of +all the United States east of the Mississippi river and north of the +Ohio and Potomac rivers, or greater than that of France, Germany, and +the Netherlands combined--599,533 square miles. + +The chain of the Maritime Andes, reaching eastward across Colombia and +Venezuela, approaches the Caribbean coast in the latter country. Along +the slopes and foot-hills of these mountains are produced some of the +finest grades of South American coffee. Here the best coffee grows in +the _tierra templada_ and in the lower part of the _tierra fria_, and is +known as the _café de tierra fria_, or coffee of the cold, or high, +land. In these regions the equable climate, the constant and adequate +moisture, the rich and well-drained soil, and the protecting forest +shade afford the conditions under which the plant grows and thrives +best. On the fertile lowland valleys nearer the coast grows the _café de +tierra caliente_, or coffee of the hot land. + +[Illustration: ON THE ALTAMIRA HACIENDA, VENEZUELA + +The long pipe crossing the center of the picture is a water sluiceway +bringing coffee down from the hills] + +Coffee growing has become the main agricultural pursuit of the country. +In 1839 it was estimated that there were 8,900 acres of land planted in +coffee, and in 1888 there were 168,000,000 coffee trees in the country +on 346,000 acres of land. In the opening years of the twentieth century +not far from 250,000 acres were devoted to this cultivation, comprised +in upward of 33,000 plantations. The average yield per acre is about +250 pounds. The trees are usually planted from two to two and a quarter +meters apart, and this gives about 800 trees to the acre. The triangle +system is unknown. + +[Illustration: CARMEN HACIENDA, FRONTING ON THE ESCALANTE RIVER, +VENEZUELA] + +In this country, the coffee tree bears its first crop when four or five +years old. The trees are not subject to unusual hazards from the attacks +of injurious insects and animals or from serious parasitic diseases. +Nature is kind to them, and their only serious contention for existence +arises from the luxuriant tropical vegetation by which they are +surrounded. On the whole their cultivation is comparatively easy. On the +best managed estates there are not more than 1,000 trees to a +_fanegada_--about one and three-quarters acres of land--and it is +calculated that an average annual yield for such a _fanegada_ should be +about twenty quintals, a little more than 2,032 pounds of merchantable +coffee. It is to be noted, however, that the average yield per tree +throughout Venezuela is low--not more than four ounces. + +There are no great coffee belts as in Mexico and Central America. Many +districts are days' rides apart. The plantations are isolated, and there +is lacking a co-operative spirit among the growers. + +Methods of cultivating and preparing the berry for the market are +substantially those that prevail elsewhere in South America. Most +plantations are handled in ordinary, old-fashioned ways; but the better +estates employ machinery and methods of the most advanced and improved +character at all points of their operation, from the planting of the +seed to the final marketing of the berry. + +JAVA. Java, the oldest coffee-producing country in which the tree is not +indigenous, was producing a high-grade coffee long before Brazil, +Colombia, and Venezuela entered the industry; and it held its supremacy +in the world's trade for many years before the younger American +producing countries were able to surpass its annual output. The first +attempt to introduce the plant into Java took place in 1696, the +seedlings being brought from Malabar in India and planted at Kadawoeng, +near Batavia. Earthquake and flood soon destroyed the plants; and in +1699 Henricus Zwaardecroon brought the second lot of seedlings from +Malabar. These became the progenitors of all the _arabica_ coffees of +the Dutch East Indies. The industry grew, and in 1711 the first Java +coffee was sold at public auction in Amsterdam. Exports amounted to +116,587 pounds in 1720; and in 1724 the Amsterdam market sold 1,396,486 +pounds of coffee from Java. + +From the early part of the nineteenth century up to 1905, cultivation +was carried on under a Dutch government monopoly--excepting for the +five years, 1811-16, when the British had control of the island. The +government monopoly was first established when Marshal Daendels, acting +for the crown of Holland, took control of the islands from the +Netherlands East India Company. Before that time, the princes of +Preanger had raised all the coffee under the provisions of a treaty made +in the middle of the eighteenth century, by which they paid an annual +tribute in coffee to the company for the privilege of retaining their +land revenues. When the Dutch government recovered the islands from the +British, the plantations, which had been permitted to go to ruin, were +put in order again, and the government system re-established. + +[Illustration: A HEAVY FRUITING OF COFFEA ROBUSTA IN JAVA] + +A modification of the first monopoly plan of the government was put into +effect later in the régime of Governor Van den Bosch, and was maintained +until into the twentieth century. Under the Daendels plan, each native +family was required to keep 1000 coffee trees in bearing on village +lands, and to give to the government two-fifths of the crop, delivered +cleaned and sorted, at the government store. The natives retained the +other three-fifths. Under the Van den Bosch system, each family was +required to raise and care for 650 trees and to deliver the crop cleaned +and sorted to the government stores at a fixed price. The government +then sold the coffee at public auctions in Batavia, Padang, Amsterdam, +or Rotterdam. + +This method of fostering the new industry resulted in government control +of fully four-fifths of the area under the crop, only the small balance +being owned or worked independently by private enterprise. For many +years after the cultivation had been fully started, this condition of +the business persisted. Most of the privately-operated plantations had +been in existence before the government had set up its monopoly system. +Others were on the estates of native princes who, in treating with the +Dutch, had been able to retain some of their original sovereign rights. +While these plans worked well in encouraging the industry at the outset, +they were not conducive to the fullest possibilities in production. +Forced labor on the government plantations was naturally apt to be slow, +careless, and indifferent. Private ownership and operation bettered this +somewhat, the private estates being able to show annual yields of from +one to two pounds per tree as compared with only a little more than +one-half pound per tree on government-controlled estates. + +In the course of time, the system of private ownership gradually +expanded beyond that of the government; and before the end of the +nineteenth century, private owners were growing and exporting more +coffee than did the Javanese government. The government withdrew from +the coffee business in Java in 1905, and the last government auction was +held in June of that year. The monopoly in Sumatra was given up in 1908. +After that, however, coffee continued to be grown on government lands, +but in much less quantity than in the years immediately preceding. The +Dutch government withdrew from all coffee cultivation in 1918-19. + +According to statistics, the ground under cultivation for all kinds of +coffee in Java and the other islands of the Dutch East Indies in 1919 +was 142,272 acres, of which 112,138 acres were in Java. Of this area, +110,903 acres were planted with _robusta_, 15,314 acres with _arabica_, +4,940 with _liberica_, and 11,115 with other varieties. + +There were more than 400 European-managed estates in 1915, covering a +planted area of about 209,000 acres. Three hundred and thirty of these +estates, representing 165,000 acres, were in Java. On that island +production in 1904 was 47,927,000 pounds; in 1905, 59,092,000 pounds; in +1906, 66,953,000 pounds; in 1907, 31,044,000 pounds; 1908, 39,349,000 +pounds. The total crop in 1919 for all the Netherlands East Indies was +97,361,000 pounds, as against 140,764,800 pounds for 1918. + +Intensive cultivation methods on the European-operated plantations in +Java have been practised for many years; and the Netherlands East Indies +government has long maintained experimental stations for the purpose of +improving strains and cultivation methods. + +[Illustration: ROAD THROUGH A COFFEE ESTATE IN EAST JAVA] + +In some parts of the island, especially in the highlands, the climate +and soil are ideal for coffee culture. The _robusta_ tree grows +satisfactorily even at altitudes of less than 1,000 feet in some +regions; but its bearing life is only about ten years, as compared with +the thirty years of the _arabica_ at altitudes of from 3,000 to 4,000 +feet. The low-ground trees generally produce earlier and more +abundantly. On some of the highland plantations, pruning is not +practised to any great extent, and the trees often reach thirty or forty +feet in height. This necessitates the use of ladders in picking; but +frequently the yield per tree has been from six to seven pounds. + +[Illustration: NATIVE PICKING COFFEE, SUMATRA] + +Coffee is produced commercially in nearly every political district in +Java, but the bulk of the yield is obtained from East Java. The names +best known to European and American traders are those of the regencies +of Besoeki and Pasoeroean; because their coffees make up eighty-seven +percent of Java's production. Some of the other better known districts +are: Preanger, Cheribon, Kadoe, Samarang, Soerabaya, and Tegal. + +The _arabica_ variety has practically been driven out of the districts +below 3,500 feet altitude by the leaf disease, and has been succeeded by +the more hardy _robusta_ and _liberica_ coffees and their hybrids. +Illustrating the importance of _robusta_ coffee, Netherlands East India +government in a statement issued August, 1919, estimated the area under +cultivation on all islands as follows: _robusta_, eighty-four percent; +_arabica_, five and one-half percent; _liberica_, four and one-half +percent. The balance, six percent, was made up of scores of other +varieties, among the most important being the _canephora_, _Ugandæ_, +_baukobensis_, _suakurensis_, _Quillou_, _stenophylla_, and +_rood-bessige_. All of these are similar to _robusta_, and are exported +as _robusta-achtigen_ (_robusta_-like). The _liberica_ group includes +the _excelsa_, _abeokuta_, _Dewevrei_, _arnoldiana_, _aruwimiensis_, and +_Dybowskii_. + +[Illustration: PALATIAL BUNGALOW OF ADMINISTRATOR, DRAMAGA, IN THE +PREANGER DISTRICT, JAVA] + +SUMATRA. Practically all the coffee districts in Sumatra are on the west +coast, where the plant was first propagated early in the eighteenth +century. Padang, the capital city, is the headquarters for Sumatra +coffee. With climate and soil similar to Java, the island of Sumatra has +the added advantage that its land is not "coffee _moe_", or coffee +tired, as is the case in parts of Java. Some of the world's best coffees +are still coming from Sumatra; and the island has possibilities that +could make it an important factor in production. Sumatra produced +287,179 piculs of coffee in 1920. The total production of all the +islands that year was 807,591 piculs. + +[Illustration: OLD-TIME SAILING VESSEL LOADING IN PADANG ROADS] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A DUTCH COFFEE-CLEANING FACTORY, PADANG] + +[Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN SUMATRA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES] + +[Illustration: ADMINISTRATOR'S BUNGALOW ON THE GADOENG BATOE ESTATE, +SUMATRA] + +The districts of Ankola, Siboga, Ayer Bangies, Mandheling, Palembang, +Padang, and Benkoelen, on the west coast, have some of the largest +estates on the island; and their products are well known in +international trade. The east coast has recently gone in for heavy +plantings of _robusta_. + +As in Java, coffee for a century or more was cultivated under the +government-monopoly scheme. The compulsory system was given up in this +island in 1908, three years after it was abandoned in Java. + +OTHER EAST INDIES. Coffee is grown in several of the other islands in +the Dutch East Indian archipelago, chiefly on the Celebes, Bali, Lombok, +the Moluccas, and Timor. Most of the estates are under native control, +and the methods of cultivation are not up to the standard of the +European-owned plantations on the larger islands of Java and Sumatra. +The most important of these islands is Celebes, where the first coffee +plant was introduced from Java about 1750, but where cultivation was not +carried on to any great extent until about seventy-five years later. In +1822 the production amounted to 10,000 pounds; in 1917, the yield was +1,322,328 pounds. + +SALVADOR. Coffee, which is far and away the most important crop in +Salvador, constitutes in value more than one-half the total exports. It +has been cultivated since about 1852, when plants were brought from +Havana; but the development of the industry in its early years was not +rapid. The first large plantations were established in 1876 in La Paz, +and that department has become the leading coffee-producing section of +the country. + +The berry is grown in all districts that have altitudes of from 1,500 to +4,000 feet. Besides those of La Paz, the most productive plantations are +in the departments of Santa Ana, Sonsonate, San Salvador, San Vincente, +San Miguel, Santa Tecla, and Ahuachapan. In contrast with several of the +adjoining Central American republics, native Salvadoreans are the owners +of most of the coffee farms, very few having passed into the hands of +foreigners. The laborers are almost entirely native Indians. A +considerable part of the work of cultivating and preparing the berry for +the market is still done by hand; but in recent years machinery has been +set up on the large estates and for general use in the receiving +centers. + +[Illustration: WELL CULTIVATED YOUNG COFFEE TREES IN BLOSSOM] + +[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO A FINCA IN THE HIGHLANDS] + +[Illustration: COFFEE CULTURE IN GUATEMALA] + +It is estimated that now about 166,000 acres are under coffee, nearly +all the land in the country suitable for that purpose. As in most other +coffee-raising countries, the trees begin bearing when they are two or +three years old, reach full maturity at the age of seven or eight years, +and continue to bear for about thirty years. Intensive cultivation and a +more extensive use of fertilizers have been urged as necessary in order +to increase the crop; but, so far, with not much effect, the importation +of fertilizer being still very small. Crop gathering begins in the +lowlands in November, and gradually proceeds into the higher regions, +month by month, until the picking in the highest altitudes is finished +in the following March. + +GUATEMALA. Guatemala began intensive coffee growing about 1875. Coffee +had been known in the country in a small way from about 1850, but now +serious attention began to be given to its cultivation, and it quickly +advanced to an industrial position of importance. Within a generation it +became the great staple crop of the country. + +Guatemala has an area of 48,250 square miles, about the size of the +state of Ohio. Its population is about 2,000,000. Three mountain ranges, +intersecting magnificent table lands, traverse the country from north to +south; and there is the great coffee territory. The table lands are from +2,500 to 5,000 feet above sea-level, and have a temperate climate most +agreeable to the coffee tree. On the lower heights it is necessary to +protect the young trees from the extreme heat of the sun; and the banana +is most approved for this purpose, since it raises its own crop at the +same time that it is giving shade to its companion tree. On the higher +levels the plantations need protection from the cold north winds that +blow strongly across the country, especially in December, January, and +February. The range of hills to the north is the best protection, and +generally is all sufficient. When the weather becomes too severe, heaps +of rubbish mixed with pitch are thrown up to the north of the fields of +coffee trees and set afire, the resultant dense smoke driving down +between rows of trees and saving them from the frost. + +[Illustration: INDIANS PICKING COFFEE, GUATEMALA] + +Named in the order of their productivity, the coffee districts are Costa +Cuca, Costa Grande, Barberena, Tumbador, Cobán, Costa de Cucho, +Chicacao, Xolhuitz, Pochuta, Malacatan, San Marcos, Chuva, Panan, Turgo, +Escuintla, San Vincente, Pacaya, Antigua, Moran, Amatitlan, Sumatan, +Palmar, Zunil, and Motagua. + +Estimates of coffee acreage vary. One authority, too conservatively, +perhaps, puts the figure at 145,000. Another estimate is 260,000 acres. +Under cultivation are from 70,000,000 to 100,000,000 trees from which an +annual crop averaging about 75,000,000 pounds is raised, and the +exceptional amounts of nearly 90,000,000 and 97,000,000 pounds have been +harvested. Several plantations of size can be counted upon for an annual +production of more than 1,000,000 pounds each. + +Before the World War German interests dominated the coffee industry, +handling fully eighty percent of the crop, and growing nearly half of +it. + +Planting and cultivation methods in Guatemala are about the same as +those prevailing in other countries. The trees are usually in flower in +February, March, and April, and the harvesting season extends from +August to January. All work on the plantation is done by Indian laborers +under a peonage system, families working in companies: wages are small, +but sufficient, conditions of living being easy. As elsewhere in these +tropical and sub-tropical countries, scarcity of labor is severely +felt, and is a grave obstacle to the development of the industry in a +land that is regarded as particularly well adapted to it. + +[Illustration: THE COFFEE PLANTER'S LIFE IN GUATEMALA IS ONE OF +PLEASANTNESS AND PEACE] + +HAITI. Haiti, the magic isle of the Indies, has grown coffee almost from +the beginning of the introduction of the tree into the western +hemisphere. Its cultivation was started there about 1715, but the trees +were largely permitted to fall into a wild natural state, and little +attention was given to them or to the handling of the crop. Fertility of +soil, climate, and moisture are favorable, and the advancement of the +industry has been retarded only by the political conditions of the negro +republic and a general lack of industry and enterprise on the part of +the people. + +Haiti is an island with three names. Haiti is used to describe the +island as a whole, and to denote the Republic of Haiti, which occupies +the western third of its area. The island is also known as Santo +Domingo, and San Domingo, names likewise applied to the Dominican +Republic which occupies the eastern two-thirds of the land unit. + +Plantations now existing in Haiti have had, with rare exceptions, a life +of more than ten or twenty years. It is estimated that they cover about +125,000 acres, with about 400 trees to the acre. + +When the French acquired the island in 1789, the annual production was +88,360,502 pounds. During the following century that amount was not +approached in any year, the nearest to it being 72,637,716 pounds in +1875. The lowest annual production was 20,280,589 pounds in 1818. The +range during the hundred years, 1789-1890, was, with the exceptions +noted, from 45,000,000 to 71,000,000 pounds. + +MEXICO. Opinions differ as to the exact date when coffee was introduced +into Mexico. It is said to have been transplanted there from the West +Indies near the end of the eighteenth century. A story is current that a +Spaniard set out a few trees, on trial, in southern Mexico, in 1800, and +that his experiments started other Mexican planters along the same line. +Coffee was grown in the state of Vera Cruz early in the nineteenth +century; and the books of the Vera Cruz custom house record that 1,101 +quintals of coffee were exported through that port during the years +1802, 1803, and 1805. + +In the Coatepec district, which eventually became famous in the annals +of Mexican coffee growing, trees were planted about the year 1808. Local +history says that seeds were brought from Cuba by Arias, a partner of +the house of Pedro Lopez, owners of the large _hacienda_ of Orduna in +Coatepec. The seeds were given to a priest, Andres Dominguez, who sowed +them near Teocelo. When he had succeeded in starting seedlings, he gave +them away to other planters there-about. The plants thrived, and this +was the beginning of coffee cultivation in that section of the country. + +[Illustration: THIRTY-YEAR-OLD COFFEE TREES, LA ESPERANZA, HUATUSCO, +MEXICO] + +It was, however, nearly ten years later before the cultivation was on a +scale approaching industrial and commercial importance. About 1816 or +1818 a Spaniard, named Juan Antonio Gomez, introduced the plant into the +neighborhood of Cordoba. This city, now on the line of the Mexican and +Vera Cruz Railroad, 200 miles from Mexico City, and sixty miles from +Vera Cruz, is 2,500 feet above sea-level, and is situated in the most +productive tropical region of the country. + +Having been started in Coatepec and Cordoba, the industry was centered +for a long time in the state of Vera Cruz. For many years practically +all the coffee grown commercially in Mexico was produced in that state. +Gradually the new pursuit spread to the mountains in the adjacent states +of Oaxaca and Puebla, where it was taken up by the Indians almost +entirely, and is still followed by them, but not on a large scale. + +Although cultivation is now widely distributed in most of the more +southern states of the republic, the principal coffee territory is still +in Vera Cruz, where lie the districts of Cordoba, Orizaba, Huatusco, and +Coatepec. In the same region are the Jalapa district, and the mountains +of Puebla, where a great deal of coffee is grown. Farther south are the +Oaxaca districts on the mountain slopes of the Pacific coast, and still +farther south the districts of the state of Chiapas. Planting in the +Pluma district in Oaxaca was begun about fifty years ago, and it now +produces annually, in good years, nearly 1,000,000 pounds. The youngest +district in this section is Soconusco, one of the most prolific in the +republic, having been developed within the last thirty years. The region +is near the border of Guatemala, and the coffee is held by many to +possess some of the quality of the coffee of that country. The influence +of Guatemalan methods has been felt also in its cultivation and +handling, especially in increasing plantation productiveness. On the +gulf slope of Oaxaca, there are plantations that annually produce +222,000 to 550,000 pounds. Several United States companies have become +interested in coffee growing in this state, and their output in recent +years has been put upon the market in St. Louis. + +Two principal varieties of coffee are recognized in Mexico. A +sub-variety of _Coffea arabica_ is mostly cultivated. This is an +evergreen, growing only from five to seven feet. It flourishes well at +different altitudes and in different climes, from the temperate plains +of Puebla to the hot, damp, lower lands of Vera Cruz and Oaxaca, and +other Pacific-coast regions. The range of elevation for it is from 1,500 +to 5,000 feet, and it is satisfied with a temperature as low as 55° or +as high as 80°, with plenty of natural humidity or with irrigation in +the dry season. The other variety is called the "myrtle" and is widely +grown, although not in large quantities. It is distinguished from +_arabica_ by the larger leaf of the tree and by the smaller corolla of +the flower. It is a hardier plant than the _arabica_ and will stand the +higher temperature of low altitudes, thriving at an elevation of from +500 to 3,000 feet above sea-level. Mostly it is cultivated in the +Cordoba district. + +It is claimed by many that the Mexican coffee of best quality is grown +in the western regions of the table lands of Colima and Michoacan, but +only a small quantity of that is available for export. The state of +Michoacan is especially favored by climate, altitude, soil, and +surroundings to produce coffee of exceptionally high grade, and the +Uruapan is considered to be its best. + +Trees flower in January and March, and in high altitudes as late as June +or July. Berries appear in July and are ripe for gathering in October or +November, the picking season lasting until February. + +Trees begin to yield when two or three years old, producing from two to +four ounces. They reach full production, which is about one and a half +pounds, at the age of six or seven years, though in the districts of +Chiapas, Michoacan, Oaxaca, and Puebla, annual yields of three to five +pounds per tree have been reported. + +Since the World War American buyers have shown greater interest in the +Tapachula coffee grown in Chiapas. + +[Illustration: MEXICAN COFFEE PICKER, COATEPEC DISTRICT] + +PORTO RICO. Coffee culture in Porto Rico dates from 1755 or even +earlier, having been introduced from the neighboring islands of +Martinique and Haiti. Count O'Reilly, writing of the island in the +eighteenth century, mentions that the coffee exports for five years +previous to 1765 amounted in value to $2,078. Old records show that in +1770 there was a crop of 700,000 pounds and that seems to be the first +evidence that the new industry was growing to any noticeable +proportions. For a hundred years, at least, only slow progress was made. +In 1768 the king, of Spain issued a royal decree exempting coffee +growers on the island from the payment of taxes or charges for a period +of five years; but even that measure was not materially successful in +stimulating interest and in developing cultivation. + +Porto Rico is a good coffee-growing country; soil, climate, and +temperature are well adapted to the berry. The coffee belt extends +through the western half of the island, beginning in the hills along the +south coast around Ponce, and extending north through the center of the +island almost to Arecibo, near the west end of the north coast. But some +coffee is grown in the other parts of the island, in sixty-four of the +sixty-eight municipalities. Mountain sections are considered to be +superior. + +The largest plantations are in the region which includes the +municipalities of Utuado, Adjuntas, Lares, Las Marias, Yauco, Maricao, +San Sebastian, Mayaguez, Ciales, and Ponce. With the exception of Ponce +and Mayaguez, all these districts are back from the coast; but insular +roads of recent construction make them now easily accessible, and there +is no point on the island more than twenty miles distant from the sea. + +[Illustration: RECEIVING AND MEASURING THE RIPE BERRIES FROM THE +PICKERS, MEXICO] + +From the Sierra Luquillo range, which rises to a height of 1,500 feet, +and from Yauco, Utuado, and Lares, come excellent coffees; and, on the +whole, these are considered to be the best coffee regions of the island. +A fine grade of coffee is also grown in the Ciales district. Figures +compiled by the Treasury Department of the insular government for the +purpose of taxation showed that for the tax year 1915-16 there were +167,137 acres of land planted to coffee and valued at $10,341,592, an +average of $61.87 per acre. In 1910, there were 151,000 acres planted in +coffee. In 1916 there were more than 5,000 separate coffee plantations. + +Originally the coffee trees of Porto Rico were all of the _arabica_ +variety. In recent years numerous others have been introduced, until in +1917 there were more than 2,500 trees of new descriptions on the island. + +The virgin land in the interior of the island is admirably adapted to +the coffee tree, and less labor is required to prepare it for plantation +purposes than in many other coffee-growing countries. It is cleared in +the usual manner, and the trees are planted about eight feet apart, an +average of 680 trees to the acre. The seeds are planted in February; and +if the seedlings are transplanted, that is done when they are a year or +a year and a half old. The guama, a big strong tree of dense foliage, is +used for a wind-break on the ridges; and the guava, for shade in the +plantation. Plow cultivation is generally impossible on account of the +lay of the land, and only hoeing and spade work are done. Pruning is +carefully attended to as the trees become full grown. + +Flowering is generally in February and March, or even later. Heavy rains +in April make a poor crop. Harvesting begins in September and extends +into January, during which time ten pickings are made. + +[Illustration: SINGLE PORTO RICO COFFEE TREE IN FULL BEARING, PROPPED +UP WITH STAKES] + +The average yield per acre is between 200 and 300 pounds; but expert +authority--Prof. O.F. Cook--in a statement made to the Committee on +Insular Affairs of the United States House of Representatives, in 1900, +held that under better cultural methods the yield could be increased to +800 or 900 pounds per acre. One estimator has calculated that an average +plantation of 100 acres had cost its owner at the end of six or seven +years, the bearing age, about $13,100 with yields of 75 pounds per acre +in the third and in the fourth years, 400 pounds per acre in the fifth +year, and 500 pounds in the sixth year, the income from which would +practically have met the cost to that time. It is held by the same +authority that an intensively cultivated, well-situated farm of selected +trees, 880 to the acre, should yield some 880 pounds of cleaned coffee +to the acre. + +COSTA RICA. Costa Rica ranks next to Guatemala and Salvador among the +Central American countries as a producer of coffee, showing an average +annual yield in recent years of 35,000,000 pounds as compared with +Guatemala's 80,000,000 and Salvador's 75,000,000 pounds. Nicaragua has +an average annual production of 30,000,000 pounds. + +Coffee was introduced into Costa Rica in the latter part of the +eighteenth century; one authority saying that the plants were brought +from Cuba in 1779 by a Spanish voyager, Navarro, and another saying that +the first trees were planted several years later by Padre Carazo, a +Spanish missionary coming from Jamaica. For more than a century six big +coffee trees standing in a courtyard in the city of Cartago were pointed +out to visitors as the very trees that Carazo had planted. + +The coffee-producing districts are principally on the Pacific slope and +in the central plateaus of the interior. Plantations are located in the +provinces of Cartago, Tres Rios, San José, Heredia, and Alajuela. In the +province of Cartago are several extensive new estates on the slope to +the Atlantic coast. The San José and the Cartago districts are +considered by many to be the best naturally for the coffee tree. The +soil is an exceedingly rich black loam made up of continuous layers of +volcanic ashes and dust from three to fifteen feet deep. Preferable +altitudes for plantations range from 3,000 to 4,500 feet, although a +height of 5,000 feet is not out of use and there are some estates that +do fairly well on levels as low as 1,500 feet. + +[Illustration: THE MODERN IDEA IN COFFEE CULTIVATION, COSTA RICA] + +INDIA. Tradition has it that a Moslem pilgrim in the seventeenth century +brought from Mecca to India the first coffee seeds known in that +country. They were planted near a temple on a hill in Mysore called Baba +Budan, after the pilgrim; and from there the cultivation of coffee +gradually spread to neighboring districts. Aside from this legend, +nothing further is heard about coffee in India until the early part of +the nineteenth century, when its existence there was confirmed by the +granting of a charter to Fort Gloster, near Calcutta, authorizing that +place to become a coffee plantation. + +[Illustration: PICKING COSTA RICA COFFEE] + +[Illustration: COFFEE ESTATE IN THE MOUNTAINS OF COSTA RICA] + +Planting was begun on the flat land of the plains, but the trees did not +thrive. Then the cultivation was extended to the hills in southern +India, especially in Mysore, where better success was achieved. The +first systematic plantation was established in 1840. For the most part, +the production has always been confined to southern India in the +elevated region near the southwestern coast. The coffee district +comprises the landward slopes of the Western Ghats, from Kanara to +Travancore. + +About one-half of the coffee-producing area is in Mysore; and other +plantations are in Kurg (Coorg), the Madras districts of Malabar, and in +the Nilgiri hills, those regions having 86 percent of the whole area +under cultivation. Some coffee is grown also in other districts in +Madras, principally in Madura, Salem, and Coimbator, in Cochin, in +Travancore, and, on a restricted scale, in Burma, Assam, and Bombay. The +area returned as under coffee in 1885 was 237,448 acres; in 1896, as +303,944 acres. Since then there has been a progressive decrease on +account of damage from leaf diseases difficult to combat, and by +competition with Brazilian coffee. + +New land that had just been planted with coffee in plantations reported +for 1919-20 amounted to 7,012 acres; while the area abandoned was 8,725 +acres, representing a net decrease in cultivated area of 1,713 acres. + +[Illustration: BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF A COFFEE ESTATE IN MYSORE, INDIA] + +Of the total area devoted to coffee cultivation (126,919 acres), 49 +percent was in Mysore, which yielded 35 percent of the total production; +while Madras, with 23 percent of the total area, yielded 38 percent of +the production. The total production for the year 1920-21 is reported as +26,902,471 pounds. + +Yield varies throughout the country according to the methods of +cultivation and the condition of the season. On the best estates in a +good season, the yield per acre may be as high as 1,100 or 1,200 pounds, +and on poor estates it may not be over 200 or 300 pounds. The _arabica_ +variety is chiefly cultivated. The _robusta_ and _Maragogipe_ have been +tried, but without much success. + +A representative plantation is the Santaverre in Mysore, comprising 400 +acres, at an elevation of from 4,000 to 4,500 feet, where the coffee +trees, cultivated under shade, produce from 100 to 250 tons of coffee a +year. Other prominent estates in Mysore are Cannon's Baloor and +Mylemoney, the Hoskahn, and the Sumpigay Khan. + +NICARAGUA. Coffee trees will grow well anywhere in Nicaragua, but the +best locations have altitudes of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea +level. At such elevations the yield varies from one pound to five pounds +per tree annually; but above or below those, the average production +diminishes to from one pound to one-half pound a tree. + +Lands most suitable for the berry are on the Sierra de Managua, in +Diriambe, San Marcos, and Jinotega, and about the base of the volcano +Monbacho near Granada. Good land is also found on the island Omotepe in +Lake Nicaragua, and around Boaco in the department of Chontales, where +cultivation was begun in 1893. + +There are also plantations in the vicinity of Esteli and Lomati in the +department of Neuva Segovia. The most extensive operations are in the +departments of Managua, Carazo, Matagalpa, Chontales, and Jinotega, and +from those regions the annual crop has attained to such quantity that it +has become the chief agricultural product of the republic. Poor and +costly means of transportation on the Atlantic slope have operated to +retard the development of the industry there, even though conditions of +climate are not unfavorable. + +[Illustration: COFFEE GROWING UNDER SHADE, UBBAN ESTATE, INDIA] + +ABYSSINIA. In the absence of any conclusive evidence to the contrary, +the claim that coffee was first made known to modern man by the trees on +the mountains of the northeastern part of the continent of Africa may be +accepted without reserve. Undoubtedly the plant grew wild all through +tropical Africa; but its value as an addition to man's dietary was +brought forth in Abyssinia. + +Abyssinia, while it may have given coffee to the world, no longer +figures as a prime factor in supplying the world, and now exports only a +limited quantity. There are produced in the country two coffees known to +the trade as Harari and Abyssinian, the former being by far the more +important. The Harari is the fruit of cultivated _arabica_ trees grown +in the province of Harar, and mostly in the neighborhood of the city of +Harar, capital of the province. The Abyssianian is the fruit of wild +_arabica_ trees that grow mainly in the provinces of Sidamo, Kaffa, and +Guma. + +The coffee of Harar is known to the trade as Mocha longberry or +Abyssinian longberry. Most of the plantations upon which it is raised +are owned by the native Hararis, Galla, and Abyssinians, although there +are a few Greek, German, and French planters. The trees are planted in +rows about twelve or fifteen feet apart, and comparatively little +attention is given to cultivation. Crops average two a year, and +sometimes even five in two years. The big yield is in December, January, +and February. The average crop is about seventy pounds, and is mostly +from small plots of from fifty to one hundred trees, there being no very +large plantations. All the coffee is brought into the city of Harar, +whence it is sent on mule-back to Dire-Daoua on the Franco-Ethiopian +Railway, and from there by rail to Jibuti. Some of it is exported +directly from Jibuti, and the rest is forwarded to Aden, in Arabia, for +re-exporting. + +Abyssinian, or wild, coffee is also known as Kaffa coffee, from one of +the districts where it grows most abundantly in a state of nature. This +coffee has a smaller bean and is less rich in aroma and flavor than the +Harari; but the trees grow in such profusion that the possible supply, +at the minimum of labor in gathering, is practically unlimited. It is +said that in southwestern Abyssinia there are immense forests of it +that have never been encroached upon except at the outskirts, where the +natives lazily pick up the beans that have fallen to the ground. It is +shelled where it is found, in the most primitive fashion, and goes out +in a dirty, mixed condition. + +Formerly, much of this Kaffa coffee was sent to market through Boromeda, +Harar, and Dire-Daoua. An average annual crop was about 6,000 bags, or +800,000 pounds, of which something more than one-half usually went +through Harar. A customs and trading station has lately been established +at Gambela, on the Sobat River: and with the development of this outlet, +there has been a substantial and increasing exploitation of the +wild-coffee plants since 1913. Large areas of land have been cleared, +with a view to cultivation, and attention is being given to improved +methods of harvesting and of preparing the coffee for the market. At one +time a fair amount of coffee from this region went to Adis Abeba on the +backs of pack mules, a journey of thirty-five or forty days, and then +was carried to Jibuti, nearly 500 miles, part of the way by rail. Now +practically all of it goes to Gambela, thence by steamers to Khartoum, +and by rail to the shipping-point at Port Sudan on the Red Sea. + +OTHER AFRICAN COUNTRIES. Practically every part of Africa seems to be +suitable for coffee cultivation, even United South Africa, in the +southern part of the continent, producing 140,212 pounds in 1918. To +name all the countries in which it is grown would be to list nearly all +the political divisions of Africa. Among the largest producers are the +British East African Protectorate, 18,735,572 pounds in 1918; French +Somaliland, 11,222,736 pounds in 1917; Angola, 10,655,934 pounds in +1913; Uganda, 9,999,845 pounds in 1918; former German East Africa, +2,334,450 pounds in 1913; Cape Verde Islands, 1,442,910 pounds in 1916; +Madagascar, 707,676 pounds in 1918; Liberia, 761,300 pounds in 1917; +Eritrea, 728,840 pounds in 1918; St. Thomas and Prince's Islands, +484,350 pounds in 1916; and the Belgian Congo, 375,000 pounds in 1917. + +[Illustration: A GALLA COFFEE GROWER, AND HIS HELPER, IN HIS GROVE OF +YOUNG TREES NEAR HARAR] + +ANGOLA. Coffee is Angola's second product, and there are large areas of +wild-coffee trees. With a production of nearly 11,000,000 pounds, Angola +ranks about third in Africa as a coffee-growing country. The coffee is +gathered and sold by the natives, and there are also several European +companies engaged in the coffee business. The chief coffee belt extends +from the Quanza River northward to the Kongo at an altitude of 1,500 to +2,500 feet. In the Cazengo valley the wild trees are so thick that +thinning out is the only operation necessary to the plantation-owner. +When the trees become too tall, they are simply cut off about two feet +above ground; and new shoots appear from the trunks the following +season. + +The largest coffee plantation, owned by the Companhia Agricola de +Cazengo, produced in 1913, a record year, nearly 1,500 tons. + +LIBERIA. Coffee is native to Liberia, growing wild in the hinterland of +the negro republic, and in the natural state the trees often attain a +height of from thirty to forty feet. Cultivated Liberian coffee, _Coffea +liberica_, has become a staple of the civilized inhabitants of the +country, and is grown successfully in hot, moist lowlands or on hills +that are not much elevated. On account of the size of the trees, only +about four hundred can be planted to the acre. In recent years the +native Africans have been planting thousands of trees in the district of +Grand Cape Mount. Coffee is grown in all parts of the republic, but +chiefly in Grand Cape Mount and Montserrado. + +GENERAL OUTLOOK IN AFRICA. In the African countries under control of +European governments much recent progress has been made in promoting +coffee growing and in improving methods of cultivation. + +British interests were reported in 1919 as having started a movement +toward reviving interest in the coffee growing industry in the British +possessions in Africa. The report stated that Uganda, in the East +African Protectorate, had 21,000 acres under coffee cultivation, with +16,000 acres more in other parts of the Protectorate, and 1,300 acres in +Nyasaland; also that there is no hope of an immediate revival of the +industry in Natal, where it was killed twenty years ago by various +pests; "but it should certainly be established in the warmer parts of +Rhodesia; and in the northern part of the Transvaal an effort is being +made to bring this form of enterprise into practical existence." + +Coffee growing possibilities in British East Africa (Kenya Colony) are +alluring, according to reports from planters in that region. Late in +1920, Major C.J. Ross, a British government officer there, said that +"British East Africa is going to be one of the leading coffee countries +of the world." Coffee grows wild in many parts of the Protectorate, but +the natives are too lazy to pick even the wild berries. + +On the more advanced plantations in all parts of Africa the approved +cultivation methods of other leading countries are carefully followed; +especial care being given to weeding and pruning, because of the rank +growth of the tropics. On the whole, however, little attention is given +to intensive methods. + +ARABIA. Whether the coffee tree was first discovered indigenous in the +mountains of Abyssinia, or in the Yemen district of Arabia, will +probably always be a matter of contention. Many writers of Europe and +Asia in the fifteenth century, when coffee was first brought to the +attention of the people of Europe, agree on Arabia; but there is good +reason to believe the plant was brought to Arabia from Abyssinia in the +sixth century. + +Once all the coffee of Arabia went to the outside world through the port +of Mocha on the eastern coast of the Red Sea. Mocha, which never raised +any coffee, is no longer of commercial importance; but its name has been +permanently attached to the coffee of this country. + +_Mocha_ (_Moka_, or _Morkha_) coffee (i.e. _Coffea arabica_) is raised +principally in the vilayet of Yemen, a district of southeastern Arabia. +Yemen extends from the north, southerly along the line of the Red Sea, +nearly to the Gulf of Aden. With the exception of a narrow strip of land +along the shores of the Red Sea, the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and the +Gulf of Aden, it is a rugged, mountainous region, in which innumerable +small valleys at high elevations are irrigated by waters from the +melting snows of the mountains. + +Coffee can be successfully grown in any part of Yemen, but its +cultivation is confined to a few widely scattered districts, and the +acreage is not large. The principal coffee regions are in the mountains +between Taiz and Ibb, and between Ibb and Yerim, and Yerim and Sanaa, on +the caravan route from Taiz to Sanaa; between Zabeed and Ibb, on the +route from Taiz to Zabeed; between Hajelah and Menakha, on the route +from Hodeida to Sanaa, and in the wild mountain ranges both to the north +and south of that route; between Beit-el-Fakih and Obal; and between +Manakha and Batham to the north of Bajil. The plant does best at +elevations ranging from 3,500 to 6,500 feet. + +[Illustration: WILD KAFFA COFFEE TREES NEAR ADIS ABEBA] + +In the Yemen district, coffee is generally grown in small gardens. Large +plantations, as they exist in other coffee-growing countries, are not +seen in Arabia. Many of these small farms may be parts of a large estate +belonging to some rich tribal chief. The native Arabs do not use coffee +in the way it is used elsewhere in the world. They drink _kisher_, a +beverage brewed from the husks of the berry and not from the bean. +Consequently, the entire crop goes into export. But bad conditions of +trade routes, political disturbances, and small regional wars, absence +of good cultivation methods, and heavy transit taxes imposed by the +government, have combined to restrict the production of Yemen coffee. + +Land for the coffee gardens is selected on hill-slopes, and is terraced +with soil and small walls of stone until it reaches up like an +amphitheater--often to a considerable height. The soil is well +fertilized. For sowing, the seeds are thoroughly dried in ashes, and +after being placed in the ground, are carefully watched, watered, and +shaded. In about a year the shrub has grown to a height of twelve or +more inches. Seedlings in that condition are set out in the gardens in +rows, about ten to thirteen feet apart. The young trees receive moisture +from neighboring wells or from irrigation ditches, and are shaded by +bananas. + +At maturity the trees reach a height of ten or fifteen feet. Since they +never lose all their leaves at one time, they appear always green, and +bear at the same time flowers and fruits, some of which are still green +while others are ripe or approaching maturity. Thus, in some districts, +the trees are considered to have two or even three crops a year. All the +trees begin to bear about the end of the third year. + +[Illustration: A RARE PICTURE SHOWING MOCHA COFFEE GROWING ON TERRACES +IN YEMEN, ARABIA] + +CUBA. Coffee can be grown in practically every island of the West +Indies, but owing to the state of civilization in many of the lesser +islands, little is produced for international trade, excepting in +Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad, and +Tobago. In past years a considerable quantity of good-quality coffee was +produced in Cuba, the annual export in the decade of 1840 averaging +50,000,000 pounds. Severe hurricanes, adverse legislation, the rise of +coffee-growing in Brazil, the increase in cultivation of sugar and other +more profitable crops, practically eliminated Cuba from the +international coffee-export trade. + +MARTINIQUE. This is a name well known to coffee men, the world over, as +the pioneer coffee-growing country of the western hemisphere. Gabriel de +Clieu introduced the coffee plant to the island in 1723 by bringing it +through many hardships from France. For a time, coffee flourished there, +but now practically none is grown. Such coffee as bears the name +Martinique in modern trade centers is produced in Guadeloupe, and is +only shipped through Martinique. + +JAMAICA. Coffee was introduced into Jamaica in 1730; and so highly was +it regarded as a desirable addition to the agricultural resources of the +island, that the British Parliament in 1732 passed a special act +providing for the encouraging and fostering of its cultivation. Later, +it became one of the great staples of the country. Disastrous floods in +1815, and the gradual exhaustion of the best lands since then, have +brought about a decline of the industry, which is now confined to a few +estates in the Blue Mountains and to scattered "settler" or peasant +cultivation in the same districts but at lower altitudes. + +The tree was formerly grown at all altitudes, from sea-level to 5,000 +feet; but the best height for it is about 4,500 feet. Four parishes lead +in coffee producing: Manchester, with an area of 5,045 acres; St. +Thomas, with 2,315 acres; Clarendon, with 2,172 acres; St. Andrew, with +1,584 acres. Nine other parishes that raise coffee have less than 1,000 +acres each under cultivation. There were 24,865 acres devoted to coffee +in 1900. In addition, it was estimated that there were 80,000 acres +suitable for the cultivation, nearly all being owned by the government. + +[Illustration: PICKING BLUE MOUNTAIN BERRIES, JAMAICA] + +DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Coffee was once the leading staple in the Dominican +Republic as in the adjoining Haitian Republic; but in recent years +cacao, sugar, and tobacco have become the predominating crops. Said to +have the world's richest and most productive soil, one-half of the +republic's area is particularly suited to the cultivation of a good +grade of coffee of the highland type. But political and industrial +conditions have made for neglect of its cultivation by efficient +methods. Lack of suitable roads has also militated against the +development of the coffee industry. + +In spite of many drawbacks, it is to be noted that, from the beginning +of the twentieth century, the coffee-growing area has been gradually +expanded until exports increased from less than 1,000,000 pounds to +5,029,316 pounds in 1918, although in the next two years there was a +recession in the total exports to 1,358,825 pounds in 1920. + +The principal plantations are in the vicinity of the town of Moca and in +the districts of Santiago, Bani, and Barahona. Generally speaking, the +methods of cultivation in the Dominican Republic are somewhat crude as +compared with the practise in the larger countries of production in +Central America and South America. + +GUADELOUPE. Guadeloupe has an area of 619 square miles, and about +one-third of this area is under cultivation. About 15,000 acres are in +coffee, giving employment to upward of 10,000 persons. The average yield +of a plantation of mature trees is about 535 pounds to the acre. + +In the early years of the industry in Guadeloupe, production and export +were considerable. From old records it appears that in 1784 the exports +amounted to 7,500,000 pounds. During the closing years of the eighteenth +century the annual exports were from 6,500,000 to 8,500,000 pounds, and +in the beginning of the next century they registered about 6,000,000 +pounds. Toward the middle of the nineteenth century the growing of sugar +cane overtopped that of coffee in profit, and many planters abandoned +coffee. After 1884, with the decadence of the sugar industry, coffee was +again favored, the government giving substantial encouragement by paying +bounties ranging from $15 to $19 per acre for all new coffee +plantations. + +In recent years, considerable _liberica_ and _robusta_ have been planted +in place of the exhausted _arabica_. + +[Illustration: COFFEE PICKERS RETURNING FROM THE FIELDS, GUADELOUPE] + +TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. The islands of Trinidad and Tobago are small +factors in international coffee trading. Coffee can be grown almost any +place on the islands; but its cultivation is confined principally to the +districts of Maracas, Aripo, and North Oropouche. Both the _arabica_ and +the _liberica_ varieties are grown. + +HONDURAS. Soil, surface, and climate in Honduras, as far as they relate +to the cultivation of coffee, are similar to those of the adjoining +regions of Central America. The tree grows in the uplands of the +interior, thriving best at an altitude of from 1,500 to 4,000 feet. +Scarcity of labor and insufficient means of transportation have been the +chief obstacles in the way of the large development of the industry. + +The departments of Santa Barbara, Copan, Cortez, La Paz, Choluteca, and +El Paraiso have the principal plantations. The ports of shipment are +Truxillo and Puerto Cortés. Annual production in recent years has been +about 5,000,000 pounds. In 1889 the United States imported 3,322,502 +pounds, but in 1915 its importations fell away to 665,912 pounds. + +BRITISH HONDURAS. British Honduras has never undertaken to raise coffee +on a commercial scale despite the fact that conditions are not +unfavorable to its cultivation. It has failed to produce enough even for +domestic consumption, importing most of what it has needed. Annual +production, as recorded in recent years, has been upward of 10,000 +pounds. + +[Illustration: THREE-YEAR-OLD COFFEE TREES IN BLOSSOM, PANAMA] + +PANAMA. Panama presents a very favorable field for the growing of +coffee. The best district is situated in the uplands of the district of +Bugaba, where vast areas of the best lands for coffee-growing exist, and +where climatic and other conditions are most favorable to its growth. + +No shade is required in this country; and the only cultivation consists +of three or four cleanings a year to keep down the weeds, as no plowing, +etc., are necessary. Coffee matures from October to January. Water power +being abundant, it is used for running all machinery. + +The annual output of the province of Chiriqui, which produces the bulk +of the coffee, is approximately 4,000 sacks of 100 pounds each; all of +which is produced in the Boquete district at present, as the coffee +planted in the Bugaba section is still young and unproductive. The local +supply does not meet the domestic demand; and instead of exporting, a +great deal is imported from adjoining countries, although, there is a +protective tariff of six dollars per hundred pounds. + +THE GUIANAS. Coffee has had a precarious existence in the Guianas. +Plants are said to have been brought by Dutch voyagers from Amsterdam in +1718 or 1720. They flourished in the new habitat to which they were +introduced, and in 1725 were carried from Dutch Guiana into the district +of Berbice in British Guiana and into French Guiana. There the berry was +a considerable success for a time; Berbice coffee especially acquiring a +good reputation; and when Demerara was settled, coffee became a staple +of that region. Shortage of native labor, and the difficulty of +procuring cheap and capable workers from outside the country, ultimately +compelled the practical abandonment of the crop in all three sections, +Dutch, French, and British. In British Guiana it is now grown mainly for +domestic consumption, and the same is true of French Guiana, which also +imports. + +From the time of its introduction, about 1718, until about 1880, the +only coffee grown in Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, was the _Coffea arabica_. +It was not a bountiful producer, and with labor scarce and unreliable, +its cultivation was expensive. Therefore experiment was made with the +_liberica_ plant. This proved to be very satisfactory, growing +luxuriantly, producing abundantly, and requiring minimum labor in care. +In 1918 some 16,000,000 pounds were produced. + +ECUADOR. Though not of great commercial importance, coffee in Ecuador +grows on both the mainland and on the adjacent islands. The area planted +to coffee is estimated at 32,000 acres having an aggregate of about +8,000,000 trees. The trees blossom in December, and the picking season +is through April, May and June. Coffee ranks third in value among the +exports of the country. + +PERU. Although possessed of natural coffee land and climate, little has +been done to develop the industry in Peru. A finely flavored coffee +grows at an altitude of 7,000 feet, while that grown in the lowlands +along the Pacific coast is not so desirable. Such small quantities as +are grown are cultivated in the mountain districts of Choquisongo, +Cajamarca, Perene, Paucartambo, Chaucghamayo, and Huanace. The +Pacific-coast district of Paces-mayo also grows a not unimportant crop. + +BOLIVIA. Comparatively little attention is given to coffee cultivation +in Bolivia. Agricultural methods are crude, and are limited to cutting +down weeds and undergrowth twice a year. The coffee is planted in small +patches, or as hedges along the roads or around the fields of other +crops. The first crop is picked at the end of one and a half or two +years. The trees bear for fifteen to twenty years. The average yield is +from three to eight pounds per tree. The best grades of coffee are grown +at 2,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level. + +Coffee is cultivated in the departments of La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa +Cruz, El Beni, and Chuquisca. In the department of Santa Cruz there are +plantations in the provinces of Sara, Velasco, Chiquitos and Cordillera. +In the Yungas and the Apolobamba districts of La Paz, its cultivation +reaches the greatest importance, but even there is not of large +proportions. + +CHILE, PARAGUAY, AND ARGENTINA. Coffee is of minor, almost +insignificant, importance in the agriculture of Chile, Paraguay, and +Argentina. In Uruguay the climate is altogether unsuitable for it. + +Argentina and Paraguay each have small growing districts. In the first +named, only the provinces of Salta and Jujuy have, at the latest +reports, a little more than 3,000 acres under cultivation. In Paraguay +some householders have grown coffee in their yards solely for their own +use. In the Paraguayan district of Altos, north of Asuncion, a small +group of plantations was started before the outbreak of the World War, +and produced about 300,000 pounds of coffee in a year. + +CEYLON. Coffee planting in Ceylon was an important industry for a +century, until the so-called Ceylon leaf disease attacked the +plantations in 1869, and a few years later had practically destroyed all +the trees of the country. Although coffee raising has continued since +then, there has been, especially since the beginning of the twentieth +century, a steady decline in acreage. There were 4,875 acres under +cultivation in 1903, 2,433 acres in 1907, 1,389 in 1912, and 941.5 in +1919. Only 2,200 pounds were produced in 1917. However, the climate and +soil of Ceylon seem adapted to coffee culture, and the experimental +stations at Peradeniya and Anuradhapura have been experimenting in +recent years with _robusta_, _canephora_, _Ugandæ_, and a _robusta_ +hybrid for the purpose of reviving the industry in the country. + +Ceylon is one of the oldest coffee-growing countries, the Arabs having +experimented with it there, according to legend, long before the +Portuguese seized the island in 1505. The Dutch, who gained control in +1658, continued the cultivation, and in 1690 introduced more systematic +methods. They sent a few pounds in 1721 to Amsterdam, where the coffee +brought a higher price than Java or Mocha. However, it was not until +after the British occupied the island in 1796, that coffee growing was +carried on extensively. The first British-owned upland plantation was +started in 1825 by Sir Edward Barnes; and for more than fifty years +thereafter coffee was one of the island's leading products. An orgy of +speculation in coffee growing in Ceylon, in which £5,000,000 sterling +are said to have been invested, culminated in 1845 in the bursting of +the coffee bubble, and hundreds were ruined. The peak of the export +trade was reached in 1873, when 111,495,216 pounds of coffee were sent +out of the country. Even then, the plantations were suffering severely +from the leaf disease, which had appeared in 1869; and by 1887, the +coffee tree had practically disappeared from Ceylon. Ceylon's day in +coffee was a cycle of fifty-odd years. + +[Illustration: ROBUSTA COFFEE GROWING ON THE SUZANNAH ESTATE, +COCHIN-CHINA] + +FRENCH INDO-CHINA. Coffee culture in French Indo-China is a +comparatively small factor in international trade, although production +is on the increase, particularly from those plantations planted to +_robusta_, _liberica_, and _excelsa_ varieties. The average annual +export for the five-year period ended with 1918 was 516,978 pounds, +nearly all of it going to France. + +The first experiments with coffee growing were begun in 1887, near Hanoi +in Tonkin. The seeds were of the _arabica_ variety, brought from +Réunion, and the production from the first years was distributed +throughout the country to foster the industry. Eventually _arabica_ was +found unsuitable to the soil and climate, and experiments were begun +with _robusta_ and other hardier types. + +A survey of the industry of the country in 1916 showed that the plant +was being successfully grown in the provinces of Tonkin, Anam, and +Cochin-China, and that altogether there were about 1,000,000 trees in +bearing. The plantations are mostly in the foot-hills of the mountain +ranges or on the slopes, although a few are located near the coast line +at 1,000 feet, or even less, above sea-level. + +The larger and more successful plantations follow advanced methods of +planting and cultivating, while the government maintains experimental +stations for the purpose of fostering the industry. It is believed that +French Indo-China in coming years will assume an important position in +the coffee trade of the world, particularly as a source of supply for +France. + +FEDERATED MALAY STATES, INCLUDING STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. Rubber has been +the chief cause of the decline of coffee industry in the Federated Malay +States. Since the closing years of the nineteenth century coffee has +been steadily on the downward path in acreage and production, with the +possible exception of parts of Straits Settlements, which in 1918 +exported, mostly to England, some 3,500,000 pounds of good grade coffee. +The other sections of the federation shipped less than 1,000,000 pounds. + +In the early days, planters of the Malay Peninsula knew little about +proper methods of cultivating, and depended mostly upon what they +learned of the practises in Ceylon, which, unfortunately for them, were +not at all suited to the Malay country. They secured their best crops +from lowlands where peaty soil prevailed, and eventually all the coffee +grown on the peninsula came from such regions. + +_Liberica_ is mostly favored, and is grown with some success as an +inter-crop with cocoanuts and rubber. The _robusta_ variety has also +been introduced, but does not seem to do as well as the _liberica_. +Between 2,300 and 2,600 acres, according to recent returns, have been +under coffee as a catch-crop with cocoanuts, out of a total of 40,000 +acres in cocoanut estates. One planter has been reported as making quite +a success with this method of inter-cropping for coffee, but it is not +generally approved. + +There has been a general decline in acreage, product, and exports since +the closing years of the nineteenth century, until now the industry is +regarded as practically at a stand-still and likely so to remain as long +as rubber shall continue to hold the commercially high position to which +it has attained. Unsatisfactory prices realized for the crop, poor +growth of the trees in some localities, and the gradual weakening of the +trees under rubber as they mature, are offered as the principal +explanations of this decrease in acreage. Nearly all the Malay crop in +recent years has been grown in Selangor, though Negri Sembilan, Pahang, +and Perak continue as factors in the trade. + +[Illustration: COFFEE TREES OF THE BOURBON VARIETY, FRENCH INDO-CHINA] + +AUSTRALIA. Although Australia is a prospective coffee-growing country of +large natural possibilities, the _Australian Year Book_ for 1921 states +that Queensland is the one state in which experiments have been tried, +and that in 1919-20 there were only twenty-four acres under cultivation. +Queensland soils are of volcanic origin, exceptionally rich, and +support trees that are vigorous and prolific with a bean of fine +quality. The _arabica_ is chiefly cultivated, and the trees can be +successfully grown on the plains at sea-level as well as up to a height +of 1,500 or 2,000 feet. The trees mature earlier than in some other +countries. Planted in January, they frequently blossom in December of +the next year, or a month later, and yield a small crop in July or +August; that is, in about two years and a half from the time of +planting. The bean closely resembles the choice Blue Mountain coffee of +Jamaica. For coffee cultivation the labor cost is almost prohibitive. + +[Illustration: PICKING COFFEE ON A NORTH QUEENSLAND PLANTATION] + +As much as fifteen hundred-weight of beans per acre have been gathered +from trees in North Queensland; and for years the average was ten +hundred-weight per acre. After thirty years of cultivation, no signs of +disease have appeared. At late as 1920, the government was proposing to +make advances of fourteen cents a pound upon coffee in the parchment to +encourage the development of the industry to a point where it would be +possible for local coffee growers to capture at least the bulk of the +commonwealth's import coffee trade of 2,605,240 pounds. + +Coffee grows well in most all the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and in +some of them, as in the Philippines and Hawaii, the industry in past +years, reached considerable importance. + +HAWAII. Coffee has been grown in Hawaii since 1825, from plants brought +from Brazil. It has also been said that seed was brought by Vancouver, +the British navigator, on his Pacific exploration voyage, 1791-94. Not, +however, until 1845 was an official record made of the crop, which was +then 248 pounds. The first plantations, started on the low levels, near +the sea, did not do well; and it was not until the trees were planted at +elevations of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above sea-level that better +returns were obtained. + +Coffee is grown on all the islands of the group, but nowhere to any +great extent except on Hawaii, which produces ninety-five percent of the +entire crop. Next in importance, though far behind, is the island of +Oahu. On Hawaii there are four principal coffee districts, Kona, +Hamakua, Puna, and Olaa. About four-fifths of the total output of the +islands is produced in Kona. At one time there were considerable coffee +areas in Maui and Kauai, but sugar cane eventually there took the place +of coffee. + +[Illustration: COFFEE IN BLOSSOM, CAPTAIN COOK COFFEE COMPANY ESTATE, +KEALAKEKUA, KONA, HAWAII] + +The Kona coffee district extends for many miles along the western slope +of the island of Hawaii and around famous Kealakekua Bay. The soil is +volcanic, and even rocky; but coffee trees flourish surprisingly well +among the rocks, and are said to bear a bean of superior quality. + +Coffee trees in Kona are planted principally in the open, though +sometimes they are shaded by the native _kukui_ trees. They are grown +from seed in nurseries; and the seedlings, when one year old, are +transplanted in regular lines nine feet apart. In two years a small crop +is gathered, yielding from five to twelve bags of cleaned coffee per +acre. At three years of age the trees produce from eight to twenty bags +of cleaned coffee per acre, and from that time they are fully matured. +The ripening season is between September and January, and there are two +principal pickings. Many of the trees are classed as wild; that is, they +are not topped, and are cultivated in an irregular manner and are poorly +cared for; but they yield 700 or 800 pounds per acre. The fruit ripens +very uniformly, and is picked easily and at slight expense. + +It is calculated that in the Hawaiian group more than 250,000 acres of +good coffee land are available and about 200,000 acres more of fair +quality. Comparatively little of this possible acreage has been put to +use. According to the census of 1889, there were then 6,451 acres +devoted to coffee, having, young and old, 3,225,743 bearing trees. The +yield, in that census year, was 2,297,000 pounds, of which 2,112,650 +pounds were credited to Hawaii, the small remainder coming from Maui, +Oahu, Kauai, and Molokai. + +A blight in 1855-56 set back the industry, many plantations being ruined +and then given over to sugar cane. After the blight had disappeared, the +plantations were re-established, and prosperity continued for years. +Following the American occupation of the islands in 1898, came another +period of depression. With the loss of the protective tariff that had +existed, prices fell to an unremunerativte figure; and the more +profitable sugar cane was taken up again. After 1912, the increased +demand for coffee, with higher prices, led again to hopes for the future +of the industry. Planting was encouraged; and it has been demonstrated +that from lands well selected and intelligently cultivated it is +possible to have a yield of from 1,200 to 2,100 pounds per acre. +Improvements have also been made in pulping and milling facilities. Many +of the plantations are cultivated by Japanese labor. + +[Illustration: COFFEE GROWING UNDER SHADE, HAMAKUA, H.I.] + +Exports of coffee from Hawaii to the principal countries of the world in +1920 were 2,573,300 pounds. + +PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Spanish missionaries from Mexico are said to have +carried the coffee plant to the Philippine Islands in the latter part of +the eighteenth century. At first it was cultivated in the province of La +Laguna; but afterward other provinces, notably Batangas and Cavite, took +it up; and in a short time the industry was one of the most important in +the islands. The coffee was of the _arabica_ variety. In the middle of +the eighteenth century, and after, the industry had a position of +importance; several provinces produced profitable crops that contributed +much to the wealth of the communities where the berry was cultivated. In +those days the city of Yipa was an important trading center. In the +period of its prime Philippine coffee enjoyed fine repute, especially in +Spain, Great Britain, and China (at Hong Kong), those three countries +being the largest consumers. At one time--in 1883 and 1884--the annual +export was 16,000,000 pounds, which demonstrates the importance of the +industry at the peak of its prosperity. The leaf blight appeared on the +island about 1889, causing destruction from which there has not yet been +complete recovery. The export of 3,086 pounds in 1917 shows the depths +into which the industry had fallen. + +The Bureau of Agriculture at Manila announced in 1915 that an effort was +to be made to re-habilitate the coffee industry of the islands. Nothing +came of the effort, which died a-borning. Since then, several attempts +to introduce disease-resisting varieties of coffee from Java have failed +because of lack of interest on the part of the natives. + +Despite the misfortunes that have overwhelmed it in the past and are now +retarding its growth, it is still believed that the industry in these +islands may be re-habilitated. Conditions of soil and climate are +favorable; land and labor are cheap, abundant, and dependable: railroads +run into the best coffee regions, and good cart roads are in process of +construction. Some plantations of consequence are still in existence, +and serious consideration is being given to their development and to +increasing their number. + +[Illustration: THE COFFEE TREE THRIVES IN THE LAVA SOIL OF SOUTH KONA, +ISLAND OF HAWAII] + +GUAM. Coffee is one of the commonest wild plants on the little island of +Guam. It grows around the houses like shade trees or flowering shrubs, +and nearly every family cultivates a small patch. Climate and soil are +favorable to it; and it flourishes, with abundant crops, from the +sea-level to the tops of the highest hills. The plants are set in +straight rows, from three and a half to seven feet apart, and are shaded +by banana trees or by cocoanut leaves stuck in the ground. There is no +production for export, scarcely enough for home consumption. + +[Illustration: COFFEE PLANTATION NEAR SAGADA, BONTOC PROVINCE, P.I.] + +OTHER PACIFIC ISLANDS. Other islands of the Pacific do not loom large in +coffee growing, though New Caledonia gives promise as a producer, +exporting 1,248,024 pounds in 1916, most of which was _robusta_. Tahiti +produces a fair coffee, but in no commercial quantity. In the Samoan +group there are plantations, small in number, in size, and in amount of +production. Several islands of the Fiji group are said to be well +adapted to coffee, but little is grown there and none for export. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: OWNER'S RESIDENCE ADJOINING DRYING GROUNDS ON ONE OF THE +LARGE ESTATES] + +[Illustration: DRYING GROUNDS, FAZENDA SANTA ADELAIDE, RIBEIRAO PRETO] + +[Illustration: COFFEE PREPARATION IN SÃO PAULO, BRAZIL] + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +PREPARING GREEN COFFEE FOR MARKET + + _Early Arabian methods of preparation--How primitive devices were + replaced by modern methods--A chronological story of the + development of scientific plantation machinery, and the part played + by British and American inventors--The marvelous coffee package, + one of the most ingenious in all nature--How coffee is + harvested--Picking--Preparation by the dry and the wet + methods--Pulping--Fermentation and washing--Drying--Hulling; or + peeling, and polishing--Sizing, or grading--Preparation methods of + different countries_ + + +La Roque[316], in his description of the ancient coffee culture, and the +preparation methods as followed in Yemen, says that the berries were +permitted to dry on the trees. When the outer covering began to shrivel, +the trees were shaken, causing the fully matured fruits to drop upon +cloths spread to receive them. They were next exposed to the sun on +drying-mats, after which they were husked by means of wooden or stone +rollers. The beans were given a further drying in the sun, and then were +submitted to a winnowing process, for which large fans were used. + + +_Development of Plantation Machinery_ + +The primitive methods of the original Arab planters were generally +followed by the Dutch pioneers, and later by the French, with slight +modifications. As the cultivation spread, necessity for more effective +methods of handling the ripened fruit mothered inventions that soon +began to transform the whole aspect of the business. Probably the first +notable advance was in curing, when the West Indian process, or wet +method, of cleaning the berries was evolved. + +About the time that Brazil began the active cultivation of coffee, +William Panter was granted the first English patent on a "mill for +husking coffee." This was in 1775. James Henckel followed with an +English patent, granted in 1806, on a coffee drier, "an invention +communicated to him by a certain foreigner." The first American to enter +the lists was Nathan Reed of Belfast, Me., who in 1822 was granted a +United States patent on a coffee huller. Roswell Abbey obtained a United +States patent on a huller in 1825; and Zenos Bronson, of Jasper County, +Ga., obtained one on another huller in 1829. In the next few years many +others followed. + +John Chester Lyman, in 1834, was granted an English patent on a coffee +huller employing circular wooden disks, fitted with wire teeth. Isaac +Adams and Thomas Ditson of Boston brought out improved hullers in 1835; +and James Meacock of Kingston, Jamaica, patented in England, in 1845, a +self-contained machine for pulping, dressing, and sorting coffee. + +William McKinnon began, in 1840, the manufacture of coffee plantation +machinery at the Spring Garden Iron Works, founded by him in 1798 in +Aberdeen, Scotland. He died in 1873; but the business continues as Wm. +McKinnon & Co., Ltd. + +About 1850 John Walker, one of the pioneer English inventors of +coffee-plantation machinery, brought out in Ceylon his cylinder pulper +for Arabian coffee. The pulping surface was made of copper, and was +pierced with a half-moon punch that raised the cut edges into half +circles. + +The next twenty years witnessed some of the most notable advances in the +development of machinery for plantation treatment, and served to +introduce the inventions of several men whose names will ever be +associated with the industry. + +John Gordon & Co. began the manufacture in London of the line of +plantation machinery still known around the world as "Gordon make" in +1850; and John Gordon was granted an English patent on his improved +coffee pulper in 1859. + +Robert Bowman Tennent obtained English (1852) and United States (1853) +patents on a two-cylinder pulper. + +George L. Squier began the manufacture of plantation machinery in +Buffalo, N.Y., in 1857. He was active in the business until 1893, and +died in 1910. The Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. still continues as +one of the leading American manufacturers of coffee-plantation +machinery. + +Marcus Mason, an American mechanical engineer in San José, Costa Rica, +invented (1860) a coffee pulper and cleaner which became the foundation +stone of the extensive plantation-machinery business of Marcus Mason & +Co., established in 1873 at Worcester, Mass. + +[Illustration: WALKER'S ORIGINAL DISK PULPER, 1860 + +Much favored in Ceylon and India] + +John Walker was granted (1860) an English patent on a disk pulper in +which the copper pulping surface was punched, or knobbed, by a blind +punch that raised rows of oval knobs but did not pierce the sheet, and +so left no sharp edges. During Ceylon's fifty years of coffee +production, the Walker machines played an important part in the +industry. They are still manufactured by Walker, Sons & Co., Ltd., of +Colombo, and are sold to other producing countries. + +Alexius Van Gulpen began the manufacture of a green-coffee-grading +machine at Emmerich, Germany, in 1860. + +Following Newell's United States patents of 1857-59, sixteen other +patents were issued on various types of coffee-cleaning machines, some +designed for plantation use, and some for treating the beans on arrival +in the consuming countries. + +James Henry Thompson, of Hoboken, and John Lidgerwood were granted, in +1864, an English patent on a coffee-hulling machine. William Van Vleek +Lidgerwood, American chargé d'affaires at Rio de Janeiro, was granted an +English patent on a coffee hulling and cleaning machine in 1866. The +name Lidgerwood has long been familiar to coffee planters. The +Lidgerwood Manufacturing Co., Ltd., has its headquarters in London, with +factory in Glasgow. Branch offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro, +Campinas, and in other cities in coffee-growing countries. + +[Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH COFFEE PEELER + +Largely used in India and Ceylon] + +Probably the name most familiar to coffee men in connection with +plantation methods is Guardiola. It first appears in the chronological +record in 1872, when J. Guardiola, of Chocola, Guatemala, was granted +several United States patents on machines for pulping and drying coffee. +Since then, "Guardiola" has come to mean a definite type of rotary +drying machine that--after the original patent expired--was manufactured +by practically all the leading makers of plantation machinery. José +Guardiola obtained additional United States patents on coffee hullers in +1886. + +[Illustration: GROUP OF ENGLISH CYLINDER COFFEE-PULPING MACHINES] + +William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, Morristown, N.J., was granted an English +patent on an improved coffee pulper in 1875. + +Several important cleaning and grading machinery patents were granted by +the United States (1876-1878) to Henry B. Stevens, who assigned them to +the Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N.Y. One of them was on a +separator, in which the coffee beans were discharged from the hopper in +a thin stream upon an endless carrier, or apron, arranged at such an +inclination that the round beans would roll by force of gravity down the +apron, while the flat beans would be carried to the top. + +C.F. Hargreaves, of Rio de Janeiro, was granted an English patent on +machinery for hulling, polishing, and separating coffee, in 1879. + +The first German patent on a coffee drying apparatus was granted to +Henry Scolfield, of Guatemala, in 1880. + +In 1885 Evaristo Conrado Engelberg of Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, +invented an improved coffee huller which, three years later, was +patented in the United States. The Engelberg Huller Co. of Syracuse, +N.Y., was organized the same year (1888) to make and to sell Engelberg +machines. + +Walker Sons & Co., Ltd., began, in 1886, experimenting in Ceylon with a +Liberian disk pulper that was not fully perfected until twelve years +later. + +Another name, that has since become almost as well known as Guardiola, +appears in the record in 1891. It is that of O'Krassa. In that year +R.F.E. O'Krassa of Antigua, Guatemala, was granted an English patent on +a coffee pulper. Additional patents on washing, hulling, drying, and +separating machines were issued to Mr. O'Krassa in England and in the +United States in 1900, 1908, 1911, 1912, and 1913. + +The Fried. Krupp A.G. Grusonwerk, Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, began the +manufacture of coffee plantation machines about 1892. Among others it +builds coffee pulpers and hulling and polishing machines of the Anderson +(Mexican) and Krull (Brazilian) types. + +Additional United States patents were granted in 1895 to Marcus Mason, +assignor to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, on machines for pulping and +polishing coffee. Douglas Gordon assigned patents on a coffee pulper and +a coffee drier to Marcus Mason & Co. in 1904-05. + +The names of Jules Smout, a Swiss, and Don Roberto O'Krassa, of +Guatemala, are well known to coffee planters the world over because of +their combined peeling and polishing machines. + +The Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver Creek, N.Y., began in 1896 the +manufacture of the Monitor line of coffee-grading-and-cleaning machines. + + +_The Marvelous Coffee Package_ + +It is doubtful if in all nature there is a more cunningly devised food +package than the fruit of the coffee tree. It seems as if Good Mother +Nature had said: "This gift of Heaven is too precious to put up in any +ordinary parcel. I shall design for it a casket worthy of its divine +origin. And the casket shall have an inner seal that shall safeguard it +from enemies, and that shall preserve its goodness for man until the day +when, transported over the deserts and across the seas, it shall be +broken open to be transmuted by the fires of friendship, and made to +yield up its aromatic nectar in the Great Drink of Democracy." + +To this end she caused to grow from the heart of the jasmine-like +flower, that first herald of its coming, a marvelous berry which, as it +ripens, turns first from green to yellow, then to reddish, to deep +crimson, and at last to a royal purple. + +[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF COPPER COVERS FOR PULPER CYLINDERS + +1--For Arabian coffee (_Coffea arabica_). 2--For Liberian coffee +(_Coffea liberica_). 3--Also for Arabian. 4--For _Coffea canephora_. +5--For _Coffea robusta_. 6--For larger Arabian, and for _Coffea +Maragogipe_.] + +The coffee fruit is very like a cherry, though somewhat elongated and +having in its upper end a small umbilicus. But mark with what ingenuity +the package has been constructed! The outer wrapping is a thin, +gossamer-like skin which encloses a soft pulp, sweetish to the taste, +but of a mucilaginous consistency. This pulp in turn is wrapped about +the inner-seal--called the parchment, because of its tough texture. The +parchment encloses the magic bean in its last wrapping, a delicate +silver-colored skin, not unlike fine spun silk or the sheerest of tissue +papers. And this last wrapping is so tenacious, so true to its +guardianship function, that no amount of rough treatment can dislodge it +altogether; for portions of it cling to the bean even into the roasting +and grinding processes. + +[Illustration: DRYING GROUNDS, PULPING HOUSE, AND FERMENTATION VATS, +BOA VISTA. BRAZIL] + +[Illustration: PULPING HOUSE AND FERMENTATION TANKS, COSTA RICA] + +[Illustration: COFFEE PREPARATION IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA] + +[Illustration: GRANADA UNPULPED COFFEE SEPARATOR + +Shown in combination with a Guatemala coffee pulper] + +Coffee is said to be "in the husk," or "in the parchment," when the +whole fruit is dried; and it is called "hulled coffee" when it has been +deprived of its hull and peel. The matter forming the fruit, called the +coffee berry, covers two thin, hard, oval seed vessels held together, +one to the other, by their flat sides. These seed vessels, when broken +open, contain the raw coffee beans of commerce. They are usually of a +roundish oval shape, convex on the outside, flat inside, marked +longitudinally in the center of the flat side with a deep incision, and +wrapped in the thin pellicle known as the silver skin. When one of the +two seeds aborts, the remaining one acquires a greater size, and fills +the interior of the fruit, which in that case, of course, has but one +cellule. This abortion is common in the _arabica_ variety, and produces +a bean formerly called _gragé_ coffee, but now more commonly known as +peaberry, or male berry. + +The various coverings of the coffee beans are almost always removed on +the plantations in the producing countries. Properly to prepare the raw +beans, it is necessary to remove the four coverings--the outer skin, the +sticky pulp, the parchment, or husk, and the closely adhering silver +skin. + +There are two distinct methods of treating the coffee fruits, or +"cherries." One process, the one that until recent years was in general +use throughout the world, and is still in many producing countries, is +known as the dry method. The coffee prepared in this way is sometimes +called "common," "ordinary," or "natural," to distinguish it from the +product that has been cleaned by the wet or washed method. The wet +method, or, as it is sometimes designated, the "West Indian process" +(W.I.P.) is practised on all the large modern plantations that have a +sufficient supply of water. + +In the wet process, the first step is called pulping; the second is +fermentation and washing; the third is drying; the fourth is hulling or +peeling; and the last, sizing or grading. In the dry process, the first +step is drying; the second hulling; and the last, sizing or grading. + +[Illustration: HAND-POWER DOUBLE-DISK PULPER] + + +_Harvesting_ + +The coffee cherry ripens about six to seven months after the tree has +flowered, or blossomed; and becomes a deep purplish-crimson color. It is +then ready for picking. The ripening season varies throughout the world, +according to climate and altitude. In the state of São Paulo, Brazil, +the harvesting season lasts from May to September; while in Java, where +three crops are produced annually, harvesting is almost a continuous +process throughout the year. In Colombia the harvesting seasons are +March and April, and November and December. In Guatemala the crops are +gathered from October through December; in Venezuela, from November +through March. In Mexico the coffee is harvested from November to +January; in Haiti the harvest extends from November to March; in Arabia, +from September to March; in Abyssinia, from September through November. +In Uganda, Africa, there are two main crops, one ripening in March and +the other in September, and picking is carried on during practically +every month except December and January. In India the fruit is ready for +harvesting from October to January. + +[Illustration: TANDEM COFFEE PULPER OF ENGLISH MAKE + +Being a combination of a Bon-Accord-Valencia pulper with a Bon-Accord +repassing machine] + + +_Picking_ + +The general practise throughout the world has been to hand-pick the +fruit; although in some countries the cherries are allowed to become +fully ripe on the trees, and to fall to the ground. The introduction of +the wet method of preparation, indeed, has made it largely unnecessary +to hand-pick crops; and the tendency seems to be away from this practise +on the larger plantations. If the berries are gathered promptly after +dropping, the beans are not injured, and the cost of harvesting is +reduced. + +The picking season is a busy time on a large plantation. All hands join +in the work--men, women and children; for it must be rushed. Over-ripe +berries shrink and dry up. The pickers, with baskets slung over their +shoulders, walk between the rows, stripping the berries from the trees, +using ladders to reach the topmost branches, and sometimes even taking +immature fruit in their haste to expedite the work. About thirty pounds +is considered a fair day's work under good conditions. As the baskets +are filled, they are emptied at a "station" in that particular unit of +the plantation; or, in some cases, directly into wagons that keep pace +with the pickers. The coffee is freed as much as possible of sticks, +leaves, etc., and is then conveyed to the preparation grounds. + +A space of several acres is needed for the various preparation processes +on the larger plantations; the plant including concrete-surfaced drying +grounds, large fermentation tanks, washing vats, mills, warehouses, +stables, and even machine shops. In Mexico this place is known as the +_beneficio_. + + +_Washed and Unwashed Coffee_ + +Where water is plenty, the ripe coffee cherries are fed by a stream of +water into a pulping machine which breaks the outer skins, permitting +the pulpy matter enveloping the beans to be loosened and carried away in +further washings. It is this wet separation of the sticky pulp from the +beans, instead of allowing it to dry on them, to be removed later with +the parchment in the hulling operation, that makes the distinction +between washed and unwashed coffees. Where water is scarce the coffees +are unwashed. + +Either method being well done, does washing improve the strength and +flavor? Opinions differ. The soil, altitude, climatic influences, and +cultivation methods of a country give its coffee certain distinctive +drinking qualities. Washing immensely improves the appearance of the +bean; it also reduces curing costs. Generally speaking, washed coffees +will always command a premium over coffees dried in the pulp. + +[Illustration: Costa Rica Vertical Coffee Washer] + +[Illustration: Continuous Working Horizontal Coffee Washer] + +Whether coffee is washed or not, it has to be dried; and there is a kind +of fermentation that goes on during washing and drying, about which +coffee planters have differing ideas, just as tea planters differ over +the curing of tea leaves. Careful scientific study is needed to +determine how much, if any, effect this fermentation has on the ultimate +cup value. + + +_Preparation by the Dry Method_ + +The dry method of preparing the berries is not only the older method, +but is considered by some operators as providing a distinct advantage +over the wet process, since berries of different degrees of ripeness can +be handled at the same time. However, the success of this method is +dependent largely on the continuance of clear warm weather over quite a +length of time, which can not always be counted on. + +In this process the berries are spread in a thin layer on open drying +grounds, or barbecues, often having cement or brick surfaces. The +berries are turned over several times a day in order to permit the sun +and wind thoroughly to dry all portions. The sun-drying process lasts +about three weeks; and after the first three days of this period, the +berries must be protected from dews and rains by covering them with +tarpaulins, or by raking them into heaps under cover. If the berries are +not spread out, they heat, and the silver skin sticks to the coffee +bean, and frequently discolors it. When thoroughly dry, the berries are +stored, unless the husks (outer skin and inner parchment) are to be +removed at once. Hot air, steam, and other artificial drying methods +take the place of natural sun-drying on some plantations. + +In the dry method, the husks are removed either by hand (threshing and +pounding in a mortar, on the smaller plantations) or by specially +constructed machinery, known as hulling machines. + +[Illustration: Cobán Pulper in Tachira, Venezuela] + + +_The Wet Method--Pulping_ + +The wet method of preparation is the more modern form, and is generally +practised on the larger plantations that have a sufficient supply of +water, and enough money to instal the quite extensive amount of +machinery and equipment required. It is generally considered that +washing results in a better grade of bean. + +In this method the cherries are sometimes thrown into tanks full of +water to soak about twenty-four hours, so as to soften the outer skins +and underlying pulp to a condition that will make them easily removable +by the pulping machine--the idea being to rub away the pulp by friction +without crushing the beans. + +On the larger plantations, however, the coffee cherries are dumped into +large concrete receiving tanks, from which they are carried the same day +by streams of running water directly into the hoppers of the pulping +machines. + +At least two score of different makes of pulping machines are in use in +the various coffee-growing countries. Pulpers are made in various sizes, +from the small hand-operated machine to the large type driven by power; +and in two general styles--cylinder, and disk. + +The cylinder pulper, the latest style--suggesting a huge +nutmeg-grater--consists of a rotary cylinder surrounded with a copper or +brass cover punched with bulbs. These bulbs differ in shape according to +the species, or variety, of coffee to be treated--_arabica_, _liberica_, +_robusta_, _canephora_, or what not. The cylinder rotates against a +breast with pulping edges set at an angle. The pulping is effected by +the rubbing action of the copper cover against the edges, or ribs, of +the breast. The cherries are subjected to a rubbing and rolling motion, +in the course of which the two parchment-covered beans contained in the +majority of the cherries become loosened. The pulp itself is carried by +the cover and is discharged through a pulp shoot, while the pulped +coffee is delivered through holes on the breast. Cylinder machines vary +in capacity from 400 pounds (hand power) to 4,800 pounds (motive power) +per hour. + +Some cylinder pulpers are double, being equipped with rotary screens or +oscillating sieves, that segregate the imperfectly pulped cherries so +that they may be put through again. Pulpers are also equipped with +attachments that automatically move the imperfectly pulped material over +into a repassing machine for another rubbing. Others have attachments +partially to crush the cherries before pulping. + +The breasts in cylinder machines are usually made with removable steel +ribs; but in Brazil, Nicaragua, and other countries, where, owing to the +short season and scarcity of labor, the planters have to pick, +simultaneously, green, ripe, and over-ripe (dry) cherries, rubber +breasts are used. + +[Illustration: NIAGARA POWER COFFEE HULLER] + +[Illustration: MCKINNON'S GUARDIOLA COFFEE DRIER] + +[Illustration: THE SQUIER-GUARDIOLA COFFEE DRIER, WITH DIRECT-FIRE +HEATER] + +[Illustration: BRITISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE DRIERS--GUARDIOLA SYSTEM + +There are numerous makes of coffee driers based upon the original +invention of José Guardiola of Chocola, Guatemala. In the two +illustrated above both direct-fire heat and steam heat may be utilized] + +The disk pulper (the earliest type, having been in use more than +seventy years) is the style most generally used in the Dutch East Indies +and in some parts of Mexico. The results are the same as those obtained +with the cylindrical pulper. The disk machine is made with one, two, +three, or four vertical iron disks, according to the capacity desired. +The disks are covered on both sides with a copper plate of the same +shape, and punched with blind punches. The pulping operation takes place +between the rubbing action of the blind punches, or bulbs, on the copper +plates and the lateral pulping bars fitted to the side cheeks. As in the +cylinder pulper, the distance between the surface of the bulbs and the +pulping bar may be adjusted to allow of any clearance that may be +required, according to the variety of coffee to be treated. + +[Illustration: ANOTHER AMERICAN GUARDIOLA DRIER] + +Disk pulpers vary in capacity from 1,200 pounds to 14,000 pounds of ripe +cherry coffee per hour. They, too, are made in combinations employing +cylindrical separators, shaking sieves, and repassing pulpers, for +completing the pulping of all unpulped or partially pulped cherries. + + +_Fermentation and Washing_ + +The next step in the process consists in running the pulped cherries +into cisterns, or fermentation tanks, filled with water, for the purpose +of removing such pulp as was not removed in the pulping machine. The +saccharine matter is loosened by fermentation in from twenty-four to +thirty-two hours. The mass is kept stirred up for a short time; and, in +general practise, the water is drawn off from above, the light pulp +floating at the top being removed at the same time. The same tanks are +often used for washing, but a better practise is to have separate tanks. + +Some planters permit the pulped coffee to ferment in water. This is +called the wet fermentation process. Others drain off the water from the +tanks and conduct the fermenting operation in a semi-dry state, called +the dry fermentation process. + +The coffee bean, when introduced into the fermentation tanks, is +enclosed in a parchment shell made slimy by its closely adhering +saccharine coat. After fermentation, which not only loosens the +remaining pulp but also softens the membranous covering, the beans are +given a final washing, either in washing tanks or by being run through +mechanical washers. The type of washing machine generally used consists +of a cylindrical tub having a vertical spindle fitted with a number of +stirrers, or arms, which, in rotating, stir and lift up the parchment +coffee. In another type, the cylinder is horizontal; but the operation +is similar. + + +_Drying_ + +The next step in preparation is drying. The coffee, which is still "in +the parchment," but is now known as washed coffee, is spread out thinly +on a drying ground, as in the dry method. However, if the weather is +unsuitable or can not be depended upon to remain fair for the necessary +length of time, there are machines which can be used to dry the coffee +satisfactorily. On some plantations, the drying is started in the open +and finished by machine. The machines dry the coffee in twenty-four +hours, while ten days are required by the sun. + +[Illustration: THE SMOUT PEELER AND POLISHER] + +The object of the drying machine is to dry the parchment of the coffee +so that it may be removed as readily as the skin on a peanut; and this +object is achieved in the most approved machines by keeping a hot +current of air stirring through the beans. One of the best-liked types, +the Guardiola, resembles the cylinder of a coffee-roasting machine. It +is made of perforated steel plates in cylinder form, and is carried on a +hollow shaft through which the hot air is circulated by a pressure fan. +The beans are rotated in the revolving cylinder; and as the hot air +strikes the wet coffee, it creates a steam that passes out through the +perforations of the cylinder. Within the cylinder are compartments +equipped with winged plates, or ribs, that keep the coffee constantly +stirred up to facilitate the drying process. Another favorite is the +O'Krassa. It is constructed on the principle just described, but differs +in detail of construction from the Guardiola, and is able to dry its +contents a few hours quicker. Hot air, steam, and electric heat are all +employed in the various makes of coffee driers. A temperature from 65° +to 85° centigrade is maintained during the drying process. + +[Illustration: O'KRASSA'S COFFEE DRIER COMBINED WITH DIRECT-FIRE HEATER] + +When thoroughly dry, the parchment can be crumbled between the fingers, +and the bean within is too hard to be dented by finger nail or teeth. + + +_Hulling, Peeling, and Polishing_ + +The last step in the preparation process is called hulling or peeling, +both words accurately describing the purpose of the operation. Some +husking machines for hulling or peeling parchment coffee are polishers +as well. This work may be done on the plantation or at the port of +shipment just before the coffee is shipped abroad. Sometimes the coffee +is exported in parchment, and is cleaned in the country of consumption; +but practically all coffee entering the United States arrives without +its parchment. + +[Illustration: THE SMOUT PEELER AND POLISHER, WITH CYLINDER OPEN SHOWING +CONE] + +Peeling machines, more accurately named hullers, work on the principle +of rubbing the beans between a revolving inner cylinder and an outer +covering of woven wire. Machines of this type vary in construction. Some +have screw-like inner cylinders, or turbines, others having plain +cone-shaped cores on which are knobs and ribs that rub the beans against +one another and the outer shell. Practically all types have sieve or +exhaust-fan attachments, which draw the loosened parchment and silver +skin into one compartment, while the cleaned beans pass into another. + +[Illustration: KRULL HULLING MACHINE (German)] + +[Illustration: ANDERSON HULLING MACHINE (German)] + +[Illustration: EUREKA SEPARATOR AND GRADER (American)] + +[Illustration: CARACOLILLO (PEABERRY) SEPARATOR (American)] + +[Illustration: ENGELBERG HULLER AND SEPARATOR (American)] + +[Illustration: THE AMERICAN COFFEE HULLER AND POLISHER] + +[Illustration: WELL KNOWN AMERICAN AND GERMAN HULLING AND SEPARATING +MACHINES] + +Polishers of various makes are sometimes used just to remove the silver +skin and to give the beans a special polish. Some countries demand a +highly polished coffee; and to supply this demand, the beans are sent +through another huller having a phosphor-bronze cylinder and cone. Much +Guadeloupe coffee is prepared in this way, and is known as _café +bonifieur_ from the fact that the polishing machine is called in +Guadeloupe the _bonifieur_ (improver). It is also called _café de luxe_. +Coffee that has not received the extra polish is described as +_habitant_; while coffee in the parchment is known as _café en parché_. +Extra polished coffee is much in demand in the London, Hamburg, and +other European markets. A favorite machine for producing this kind of +coffee is the Smout combined peeler and polisher, the invention of Jules +Smout, a Swiss. Don Roberto O'Krassa also has produced a highly +satisfactory combined peeler and polisher. + +For hulling dry cherry coffee there are several excellent makes of +machines. In one style, the hulling takes place between a rotating disk +and the casing of the machine. In another, it takes place between a +rotary drum covered with a steel plate punched with vertical bulbs, and +a chilled iron hulling-plate with pyramidal teeth cast on the plate. +Both are adjustable to different varieties of coffee. In still another +type of machine, the hulling takes place between steel ribs on an +internal cylinder, and an adjustable knife, or hulling blade, in front +of the machine. + +[Illustration: EL MONARCA COFFEE CLASSIFIER] + + +_Sizing or Grading_ + +The coffee bean is now clean, the processes described in the foregoing +having removed the outer skin, the saccharine pulp, the parchment, and +the silver skin. This is the end of the cleaning operations; but there +are two more steps to be taken before the coffee is ready for the trade +of the world--sizing and hand-sorting. These two operations are of great +importance; since on them depends, to a large extent, the price the +coffee will bring in the market. + +[Illustration: Old rope-drive transmission on Finca Ona.] + +[Illustration: Hydro-electric power plant on Finca Ona. + +HYDRO-ELECTRIC INSTALLATION ON A GUATEMALA FINCA] + +Sizing, or grading by sizes, is done in modern commercial practise by +machines that automatically separate and distribute the different beans +according to size and form. In principle, the beans are carried across a +series of sieves, each with perforations varying in size from the +others; the beans passing through the holes of corresponding sizes. The +majority of the machines are constructed to separate the beans into five +or more grades, the principal grades being triage, third flats, second +flats, first flats, and first and second peaberries. Some are designed +to handle "elephant" and "mother" sizes. The grades have local +nomenclature in the various countries. + +After grading, the coffee is picked over by hand to remove the faulty +and discolored beans that it is almost impossible to remove thoroughly +by machine. The higher grades of coffee are often double-picked; that +is, picked over twice. When this is done on a large scale, the beans are +generally placed on a belt, or platform, that moves at a regulated speed +before a line of women and children, who pick out the undesirable beans +as they pass on the moving belt. There are small machines of this type +built for one person, who operates the belt mechanism by means of a +treadle. + + +_Preparation in the Leading Countries_ + +The foregoing description tells in general terms the story of the most +approved methods of harvesting, shelling, and cleaning the coffee beans. +The following paragraphs will describe those features of the processes +that are peculiar to the more important large producing countries and +that differ in details or in essentials from the methods just outlined. + + +_In the Western Hemisphere_ + +BRAZIL. The operation of some of the large plantations in Brazil, a +number of which have more than a million trees, requires a large number +and a great variety of preparation machines and equipment. Generally +considered, the State of São Paulo is better equipped with approved +machinery than any other commercial district in the world. + +In Brazil, coffee plantations are known as _fazendas_, and the +proprietors as _fazendeiros_, terms that are the equivalent of "landed +estates" and "landed proprietors." Practically every _fazenda_ in Brazil +of any considerable commercial importance is equipped with the most +modern of coffee-cleaning equipment. Some of the larger ones in the +state of São Paulo, like the Dumont and the Schmidt estates, are +provided with private railways connecting the _fazendas_ with the main +railroad line some miles away, and also have miniature railway systems +running through the _fazendas_ to move the coffee from one harvesting +and cleaning operation to another. The coffee is carried in small cars +that are either pushed by a laborer or are drawn by horse or mule. + +[Illustration: PICKING COFFEE ON A WELL KEPT FAZENDA] + +[Illustration: MANAGER'S RESIDENCE ON ONE OF THE BIG SÃO PAULO FAZENDAS] + +[Illustration: Photographs by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. + +DRYING GROUNDS ON A MODERN ESTATE IN RIBEIRAO PRETO] + +[Illustration: MAKING BRAZIL COFFEE READY TO MARKET] + +Some of the larger _fazendas_ cover thousands of acres, and have +several millions of trees, giving the impression of an unending forest +stretching far away into the horizon. Here and there are openings in +which buildings appear, the largest group of structures usually +consisting of those making up the _cafezale_, or cleaning plant. Nearby, +stand the handsome "palaces" of the _fazendeiros_; but not so close that +the coffee princes and their households will be disturbed by the almost +constant rumble of machinery and the voices of the workers. + +[Illustration: Copyright by Brown & Dawson. + +WORKING COFFEE ON DRYING FLATS, SÃO PAULO] + +Brazilian _fazendeiros_ follow the methods described in the foregoing in +preparing their coffee for market, using the most modern of the +equipment detailed under the story of the wet method of preparation. On +most of the _fazendas_ the machinery is operated by steam or +electricity, the latter coming more and more into use each year in all +parts of the coffee-growing region. + +In some districts, however, far in the interior, there are still to be +found small plantations where primitive methods of cleaning are even now +practised. Producing but a small quantity of coffee, possibly for only +local use, the cherries may be freed of their parchment by macerating +the husks by hand labor in a large mortar. On still another plantation, +the old-time bucket-and-beam crusher perhaps may be in use. + +This consists of a beam pivoted on an upright upon which it moves freely +up and down. On one end of the beam is an open bucket; and on the other, +a heavy stone. Water runs into the bucket until its weight causes the +stone end of the beam to rise. When the bucket reaches the ground, the +water is emptied, and the stone crashes down on the coffee cherries +lying in a large mortar. + +[Illustration: FERMENTING AND WASHING TANKS ON A SÃO PAULO FAZENDA] + +The workers on some of the largest Brazilian _fazendas_ would constitute +the population of a small city--more than a thousand families often +finding continuous employment in cultivating, harvesting, cleaning, and +transporting the coffee to market. For the most part, the workers are of +Italian extraction, who have almost altogether superseded the Indian and +Negro laborers of the early days. The workers live on the _fazendas_ in +quarters provided by the _fazendeiros_, and are paid a weekly or monthly +wage for their services; or they may enter upon a year's contract to +cultivate the trees, receiving extra pay for picking and other work. +Brazil in the past has experimented with the slave system, with +government colonization, with co-operative planting, with the harvesting +system, and with the share system. And some features of all these +plans--except slavery, which was abolished in 1888--are still employed +in various parts of the country, although the wage system predominates. + +[Illustration: By Courtesy of J. Aron & Co. + +DRYING GROUNDS ON FAZENDA SCHMIDT, THE LARGEST IN BRAZIL] + +Brazil has six gradings for its São Paulo coffees, which are also +classified as Bourbon Santos, Flat Bean Santos, and Mocha-seed Santos. +Rio coffees are graded by the number of imperfections for New York, and +as washed and unwashed for Havre. (See chapter XXIV.) + +COLOMBIA. Practically all the countries of the western hemisphere +producing coffee in large quantities for export trade use the +cleaning-and-grading machines specified in the first part of this +chapter; and the installation of the equipment is increasing as its +advantages become better known. + +In Colombia, now (1922), next to Brazil the world's largest producer, +the wet method of preparing the coffee for market is most generally +followed, the drying processes often being a combination of sun and +drying machines. Many plantations have their own hulling equipment; but +much of the crop goes in the cherry to local commercial centers where +there are establishments that make a specialty of cleaning and grading +the coffee. + +The Colombia coffee crop is gathered twice a year, the principal one in +March and April and the smaller one in November and December, although +some picking is done throughout the year. For this labor native Indian +and negro women are preferred, as they are more rapid, skilful, and +careful in handling the trees. Contrary to the method in Brazil, where +the tree at one handling is stripped of its entire bearings, ripe and +unripe fruit, here only the fully ripened fruit is picked. That +necessitates going over the ground several times, as the berries +progressively ripen. More time is consumed in this laborious operation, +but it is believed that thereby a better crop of more uniform grade is +obtained and in the aggregate with less waste of time and effort. + +Colombian planters classify their coffees as _café trillado_ (natural or +sun-dried), _café lavado_ (washed), _café en pergamino_ (washed and +dried in the parchment). They grade them as _excelso_ (excellent), +_fantasia_ (_excelso_ and _extra_), _extra_ (extra), _primera_, (first), +_segundo_ (second), _caracol_ (peaberry), _monstruo_ (large and +deformed), _consumo_ (defective), and _casilla_ (siftings). + +[Illustration: PREPARING COLOMBIAN COFFEE FOR THE MARKET] + +VENEZUELA. Venezuela employs both the dry and the wet methods of +preparation, producing both "washed" and "commons" and also, like +Colombia, has a large part of the coffee cleaned in the trading centers +of the various coffee districts. Dry, or unwashed, coffees are known as +_trillado_ (milled), and compose the bulk of the country's output. +Venezuela's plantation-working forces are largely natives of Indian +descent and negroes, some of them coming during harvesting season from +adjoining Colombia and returning there after the picking is done. The +resident workers labor under a sort of peonage system which is tacitly +recognized by both employee and employer, although no laws of peonage or +slavery have ever existed in Venezuela. Under this system, the laborers +live in little colonies scattered over the _haciendas_, as the coffee +plantations are called in Venezuela. Company stores keep them supplied +with all their wants. Modern plantation machinery is very scarce; the +ancient method of hulling coffee in a circular trough where the dried +berries are crushed by heavy wooden wheels drawn by oxen, is still a +common sight in Venezuela. In preparing washed coffees, some planters +ferment the pulped coffee under water (wet fermentation process); while +others ferment without water (dry fermentation). + +[Illustration: THIS OLD-FASHIONED HULLING MACHINE IS OPERATED BY OX +POWER IN VENEZUELA] + +The principal ports of shipments for Venezuela coffees are La Guaira, +Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo. Caracas, the capital, is five miles in an +air line from the port of La Guaira; but in ascending the three thousand +feet of altitude to the city the railroad twists and turns among the +mountains for a distance of twenty-four miles. By rail or motor the trip +is one of much charm and great beauty. + +SALVADOR. The planters in Salvador favor the dry method of coffee +preparation; and the bulk of the crop is natural, or unwashed. + +GUATEMALA. Most Guatemalas are prepared for market by the wet method. +The gathering of the crops furnishes employment for half the population. +German and American settlers have introduced the latest improvements in +modern plantation machinery into Guatemala. + +MEXICO. In Mexico coffee is harvested from November to January, and +large quantities are prepared by both the dry and the wet methods, the +latter being practised on the larger estates that have the necessary +water supply and can afford the machinery. Here, too, one will find +coffee being cleaned by the primitive hand-mortar and wind-winnowing +method. Laborers are mostly half-breeds and Indians. Chinese coolies +have been tried and found satisfactory, and some Japanese are utilized, +though not largely. + +[Illustration: STREET CAR COFFEE TRANSPORT IN ORIZABA, MEXICO] + +HAITI. In Haiti the picking season is from November to March. In recent +years better attention has been paid to cultural and preparation +methods; and the product is more favorably regarded commercially. Large +quantities are shipped to France and Belgium; and much of that sent to +the United States is reshipped to France, Belgium, and Germany, where it +is sorted by hand. Both dry and wet methods are employed in Haiti. + +PORTO RICO. Here planters favor the wet method of coffee preparation. +The crop is gathered from August to December. The coffees are graded as +_caracollilo_ (peaberry), _primero_ (hand-picked), _segundo_ (second +grade), _trillo_ (low grade). + +[Illustration: COFFEE ON THE DRYING FLOORS IN PORTO RICO] + +NICARAGUA. The wet method of coffee preparation is mostly favored in +Nicaragua. Many of the large plantations are worked by colonies of +Americans and Germans who are competent to apply the abundant natural +water power of the country to the operation of modern coffee cleaning +machinery. + +COSTA RICA. Costa Rica was one of the first countries of the western +world to use coffee cleaning machinery. Marcus Mason, an American +mechanical engineer then managing an iron foundry in Costa Rica, +invented three machines that would respectively peel off the husk, +remove the parchment and pulp, and winnow the light refuse from the +beans. + +The inventor gave his original demonstration to the planters of San José +in 1860, and duplicates were installed on all the large plantations. In +the course of the next thirty years, Mason brought out other machines +until he had developed a complete line that was largely used on coffee +plantations in all parts of the world. + + +_In the Eastern Hemisphere_ + +Modern cleaning machinery and methods of preparation are employed to +some extent in the large coffee-producing countries of the eastern +hemisphere, and do not differ materially from those of the western. + +ARABIA. In Arabia the fruit ripens in August or September, and picking +continues from then until the last fruits ripen late in the March +following. The cherries, as they are picked, are left to dry in the sun +on the house-top terrace or on a floor of beaten earth. When they have +become partly dry, they are hulled between two small stones, one of +which is stationary, while the other is worked by the hand power of two +men who rotate it quickly. Further drying of the hulled berry follows. +It is then put into bags of closely woven aloe fiber, lined with matting +made of palm leaves. It is next sent to the local market at the foot of +the mountain. There, on regular market days, the Turkish or Arabian +merchants, or their representatives, buy and dispatch their purchases by +camel train to Hodeida or Aden. The principal primary market in recent +years has been the city of Beit-el-Fakih. + +[Illustration: RAKING COFFEE ON DRYING FLOORS--CHUVA DISTRICT, +GUATEMALA] + +[Illustration: COFFEE DRYING PATIOS, HACIENDA LONGA-ESPANA, VENEZUELA] + +[Illustration: SUN-DRYING COFFEE AMID SCENES OF RARE TROPICAL BEAUTY] + +In Aden and Hodeida the bean is submitted to further cleaning by the +principal foreign export houses to whom it has come from the mountains +in rather dirty condition. Indian women are the sole laborers employed +in these cleaning houses. First, the coffee beans are separated from the +dry empty husks by tossing the whole into the air from bamboo trays, the +workers deftly permitting the husks to fly off while the beans are +caught again in the tray. The beans are then surface-cleaned by passing +them gently between two very primitive grindstones worked by men. A +third process is the complete clearing of the bean from the silver skin, +and it is then ready for the final hand picking. Women are called into +service again, and they pick out the refuse husks, quaker or black, +beans, green or immature beans, white beans, and broken beans, leaving +the good beans to be weighed and packed for shipment. The cleaned beans +are known as _bun safi_; the husks become _kisher_. Some of the poorer +beans also are sold, principally to France and to Egypt. Hand-power +machinery is used to a slight extent; but mostly the old-fashioned +methods hold sway. + +[Illustration: A DRYING PATIO ON A COSTA RICA ESTATE] + +[Illustration: Photograph by R.C. Wilhelm. + +EARLY GUARDIOLA STEAM DRIER, "EL CANIDA" PLANTATION, COSTA RICA] + +The Yemen, or Arabian, bale, or package, is unique. It is made up of two +fiber wrappers, one inside the other. The inside one is called _attal_ +or _darouf_. It is made from cut and plaited leaves of _nakhel douin_ or +_narghil_, a species of palm. The outer covering, called _garair_, is a +sack made of woven aloe fiber. The Bedouins weave these covers and bring +them to the export merchants at Aden and Hodeida. A Mocha bundle +contains one, two, or four fiber packages, or bales. When the bundle +contains one bale it is known as a half; when it contains two it is +known as quarters; and when it contains four it is known as eighths. +Arabian coffee for Boston used to be packed in quarters only; for San +Francisco and New York, in quarters and eighths. The longberry +Abyssinian coffees were formerly packed in quarters only. Since the +World War, however, there has been a scarcity of packing materials, and +packing in quarters and eighths has stopped. Now, all Mocha, as well as +Harar, coffee comes in halfs. A half weighs eighty kilos, or 176 pounds, +net--although a few exporters ship "halfs" of 160 pounds. + +[Illustration: INDIAN WOMEN CLEANING MOCHA COFFEE IN AN ADEN WAREHOUSE + +There are four processes in cleaning Mocha coffee. In order to separate +the dried beans from the broken hulls these women (brought over from +India) toss the beans in the air, very deftly permitting the empty hulls +to fly off, and catch the coffee beans on the bamboo trays. Then the +coffee is passed between two primitive grindstones, turned by men. After +this grinding process the beans are separated from the crushed outside +hulls and the loose silver skins. In the fourth process the Indian women +pick out by hand the remaining husks, the quakers, the immature beans, +the white beans and the broken beans. Being Mohammedans, their religion +does not permit such little vanities as picture posing, which explains +why their faces are covered and turned away from the camera.] + +ABYSSINIA. Little machinery is used in the preparation of coffee in +Abyssinia; none, in preparing the coffee known as Abyssinian, which is +the product of wild trees; and only in a few instances in cleaning the +Harari coffee, the fruit of cultivated trees. Both classes are raised +mostly by natives, who adhere to the old-time dry method of cleaning. In +Harar, the coffee is sometimes hulled in a wooden mortar; but for the +most part it is sent to the brokers in parchment, and cleaned by +primitive hand methods after its arrival in the trading centers. + +ANGOLA. In Angola the coffee harvest begins in June, and it is often +necessary for the government to lend native soldiers to the planters to +aid in harvesting, as the labor supply is insufficient. After picking, +the beans are dried in the sun from fourteen to forty days, depending +upon the weather. After drying, they are brought to the hulling and +winnowing machines. There are now about twenty-four of these machines in +the Cazengo and Golungo districts, all manufactured in the United States +and giving satisfactory results. They are operated by natives. + +A condition adversely affecting the trade has been the low price that +Angola coffee commands in European markets. The cost of production per +_arroba_ (thirty-three pounds) on the Cazengo plantations is $1.23, +while Lisbon market quotations average $1.50, leaving only twenty-seven +cents for railway transport to Loanda and ocean freight to Lisbon. It +has been unprofitable to ship to other markets on account of the +preferential export duties. A part of the product is now shipped to +Hamburg, where it is known as the Cazengo brand. Next to Mocha, the +Cazengo coffee is the smallest bean that is to be found in the European +markets. + +[Illustration: CLEANING AND GRADING COFFEE BY MACHINERY IN ADEN] + +JAVA AND SUMATRA. The coffee industry in Java and Sumatra, as well as in +the other coffee-producing regions of the Dutch East Indies, was begun +and fostered under the paternal care of the Dutch government; and for +that reason, machine-cleaning has always been a noteworthy factor in the +marketing of these coffees. Since the government relinquished its +control over the so-called government estates, European operators have +maintained the standard of preparation, and have adopted new equipment +as it was developed. The majority of estates producing considerable +quantities of coffee use the same types of machinery as their +competitors in Brazil and other western countries. + +[Illustration: DRYING COFFEE IN THE SUN AT THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, HARAR, +ABYSSINIA] + +In Java, free labor is generally employed; while on the east coast of +Sumatra the work is done by contract, the workers usually being bound +for three years. In both islands the laborers are mostly Javanese +coolies. + +Under the contract system, the worker is subject to laws that compel him +to work, and prevent him from leaving the estate until the contract +period expires. Under the free-labor system, the laborer works as his +whims dictate. This forces the estate manager to cater to his workers, +and to build up an organization that will hold together. + +As an example of the working of the latter system, this outline--by John +A. Fowler, United States trade commissioner--of the organization of a +leading estate in Java will indicate the general practise in vogue: + + The manager of this estate has had full control for twenty years + and knows the "adat" (tribal customs) of his people and the + individual peculiarities of the leaders. This estate has been + described as having one of the most perfect estate organizations in + Java. It consists of two divisions of 3,449 bouws (about 6,048 + acres in all), of which 2,500 bouws are in rubber and coffee and + 550 in sisal; the remainder includes rice fields, timber, + nurseries, bamboo, teak, pastures, villages, roads, canals, etc. + + The foreign staff is under the supervision of a general manager, + and consists of the following personnel: A chief garden assistant + of section 1, who has under him four section assistants and a + native staff; a chief garden assistant of section 2, who has under + him three section assistants, an apprentice assistant, and a native + staff; a chief factory assistant, who has under him an assistant + machinist, an apprentice assistant, and a native staff; and, + finally, a bookkeeper. The term "garden" means the area under + cultivation. + + The bookkeeper, a man of mixed blood, handles all the general + accounting, accumulating the reports sent in by the various + assistants. The two chief garden assistants are responsible to the + manager for all work outside the factory except the construction of + new buildings, which is in charge of the chief factory assistant. + The two divisions of the estate are subdivided into seven + agricultural sections, each section being in full charge of an + assistant. A section may include coffee, rubber, sisal, teak, + bamboo, a coagulation station and nurseries. The assistant's duties + include the supervision of road building and repairs, building + repairs, transportation, paying the labor, and the supervision of + section accounts. + +[Illustration: OPEN-AIR DRYING GROUNDS ON A WEST JAVA ESTATE + +The beans are being turned by native Sudanese men and women] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A MODERN COFFEE FACTORY IN EAST JAVA + +Showing pulping machinery and fermentation tanks] + +[Illustration: PREPARING JAVA COFFEE FOR THE MARKET] + + The factory includes a water-power plant delivering, through an + American water wheel and by cable, 250 horse-power to the main + shafting, an auxiliary steam plant of 150 horse-power as a reserve, + a rubber mill, a coffee mill, three sisal-stripping machines, + smoke-houses, drying fields and houses for sisal, drying floors and + houses for coffee, sorting rooms, blacksmith shop, machine shop, + brass-fitting foundry, packing houses, warehouses, and other + equipment. The factory is in charge of a first assistant, who is a + machinist, with a European staff consisting of a machinist and an + apprentice assistant. + + The chief garden assistant is paid 350 to 400 florins, and the + garden assistants start at 200 florins per month, with graduated + yearly increases up to 300 florins per month (florin=$0.40). The + chief factory assistant receives 300 florins, and the machinist and + bookkeeper 250 florins each. + + The mandoer in charge of the air and kiln drying of coffee gets 25 + florins per month, and the mandoer at the coffee mill 20 florins. A + woman mandoer in charge of the coffee sorters receives 0.50 florin + per day and 0.01 florin each for sewing the bags. This woman + supervises all the sorters, fixes their status, and inspects their + work. Unskilled labor (male) receives 0.40 florin per day in the + coffee sheds, and the women sorters are paid 0.50 florin per picul + of 136 pounds, measured before sorting. These women are graded into + three classes--those who can sort 1 picul in a day, those who can + sort three-fourths of a picul, and those who can sort but one-half + of a picul in a day. Some of these women become very expert in + sorting, and the quality of the output of a factory is largely + dependent on an ample supply of expert sorters. Many years are + required to develop an adequate personnel for this department. + +[Illustration: COFFEE TRANSPORT IN JAVA] + +[Illustration: THE WORLD'S COFFEE TOWER COMPARED WITH THE EIFFEL AND +WOOLWORTH TOWERS + +The Woolworth Building, the world's loftiest office structure is 792 +feet high from street to top of tower; its main section of 151 by 196 +feet stretches up 386 feet, and its volume equals a total of 13,110,942 +cubic feet. But a tower made of the year's supply of bags of green +coffee (132 pounds each) would equal 73,649,115 cubic feet, or nearly +six times the bulk of the Woolworth Building. In the same proportions it +would rise 1,386 feet, with the lower section 260 by 340 feet and 670 +feet high. Its dimensions would be nearly double those of the Woolworth +Building in every direction. And the Eiffel Tower, reaching up 1,000 +feet toward the sky would be lost in a tower made of a year's bags of +coffee. Such a tower would stand 1,425 feet high on a base area of 230 +feet square, the size of the Eiffel's first floor.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE + + _A statistical study of world production of coffee by + countries--Per capita figures of the leading consuming + countries--Coffee-consumption figures compared with tea-consumption + figures in the United States and the United Kingdom--Three + centuries of coffee trading--Coffee drinking in the United States, + past and present--Reviewing the 1921 trade in the United States_ + + +The world's yearly production of coffee is on the average considerably +more than one million tons. If this were all made up into the refreshing +drink we get at our breakfast tables, there would be enough to supply +every inhabitant of the earth with some sixty cups a year, representing +a total of more than ninety billion cups. In terms of pounds the annual +world output amounts to about two and a quarter billions--an amount so +large that if it were done up in the familiar one-pound paper packages; +and if these packages were laid end to end in a row; they would form a +line long enough to reach to the moon. If this average yearly production +were left in the sacks in which the coffee is shipped, the total of +17,500,000 would be enough to form a broad six-foot pavement reaching +entirely across the United States, upon which a man could walk steadily +for more than five months at the rate of twenty miles a day. This vast +amount of coffee comes very largely from the western hemisphere; and +about three-fourths of it, from a single country. The production, +shipment, and preparation of this coffee, directly and indirectly +support millions of workers; and many countries are entirely dependent +on it for their prosperity and economic well-being. + +During the crop year that ended June 30, 1921, this million-ton average +was considerably exceeded, though it did not approach the record yield +of all time in the crop year 1906-07, when the total amounted to almost +24,000,000 sacks; or, in round numbers, 3,000,000,000 pounds. + +As indicated by the Statistical Record table, on page 274, Brazil +produces more than all the rest of the world put together. Coffee +growing, however, is general throughout tropical countries, and in most +of them constitutes one of the leading industries. Yet in most cases, +the actual production of these countries can only be estimated, as +accurate figures, showing the exact output, are seldom kept. But the +contribution which each country makes to the total world traffic in +coffee can be determined by its export figures, which are obtainable in +reasonably accurate and up-to-date form. The table on page 276 gives the +coffee export figures, in pounds, for practically every country that +produces coffee for sale outside its own borders. Figures are given for +the latest available year, and also for the average of the last five +years for which statistics are to be obtained. The figures are taken +from official statistics, from the publications of the International +Institute of Agriculture of Rome, and from other authoritative sources. + +STATISTICAL RECORD FOR THIRTY-EIGHT YEARS + + _Crops_ + /---------------------------------\ +Fiscal Rio and Other Total +Year Santos Countries (Bags) +(July 1 to (Bags)[I] (Bags) +June 30) + +1883-84 5,047,000 4,526,000 9,573,000 +1884-85 6,206,000 4,004,000 10,210,000 +1885-86 5,565,000 3,505,000 9,070,000 +1886-87 6,078,000 4,106,000 10,184,000 +1887-88 3,033,000 3,214,000 6,247,000 +1888-89 6,827,000 3,672,000 10,499,000 +1889-90 4,260,000 3,965,000 8,225,000 +1890-91 5,358,000 2,886,000 8,244,000 +1891-92 7,397,000 4,453,000 11,850,000 +1892-93 6,203,000 4,887,000 11,090,000 +1893-94 4,309,000 5,307,000 9,616,000 +1894-95 6,695,000 5,069,000 11,764,000 +1895-96 5,476,000 4,901,000 10,377,000 +1896-97 8,680,000 5,238,000 13,918,000 +1897-98 10,462,000 5,596,000 16,058,000 +1898-99 8,771,000 4,985,000 13,756,000 +1899-00 8,959,000 4,842,000 13,801,000 +1900-01 10,927,000 4,173,000 15,100,000 +1901-02 15,439,000 4,296,000 19,735,000 +1902-03 12,324,000 4,340,000 16,664,000 +1903-04 10,408,000 5,575,000 15,983,000 +1904-05 9,968,000 4,480,000 14,448,000 +1905-06 10,227,000 4,565,000 14,792,000 +1906-07 19,654,000 4,160,000 23,814,000 +1907-08 10,283,000 4,551,000 14,834,000 +1908-09 12,419,000 4,499,000 16,918,000 +1909-10 14,944,000 4,181,000 19,125,000 +1910-11 10,548,000 3,976,000 14,524,000 +1911-12 12,491,000 4,918,000 17,409,000 +1912-13 11,458,000 4,915,000 16,373,000 +1913-14 13,816,000 5,796,000 19,612,000 +1914-15 12,867,000 5,019,000 17,886,000 +1915-16 14,992,000 4,764,000 19,756,000 +1916-17 12,112,000 4,579,000 16,691,000 +1917-18 15,127,000 3,720,000 18,847,000 +1918-19 9,140,000 4,500,000 13,640,000 +1919-20 6,700,000 8,463,000 15,163,000 +1920-21 13,816,000 6,467,000 20,283,000 + + _Deliveries_ + /---------------------------------\ + +Fiscal United +Year Europe States Total +(July 1 to (Bags) (Bags) (Bags) +June 30) + +1883-84 6,774,000 2,635,000 9,409,000 +1884-85 7,388,000 3,169,000 10,557,000 +1885-86 7,198,000 2,938,000 10,136,000 +1886-87 7,363,000 2,672,000 10,035,000 +1887-88 5,888,000 2,164,000 8,052,000 +1888-89 6,589,000 2,659,000 9,249,000 +1889-90 6,716,000 2,704,000 9,420,000 +1890-91 6,046,000 2,673,000 8,719,000 +1891-92 6,392,000 4,412,000 10,804,000 +1892-93 6,457,000 4,389,000 10,945,000 +1893-94 6,272,000 4,298,000 10,570,000 +1894-95 6,816,000 4,396,000 11,212,000 +1895-96 6,803,000 4,339,000 11,142,000 +1896-97 7,155,000 5,080,000 12,244,000 +1897-98 8,535,000 6,036,000 14,571,000 +1898-99 7,798,000 5,682,000 13,480,000 +1899-00 8,937,000 6,035,000 14,972,000 +1900-01 8,486,000 5,843,000 14,329,000 +1901-02 8,853,000 6,663,000 15,516,000 +1902-03 9,118,000 6,847,000 15,966,000 +1903-04 9,280,000 6,853,000 16,133,000 +1904-05 9,475,000 6,687,000 16,163,000 +1905-06 9,934,000 6,806,000 16,741,000 +1906-07 10,502,000 7,042,000 17,544,000 +1907-08 10,481,000 7,043,000 17,525,000 +1908-09 11,129,000 7,519,000 18,649,000 +1909-10 10,811,000 7,287,000 18,098,000 +1910-11 10,492,000 7,015,000 17,507,000 +1911-12 10,712,000 6,762,000 17,474,000 +1912-13 10,144,000 6,675,000 16,820,000 +1913-14 11,027,000 7,545,000 18,573,000 +1914-15 13,368,000 8,010,000 21,378,000 +1915-16 11,050,000 8,834,000 19,884,000 +1916-17 5,171,000 9,046,000 14,217,000 +1917-18 6,209,000 8,624,000 14,833,000 +1918-19 6,073,000 8,994,000 15,067,000 +1919-20 7,047,000 9,683,000 16,730,000 +1920-21 6,397,000 9,701,000 16,099,000 + + _Spot_ +Fiscal _Visible_ _Quotations_, +Year _Supply_ _Rio No. 7_ +(July 1 to _July 1._ _New York_, +June 30) (Bags) _July 1._ + +1883-84 +1884-85 5,398,000 8-1/4 +1885-86 5,051,000 7-1/8 +1886-87 3,985,000 8-1/4 +1887-88 4,134,000 16-7/8 +1888-89 2,329,000 13-1/2 +1889-90 3,579,000 14-1/2 +1890-91 2,384,000 17-1/2 +1891-92 1,909,000 17-3/8 +1892-93 2,955,000 17-7/8 +1893-94 3,100,000 16-5/8 +1894-95 2,146,000 16-1/2 +1895-96 3,115,000 15-3/4 +1896-97 2,588,000 13 +1897-98 3,975,000 7-3/8 +1898-99 5,435,000 6-1/4 +1899-00 6,200,000 6-1/8 +1900-01 5,840,000 8-15/16 +1901-02 6,867,000 6 +1902-03 11,261,000 5-1/4 +1903-04 11,900,000 5-3/16 +1904-05 12,361,000 7-1/8 +1905-06 11,265,000 7-3/4 +1906-07 9,636,000 7-15/16 +1907-08 16,400,000 6-3/8 +1908-09 14,126,000 6-1/4 +1909-10 12,841,000 7-3/4 +1910-11 13,719,000 8-3/8 +1911-12 11,070,000 13-1/8 +1912-13 11,048,000 14-3/4 +1913-14 10,285,000 9-5/8 +1914-15 11,302,000 8-3/4 +1915-16 7,523,000 7-1/2 +1916-17 7,328,000 9-1/8 +1917-18 7,793,000 9-1/2 +1918-19 8,783,000 8-1/2 +1919-20 7,173,000 22-1/4 +1920-21 6,909,000 13-1/4 + +[I] 1 Bag=132.27 lbs. + +[Illustration: THE WORLD'S COFFEE CUP AND THE WORLD'S LARGEST SHIP + +The statistical sharks talk of the 17,566,000 bags, or 2,318,712,000 +pounds of coffee that the world drinks every year; but how many really +appreciate what those huge figures mean? For instance, computing 40 cups +of beverage to the pound, there are more than 90,000,000,000 cups drunk +annually, or enough to fill a gigantic cup 4,000 feet in diameter and 40 +feet deep, on which the "Majestic," the world's largest ship, would +appear floating approximately as shown in the drawing.] + +For the most part, these figures of exportation are the only ones +available to indicate the actual coffee production in the countries +named. The following additional data, however, will serve to show the +extent to which the coffee-raising industry has developed in most of +these countries, and in a few places of minor importance not named in +the table: + +BRAZIL. The coffee industry of Brazil, which has furnished seventy +percent of the world's coffee during the last ten years, has developed +in a century and a half. Brazilian soil first made the acquaintance of +the coffee plant at Pará in 1723. A small export trade to Europe had +developed by 1770, the year when the first plantation was established in +the state of Rio de Janeiro, and from which the country's great industry +really dates. Development at first was apparently slow, as no exports +are recorded until the beginning of the nineteenth century; so that the +history of Brazil's coffee trade is a matter entirely of the nineteenth +and twentieth centuries. Once started, however, the new line of export +made rapid progress. In 1800, the amount of coffee exported was 1720 +pounds, contained in thirteen bags. Twenty years later, 12,896,000 +pounds were shipped, the number of bags being 97,498. Ten years later, +in 1830, this amount had increased to 64,051,000 pounds; and in 1840, to +137,300,000 pounds. In 1852-53, the receipts for shipment at the ports +were double that amount, 284,592,000 pounds; in 1860-61 they were +420,420,000 pounds; in 1870-71 they had increased to 427,416,000 pounds; +in 1880-81 they were 764,945,000 pounds; in 1890-91, 739,654,000 pounds; +and at the beginning of this century, 1900-01, they were 1,504,424,000 +pounds, having passed the one billion-pound mark in 1896-97. The highest +point of coffee receipts in the country's history was reached in 1906-07 +with 2,699,644,694 pounds; and since that year, the amount has staid at +about one and one-half billion pounds. Further expansion in the last +fifteen years has been closely regulated to prevent overproduction. + +EXPORTS OF COFFEE FROM THE COFFEE-PRODUCING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD + +_Country_ _Five-Year Average_ +South America: _Year_ _Pounds_ _Pounds_ + Brazil 1920 1,524,382,650 1,469,949,180 + Colombia 1920 190,961,953[c] 172,862,121 + Venezuela 1920 73,726,632 110,174,946 + Guiana, Br. 1917 267,344 257,152 + Guiana, Fr. 1918 1,100 970 + Guiana, D. 1918 3,856 923,644[d] + Ecuador 1919 3,729,413 5,843,033 + Peru 1919 370,655 455,212 +Central America: + Salvador 1920 82,864,668 78,953,339 + Nicaragua 1920 15,345,398 23,243,865 + Costa Rica 1921[a] 29,401,683 28,667,262 + Guatemala 1920 94,205,569 88,213,080 + Honduras 1920[b] 1,091,977 646,574 +Mexico 1918 30,172,065 47,555,514[d] +West Indies: + Haiti 1920[b] 61,970,694[e] 54,308,959[d] + Dominican Republic 1920 1,361,666 3,497,866 + Jamaica 1919 8,246,672 7,918,781 + Porto Rico 1921 29,967,879[f] 30,033,471[d][f] + Trinidad & Tobago 1920 73,201 19,639 + Martinique 1918 10,358 17,219 + Guadeloupe 1918 2,144,855 1,594,146 +Dutch East Indies 1920 99,020,453[i] 103,701,297[h] +Pacific Islands: + Br. North Borneo 1918 1,984 6,618 + New Caledonia 1916 1,248,024 784,176 + New Hebrides 1917 625,224 608,410[g] + Hawaii 1921 4,979,121[f] 4,244,479[d][f] + Réunion 1918 3,527 26,455 +Asia: + Aden (Arabia) 1921[b] 9,463,104 10,837,893 + Br. India 1920[b] 30,526,832 23,767,744 + French Indo-China 1918 79,145 516,978 +Africa: + Eritrea 1918 728,840 315,698 + Somaliland, Fr. 1917 11,222,736 9,321,930 + Somaliland, Br. 1918 440,272 233,908 + Somaliland, It. 1918 3,747 3,306 + Abyssinia 1917 17,324,223 12,744,406 + German East Africa (former) 1913 2,334,450 2,649,047[d] + Br. East African Protectorate 1918 18,735,572 8,397,541 + Uganda 1918 9,999,845 5,076,091 + Nyasaland 1918 122,796 92,593 + Mayotte (including Comoro Is.)1914 3,306 660 + Madagascar 1918 707,676 981,047 + Angola 1913 10,655,934 10,459,724 + Belgian Congo 1919 347,588 186,432[h] + Fr. Equatorial Africa 1916 48,060 47,046 + Nigeria 1916 3,527 19,180 + Ivory Coast 1918 66,358 49,162 + Gold Coast 1917 660 220 + French Guinea 1918 1,320 1,320 + Spanish Guinea 1918 8,150 3,968[h] + St. Thomas & Prince's Is. 1916 484,350 1,125,448 + Liberia 1917 761,300 + Cape Verde Islands 1916 1,442,910 1,100,095 + +[a] Crop year. + +[b] Fiscal year. + +[c] Including small proportion of unhusked coffee. + +[d] Four-year average. + +[e] Not including 6,322,167 pounds "triage" or waste coffee. + +[f] Including shipments to continental United States. + +[g] Two-year average. + +[h] Three-year average. + +[i] Java and Madura only + +It is estimated that the area in the coffee-growing section suitable +for coffee raising covers 1,158,000 square miles, or more than one-third +the area of continental United States. The state of São Paulo is the +chief producing state, and supplies practically half the world's annual +output. Most of this São Paulo coffee is exported through the port of +Santos, which is consequently the leading coffee port of the world. +Besides Santos, the ports of Rio de Janeiro and Victoria are of much +importance in the coffee trade, although some twenty or thirty million +pounds are exported each year through the port of Bahia, and smaller +amounts through various other ports. The crop year of Brazil runs from +July 1 to June 30, the heaviest receipts for shipment coming as a rule +in the months of August, September, and October of each year. One-third +of the season's crop is usually received at ports of shipment before the +last of October, sometimes as early as the latter part of September; +one-half comes in by the middle or last of November; and two-thirds is +usually received, by the end of January. + +[Illustration: No. 1--COFFEE EXPORTS, 1850-1920 + +This diagram shows the exports of the principal coffee-producing +countries, omitting Brazil] + +[Illustration: No. 21--1 COFFEE EXPORTS, 1916-1920 + +This diagram shows the exports of the leading coffee countries (except +Brazil) in a period covering most of the World War] + +VENEZUELA. The coffee plant was introduced into Venezuela in 1784, being +brought from Martinique; and the first shipment abroad, consisting of +233 bags, was made five years later. By 1830-31, production had +increased to 25,454,000 pounds; and in the next twenty years, it more +than trebled, amounting to 83,717,000 pounds in 1850-51. Since then, +however, the increase has been much more gradual. In 1881-82, 94,369,000 +pounds were produced; and about the same amount, 95,170,000 pounds, in +1889-90. Twentieth-century production has apparently exceeded the +hundred-million mark on the average, although there are no definite +statistics beyond export figures. These showed 86,950,000 pounds sent +abroad in 1904-05; 103,453,000 pounds in 1908-09; and 88,155,000 pounds +in 1918; the trade in the last-named year being cut down by war +conditions. In 1919, the extraordinary amount of 179,414,815 pounds was +exported, the high figure being due to the release of coffee stored from +previous years. It has been estimated that domestic consumption of +coffee would amount to a maximum of 25,000,000 pounds yearly, but may be +much less than that. The United States and France have in the past been +Venezuela's best customers. + +COLOMBIA. Prior to 1912, the total production of coffee in Colombia was +around 80,000,000 pounds annually, of which some 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 +pounds were consumed in the country itself. But in the last decade +production has been advancing rapidly, and the present production is the +heaviest in the history of the country. The industry has practically +grown up in the last seventy years, the exports for the decade 1852-53 +to 1861-62 averaging only about 940,000 pounds; in the decade following, +about 5,700,000 pounds; and, in the ten years from 1872-73 to 1881-82, +about 12,600,000 pounds, according to an unofficial compilation. +Exportations had advanced to about 47,000,000 pounds by 1895; and to +80,000,000 pounds by 1906. As large quantities of Colombian coffee are +shipped out through Venezuela, and because of the lack of detailed +statistics in Colombia, the actual exportation each year is not easy to +determine; but the following figures, obtained by a trade commissioner +of the United States, may be taken as a fairly accurate estimate of +exports from 1906 to 1918: + +COLUMBIAN COFFEE EXPORTS +_Year_ _Sacks (138 lbs.)_ + + 1906 605,705 + 1907 541,300 + 1908 577,900 + 1909 673,350 + 1910 543,000 + 1911 601,600 + 1912 888,800 + 1913 972,000 + 1914 983,000 + 1915 1,074,600 + 1916 1,153,000 + 1917 1,093,000 + 1918 1,102,000 + +[Illustration: No. 3--BRAZIL'S COFFEE EXPORTS, 1850-1920 + +Diagram based on 5-year averages with quantities given in millions of +pounds] + +ECUADOR. Annual production in Ecuador runs from 3,000,000 to 8,000,000 +pounds, most of which is exported. The greater part of the production is +sent to Chile and the United States. Production has shown only a gradual +increase since the middle of the nineteenth century, when planters began +to give some attention to coffee cultivation. Exports were about 87,000 +pounds in 1855; 296,000 pounds in 1870; and 985,000 pounds in 1877. By +the beginning of the present century, production had reached 6,204,000 +pounds; in 1905, it was estimated at 4,861,000 pounds; and in 1910, at +8,682,000 pounds. Exports in 1912 were 6,101,700 pounds; and 7,671,000 +pounds in 1918; but there was a falling off to 3,729,000 pounds in 1919. +Several years ago it was estimated that the coffee trees numbered +8,000,000, planted on 32,000 acres. + +PERU. Coffee is one of the minor products of Peru, and the country does +not occupy a place of importance in the international coffee trade. The +larger part of the production is apparently consumed in the country +itself. Export figures indicate that the industry is steadily declining. +Exports amounted to 2,267,000 pounds in 1905; to 1,618,000 pounds in +1908; and in the five years ending with 1918, exports averaged only +529,000 pounds; while figures for 1919 show that in that year they fell +still lower, to 370,000 pounds. Production is mainly in the coast lands. + +BRITISH GUIANA. The Guianas are the site of the first coffee planting on +the continent of South America; and according to some accounts, the +first in the New World. The plants were brought first into Dutch Guiana, +but there was no planting in what is now British Guiana (then a Dutch +colony) until 1752. Twenty-six years later, 6,041,000 pounds were sent +to Amsterdam from the two ports of Demarara and Berbice; and after the +colony fell into the hands of the English in 1796, cultivation continued +to increase. Exports amounted to 10,845,000 pounds in 1803; and to more +than 22,000,000 pounds in 1810. Then there was a falling off, and the +production in 1828 was 8,893,500 pounds and 3,308,000 pounds in 1836. In +1849 British Guiana exported only 109,600 pounds. For a long period +thereafter there was little production, and practically no exportation; +exports in 1907, for instance, amounting to only 160 pounds. With the +next year, however, a revival of exportation began, and it has continued +to grow since then. In 1908, exports were 88,700 pounds; and for the +succeeding years, up to 1917, the following amounts are recorded: 1909, +96,952 pounds; 1910, 108,378 pounds; 1911, 136,420 pounds; 1912, 144,845 +pounds; 1913, 89,376 pounds; 1914, 238,767 pounds; 1915, 172,326 pounds; +1916, 501,183 pounds; 1917, 267,344 pounds. In the last-named year 4,953 +acres were in coffee plantations. + +FRENCH GUIANA. This colony raises a small amount of coffee for local +consumption, and exports a few hundred pounds; but it is really an +importing and not an exporting colony. Coffee cultivation was never of +much importance, although in 1775 some 72,000 pounds were exported. One +hundred and eighty thousand pounds were harvested in 1860; and 132,000 +pounds in 1870, mostly for local consumption. + +DUTCH GUIANA. Regular shipments of coffee from Dutch Guiana have been +made for two centuries, beginning--a few years after the plant was +introduced--with a shipment of 6,461 pounds to the mother country in +1723. Seven years later, 472,000 pounds were shipped; and in 1732-33 +exportation reached 1,232,000 pounds. Exports were averaging 16,900,000 +pounds a year by 1760; and reached almost 20,600,000 pounds in 1777. At +the beginning of the nineteenth century, they amounted to about +17,000,000 pounds; but a few years later fell off to some 7,000,000 +pounds, where they remained until about 1840; after which they began +again to decline. Exportation had practically ceased by 1875, only 1,420 +pounds going out of the country, although cultivation still continued, +as evidenced by a production of 82,357 pounds in that year. In 1890, +production was only 15,736 pounds, and exports only 476 pounds; but +since then there has been a considerable increase. In 1900, production +amounted to 433,000 pounds, and exports to 424,000 pounds. In 1908, +1,108,000 pounds were grown, of which 310,000 pounds were sent abroad; +and in 1909, the figures were 552,000 pounds produced and 405,000 pounds +exported. No figures are available for production in recent years; but +the exportation of 1,600,000 pounds in 1917 indicates that plantings +have been steadily growing. + +OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES. Of the other South American countries, +Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay are coffee-importing countries; and the +coffee-raising industry of Paraguay, although more or less promising, +has yet to be developed. In Argentina, a few hundred acres in the +sub-tropical provinces of the north have been planted to coffee; but +coffee-growing will always necessarily remain a very minor industry. +Many attempts have been made to establish the industry in Paraguay, +where favorable conditions obtain, but only a few planters have met with +success. Their product has all been consumed locally. Bolivia has much +land suitable for coffee raising; and it is estimated that production +has reached as high as 1,500,000 pounds a year, but transportation +conditions are such as to hold back development for an indefinite time. +Small amounts are now exported to Chile. + +SALVADOR. Coffee was introduced into Salvador in 1852, and immediately +began to spread over the country. Exports were valued at more than +$100,000 in 1865; and by 1874-75 the amount exported had reached +8,500,000 pounds. The first large plantation was established in 1876; +and since then planting has continued, until now practically all the +available coffee land has been taken up. The area in plantations has +been estimated at 166,000 acres, and the annual production at 50,000,000 +to 75,000,000 pounds, of which some 5,000,000 pounds are consumed in the +country. Since the beginning of the present century, exports have in +general shown a considerable increase, the figures for 1901 being +50,101,000 pounds; for 1905, 64,480,000 pounds; for 1910, 62,764,000 +pounds; for 1915, 67,130,000 pounds; and for 1920, 82,864,000 pounds. + +GUATEMALA. Cultivation of coffee in Guatamala became of importance +between 1860 and 1870. In 1860, exports were only about 140,000 pounds; +by 1863, they had increased to about 1,800,000 pounds; and by 1870, to +7,590,000 pounds. In 1880-81, they amounted to 28,976,000 pounds; and in +1883-84, to 40,406,000 pounds. Twenty years later, they had doubled. In +recent years, exports have ranged between 75,000,000 and 100,000,000 +pounds; the years from 1909 to 1918 showing the following results, +according to a consular report: + +GUATEMALA'S COFFEE EXPORTS + + _Cleaned_ _Unshelled_ +_Year_ (pounds) (pounds) + + 1900 92,639,800 23,654,600 + 1910 50,717,600 19,671,700 + 1911 60,689,500 20,959,500 + 1912 14,329,800 60,837,500 + 1913 70,749,100 20,980,700 + 1914 71,136,800 14,999,600 + 1915 69,649,500 9,892,000 + 1916 85,057,000 3,015,800 + 1917 89,259,600 1,410,200 + 1918 77,842,800 511,500 + +COSTA RICA. Coffee raising in Costa Rica dates from 1779, when the plant +was introduced from Cuba. By 1845, the industry had grown sufficiently +to permit an exportation of 7,823,000 pounds; and twenty years later, +11,143,000 pounds were shipped. Thereafter, production increased +rapidly; so that in 1874, the total exports were 32,670,000 pounds, and +in 1884 they were more than 36,000,000 pounds. In recent years, the +average production has been around 35,000,000 pounds. For the crop years +1916-17 to 1920-21 exports have been: + +COSTA RICA'S COFFEE EXPORTS + + _Year_ _Pounds_ + + 1916-17 27,044,550 + 1917-18 25,246,715 + 1918-19 30,784,184 + 1919-20 30,860,634 + 1920-21 29,401,683 + +NICARAGUA. Production of coffee in Nicaragua began between 1860 and +1870; and in 1875, the yield was estimated at 1,650,000 pounds. By +1879-80, this had increased to 3,579,000 pounds; and by 1889-90, to +8,533,000 pounds. In 1890-91 production was 11,540,000 pounds; and in +1907-08 it was estimated at more than 20,000,000 pounds. Ten years +later, 25,000,000 pounds were produced; and the crop of 1918-19 was +estimated at about 30,000,000 pounds. Lack of transportation, and excess +of political troubles, have been important factors in holding back +development. + +HONDURAS. The coffee of Honduras is of very good quality; but production +is small, and the country is not an important factor in international +trade. Exports usually run less than 1,000,000 pounds. The chief +obstacle to expansion is said to be lack of transportation facilities. + +BRITISH HONDURAS. This colony grows a little coffee for its own use, but +imports most of what it needs. Production had reached almost 50,000 +pounds in 1904; but the present average is only about 10,000 pounds, +raised on scattering trees over about 1,000 acres. + +PANAMA. A small amount of coffee, of which occasionally as much as +200,000 or 250,000 pounds a year are exported, is raised in the uplands +of Panama, or is gathered from wild trees. The industry is not of great +importance, and the country imports considerable supplies, mostly from +the United States. + +MEXICO. A very good grade of coffee is produced in Mexico; and it is +said that there is sufficient area of good coffee land to take care of +the demand of the world outside of that supplied by Brazil. Production, +however, is limited, and to a large extent goes to satisfy home needs, +leaving only about 50,000,000 pounds for export. In spite of much +government encouragement in past years, coffee cultivation has not made +rapid progress, when we remember that the country became acquainted with +the plant as early as 1790. Not until about 1870 did the country begin +to become important in the list of coffee-exporters; but by 1878-79, +shipments amounted to about 12,000,000 pounds. This steadily increased +to 29,400,000 pounds in 1891-92. Exports in recent years have averaged +about 50,000,000 pounds; but in 1918 were only 30,000,000. Production +has fluctuated greatly. In the years preceding the troubled +revolutionary period, the total output was estimated as follows: 1907, +45,000,000 pounds; 1908, 42,000,000 pounds; 1909, 81,000,000 pounds; +1910, 70,000,000 pounds. In the ten years preceding 1907, production +dropped as low as 22,000,000 pounds in 1902; and rose to 88,500,000 +pounds in 1905. Next to the United States, Germany was the chief buyer +of Mexican coffee before the war; although France and Great Britain also +took several million pounds each. + +HAITI. For well over a century Haiti has been shipping tens of millions +of pounds of coffee annually; and the product is the mainstay of the +country's economic life. In all that time, however, shipments have +maintained much the same level. The country has been a coffee producer +from the early years of the eighteenth century, when the plants began to +spread from the original sprigs in Guiana or Martinique. After half a +century of growth, exports had risen to 88,360,000 pounds in 1789-90, a +mark that has never again been reached. Since then, exports have ranged +between 40,000,000 and 80,000,000 pounds, keeping close to the lower +mark in recent years because of European conditions. They were +38,000,000 pounds in 1856; 55,750,000 pounds in 1866; and 52,300,000 +pounds in 1876. They had reached 84,028,000 pounds in 1887-88; but fell +back to 67,437,000 pounds in 1897-98; and ten years later, were +63,848,000 pounds. In 1917-18, they were only about two-thirds that +amount, or 42,100,000 pounds. Some 8,000,000 pounds are consumed yearly +in the country itself. The coffee plantations cover about 125,000 acres. + +DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Coffee production in the Dominican Republic ranges +between 1,000,000 and 5,000,000 pounds, exports in recent years +averaging about 3,500,000 pounds. The quality of the coffee is good; but +the plantations are not well cared for. Until fifty years ago, the +industry was in a state of decline from a condition of former +importance; but it was revived, and by 1881 it supplied 1,400,000 pounds +for export. The amount was 1,480,000 pounds in 1888; 3,950,000 pounds in +1900; 1,540,000 pounds in 1909; and 4,870,000 pounds in 1919. Blight, +and disturbed political conditions, have hampered development. In normal +times, Europe takes most of the export. + +JAMAICA. Jamaica began to raise coffee about 1730; and from that time on +there was a steady but slow increase in production. Shipments amounted +to about 60,000 pounds in 1752, and to about 1,800,000 pounds in 1775. +At the beginning of the new century, in 1804, exports of 22,000,000 +pounds are recorded; and in 1814 the figure was 34,045,000 pounds. Then +exports gradually fell off, and in 1861 were only 6,700,000 pounds. They +were 10,350,000 pounds in 1874; and since then, have not varied much +from 9,000,000 or 10,000,000 pounds a year. They were 9,363,000 pounds +in 1900; 7,885,000 pounds in 1909; and 8,246,000 pounds in 1919. The +acreage in coffee remains fairly constant, being 24,865 in 1900; 22,275 +in 1911; and 20,280 in 1917. It is said that there are 80,000 acres of +good coffee land still uncultivated. + +PORTO RICO. The cultivation of coffee in Porto Rico dates back to the +middle of the eighteenth century; but exportation does not seem to have +been much more than a million pounds a year until the first years of the +nineteenth century. Between 1837 and 1840, the average exportation was +about 10,000,000 pounds; and by 1865, this had risen to 24,000,000 +pounds. Ten years later, it was 25,700,000 pounds. In recent years, it +has averaged about 37,000,000 pounds; the 1921 figure, including +shipments to continental United States, being 29,968,000 pounds. +Production since 1881 has been between 30,000,000 and 50,000,000 pounds; +the heaviest being in 1896 when the total output was 62,628,337 +pounds--the largest figure in the island's history. The industry was +greatly damaged by a disastrous storm in 1900, and was also adversely +affected by the European War, as a large part of Porto Rico's crop goes +to Europe. Porto Rican coffee has not been popular in the United States, +which takes only limited amounts. Cuba is one of the island's best +customers. + +GUADELOUPE. Coffee production in Guadeloupe reached its highest point in +the latter part of the eighteenth century, when more than 8,000,000 +pounds were raised. The figure was about 6,000,000 in 1808; but the +output declined during the succeeding decades, and forty years later was +only 375,000 pounds. The amount produced in 1885 was 986,000 pounds; +and there has been a gradual increase, so that the crop has been large +enough to permit the exportation of 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 pounds, or +more, since the beginning of the present century. Exports in 1901 were +1,449,000 pounds; in 1908, 2,266,000 pounds; and in 1918, 2,144,000 +pounds. + +OTHER WEST INDIAN ISLANDS. Some little coffee is gathered for home +consumption in many other West Indian islands, but little is exported. +The island of Martinique, which is said to have seen the introduction of +the coffee plant into the western hemisphere, does not now raise enough +for its own use. Cuba was formerly one of the important centers of +production; but for various reasons the industry declined, and for many +years the country has imported most of its coffee supply. A century ago, +the plantations numbered 2,067; and the annual exportation amounted to +50,000,000 pounds. When the island became independent, steps were taken +to revive coffee planting; and in 1907 there were 1,411 plantations and +3,662,850 trees, producing 6,595,700 pounds of coffee. The Cubans, +however, now find it convenient to obtain their coffee from the +neighboring island of Porto Rico and from other sources; and +importations have remained around 20,000,000 pounds a year. In Trinidad +and Tobago, exports have reached as high as 1,000,000 pounds a year; but +in recent times they have fallen off heavily. St. Vincent exported 485 +pounds in 1917, and Grenada, 251 pounds in 1916. The Leeward Islands +exported 1,415 pounds in 1917, and 2,946 pounds in 1916, the acreage +being 274, the same as for many years past. + +ARABIA. The home of the famous Mocha coffee still produces considerable +quantities of that variety, although the output, comparatively speaking, +is not large. The chief district is the vilayet of Yemen; and the +product reaches the outside world mainly through the port of Aden, +although before the war much of this coffee was exported through +Hodeida. The port of Massowah, in the last two or three years, has been +drawing some of the supply of Mocha for export. No statistics are +available to show the production of Mocha coffee; but an estimate made +by the oldest coffee merchant in Aden places the average annual output +at 45,000 bags of 176 pounds each, or 7,920,000 pounds. Although this is +the only district in the world that can produce the particular grade of +coffee known as Mocha, there is little systematic cultivation, and large +areas of good coffee land are planted to other crops to provide food for +the natives. When transportation facilities are provided, so that this +food can be imported, it is predicted that the output of Mocha coffee +will be doubled. + +Aden is a great transhipping port for coffee from Asia and Africa, and +more than half its exports are re-exports from points outside of Arabia. +The following figures will show the proportion of Arabian coffee coming +into Aden for export as compared with that from other producing +sections: + +ADEN'S COFFEE RECEIPTS FOR RE-EXPORT + + _Imports_ 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 + _from_ (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) + +Abyssinia (via Jibuti) 4,529,280 6,174,896 4,337,760 +Mocha and Ghizan 3,555,104 6,562,752 3,075,024 +Somaliland (British) 394,128 396,592 245,840 +Straits Settlements 672,224 +Zanzibar and Pemba 92,512 795,312 764,288 +All other countries 162,064 307,104 323,616 + --------- ---------- --------- +Total 9,405,312 14,236,656 8,746,528 + +BRITISH INDIA. Cultivation of coffee was begun systematically in India +in 1840; and twenty years later, the country exported about 5,860,000 +pounds. For the next eight years the exports remained at about that +figure; but in 1859 they amounted to 11,690,000 pounds; and by 1864 they +had doubled, rising in that year to 26,745,000 pounds. They have +continued at between 20,000,000 and 60,000,000 pounds ever since, +reaching their highest point in 1872 with 56,817,000 pounds. In recent +years, production and exportation have declined; the exports in 1920 +being only 30,526,832 pounds. The area under coffee has been between +200,000 and 300,000 acres for fifty years or more, reaching its highest +point in 1896, with 303,944 acres. Recently the area has been slowly +decreasing. + +CEYLON. The island of Ceylon was formerly one of the important producers +of coffee; and the industry was a flourishing one until about 1869, when +a disease appeared that in ten or fifteen years practically ruined the +plantations. Production has gone on since then, but at a steadily +declining rate. In late years, the island has not produced enough for +its own use, and is now ranked as an importer rather than as an +exporter. It is said that systematic cultivation was carried on in +Ceylon by the Dutch as early as 1690; and shipments of 10,000 to 90,000 +pounds a year were made all through the eighteenth century, exports in +one year, 1741, going as high as 370,000 pounds. The English took the +island in 1795, and thirty years later, they began to expand +cultivation. Exports had risen to 12,400,000 pounds in 1836; and they +continued to increase to a high point of 118,160,000 pounds in 1870; but +in the next thirty years they declined, until they were only 1,147,000 +pounds in 1900. The total acreage in coffee at one time reached as high +as 340,000; but as the coffee trees were affected by the leaf disease, +this land was turned to tea; and in 1917 there were only 810 acres left +in coffee. + +DUTCH EAST INDIES. The year 1699 saw the importation from the Malabar +coast of India to Java of the coffee plants which were destined to be +the progenitors of the tens of millions of trees that have made the +Dutch East Indies famous for two hundred years. Twelve years afterward, +the first trickle of the stream of coffee that has continued to flow +ever since found its way from Java to Holland, in a shipment of 894 +pounds. About 216,000 pounds were exported in 1721; and soon thereafter, +shipments rose into the millions of pounds. + +From 1721 to 1730 the Netherlands East India Co. marketed 25,048,000 +pounds of Java coffee in Holland; and in the decade following, +36,845,000 pounds. Shipments from Java continued at about the latter +rate until the close of the century, although in the ten years 1771-80 +they reached a total of 51,319,000 pounds. The total sales of Java +coffee in Holland for the century were somewhat more than a quarter of a +billion pounds, which represented pretty closely the amount produced. + +With the beginning of the nineteenth century, coffee production soon +became much heavier; and in 1825 Java exported, of her own production, +some 36,500,000 pounds, besides 1,360,000 pounds brought from +neighboring islands to which the cultivation had spread. In 1855, the +amount was 168,100,000 pounds of Java coffee, and 4,080,000 pounds of +coffee from the other islands. This is the highest record for the +half-century following the beginning of the regular reports of exports +in 1825. From 1875 to 1879 the average annual yield was 152,184,000 +pounds. In 1900, production in Java was 84,184,000 pounds; in 1910, it +was 31,552,000 pounds, and in 1915 it had jumped to 73,984,000 pounds. + +On the west coast of Sumatra coffee was regularly cultivated, according +to one account, as early as 1783; but it was not until about 1800, that +exportation began, with about 270,000 pounds. By 1840, exports were +averaging 11,000,000 to 12,250,000 pounds per year. Official records of +production date from 1852, in which year the figures were 16,714,000 +pounds. Five years later the recorded yield was 25,960,000 pounds, the +high-water mark of Sumatra production. The total output in 1860 was +21,400,000 pounds; and 22,275,000 pounds in 1870. The average from 1875 +to 1879 was 17,408,000 pounds; and from 1895 to 1899, it was 7,589,000 +pounds. The yield was 5,576,000 pounds in 1900; 1,360,000 in 1910; and +7,752,000 in 1915. + +In Celebes, the first plants were set out about 1750; but seventy years +later production was only some 10,000 pounds. This soon increased to +half a million pounds; and from 1835 to 1852 the yield ran between +340,000 and 1,768,000 pounds. From 1875 to 1879, production averaged +2,176,000 pounds; from 1885 to 1889, 2,747,000 pounds; and from 1895 to +1899, 707,000 pounds. In 1900, it was 680,000 pounds; in 1910, 272,000 +pounds; and in 1915, 272,000 pounds. + +Planting under government control, largely with forced labor, has been +the special feature of coffee cultivation in the Dutch East Indies. At +first the government exercised what was practically a monopoly; but +private planting was more and more permitted; and in the latter part of +the nineteenth century, the amount of coffee produced on private +plantations exceeded that raised by the government. The government has +now entirely given up the business of coffee production. + +The total production of coffee in Java, Sumatra, and Celebes, in 1920, +in piculs of 136 pounds, was as follows: + +DUTCH EAST INDIES' COFFEE PRODUCTION + +_Kind of_ _Quantity Produced in_ +_Coffee_ Java Sumatra Celebes Total + and Bali + (piculs) (piculs) (piculs) (piculs) +Liberica 14,972 6,243 2,074 23,289 +Java 16,312 24,291 70,621 111,224 +Robusta 411,235 256,645 4,998 672,878 + ------- ------- ------ ------- +Total 442,519 287,179 77,693 807,391 + +STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. Trade in coffee is a transhipping trade, Singapore +acting as a clearing center for large quantities of coffee from the +neighboring islands. In 1920, the imports were 25,914,267 pounds; and +the exports, 26,856,000 pounds. + +FEDERATED MALAY STATES. The acreage in coffee in the Federated Malay +States is steadily declining. In 1903, coffee plantations covered 22,700 +acres; in 1913, 7,695 acres; and in 1916, 4,312 acres. There was +formerly a considerable export; but apparently local production is now +required for home consumption, as in 1920 exports were practically +nothing, and about 9,800 pounds were imported. + +BRITISH NORTH BORNEO. Total exports of coffee have reached as high as +50,000 pounds, which was the figure in 1904; but they are much less now; +being 5,973 pounds in 1915; 15,109 pounds in 1916; and 1,980 pounds in +1918. + +SARAWAK. Previous to 1912, the exportation of coffee from Sarawak, was +20,000 to 45,000 pounds annually. In 1912, a coffee estate of 300 acres +was abandoned, and since that time there have been no exports. + +PHILIPPINES. Coffee raising was formerly one of the chief industries of +the Philippines; but it has now greatly declined, partly because of the +blight. Exports reached their highest point in 1883, when 16,805,000 +pounds were shipped. Since then, they have fallen off steadily to +nothing; and the islands are now importers, although still producing +considerable for their own use. The area still under cultivation in 1920 +was 2,700 acres; and the production in that year was given as 2,710,000 +pounds, as compared with 1,580,000 pounds in 1919, and an average of +1,500,000 pounds for the previous five years. + +GUAM. Coffee is a common plant on the island but is not systematically +cultivated. There is no exportation, but a Navy Department report says +that the possible export is not less than seventy-five tons annually. + +HAWAII. A certain amount of coffee has been produced in the Hawaiian +Islands for many years, exports being recorded as 49,000 pounds in 1861; +as 452,000 pounds in 1870; and as 143,000 pounds in 1877. The trees grow +on all the islands; but nearly all the coffee produced is raised on +Hawaii. The trees are not carefully cultivated; but the coffee has an +excellent flavor. The amount of land planted to coffee is about 6,000 +acres. The exports go mostly to continental United States. The exports +are increasing, the figures up to 1909 ranging usually between 1,000,000 +and 2,000,000 pounds, and now usually running between 2,000,000 and +5,000,000 pounds. Including shipments to continental United States, +Hawaii exported 5,775,825 pounds in 1918; 3,649,672 pounds in 1919; +2,573,300 pounds in 1920; and 4,979,121 pounds in 1921. + +AUSTRALIA. Queensland is the only state of the Commonwealth in which +coffee growing has been at all extensively tried; and here the results +have, up to the present time, been far from satisfactory. The total area +devoted to this crop reached its highest point in the season 1901-02 +when an area of 547 acres was recorded. The area then continuously +declined to 1906-07, when it was as low as 256 acres. In subsequent +seasons the area fluctuated somewhat; but, on the whole, with a downward +tendency. In 1919-20, only 24 productive acres were recorded, with a +yield of 16,101 pounds. The country is now listed among the consuming +rather than the producing countries. + +ABYSSINIA. This country, usually credited with being the original home +of the coffee plant, still has, in its southern part, vast forests of +wild coffee whose extent is unknown, but whose total production is +believed to be immense. It is of inferior grade, and reaches the market +as "Abyssinian" coffee. There is also a large district of coffee +plantations producing a very good grade called "Harari", which is +considered almost, if not quite, the equal of the Arabian Mocha. This is +usually shipped to Aden for re-export. Abyssinia's coffee reaches the +outside world through three different gateways; and as the neighboring +countries, through which the produce passes, also produce coffee, no +accurate statistics are available to show the country's annual export. +The total probably ranges from 10,000,000 to 20,000,000 pounds a year. +Coffee was shipped from Abyssinia to the extent of 6,773,800 pounds in +1914, over the Franco-Ethiopian railroad; 10,054,000 pounds in 1915; and +9,064,000 pounds in 1916. Export figures of the port of Massowah include +a large amount of Abyssinian coffee, but the proportion is unknown. At +this port 108,680 pounds of coffee were exported in 1914; and 1,221,880 +pounds in 1915. Abyssinian coffee exported by way of the Sudan amounted +to 232,616 pounds in 1914; to 140,461 pounds in 1915; and to 4,164,600 +pounds in 1916. + +BRITISH EAST AFRICAN PROTECTORATE. The acreage in coffee has greatly +increased in recent years. It was estimated at 1,000 acres in 1911; and +by 1916, it had grown to 22,200 acres. Production, as shown by the +exports, has likewise increased greatly; and exports in recent years +have averaged about 8,000,000 pounds a year. They were 10,984,000 pounds +in 1917; and were 18,735,000 pounds in 1918. + +UGANDA PROTECTORATE. The acreage in coffee has been steadily increasing, +as shown by the following figures: 1910, 697 acres; 1914, 19,278 acres; +1916, 23,857 acres; 1917, 22,745 acres. In 1909, 33,440 pounds of coffee +were produced; and by 1918, this had grown to 10,000,000 pounds. The +average for the five years, 1914-18, was 5,076,000 pounds. + +NYASALAND PROTECTORATE. Twenty-five years ago, this colony exported +coffee in amounts ranging from 300,000 to more than 2,000,000 pounds. +Production has now so declined, that only 122,000 pounds were exported +in 1918; and the average for recent years has been about 92,000 pounds. +The acreage in bearing in 1903 was 8,234; and in 1917 it was 1,237. + +NIGERIA. Production has been falling off in recent years. Exports were +35,000 pounds in 1896; 57,000 pounds in 1901; and 70,000 pounds in 1909. +In 1916 and 1917, however, they were only about 3,000 pounds. + +GOLD COAST. This colony formerly produced considerable coffee, exporting +142,000 pounds in 1896. There have been no exports in recent years, +except about 440 pounds in 1916, and 660 pounds in 1917. + +SOMALILAND PROTECTORATE. Exports of coffee were more than 7,500,000 +pounds in 1897, indicating a very extensive production. But since then, +there has been a steady decline; and in 1918 only about 440,000 pounds +were shipped. + +SOMALI COAST (FRENCH). Exports of coffee from this colony amounted to +more than 5,000,000 pounds in 1902; and since then, they have remained +fairly steadily at that figure, showing considerable increase in late +years. Total exports in 1917 were 11,200,000 pounds. + +ITALIAN SOMALILAND. Some coffee appears to be grown in this colony; but +exports have been inconsiderable for many years. + +SIERRA LEONE. Production has been steadily declining for twenty years. +Exports were 33,376 pounds in 1903; 17,096 pounds in 1913; and 8,228 +pounds in 1917. + +MAURITIUS. In former times this island was an important coffee producer, +exports in the early part of the nineteenth century running as high as +600,000 pounds. Today there is practically no export, and only about 30 +acres are in bearing, producing 4,000 to 8,000 pounds a year. + +RÉUNION. This island also was once a notable grower of coffee. A century +ago, production was estimated as high as 10,000,000 pounds; and this +rate of output continued well through the nineteenth century. In the +present century, production has fallen off; and only about 530,000 +pounds were exported in 1909. The decrease has continued, so that the +average in recent years has been only about 25,000 pounds. + + +_Coffee Consumption_ + +Of the million or more tons of coffee produced in the world each year, +practically all--with the exception of that which is used in the +coffee-growing countries themselves--is consumed by the United States +and western Europe, the British dominions, and the non-producing +countries of South America. Over that vast stretch of territory +beginning with western Russia, and extending over almost the whole of +Asia, coffee is very little known. In the consuming regions mentioned, +moreover, consumption is concentrated in a few countries, which together +account for some ninety percent of all the coffee that enters the +world's markets. These are, the United States, which now takes more than +one-half, and Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Holland, Belgium, +Switzerland, and Scandinavia. + +The United Kingdom stands out conspicuously among the nations of western +Europe as a small consumer of coffee, the per capita consumption in that +country being only about two-thirds of a pound each year. France and +Germany are by far the biggest coffee buyers of Europe so far as actual +quantity is concerned; although some of the other countries mentioned +drink much more coffee in proportion to the population. The +Mediterranean countries and the Balkans are of only secondary +importance as coffee drinkers. Among the British dominions, the Union of +South Africa takes much the largest amount, doubtless because of the +Dutch element in its population; while Canada, Australia, and New +Zealand show the influence of the mother country, consumption per head +in the last two being no greater than in England. + +[Illustration: No. 4--WORLD'S COFFEE CONSUMPTION, 1850-1920 + +Diagram showing the relationship between the leading coffee-consuming +countries] + +In South America, Brazil, Bolivia, and all the countries to the north, +are coffee producers. Of the southern countries, Argentina is the chief +coffee buyer, with Chile second. In the western hemisphere, however, the +largest per capita coffee consumer is the island of Cuba, which raises +some coffee of its own and imports heavily from its neighbors. + +The list of coffee-consuming countries includes practically all those +that do not raise coffee, and also a few that have some coffee +plantations, but do not grow enough for their own use. These countries +are listed on page 287. Consumption figures can be determined with fair +accuracy by the import figures; although in some countries, where there +is a considerable transit trade, it is necessary to deduct export from +import figures to obtain actual consumption figures. The import figures +given are the latest available for each country named. + +[Illustration: No. 5--COFFEE IMPORTS, 1916-1920 + +In this diagram a comparison is drawn between the coffee imports of the +leading consuming countries over a critical 5-year period] + +GENERAL COFFEE CONSUMPTION TABLE + +_Country_ _Year_ _Imports_ _Exports_ _Consumption_ + (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) + +United States 1921[j] 1,345,366,943[k] 41,813,197[k] 1,303,553,746 +Canada 1921[l] 17,517,353 20,349 17,497,004 +Newfoundland 1920[l] 46,813[m] 46,813 +United Kingdom 1921[j] 34,363,728[m] 34,360,128 +France 1921[j] 322,419,884 1,154,769 321,265,115 +Spain 1920 48,518,854 5,033 48,513,821 +Portugal 1919[j] 6,926,575 1,258,271 5,668,304 +Belgium 1921[j] 105,365,586 21,541,049 83,824,537 +Holland 1921[j] 135,566,943 66,567,702 69,999,241 +Denmark 1921[j] 46,571,954 3,449,537 43,122,417 +Norway 1921[j] 29,835,544 169,921 29,665,623 +Sweden 1921[j] 89,660,766 89,660,766 +Finland 1921[j] 27,968,355 27,968,355 +Russia 1916 9,801,014 9,801,014 +Austria-Hungary 1917 17,966,167 56,217 17,909,950 + (former) +Austria 1921[n] 5,128,781 79,365 5,049,416 +Germany (former) 1913 371,130,520 1,783,521 369,346,999 +Germany (present) 1921[o] 167,675,258 210,535 167,464,723 +Poland 1920 7,612,526 26,781 7,585,745 +Bulgaria 1914 1,300,493 1,300,493 +Rumania 1919 5,134,198 66,757 5,067,441 +Greece 1920[p] 13,118,626 13,118,626 +Switzerland 1921[j] 31,582,879 47,619 31,535,260 +Italy 1920 66,509,255 14,330 66,494,925 +Algeria 1920 17,273,041 17,273,041 +Tunis 1920 3,458,018 3,458,018 +Egypt 1921[j] 20,939,542 218,938 20,720,604 +Union of S. Africa 1920 28,752,538 954,181[q] 27,798,357 +Northern Rhodesia 1920 43,880 8,263 35,617 +Southern Rhodesia 1920 325,900 10,064 315,836 +Mozambique 1919 111,614 78,973 32,641 +Ceylon 1920 1,853,537 2,240 1,851,297 +China 1920 613,217 297,663 315,554 +Japan 1920 684,826 684,826 +Philippines 1920 3,475,530 26 3,475,504 +Canary Islands 1917 529,104 529,104 +Cyprus 1918 451,880 451,880 +Australia 1920[l] 2,502,429 263,430[r] 2,238,999 +New Zealand 1920 304,737 21,104 283,633 +Cuba 1920[l] 39,983,001 1,305 39,981,696 +Martinique 1918 335,099 10,362 324,737 +Panama 1920 216,923 518 216,405 +Argentina 1919 37,541,020 37,541,020 +Chile 1920 12,357,929 12,357,929 +Uruguay 1921[p] 4,896,507 4,896,507 +Paraguay 1920 262,737 262,737 + +[j] Preliminary figures. + +[k] Figures are for continental U.S. Imports include both foreign coffee +and coffee from our Island possessions. Exports Include both foreign and +domestic exports from continental U.S. and also exports to our island +possessions. + +[l] Fiscal year. + +[m] Entered for home consumption. + +[n] First six months. Imports in 1920 were 6,042,808 pounds; exports +93,034 pounds. + +[o] Eight months, May-December. + +[p] First eleven months. + +[q] Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 48,463 pounds. + +[r] Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 208,445 pounds. + +On account of the very wide fluctuations in imports during the war and +the period following the war, per capita figures of consumption are of +only relative value, as they have naturally changed radically in recent +years. For the most part, however, the trade has about swung back to +normal; and per capita figures based on the amounts retained for +consumption, as given in the General Coffee Consumption Table, are +fairly close to those for the years before the war. As per capita +calculations must take into account population as well as amounts of +coffee consumed; and as population figures are usually estimates, the +results arrived at by different authorities are likely to vary slightly, +although usually they are not far apart. In figuring the per capita +amounts in the table on page 288, latest available estimates of +population have been used. The figures show that the following are the +ten leading countries in the per capita consumption of coffee in pounds: + +1. Sweden 15.25 6. Norway 10.95 +2. Cuba 13.79 7. Holland 10.22 +3. Denmark 13.19 8. Finland 8.25 +4. United States 12.09 9. Switzerland 8.17 +5. Belgium 11.06 10. France 7.74 + +The per capita consumption of the most important coffee-consuming +countries, based on the large table, is given with the 1913 per capita +figures for comparison: + +PER CAPITA COFFEE CONSUMPTION TABLE + +_Country Year Pounds Pds_., 1913 + +United States 1921 12.09 8.90[t] +Canada 1921[s] 1.93 2.17[u] +Newfoundland 1920[s] 0.19 0.19[t] +United Kingdom 1921 0.72 0.61[t] +France 1921 7.74 6.41 +Spain 1920 2.33 1.64 +Portugal 1919 0.86 1.16 +Belgium 1921 11.06 12.27 +Holland 1921 10.22 18.80 +Denmark 1921 13.19 12.85 +Norway 1921 10.95 12.29 +Sweden 1921 15.25 13.41 +Finland 1921 8.25 8.85 +Russia 1916 0.05 0.16 +Austria-Hungary 1917 0.34 2.54 +Germany 1921 4.10 5.43 +Roumania 1919 0.29 1.04 +Greece 1920 2.97 1.19 +Switzerland 1921 8.17 6.48 +Italy 1920 1.84 1.79 +Egypt 1921 1.53 1.15 +Union of So. Africa 1920 3.80[v] 4.19[v] +Ceylon 1920 0.43 0.36 +China 1920 0.001 0.01 +Japan 1920 0.01 0.004 +Cuba 1920[s] 13.79 10.00 +Argentina 1919 4.40 3.74 +Chile 1920 3.06 3.04 +Uruguay 1921 3.61 [w] +Paraguay 1920 0.26 [w] +Australia 1920[s] 0.42 0.64 +New Zealand 1920 0.24 0.29 + +[s] Fiscal year. + +[t] Fiscal year 1913. + +[u] Fiscal year ending March 31, 1914. + +[v] Including both white and colored population. + +[w] Not available. + + +_Tea and Coffee in England and the U. S_. + +The rise of the United States as a coffee consumer in the last century +and a quarter has been marked, not only by steadily increased imports as +the population of the country increased, but also by a steady growth in +per capita consumption, showing that the beverage has been continually +advancing in favor with the American people. Today it stands at +practically its highest point, each individual man, woman, and child +having more than 12 pounds a year, enough for almost 500 cups, allotted +to him as his portion. This is four times as much as it was a hundred +years ago; and more than twice as much as it was in the years +immediately following the Civil War. In general it is fifty percent more +than the average in the twenty years preceding 1897, in which year a new +high level of coffee consumption was apparently established, the per +capita figure for that year being 10.12 pounds, which has been +approximately the average since then. + +[Illustration: No. 6--WORLD'S CONSUMPTION OF TEA AND COFFEE + +Diagram showing their relationship, 1860-1920] + +Since the advent of country-wide prohibition in the United States on +July 1, 1919, about two pounds more coffee per person, or 80 to 100 +cups, have been consumed than before. Part of this increase is doubtless +to be charged to prohibition; but it is yet too early to judge fairly as +to the exact effect of "bone-dry" legislation on coffee drinking. The +continued growth in the use of coffee in the United States has been in +decided contrast to the per capita consumption of tea, which is less now +than half a century ago. + +In the United Kingdom, the reverse condition prevails. Tea drinking +there steadily maintains a popularity which it has enjoyed for +centuries; while coffee apparently makes no advance in favor. In this +respect, the country is sharply distinguished from its neighbors of +western Europe, in many of which coffee drinking has been much heavier, +considering the population, even than in the United States. The contrast +between the tastes of the two countries in beverages is shown clearly by +the per capita figures of tea and coffee consumption for half a century, +as they appear in the table, next column. + +TEA AND COFFEE CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA + +_Year United States United Kingdom_ + Coffee Tea Coffee Tea + pounds pounds pounds pounds + 1866 4.96 1.17 1.02 3.42 + 1867 5.01 1.09 1.04 3.68 + 1868 6.52 .96 1.00 3.52 + 1869 6.45 1.08 .94 3.63 + 1870 6.00 1.10 .98 3.81 + 1871 7.91 1.14 .97 3.92 + 1872 7.28 1.46 .98 4.01 + 1873 6.87 1.53 .99 4.11 + 1874 6.59 1.27 .96 4.23 + 1875 7.08 1.44 .98 4.44 + 1876 7.33 1.35 .99 4.50 + 1877 6.94 1.23 .96 4.52 + 1878 6.24 1.33 .97 4.66 + 1879 7.42 1.21 .99 4.68 + 1880 8.78 1.39 .92 4.57 + 1881 8.25 1.54 .89 4.58 + 1882 8.30 1.47 .89 4.69 + 1883 8.91 1.30 .89 4.82 + 1884 9.26 1.09 .90 4.90 + 1885 9.60 1.18 .91 5.06 + 1886 9.36 1.37 .87 4.92 + 1887 8.53 1.49 .80 5.02 + 1888 6.81 1.49 .83 5.03 + 1889 9.16 1.25 .76 4.99 + 1890 7.77 1.32 .75 5.17 + 1891 7.94 1.28 .76 5.36 + 1892 9.59 1.36 .74 5.43 + 1893 8.23 1.32 .69 5.40 + 1894 8.01 1.34 .68 5.51 + 1895 9.24 1.39 .70 5.65 + 1896 8.08 1.32 .69 5.75 + 1897 10.04 1.56 .68 5.79 + 1898 11.59 .93 .68 5.83 + 1899 10.72 .97 .71 5.95 + 1900 9.84 1.09 .71 6.07 + 1901 10.43 1.12 .76 6.16 + 1902 13.32 .92 .68 6.07 + 1903 10.80 1.27 .71 6.04 + 1904 11.67 1.31 .68 6.02 + 1905 11.98 1.19 .67 6.02 + 1906 9.72 1.06 .66 6.22 + 1907 11.15 .96 .67 6.26 + 1908 9.82 1.03 .66 6.24 + 1909 11.43 1.24 .67 6.37 + 1910 9.33 .89 .65 6.39 + 1911 9.29 1.05 .62 6.47 + 1912 9.26 1.04 .61 6.49 + 1913 8.90 .96 .61 6.68 + 1914 10.14 .91 .63 6.89 + 1915 10.62 .91 .71 6.87 + 1916 11.20 1.07 .66 6.56 + 1917 12.38 .99 1.02 6.03 + 1918 10.43 1.40 1.19 6.75 + 1919 9.13 .87 .76 8.43 + 1920 12.78 .84 .74 8.51 + +Figures for all except most recent years are taken +from the _Statistical Abstract_ publications of +the two countries. For the United States the figures +given apply to fiscal years ending June 30, and for +the United Kingdom to calendar years. + + +_Coffee Consumption in Europe_ + +On the continent of Europe, however, coffee enjoys much the same sort of +popularity that it does in the United States. The leading continental +coffee ports are Hamburg, Bremen, Copenhagen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, +Antwerp, Havre, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Trieste; and the nationalities +of these ports indicate pretty well the countries that consume the most +coffee. The northern ports are transhipping points for large quantities +of coffee going to the Scandinavian countries, as well as importing +ports for their own countries; and these countries have been among the +leading coffee drinkers, per head of population, for many decades. +Norway, for instance, in 1876 was consuming about 8.8 pounds of coffee +per person; Sweden, 5 pounds; and Denmark, 5.2 pounds. The per capita +consumption of various other countries at about the same period, 1875 to +1880, has been estimated as follows: Holland, 17.6 pounds; Belgium, 9.1 +pounds; Germany, 5.1 pounds; Austria-Hungary, 2.2 pounds; Switzerland, +6.6 pounds; Prance, 3 pounds; Spain, 0.2 pounds; Portugal, 0.7 pounds; +and Greece, 1.6 pounds. + +Today, the leading country of the world in point of per capita +consumption is Sweden (15.25 pounds); but Holland held that position for +a long while. During the World War the disturbance of trade currents, +and the high price of coffee, greatly reduced the amount of coffee +drinking; and the Dutch took to drinking tea in considerable +quantities. + +FRANCE. Second only to the United States, in the total amount of coffee +consumed, is France; although that country before the war occupied third +place, being passed by Germany. Havre is one of the great coffee ports +of Europe; and has a coffee exchange organized in 1882, only a short +time after the Exchange in New York began operations. France draws on +all the large producing regions for her coffee; but is especially +prominent in the trade in the West Indies and the countries around the +Caribbean Sea. Imports in 1921 (preliminary) amounted to 322,419,884 +pounds; exports to 1,154,769 pounds; and net consumption, to 321,265,115 +pounds. + +GERMANY. Hamburg is one of the world's important coffee ports; and in +normal times coffee is brought there in vast amounts, not only for +shipment into the interior of Germany, but also for transhipment to +Scandinavia, Finland and Russia. Up to the outbreak of the war, Germany +was the chief coffee-drinking country of Europe. During the blockade, +the Germans resorted to substitutes; and after the war because of high +prices, there was still some consumption of them. German coffee imports +since the war have not quite climbed back to their former high mark; and +the per capita consumption, judged by these figures is still somewhat +low. Importations amounted to 90,602,000 pounds in 1920. The amount of +total imports was 371,130,520 pounds in 1913; total exports, 1,783,521 +pounds; and net imports, 369,346,999 pounds. + +NETHERLANDS. Netherlands is one of the oldest coffee countries of +Europe, and for centuries has been a great transhipping agent, +distributing coffee from her East Indian possessions and from America +among her northern neighbors. Before sending these coffee shipments +along, however, she kept back enough plentifully to supply her own +people, so that for many years before the war she led the world in per +capita consumption. As far back as 1867-76, coffee consumption was +averaging more than 13 pounds per capita. In the year before the war, +the average was 18.8 pounds. The blockade, and other abnormal conditions +during the war, threw the trade off; and it is still sub-normal. In 1920 +the net imports were about 96,000,000 pounds, which would give a per +capita consumption of about 14 pounds if it all went into consumption. +But part of it was probably stored for later exportation, as indicated +by the figures for 1921, which show heavy exports and a consequent lower +figure for consumption. Eighty percent of the Netherlands coffee trade +is handled through Amsterdam. + +Consumption of coffee is now slowly going back to normal, but the change +in source of imports--which before the war came largely from Brazil but +which war conditions turned heavily toward the East Indies--is still in +evidence. Per capita consumption of coffee in Holland up to the outbreak +of the war was as follows: + +COFFEE CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA IN HOLLAND + +_Year Pounds Year Pounds_ +1847-56 9.6 1907 14.9 +1857-66 7.1 1908 14.3 +1867-76 13.3 1909 16.7 +1877-86 16.7 1910 15.7 +1887-96 12.8 1911 15.8 +1897-1906 16.7 1912 12.3 +1906 17.2 1913 18.8 + +OTHER COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are all heavy +coffee drinkers. In 1921 Sweden had the highest per capita consumption +in the world, 15.25 pounds. Before the war, these three countries each +consumed about as much per capita as the United States does today, 12 to +13 pounds. The 1921 imports for consumption[317] were as follows: +Denmark, 43,122,417 pounds; Norway, 29,665,623 pounds; Sweden, +89,660,766 pounds. Austria-Hungary was formerly an important buyer of +coffee, large quantities coming into the country yearly through Trieste. +Imports in 1913 totaled 130,951,000 pounds; and in 1912, 124,527,000 +pounds. In 1917 the war cut down the total to 17,910,000 pounds net +consumption. Finland shares with her neighbors of the Baltic a strong +taste for coffee, importing, in 1921, 27,968,000 pounds, about 8.25 +pounds per capita. In the same year, Belgium had a net importation of +83,824,000 pounds. + +Spain, in 1920, consumed 48,513,821 pounds. Portugal, in 1919, imported +6,926,575 pounds; and exported 1,258,271 pounds, leaving 5,668,304 +pounds for home consumption. Coffee is not especially popular in the +Balkan States and Italy; importations into the last-named country in +1920 amounting to 66,494,925 pounds net. Switzerland is a steady coffee +drinker, consuming 31,535,260 pounds in 1921. Russia was never fond of +coffee; and her total imports in 1917, according to a compilation made +under Soviet auspices, were only 4,464,000 pounds. + +[Illustration: A MEETING OF THE COFFEE BROKERS OF AMSTERDAM, 1820 + +Reproduced from an old print] + +OTHER COUNTRIES. The Union of South Africa, in 1920, imported 27,798,000 +pounds net, or about 3.8 pounds per capita. Cuba purchased 39,981,696 +pounds in the fiscal year 1920; Argentina, 37,541,000 pounds in 1919; +Chile, 12,358,000 pounds in 1920; Australia, 2,239,000 pounds in 1920; +and New Zealand, 283,633 pounds in that year. + + +_Three Centuries of Coffee Trading_ + +The story of the development of the world's coffee trade is a story of +about three centuries. When Columbus sailed for the new world, the +coffee plant was unknown even as near its original home as his native +Italy. In its probable birthplace in southern Abyssinia, the natives had +enjoyed its use for a long time, and it had spread to southwestern +Arabia; but the Mediterranean knew nothing of it until after the +beginning of the sixteenth century. It then crept slowly along the coast +of Asia Minor, through Syria, Damascus, and Aleppo, until it reached +Constantinople about 1554. It became very popular; coffee houses were +opened, and the first of many controversies arose. But coffee made its +way against all opposition, and soon was firmly established in Turkish +territory. + +In those deliberate times, the next step westward, from Asia to Europe, +was not taken for more than fifty years. In general, its introduction +and establishment in Europe occupied the whole of the seventeenth +century. + +The greatest pioneering work in coffee trading was done by the +Netherlands East India Company, which began operations in 1602. The +enterprise not only promoted the spread of coffee growing in two +hemispheres; but it was active also in introducing the sale of the +product in many European countries. + +Coffee reached Venice about 1615, and Marseilles about 1644. The French +began importing coffee in commercial quantities in 1660. The Dutch began +to import Mocha coffee regularly at Amsterdam in 1663; and by 1679 the +French had developed a considerable trade in the berry between the +Levant and the cities of Lyons and Marseilles. Meanwhile, the coffee +drink had become fashionable in Paris, partly through its use by the +Turkish ambassador, and the first Parisian _café_ was opened in 1672. It +is significant of its steady popularity since then that the name _café_, +which is both French and Spanish for coffee, has come to mean a general +eating or drinking place. + +[Illustration: BILL OF PUBLIC SALE OF COFFEE, ETC., 1790 + +Reproduction of an advertisement by the Dutch East India Company] + +Active trading in coffee began in Germany about 1670, and in Sweden +about 1674. + +Trading in coffee in England followed swiftly upon the heels of the +opening of the first coffee house in London in 1652. By 1700, the trade +included not only exporting and importing merchants, but wholesale and +retail dealers; the latter succeeding the apothecaries who, up to then, +had enjoyed a kind of monopoly of the business. + +Trade and literary authorities[318] on coffee trading tell us that in +the early days of the eighteenth century the chief supplies of coffee +for England and western Europe came from the East Indies and Arabia. The +Arabian, or--as it was more generally known--Turkey berry, was bought +first-hand by Turkish merchants, who were accustomed to travel inland in +Arabia Felix, and to contract with native growers. + +It was moved thence by camel transport through Judea to Grand Cairo, +_via_ Suez, to be transhipped down the Nile to Alexandria, then the +great shipping port for Asia and Europe. By 1722, 60,000 to 70,000 bales +of Turkish (Arabian) coffee a year were being received in England, the +sale price at Grand Cairo being fixed by the Bashaw, who "valorized" it +according to the supply. "Indian" coffee, which was also grown in +Arabia, was brought to Bettelfukere (Beit-el-fakih) in the mountains of +southwestern Arabia, where English, Dutch, and French factors went to +buy it and to transport it on camels to Moco (Mocha), whence it was +shipped to Europe around the Cape of Good Hope. + +In the beginning, "Indian" coffee was inferior to Turkish coffee; +because it was the refuse, or what remained after the Turkish merchants +had taken the best. But after the European merchants began to make their +own purchases at Bettelfukere, the character of the "Indian" product as +sold in the London and other European markets was vastly improved. +Doubtless the long journey in sailing vessels over tropic seas made for +better quality. It was estimated that Arabia in this way exported about +a million bushels a year of "Turkish" and "Indian" coffee. + +The coffee houses became the gathering places for wits, fashionable +people, and brilliant and scholarly men, to whom they afforded +opportunity for endless gossip and discussion. It was only natural that +the lively interchange of ideas at these public clubs should generate +liberal and radical opinions, and that the constituted authorities +should look askance at them. Indeed the consumption of coffee has been +curiously associated with movements of political protest in its whole +history, at least up to the nineteenth century. + +Coffee has promoted clear thinking and right living wherever introduced. +It has gone hand in hand with the world's onward march toward democracy. + +As already told in this work, royal orders closed the coffee houses for +short periods in Constantinople and in London; Germany required a +license for the sale of the beverage; the French Revolution was fomented +in coffee-house meetings; and the real cradle of American liberty is +said to have been a coffee house in New York. It is interesting also to +note that, while the consumption of coffee has been attended by these +agitations for greater liberty for three centuries, its production for +three centuries, in the Dutch East Indies, in the West Indies, and in +Brazil, was very largely in the hands of slaves or of forced labor. + +Since the spread of the use of coffee to western Europe in the +seventeenth century, the development of the trade has been marked, +broadly speaking, by two features: (1) the shifting of the weight of +production, first to the West Indies, then to the East Indies, and then +to Brazil; and (2) the rise of the United States as the chief coffee +consumer of the world. Until the close of the seventeenth century, the +little district in Arabia, whence the coffee beans had first made their +way to Europe, continued to supply the whole world's trade. But sprigs +of coffee trees were beginning to go out from Arabia to other promising +lands, both eastward and westward. As previously related, the year 1699 +was an important one in the history of this expansion, as it was then +that the Dutch successfully introduced the coffee plant from Arabia into +Java. This started a Far Eastern industry, whose importance continues to +this day, and also caused the mother country, Holland, to take up the +rôle of one of the leading coffee traders of the world, which she still +holds. Holland, in fact, took to coffee from the very first. It is +claimed that the first samples were introduced into that country from +Mocha in 1616--long before the beans were known in England or +France--and that by 1663, regular shipments were being made. Soon after +the coffee culture became firmly established in Java, regular shipments +to the mother country began, the first of these being a consignment of +894 pounds in 1711. Under the auspices of the Netherlands East India Co. +the system of cultivating coffee by forced labor was begun in the East +Indian colonies. It flourished until well into the nineteenth century. +One result of this colonial production of coffee was to make Holland the +leading coffee consumer per capita of the world, consumption in 1913, as +recorded on page 290, having reached as high as 18.8 pounds. It has long +been one of the leading coffee traders, importing and exporting in +normal times before the war between 150,000,000 and 300,000,000 pounds a +year. + +[Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COFFEE BY CONTINENTS + +Fiscal years: 1910-1914 + +Total pounds: 2,311,917,200] + +The introduction of the coffee plant into the new world took place +between 1715 and 1723. It quickly spread to the islands and the mainland +washed by the Caribbean. The latter part of the eighteenth century saw +tens of millions of pounds of coffee being shipped yearly to the mother +countries of western Europe; and for decades, the two great coffee trade +currents of the world continued to run from the West Indies to France, +England, Holland, and Germany; and from the Dutch East Indies to +Holland. These currents continued to flow until the disruption of world +trade-routes by the World War; but they had been pushed into positions +of secondary importance by the establishing of two new currents, running +respectively from Brazil to Europe, and from Brazil to the United +States, which constituted the nineteenth century's contribution to the +history of the world's coffee trade. + +[Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COFFEE BY COUNTRIES + +Fiscal years: 1910-1914 + +Total pounds: 2,311,917,200] + +The chief feature of the twentieth century's developments has been the +passing by the United States of the half-way mark in world consumption; +this country, since the second year of the World War, having taken more +than all the rest of the world put together. The world's chief coffee +"stream," so to speak, is now from Santos and Rio de Janeiro to New +York, other lesser streams being from these ports to Havre, Antwerp, +Amsterdam, and (in normal times) Hamburg; and from Java to Amsterdam and +Rotterdam. It is said that a movement, fostered by Belgium and Brazil, +is under way to have Antwerp succeed Hamburg as a coffee port. + +The rise of Brazil to the place of all-important source of the world's +coffee was entirely a nineteenth century development. When the coffee +tree found its true home in southern Brazil in 1770, it began at once to +spread widely over the area of excellent soil; but there was little +exportation for thirty or forty years. By the middle of the nineteenth +century Brazil was contributing twice as much to the world's commerce as +her nearest competitor, the Dutch East Indies, exports in 1852-53 being +2,353,563 bags from Brazil and 1,190,543 bags from the Dutch East +Indies. The world's total that year was 4,567,000 bags, so that +Brazilian coffee represented about one-half of the total. This +proportion was roughly maintained during the latter half of the +nineteenth century, but has gradually increased since then to its +present three-fourths. + +[Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS OF COFFEE INTO THE UNITED +STATES BY CONTINENTS + +Fiscal years: 1910-1914 + +Total pounds: 899,339,327] + +The most important single event in the history of Brazilian production +was the carrying out of the valorization scheme, by which the State of +São Paulo, in 1906 and 1907, purchased 8,474,623 bags of coffee, and +stored it in Santos, in New York, and in certain European ports, in +order to stabilize the price in the face of very heavy production. At +the same time, a law was passed limiting the exports to 10,000,000 bags +per year. This law has since been repealed. The story of valorization is +told more fully in chapter XXXI. The coffee thus purchased by the state +was placed in the hands of an international committee, which fed it into +the world's markets at the rate of several hundred thousand bags a year. +Good prices were realized for all coffee sold; and the plan was +successful, not only financially, but in the achievement of its main +object, the prevention of the ruin of planters through overproduction. + +[Illustration: PRE-WAR AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS OF COFFEE INTO THE UNITED +STATES BY COUNTRIES + +Fiscal years: 1910-1914 + +Total pounds: 899,339,327] + +Another valorization campaign was launched by Brazil in 1918, and a +third in 1921. Early in 1918, the São Paulo government bought about +3,000,000 bags. Subsequent events caused a sharp advance in prices, and +at one time it was said that the holdings showed a profit of +$60,000,000. The Brazil federal government appointed an official +director of valorization, Count Alexandre Siciliano. A federal loan of +£9,000,000, with 4,535,000 bags of valorized coffee as collateral, was +placed in London and New York in May, 1922. + +European consumption during the last century has been marked by the +growth of imports into France and Germany; these being the two leading +coffee drinkers of the world, aside from the United States. Germany held +the lead in European consumption during the whole of the nineteenth +century, and also in this century until all imports were stopped by the +Allied navies; although, in actual imports, Holland for many years +showed higher figures. Both Holland and England have acted as +distributers, re-exporting each year most of the coffee which entered +their ports. In the last half-century, the chief consumers, in the order +named, have been Germany, France, Holland, Austria-Hungary, and Belgium. +However, with the removal of the duty on coffee in the last-named +country in 1904, imports trebled; and Belgium took third place. The +table at the top of this page shows the general trend of the trade for +the last seventy years. + +TREND OF EUROPEAN COFFEE CONSUMPTION FOR SEVENTY YEARS + +_Year_ _Germany_ _France_ _Holland_ _Aus.-Hung._ _Belgium_ + (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) +1853 104,049,000 48,095,000 46,162,000 44,716,000 41,270,000 +1863 146,969,000 87,524,000 30,299,000 44,966,000 39,305,000 +1873 215,822,000 98,841,000 79,562,000 71,111,000 49,874,000 +1883 251,706,000 150,468,000 130,380,000 74,145,000 62,846,000 +1893 269,381,000 152,203,000 75,562,000 79,438,000 52,046,000 +1903 403,070,000 246,122,000 78,328,000 104,200,000 51,859,000 +1913 369,347,000 254,102,000 116,749,000 130,951,000 93,250,000 + +Most of the coffee for these countries has for many years been supplied +by Brazil, even Holland bringing in several times as much from Brazil as +from the Dutch East Indies. Special features of the European trade have +been the organization, in 1873, and successful operation, in Germany, of +the world's first international syndicate to control the coffee trade; +and the opening of coffee exchanges in Havre in 1882, in Amsterdam and +Hamburg, in 1887: in Antwerp, London, and Rotterdam, in 1890; and in +Trieste in 1905. + +The advance of coffee consumption in the United States, the chief +coffee-consuming country in the world, has taken place through about the +same period as the advance of production in Brazil, the chief producing +country; but it has been far less rapid. From 1790 to 1800, coffee +imports for consumption ranged from 3,500,000 to 32,000,000 pounds. The +figures in the next column show the net importations of coffee into this +country since the beginning of the nineteenth century. + +The chief source of supply, of course, has been Brazil; and the +commercial and economic ties created by this immense coffee traffic has +knit the two countries closely together. Brazil is probably more +friendly to the United States than any other South American country, as +shown by her action in following this country into the World War against +Germany. She also grants the United States certain tariff preferentials +as a recognition of the continued policy of this country of admitting +coffee free of duty. The chief port of entry of coffee into the United +States is New York, which for decades has recorded entries amounting +from sixty to ninety percent of the country's total. Since 1902, New +Orleans has shown a big advance, and in 1910 imported some thirty-five +percent of the total. The only other port of importance is San +Francisco, where imports have been increasing in recent years because of +the growth of the trade in Central American coffee. + +COFFEE IMPORTS, UNITED STATES, FOR 120 YEARS + _Net Imports_ + +Year Pounds Year Pounds +1800[x] 8,792,472 1906 804,808,594 +1811[x] 19,801,230 1907 935,678,412 +1821[x] 11,886,063 1908 850,982,919 +1830[x] 38,363,687 1909 1,006,975,047 +1840[x] 86,297,761 1910 813,442,972 +1850 129,791,466 1911 869,489,902 +1860 182,049,527 1912 880,838,776 +1870 231,173,574 1913 859,166,618 +1880 440,128,838 1914 991,953,821 +1890 490,161,900 1915 1,051,716,023 +1900 748,800,771 1916 1,131,730,672 +1901 809,036,029 1917 1,267,975,290 +1902 1,056,541,637 1918 1,083,480,622 +1903 867,385,063 1919 968,297,668 +1904 960,878,977 1920 1,364,252,073 +1905 991,160,207 1921 1,309,010,452 + +[x] Fiscal year ending Sept. 30; all other years end June 30. + +Throughout the century and a third of steady increase of importations of +coffee, Congress has for the most part permitted its free entry; as a +rule, resorting to taxation of "the poor man's breakfast cup" only when +in need of revenue for war purposes. At times, the free entry has been +qualified; but for the most part, coffee has been free from the burden +of customs tariff. + +The country's coffee trade before the Civil War was without special +incident; but since that time, the continued growth has brought about +manipulations that have often resulted in highly dramatic crises; +organizations to exercise some sort of regulation in the trade; the +development of a trade in substitutes; the advance of the sale of +branded package coffee; the institution of large advertising campaigns; +and other interesting features. These are treated more in detail in +chapters that follow. + +[Illustration: PRE-WAR CHART OF COFFEE IMPORTS + +Quantity and value of net imports of coffee into the United States for +the fiscal years 1851 to 1914 in five-year averages. Solid line +represents quantity, figures in million pounds on left side. Dotted line +represents value, figures in million dollars on right side] + + +_Coffee Drinking in the United States_ + +Is the United States using more coffee than formerly, allowing for the +increase in population? Of course there are sporadic increases, in +particular years and groups of years, and they may indicate to the +casual observer that our coffee drinking is mounting rapidly. And then +there is the steadily growing import figure, double what it was within +the memory of a man still young. + +[Illustration: PRE-WAR CONSUMPTION AND PRICE CHART + +Import price and per capita consumption of coffee in the United States +for the fiscal years 1851 to 1914, in five-year averages. Solid line +represents import price per pound. Dotted line represents per capita +consumption] + +But the apparent growth in any given year is a matter of comparison with +a nearby year, and there are declines as well as jumps; and, as for the +gradual growth, it must always be remembered that, according to the +Census Bureau, some 1,400,000 more people are born into this country +every year, or enter its ports, than are removed by death or emigration. +At the present rate this increase would account for about 17,000,000 +pounds more coffee each year than was consumed in the year before. + +The question is: Do Mr. Citizen, or Mrs. Citizen, or the little Citizens +growing up into the coffee-drinking age, pass his or her or their +respective cups along for a second pouring where they used to be +satisfied with one, or do they take a cup in the evening as well as in +the morning, or do they perhaps have it served to them at an afternoon +reception where they used to get something else? In other words, is the +coffee habit becoming more intensive as well as more extensive? + +There are plenty of very good reasons why it should have become so in +the last twenty-five or thirty years; for the improvements in +distributing, packing, and preparing coffee have been many and notable. +It is a far cry these days from the times when the housewife snatched a +couple of minutes amid a hundred other kitchen duties to set a pan over +the fire to roast a handful of green coffee beans, and then took two or +three more minutes to pound or grind the crudely roasted product into +coarse granules for boiling. + +For a good many years, the keenest wits of the coffee merchants, not +only of the United States but of Europe as well, have been at work to +refine the beverage as it comes to the consumer's cup; and their success +has been striking. Now the consumer can have his favorite brand not only +roasted but packed air-tight to preserve its flavor; and made up, +moreover, of growths brought from the four corners of the earth and +blended to suit the most exacting taste. He can buy it already ground, +or he can have it in the form of a soluble powder; he can even get it +with the caffein element ninety-nine percent removed. It is preserved +for his use in paper or tin or fiber boxes, with wrappings whose +attractive designs seem to add something in themselves to the quality. +Instead of the old coffee pot, black with long service, he has modern +shining percolators and filtration devices; with a new one coming out +every little while, to challenge even these. Last but not least, he is +being educated to make it properly--tuition free. + +It would be surprising, with these and dozens of other refinements, if a +far better average cup of coffee were not produced than was served forty +years ago, and if the coffee drinker did not show his appreciation by +coming back for more. + +As a matter of fact, the figures show that he does come back for more. +We do not refer to the figures of the last two years, which indeed are +higher than those for many preceding years, but to the only averages +that are of much significance in this connection; namely, those for +periods of years going back half a century or more. Five-year averages +back to the Civil War show increasing per capita consumption for +continental United States (see table). + +FIVE-YEAR PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION FIGURES + +_Five-year Per capita Five-year Per capita + Period Pounds Period Pounds_ + +1867-71 6.38 1897-1901 10.52 +1872-76 7.03 1902-06 11.50 +1877-81 7.53 1907-11 10.21 +1882-86 9.09 1912-16 10.02 +1887-91 8.07 1917-21 11.39 +1892-96 8.63 + +It will be seen that the gain has been a decided one, fairly steady, but +not exactly uniform. In the fifty years, John Doe has not quite come to +the point where he hands up his cup for a second helping and keeps a +meaningful silence. Instead, he stipulates, "Don't fill it quite full; +fill it about five-sixths as full as it was before." That is a +substantial gain, and one that the next fifty years can hardly be +expected to duplicate, in spite of the efforts of our coffee +advertisers, our inventors, and our vigorous importers and roasters. + +The most striking feature of this fifty-year growth was the big step +upward in 1897, when the per capita rose two pounds over the year before +and established an average that has been pretty well maintained since. +Something of the sort may have taken place again in 1920, when there was +a three-pound jump over the year before. It will be interesting to see +whether this is merely a jump or a permanent rise; whether our coffee +trade has climbed to a hilltop or a plateau. + +In this connection it should be noted that the government's per capita +coffee figures apply only to continental United States, and that in +computing them all the various items of trade of the non-contiguous +possessions (not counting the Philippines, whose statistics are kept +entirely separate from those of the United States proper) are carefully +taken into account. + +But for the benefit of students of coffee figures it should be added +that this method does not result in a final figure except for one year +in ten. The reason is that between censuses the population of the +country is determined only by estimates; and these estimates (by the +U.S. Bureau of the Census) are based on the average increase in the +preceding census decade. The increase between 1910 and 1920, for +instance, is divided by 120, the number of months in the period, and +this average monthly increase is assumed to be the same as that of the +current year and of other years following 1920. Until new figures are +obtained in 1930, the monthly increase will continue to be estimated at +the same rate as the increase from 1910 to 1920, or about 118,000. This +figure will be used in computing the per capita coffee consumption. But +when the 1930 figures are in, it may be found that the estimates were +too low or too high, and the per capita figures for all intervening +years will accordingly be subject to revision. This will not amount to +much, probably five-hundredths of a pound at most; but it is evident +that between 1920 and 1930 all per capita consumption figures issued by +the government are to be considered as provisional to that extent at +least. + +In the 1920 _Statistical Abstract_ the government has revised its per +capita coffee and tea figures to conform to actual instead of estimated +population figures between 1910 and 1920, with the result that these +figures are slightly different from those published in previous editions +of the _Abstract_. Figures from 1890 to 1910 have also been slightly +changed, as they were originally computed by using population figures as +of June 1, whereas it is desirable to have computations based on July 1 +estimates to make them conform to present per capita figures. + + +_Reviewing the 1921 Trade in the United States_ + +According to the latest available foreign trade summaries issued by the +government, the United States bought more coffee in 1921 than in any +previous calendar year of our history, although the total imports did +not quite reach the highest fiscal-year mark. Our purchases passed the +1920 mark by more than 40,000,000 pounds and were higher than those of +two years ago by 3,500,000 pounds. + +But this record was made only in actual amounts shipped, as the value of +imported coffee was far below that of immediately preceding years. +Coffee values, however, fell off less than the average values for all +imports, the decrease for coffee being forty-three percent and for the +country's total imports fifty-two percent. + +Exports of coffee were somewhat less in quantity than in 1920, and about +the same as in 1919; although the value, like that of imports, was +considerably less than in either previous year. + +Re-exports of foreign coffee were considerably below the 1920 mark, in +both quantity and value, and indeed were less than in several years. The +amount of tea re-exported to foreign countries was only about half that +shipped out in 1920, showing a continuation of the tendency of the +United States to discontinue its services as a middleman, which raised +the through traffic in tea several million pounds during the dislocation +of shipping. + +Actual figures of amounts and values of gross coffee imports for the +three calendar years, 1919-1921, have been as follows: + + _Pounds_ _Value_ +1921 1,340,979,776 $142,808,719 +1920 1,297,439,310 252,450,651 +1919 1,337,564,067 261,270,106 + +This represents a gain of three and three-tenths percent over 1920 in +quantity and of only about one-fifth of one percent over 1919. The +decrease in value in 1921 was forty-three percent from the figures for +1920 and forty-five percent from those of 1919. + +Domestic exports of coffee, mostly from Hawaii and Porto Rico, amounted +to 34,572,967 pounds valued at $5,895,606, as compared with 36,757,443 +pounds valued at $9,803,574 in the calendar year 1920, or a decrease of +six percent in quantity and forty percent in value. In 1919 domestic +exports were 34,351,554 pounds, having a value of $8,816,581, +practically the same in quantity, but showing a falling off of +thirty-three percent in value. + +Re-exports of foreign coffee amounted to 36,804,684 pounds in 1921, +having a value of $3,911,847, a decline of twenty-five percent from the +49,144,691 pounds of 1920 and of fifty-four percent from the 81,129,691 +pounds of 1919; whereas in point of value there was a decrease of +fifty-six percent from 1920, which was $9,037,882, and of eighty-eight +percent from that of 1919, which was $16,815,468. + +The average value per pound of the imported coffee, according to these +figures, works out at little more than half that of either 1920 or 1919, +illustrating the precipitate drop of prices when the depression came on. +The pound value in 1921 was 10.6c.; for 1920, 19.4c.; and for 1919, +19.5c. These values are derived from the valuations placed on shipments +at the point of export, the "foreign valuation" for which the much +discussed "American valuation" is proposed as a substitute. They +accordingly do not take into account costs of freight, insurance, etc. + +It is interesting to note that the average valuation of 10.6c. a pound +for coffee shipped during the calendar year is a substantial drop from +the 13.12c. a pound that was the average for the fiscal year 1921, +showing that the decline in values continued during the last half of the +calendar year. + +Coffee imports in 1921 continued to run in about the same well-worn +channels as in previous years, according to the figures showing the +trade with the producing countries. The United States, as heretofore, +drew almost its whole supply from its neighbors on this side of the +globe; the countries to the south furnishing ninety-seven percent of the +total entering our ports. The three chief countries of South America +contributed eighty-five percent; and the share of Brazil alone was +sixty-two and five-tenths percent. + +Brazil's progress to her normal pre-war position in our coffee trade is +rather slow, although she continues to show a gain in percentage each +year. Formerly we obtained seventy percent to seventy-five percent of +our coffee from that country; but war conditions, diverting nearly all +of Central America's production to our ports, reduced the proportion to +almost half. In 1919 this had risen to fifty-nine percent, in 1920 it +was somewhat over sixty percent, and in 1921 it attained a mark of +sixty-two and five-tenths percent. The actual amount shipped, which was +839,212,388 pounds having a value of $77,186,271, was about seven +percent higher than in 1920, which was 785,810,689 pounds valued at +$148,793,593; and about the same percent higher than that of +1919--787,312,293 pounds valued at $160,038,196. Although the actual +poundage showed an increase, it will be noted that the value fell off +almost one-half as compared with 1920, and more than one-half as +compared with the year before. + +The real feature of the year, and perhaps the most interesting +development in the coffee trade of this country in recent years, is the +steady advance of Colombian coffee. + +In the year before the war, we obtained from our nearest South American +neighbor 87,176,477 pounds of coffee valued at $11,381,675, which was +about ten percent of our total imports. In 1919, the first year after +the war, this amount was almost doubled, being 150,483,853 pounds with a +value of $30,425,162. In 1920, there was a further increase to +194,682,616 pounds valued at $41,557,669, and in 1921 the high mark of +249,123,356 pounds valued at $37,322,305 was reached. This was a gain of +twenty-eight percent over 1920 shipments; and, although the value was +less than in the year before, the decrease was only ten percent in a +year when the average fall in value was forty-three percent. + +It will be news to many people interested in the coffee trade that the +value of Colombian coffee now imported into the United States is almost +half the value of the Brazilian coffee--$37,000,000 as compared with +$77,000,000. The number of pounds imported is a little less than +one-third the Brazilian contribution; but at the present rate of +increase, it will pass the half mark in a few years. + +Colombia and Venezuela together now supply considerably more than half +as much coffee as Brazil in value, and more than one-third as much in +quantity. The average value of Colombian coffee in 1921 was about +fifteen cents a pound, as compared with eleven cents for Venezuelan, +nine cents for Brazilian, ten cents for Central American, and ten and +six-tenths cents for total coffee imports. + +Shipments from Venezuela showed a drop in quantity of nine percent as +compared with 1920 imports, being 59,783,303 pounds valued at +$6,798,709; in 1920 they were 65,970,954 pounds valued at $13,802,995; +and in 1919, they were 109,777,831 pounds valued at $23,163,071. + +The figures relating to imports from Central America are of interest as +showing to what extent we are continuing to hold the trade of the war +years, when nearly all coffee shipped from that region came to the +United States. Although there has probably been a considerable swing +back to the trade with Europe, the 1921 figures show that a large +percent of the trade that this country gained during the war is being +retained. Imports in 1921 were considerably lower than in 1920 or in +1919, but were still more than three times as heavy as in 1913, the last +year of normal trade. + +The displacement of Central America's trade by the war, and the extent +to which it has so far returned to old channels, are illustrated in the +table of Imports into the United States from Central America in the last +nine years on page 301. + +As Germany was very prominent in pre-war trade, it is likely that more +and more coffee will be diverted from the United States as German +imports gradually increase to their old level. + +IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES FROM +CENTRAL AMERICA + +_Year_ _Pounds_ _Value_ +1913 36,326,440 $4,635,359 +1914 44,896,856 5,465,893 +1915 71,361,288 8,093,532 +1916 111,259,125 12,775,921 +1917 148,031,640 15,751,761 +1918 195,259,628 19,234,198 +1919 131,638,695 19,375,179 +1920 159,204,341 30,388,567 +1921 118,607,382 12,308,250 + +Imports from Mexico in 1921 were greater by thirty-eight percent than in +1920, but were less than in 1919, and were still much below the normal +trade before the war. The total was 26,895,034 pounds having a value of +$3,475,122, as compared with 19,519,865 pounds valued at $3,873,217 in +the year before, and with 29,567,469 pounds valued at $5,434,884 in +1919. The imports in 1913 were more than 40,000,000 pounds, in 1914 more +than 43,000,000 pounds, and in 1915 more than 52,000,000 pounds. + +West Indian coffees showed a gradual settling back to pre-war figures, +which ranged from 3,000,000 to 12,000,000 pounds annually, but which in +1918, the last year of the war, leaped to 52,000,000 pounds. In 1919 +they amounted to 42,013,841 pounds valued at $7,575,051; and in 1920, +fell to 29,204,674 pounds valued at $5,711,993. In 1921 they continued +to drop, the total being 15,398,073 pounds valued at $1,518,784, a +decrease of forty-seven and three-tenths percent in quantity. + +The year under review showed practically a return to normal for +importations from Aden, which up to 1917 ran about 3,000,000 pounds a +year. In that year the full effects of the war were felt in the Aden +district, and shipments of coffee to this country dropped to 187,817 +pounds. They rose to 432,000 pounds in 1918; and in 1919, to 681,290 +pounds valued at $141,391. In 1920 there was a further rise to 889,633 +pounds valued at $200,505; and in 1921 they amounted to 2,799,824 pounds +valued at $476,672. But this trade is of little importance compared with +that of the producing countries of this hemisphere, being less than one +percent of our total imports. + +Imports from the Dutch East Indies continued to decline, being +fifty-five percent less than in 1920. The total of 12,438,016 pounds, +however, valued at $1,771,602, is still two or three times the normal +pre-war importations. + +Exports of coffee in 1921--33,389,805 pounds of green coffee valued at +$5,590,318 and 1,183,162 pounds of roasted valued at $305,288--were +about the same as those of the year before in quantity, although much +lower in value. The 1920 shipments were 34,785,574 pounds valued at +$9,223,966 of green coffee and 1,971,869 pounds of roasted valued at +$579,608. + +In the re-export trade, shipments of coffee were lower than in several +years, total amounts for 1921, 1920, and 1919 being 36,804,684 pounds, +49,144,091 pounds, and 81,129,641 pounds, and total values $3,911,847, +$9,037,882, and $16,815,468. + +PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL COFFEE IMPORTS INTO UNITED STATES + + _Percentage of_ + _increase (+) or_ + _decrease (-) of_ + _1921 imports_ + _compared_ + 1919 1920 1921 _with 1920_. + / \ / \ / \ +From Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value +Central America 9.80 7.40 12.30 12.00 8.80 8.60 -25.50 -50.00 +Mexico 2.20 2.10 1.50 1.50 2.00 2.40 +37.80 -10.30 +West Indies 3.10 2.90 2.20 2.20 1.10 1.00 -47.30 -73.40 +Brazil 58.80 61.30 60.50 58.90 62.50 54.00 +6.80 -48.10 +Colombia 11.20 11.60 15.00 16.40 18.50 26.10 +28.00 -10.20 +Venezuela 8.20 8.90 5.10 5.10 4.40 4.80 -9.30 -50.70 +Aden 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.20 0.30 214.80 +137.70 +Dutch East Indies 4.20 3.80 2.10 2.00 0.90 1.20 -55.70 -65.40 +Other countries 2.45 1.95 1.23 1.52 1.60 1.60 ... ... + ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------- ------- +Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 +3.40 -43.40 + +Re-exports to France fell off from 16,760,977 pounds in 1920 to +11,429,952 in 1921. Mexico took 3,236,245 pounds as compared with +9,892,639 in the previous year, and Cuba also reduced her purchases from +6,319,105 pounds to 2,831,109. Shipments to Denmark, 4,099,403 pounds, +were practically the same as in 1920, 3,951,166 pounds, as were also +those to Germany, 3,200,158 pounds as compared with 2,917,773 in 1920. + +In the trade of the two coffee-exporting possessions of the United +States, Hawaii and Porto Rico, the 1921 figures show a considerable +increase in shipments from Hawaii to continental United States and to +foreign countries, while exports from Porto Rico fell off slightly. + +Hawaii in 1921 sent 803,905 pounds valued at $123,347 to foreign +countries, which compared with 687,597 pounds valued at $200,180 in the +year before, and 4,183,046 valued at $650,036 to continental United +States, as against 1,885,703 pounds valued at $476,033 in the previous +year. + +Porto Rico's crop, as usual, furnished the bulk of the domestic exports +of the United States to foreign countries--29,546,348 pounds valued at +$5,027,741, as against 1920 exports of 31,321,415 pounds valued at +$8,455,908. Shipments from Porto Rico to continental United States +amounted to 211,531 pounds valued at $35,780, as against 418,127 pounds +valued at $118,663 in 1920. + +Following are the figures of re-exports of coffee by countries in the +calendar year 1921: + +RE-EXPORTS OF COFFEE FROM UNITED STATES, 1921 + + _Country_ _Pounds_ +Belgium 2,717,949 +Denmark 4,099,403 +France 11,429,952 +Germany 3,200,158 +Greece 539,933 +Netherlands 920,855 +Norway 237,155 +Sweden 1,935,641 +Canada 1,037,628 +Mexico 3,236,245 +Cuba 2,831,109 +Other Countries 4,618,656 + ---------- + Total 36,804,684 + +Per capita consumption of coffee in continental United States showed a +slight increase during the calendar year 1921 over that of 1920, the +figure being 12.09 pounds as against 11.70 for the previous year. This +calendar-year figure compares with the fiscal-year figure of 12.21 +pounds, indicating that imports during the last half of 1920 were +somewhat heavier than during the last half of 1921. + +The various items for the two calendar years 1920 and 1921 are shown as +follows: + + 1921 1920 + _Calendar year_, _Calendar year_, + (_pounds_) (_pounds_) +(a) Total imports + into U.S. 1,340,979,776 1,297,439,310 +(b) Imports into + non-contiguous + territory + from foreign + countries 7,410 27 + ------------- ------------- + (c) (a) minus (b) 1,340,972,366 1,297,439,283 +(d) Total exports from + U.S. 34,572,967 36,757,443 +(e) Exports from + non-contiguous + territory + to foreign + countries 30,363,098 32,028,832 + ---------- ---------- + (f) (d) minus (e) 4,209,869 4,728,611 +(g) Total re-exports + from U.S. 36,804,684 49,144,691 +(h) Re-exports from + non-contiguous + territory + to foreign + countries ... 20,008 + --------- ---------- + (i) (g) minus (h) 36,804,684 49,124,683 +(j) Imports into + continental + U.S. from + non-contiguous + territory 4,394,577 2,303,830 +(k) Exports to + non-contiguous + territory from + continental U.S. 798,644 972,303 + ---------- --------- + (l) (j) minus (k) 3,595,933 1,331,527 +Net consumption, + continental U.S.: + (c) minus (f) minus + (i) plus (l) 1,303,553,746 1,244,917,516 +Population, July 1 107,833,279 106,418,170 +Per capita consumption, + 1921 12.09 11.70 + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +HOW GREEN COFFEES ARE BOUGHT AND SOLD + + _Buying coffee in the producing countries--Transporting coffee to + the consuming markets--Some record coffee cargoes shipped to the + United States--Transport over seas--Java coffee "ex-sailing + vessels"--Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San + Francisco--The coffee exchanges of Europe and the United + States--Commission men and brokers--Trade and exchange contracts + for delivery--Important rulings affecting coffee trading--Some well + known green coffee marks_ + + +In moving green coffee from the plantations to the consuming countries, +the shipments pass through much the same trade channels as other +foreign-grown food products. In general, the coffee goes from planter to +trader in the shipping ports; thence to the exporter, who sells it to an +importer in the consuming country; he in turn passing it on, to a +roaster, to be prepared for consumption. The system varies in some +respects in the different countries, according to the development of +economic and transportation methods; but, broadly considered, this is +the general method. + + +_Buying Coffee in the Producing Countries_ + +The marketing of coffee begins when the berries are swept up from the +drying patios, put in gunny sacks, and sent to the ports of export to be +sampled and shipped. In Brazil, four-wheeled wagons drawn by six mules, +or two-wheeled carts carry it to the nearest railroad or river. + +Brazil, as the world's largest producer of coffee, has the most highly +developed buying system. Coffee cultivation has been the chief +agricultural pursuit in that country for many years; and large amounts +of government and private capital have been invested in growing, +transportation, storage, and ship-loading facilities, particularly in +the state of São Paulo. + +The usual method in Brazil is for the _fazendeiro_ (coffee-grower) or +the _commisario_ (commission merchant) to load his shipments of coffee +at an interior railroad station. If his consignee is in Santos, he +generally deposits the bill of lading with a bank and draws a draft, +usually payable after thirty days, against the consignee. When the +consignee accepts the draft, he receives the bill of lading, and is then +permitted to put the coffee in a warehouse. + + +_Storing at Santos_ + +At Santos most of the storing is done in the steel warehouses of the +City Dock Company, a private corporation whose warehouses extend for +three miles along the waterfront at one end of the town. Railroad +switches lead to these warehouses, so that the coffee is brought to +storage in the same cars in which it was originally loaded up-country. +The warehouses are leased by _commisarios_. There are also many old +warehouses, built of wood, still operated in Santos, and to these the +coffee is transferred from the railroad station either by mule carts or +by automobile trucks. + +At the receiving warehouses, samples of each bag are taken; the tester, +or sampler, standing at the door with a sharp tool, resembling a +cheese-tester, which he thrusts into the center of the bag as the men +pass him with the bags of coffee on their heads, removing a double +handful of the contents. The samples are divided into two parts; one for +the seller, and one that the _commisario_ retains until he has sold the +consignment of coffee covered by that particular lot of samples. + +[Illustration: THE LAST SAMPLE BEFORE EXPORT, SANTOS] + + +_The Disappearing Ensaccador_ + +In the old days it was the custom every morning for the _ensaccadores_, +or baggers, and the exporters or their brokers, to visit the +_commisarios'_ warehouses and to bargain for lots of coffee made up by +the _commisario_. + +In the Santos market, until recent years, the _ensaccador_, or +coffee-bagger, often stood between the _commisario_ and exporter. When +American importing houses began to establish their own buying offices in +the Brazilian ports (about 1910) to deal direct with the _fazendeiro_ +and the _commisario_, the gradual elimination of the _ensaccador_ was +begun. Today he has entirely disappeared from the Santos market, and is +disappearing from Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and Victoria. + +Coffee reaches Santos in a mixed condition; that is, it has not been +graded, or separated according to its various qualities. This is the +work of the _commisario_, who puts each shipment into "lots" in new +"official" bags, each of which bears a mark stating that the contents +are São Paulo growth. If the coffee is offered for sale by the owner, +the _commisario_ will then put it on the "street," the section of Santos +given over to coffee trading. + +The _commisario_ works with samples of the coffee he has to offer and +only puts out one set at a time. He names his "asking" price, known +locally as the _pedido_, which is the maximum rate he expects to get, +but seldom receives. A set of samples may be shown to twenty-five or +thirty exporting houses in a day, one at a time. When the sample is in +the hands of a firm for consideration, no other exporter has the right +to buy the lot even at the _pedido_ price, and the _commisario_ can not +accept other offers until he has refused the bid. On the other hand, if +a house refuses to give up the samples, it is understood that it is +willing to pay the _pedido_ price. The firm first offering a price +acceptable to the _commisario's_ broker gets the lot, even though other +houses have offered the same price. + +When a lot is sold, the samples are turned over to the successful +bidder, and he then asks the _commisario_ for larger samples for +comparison with the first set. + +[Illustration: STAMPING BAGS FOR EXPORT, SANTOS] + + +_Commisarios Make as High as Nine Percent_ + +Having sold the coffee of a given planter, the _commisario_ often gets +as much as nine percent for his share of the transaction. Unless the +bags have been furnished to the planter at a good rental, the coffee +must be transferred to the _commisario's_ bags; and for this the planter +pays a commission. + +[Illustration: COFFEE FROM THE FAZENDAS IS DELIVERED AT THE +COMMISSARIOS' WAREHOUSES IN RIO] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A SANTOS CLEANING AND GRADING WAREHOUSE] + +[Illustration: PREPARING BRAZIL COFFEE FOR EXPORT] + +[Illustration: GRADING COFFEE AT SANTOS] + +Formerly the coffee, being rebagged by the _ensaccador_, was manipulated +in what is called ligas; that is, mixing several neutral grades from +various lots to create an artificial grade; or, more properly speaking, +a "type," desirable for trading on the New York market. + + +_Grading and Testing in Brazil_ + +Having bought a lot of coffee, the exporter's next step is to grade and +to test it. Grading is generally done in the morning and late afternoon, +the hours from one to half-past four being devoted to making offers. The +afternoon grading is done by sight. The morning examinations are more +thorough, some progressive exporting houses even cup-testing the +samples. Samples are compared with house standards, and with the +requirements that have been cabled from the home office in the consuming +country. Some of the coffee is roasted to obtain a standard by which all +"chops" (varieties) are then graded and marked according to +quality--fine, good, fair, or poor. Quality is further classified by the +numerals from two to eight, which standards have been established on the +New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and are described farther on in this +chapter. Some traders also use the terms large or small bean; fair, +good, or poor roasters; soft or hard bean; light or dark; and similar +descriptive terms. + +When a lot is ready for shipment overseas, the _commisario_ stamps each +bag with his identifying mark, to which the buyer or exporter adds his +brand. If the _commisario_ is ordered before eleven in the morning to +ship a lot of coffee, he must be paid before three in the afternoon of +the same day; if he receives the order after eleven, payment need not be +made before three in the afternoon of the following day. Generally the +terms of sale are full settlement in thirty days, less discount at the +rate of six percent per annum for the unexpired time, if paid before the +period of grace is up. + + +_Dispatching and Capitazias_ + +The exporter collects his money by drawing a draft against his client on +deposit of bill of lading, cashing the draft through an exchange broker +who deducts his brokerage fee. The exporter must obtain a consular +invoice, a shipping permit from both federal and state authorities, and +pay an export tax, before the coffee goes aboard the ship. This process +is known as "dispatching," while the dock company's charges are known as +_capitazias_. + +In practically all coffee-growing sections the small planter is helped +financially by the owners of processing plants or by the exporting +firms. The larger planters may even obtain advances on their crops from +the importing houses in New York, Havre, Hamburg, or other foreign +centers. + +[Illustration: THE TEST BY CUPS, SANTOS] + + +_The Exchange at Santos_ + +A new coffee exchange began business at Santos on May 1, 1917, sitting +with the Coffee Brokers Board of Control. This Board consists of five +coffee brokers, four elected annually at a general meeting of the +brokers of Santos, and one chosen annually by the president of the state +of São Paulo. Among the duties of the Board are the classification and +valuation of coffee, adjustment of differences, etc. + +[Illustration: WHERE COFFEES ARE SIGHT-GRADED BEFORE BEING SUBMITTED TO +CUP TESTS] + +[Illustration: HAND & RAND BUILDING: FIRST FLOOR, STORAGE; SECOND FLOOR, +OFFICES] + +[Illustration: NEW YORK COFFEE IMPORTERS' MODEL ESTABLISHMENT AT SANTOS] + +[Illustration: PACK-MULE TRANSPORT IN VENEZUELA] + + +_Transporting Coffee to Points of Export_ + +Transportation methods from plantation to shipside naturally vary with +local topographical and economic conditions. In Venezuela, the bulk of +the coffee is transported by pack-mule from the plantations and shipping +towns to the head of the railroad system, and thence by rail to the +Catatumbo River, where it is carried in small steamers down the river +and across Lake Maracaibo to the city of Maracaibo. In Colombia, coffee +is sent down the Magdalena River aboard small steamers direct to the +seaboard. In Central America, transportation is one of the most serious +problems facing the grower. The roads are poor, and in the rainy season +are sometimes deep with mud; so much so that it may require a week to +drive a wagon-load of coffee to the railroad or the river shipping +point. + +[Illustration: COFFEE-CARRYING CART, GUATEMALA] + + +_Buying Coffee in Abyssinia_ + +Coffee is generally grown in Abyssinia by small farmers, who mostly +finance themselves and sell the crop to native brokers, who in turn sell +it to representatives of foreign houses in the larger trading centers. +Trading methods between farmer and broker are not much more than the old +system of barter. In the southwestern section, where the Abyssinian +coffee grows wild, transport to the nearest trading center is by mule +train, and not infrequently by camel back. In the Harar district, the +women of the farmers living near Harar the market center, carry the +coffee in long shallow baskets on their heads to the native brokers. In +the more remote places the coffee farmer waits for the broker to call on +him. From the town of Harar the coffee is transported by mule or camel +train to Dire-Daoua, whence it is shipped by rail to Jibuti, to be sent +by direct steamers to Europe, or across the Gulf of Aden to Aden in +Arabia. + +[Illustration: COFFEE-LADEN OXEN FORDING STREAM, COLOMBIA] + +Ten different languages are spoken in Harar. In order successfully to +engage in the coffee business there, it is necessary either to become +proficient in all these tongues, or to engage some one who is. + +[Illustration: TRANSPORTING COFFEE BY MULEBACK IN THE CITY OF CUCUTA, +COLOMBIA] + +[Illustration: Schooner from Encontrados to Maracaibo] + +[Illustration: One of the lake and river steamers] + +[Illustration: COFFEE CARGO CARRIERS THAT OPERATE ON LAKE MARACAIBO AND +TRIBUTARY RIVERS] + +[Illustration: DONKEY TRANSPORT TRAIN FOR COFFEE IN MEXICO] + +[Illustration: COFFEE TRANSPORT IN MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA] + +When the coffee is brought, partially cleaned, into Harar by donkey or +mule train, it is first taken to the open air custom-house (coffee +exchange) in the center of the town, where a ten-percent duty (in +coffee) is exacted by the local government, and one Abyssinian dollar +(fifty cents) is added for every thirty-seven and a half pounds, this +latter being Ras Makonnen's share. As soon as the native dealer has +released to him what remains of his shipment, he takes it out of the +custom-house enclosure and disposes of it through the native brokers, +who have their little "office" booths stretching in a long line up the +street just outside the custom-house entrance. + +[Illustration: DONKEY COFFEE TRANSPORT ON THE WAY FROM HARAR TO +DIRE-DAOUA] + +There, a brokerage charge of one piaster per bag is paid by the buyer, +and the coffee then becomes the property of the European merchant. In +some cases it is put through a further cleaning process; but usually it +is shipped to Jibuti or Aden uncleaned. Arriving at Jibuti, there is a +one-percent ad valorem duty to pay. At Aden, there is another tax of one +anna (two cents) to be paid to the British authorities. + +[Illustration: COFFEE CAMELS IN THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, HARAR] + +Since 1914, however, Abyssinian coffee has been exported largely through +the Sudan, a much shorter and less expensive trip than that to Adis +Abeba and Jibuti. Now the coffee is carried by pack-train to Gambela on +the Sobat River; and thence by river steamer to Khartoum, where it is +loaded on railroad trains and sent to Port Sudan on the Red Sea. + + +_Buying Coffee in Arabia_ + +Most of the coffee in Arabia is grown in almost inaccessible mountain +valleys by native Arabs, and is transported by camel caravan to Aden or +Hodeida, where it is sold to agents of foreign importing houses. Mocha, +once the principal exporting city for coffee, was abandoned as a coffee +port early in the nineteenth century, chiefly because of the difficulty +of keeping the roadstead of the harbor free from sandbars. + +[Illustration: SELLING COFFEE AT ADEN BY TAPPING HANDS UNDER COVER] + +In Aden there is a kind of open-air coffee "exchange" (as in Harar) +where the camel trains unload their coffee from the interior. The +European coffee merchant does not frequent it, but is represented by +native brokers, through whom all coffee business is transacted. This +native broker is an important person, and one of the most picturesque +characters in Aden. He receives a commission of one and a half percent +from both buyer and seller. Certain grades of coffee are purchasable +only in Maria Theresa dollars; so a knowledge of exchange values is +essential to the broker's calling. + +[Illustration: PACKING AND TRANSPORTING COFFEE AT ADEN] + +In making coffee sales, the negotiations between buyer and seller are +carried on by means of finger taps under a handkerchief. The would-be +purchaser reaches out his hand to the seller under cover of the cloth +and makes his bid in the palm of the seller's hand by tapping his +fingers. The code is well understood by both. Its advantage lies in the +fact that a possible purchaser is enabled to make his bid in the +presence of other buyers without the latter knowing what he is offering. + + +_Buying Coffee in Netherlands India_ + +In the Dutch East Indies cultivation of _Coffea arabica_ has diminished, +the decay of the industry beginning when Brazil and Central America +became the dominant factors in the green market. Not so many years ago +coffee growing and coffee trading were virtually government monopolies. +Under government control each native family was required to keep from +six hundred to a thousand coffee trees in bearing, and to sell +two-fifths of the crop to the government. It was also compulsory to +deliver the coffee cleaned and sorted to the official godowns, and to +sell the crop at fixed prices--nine to twelve florins per picul previous +to 1874, although forty to fifty florins were offered in the open +market. Later, the price was advanced; until about 1900 the government +paid fifteen florins per picul for coffee in parchment. All government +coffee was sold at public auction in Batavia and Padang, these sales +being held four times a year in Batavia and three times a year in +Padang. + +Coffee from private estates, not under government control and operated +by European corporations or individuals, has now succeeded the +government monopoly coffee. Private-estate crops are sold by public +tender, usually on or about January 28 of each year. If the owners do +not get the price they desire in Batavia or Padang, the coffee is sent +to Amsterdam for disposal. Some coffees always are sent to Holland; +because the directors of the company get a commission on all sales +there, and also because the coffees are prepared especially for the +Dutch market. The Hollander wants his coffee blue-green in color. + +[Illustration: COFFEE CAMEL TRAIN ARRIVING AT THE HODEIDA CUSTOM-HOUSE +FROM THE INTERIOR OF YEMEN] + +[Illustration: LOADING BY THE OLD-STYLE HAND-LABOR METHOD] + +[Illustration: HERE THE AUTOMATIC BELT POURS INTO THE HOLD A CONTINUOUS +STREAM OF BAGS OF COFFEE] + +[Illustration: OLD AND NEW METHODS OF LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS] + + +_Loading Coffee at Santos_ + +In Brazil, when the coffee has been rebagged and marked by both the +_commisario_ and the exporter, the coffee is again sampled. These +samples are compared with those by which the purchase was made; and if +right, the bags are turned over to the dock-master, who sets his +laborers to work loading ship. Two methods are used at Santos. The old +familiar style of hand labor is still in evidence--men of all +nationalities, but largely Spaniards and Portuguese, take the bags on +their heads and carry them in single file up the gangplanks and into the +hold of the ship. The dock company, however, operates a huge automatic +loading machine, or belt, which saves a great deal of time and labor. In +other Brazilian ports all loading is done by manual labor. + +[Illustration: A COFFEE FREIGHTER ON THE CAUCA RIVER, COLOMBIA] + +Recently, at the suggestion of the Commercial Association of Santos, the +minister of transport of São Paulo ordered that coffees destined for +legitimate traders should be transported during four days of the week, +and those of a speculative nature during the remaining two days. A +premium of as much as five milreis a bag has been paid by speculators in +order to obtain immediate transport. + + +_Shipping Coffee from Colombia_ + +As Colombia ranks next to Brazil in coffee, a brief description of its +transportation methods, which are unique, should be of interest to +coffee shippers. A goodly portion of Colombia's coffee exports comes +from the district around the little city of Cucuta, whose official name +is San José de Cucuta. It is the capital of North Santander, is situated +in a beautiful valley of the Colombian Andes mountains that is watered +by several rivers, and is only about a half-hour's ride by motor from +the Venezuelan frontier. + +Due to its geographical position, Cucuta serves as the most convenient +inland port and commercial center for most of the department of North +Santander. For the same reason, it is forced to depend on Maracaibo as +its seaport, even though the Venezuelan government has a number of +annoying laws controlling the commerce thus conducted. The Colombian +ports of Baranquilla and Cartagena on the Atlantic are too distant from +Cucuta to be available; and a large part of the traffic would have to be +done on mule-back across one of the most formidable ranges of the +Colombian Andes, involving high cost and delay in transportation. Yet +its frontier position makes it possible for Cucuta to have important +commercial relations with the neighboring republic of Venezuela, and to +enjoy exceptional privileges from the Colombian central government. + +[Illustration: COFFEE STEAMERS ON THE MAGDALENA, COLOMBIA] + +A cargo of coffee leaving Cucuta has to go through the following steps +on its way to a foreign market: + +1. From Cucuta, it travels thirty-five miles by railroad to Puerto +Villamizar, a Colombian river port on the Zulia river. + +2. At Puerto Villamizar it is loaded into small, flat-bottomed, steel +lighters that are taken to Puerto Encontrados by man power. Puerto +Encontrados, belonging to Venezuela, is on the Catatumbo river; and the +trip from Villamizar takes from two to four days, depending on the depth +of water in the river. During high water, river steamers are also used, +and make the trip in less than a day. + +3. At Encontrados the cargo is loaded on river steamboats more or less +of the Mississippi river type, which take it to Maracaibo, Venezuela. +Coffee is also carried to Maracaibo by small sailing vessels. + +4. At Maracaibo it is taken by ocean vessel, which either carries it +direct to New York or to Curaçao, Dutch West Indies, where it is +transhipped to steamers plying between New York and Curaçao. It is +obvious that the many transhipments that coffee coming from Cucuta has +to undergo greatly retard its arrival at a foreign port; and a cargo +sometimes takes a month or more to reach New York. + +[Illustration: OLD AND NEW METHODS EMPLOYED IN LOADING HEAVY CARGO ON +THE SANTA CECILIA] + +Coffee from Cucuta is stored in the Venezuelan custom-house, from which +it must be shipped for export within forty-five days, or the shipper +runs the risk of having it declared by the Venezuelan government for +_consumo_ (home consumption) at a prohibitory tariff. Arrangements can +be made at considerable cost to have the coffee taken to a private +warehouse; but it is no longer possible to make up the chops in +Maracaibo, as was done formerly with all the Cucutas. The Venezuelan +customs will not even allow the Maracaibo forwarding agent the same +chops, as a general rule. Special permission must be obtained to change +any bags that are stained or damaged. Schooners from Curaçao have, in +the past, carried a great deal of the Colombian coffee to Curaçao. + + +_Port Handling Charges in Brazil_ + +It is almost impossible to list all the various charges for the handling +of coffee at the port of shipment in Brazil, the figures not being +accessible to outsiders. Some figures, such as warehouse charges and +various forms of tax, are obtainable, however. For every bag of coffee +which is in warehouse over forty-eight hours from the time of its +arrival from the railroad there is a charge of two hundred reis (about +five cents). In São Paulo there is an export tax of nine percent ad +valorem levied by the state, and in Rio the state tax is eight and a +half percent. Then there is a surtax of five francs per bag in Santos, +and of three francs in Rio, which goes toward defraying the expenses of +valorization. For every bag of coffee that passes over the dock the dock +company charges one hundred reis (about two and a half cents). + + +_Some Record Coffee Cargoes_ + +With its superior loading and shipping facilities Brazil has been able +to send extraordinarily large cargoes of coffee to the United States +since the development of large modern freight-carrying steamships. While +75,000 or 90,000 bag cargoes were of common occurrence just prior to the +outbreak of the World War, several shipments of more than 100,000 bags +were made in the years 1915, 1916, and 1917. Up to January, 1919, the +record was held by the steamship Bjornstjerne Bjornson which unloaded +136,424 bags at New York on November 17, 1915. Other shipments of more +than 100,000 bags were by the Rossetti (December, 1900), 125,918 bags; +the Wascana (March 3, 1915), 108,781 bags; the Wagama (October, 1916), +105,650 bags; the American (October 23, 1916), 124,212 bags; the Santa +Cecilia (November 2, 1916), 105,500 bags, and the Dakotan (January 6, +1917), which carried 136,387 bags. + + +_Transport Overseas_ + +To bring green coffee to the consuming markets, both steamships and +sailing vessels are used, although the latter have almost wholly given +way to the speedier and more capacious modern steamers. Because of its +large consumption, a constant stream of vessels is always on the way to +the markets of the United States. The majority of these unload at New +York, which in 1920 received about fifty-nine percent of all the coffee +imported into this country. New Orleans came next, with about +twenty-five percent; and San Francisco third, with about twelve percent. + +The approximate time consumed in transporting green coffee overseas from +the principal producing countries to the United States by freight +steamships is shown in the table in the next column. + +In some cases, that of Guadeloupe, for instance, the vessels stop at a +number of ports, and this lengthens the time. This is also true of +vessels running on the west coast of Central America and of those from +Aden. + +During the World War, one shipment of Timor coffee consumed three and a +half years coming from Java to New York. It was aboard the German +steamship Brisbane, which cleared from Batavia, July 4, 1914, and +fearing capture, took refuge in Goa, Portuguese India, where it lay +until Portugal joined the Allies. Then the Portuguese seized the vessel, +and turned it over to the British, who moved it to Bombay. Here the +cargo was finally transhipped to the City of Adelaide, reaching New York +in January, 1918, three and a half years after the coffee left Batavia. + + +TRANSPORTATION TIME FOR COFFEE[J] + +Rio de Janeiro to New York 11 to 16 days +Santos " " " 14 to 18 " +Bahia " " " 17 " +Victoria " " " 19 " +Maracaibo " " " 10 " +Puerto Cabello " " " 10 " +La Guaira " " " 8 " +Costa Rica " " " 10 " +Salvador " " " 18 " +Mexico " " " 9 " +Guatemala " " " 11 " +(Puerto +Barrios) +Colombia " " " 10 " +Haiti " " " 7 " +Porto Rico " " " 5 " +Guadeloupe " " " 10 " +Hawaii " " " 28 " +(via P.C.) +Java " " " 30 " +(via Suez) +Sumatra " " " 30 " +(via Suez) +Singapore " " " 35 " +(via Suez) +India " " " 35 " +(via Suez) +Aden " " " 45 " +(via Suez) +Porto Rico " New Orleans 7 " +Guadeloupe " " " 10 " +Haiti " " " 7 " +Guatemala " " " 8 " +Costa Rica " " " 7 " +Colombia " " " 6 " +Mexico " " " 4 " +Salvador " " " 15 " +Guatemala " San Francisco 10 " +Costa Rica " " " 18 " +Salvador " " " 14 " +Mexico " " " 8 " +Hawaii " " " 8 " +Singapore " " " 30 " +India " " " 33 " + +[J] The American Legion and the Southern Cross, of the Munson Line, make +the journey from Rio de Janeiro to New York in eleven days. These are +freight-and-passenger vessels, and have carried as many as 5,000 bags of +coffee at one time. + + +_Java Coffee "Ex-Sailing Ships"_ + +Up to 1915 it was the custom to ship considerable Java coffee to New +York in slow-going sailing vessels of the type in favor a hundred years +ago. Java coffees "ex-sailing ships" always commanded a premium because +of the natural sweating they experienced in transit. Attempts to imitate +this natural sweating process by steam-heating the coffees that reached +New York by the faster-going steamship lines, and interference therewith +by the pure-food authorities, caused a falling off in the demand for +"light," "brown," or "extra brown" Dutch East Indian growths; and +gradually the picturesque sailing vessels were seen no more in New York +harbor. At the end they were mostly Norwegian barks of the type of the +Gaa Paa. + +It usually took from four to five months to make the trip from Padang or +Batavia to New York. Crossing the Equator twice, first in the Indian +Ocean, then in the South Atlantic, the trip was more than equal to +circumnavigating the earth in our latitude. In the hold of the vessel +the cargo underwent a sweating that gave to the coffee a rare shade of +color and that, in the opinion of coffee experts, greatly enhanced its +flavor and body. The captain always received a handsome gratuity if the +coffee turned "extra brown." + +[Illustration: UNLOADING JAVA COFFEE FROM A SAILING VESSEL AT A BROOKLYN +DOCK + +The ship is the Gaa Paa, which made the voyage from Padang in five +months in 1912] + +The demand for sweated, or brown, Javas probably had its origin in the +good old days when the American housewife bought her coffee green and +roasted it herself in a skillet over a quick fire. Coffee slightly brown +was looked upon with favor; for every good housewife in those days knew +that green coffee changed its color in aging, and that of course aged +coffee was best. + +And so it came about that Java coffees were preferably shipped in +slow-going Dutch sailing vessels, because it was desirable to have a +long voyage under the hot tropical sun suitably to sweat the coffee on +its way to market and to have it a handsome brown on arrival. The +sweating frequently produced a musty flavor which, if not too +pronounced, was highly prized by experts. When the ship left Padang or +Batavia the hatches were battened down, not to be opened again until New +York harbor was reached. + +Many of the old-style Dutch sailing vessels were built somewhat after +the pattern of the Goed Vrouw, which Irving tells us was a hundred feet +long, a hundred feet wide, and a hundred feet high. Sometimes she sailed +forward, sometimes backward, and sometimes sideways. After dark, the +lights were put out, all sail was taken in, and all hands turned in for +the night. + +The last of the coffee-carrying sailing vessels to reach the United +States was the bark Padang, which arrived in New York on Christmas day, +1914. + +[Illustration: THE BUSH TERMINAL SYSTEM OF DOCKS AND WAREHOUSES + +Much of the green coffee received in New York is discharged and stored +here, at one of the most modern waterfront and terminal developments in +the world] + +[Illustration: AIRPLANE VIEW OF NEW YORK DOCK COMPANY'S PIERS AND +WAREHOUSES + +This is the Fulton Street section of the Brooklyn waterfront, where more +than half the coffee received in New York is unloaded. The storage +warehouses are to be seen back of the piers] + +[Illustration: RECEIVING PIERS FOR COFFEE AT NEW YORK] + + +_Handling Coffee at New York_ + +The handling of the cargoes of coffee when they arrive at their +destination is a source of wonder to the layman. There is probably no +better place to study the handling of coffee than in New York City--the +world's largest coffee center. Millions of bags of coffee pass into +consumption every year through its docks, and scarcely a day goes by +when there are not one or more ships discharging coffee upon the docks +lining the Brooklyn shore, the center of the coffee-warehouse district +for New York. In 1921, the New York Dock Company alone had 159 bonded +warehouses with a storage capacity of some 65,000,000 cubic feet; and 34 +piers, the longest measuring 1,193 feet and containing more than 175,000 +square feet. These piers have a total deck space of sixty-one and a half +acres. The wharfage distance is more than nine and a third miles. More +than twenty steamship lines berth their vessels there regularly, and +many of them are coffee ships. The warehouses have direct connections +with all the principal railway trunk lines running into the New York +district; and the whole property of the company stretches along the +waterfront opposite lower Manhattan for about two and one-half miles. + +Although coffee is admitted to the United States free of duty, it is +subject to practically the same formalities as dutiable goods. Before +the cargo can be "broken out," a government permit to "land and deliver" +must be placed in the hands of the customs inspector on the dock. This +done, the ship's samples, which consist of the samples sent by the +exporter to the importer, are taken to the United States appraiser's +office for inspection, and are then delivered to the importer's +representative. Meanwhile the shipping documents covering the cargo, +including bills of lading and consular invoices, have been sent to the +post office for delivery to banks and bankers' agents, who check and +deliver them to the customs officers for entry. The government requires +that this entry shall be made within forty-eight hours of the vessel's +arrival, else the cargo will be stored in a United States bonded +warehouse under what is known as "general order" which makes the +consignee liable for storage and cartage charges. + +[Illustration: UNLOADING COFFEE AT ONE OF THE COVERED PIERS OF THE NEW +YORK DOCK COMPANY] + +When a coffee ship arrives in New York, not much time is lost in +discharging the cargo. As soon as the vessel is securely moored to the +pier, and the government's permission to "land and deliver" is secured, +the hatches are removed, the coffee is hauled out of the hold by block +and tackle and swung off in slings to the pier, where dock laborers +carry the bags to their proper places. If each cargo consisted of one +consignment to a single importer, and contained only one variety of +coffee, unloading would be a comparatively simple affair. In general +practise, however, the cargoes consist of a large number of consignments +and a variety of grades, necessitating a careful sorting as unloading +progresses. Accordingly, even before the unloading begins, the dock is +chalked off into squares, each square having a number, or symbol, +representing a particular consignment. As the bags come up out of the +hold, the foreman of the laborers, who has a key to the brand marks on +the bags, indicates where each bag is to be placed. Coffee to be +reshipped, either by lighter or rail, is heaped in piles by itself until +loaded on to the lighters or freight cars. + +[Illustration: STORING COFFEE BY MARKS AND CHOPS] + +[Illustration: HOISTING COFFEE INTO THE STORAGE WAREHOUSES ADJOINING THE +BROOKLYN PIERS] + +[Illustration: RECEIVING AND STORING COFFEE AT NEW YORK] + +The next step is to transfer the cargo to the warehouse, and to +separate each consignment according to the various kinds of coffee +making up the invoices. When the importer gives his orders to store, he +sends also a list of the different kinds of coffees in his consignment, +called "chops" by the trade, with directions how to divide the shipment. +To do this, the floor of the warehouse is chalked off into squares, as +was done on the dock; but now the numbers, or symbols, in each space +indicate the chops in each invoice, or consignment. + +[Illustration: TESTER AT WORK, BUSH TERMINAL, NEW YORK] + +[Illustration: LOADING LIGHTERS, BUSH DOCKS, NEW YORK] + +The importer naturally is eager to sample the newly arrived coffee. +Sampling is generally done by trained warehouse employees, who are +equipped with coffee triers, sampling instruments resembling +apple-corers, which they thrust into the bags. The instrument is hollow, +and the coffee flows into the hand of the sampler, who places each +sample in a paper bag which is marked to indicate the chop. The total +sample of each chop usually consists of about ten pounds of coffee, +which the importer compares with the exporter's sample. + +When sampling for trade delivery, about two-thirds of the bags in a chop +are tried. But when sampling for delivery on Coffee Exchange contract, +every bag must be tested, and care taken that each chop is uniform in +color, kind, and quality. Coffee for Exchange delivery must be stored in +a warehouse licensed by the Exchange; and the warehouseman is +responsible for the uniformity of grade of each chop. + +When approximately ninety percent of the cargo has been unloaded and +stored, the warehouse issues what has become known as the "last bag +notice." In the majority of cases the coffee has been sold before +arrival; and on receipt of the last bag notice, the importer can +transfer ownership of the coffee and save interest. + +In a cargo of 75,000 to 100,000 bags of coffee that have been hurriedly +loaded in the producing country and unloaded at destination in equal +haste, a small portion of the cargo is almost certain to be damaged. +Generally the damage is slight. If a bag is torn or stained, the coffee +is placed in a new bag. If the contents have become mildewed, the +damaged portion is taken to a warehouse for reconditioning; while the +sound coffee is thoroughly aired to remove the odor and is then placed +in a clean bag. The reconditioned lot is put into a separate package and +forwarded to the buyer with a "reconditioning statement" that shows what +has been done. + +[Illustration: THE NEW TERMINAL SYSTEM ON STATEN ISLAND + +On the left are three piers of the Pouch Terminal at Clifton; on the +right, four of the American Dock Terminal at Tompkinsville; and between +these are thirteen piers of the new Municipal Terminal] + +Bags that have become torn in transit, and parts of their contents +spilled, are called "slacks." These are weighed as they arrive on the +dock by a licensed public weigher; and a sufficient quantity of the +coffee remaining on the floor of the ship's hold is put into the bag to +make it of the proper weight. The expense of reconditioning and +rebagging is generally borne by the marine insurance companies. When the +entire cargo is unloaded, and the slacks and bad-order bags are weighed +and marked, the warehouseman tallies up the records of his clerks, and +renders a corrected chop list to the consignee. + +[Illustration: MOTOR TRACTOR MOVING COFFEE AT THE BUSH TERMINAL DOCKS, +BROOKLYN] + + +_Electric Tractors and Trailers_ + +Another district along the water front of Brooklyn where coffee is +discharged in large quantities is that between Thirty-third and +Forty-fourth Streets, south Brooklyn, occupied by the Bush Terminal +Stores. This plant is laid out with railroad spurs on every pier, so +that its own transfer cars, or the cars of the railroads running out of +New York, can be run into the sheds of the docks where coffee is being +discharged from the ships. The methods employed by the Bush Terminal are +similar to those just described, except that all the coffee is handled +by electrically-manipulated cars or trucks, in some instances the +powerful little tractors hauling many "trailers" to various parts of the +yards. + + +_Handling Charges at New York_ + +Before the World War, it cost approximately one-half cent a bag to +handle green coffee from the vessel to warehouse and in storage in New +York. The rate advanced nearly one hundred percent in the latter part of +1919, then dropped slightly, although it is still (1922) above the +pre-war price. Other handling charges are shown in the following +tabulation: + +COFFEE HANDLING CHARGES AT NEW YORK + + Pre-war prices Present prices + Cents per bag Cents per bag + (132 lbs.) (132 lbs.) +Storage 3 to 4 5 to 8 +Labor 3 to 4 5 to 8 +Sampling for damage 1 1 +Cleaning 35 20 +Dumping and mixing 10 15 +Dumping and airing 10 15 +Shoveling and airing 10 15 +Transferring coffee + from floor to floor 4 8 +Marking 1 1 +Labor at vessel $9 per M $12.50 to $15 per M + +The warehousemen in 1919 charged four cents per bag for loading into +railroad cars. This charge was discontinued in 1921. The cost of +weighing increased from two and one-half cents per bag in 1914 to four +and one-half cents in 1919, and then dropped to the present price of +three to three and one-half cents. Other handling charges at the port of +New York are: + +OTHER HANDLING CHARGES, 1922 + Cents per bag + (132 lbs.) +Drawing samples, each 10 lbs 17 to 20 +Grading for variation 4 +Matching in 12 +Reducing or evening off slack 9 +Transferring to new bag 10 +Trucking to weigher in store 3 +Collecting and preparing + sweepings 25 +Delivering sample below Canal + Street 75 +Each additional sample 10 to 15 +New bags 15 +Old bags 6 + +[Illustration: UNLOADING COFFEE WITH MODERN CONVEYOR, NEW ORLEANS] + +A plan intended to cut down handling costs in New York, and to expedite +deliveries, was inaugurated by the National Coffee Roasters Association +at the beginning of 1920. The Association formed a freight-forwarding +bureau, and invited members to have their coffee shipments handled +through the bureau. The charges for forwarding direct importations are +two cents per bag. Cartage charges vary from six to eighteen cents per +hundred pounds. Claims are handled without charge. + + +_The Seven Stages of Transportation_ + +The foregoing story has taken the reader through the seven most direct +routes that lead from the plantation to the roaster: first, from the +patio to the railroad or river; then to the city of export; into the +warehouses there; then into the steamers; out of them, and upon the +wharf at the port of destination; from the wharf into the warehouses; +and, finally, from the warehouses to the roasting rooms. It will be +understood that in some instances where the plantation is hidden away in +the mountains, it is necessary to relay the coffee; and again, at this +end, the coffee is very often transhipped. In such cases, more handlings +are required. + +[Illustration: UNLOADING A COFFEE SHIP BY BLOCK AND TACKLE AT THE PORT +OF NEW ORLEANS] + +[Illustration: IN FOREGROUND--LOADING COFFEE BY MEANS OF AN AUTOMATIC +TRAVELING-BELT CONVEYOR, ON GOVERNMENT BARGES FOR ST. LOUIS] + +[Illustration: COFFEE-HANDLING SCENES ON THE WHARVES AT NEW ORLEANS] + + +_Handling Coffee at New Orleans_ + +Coffee ships are unloaded in New Orleans, the second coffee port in the +United States, in about the same general manner as in New York, with the +important exception that the block-and-tackle system for transferring +the bags from the ship to the dock has been largely supplanted by the +automatic traveling-belt conveyor system. Another notable feature is New +Orleans' steel-roofed piers, whereon the coffee can be stored until +ready for shipment to the interior. Because of the class of +labor--mostly negro--employed in unloading ships, New Orleans has found +it expedient to retain the old flag system to indicate the part of the +pier where each mark of coffee is to be piled as taken from the vessel. +These little flags vary in shape, color and printed pattern, each +representing a particular lot of coffee, and they are firmly fixed at +the part of the pier where those bags should be stacked. Trained +checkers read the marks on the bags as the laborers carry them past, and +tell the carrier where the bag should be placed. To the illiterate +laborers the checker's cries of "blue check," "green ball," "red heart," +"black hand," and the like, are more understandable than such +indications as letters or numbers. + +[Illustration: SHOWING HOW COFFEE IS STORED UNDER STEEL-COVERED SHEDS AT +NEW ORLEANS] + + +_Handling Coffee at San Francisco_ + +San Francisco ranks third in the list of United States coffee ports, +having received its greatest development in the four years of the World +War, when the flow of Central American coffees was largely diverted from +Hamburg to the Californian port. In the course of these four years, the +annual volume of coffee imports increased from some 380,000 bags to more +than 1,000,000 bags in 1918. The bulk of these importations came from +Central America, though some came from Hawaii, India, and Brazil and +other South American countries. Because of its improved unloading and +distributing facilities, San Francisco claims to be able to handle a +cargo of coffee more rapidly than either New York or New Orleans. + +Handling Central American coffees in San Francisco is distinctly +different from the business in Brazil. In order to secure the Central +American planter's crops, the importers find it necessary to finance his +operations to a large extent. Consequently, the Central American trade +is not a simple matter of buying and selling, but an intricate financial +operation on the part of the San Francisco importers. Practically all +the coffee coming in is either on consignment, or is already sold to +established coffee-importing houses. Brokers do not deal direct with the +exporters; and practically none of the roasters now import direct. + +[Illustration: DISCHARGING COFFEE FROM A STEAMER JUST ARRIVED FROM +CENTRAL AMERICA] + +[Illustration: HOW A LARGE CARGO OF COFFEE IS HANDLED ON THE PIER AS IT +IS UNLOADED FROM THE SHIP] + + +[Illustration: UNLOADING AND STORING COFFEE AT SAN FRANCISCO] + +In recent years San Francisco has adopted the practise of buying a +large part of her coffee on the "to arrive" basis; that is the purchase +has been made before the coffee is shipped from the producing country, +or while in transit. This practise applies, of course, only to well +known marks and standard grades. Coffee that has not been sold before +arrival in San Francisco is generally sampled on the docks during +unloading, although this is sometimes postponed until the consignment is +in the warehouse. It is then graded and priced, and is offered for sale +by samples through brokers. + +San Francisco is better equipped with modern unloading machinery and +other apparatus than either New Orleans or New York, even more liberal +use being made there than in New Orleans of the automatic-belt conveyors +both for transferring the bags from the ships to the docks and for +stacking them in high tiers on the pier. Another notable feature of the +modern coffee docks is that the newer ones are of steel and concrete +and, as in New Orleans, are covered to protect the coffee from wind and +storm. + + +_Europe's Great Coffee Markets_ + +Europe has three great coffee-trading markets--Havre, Hamburg, and +Antwerp. Rotterdam and Amsterdam are also important coffee centers, but +rank far below the others named. In point of volume of stocks, Havre led +the world before the war; while in respect to commercial transactions, +it ranked second, with New York first. In pre-war days, the largest part +of the world's visible supply of coffee was stored in the Havre bonded +warehouses, being available for shipment to any part of Europe on short +notice, or even to the United States in emergencies. Even during the +World War, this French port remained a powerful factor in international +coffee trading. Coffee trading in Havre, both exchange and "spot" +transactions, follows about the same general lines as in New York and +the other great coffee markets. Coffee "futures" are dealt in on the +Havre Bourse. + +Green coffee is sold in London by auction in Mincing Lane. On arrival, +it is stored in bonded warehouses, and is released for domestic use only +when customs duty at the rate of four and one-half pence per pound has +been paid. The bulk of the coffee comes in parchment on consignment; and +before sale, it must be hulled and sorted in the milling establishments, +most of which are on the banks of the Thames. + +[Illustration: ONE OF THE MODERN DEVICES USED IN SAN FRANCISCO FOR +HANDLING GREEN COFFEE] + +The auctions are held four times a week, usually on Tuesday, Wednesday, +Thursday, and Friday. The sales are advertised in the market +papers--chief among which is the _Public Ledger_--and also by the +auctioneers, who issue catalogs of their offerings. A few hours before +the beginning of the sale, samples are laid out for inspection by +prospective buyers, who may cup-test them if they desire. The actual +selling is done by competitive cash bidding, the highest bidder becoming +the owner. Two classes of brokers do the bidding, one for home trade and +the other for exporters. + +Home trade takes about a tenth of the coffee, the remainder being sold +for export. If the coffee is bought for re-export, it can be transferred +to the shipping port, still in bond, and shipped out of the country +without paying duty. During the World War, auctions were held about +twice a week; but after the signing of the armistice in November 1918, +the London traders resumed the four times a week practise. + +[Illustration: COFFEE AUCTION SAMPLES ON DISPLAY AT AMSTERDAM] + +[Illustration: GREEN COFFEE STORED ON THE DOCKS AT HAVRE, FRANCE] + +[Illustration: HANDLING GREEN COFFEE AT TWO EUROPEAN PORTS] + + +_Coffee Exchanges and Trading Methods_ + +Green-coffee buyers in the large importing centers of the United States +and Europe recognize two distinct markets in their operations. One of +these is called the "spot" market; because the importers, brokers, +jobbers, and roasters trading there deal in actual coffee in warehouses +in the consuming country. In New York the spot market is located in the +district of lower Wall Street, which includes a block or two each side +on Front and Water Streets. Here, coffee importers, coffee roasters, +coffee dealers, and coffee brokers conduct their "street" sales. + +The other market is designated as the "futures" market; and the trading +is not concerned with actual coffee, but with the purchase or sale of +contracts for future delivery of coffee that may still be on the trees +in the producing country. Futures, or "options" as they are frequently +called, are dealt in only on a coffee exchange. The principal exchanges +are in New York, Havre, and Hamburg. New Orleans and San Francisco +exchange dealers trade on their local boards of trade. + +Coffee-exchange contracts are dealt in just like stocks and bonds. They +are settled by the payment of the difference, or "margin"; and the +option of delivering actual coffee is seldom exercised. Generally, the +operations are either in the nature of ordinary speculation on margin or +for the legitimate purpose of effecting "hedges" against holdings or +short sales of actual coffees. + +The New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange--the most important in the world, +because of the volume of its business--deals in all coffees from North, +South, and Central America, the West Indies and the East Indies (except +those of the Robusta variety) and uses Type No. 7 as the basis for all +Exchange quotations. All other types are judged in relation to it. In +determining the number of a type, the coffee is graded by the number of +imperfections contained in it. + +[Illustration: NEW YORK COFFEE AND SUGAR EXCHANGE + +The building fronts on Hanover Square and extends through to Beaver +Street. The exchange rooms are indicated by the arched windows on the +second floor. The rest of the building is devoted to offices. The +exchange was founded in 1881, and was the first national coffee trading +organization in the world.] + +These imperfections are black beans, broken beans, shells, immature +beans ("quakers"), stones, and pods. For counting the imperfections, the +black bean has been taken as the basis unit, and all imperfections, no +matter what they may be, are calculated in terms of black beans, +according to a scale, which is practically as follows: + +BLACK-BEAN SCALE + +3 shells equal 1 black bean +5 "quakers" equal 1 " " +5 broken beans equal 1 " " +1 pod equals 1 " " +1 medium size stone equals 1 " " +2 small stones equal 1 " " +1 large stone equals 2 to 3 " " + +[Illustration: THE COFFEE PIT IN THE NEW YORK COFFEE AND SUGAR EXCHANGE] + +By this scale a coffee containing no imperfections would be classified +as Type No. 1. The test is made on one-pound samples. If a sample shows +six black beans, or equivalent imperfections, it is graded as No. 2; if +thirteen black beans, as No. 3; if twenty-nine black beans, as No. 4; if +sixty black beans, as No. 5; if one hundred and ten black beans, as No. +6, and if more than one hundred and ten black beans, as No. 7 or No. 8. +These two are graded by comparison with recognized exchange types. +Coffees grading lower than No. 8 are not admissible to this country. + +The quotation relationship of other types with the basic Rio No. 7 is +shown in the table below. + +By this scale one can determine that when Rio No. 7 is quoted at 17.10, +Rio No. 2 is 18.60, Santos No. 3, 19.10, and Bogota No. 5, 18.10. The +quotations are on the pound and cents basis. + +SCALE OF QUOTATION RELATIONSHIP + +BRAZILIAN COFFEE-- SANTOS COFFEE OTHER KINDS--NOT + NOT SANTOS BRAZILIAN +Type Type Type +No. 1--180 points above No. 1--260 points above No. 1--300 points above +No. 2--150 points above No. 2--230 points above No. 2--250 points above +No. 3--120 points above No. 3--200 points above No. 3--200 points above +No. 4---90 points above No. 4--150 points above No. 4--150 points above +No. 5---60 points above No. 5--100 points above No. 5--100 points above +No. 6---30 points above No. 6-- 50 points above No. 6--50 points above +No. 7---Basis No. 7--Basis No. 7--Basis +No. 8---50 points below No. 8--50 points below No. 8--50 points below + + A point is the hundredth part of a cent + +In the spot market, a trader may also buy or sell coffee "to arrive"; +that is, a consignment that is aboard ship on the way to the market. +Coffee is shipped to New York either on a consignment basis and sold +for a commission, or it may have been bought in the shipping port and be +already the property of an importer. When shipped on consignment, a +wholesaler usually buys on the in-store contract, which provides that +the purchaser must take delivery at the warehouse, though he is +generally given a month's storage privilege before removal of the +coffee. The practise among New York importers at present is to buy +coffee on either the basis of F.O.B. delivery steamer at loading port, +or delivery C. & F. (cost and freight), or C.I.F. (cost, insurance, and +freight), port of destination. Payment is made by letter of credit drawn +on a New York or London bank, entitling the exporter to draw at ninety +days' sight against the shipping documents, so that the shipment will be +in the hands of the purchaser long before the draft is made. Frequently +a jobber acts as his own importer of Brazil coffee, buying direct from +the exporter without utilizing the agency of a broker or a regular +importing firm. + +Brazil coffee is bought with the stipulation that differences between +samples and the coffee actually delivered may be adjusted either on +"Brazil grading," "half difference," or "full difference"; and with the +further provision that, if the delivery is a full type higher or lower +than specified in the contract, the entire shipment may be rejected. +Under the "Brazil grading" provision, the buyer must accept delivery if +the coffee is better than the next lower type, even though not up to the +type ordered; and if the coffee is of a higher type than contracted for, +he need not pay premium for it. In buying on the "half difference" or +"full difference" basis, the buyer is entitled to payment for half the +difference or the full difference, respectively, for any undergrading, +or must pay the seller accordingly if there is any overgrading. When a +buyer specifies special features of description, in addition to type, +some sellers protect themselves against claims for difference on this +score by inserting in the contract a clause to the effect that the +description is given in good faith, but is not guaranteed by the seller. + +[Illustration: TWO OF THE COFFEE EXCHANGE BLACKBOARDS + +The one on the right is a record of transactions in the coffee pit. As +soon as a trade is made, it is noted in the proper column on the lower +part, the entry showing the time of the transaction, the number of +"250-pound bag lots," and the price. The left-hand board gives Santos +and Rio future quotations. For a detailed description of these and other +exchange quotation boards, see page 457] + + +_How the New York Exchange Functions_ + +When the New York Coffee Exchange was incorporated in 1881, its charter +stated its purposes to be "to provide, regulate and maintain a suitable +building, room or rooms for the purchase and sales of coffees and other +similar grocery articles in the city of New York, to adjust +controversies between members, to inculcate and establish just and +equitable principles in the trade, to establish and maintain uniformity +in its rules, regulations and usages, to adopt standards of +classification, to acquire, preserve and disseminate useful and valuable +business information, and generally to promote the above mentioned trade +in the city of New York, increase its amount, and augment the facilities +with which it may be conducted." + +In the promotion of trade at New York the Exchange has been highly +successful. From time to time it has been criticized; and, more than +once, coffee traders in the East and in the West have raised a question +as to its value to non-speculating members. There are those who believe +it serves a useful purpose, and others who call it a huge pool room. To +say that, on the whole, it is not of benefit to the trade would be +untrue. As one of its champions pointed out in 1914, when it shut down +for a period of four months on account of the World War: + + The ability to discount the future is a necessity, and demands the + facilities that a unit of centralization like the Exchange affords. + There is no difference between a purchase of coffee and one of a + future month on options. + + The experience gained here and abroad demonstrates that any check + placed upon such dealings is detrimental, with far-reaching effects + upon the whole body of the trade. Unquestionably the Exchange is a + powerful factor as a regulator of extremes in the market. + + The experience gained in Germany, where an embargo was placed upon + transactions in futures, is illuminating. The disastrous effects + were so plain that the authorities were forced to abandon their + objections and permit a resumption of the business along the old + lines. + + But a good thing can be abused, and the opportunity to gamble in + options availed of by so many is the increment that disturbs the + legitimacy of the market and creates the opposition to the whole + proposition. When the Exchange is ready to insist that every + transaction in futures must be a legitimate one, and that every + trader under its jurisdiction using the facilities of the Exchange + is made to realize that any operations that are purely of a + gambling nature will subject him to severe discipline, then the + Coffee Exchange will begin to stem the tide of an ever-growing + opposition by the general public. + +[Illustration: THE "COFFEE AFLOAT" BLACKBOARD] + +The New York State legislative committee on speculations in securities +and commodities had the following to say on the Coffee Exchange in its +report to Governor Charles E. Hughes in 1909: + + It [the Coffee Exchange] was established in order to supply a daily + market where coffee could be bought and sold and to fix quotations + therefor, in distinction from the former method of alternate glut + and scarcity, with wide variations in price--in short, to create + stability and certainty in trading in an important article of + commerce. This it has accomplished; and it has made New York the + most important primary coffee market in the United States. But + there has been recently introduced a non-commercial factor known as + "valorization," a governmental scheme of Brazil, by which the + public treasury has assumed to purchase and hold a certain + percentage of the coffee grown there, in order to prevent a decline + of the price. This has created abnormal conditions in the coffee + trade. + + All transactions must be reported by the seller to the + superintendent of the Exchange, with an exact statement of the time + and terms of delivery. The record shows that the average annual + sales in the past five years have been in excess of 16,000,000 bags + of 130 pounds each. + + Contracts may be transferred or offset by voluntary clearings by + groups of members. There is no general clearing system.[319] There + is a commendable rule providing that, in case of a "corner," the + officials may fix a settlement price for contracts to avoid + disastrous failures. + +The original initiation fee was $250. Seats on the Exchange once sold +for as low as $110. In January, 1916, there was a sale at $3,000; in +October, 1916, there was a sale for $5,000; in April, 1921, three seats +were sold for $5,500 each; but the record price of $8,600 was paid in +1919. Seats are now (1922) worth about $6,000. + +The Exchange includes in its membership 323 brokers, importers, dealers, +and roasters. Membership is passed upon by a committee on membership; +but any one twenty-one years old, resident or non-resident, of good +character and commercial standing, is eligible when proposed and +seconded by Exchange members. The committee refers the application with +its recommendation to the board of managers, which takes a ballot. The +adverse vote of one-third of all votes cast rejects. + +The Exchange elects annually a president, a vice-president, and a +treasurer, who perform the usual duties of Exchange officers. The real +governing body is the board of managers, consisting of the president, +vice-president, treasurer, and twelve other members. This governing +board, meeting monthly, appoints the necessary subordinate officers and +employees, and fixes their compensation, and may "summon before them any +officer or member for any purpose whatsoever." It appoints the secretary +of the Exchange from among its own number, a superintendent of the +Exchange, and the numerous committees which are in active charge of +specified activities. It also licenses the necessary coffee graders, +warehousemen, weighmasters, and samplers of the Exchange. + +A brief discussion of the duties of the superintendent and the various +committees will help to explain the methods of the Exchange market. The +superintendent, under the direction of the board of managers, has charge +of the details of its work and of that of the various committees. He +keeps all the books and documents of the Exchange; collects and pays +over to the treasurer all moneys due the Exchange not otherwise provided +for; receives, deposits, and pays over all margins on coffee contracts; +has active charge of the Exchange rooms and the bulletin board; and +manages and appoints, with the consent of the board of managers, the +assistants needed to perform the details of the work under his charge. + +One of the functions of the Exchange is to grade and to classify coffee, +in which it takes every possible precaution. The rules provide for eight +standard grades; and only licensed graders are permitted to pass upon +the product handled on the Exchange. There are twenty-five of these +graders; one of whom is appointed as a supervisor of types, to provide +fresh standards and to "maintain them as nearly as possible on an +equality." When these standards are approved by the board and the +Exchange, they remain in force for a year. + +When coffee is received at a licensed warehouse, two official graders +are chosen, one by the buyer and one by the seller. These graders +receive four cents a bag if employed by a member; and eight cents a bag, +if employed by a non-member. + +If the graders disagree, their differences are referred to the board of +coffee arbitrators, consisting of ten experts appointed by the board of +managers. The superintendent selects by lot three of these arbitrators, +who decide on the basis of the samples submitted, but will not make a +decision lowering the grade below that of the lowest submitted nor +higher than the highest. If the disputants do not change the grading to +come within the arbitrators' findings, the samples are sent to the +entire board of arbitrators, exclusive of those who may have been the +original graders, and final decision is made by majority vote. As soon +as the coffee is graded, a certificate is issued stating the grades, and +bearing the signatures of the superintendent and graders. This +certificate is conclusive evidence of the grade as far as the parties +involved are concerned, for the subsequent twelve months. The buyer +receives the original, and the seller a duplicate. + +The rules provide that weights decided upon at the initial delivery are +good during the life of the grading certificate for re-delivery, with +definite allowances to the receiver, on re-delivery, of a quarter of a +pound a bag a month, instead of having to re-weigh and re-sample for +every separate delivery, as formerly. + +As claims and trade controversies occasionally arise, the Exchange has +provided means for their peaceful settlement. The board of managers +elects annually an arbitration committee of five members, who swear to +decide disputes fairly. This is the only committee on the Exchange that +has power to adjudicate disputes between members and non-members; and +its services must be sought by the disputants, who must agree to abide +by its decision. An adjudication committee of seven is annually chosen +from the membership by the managers, to adjust all claims and +controversies between members arising out of any merchandise +transaction, "if notice in writing of such claim or controversy, and of +the intention to demand an adjudication thereon, be served by either +party thereto within ten days from the ascertainment thereof." + +Within three days of the serving of this notice, each disputant selects +an Exchange member as his adjudicator; and these two name the third, who +must be a member of the adjudicating committee. Even this decision may +be appealed to the board of managers, which, if it finds the grounds of +appeal good (as decided by majority vote), appoints an appeal committee +of five, of whom three must be members of the board. This last +committee's decision is final. No new testimony bearing on the case may +be introduced after the case has been closed by the adjudicators. +Arbitration is voluntary with both parties; while adjudication is +compulsory upon the application of either. + +Another committee of trade importance is the spot quotation committee of +five Exchange members. Each day at two o'clock, except on Saturday, when +it meets at 11:45, this committee by a majority vote establishes the +official daily market quotation of No. 7 coffee. There is likewise a +committee on quotations of futures. This committee of five meets daily +"immediately after the first call and at the close of the Exchange and +reports to the superintendent the tone and price of the contract market, +to be posted on the blackboard and transmitted to other Exchanges and +commercial bodies." + +A committee of five on trade and statistics has the important function +of reporting to the board as to regulations for the "purchase, sale, +transportation and custody of merchandise," and it attempts to establish +uniformity in such matters between different markets. It has charge also +of "all matters pertaining to the supply of newspapers, market reports, +telegraphic and statistical information for the use of the Exchange. In +the early 80's the Exchange abolished the old method of keeping coffee +statistics, and the basis then adopted has since been accepted by all +the large coffee markets of the world." + +The minimum rates of commission on coffee "per contract of 250 bags, for +members of the Exchange residing in the United States, are based upon a +price" as follows, quoting from the Exchange bylaws adopted June 8, +1920: + +COFFEE EXCHANGE COMMISSION RATES + (Per contract of 250 bags) + + Floor + Commission brokerage + for buying for buying + or selling or selling +Below 10 cents $6.25 $1.50 +10 cents up to 19.99 cents 7.50 1.75 +20 cents and above 10.00 2.00 + + For non-members residing within the United States, double the above + rates of commission shall be charged. + + For members and non-members residing outside of the United States a + commission of $2.50 shall be charged in addition to the above + rates. + + Whenever before thirty minutes after the close of the exchange a + member gives to another member for clearance purchases and sales of + contracts corresponding in all respects except as to price, made + during the day by himself or for his account _when present on the + floor_ of the Exchange, a charge for each contract shall be made + equal to the corresponding floor brokerage rate for buying and + selling, in addition to any floor brokerage incurred. + + Members procuring business for other members may, by agreement, be + entitled to one-half the commission rates for non-members + prescribed in this Section, less the corresponding brokerage + charge, whether paid or not. + + When a transferable notice is given or received by a customer in + fulfillment of a contract the brokerage in that case shall be not + less than one-half of the corresponding buying or selling + commission prescribed in Section 103. + +Other committees are the finance committee (two) to audit bills and +claims against the Exchange, to direct deposits and investments, and to +audit the monthly and yearly accounts of the treasurer; a law committee +(three), to deal with matters of legislation; a membership and floor +committee (five); and a nominating committee (five). Organized as above +outlined, and with a well established code of trade rules, the Exchange +annually transacts a large number of sales in a business-like way. + +There is considerable trading in future contracts; and a standard form +has been adopted by the Exchange. No future contracts are valid unless +they are made in the following form: + +BRAZILIAN COFFEE--NOT SANTOS + Office of _____________ + New York__________ 19__ +Sold for M_______________________ + To M_______________________ + + Thirty-two thousand five hundred pounds in about 250 bags coffee, + growth of North, South or Central America, West Indies or East + Indies, excepting coffee known as "Robusta," and also any coffee of + new or unknown growth, deliverable from licensed warehouse in the + port of New York, between the first and last days of ________ next, + inclusive. The delivery within such time to be at seller's option, + upon a notice to buyer of either five, six or seven days, as may be + prescribed by the trade rules. The coffee to be of any grade, from + No. 8 to No. 1 inclusive (no coffee to grade below No. 8) provided + the average grade of Brazilian coffees shall not be above No. 3. + Nothing in this contract, however, shall be construed as + prohibiting a delivery averaging above No. 3 at the No. 3 grade. At + the rate of __________ cents per pound for No. 7, with additions or + deductions for other grades according to the rates of the New York + Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc., existing on the afternoon of the + day previous to the date of the notice of delivery. Either party to + have the right to call for margins as the variations of the market + for like deliveries may warrant, which margins shall be kept good. + + This contract is made in view of, and in all respect subject to the + rules and conditions established by the New York Coffee and Sugar + Exchange, Inc., and in full accordance with section 102 of the + bylaws. + +_____________________________ + Brokers + + + +Across the face is the following: + + For and in consideration of one dollar to __________________ in + hand paid, receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, ______________ + accept this contract with all its obligations and conditions. + +All deliveries on such future contracts must be made from licensed +warehouses. There is a separate "to arrive contract"; but this likewise +requires delivery at a licensed warehouse, unless the buyer and the +seller have a mutual understanding to deliver the coffee from dock or +ex-ship. Margins to protect the contract may be called for by either +party. The largest deposit for margins was made in 1904, when +$22,661,710 was deposited with the superintendent as required by the +Exchange rules. + +The basic grade in a future sale is No. 7; but variations are provided +as follows: 30 points for Rio, Victoria, and Bahia of all grades between +7 and 1, and of 50 points between 7 and 8; 50 points is allowed on +Santos and all other coffees except between grades 1 and 2 and 2 and 3 +Santos, which are allowed 30 points. Thus the buyer and the seller when +entering upon a transaction know exactly what the difference will be +between the standard No. 7 and the coffee that can be delivered. The +right to deliver any grade in a future transaction has done much to +lessen the probability of corners in coffee; but this protection is +further given by the stringent rule that the maximum fluctuations on the +Exchange can be only two cents a pound on coffee in one day and one cent +on sugar. If greater changes should threaten, the Exchange operations +would automatically cease. + +False or fictitious sales are prohibited, and all contracts must be +reported to the superintendent. All contracts are binding and call for +actual delivery. + +The future contract, besides being used for the delivery of coffee +during stated months in the future at a given price, is also used for +hedging purposes. As in the grain and cotton markets, dealers protect +themselves against price fluctuations by hedging in the future market. +Importers, for instance, when purchasing coffee abroad, frequently sell +an equal amount for future delivery on the Exchange. When the time for +delivery arrives, it is simply a question of calculation of the market +conditions whether it is more advantageous to repurchase the sales made +as a hedge, or as a kind of insurance to protect themselves against +loss, and free the coffee so engaged, or to make delivery of the coffee +as it comes in. + +The board of managers has power to close the Exchange or to suspend +trading on such days or parts of days as would in their judgment be for +the Exchange's best interest. + +The Clearing Association is a recent outgrowth of the Exchange, and is +composed exclusively of Exchange members. Every member has to bring his +contracts up to market closing every night, either by making a deposit +with the Association to cover his balances, or by withdrawing in case he +should be over. Members deposit $15,000 at the time of joining as a +guaranty fund; and if the surplus is not sufficient to take care of +balances, the bylaws provide for the levying of assessments. + +The daily quotations on the coffee exchanges of New York, Havre, and +(before the war) of Hamburg, determined to a large extent the price of +green coffee the world over. The prices prevailing on the New York +Coffee and Sugar Exchange are studied by coffee traders in all +countries, the fluctuations being reflected in foreign markets as the +reports come from the United States. Quotations are cabled from one +great market to another; and as each must heed those of the others to +some extent, the coffee trade thus obtains a world price, and the +effect on supply and demand is universal rather than local, as would be +the case if quotations were not exchanged. + +In 1921 the Exchange adopted an amendment to the trade rules, and +abolished the one day transferable notice for both coffee and sugar. + + +_Foreign Coffee Quotations_ + +Brazil coffee cable quotations are the market prices, in Rio or Santos, +of ten kilograms of coffee, the price being stated in milreis, the +monetary unit of Brazil money. The basic grade of coffee at Rio is the +No. 7 of the New York Coffee Exchange; and at Santos, the international +standard of good average ("g. a.") Santos. One kilogram (often written +kilo, or abbreviated to K.) is equal to two and one-fifth pounds; and +the ten-kilogram standard of quantity is, therefore, equivalent to +twenty-two pounds, or just one-sixth of a standard Brazil bag. + +The money value is not so simple, since Brazilian paper currency is +unstable; and the milreis quotation means nothing unless it is +considered in connection with the rate of exchange for the same day, +i.e., the current gold value of the milreis. This gold value is always +given with the daily quotations from Brazil, and is expressed in British +pence. The par value of the milreis (1000 reis) is 54.6 cents (gold) of +United States money; but its present actual value is only about 15 +cents, and it has been as low as 11-1/4 cents. Our dollar sign is used +to denote milreis, placing it after the whole number, and before the +fractional part expressed in one-thousandths. Thus, 8-1/4 milreis would +be written 8$250 RS. + +Suppose, for example, a Rio quotation is given at 8$400, with exchange +at 7-1/2 d. This means that 22 pounds of coffee have a gold value of 63 +British pence (8.4 × 7-1/2 = 63.0), or 5/3, as the Englishman would +write it, which is equal to $1.27-1/2, making the coffee worth 5.8 cents +per pound. Of course the person familiar with Brazil quotations will not +need to make this reduction to the pound-cent term in order to +understand the figures. They will have a proper relative meaning to him +in their original form; and it must not be overlooked that it is in this +form only that they express correctly the value of the coffee in Brazil. +It may make a great difference to the Brazilian planter or exporter +whether an increased gold value of his coffee arises through a higher +milreis bid or an appreciated exchange, simply on account of local +currency considerations. That is to say, the purchasing power of a +milreis in Brazil will not necessarily vary exactly as the rate of +exchange on London. + +London quotations are made in shillings and pence, on one hundred-weight +(cwt) of coffee. This "cwt" is not 100 pounds but 112 pounds, one +twentieth of the English ton (our long ton) of 2,240 pounds. And in all +English coffee statistics the coffee quantities are expressed in this +ton. A London quotation of 30/9 (30 shillings and 9 pence) for example, +is equivalent to $7.44 for 112 pounds of coffee, or 6.64 cents per pound +at the normal rate of exchange, $4.80 to $4.86 the pound sterling. + +At Havre, the coffee price is given in francs, on a quantity of 50 +kilograms. This is 110 pounds and almost as much, therefore, as the +British cwt. In normal times the franc is equal to 19.3 cents. A French +quotation of 37-1/2, for instance, means, therefore, $7.19 for 110 +pounds of coffee, or 6.53 cents per pound. + +The Hamburg quotation (formerly from Brazil per fifty kilos) is made on +one pound German, equal to 1/2 kilogram, and is expressed in pfennigs. +One pfennig is one-hundredth of a mark, and the mark once was equal to +23.8 cents. A German quotation of, say, 31, means, therefore, 7.38 cents +(31 × .238 = 7.378) for 1.1 pounds, or 6.71 cents per pound. + + +_Three Kinds of Brokers_ + +In the coffee trade there are three kinds of brokers--floor, spot, and +cost and freight. + +Floor brokers are those who buy and sell options on the Coffee Exchange +for a fixed consideration per lot of 250 bags. The coffee commission +rate put into effect June 8, 1920, for round term (buying and selling) +by the New York Coffee Exchange was as follows: + +COMMISSION RATE ON 250 BAGS + +(For Round Term--Buying and Selling) + + Up to 10¢ to + 9.99c 19.99c 20c & up + per lb. per lb. per lb. +Members $12.50 $15.00 $20.00 +Non-members 25.00 30.00 40.00 +Foreign members 17.50 20.00 25.00 +Foreign non-members 30.00 35.00 45.00 +Floor brokerage-- +Buying or selling 1.50 1.75 2.00 + +There is at present (1922) a stamp tax of two cents on each hundred +dollars value, or fraction thereof, figured on each separate lot. + +[Illustration: SUN-CURING THE WASHED GREEN BEANS ON CEMENT DRYING +PATIOS] + +[Illustration: NEAR VIEW OF HEAVILY LADEN TREES READY FOR THE PICKERS] + +[Illustration: TYPICAL COFFEE SCENES IN COSTA RICA] + +Spot brokers are those who deal in actual coffee, selling from jobber +to jobber, or representing out-of-town houses; the seller paying a +commission of about fifteen cents a bag in small lots, and half of one +percent in large lots. + +Cost and freight brokers represent Brazilian accounts, and generally +receive a brokerage of one and one-quarter percent. On out-of-town +business, they usually split the commission with the out-of-town or +"local" brokers. The out-of-town brokers sometimes, however, deal direct +with the importer. All brokers except floor brokers are sometimes called +"street brokers." Most of the large New York, New Orleans, and San +Francisco brokerage houses also do a commission business, handling one +or more Brazilian or other coffee-producing-country accounts. + + +_Important Rulings Affecting Coffee Trading_ + +The United States have no coffee law as they have a tea law--prescribing +"purity, quality and fitness for consumption"--but buyers and sellers of +green coffees are required to observe certain well defined federal rules +and regulations relating specifically to coffee. Up to the year 1906, +when the Pure Food and Drugs Act became law, the green coffee trade was +practically unhampered; and several irregularities developed, calling +into existence federal laws that were designed to protect the consumer +against trade abuses, and at the same time to raise the standards of +coffee trading. + +Under these regulations it is illegal to import into this country a +coffee that grades below a No. 8 Exchange type, which generally contains +a large proportion of sour or damaged beans, known in the trade as +"black jack," or damaged coffee, as found in "skimmings." "Black jack" +is a term applied to coffee that has turned black during the process of +curing, or in the hold of a ship during transportation; or it may be due +to a blighting disease. + +Another ruling is intended to prevent the sale of artificially "sweated" +coffee, which has been submitted to a steaming process to give the beans +the extra-brown appearance of high grade East Indian and Mocha coffees +which have been naturally "sweated" in the holds of sailing vessels +during the long journey to American ports. Up to the time that the Pure +Food and Drugs Act went into effect, artificial "sweating" was resorted +to by some coffee firms; and out of that practise grew a suit[320] that +resulted in a federal court decision sustaining the Pure Food Act, and +classifying the practise as adulteration and misbranding. + +The Act also is intended to prevent the sale of coffees under trade +names that do not properly belong to them. For example, only coffees +grown on the island of Java can properly be labeled and sold as Javas; +coffees from Sumatra, Timor, etc., must be sold under their respective +names. Food Inspection Decision No. 82, which limited the use of the +term Java to coffee grown on the island of Java, was sustained in a +service and regulatory announcement issued in January, 1916. Likewise +the name Mocha may be used only for coffees of Arabia. Before the +pure-food law was enacted, it was frequently the custom to mix Bourbon +Santos with Mocha and to sell the blend as Mocha. Also, Abyssinian +coffees were generally known in the trade as Longberry Mocha, or just +straight Mocha; and Sumatra growths were practically always sold as +Javas. Traders used the names of Mocha and Java because of the high +value placed upon these coffees by consumers, who, before Brazil +dominated the market, had practically no other names for coffee. + +One of the most celebrated coffee cases under the Pure Food Act was +tried in Chicago, February, 1912. The question was, whether in view of +the long-standing trade custom, it was still proper to call an +Abyssinian coffee (Longberry Mocha) Mocha. The defendant was charged +with misbranding, because he sold as Java and Mocha a coffee containing +Abyssinian coffee. The court decided that the product should be called +Abyssinian Mocha;[321] but since then, general acceptance has obtained +of the government's viewpoint as expressed in F.I.D. No. 91, which was +that only coffee grown in the province of Yemen in Arabia could properly +be known as Mocha coffee. + +Another important ruling, concerning coffee buyers and sellers, +prohibits the importation of green coffees coated with lead chromate, +Prussian blue, and other substances, to give the beans a more stylish +appearance than they have normally. Such "polished" coffees find great +favor in the European markets, but are now denied admittance here. + +The Board of Food and Drug Inspection decided in 1910 against a trade +custom that had prevailed until then of calling Minãs coffee Santos when +shipped through Santos, instead of Rio.[322] + +For years a practise obtained of rebagging certain Central American +growths in New York. In this way Bucaramangas frequently were +transformed into Bogotas, Rios became Santos, Bahias and Victorias were +sold as Rios, and the misbranding of peaberry was quite common. A +celebrated case grew out of an attempt by a New York coffee importer and +broker to continue one of these practises after the Pure Food Act made +it a criminal offense. The defendants, who were found guilty of +conspiracy, and who were fined three thousand dollars each, mixed, +re-packed and sold under the name P.A.L. Bogota, a well known Colombian +mark, eighty-four bags of washed Caracas coffee.[323] + +After an exchange of views with the United States Board of Food and Drug +Inspection, the New York Coffee Exchange decided that, after June 1, +1912, it would abolish all grades of coffee under the Exchange type No. +8. + +The practise in Holland of grading Santos coffees--by selecting beans +most like Java beans, and polishing and coloring them to add +verisimilitude--known as "manipulated Java," became such a nuisance in +1912 that United States consuls refused to certify invoices to the +United States unless accompanied by a declaration that the produce was +"pure Java, neither mixed with other kinds nor counterfeited." + +The United States Bureau of Chemistry ruled in February, 1921, that +_Coffea robusta_ could not be sold as Java coffee, or under any form of +labeling which tended either directly or indirectly to create the +impression that it was _Coffea arabica_, so long and favorably known as +Java coffee. This was in line with the Department of Agriculture's +previous definition that coffee was the seed of the _Coffea arabica_ or +_Coffea liberica_, and that Java coffee was _Coffea arabica_ from Java. +_Coffea robusta_ was barred from deliveries on the New York Coffee +Exchange in 1912. + +During the greater part of the year 1918, the United States government +assumed virtually full control of coffee trading. It was a war-time +measure, and was intended to prevent speculation in coffee contracts and +freight rates, to cut down the number of vessels carrying coffee to this +country so as to provide more ships for transporting food and soldiers +to Europe, and to put the coffee merchants on rations during the stress +of war. On February 4, 1918, importers and dealers were placed under +license; and two days later, rules were issued through the Food +Administration fixing the maximum price for coffee for the spot month in +the "futures" markets at eight and a half cents, prohibiting dealers +from taking more than normal pre-war profits, or holding supplies in +excess of ninety days' requirements, and greatly limiting resales. On +May 8, the United States Shipping Board fixed the "official" freight +rate from Rio de Janeiro to New York at one dollar and fifty cents per +bag, which, without control, had risen to as high as four dollars and +more, as compared with the ordinary rate of thirty-five cents before the +war. On January 12, 1919, two months after the armistice was signed, the +rules were withdrawn, and the coffee trade was left to carry on its +business under its own direction. + + +_Some Well Known Green Coffee Marks_ + +Practically every bag of good quality green coffee is imprinted with a +brand which indicates by whom it was shipped. These imprints are known +in the trade as "green coffee marks." Many of them, through long usage, +have become celebrated in international trade. One of the most famous +was HLOG. This stood for "Heaven's Light Our Guide," and was owned by +John O'Donohue's Sons. For many years it was used on Mocha coffee, but +it is now out of existence. Other well-known Mocha marks are M R +(Maurice Ries) with the figure of a camel, a star, or deer's head +between the letters; L F or L B (Livierato Frères); C F or C B +(Caracanda Frères). + +Bogota marks includes PAL (in triangle) Bogota (P.A. Lopez & Co.); +Camelia; Pinzon & Co.; Salazar; AOL (in triangle) Bogota; and Carmencita +Manizales Excelso (Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.). + +[Illustration: SOME WELL KNOWN GREEN-COFFEE MARKS] + +Among the best known Medellin marks are FAC & H (F.A. Correa & Sons): +PEC & C (Pedro Estrado Co.); LMT & C (Louis M. Torro & Co.); A & C (A. +Angel & Co.); E C S Medellin Excelso (Eppens, Smith Co.); Balzacbro +Medellin Excelso (Balzac Bros.); La Rambla (Banco Lopez); and Don Carlos +Medellin Excelso (Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.). + +Caracas marks show J P P & H (Juan Pablo Perez & Sons); HLB & C (H.L. +Boulton & Co.); FST & C (Filipe S. Toledo & Co.); JLG (J.L. Garrondona); +and many others. Kolster (Kolster & Co.) is a well known Puerto Cabello +mark. + +Maracaibos bear numerous marks, chief among which are: M & C (Menda & +Co.); Cogollo (Cogollo & Co.); Fossi (Fossi & Co.); B M & C (Breur. +Moller & Co.); B & C (Blohm & Co.); FST & C (Filipe S. Toledo & Co.); V +D R & C (Van Dessel, Rodo & Co.); and J E C & C over R G E (J.E. Carret +& Co.). + +A prominent Mexican mark is P A N (Rafael del Castillo & Co.). + +Brazil coffee is usually marked merely with the initials of the firm or +bank financing the shipment. Some representative Brazilian marks are: +Aronco (in rectangle) Brazil; J A & Co (in rectangle) Brazil Rosebud; J +A & Co (in rectangle) Brazil Bourbona--all used by J. Aron & Company; S +S C (in circle) Rio; S S C (in triangle) Santos; both used by +Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.; Sions M/M Bourbns (Sion & Co.); and +Nossack V S S C (in swastika), used by Nossack & Co. + +There are hundreds of other marks. In most countries they change so +often that one rarely stands out above the rest. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS + + _The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the + leading coffees of commerce, with a "Complete Reference Table of + the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World"--Appearance, + aroma, and flavor in cup-testing--How experts test coffee--A + typical sample-roasting and cup-testing outfit_ + + +More than a hundred different kinds of coffee are bought and sold in the +United States. All of them belong to the same botanical genus, and +practically all to the same species, the _Coffea arabica_; but each has +distinguishing characteristics which determine its commercial value in +the eyes of the importers, roasters, and distributers. + +The American trade deals almost exclusively in _Coffea arabica_, +although in the latter years of the World War increasing quantities of +_robusta_ and _liberica_ growths were imported, largely because of the +scarcity of Brazilian stocks and the improvement in the preparation +methods, especially in the case of _robustas_. Considerable quantities +of _robusta_ grades were sold in the United States before 1912, but +trading in them fell off when the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange +prohibited their delivery on Exchange contracts after March 1, 1912. + +All coffees used in the United States are divided into two general +groups, Brazils and Milds. Brazils comprise those coffees grown in São +Paulo, Minãs Geraes, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Victoria, and other +Brazilian states. The Milds include all coffees grown elsewhere. In 1921 +Brazils made up about three-fourths of the world's total consumption. +They are regarded by American traders as the "price" coffees, while +Milds are considered as the "quality" grades. + +Brazil coffees are classified into four great groups, which bear the +names of the ports through which they are exported; Santos, Rio, +Victoria, and Bahia. Santos coffee is grown principally in the state of +São Paulo; Rio, in the state of Rio de Janeiro and the state of Minãs +Geraes; Victoria, in the state of Espirito Santo; and Bahia in the state +of Bahia. All of these groups are further subdivided according to their +bean characteristics and the districts in which they are produced. + + +_Brazil Coffee Characteristics_ + +SANTOS. Santos coffees, considered as a whole, have the distinction of +being the best grown in Brazil. Rios rank next, Victorias coming third +in favor, and Bahias fourth. Of the Santos growths the best is that +known in the trade as Bourbon, produced by trees grown from Mocha seed +(_Coffea arabica_) brought originally from the French island colony of +Bourbon (now Réunion) in the Indian Ocean. The true Bourbon is obtained +from the first few crops of Mocha seed. After the third or fourth year +of bearing, the fruit gradually changes in form, yielding in the sixth +year the flat-shaped beans which are sold under the trade name of Flat +Bean Santos. By that time, the coffee has lost most of its Bourbon +characteristics. The true Bourbon of the first and second crops is a +small bean, and resembles the Mocha, but makes a much handsomer roast +with fewer "quakers". The Bourbons grown in the Campinas district often +have a red center. + +[Illustration: _Coffee Map of Brazil_ + +_Showing the Principal Coffee-Producing States and Shipping Ports_ + +Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.] + +As regards flavor, a good Bourbon Santos is considered the best coffee +for its price, and is the most satisfactory low-cost blending coffee to +be obtained. It is used with practically any of the high-priced coffees +to reduce the cost of the blend. When properly made, this coffee +produces a drink that is smooth and palatable, without tang or special +character, and is suitable to the average taste. When aged, Bourbon +Santos decreases in acidity, and increases somewhat in size of bean. + +The Santos coffee described as Flat Bean usually has a smooth surface, +varying in size from small to large bean, and in color from a pale +yellow to a pale green. The cup has a good and smooth body of neutral +character, and the bean can be used straight or in a blend with +practically any Mild coffee. + +Another Santos growth, known in the trade as Harsh Santos, grows near +the boundary between São Paulo and Minãs Geraes. It often has some of +the Rio characteristics, and commands a lower price than other Santos +coffees. + +Some trade authorities are of the opinion that Santos coffees are an +exception to the rule that most green coffees improve with age. They +argue that careful cup-testing will reveal that a new crop Santos is to +be preferred to an old crop. + +RIOS. Rio coffee is not generally liked in the United States, though in +former years it had some following even in the better trade. The demand +for all grades of Rios has been decreasing, Santos taking their place in +the United States. Rio coffee has a peculiar, rank flavor. It has a +heavy, pungent, and harsh taste which traders do not consider of value +either in straight coffee or in blends. However, its low price +recommends it to some packers, and it is often found in the cheapest +brands of package coffees and also in many compounds. In color, the bean +runs from light green to dark green; but when it is stored for any +length of time--a common practise in the past--the color changes to a +golden yellow; and the coffee is then known as golden Rio. The bean +also expands with age. + +[Illustration: BOURBON SANTOS BEANS--ROASTED] + +All Rio coffee is described by the name Rio; but the American trade +recognizes eight different grades, designated by numerals from one to +eight. These grades are determined by standards adopted by the New York +Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and are classified by the number of +imperfections found in the chops exported. No. 1 Rio contains no +imperfections, such as black beans, shells, stones, broken beans, pods +or immature beans ("quakers"). Such a chop is rarely found. No. 2 has +six imperfections. No. 3 has thirteen. No. 4 has twenty-nine, No. 5 has +sixty, No. 6 has one hundred and ten, No. 7 has two hundred, and No. 8 +has about four hundred, although on the Exchange these last two are +graded by standard types. + +[Illustration: FLAT AND BOURBON SANTOS BEANS--ROASTED] + +VICTORIAS. Up to about the year 1917, Victoria coffees were held in even +less favor by American traders than were Rios. As a rule the bean was +large and punky, of a dark brown or dingy color, and its flavor was +described as muddy. Then, the coffee growers began to introduce modern +machinery for handling the crops, with the result that the character of +the produce has been much improved, and the demand for it has been +steadily growing. Many roasters who formerly used Rios straight for +their lower grades, have changed to Victorias, not only to improve the +appearance of the roast, but to soften the harsh drinking qualities of +the low-grade Rios. + +[Illustration: RIO BEANS--ROASTED] + +BAHIAS. Until recent years Bahia coffee has been decidedly unpopular in +the United States, largely because of its peculiar smoky flavor, due to +drying the coffee by means of wood fires, instead of by the usual sun +method. This practise has been abandoned; Bahia coffee has shown a +marked improvement in quality; and importations into the United States +have increased. The Bahia coffee produced in the Chapada district is +considered to be the best of the group. The bean is light-colored and of +fair size. Other types are Caravella and Nazareth, both of which are +below the standards demanded by the majority of the American trade. + +[Illustration: _Coffee Map + +of + +São Paulo, Minãs, and Rio_] + +MARAGOGIPE. This is a variety of _Coffea arabica_ first observed +growing near the town of Maragogipe on All Saints Bay, county of +Maragogipe, Bahia, Brazil, where it is called _Coffea indigena_. The +green bean is of huge size, and varies in color from green to dingy +brown. It is the largest of all coffee beans, and makes an elephantine +roast, free from quakers, but woody and generally disagreeable in the +cup. However, Dr. P.J.S. Cramer of the Netherlands government's +experimental garden in Bangelan, Java, regards it very highly, referring +to it as "the finest coffee known", and as having "a highly developed, +splendid flavor." This coffee is now found in practically all the +producing countries, and shows the characteristics of the other coffees +produced in the same soil. + + +_The Characteristics of Mild Coffees_ + +Among the Mild coffees there is a much greater variation in +characteristics than is found among the Brazilian growths. This is due +to the differences in climate, altitude, and soil, as well as in the +cultural, processing, storage, and transportation methods employed in +the widely separated countries in which Milds are produced. + +Mild coffees generally have more body, more acidity, and a much finer +aroma than Brazils; and from the standpoint of quality they are far more +desirable in the cup. As a rule they have also better appearance, or +"style", both in the green and in the roast, due to the fact that +greater care is exercised in picking and preparing the higher grades. +Milds are important for blending purposes, most of them possessing +distinctive individual characteristics, which increase their value as +blending coffees. + + +_Not All Coffees Improve with Age_ + +Although it has long been held that green coffee improves with age, and +there is little doubt that this is true in so far as roasting merits are +concerned; the question has been raised among coffee experts as to +whether age improves the drinking qualities of all coffees alike. + +Rio coffees should improve with age, as they are naturally strong and +earthy. Age might be expected to soften and to mellow them and others +having like characteristics. If, however, the coffee is mild in cup +quality in the first instance, then it may be asked if age does not +weaken it so that in time it must become quite insipid. Several years +ago, a New York coffee expert pointed out that this was what happened to +Santos coffees. The new crop, he said, was always a more pleasant and +enjoyable drink than the old crop, because it was a more pronounced mild +coffee in the cup. + +MEXICANS. Considering those coffees grown nearest the American market +first, we come to the coffees of Mexico. All coffees grown in this +republic are known as Mexicans. They are further divided according to +the states and districts in which they are produced, and as to whether +they are prepared according to the wet or the dry method. The types best +known in the American market are Coatepec, Huatusco, Orizaba, Cordoba, +Oaxaca, and Jalapa. The lesser known are the Uruapan, Michoacan, Colima, +Chiapas, Triunfo, Tapachula, Sierra, Tabasco, Tampico, and +Coatzacoalcos. Some of these are rarely seen in the markets of the +United States. + +The coffee most cultivated in Mexico is supposed to have come from Mocha +seed. Of this species is the Oaxaca coffee, which is valued because of +its sharp acidity and excellent flavor, two qualities that make it +desirable for blending. The bean of the Sierra Oaxaca (common unwashed) +is not large, nor is the appearance stylish. The Pluma Oaxaca (washed) +coffee, however, is a fancy bean and good for blending purposes. + +Coatepec coffees are among the finest grown in Mexico, and take rank +with the world's best grades. They are quite acidy, but have a desirable +flavor; and when blended with coffees like Bourbon Santos, make a +satisfactory cup. + +The Orizaba, Huatusco, and Jalapa growths resemble Coatepecs, of which +they are neighbors in the state of Vera Cruz. They are thin in body but +are stylish roasters, and have a good cup qualities. As a class they do +not possess the heavy body and acidity of genuine Coatepecs. Some +Huatuscos are exceptions. Orizaba is superior to Jalapa. Chiapas and +Tapachula coffees are generally more like Guatemalan growths than any +others produced in Mexico, which is natural in view of the proximity of +the districts to the northern boundary of Guatemala. The Sierra, +Tampico, Tabasco, and Coatzacoalcos coffees are uncertain in quality; +mostly they are low grade, some of them frequently possessing a groundy, +flat, or Rioy flavor. + +[Illustration: _Mild Coffee Map--No. 1_ + +_Showing the Mild Coffee-Producing Countries of the Western Hemisphere_ + +Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.] + +Cordoba coffees lack the acidity and tang of the Oaxacas, but make a +handsome roast. They are considered too neutral to form the basis of a +blend, but can be used to balance the tang of other grades. + +CENTRAL AMERICANS. Central American coffee is the general trade name +applied to the growths produced in Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, +Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, the countries comprising Central +America. + +GUATEMALA. This country sends the largest quantity to the United States, +and also produces the best average grades of the Central American +districts. Guatemalas are mostly washed and are very stylish. The bean +has a waxy, bluish color. It splits open when roasting and shows a white +center. Low-grown Guatemalas are thin in the cup, but the coffees grown +in the mountainous districts of Cobán and Antigua are quite acidy and +heavy in body. Some Cobáns border on bitterness because of the extreme +acidity. The Antiguas are medium, flinty beans; while Cobáns are larger. +Both grades are spicy and aromatic in the cup, and are particularly good +blenders. Properly roasted to a light cinnamon color, and blended with a +high-grade combination, Cobáns make one of the most serviceable coffees +on the American market. + +Guatemalas are generally classified as noted in the Complete Reference +Table. + +[Illustration: MEXICAN BEANS--ROASTED] + +[Illustration: GUATEMALA BEANS--ROASTED] + +HONDURAS. While the upland coffee of Honduras is of good quality, the +general run of the country's production seldom brings as high a price as +Santos of equal grade. Nearly all Honduras coffee consists of small, +round berries, bluish green in color. Very little of this growth comes +to the United States; the bulk of the exports going to Europe, where it +commands a high price, especially in France. + +SALVADOR. Salvador coffee is inferior to Guatemala's product, grade for +grade. Only a small proportion is washed; and the bulk of the crops is +"naturals"; that is, unwashed. The bean is large and of fair average +roast. The washed grades are fancy roasters, with very thin cup. The +largest part of the production goes to Europe; some twenty-five percent +of the exports are brought into the United States through San Francisco. + +NICARAGUA. The ordinary run of Nicaragua coffee (the naturals) is looked +upon in the United States as being of low quality, though the washed +coffees from the Matagalpa district have plenty of acid in the cup and +usually are fine roasters. Matagalpa beans are large and blue-tinged. +Germany, Great Britain, and France take about all the Honduras coffee +exported, only about six percent of the total coming to the United +States. These coffees are described more in detail in the Complete +Reference Table. + +COSTA RICA. Good grades of Costa Rican coffee, such as are grown in the +Cartago, San José, Alajuela, and Grecia districts at high altitudes, are +highly esteemed by blenders. They are characterized by their fine +flavor, rich body, and sharp acidity. It is frequently declared that +some of these coffees are often acidy enough to sour cream if used +straight. Due to careless methods of handling, sour or "hidey" beans are +sometimes found in chops of Costa Ricans from the lowlands. + +PANAMA. Panama grows coffee only for domestic use, and consequently it +is little known in foreign markets. The bean is of average size and +tends toward green in color. In the cup it has a heavy body and a strong +flavor. The coffee grown in Boquette Valley is considered to be of fine +quality, due no doubt to the care given in cultivation by the American +and English planters there. + + +_South America_ + +COLOMBIANS. Colombia produces some of the world's finest coffees, of +which the best known are Medellins, Manizales, Bogotas, Bucaramangas, +Tolimas, and Cucutas. Old-crop Colombians of the higher grades, when +mellowed with age, have many of the characteristics of the best East +Indian coffees, and in style and cup are difficult to distinguish from +the Mandhelings and the Ankolas of Sumatra. Such coffees are scarce on +the American market, practically all the shipments coming to the United +States being new crop and lacking some of the qualities of the mellowed +beans. Compared with Santos coffee, good grade Colombians give +one-fourth more liquor to a given strength with better flavor and aroma. +They are classed and graded as noted in the Complete Reference Table. + +Medellins are a fancy mountain-grown coffee, and are esteemed for their +good qualities. The beans vary in size, and the color ranges from light +to dark green, making a rather rough roast. In the cup they have a fine, +rich, distinctive flavor, and in the American grading are regarded as +the best of the Colombian commercial growths. + +Manizales rank next to Medellins, and have nearly the same +characteristics. + +[Illustration: BOGOTA (COLOMBIA) BEANS--ROASTED] + +Bogotas of good grade are noted for their acidity, body, and flavor. +When the acidity is tempered with age, the coffee can be drunk +"straight" which can not be done with many other growths. The Bogota +green bean ranges from a blue-green bean to a fancy yellow. It is long, +and generally has a sharp turn in one end of the center stripe. It is a +smooth roaster, and has a rich mellow flavor. + +Bucaramangas, grown in the district of that name, are regarded favorably +in the American markets as good commercial coffees for blending +purposes; the naturals have heavy body, but lack acidity and decided +flavor, and are much used to give "back-bone" to blends. The fancies +sometimes push the superior East Indian growths hard for first place. + +Tolimas are considered a good grade average coffee, and are +characterized by a fair-sized bean, attractive style, and good cup +quality. + +Cucuta coffees, though grown in Colombia, are generally classified among +the Maracaibos of Venezuela, because they are mostly shipped from that +port. They are described, accordingly, with the Venezuelan coffees. + +VENEZUELA. The coffees of Venezuela are generally grouped under the +heads of Caracas, Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo, the names of the ports +through which they are exported. Each group is further subdivided by the +names of the districts in which the principal plantations lie. La Guaira +coffee includes that produced in the vicinity of Caracas and Cumana. + +Caracas coffee is one of the best known in the American market. The +washed Caracas is in steady demand in France and Spain. The bean is +bluish in color, somewhat short, and of a uniform size. The liquor has a +rather light body. Some light-blue washed Caracas coffees are very +desirable, and have a peculiar flavor that is quite pleasant to the +educated palate. Caracas chops rarely hold their style for any length of +time, as the owners usually are not willing to dry properly and +thoroughly before milling. When, however, the price is right, American +buyers will use some Caracas chops instead of Bogotas. At equal prices +the latter have the preference, as they have more body in the cup. +Puerto Cabello and Cumana coffees are valued just below Caracas. They +are grown at a lower altitude, and are somewhat inferior in flavor. + +Not less than one-third of Puerto Cabello coffees come across the +thirty-mile gulf to the westward from the port of Tucacas, in a little +steamer called the Barquisimento, which is famous all along the coast as +the "cocktail shaker." C.H. Stewart[324] solemnly asserts that "Barky" +can do the "shimmy" when lying at anchor in quiet waters. + +[Illustration: MARACAIBO BEANS--ROASTED] + +Merida and Tachira coffees are considered the best of the Maracaibo +grades, Tovars and Trujillos being classed as lower in trade value. +Though Cucuta coffee is grown in the Colombian district of that name, it +is largely shipped through Maracaibo; and hence is classed among the +Maracaibo types. It ranks with Meridas and fine grade Boconos, and +somewhat resembles the Java bean in form and roast, but is decidedly +different in the cup. Washed Cucutas are noted for their large size, +roughness, and waxy color. They make a good-appearing roast, splitting +open, and showing irregular white centers. New-crop beans are sometimes +sharply acid, though they mellow with age and gain in body. + +Until recent years, Tachira coffee was always sold as Cucuta; but now +there is a tendency to ship it under the name Tachira-Venezuela, while +true Cucuta is marked Cucuta-Colombia. Tachiras closely resemble the +true Cucutas, grade for grade. Up to about 1905 the coffees grown near +Salazar, in Colombia, came to market under the name of Salazar; but +since then, they have been included among the Cucuta grades and are sold +under that name. + +The state of Tachira lies next to the Colombian boundary, and its +mountains produce much fine washed coffee. This has size and fair style, +as a rule, but does not possess cup qualities to make it much sought. It +ages well and, being of good body, the old crops, other things being +equal, frequently bring a tidy premium. + +The Rubio section of Tachira produces the best of its washed coffees. +Here are several of the largest and best-equipped estates in all +Venezuela. Washed when fresh, the coffees from these estates are usually +sold somewhat under the fancy Caracas; but the trillados of the Tachira +rank with the best of the country, owing to their large bean, solid +color, and good quality. They roast well, and cup with good body, though +not much character. Good Tachira trillados are sold on the same basis as +the Cucutas, which they resemble. + +The Meridas are raised at higher altitudes than Cucutas, and good grades +are sought for their peculiarly delicate flavor--which is neither acidy +nor bitter--and heavy body. They rank as the best by far of the +Maracaibo type. The bean is high-grown, of medium size, and roundish. It +is well knit, and brings the highest price while it still holds its +bluish style, as it then retains its delicate aroma and character. The +trillados of Merida run unevenly. + +Tovars rank between Trujillos and Tachiras. They are fair to good body +without acidity; make a duller roast than Cucutas, but contain fewer +quakers. They are used for blending with Bourbon Santos. Boconos are +light in color and body. They are of two classes; one a round, small to +medium, bean; and the other larger and softer. Their flavor is rather +neutral, and they are frequently used as fillers in blends. Trujillos +lack acidity and make a dull, rough roast, unless aged. They are blended +with Bourbon Santos to make a low-priced palatable coffee. Some coffees +of merit are produced at Santa Ana, Monte Carmelo, and Bocono in +Trujillo. + + +_Other South American Countries_ + +The coffees from other South American countries, even where there is an +appreciable production, are not important factors in international +trade. The coffee of Ecuador, shipped through the port of Guayaquil, +goes mostly to Chile, a comparatively small quantity being exported to +the United States. The bean is small to medium in size, pea-green in +color, and not desirable in the cup. The coffee is about equal to +low-grade Brazil, and is used principally as a filler. Peru produces an +ever-lessening quantity of coffee, the bulk of the exports in pre-war +years going to Germany, Chile, and the United Kingdom. It is a +low-altitude growth, and is considered poor grade. The bean ranges from +medium to bold in size, and from bluish to yellow in color. Bolivia is +an unimportant factor in the international coffee trade, most of its +exports going to Chile. The chief variety produced is called the Yunga, +which is considered to be of superior quality; but only a small quantity +is grown. Guiana's coffee trade is insignificant. The three best-known +types are the Surinam, Demerara, and Cayenne, named after the ports +through which they are shipped. + + +_The West Indies_ + +Coffee either is, or can be, grown practically everywhere in the West +Indies; but the chief producing districts are found on the islands of +Porto Rico, Haiti (and Santo Domingo), Jamaica, Guadeloupe, and Curaçao. +Coffees coming from these islands are generally known by the name of the +country of production, and may be further identified by the names of the +districts in which they are grown. + +PORTO RICO. Since the United States took possession of Porto Rico, soil +experts have endeavored to raise the quality of the coffee grown there, +especially the lower grades, which had peculiarly wild characteristics. +Today, the superior grades of Porto Rican coffees rank among the best +growths known to the trade. The bean is large, uniform, and stylish; +ranging in color from a light gray-blue to a dark green-blue. Some of +these are artificially colored for foreign markets. The coffee roasts +well, and has a heavy body, similar to the fanciest Mexicans and +Colombians. Its cup is not as rich, but it makes a good blend. Porto +Rican coffees command a higher price in France than in the United +States, which accounts for the larger proportion of exports to Europe, +excepting when the French market was cut off during the World War. + +JAMAICA. Jamaica produces two distinct types of coffee, the highland and +the lowland growths. Among the first-named is the celebrated Blue +Mountain coffee, which has a well developed pale blue-green bean that +makes a good-appearing roast and a pleasantly aromatic cup. It is +frequently compared with the fancy Cobáns of Guatemala. The lowland +coffee is a poorer grade, and consists largely of a mixture of different +growths produced on the plains. It is a fair-sized bean, green to yellow +in the "natural", and blue-green when washed. In the cup it has a grassy +flavor, but is flat when drunk with cream. It is used chiefly as a +filler in blends, and for French roasts. + +HAITI AND SANTO DOMINGO. The coffees of these two republics have like +characteristics, being grown on the same island and in about the same +climatic and soil conditions. Careless cultivation and preparation +methods are responsible for the generally poor quality of these coffees. +When properly grown and cured, they rank well with high-grade washed +varieties, and have a rich, fairly acid flavor in the cup. The bean is +blue-green, and makes a handsome roast. + +GUADELOUPE. Guadeloupe coffee is distinguishable by its green, long, and +slightly thick bean, covered by a pellicle of whitish silvery color, +which separates from the bean in the roast. It has excellent cup +qualities. + +MARTINIQUE. This island formerly produced a coffee closely resembling +the Guadeloupe; but no coffee is now grown there, though some Guadeloupe +growths are shipped from Martinique, and bear its name. + +OTHER WEST INDIAN ISLANDS. Among the other West Indian islands +producing small quantities of coffee are Cuba, Trinidad, Dominica, +Barbados, and Curaçao. The growths are generally good quality, bearing a +close resemblance to one another. In the past, Cuba produced a fine +grade; but the industry is now practically extinct. + + +_Asia_ + +ARABIA. For many generations Mocha coffee has been recognized throughout +the world as the best coffee obtainable; and until the pure food law +went into effect in the United States, other high-grade coffees were +frequently sold by American firms under the name of Mocha. Now, only +coffees grown in Arabia are entitled to that valuable trade name. They +grow in a small area in the mountainous regions of the southwestern +portion of the Arabian peninsula, in the province of Yemen, and are +known locally by the names of the districts in which they are produced. +Commercially they are graded as follows: Mocha Extra, for all extra +qualities; Mocha No. 1, consisting of only perfect berries; No. 1-A, +containing some dust, but otherwise free of imperfections; No. 2, +showing a few broken beans and quakers; No. 3, having a heavier +percentage of brokens and quakers and also some dust. + +[Illustration: MOCHA BEANS--ROASTED] + +Mocha beans are very small, hard, roundish, and irregular in form and +size. In color, they shade from olive green to pale yellow, the bulk +being olive green. The roast is poor and uneven; but the coffee's +virtues are shown in the cup. It has a distinctive winy flavor, and is +heavy with acidity--two qualities which make a straight Mocha brew +especially valuable as an after-dinner coffee, and also esteemed for +blending with fancy, mild, washed types, particularly East Indian +growths. + +As in other countries, the coffees grown on the highlands in Yemen are +better than the lowland growths. As a rule, the low altitude bean is +larger and more oblong than that grown in the highlands, due to its +quicker development in the regions where the rainfall, though not great, +is more abundant. + +While Mocha coffees are known commercially by grade numbers, the +planters and Arabian traders also designate them by the name of the +district or province in which each is grown. Among the better grades +thus labeled are, the Yaffey, the Anezi, the Mattari, the Sanani, the +Sharki, and the Haimi-Harazi. For the poorer grades, these names are +used: Remi, Bourai, Shami, Yemeni, and Maidi. Of these varieties, the +Mattari, a hard and regular bean, pale yellow in color, commands the +highest price, with the Yaffey a close second. Harazi coffee heads the +market for quantity coupled with general average of quality. + +INDIAN AND CEYLON. Coffees from India and Ceylon are marketed almost +exclusively in London, little reaching the American trade. Of the Indian +growths, Malabars, grown on the western slope of the Ghaut mountains, +are classed commercially as the best. The bean is rather small and +blue-green in color. In the cup it has a distinctive strong flavor and +deep color. Mysore coffee ranks next in favor on the English market. It +is mountain grown, and the bean is large and blue-green in color. +Tellicherry is another good grade coffee, closely resembling Malabar. +Coorg (Kurg) coffee is an inferior growth. It is lowland type, and in +the cup is thin and flat. The bean is large and flat, and tends toward +dark green in color. Travancore is another lowland growth, ranking about +with Coorg, and has the same general characteristics. See the Complete +Reference Table for details. + +Ceylon, although it once was one of the world's most important +producers, has been losing ground as a coffee-producing country since +1890. Ceylon coffees are classified commercially as "native", +"plantation", and "mountain". The native is a poor-grade, lowland +growth, with large flat bean and low cup quality. The plantation, so +named because more carefully cultivated on highland plantations, is a +stylish roaster, and gives a rich flavor and strong fragrance in the +cup. The mountain, grown at high altitudes, is a small, steel-blue bean, +and is considered by British traders as equal to the best varieties +grown anywhere. It was formerly shipped to Aden to be mixed with Mocha. + +[Illustration: _Coffee Map of Africa and Arabia_ + +_Showing the Principal Coffee-Producing Countries on the Continent and +Adjacent Islands._ + +Copyright 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.] + +FRENCH INDO-CHINA. The coffee of French Indo-China is highly prized in +France, where the bulk of the exports goes. The coffee tree grows well +in the provinces of Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin-China. Tonkin is +the largest producer, and grows the best varieties. In the cup, Tonkin +coffee is thought by French traders to compare favorably with Mocha. Of +the several varieties of _Coffea arabica_ grown in Indo-China, the +_Grand Bourbon_, _Bourbon rond_, and the _Bourbon Le Roy_, are the best +known. The first-named is a large bean of good quality; the second is a +small, round bean of superior grade; and the third is a still smaller +bean of fair cup quality. + +[Illustration: JAVA (Washed)] + +[Illustration: SUMATRA (Mandheling)] + +[Illustration: ARABIAN (Mocha)] + +[Illustration: COLOMBIAN (Bogota)] + +[Illustration: GUATEMALA (Washed)] + +[Illustration: MEXICAN (Washed)] + +[Illustration: COSTA RICA (Washed)] + +[Illustration: SANTOS (Peaberry)] + +[Illustration: VENEZUELA (Maracaibo)] + +[Illustration: SANTOS (Flat Bean)] + +[Illustration: SANTOS (Bourbon)] + +[Illustration: RIO (Natural)] + +[Illustration: PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF GREEN COFFEE BEANS, NATURAL SIZE +AND COLOR] + + +_Africa_ + +ABYSSINIA. The coffee grown in Abyssinia is classified commercially into +two varieties: Harari, which is grown principally in the district around +Harar; and Abyssinian, produced mainly in the provinces of Kaffa, +Sidamo, and Guma. Harari coffee is the fruit of cultivated trees; while +Abyssinian comes from wild trees. The first-named produces a long and +well-shaped berry, and is often referred to as Longberry Harari. The +bean is larger than the Mocha, but similar in general appearance. Its +color shades from blue-green to yellow. Good grades of Harari have cup +characteristics resembling Mocha, and by some are preferred to Mocha, +because of their winier cup flavor. The Abyssinian coffee is considered +much inferior to Harari; and chops generally contain many imperfections. +The bean is dark gray in color. Little Abyssinian coffee comes to the +United States. + +Many other African countries produce coffee; but little of it ever +reaches the North American market. Uganda, in British East Africa, grows +a good grade of _robusta_ coffee which is valued on the London market. +Liberian coffee, grown on the west coast, used to be mixed with Bourbon +Santos to some extent; but it is generally considered low grade, +although it makes a handsome, elephantine roast. The product of Guinea +is a very small bean, half-way between a peaberry and a flat bean, and +has a dingy brown color. It is considered worthless as a drink. A +medium-sized, strong-flavored bean that is rich in the cup, is grown in +the African Congo district. In Angola a fair quantity of coffee is +produced. In the cup it has a strong and pungent flavor, but lacks +smoothness and aroma. Zanzibar produces a pleasing coffee in very +limited quantities. The bean is medium size, and regular in shape. +Mozambique's coffee is greenish in color, of medium size, and mellow. +The production is small. Madagascar produces an insignificant quantity +for export, although the coffee is considered fair average, with rich +flavor, and considerable fragrance. Bourbon coffee, grown on the island +of Réunion, commands a high price in the French market, where +practically all exports go. It is a small, flinty bean, and gives a rich +cup and fragrance. + +[Illustration: WASHED JAVA BEANS--ROASTED] + + +_East Indian Islands_ + +Some of the coffees from the East Indian islands rank among the best in +the world, particularly those from Sumatra. East India coffees are +distinguished by their smooth, heavy body in the cup, the fancy grades +giving an almost syrupy richness. + +JAVA. Java coffees are generally of a smaller bean than those from +Sumatra, and are not considered as high grade. The bulk of the new-crop +growths have a grassy flavor which most people find unpleasant when +drunk straight. Under the old culture system, coffee was bought by the +government, and held in godowns from two to three years, until it had +become mellow with age. In late years, this system has been abandoned; +and the planters now sell their product as they please, and in most +cases without mellowing, excepting as they age during the long sea +voyage from Batavia to destination. Before the advent of large fleets of +steamers in the East Indian trade, the coffee was brought to America in +sailing vessels that required from three to four months for the trip. +During the voyage, the coffee went through a sweating process which +turned the beans from a light green to a dark brown, and considerably +enhanced their cup values. The sweating was due to the coffee being +loaded while moist, and then practically sealed in the vessel's hold +during all its trip through the tropical seas. As a consequence, the +cargo steamed and foamed; and as a rule, part of the coffee became +moldy, the damage seldom extending more than an inch or two into the +mats. Sweated coffees commanded from three to five cents more than those +that came in "pale". + +[Illustration: _Mild Coffee Map--No. 2_ + +_Showing the Mild Coffee-Producing Countries of Asia, Netherlands India, +and Australasia_ + +Copyright, 1922 by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.] + +Before the Java coffee trade began to decline in the latter part of the +nineteenth century, _Coffea arabica_ was grown abundantly throughout the +island. Each residency had numerous estates, and their names were given +to the coffees produced. The best coffees came from Preanger, Cheribon, +Buitenzorg, and Batavia, ranking in merit in the order named. All Java +coffees are known commercially either as private growth, or as blue bean +washed, the former being cured by either the washing or the dry hulling +method, while the latter are washed. Private growths are usually a pale +yellow, the bean being short and round and slightly convex. It makes a +handsome even roast, showing a full white stripe. The washed variety is +a pale blue-green, the bean closely resembling the private growth in +form and roast. These coffees have a distinctive character in the cup +that is much different from any other coffee grown. Their liquor is +thin. + +All the better known coffees of Java, which are designated by the +districts in which they are grown, are listed in the Complete Reference +Table. Coffee from few of the many districts comes to the North American +market. Among those that are sold in the United States are the Kadoe and +Semarang, both of which are small, yellowish green; and the Malang, a +green, hard bean which makes a better roast than Kadoe and Semarang, but +is inferior to them in the cup. + +SUMATRA. Sumatra has the reputation of producing some of the finest and +highest-priced coffees in the world, such as Mandheling, Ankola, Ayer +Bangies, Padang Interior, and Palembang. Mandheling coffee is a large, +brownish bean which roasts dull, but is generally free from quakers. It +is very heavy in body, and has a unique flavor that easily distinguishes +it from any other growth. The Ankola bean is shorter and +better-appearing than Mandheling, but otherwise bears a close +resemblance. Its flavor is only slightly under Mandheling; and, like +that coffee, is recommended for blending with the best grades of Mocha. +While the Ayer Bangies bean is somewhat larger than the other two just +mentioned, it is not so dark brown in color, and is not quite so heavy +in body; the flavor is very delicate. These three growths are known in +the trade as the "Fancies" and are considered the best of Sumatra's +production. + +The Sumatra coffee best known to the American trade is the Padang +Interior, which is shipped through the port of Padang on Sumatra's west +coast. The bean is irregular in form and color, and makes a dull roast. +However, the flavor is good, although it lacks the richness of the +Fancies. Another celebrated coffee grown on the west coast is the Boekit +Gompong, grown on the estate of that name near Padang. It is a +high-grade coffee, making a handsome roast, and possessing a delicate +flavor. The foregoing coffees are produced on what were formerly termed +government estates, and during the heyday of government control were +sold by auction and came mostly to the United States. + +Among the private estate coffees, Corinchies take first rank for +quality, some traders saying that they are the best in international +commerce. They closely resemble Ankolas, but range a cent or two lower +in price. Next in order of merit is Timor coffee, grown on the island of +that name. It is not as attractive in appearance, roast, or cup quality +as the Corinchie. A grade below Timors is Boengie coffee, which is +seldom seen on the North American market. Kroe coffee is better known +and more widely used in the United States. The bean is large, but has an +attractive appearance. Kroes are of heavy body, of somewhat groundy +flavor when new crop, and are good roasters and blenders. Other East +Indian coffees are Teagals, Balis, and Macassars, all of which are +second-rate growths as compared with the bulk of Sumatras, grade for +grade. The Macassars are produced in the district of that name on island +of Celebes. The best coffee grown in Celebes comes from the province of +Menado, and is known by that name. It is thought to be of a superior +quality, and commands a high price in Europe. + + +_The Pacific Islands_ + +The Philippine Islands have not figured in international coffee trade +since 1892, although in preceding years the Philippines exported several +million pounds of an average good grade of coffee. While coffee is one +of the shade trees used by householders in Guam, none of the fruit is +exported. Coffee production is an unimportant industry in Samoa, +Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and other Pacific islands, and +none is grown for export. + +HAWAII. Since the beginning of the twentieth century the Hawaiian +islands have taken a position of increasing importance, shipping some +two million pounds of good quality coffee to the United States, their +biggest customer. Coffee grows to some extent on all the islands of the +group, but fully ninety-five percent is raised in the districts of Kona, +Puna, and Hamakua on the main island of Hawaii. All Hawaiian coffee is +high grade; and is generally large bean, blue-green in color when new +crop, and yellow-brown when aged. It makes a handsome roast, and has a +fine flavor that is smooth and not too acid. It blends well with any +high-grade mild coffee. Kona coffee, grown in the district of that name, +commands the highest price. Old-crop Kona coffee is said by some trade +authorities to be equal to either Mocha or Old Government Java. + + +_Appearance, Aroma, and Flavor in Cup-Testing_ + +Before the beginning of the twentieth century, practically all the +coffees bought and sold in the United States were judged for merit +simply by the appearance of the green or of the roasted bean. Since that +time, the importance of testing the drinking qualities has become +generally recognized; and today every progressive coffee buyer has his +sample-roasting and testing outfit with which to carry out painstaking +cup tests. Both buyers and sellers use the cup test, the former to +determine the merits of the coffee he is buying, and the latter to +ascertain the proper value of the chop under consideration. Frequently a +test is made to fix the relative desirability of various growths +considered as a whole, using composite samples that are supposed to give +representation to an entire crop. + +The first step in testing coffee is to compare the appearance of the +green bean of a chop with a sample of known standard value for that +particular kind of coffee. The next step is to compare the appearance +when roasted. Then comes the appearance and aroma test, when it is +ground; and finally, the most difficult of all, the trial of the flavor +and aroma of the liquid. + +Naturally the tester gives much care to proper roasting of the samples +to be examined. He recognizes several different kinds of roasts which he +terms the light, the medium, the dark, the Italian, and the French +roasts, all of which vary in the shadings of color, and each of which +gives a different taste in the cup. The careful tester watches the roast +closely to see whether the beans acquire a dull or bright finish, and to +note also if there are many quakers, or off-color beans. When the proper +roasting point is reached, he smells the beans while still hot to +determine their aroma. In some growths and grades, he will frequently +smell of them as they cool off, because the character changes as the +heat leaves them, as in the case of many Maracaibo grades. + +After roasting, the actual cup-testing begins. Two methods are employed, +the blind cup test, in which there is no clue to the identity of the +kind of coffee in the cup; and the open test, in which the tester knows +beforehand the particular coffee he is to examine. The former is most +generally employed by buyers and sellers; although a large number of +experts who do not let their knowledge interfere with their judgment, +use the open method. + +In both systems the amount of ground coffee placed in the cup is +carefully weighed so that the strength will be standard. Generally, the +cups are marked on the bottom for identification after the examination. +Before pouring on the hot water to make the brew, the aroma of the +freshly ground coffee is carefully noted to see if it is up to standard. +In pouring the water, care is exercised to keep the temperature constant +in the cups, so that the strength in all will be equal. When the water +is poured directly on the grounds, a crust or scum is formed. Before +this crust breaks, the tester sniffs the aroma given off; this is called +the wet-smell, or crust, test, and is considered of great importance. + +Of course, the taste of the brew is the most important test. Equal +amounts of coffee are sipped from each cup, the tester holding each sip +in his mouth only long enough to get the full strength of the flavor. He +spits out the coffee into a large brass cuspidor which is designed for +the purpose. The expert never swallows the liquor. + +Cup-testing calls for keenly developed senses of sight, smell, and +taste, and the faculty for remembering delicate shadings in each sense. +By sight, the coffee man judges the size, shape, and color of the green +and roasted bean, which are important factors in determining commercial +values. He can tell also whether the coffee is of the washed or unwashed +variety, and whether it contains many imperfections such as quakers, +pods, stones, brokens, off-colored beans, and the like. By his sense of +smell of the roast and of the brew, he gauges the strength of the aroma, +which also enters into the valuation calculation. His palate tells him +many things about a coffee brew--if the drink has body and is smooth, +rich, acidy, or mellow; if it is winy, neutral, harsh, or Rioy; if it is +musty, groundy, woody, or grassy; or if it is rank, hidey (sour), muddy, +or bitter. These are trade designations of the different shades of +flavor to be found in the various coffees coming to the North American +market; and each has an influence on the price at which they will be +sold. + +The up-to-date cup-tester requires special equipment to get the best +results. A typical installation consists of a gas sample-roasting +outfit, employing at least a single cylinder holding about six ounces of +coffee, and perhaps a battery of a dozen or more; an electric grinding +mill; a testing table, with a top that can be revolved by hand; a pair +of accurately adjusted balance scales; one or more brass kettles; a gas +stove for heating water; sample pans; many china or glass cups; silver +spoons; and a brass cuspidor that stands waist high and is shaped like +an hour glass. + +Since the World War, there have been some notable changes in the buying +of coffees, particularly in European markets. For example, the old idea +of buying fancy coffees at fancy prices is probably gone for good in +Europe. + +[Illustration: TYPICAL SAMPLE-ROASTING AND CUP-TESTING OUTFIT + +In the middle of the picture is a standard revolving table (3-1/2 feet +in diameter), with scale mounted over the center, and with a "Mitchell +Tray" for holding one cup independent of the table-top movement. There +are two cuspidors, a double kettle outfit, a 6-cylinder sample roaster +and a motor-driven sample grinder; also a set of sample separator sieves +in the overhead rack, a bag sampler (lying on the lower shelf of the +counter), and some coffee crushers (one on the end of the counter and +one on the revolving table)] + + +COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE + +OF + +THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF COFFEE GROWN IN THE WORLD + +_Together with Their Trade Values and Cup Characteristics_ + +_t_, indicates town or trading center; _m n_, market name; _d_, district +or state. + +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- + | | |State, or |Trade Values +Grand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup + | | |Market Names |Characteristics + | | | Gradings | +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+--------------- +North America |Mexico |Vera Cruz |Mexicans |_In general_: + | |on Gulf of Mex.| |Mexicans are + | | | |mild or mellow. + | | | |The green beans + | | | |are greenish to + | | | |yellow (when + | | | |aged) and of + | | | |large size. The + | | | |washed coffees + | | | |make a handsome + | | | |roast, showing + | | | |pronounced white + | | | |central stripe. + | | | |In the cup they + | | | |have a full rich + | | | |body, fine + | | | |acidity, and a + | | | |wonderful + | | | |_bouquet_. + | | | | + | | |Vera Cruz, d |Acid, of + | | |Coatepec, m n |excellent heavy + | | |(pro., |and rich + | | | co-at-e-pec) |flavor;fine for + | | | |blending. + | | | | + | | |Huatusco, t |Fine appearing + | | |(pro., |washed coffee; + | | | wha-toos-co) |next to + | | | |Coatepec for + | | | |acid and + | | | |blending + | | | |qualities. + | | | | + | | |Orizaba, t |Regarded as + | | | |next to + | | | |Huatusco; + | | | |good cup + | | | |quality. + | | | | + | | |Jalapa, t |Stylish + | | |(pro., |roaster; + | | | ha-lap-a) |frequently + | | | |light body. + | | | | + | | |Cordoba, t |Neutral, smooth + | | | |in flavor, + | | | |without acid + | | | |tang; good + | | | |body. + | | | | + | |Puerto Mexico |Tabasco, d & |Of uncertain + | |on Gulf of Mex.| m n |character; many + | | |Coatzacoalcos,|of them Rioy, + | | | t & m n |flat, and + | | | |groundy. + | | | |Unsatisfactory + | | | |in the cup. + | | | | + | |Salina Cruz |Chiapas, d |Resembles + | | on Pacific | Soconusco, t,|Guatemala + | | | m n | + | |Coatzacoalcos | or |coffees; + | |(Puerto Mexico)| Tapachula, |smooth in + | |on Gulf of Mex.| t, m n |character, + | | | |and without + | | | |decided tang. + | | | | + | | |Oaxaca, d, m n|Small bean; + | | | & t (pr., |excellent + | | | wah-hock-ah)|quality, sharply + | | | Sierra Oaxaca|acid, fine + | | | (common - |flavor, but not + | | | unwashed) |stylish in + | | | Pluma Oaxaca |appearance. + | | | (hidalgo- |The Pluma is a + | | | washed) |very fancy bean + | | | |coffee, also + | | | |acid and fine + | | | |for blending. + | | | | + | |Acapulco |Guerrero, d |Inferior in + | | on Pacific | Sierra, m n |quality; low + | | | |growth and + | | | |woody. + | | | | + | |Manzanillo |Michoacan, d |A superior + | | on Pacific | Unrapan, t |coffee, but not + | | | |produced in + | | | |commercial + | | | |quantity. + | | | | + | | Do. |Colima, d, m n|Very like + | | | & t |Uruapan. +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- + | | |State, or |Trade Values +Grand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup + | | |Market Names |Characteristics + | | | Gradings | +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+--------------- +North America |Mexico |Vera Cruz |Puebla, d |Low-grade + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | |Sierra, m n |mountain coffee. + | | | | + | |Tampico |Tamaulipas, d |An inferior + | | | Tampico, m n |grade. + | | | & t | + | | | | + | | | Tepic |So called + | | | |"Mexican Mocha." + | | | |Raised for local + | | | |consumption. Not + | | | |a commercial + | | | |factor. + | | |------------------------------- + | | | Classes for all Mexicans + | | |1. Commons (customary or + | | | natural). + | | |2. Washed (W.I.P.) + | | |3. Caracolillo (peaberry.) +---------------+------------+---------------+------------------------------- +Central America|Guatemala |Puerto Barrios |Guatemala |_In general_: + | | and Livingston| |Guatemalas are + | | on Caribbean | |mild or mellow + | | | |and mostly + | | | |washed. + | | | |The green beans + | | | |are greenish to + | | | |yellow (when + | | | |aged), and of + | | | |large size. The + | | | |mountain-grown + | | | |coffees make a + | | | |handsome roast, + | | | |are of full + | | | |heavy body and + | | | |excellent cup + | | | |quality. The + | | | |lower-altitude + | | | |coffees are light + | | | |in cup, but + | | | |flavory. + | | | | + | |Ocos, |Cobán, t & m n|Waxy, bluish + | |Champerico, and| |bean; handsome + | |San José | |uniform roast + | | on Pacific | |with white + | | | |center. Heavy + | | | |body, fine + | | | |acidity. + | |Belize |Alta Verapaz, |Gray-blue bean; + | | (Br. Honduras)| d |fine mellow + | | | Sehenaju, t |flavor. See + | | | |Belize. + | | |Antigua, d |Medium flinty + | | |Costa Cuca, d |bean; lighter in + | | |Costa Grande, d|body; flavory, + | | |Barberena, d |acid. + | | |Tumbador, d | _Classes for_ + | | |Costa de Cucho|_All Guatemalas_ + | | |Chicacao |Most Guatemalas + | | | Xolhuitz, d |are washed and + | | |Pochuta |may be + | | | Malacatan, d|classified as + | | |San Marcos, d |follows: + | | |Chuva, d |1. Small flinty + | | |Escuintla, d |bean, extremely + | | |San Vincente, d|acid and flavory, + | | |Pacaya, d |produced in the + | | |Moran, d |highest altitudes + | | |Amatitlan, d |of the Antigua, + | | |Palmar, d |Moran, and + | | |Motagua, d |Amatitlan + | | | |districts. + | | | |2. Waxy, bluish + | | | |bean, flinty, + | | | |but large roast; + | | | |heavy body with + | | | |fine acidity. + | | | |Produced in the + | | | |mountainous + | | | |regions of the + | | | |Cobán, Costa + | | | |Cuca, Tumbador, + | | | |and Chuva + | | | |districts. + | | |3. Waxy, bluish bean, handsome + | | |uniform roast, heavy-bodied but + | | |non-acid coffees produced in + | | |almost every district of the + | | |republic at an altiture of from + | | |2,000 to 3,000 feet. + | | | + | | |4. Stylish, green bean, + | | |handsome large uniform roast, + | | |very white center, mild cupping + | | |coffees produced practically + | | |everywhere in the republic at + | | |an altitude of from 1,500 to + | | |2,500 feet. +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- + | | | State, or |Trade Values +Grand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup + | | |Market Names |Characteristics + | | | Gradings | +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+--------------- +Central America|Guatemala | |5. The lower altitudes of the + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | |various districts produce either + | | |medium bean, neutral cupping, + | | |colory coffees, or the Bourbon + | | |type of small bean, greenish + | | |coffee. + | | |------------------------------ + |British |Belize |Belize, m n |A Cobán coffee + | Honduras | | |from the + | | | |Honduras Alta + | | | |Verapaz district + | | | |in Guatemala. + | | | | + | |Trujillo and |Honduras |_In general_: + | |Puerto Cortés | Santa Barbara|Honduras coffees + | | on Caribbean | d |are small, + | | | Copan, d |rounded, and + | | | Cortez d |bluish-green. + | |Amapala | La Paz, d |They are of a + | | on Pacific | Choluteca, d |hard flinty + | | | El Paraiso, d|character; make a + | | | |fair roast and + | | | |are neutral in + | | | |flavor. While the + | | | |upland grades are + | | | |of good quality, + | | | |the run of the + | | | |country's + | | | |production + | | | |seldom brings as + | | | |high a price as + | | | |Santos of equal + | | | |grade. + | | | | + |Salvador |Acajutla |Salvador |_In general_: + | |La Union | Usulutan, d |Salvador's + | | La Libertad | La Libertad, |coffees are + | | | d |mostly inferior + | | | Santa Ana, d |in quality to + | | | Santa Tecla, |those of + | | | d |Guatemala. The + | | | La Paz, d |bulk of the crop + | | | Ahuachapan, d|is natural + | | | Juayua, d |unwashed. Green + | | | Santiago de |beans are smooth + | | | Maria, d |and handsome and + | | | Sonsonate, d |make a cinnamon + | | | San Miguel, d|roast. Flavor is + | | | San Salvador,|neutral. Useful + | | | d |as a filler. The + | | | San Vincente,|washed coffee is + | | | d |a fancy roaster, + | | | Cuscatlan, d |with a very thin + | | | Morazan, d |cup. + | | | Cabanas, d | + | | | Chalatenango,|Classes and + | | | d |Gradings for All + | | | La Union, d |Salvadors: Washed + | | | |1. Flinty, colory, + | | | |greenish to bluish + | | | |bean, fine white + | | | |centered roasters, + | | | |extremely stylish + | | | |coffees with + | | | |full-bodied cup + | | |--------------|merit. + | | |2. Grayish green to bluish green + | | |neutral-cupping coffees. + | | | + | | | _Unwashed_ + | | | + | | |1. Screened, large bean, fine + | | |roaster. + | | | + | | |2. Average run, unscreened, + | | |so-called Current Unwashed. All + | | |unwashed coffees vary greatly + | | |in cup merit, much the same as + | | |with Santos coffees. + | | |--------------+---------------- + |Nicaragua |Corinto |Nicaragua |_In general_: The + | | on Pacific | |washed coffees of + | | | |Nicaragua have + | | | |merit, and are + | | | |fine roasters; but + | | | |the naturals, + | | | |comprising the + | | | |bulk of the crop, + | | | |are of ordinary + | | | |quality. + | | | | + | |San Juan del |Matagalpa, d |Large, handsome, + | |Norte | |blue, washed bean + | | (Greytown) | |making fancy + | | on Caribbean | |roast with plenty + | | | |of acid in the + | | | |cup. +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------|--------------- + | | |State, or |Trade Values +Grand Division | Country |Shipping Ports |District, | and Cup + | | |Market Names |Characteristics + | | | Gradings | +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+--------------- +Central America|Nicaragua | |Jinotega, d | + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | |Los Pueblos, d| + | | |Los Altos, d | + | | +--------------+ + | | | _Classes for All Nicaraguas_: + | | | + | | |1. Large, handsome, pale + | | |greenish to blue, washed coffee + | | |of the Matagalpa district, + | | |often showing fancy roast and + | | |acidly full-bodied cup. + | | | + | | |2. Washed coffees of the lower + | | |regions; small in size, but + | | |greenish, colory, fine roasters + | | |and neutral cupping. + | | | + | | |3. Unwashed coffee (bulk of the + | | |output) the merit of which + | | |depends entirely on the + | | |respective crop. Often a large + | | |proportion of the crop is mild + | | |cupping and as desirable as any + | | |other unwashed coffee; while + | | |another crop may produce a large + | | |quantity of Rio-flavored coffees. + | | +------------------------------- + |Costa Rica |Puerto Limon |Costa Rica |_In general_: The + | | on Caribbean | Cartago, d |high-altitude + | |Punta Arenas | San José d |coffees of Costa + | | on Pacific | Alajuela, d |Rica are + | | | Grecia, d |blue-greenish, + | | | Tres Rios, d |large, rich in + | | | Heredia, d |body, of fine, + | | | |mild flavor, + | | | |sharply acid, + | | | |and superior for + | | | |blending + | | | |purposes. These + | | | |coffees are famous + | | | |for their fine + | | | |preparation and + | | | |careful + | | | |screening. The + | | | |lower regions + | | | |produce coffees + | | | |of more + | | | |neutral-cupping + | | | |qualities. + |Panama |Panama City |Panama |_In general_: The + | | | Chiriqui, d |green bean is of + | | | Boquete, m n |average size, + | | | |greenish in + | | | |color. In the + | | | |cup it has a + | | | |heavy body and a + | | | |strong flavor. + | | | |Grown chiefly for + | | | |domestic + | | | |consumption. Not + | | | |a commercial + | | | |factor. +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+---------------- +West Indies |Cuba |Havana |Cuba |_In general_: +(Greater | |Santiago | Oriente, d |Cuban coffee is + Antilles) | | | Guatanamo, t |of good quality. + | | | Santa Clara, |The bean is of + | | | d |medium size, + | | | Pinar del Rio|light green, and + | | | d |makes a uniform + | | | Vuelta Abaja|roast. The flavor + | | | m n |resembles the fine + | | | |washed coffees of + | | | |Santo Domingo. Not + | | | |commercially + | | | |important. + | | | | + |Haiti |Port au Prince |Haiti |_In general_: The + | |Cap Haitien | St. Marc, d |Haitian washed + | | | Gonaive, d |coffee is a blue + | | | Cap Haitien, |bean and makes an + | | | d |attractive roast. + | | | Jacmel, d |It has a rich, + | | | Les Cayes, d |fairly acid, + | | | Jeremie, d |mildly-sweet + | | | |flavor; of average + | | | |quality. The + | | | |naturals are used + | | | |extensively for + | | | |French roasts. +---------------+------------+---------------+--------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +West Indies |Santo |Santo Domingo |Santo Domingo |_In general_: Santo + (Greater | Domingo |Porto Plata | Cape, m n | Domingo coffee is + Antilles) | | | Mocha, d | a large, flat, + (Cont'd) | | | Santiago, d | pointed, + | | | Porto Plata, d | greenish-yellow + | | | Bani, d | bean. The + | | | Barahona, d | high-grown washed + | | | | is of good body and + | | | | fair flavor. The + | | | | low grade is + | | | | strong, approaching + | | | | Rio in flavor. The + | | | | natural coffees are + | | | | used extensively + | | | | for French roasts. + | | | | + |Jamaica |Kingston |Jamaica |_In general_: + | (British) | | Classes: | Jamaica coffee is + | | | Blue Mountain | bluish-green when + | | | (high-grown) | washed, and green + | | | Settlers' | to yellow when + | | | (ordinary, or | patio-dried. The + | | | plain-grown) | washed high-grown + | | | | makes a fancy + | | | | roast, and is rich, + | | | | full and mellow in + | | | | the cup. The + | | | | ordinary + | | | | plain-grown makes + | | | | a bright roast, + | | | | and has a fairly + | | | | good cup quality. + | | | | The naturals are + | | | | used extensively + | | | | for French roasts. + | | | | + |Porto Rico |San Juan |Porto Rico |_In general_: Porto + | (U.S.) |Ponce | Sierra | Rico coffee + | |Mayaguez | Luquillo, | is a large, + | |Arecibo | m n | handsome, washed + | |Aguadilla | Yauco, d, t | bean, light + | | | & m n | gray-blue to dark + | | | Ciales, d & t | greenish blue in + | | | Cayey, d & t | color, and makes + | | | Utuado, d & t | a fancy roast + | | | | without quakers. + | | | Lares, d & t | Strong or heavy + | | | Moca, d & t | body; peculiar + | | | Adjuntas, d & | flavor similar + | | | t | to a washed + | | | Las Larias, d | Caracas, but + | | | & t | smoother. + | | | Maricao, d & | + | | | t | + | | | San Sebastian | _Classes for All + | | | d | Porto Ricos_ + | | | Mayaguez, d & | + | | | t |Caracolillo, a round + | | | Ponce, d & t | bean peaberry; + | | | | Primero, a superior + | | | | grade of good size + | | | | and color, usually + | | | | hand-picked; + | | | | Segundo, second + | | | | grade, inferior to + | | | | Primero in size and + | | | | color; Trillo, + | | | | lowest grade, sold + | | | | locally. + | | | | +(Lesser |British West| | | + Antilles) | Indies | | | + |Antigua |Saint John |Antigua |_In general_: While + |Dominica |Portsmouth |Dominica | the quantity grown + | | | (Soufrière) | is small, the + |Barbados |Bridgetown |Barbados | coffee is of good + |Trinidad |Port of Spain |Trinidad | quality, and + |Tobago |Scarborough |Tobago | includes ten + | | | | different + | | | | varieties. That + | | | | grown in Barbados + | | | | is similar to that + | | | | of Martinique, but + | | | | a larger bean. This + | | | | group is not an + | | | | important + | | | | commercial factor. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +West Indies |Guadeloupe |Pointe-à-Pitre|Guadeloupe |_In general_: The + (Lesser | (French) | |Classes: | Guadeloupe coffee + Antilles) | | | 1. Bonifieur, | bean is glossy, + (Cont'd) | | | or Café Lustre | hard, long, and + | | | (glossy) | has an even green + | | | 2. Habitant, | color, somewhat + | | | or Café plus | grayish. It is of + | | | Pellicule | excellent quality. + | | | (with | The Saints Bean is + | | | pellicles) | superior. The + | | | | Ordinary is a + | | | | smaller, rounder, + | | | | curved bean. + | | | | Guadeloupe coffees + | | | | are mostly sold as + | | | | Martinique. + | | | | + |Martinique |Fort-de-France|Martinique |_In general_: The + | (French) | | Grades: | Martinique bean is + | | | Fine Green | green, long, + | | | Common Green | somewhat thick, and + | | | Good Commercial| is usually shipped + | | | Common " | in the silver skin. + | | | Picked " | It is of fine + | | | Common | quality, but + | | | | commercially + | | | | unimportant. + | | | | Guadeloupe coffees + | | | | are not + | | | | infrequently sold + | | | | as Martinique. + | | | | + |Curaçao |Willemstad |Curaçao |_In general_: The + | (Dutch) | | | Curaçao coffee bean + | | | | is small, of light + | | | | color and flavor. + | | | | It makes a bright + | | | | cinnamon roast; + | | | | useful as a filler. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +South America|Colombia |Puerto |Colombians, m |_In general_: The + | | Colombia | n | Colombian coffee + | | (Savanilla) | | bean is greenish, + | |Barranquilla | | yellow, and brown, + | |Cartagena | | depending on age, + | |Santa Marta | | and is rich and + | | on Atlantic | | mild in the cup. + | | | | The fancy grades + | |Buenaventura | | compare favorably + | |Tumaco | | with the world's + | | on the | | best growths. They + | | Pacific | | produce one-quarter + | | | | more liquor of + | | | | given strength than + | | | | Santos coffees, and + | | | | possess much finer + | | | | flavor and aroma. + | | | | + | | |Antioquia, d |Light to dark green; + | | | Medellin, t | handsome roasters; + | | | & m n | not as smooth as + | | | | some Central + | | | | American types, but + | | | | best of Colombians; + | | | | fine flavor and + | | | | body. + | | | | + | | |Caldas, d |Similar to Medellins + | | | Manizales, | in cup quality, but + | | | t & m n | not as heavy-bodied + | | | | or as acid. + | | | | + | | | Jerico |A favorably regarded + | | | | Colombian. + | | | | + | | |Magdalena, d |Full, solid, blue, + | | | Santa Marta, | washed bean, making + | | | t & m n | a fancy roast, but + | | | | too acid to be + | | | | used straight. + | | | | + | | |Cundinamarca, |The green bean is + | | | d | blue-green to fancy + | | | Bogota, t & | yellow and Java + | | | m n | brown, depending on + | | | | age; long, with a + | | | | sharp turn in one + | | | | end of the center + | | | | stripe. It makes +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +South America|Colombia | | | a smooth roast. The + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd). | | | fancy has a rich, + | | | | mellow flavor. + | | | Cauca, t & | Sometimes sold as + | | | m n | imitation Bogota or + | | | | Bucaramanga; but + | | | | inferior in + | | | | appearance, roast, + | | | | and drink. + | | | | + | | | Santander, d |Large bean, spongy + | | | Bucaramanga | and open, making a + | | | t & m n | dull Java-style + | | | | roast. The naturals + | | | | lack acidity and + | | | | flavor; but have a + | | | | heavy body. The + | | | | fancies are almost + | | | | the equals of fine + | | | | Javas and Sumatras. + | | | | + | | | Cucuta, t & |Attractive in style + | | | m n | and cup. + | | | | (See Venezuela.) + | | | | + | | | Ocana, t |Sometimes sold as an + | | | Savanilla, | imitation Bogota or + | | | m n | Bucaramanga; but + | | | | inferior in + | | | | appearance and cup. + | | | | + | | | Tolima, d |Fair size bean, + | | | Ibague, t | attractive in + | | | Honda, t | style and cup. + | | | | + | | | _Classes for All Colombians_: + | | | Café Trillado (natural or sun dried), + | | | Café Lavado (washed). + | | | + | | | _Gradings for All Colombians_: + | | | Excelso (excellent), fantasia + | | | (excelso and extra), extra (extra), + | | | primera (first), segunda (second), + | | | caracol (peaberry), monstruo (large + | | | and deformed), consumo (defective), + | | | pasilla (siftings). + | | |-----------------+----------------- + |Venezuela |La Guaira |Venezuela |_In general_: The + | |Puerto Cabello| | coffee of Venezuela + | |Maracaibo | | is greenish-yellow + | | | | to yellow; large + | | | | bean, ranging next + | | | | to Santos in + | | | | quality and price. + | | | | It is mild or + | | | | mellow in the cup. + | | | | The unwashed, or + | | | | _trillado_, + | | | | comprises the bulk + | | | | of the crop. + | | | | + | | | Caracas, d |Short, bluish bean, + | | | | uniform in color, + | | | | and making a light + | | | | cinnamon roast, but + | | | | containing quakers. + | | | | The natural has a + | | | | fair cup quality. + | | | | The washed gives + | | | | the best results in + | | | | roast and cup. + | | | | + | | | Puerto |The washed is a + | | | Cabello, d | handsome bean, but + | | | | inferior in flavor + | | | | to Caracas. The + | | | | unwashed is flinty; + | | | | fair roast, no + | | | | special merit + | | | | in cup. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +South America|Venezuela | |Cumana, d |Valued just below + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | | Caracas. + | | | | + | | |Coro, d |Valued a trifle + | | | | below Rio of the + | | | | same grade. + | | | | + | | |Trujillo, d & |A low grade, making + | | | m n | a dull rough roast. + | | | | + | | | Santa Ana |Light in color and + | | | | body. + | | | | + | | | Monte Carmelo |Light in color and + | | | | body. + | | | | + | | | Bocono |Light in color and + | | | | body; neutral + | | | | flavor. Two + | | | | classes. + | | | | + | | |Merida, d & |The best of the + | | | m n | Maracaibos. The + | | | | washed makes a good + | | | | roast, and has a + | | | | peculiar delicate + | | | | flavor much prized + | | | | by experts. It + | | | | ranks among the + | | | | world's best. + | | | | + | | | Tovar, m n |Ranks between + | | | | Trujillos and + | | | | Tachiras. Fair to + | | | | good body; without + | | | | acidity. Used as + | | | | filler in blends. + | | | | + | | | Tachira, m |Formerly sold as + | | | n | Cucuta, (San + | | | | Cristobal) to which + | | | | it is nearest + | | | | in quality, + | | | | appearance, and + | | | | flavor. + | | | | + | | | Cucuta, t & |Grown in Colombia. + | | | m n | Resembles Java bean + | | | Salazar, m | in form and roast. + | | | n | The natural makes + | | | | a full roast. The + | | | | washed is a + | | | | stylish, large + | | | | bean, a beautiful + | | | | roaster, splitting + | | | | open with irregular + | | | | white center; + | | | | sharply acid in the + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | | | Angostura |A small bean, light + | | | | in color and body, + | | | | without much weight + | | | | or character. + | | | | + | | | Carupano |A low grade valued + | | | | at about the same + | | | | as a Brazil coffee + | | | | of similar grade. + | | | | + |British |Georgetown |Demerara, m |_In general_: Not a + | Guiana | | n | commercial factor. + | | | | + |Dutch Guiana|Paramaribo |Surinam, m |_In general_: The + | (Surinam) | | n | production is + | | | | limited and + | | | | commercially + | | | | unimportant. + | | | | + |French |Cayenne |Cayenne, m |_In general_: + | Guiana | | n | Similar to + | (Cayenne) | | | Martinique. The + | | | | production is + | | | | limited and + | | | | commercially + | | | | unimportant. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +South |Brazil | |Brazils, m n |_In general_: The + American | | | | coffees of Brazil, + (Cont'd) | | | | which are generally + | | | | known in the trade + | | | | as "Brazils" (to + | | | | distinguish them + | | | | from "Milds," the + | | | | higher grades), + | | | | are the "price" + | | | | coffees of the + | | | | world. Brazil + | | | | produces about 70% + | | | | of the world's + | | | | supply. + | | | | + | |Santos |São Paulo, d |The largest coffee + | | | | district, producing + | | | | between 50% and 60% + | | | | of the world's + | | | | supply. + | | | | + | | |Classes: | + | | | Bourbon, |Small bean, + | | | Santos m n | resembling Mocha, + | | | | but making a + | | | | handsomer roast + | | | | with fewer quakers. + | | | | In color it varies + | | | | from dark to light + | | | | green, and from + | | | | yellow to a pale + | | | | straw, often with + | | | | a red center. True + | | | | Bourbons are first + | | | | crop beans. In the + | | | | cup they are smooth + | | | | and palatable + | | | | without tang. + | | | | + | | | Flat Bean |Smooth surface, + | | | Santos m n | small to large, + | | | | pale green and + | | | | greenish-yellow to + | | | | pale yellow. It is + | | | | a sixth year crop + | | | | of Bourbon Santos. + | | | | Good full smooth + | | | | body. Used straight + | | | | and in combination + | | | | with all milds. + | | | | + | | | Mocha-Seed |A grade of Bourbon + | | | Santos m n | designed as a + | | | | substitute for true + | | | | Mocha on the + | | | | European markets. + | | | | + | | | Campinas, d |The oldest coffee + | | | & t | district in São + | | | | Paulo. There are + | | | | 136 others. + | | | + | | | _Gradings for All São Paulo_: + | | | 1--Fine 4--Regular + | | | 2--Superior 5--Ordinary + | | | 3--Good 6--Escalba + | | +-----------------+----------------- + | |Rio de |Minãs Geraes |Various shades of + | | Janeriro | Rio, m n | green, medium to + | | | | large. Peculiar + | | | | pungent flavor and + | | | | aroma. + | | | + | | | _Gradings for All Rios_: + | | | (N.Y. Coffee Exchange) + | | | 1--No imperfections + | | | 2--6 imperfections + | | | 3--13 imperfections + | | | 4--20 imperfections + | | | 5--60 imperfections + | | | 6--110 imperfections + | | | 7--About 200 imperfections + | | | 8--About 400 imperfections + | | | + | | | (On Havre Exchange) + | | | Washed--Inferior and ordinary + | | | Unwashed--Superior, 1st good, 1st + | | | regular, 1st ordinary, 2nd good, + | | | 2nd ordinary. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +South America|Brazil |Victoria |Espirito Santo |Large, dingy-green + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | d | or brown bean + | | | Victoria, t | making a roast free + | | | Capitania, m | from quakers but + | | | n | but muddy in the + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | |Bahia |Bahia, d, t, & |Low grade, having a + | | | m n | peculiar smoky + | | | | flavor. + | | | | + | | | Chapada, t & | Light-colored, + | | | m n | fair-sized bean; + | | | | attractive roast, + | | | | but no cup + | | | | character. + | | | | + | | | Caravellas, t |Similar to Chapada. + | | | & m n | + | | | | + | | | Nazareth, t & |Small bean, fair + | | | m n | roast, undesirable + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | | | Maragogipe, |A variety of + | | | t & m n | _Coffea arabica_; + | | | | large bean, + | | | | elephantine roast, + | | | | woody in the cup. + | | | | + | |Ceará | Ceará, t |Small, flinty, green + | | | Cuaruaru, m | bean; value like + | | | n | Santos of the same + | | | | grade. + | | | | + |Ecuador |Guayaquil |Ecuador |_In general_: The + | | | | Ecuador coffee bean + | | | | is small, pea-green + | | | | in color, and not + | | | | high grade. It + | | | | resembles Ceará, + | | | | and when old makes + | | | | a bright roast. It + | | | | is poor in cup + | | | | quality and useful + | | | | only as a filler. + | | | | Not an important + | | | | commercial factor. + | | | | + |Peru |Callao |Peru |_In general_: The + | |Mollendo | Choquisongo, d | green coffee bean + | | | Cajamarca, d | of Peru ranges from + | | | Perene, d | medium to bold in + | | | Paucartambo, d | size, and from + | | | Chauchamayo, d | bluish to yellow in + | | | Huanuaco, d | color. The highland + | | | Pacasmayo, d | variety has been + | | | | compared with the + | | | | high-grade + | | | | Mexicans, but the + | | | | lowland growths are + | | | | not favorably + | | | | regarded. + | | | | Unimportant + | | | | commercially. + | | | | + |Bolivia | |Bolivia |_In general_: + | | | La Paz, d | Bolivia's coffee, + | | | Apolobamba, | though of superior + | | | t | quality and + | | | Yungas, m | sometimes compared + | | | n | favorably with + | | | Cochabamba, d | Arabian growths, is + | | | Santa Cruz, d | an unimportant + | | | Sara | factor in + | | | Velasco | international + | | | Chiquitos | coffee trading. + | | | Cordillera | + | | | El Beni, d | + | | | Chuquisca, d | + | | | | + |Argentina | |Argentina |_In general_: + | | | Salta, d | Argentina's coffee + | | | Jujuy, d | is grown chiefly + | | | | for home + | | | | consumption. + | | | | Unimportant + | | | | commercially. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +South America|Paraguay | |Paraguay |_In general_: + (Cont'd) | | | Altos, d | Paraguay's coffee + | | | Asuncion, d | is all marketed in + | | | | Asuncion, where it + | | | | is sold as + | | | | Brazilian coffee. + | | | | It is commercially + | | | | important. + | | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Asia |Arabia |Aden |Mocha |_In general_: + | |Hodeida | | Arabian, or Mocha, + | |Maidi | | beans are very + | |Leheya | | small, hard, round + | | | | irregular in form + | | | | and size; in color, + | | | | olive green shading + | | | | off to pale yellow. + | | | | The roast is poor + | | | | and irregular. In + | | | | the cup they have + | | | | a unique acid + | | | | character, heavy + | | | | body; in flavor, + | | | | smooth and + | | | | delicious. + | | |Yemen | + | | | Marttari, d |From the Beni-Mattar + | | | (Mohtari) | country; the best; + | | | | a yellow-green + | | | | translucent bean. + | | | | + | | | Yaffey, d |From the Yaffey + | | | | country near Taiz; + | | | | second best. + | | | | + | | | Sharki, d |A long light yellow + | | | (Shergi) | bean, from the + | | | | east, "Esh Shark" a + | | | | superior Mocha with + | | | | a rich full body. + | | | | + | | | | + | | | Sanani, d |From the Sanaa + | | | | region; a green + | | | | bean. A grade lower + | | | | than Sharki. + | | | | + | | | Haimi-Harazi, |A quality green bean + | | | d | from a mountain + | | | (Hemi or | near Mattari. + | | | Heimah) | + | | | | + | | | Anezi, d |From the El Anz + | | | (Anisi) | country. Pale + | | | | yellow and very + | | | | hard. + | | | | + | | | Sharsh, d |Superior qualities + | | | Menakha, d | of the above due + | | | Hifash, d | to different + | | | | methods of curing. + | | | | + | | | Remi, d |A poorer grade, + | | | (Reimah) | reddish bean, from + | | | | Djebel Remi. + | | | | + | | | Bourai, d |A poorer grade from + | | | (Bura) | Djebel Boura. + | | | | + | | | Shami, d |A poorer grade from + | | | | from the north; Esh + | | | | Sham. + | | | | + | | | Yemeni, d |A poorer grade from + | | | (Taizi) | the south; El + | | | | Yemen. + | | | | + | | | Maidi, d |A poorer grade from + | | | | the port of Maidi. + | | | | + | | |Abyssinia |Formerly known as + | | | (Africa) | Longberry Mocha, + | | | | but still shipped + | | | | through Aden _via_ + | | | | Jibuti. See + | | | | Africa--Abyssinia. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Asia |Arabia | |_Gradings for All Mochas_: Mocha + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | Extra--For all extra qualities as + | | | Yaffey, Anezi, Matari, Sharki. Mocha + | | | No. 1--For Anezi, Matari, Sharki; + | | | only perfect berries. No. 1A, same as + | | | No. 1, but with some dust. Mocha No. + | | | 2--Some broken and quakers. Mocha No. + | | | 3--Broken, quakers and dust. + | | | Magrache--Triage or screenings. + | | |-----------------+----------------- + |India |Madras | Indias, m n |_In general_: The + | |Calicut | | Indian coffee bean + | |Mangalore | | is small to large + | |Tellicherry | | and blue-green in + | |Tuticorin | | color. In the cup + | |Bombay | | it has a + | | | | distinctive strong + | | | | flavor and deep + | | | | color. + | | | | + | | | Mysore, d |Mountain-grown, + | | | Mysore, t | large, blue-green + | | | | bean, heavy body. + | | | | + | | | Madras, d |Small bean, solid + | | | Malabar, m | and meaty; handsome + | | | n (Wynaad) | roast, peculiar + | | | | rich flavor. + | | | | + | | | Nilgiri, d |Small to large bean + | | | Nilgiris, m | with slight acidity + | | | n | in the cup; + | | | | plantation Ceylon + | | | | character. + | | | | + | | | Madura, d |No marked + | | | (Palni Hills) | characteristics. + | | | | + | | | Salem, d |Same as Nilgiris. + | | | (Shevaroys) | + | | | | + | | | Coimbatore, d |Same as Nilgiris. + | | | | + | | | Tellicherry, |A good grade + | | | d | resembling Malabar; + | | | | somewhat similar + | | | | Nilgiris. + | | | | + | | | Coorg (or |A large, flat, dark + | | | Kurg), d | green bean, thin in + | | | | the cup; a lowland + | | | | variety. + | | | | + | | | Travancore, d |Similar to + | | | | Nilgiris. + | | | | + | | | Cochin, d |A native cherry. + | | | Cochin, m | + | | | n | + | | | | + | | | Bombay, d |Commercially + | | | Kanara | unimportant. + | | | | + | | | Bengal, d |Commercially + | | | Chittagong | unimportant. + | | | | + | | | Assam |Commercially + | | | | unimportant. + | | | | + | | | South Sylhet |Commercially + | | | | unimportant. + | | | | + |Burma |Rangoon |Burma |Large spongy bean; + | | | Tavoy, d | grassy cup. Not a + | | | | commercial factor. + | | | | + | | | _Classes for All Indias_: + | | | 1--Native cherry (sun dried and + | | | then hulled) + | | | 2--Plantation (washed) + | | | Sizes: Nos. 1, 2 and 3; Peaberry + | | | and Triage +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Asia |Ceylon |Colombo |Ceylon |_In general_: + (Cont'd) | | | Gampola, d | Ceylon's coffees + | | | Dumbara, d | are no longer the + | | | Kotmale, d | commercial factor + | | | Pussellawa, d | they were before + | | | | the coffee blight + | | | | practically + | | | | destroyed the + | | | | industry. Those + | | | | left, however, + | | | | still retain much + | | | | of their original + | | | | character, the + | | | | hill-grown washed + | | | | being unique in + | | | | appearance and + | | | | flavor. In the old + | | | | days they were + | | | | classed as native, + | | | | or plain-grown, + | | | | plantation, + | | | | mountain, and + | | | | Liberian. + | | | | + |Malay States|Penang | Straits |_In general_: The + | (British) | (Georgetown) | Liberian, m | coffee from the + | |Singapore | n | Malay States is + | | | Straits | mostly Liberian + | | | Robusta, m | and Robusta and is + | | | n | not important + | | | | commercially, + | | | | although the + | | | | Robusta variety + | | | | promises to become + | | | | an important + | | | | factor. + | | | | + | | | Perak, d |Most important of + | | | | the Federated + | | | | States coffees. + | | | | + | | | Selangor, d |Native state coffee. + | | | | + | | | Negri- |Nine states + | | | Sembilan, d | Federation district + | | | | coffees. + | | | | + | | | Bali, d & m |From the island in + | | | n | Netherlands East + | | | | Indies (See p. + | | | | 374.) + | | | | + | | | Timor, d & |From the island in + | | | m n | Netherlands East + | | | | Indies (See p. + | | | | 374.) + | | | | + |French |Haiphong |Indo-China, m |_In general_: The + | Indo-China| | n | coffees of French + | | | Tonkin | Indo-China, while + | | | Annam | comparatively new, + | | | Cambodia | give promise; but + | | | Cochin-China | as yet are not + | | | | commercially + | | | | important. The + | | | | original arabica + | | | | plantings have been + | | | | succeeded by + | | | | liberica and + | | | | robusta growths. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Malay |Sunda | | East Indies, |_In general_: + Archipelago | Islands | | m n | Included in this + | | | | group are the + | | | | best-known coffees + | | | | from Sumatra, Java, + | | | | Timor, Celebes, + | | | | etc. + | | | | + |Netherlands | | | + | East Indies| | | + |Sumatra |Padang |Sumatra |_In general___: + | |Kroe (West | | Included among the + | | Coast) | | coffees of Sumatra + | |Batavia (Java)| | are several that + | | | | are conceded to be + | | | | the finest the + | | | | world produces. The + | | | | green beans are + | | | | large, uniform, and + | | | | vary in color from + | | | | pale straw to deep + | | | | mahogany. They have + | | | | a smooth, heavy + | | | | body, the +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Malay |Netherlands |Padang | | fancies possessing + Archipelago | East Indies|Kroe (West | | an almost syrupy + (Cont'd) |Sumatra | Coast) | | richness. They are + | (Cont'd) |Batavia (Java)| | graded as Private + | | | | Estate (washed or + | | | |dry hulled) and Blue + | | | | Bean (washed). + | | | | + | | |Padang, d & |The best coffee in + | | | t | the world"; also + | | | Mandheling, m | the highest priced. + | | | n | Formerly a + | | | | Government coffee. + | | | | Yellow to brown, + | | | | large-sized bean; + | | | | dully roast, but + | | | | free from quakers. + | | | | It is of heavy + | | | | body, exquisite + | | | | flavor and aroma. + | | | | + | | | Ankola, m n |Formerly a + | | | | Government coffee. + | | | | Large fat bean, + | | | | making a dull + | | | | roast. Second only + | | | | to Mandhelings; it + | | | | has a heavy body + | | | | and rich, musty + | | | | flavor. + | | | | + | | | Siboga, m n |A harder bean + | | | | Ankola; sometimes + | | | | called Private + | | | | Estate Ankola. + | | | | + | | | Ayer Bangies, |Formerly a + | | | m n | Government + | | | | coffee. Large + | | | | even bean, with + | | | | Mandheling and + | | | | Ankola; of a + | | | | delicate flavor + | | | | but not much + | | | | body. + | | | | + | | | Corinchie, m |Formerly a native + | | | n | cultivation. The + | | | | bean is large, + | | | | handsome, brown in + | | | | color. It makes an + | | | | attractive roast. + | | | | Good body, plenty + | | | | of bitter acid, + | | | | delicious flavor. + | | | | + | | | Interior, m |Formerly all + | | | n | Government coffee. + | | | | The true type of + | | | | Old Government + | | | | Java. Poor roast, + | | | | good cup. + | | | | + | | | Painan |Formerly a + | | | | Government coffee. + | | | | Mixed green and + | | | | brown beans; poor + | | | | roast. Heavy body, + | | | | pungent flavor. + | | | | Grades next to + | | | | Inferior. + | | | | + | | | Kroe, t & m |Formerly a native + | | | n | cultivated coffee. + | | | | Large even bean, + | | | | fine roast, heavy + | | | | body, somewhat + | | | | groundy flavor. + | | | | + | | | Lahat, t & |Former native + | | | m n | cultivation. + | | | | Smaller than Kroe; + | | | | good roaster, flat + | | | | cup. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Malay |Netherlands |Padang | Palembang, t |Former Private +Archipelago | East Indies|Kroe (West | & m n | Estates. Smaller +(Cont'd) |Sumatra | Coast) | | than the Padang + | (Cont'd) |Batavia (Java)| | bean; light color, + | | | | strong cup. + | | | | + | | | Indrapoera, |Former Private + | | | t & m n | Estates. An + | | | | inferior grade of + | | | | Sumatra. + | | | | + | | | Benkoelen, |Formerly a native + | | | t & m n | cultivation. Good + | | | | roast and cup. + | | | | + | | | Libaya, m n |Formerly a native + | | | | cultivation. + | | | | + | | | Boekit Gompong, |Formerly a Private + | | | m n | Estate. A perfect + | | | | coffee, of heavier + | | | | body than + | | | | Mandheling, good + | | | | roast; very + | | | | delicate flavor. + | | | | + | | | Kagoe Kaleh, |Formerly a Private + | | | m n | Estate. + | | | | + | | | Batang Baros, |Formerly a Private + | | | m n | Estate. + | | | | + | | | Telok Goenoeng, |Formerly a Private + | | | m n | Estate. + | | | | + | | | Aker Gedang, |Formerly a Private + | | | m n | Estate. Small bean, + | | | | good roast, fine + | | | | flavor. + | | | | + | | | Soerian, m |Formerly a Private + | | | n | Estate. Large bean, + | | | | fine roast, good + | | | | cup. Ranks next to + | | | | Boekit Gompong. + | | | | + | | | Liki, m n |Formerly a Private + | | | | Estate. Fine roast, + | | | | light cup. It ranks + | | | | next to Soerian. + | | | | + | | | Loebor Sampir, |Formerly a Private + | | | m n | Estate. + | | | | + | | | Soengei, m |Former Private + | | | n | Estate. + | | | Landei, m n |Former Private + | | | | Estate. + | | | Ramboetan, m |Former Private + | | | n | Estate. + | | | Gadoeng Batoe, |Former Private + | | | m n | Estate. + | | | | + | | | Merapi, m n |Formerly a Private + | | | | Estate. Large bean, + | | | | good roast, good + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | | | Si Barasap, m |Formerly a Private + | | | n | Estate. + | | | | + | | | Laboe Raya, m |Formerly a Private + | | | n | Estate. Large bean, + | | | | good roast, good + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | |Balawan-Deli |East Coast |These coffees are + | |Panai | Deli, d | comparatively new. + | | | Bintangmariah, | They partake of the + | | | d | qualities common to + | | | Oelakmedan, d | the general run of + | | | Panai, d | Sumatras without + | | | | distinguishing + | | | | characteristics. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Malay |Netherlands |Batavia |Java, m n |_In general_: Java +Archipelago | East Indies| | | coffees do not + (Cont'd) | (Cont'd) | | | compare with + |Java | | | Sumatras in + | | | | quality. They are + | | | | smaller in the + | | | | bean, with a grassy + | | | | flavor in the cup. + | | | | Blue to pale + | | | | yellow, short round + | | | | bean. The washed + | | | | makes a good smooth + | | | | roast, light in the + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | | | Preager, d |Best of the Java + | | | | growths. + | | | | + | | | Cheribon, d |Ranks next to + | | | | Preanger. + | | | | + | | | Kadoe, d |Small + | | | | yellowish-green + | | | | shelly bean; light + | | | | in cup. + | | | | + | | | Semarang, d |Ranks next to Kadoe + | | | | in roast and cup + | | | | quality. + | | | | + | | | Malang, d |Hard green bean; + | | | | better roaster than + | | | | the above, but + | | | | inferior in cup + | | | | quality. + | | | | + | | | Bantam, t & |Medium-sized + | | | m n | yellowish bean. + | | | | + | | | Buitenzorg, |One of the best of + | | | t & m n | the Javas. + | | | | + | | | Krawang, t & |Irregular bean; fair + | | | m n | roaster; fair cup. + | | | | + | | | Tegal, t & |One of the best of + | | | m n | the Java growths. + | | | | + | | | Banjoemas, t |Medium-sized bean; + | | | & m n | creamy and fragrant + | | | | in the cup. + | | | | + | | | Pekalongan, |With characteristics + | | | t & m n | like Pasuruan. + | | | | + | | | Baquilan, t |No marked + | | | & m n |characteristics. + | | | | + | | | Japara, t & |Bean light in weight + | | | m n | and color; cup + | | | | neutral. + | | | | + | | | Surakarta, t |Large bean, handsome + | | | & m n | roast, creamy body, + | | | | aromatic flavor in + | | | | the cup. + | | | | + | | | Jokjakarta, |Similar to + | | | t & m n | Surakarta. + | | | | + | | | Madiun, t & |Yellow bean, light + | | | m n | in weight and body, + | | | | but good cup. + | | | | + | | | Rembang, t & |Similar to Kadoe. + | | | m n | + | | | | + | | | Surabaya, t |Similar to Kadoe. + | | | & m n | + | | | | + | | | Kediri, t & |Small hard bean; + | | | m n | good drinker. + | | | | + | | | Pasurauan, t |Brown, uniform + | | | & m n | bean; fragrant in + | | | | cup. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Malay |Netherlands |Batavia | Probolingo, |Small hard bean: + Archipelago | East Indies| | t & m n | poor roast. + (Cont'd) |Java | | | + | (Cont'd) | | Bejreki, t |Bold yellow bean; + | | | & m n | full body and + | | | | flavor. + | | | | + | | | Banjoewangi, |Heavy bean; rich + | | | t & m n | flavor. + | | | | + | | | Pamanukin, t |A Liberian growth. + | | | & m n | + | | | | + | | | Robusta, m |Small, + | | | n |yellowish-green, + | | | |round bean; quality + | | | |approximately that + | | | |of middling Arabian, + | | | |ranking a little + | | | |under good average + | | | |Santos. Natural, + | | | |poor roast. Washed, + | | | |good roast. Fair + | | | |cup. + | | | | + |Bali (Dutch)|Singaraja | Bali, m n |Fair-size bean of + | | (Boeleleng) | | little merit. + | | | | Poor roast. + | | | | + |Timor |Kupang | Timor, m n |Medium bean of good + | (Dutch & | | | quality. + | Portuguese)| | | + | | | | + |Celebes | | Celebes, m |In general: With the + | (Dutch) | | n | exception of the + | | | | Minahassa product, + | | | | the coffees grown + | | | | in the Celebes have + | | | | little merit and + | | | | are of + | | | | inconsiderable + | | | | importance. + | | | | + | |Menado | Minahassa, |Large, deep-yellow + | | | m n | bean, making a + | | | | handsome roast, and + | | | | having an aromatic + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | |Macassar | Boengie, |Inferior in + | | | m n | appearance, but + | | | | fair roast and + | | | | cup quality. + | | | | + | |Bonthain | Bontbain, |Medium, flat, + | | | m n | reddish bean, poor + | | | | roast; undesirable + | | | | cup. + | | | | + | | | Sindjai, |Not commercially + | | | m n | important. + | | | | + |Moluccas |Ternate | Boengie, |Superior to the Java + | (Dutch) | | m n | _arabica_. + | | | | + |Borneo | | | + | British |Sandakan | Borneo, |_In general_: The + | North | | m n | coffees of Borneo + | Sarawak |Kuching | Borneo, m n | are mostly Liberian + | Dutch |Banjermasin | Borneo, m n | growths and are not + | | | | a trade factor. + | | | | + |New Guinea |Ternate | New Guinea, |_In general_: These + | (Dutch) | (Moluccas) | m n | coffees are of the + | |Dorey | | mild variety, but + | | | | the production is + | | | | commercially + | | | | unimportant. + | | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Melanesia |New |Noumea |New Caledonia |A fair Robusta + | Caledonia | | La Foa | coffee, but + | (France) | | | commercially + | | | | unimportant. + | | | | + |New Hebrides| | | + | (Great | | | + | Britain | | | + | and France)| | | + | | | | + |Efate |Vila |New Hebrides |A fair coffee, but + | | | | not a trade factor. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Micronesia |Samoan | | | + | Islands | | | + | Tutuila |Pago Pago |Samoa |Commercially + | | (U.S.) | | unimportant. + | | | | + |Fiji | | | + | (British) | | | + | Vita Levu |Suva |Fiji |Medium-sized green + | | | | bean; grassy cup. + | | | | Not a trade factor. + | | | | + |Tonga | | | + | (Friendly | | | + | Islands) | | | + | Tongatabu |Nukualofa |Tonga |For local + | | | | consumption only. + | | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Philippine |Luzon |Manila |Manila |_In general_: + Islands | | | La Laguna, d | Manila, or + (U.S.) | | | Batangas, d | Philippine, coffee + | | | Cavite, d | is not an important + | | | Benguet, d | trade factor. The + | | | Lepanto, d | bean is medium + | | | Bontoc, d | size, grayish-green + | | | | in color, having + | | | | fine aroma and + | | | | excellent flavor. + | | | | It compares + | | | | favorably with + | | | | Costa Rica and + | | | | Guatemala. + | | | | + |Panay |Iloilo |Panay |No marked + | | | | characteristics. + | | | | + |Cebu |Cebu |Cebu |No marked + | | | | characteristics. + | | | | + |Palawan |Puerto |Palawan |No marked + | | Princessa | | characteristics. + | | | | + |Mindanao |Zamboanga |Zamboanga |Large bean; thin + | | | | liquor. + | | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Marianas or |Guam (U.S.) |Apra |Guam |No production for + Ladrone | | | | export. + Islands | | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Oceania |Hawaiian |Honolulu |Hawaiian, |_In general_: + Polynesia | Islands | (Oahua) | m n | Hawaiian coffee is + | (U.S.) | Hilo | | a large bean, + | | Kailua | | blue-green to + | | | | yellow-brown in + | | | | color; handsome + | | | | roaster, fine + | | | | smooth flavor. + | | | | + | | | Kona, d |Large, blue, flinty + | | | | bean, mildly acid; + | | | | striking character. + | | | | + | | | Puna, d |Quality good but + | | | | quantity small. + | | | | + | | | Olaa, d |Quality good but + | | | | quantity small. + | | | | + | | | Hamakua, d |Quality good but + | | | | quantity small. + | | | | + | | | Maui, d |Production small. + | | | | + | | | Oahu, d |Production small. + | | | | + | | | Kauai, d |Production small. + | | | | + |Society |Papeete |Tahiti |A fair coffee, but + | Islands | | | not a trade factor. + | (French) | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Australia |Queensland |Cairns |Queensland |_In general_: The + | |Mackay | Mackay, d | coffee is from + | |Brisbane | | Ceylon or Coorg + | | | | seed and is for + | | | | local consumption. + | | | | Not a commercial + | | | | factor. + | | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Africa |Egypt |Alexandria | Egyptian, |_In general_: + | | | m n | Coffees from the + | | | | upper Nile region, + | | | | Kaffa Land, + | | | | Anglo-Egyptian + | | | | Sudan, and Nubia + | | | | are generally + | | | | spoken of as + | | | | Egyptians. They + | | | | have some Mocha + | | | | characteristics, + | | | | but are not + | | | | important + | | | | commercially. + | | | | + |Anglo- |Suakin | Nubian, m |Small, flinty, + | Egyptian |Alexandria | n | pale-green, oval + | Sudan | (Egypt) | | bean; heavy body; + | | | | rich flavor. + | | | | + | | | Berber, d |Some superior + | | | | drinking coffees + | | | | come from this + | | | | district. + | | | | + |Eritrea |Massowah | Abyssinian, |The coffee is of the + | (Italy) | | m n | Abyssinian type, + | | | | but the output is + | | | | not an important + | | | | trade factor. + | | | | + |Somaliland | | | + | French |Jibuti | Harar, d, t |These coffees are + | | | Abyssinian, | not grown in French + | | | m n | Somaliland, but + | | | | come from Abyssinia + | | | | to Jibuti and Aden + | | | |for export to Europe + | | | | and America. See + | | | | Abyssinia. + | | | | + | British |Berbera | Harar, d, t |Grown, as above, in + | |Zeila | Abyssinian, | Abyssinia. + | | | m n | + | | | | + | Italian |Mukdishu | Benadir, |Abyssinian type, but + | | | d & m n | not an important + | | | | trade factor. + | | | | + |Abyssinia |Jibuti (French| Harar, d_, t |_In general_: The + | | Somaliland) | Abyssinian, | Harari coffee is + | |Zeila | m n | more carefully + | | | | cultivated and + | | | | cured than the + | | | | Abyssinian, which + | | | | is its inferior. + | | | | + | |Berbera | Harar, d, t |The original Mocha + | | (British | Harari, m n | Longberry. Large, + | | Somaliland) | | long blue-green to + | | | | yellow bean. + | | | | + | |Massowah | |(Graded No. 1 or No. + | | (Eritrea) | | 2, according to + | | | | size) roasting with + | |Aden (Arabia) | | few quakers, + | | | | similar to Mocha, + | | | | having an excellent + | | | | flavor but not + | | | | quite so delicate. + | | | | + | | | Dire-Daoua, t |Railway trading + | | | | center for Harari + | | | | and Abyssinian + | | | | coffees. +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Africa |Abyssinia | |Abyssinia |The native coffee + (_Cont'd_) | (_Cont'd_) | | Kaffa, d |grown wild in this + | | | (Gomara) |district has little + | | | |commercial + | | | |importance. The + | | | |bean is dark gray, + | | | |and it has a + | | | |groundy flavor. + | | | | + | | | Bonga, t |Trading center for + | | | |Abyssinia. + | | | | + | | | Jimma, d |Trading center for + | | | Jiren, t |Abyssinia. + | | | | + | | | Shoa, d |Mostly Abyssinian + | | | Adis-Abeba, t |growths are + | | | |exported from this + | | | |trading center to + | | | |Harar or + | | | |Dire-Daoua. + | | | | + |Kenya |Mombasa | Nairobi, d |Having Mysore + |Colony | | & t |characteristics + |(Formerly | | Kikuyu |with a touch of + |British | | Kyambu |Mocha flavor. + |East Africa)| | | + | | | | + |Uganda |Mombasa |Uganda |Greenish-gray to + |Protectorate| | Bunganda, d |light-brown + |(British) | | |Robusta. Poor to + | | | |fairly good liquor. + | | | | + |Zanzibar |Zanzibar |Zanzibar |Medium-sized bean; + |Protectorate| | |full body, pleasing + |(British) | | |flavor. + | | | | + |Tanganyika |Dar-es-Salaam | East Africa, |Not a commercial + |Territory | | m n |factor. + |(formerly | | or | + |German East | | Tanganyika, | + |Africa) | | m n | + | | | | + | | | | + |Nyasaland |Chinde |Nyasaland |Some high-grown and + |Protectorate|(Portuguese | Shire Highlands,|of fine quality. Not + |(British) |East Africa) | d |a commercial factor. + | | | Blantyre, d | + | | | | + |Rhodesia |Beira |Rhodesia |For local + |(British) |(Portuguese | |consumption. + | |East Africa) | |Not a trade factor. + | | | | + |Portuguese |Mozambique |Mozambique |Medium-sized + |East Africa | | |greenish bean, + | | | |heavy body; mild + | | | |and mellow in the + | | | |cup. + | | | | + |Natal |Durban |Natal |Large, light-brown + |(British) | | |Liberian growth. + | | | |Not a trade factor. + | | | | + |Angola |Loanda |Angola |Medium-size bean, + |(Portugal) | | |brownish color, + | | | |strong in the cup. + | | | | + | | | Encoje, d, |Light weight, dark + | | | m n |brown Robusta; + | | | |strong in the cup. + | | | | + |Belgian |Banana | Congo, m n |_In general_: The + |Congo | | Equator, d |coffees of the + | | | Aruwimi, d |Belgian Congo are + | | | Bangala, d |mostly Liberian and + | | | Lake Leopold, |Robusta growths. + | | | d |There is produced a + | | | |medium-sized bean, + | | | |making a handsome + | | | |roast and having a + | | | |rich cup. + | | | | + |French |Loango | Loango, d, |Formerly Encoje + |Congo |Libreville | m n |from Angola. + | | | |Inferior to + | | | |Liberian. +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + +=============+============+==============+=================+================= + Grand | Country | Shipping | State, or | Trade Values + Division | | Ports | District, | and Cup + | | | Market Names |Characteristics + | | | and Gradings | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- +Africa |Nigeria |Lagos |Nigeria |Commercially + (Cont'd) | (British) | | | unimportant. + | | | | + |Gold Coast |Accra |Gold Coast |Not a commercial + | (British) | | | factor. + | | | | + |Liberia |Monrovia | Liberian, m |Large, brown bean; + | | | n | big, handsome + | | | | roaster; strong in + | | | | cup. + | | | | + |Sierra Leone|Freetown |Sierra Leone |_C. stenophylla_, a + | (British) | | | native growth. Not + | | | | a trade factor. + | | | | + |French |Konakry | Guinea, m n |Commercially + | Guinea | | | unimportant. + | | | | + |Portuguese |Bissao | Guinea, m n |Commercially + | Guinea | | | unimportant. + | | | | + | | | | + |Comoro |Maroni | Comoro, m n |A wild natural + | Islands | | | caffein-free coffee + | (French) | | | (_C. humboltiana_); + | | | | also found in + | | | | Madagascar. Not a + | | | | commercial factor. + | | | | + |Madagascar |Tamatave |Madagascar |Light-green + | (French) | | | _liberica_ and + | | | | _robusta_ bean; + | | | | full rich flavor. + | | | | + |Réunion, |St. Denis | Bourbon, m |Nearest to Mocha in + | formerly | | n | character (q. v.). + | Bourbon | | | Round and pointed + | (French) | | | bean, pale green + | | | | or pale yellow. Not + | | | | a trade factor. + | | | | + |Mauritius |Port Louis |Mauritius |Similar to Bourbon. + | (British) | | | Medium light green, + | | | | full body, mild and + | | | | mellow flavor. Not + | | | | a trade factor. + | | | | +-------------+------------+--------------+-----------------+----------------- + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +FACTORY PREPARATION OF ROASTED COFFEE + + _Coffee roasting as a business--Wholesale coffee-roasting + machinery--Separating, milling, and mixing or blending green + coffee, and roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity--Facts + about coffee roasting--Cost of roasting--Green-coffee shrinkage + table--"Dry" and "wet" roasts--On roasting coffee efficiently--A + typical coal roaster--Cooling and stoning--Finishing or + glazing--Blending roasted coffees--Blends for restaurants--Grinding + and packaging--Coffee additions and fillers--Treated coffees, and + dry extracts_ + + +The coffee bean is not ready for beverage purposes until it has been +properly "manufactured", that is, roasted, or "cooked". Only in this way +can all the stimulating, flavoring, and aromatic principles concealed in +the minute cells of the bean be extracted at one time. An infusion from +green coffee has a decidedly unpleasant taste and hardly any color. +Likewise, an underdone roast has a disagreeable "grassy" flavor; while +an overdone roast gives a charred taste that is unpalatable to the +average citizen of the United States. + + +_Coffee Roasting as a Business_ + +In spite of the generally admitted fact that freshly roasted coffee +makes the best infusion, most of the coffee used today is not roasted at +or near the place where it is brewed, but in factories that are provided +with special equipment for the roasting of coffee in a wholesale way. +The reasons for this are various, partly relating to the mere economy of +buying and manufacturing on a large scale, and partly relating to the +trained skill that is needed both for selecting suitable green coffees +to make a satisfactory blend, and for the roasting work itself. The +proportion of consumers (including restaurants and hotels) who roast +their own coffee is so small as to be negligible, at least in the United +States. The average person who buys coffee today, for brewing use, never +sees green coffee at all, unless as an "educational exhibit" in some +dealer's display window. + +The reasons just mentioned, which have made coffee roasting a real +business, all tend, of course, to make the roasting establishments of +large size; but this tendency is offset by the problem of distributing +the roasting coffee so that it will reach the ultimate consumer in good +condition. Roasting enterprises on a comparatively small scale (not by +consumers, but by sufficiently expert dealers) would probably be much +more numerous on account of the "fresh-roast" argument, except for the +fact that coffee-roasting machines can not be installed so easily as the +grinding mills, meat-choppers, and slicing machines, that find extended +use in small stores. The steam, smoke, and chaff given off by the coffee +as it is roasted must be disposed of by an outdoor connection, without +annoying the neighbors or creating a fire hazard. + +From these general remarks, it can easily be seen that the size of +individual roasting establishments will vary greatly, according to the +skill of the proprietor in meeting the disadvantages of working on +either the smallest or the largest scale. A wholesale plant may be +considered to be one in which coffee is roasted in batches of one bag or +more at a time; and with this definition, nearly all the roasting in the +United States is done in a wholesale way. + +[Illustration: A MODERN GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT WITH A CAPACITY OF +1,000 BAGS A DAY + +General view of the roasting room of the Jewel Tea Co., Hoboken, N.J. +The equipment consists of twelve Jubilee gas machines in four groups; +each group having a smoke-suction fan, and a drag conveyor over the +three feed hoppers. To the left is a line of flexible-arm cooler cars] + +For many years the regular factory machines have been of a size +suitable for roasting two bags of coffee at a time; but roasters of +larger size have recently come into considerable use. + +Plants treating from fifty to a hundred and fifty bags per day are the +most common; but the daily capacity runs up to a thousand bags or more. +The minimum cost of equipping a plant is somewhere between five thousand +dollars and ten thousand dollars. The individual machines are of +standard construction; but the arrangement in a particular building, +especially for the larger plants, is worked out with great care and with +numerous special features, so that the goods can be handled from start +to finish with minimum expense for floor space, labor, power, etc. + +The practical coffee roaster locates his roasting room in the top floor +of his factory building, where light and ventilation are generally best. +He usually has a large skylight in the roof, directly over the roasting +equipment. In addition to the advantage as regards good light and the +convenient discharge of smoke, steam, and odors, through the roof, the +top-story location makes it possible to send the roasted coffee by +gravity through the various bins which may be needed in connection with +subsequent operations, such as grinding, and for temporary storage +before the final packaging and shipping. + + +_Wholesale Coffee-Roasting Machinery_ + +The indispensable coffee operations are roasting and cooling; and in +practically all United States plants the cooling is followed by +"stoning". This is an air-suction operation that effects, aided by +gravity, the removal of any stones or other hard material that would +damage the grinding mill. The best commercial cleaning and grading of +the green coffee has usually left in every bag a few small stones. These +can be got rid of better after the coffee is roasted; because it is then +not only lighter, but more bulky. + +[Illustration: MILLING-MACHINE CONNECTIONS FOR A TWO-ROASTER PLANT] + +Besides these three operations of roasting, cooling, and stoning, the +plant may have machinery for treating the coffee both before it is +roasted and after it leaves the stoner. + +[Illustration: A SIXTEEN-CYLINDER COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORK +FACTORY + +This is a view of the roasting room of B. Fischer & Co. and shows a +battery of Burns coal roasters] + +Treatment of the green coffee in roasting establishments is of less +importance now than in years gone by; first, because most coffees now +come to market more perfectly graded and cleaned than formerly; and +second, because the whole-bean appearance of the coffee has become of +less account, as wholesale grinding operations have increased. +Nevertheless, many plants consider it highly important to have a +separator for grading the coffee closely as regards the size of the +beans--and particularly for the separation of round beans, or +"peaberry"--as well as milling machinery for making the coffee as clean +as possible before it is roasted. One green coffee operation that has +lost none of its old-time importance, but on the contrary is more needed +as the plants increase in size, is the mixing of different varieties of +coffee--in proportions that have been decided on by sample tests--so as +to get a uniform blend. + +The mixer does not blend the various coffees any more surely than a good +roaster cylinder will do it, but treats batches of much larger size. +This means saving a great amount of labor that would be necessary for +putting the desired quantity of component coffees into each individual +roaster. + +A proper installation of green coffee machinery requires various bins of +ample capacity, and bucket elevators by which the coffee can be sent +without manual labor from one operation to another. In modern plants, +all the bins and elevators are constructed of metal. The separator, with +its bins and elevator, may be installed independently of the rest of the +plant, the graded coffee being all bagged up again and treated as new +raw stock--some of it to be held for later use, or perhaps sold again +unroasted. The milling machine and the mixer, however, are usually so +placed and connected that the coffee can be sent from one to the other, +and to the roaster feed hoppers, without any manual labor. + +When the roaster sells his product in package form ready for the +consumer, he will have a packaging department in which are grinding, +weighing, labeling, and packing machines and equipment. In some of the +more progressive plants, particularly in the United States, all the +packing units are incorporated in one machine, so that the different +steps in the work are carried on automatically and in one continuous +operation. + +[Illustration: GREEN-COFFEE-MIXER CONNECTIONS + +To operate at full capacity, without using the story above as well as +below the mixer, requires a bucket elevator and three bins, each holding +a full mixing batch. The above diagram explains this setting. The mixed +coffee in the discharge bin is either drawn out into bags or sent by an +elevator to a milling machine or direct to the coffee roasters. A batch +ready for mixing can always be accumulated in the feed bin while the +previous batch is being mixed or discharged. + +The fan is usually hung to the ceiling over the mixer as indicated, and +connected to the suction box by a 1-in. round pipe. The fan outlet can +be carried directly out-of-doors; but the dusty discharge is +objectionable in most installations, and this pipe is usually carried to +a dust collector from the top of which the roof outlet is connected.] + +The efficient roaster-executive equips his entire plant with approved +labor-saving devices. In the better establishments, the coffee is +carried along by mechanical conveyors through all the operations from +the first cleaning machine to the final packaging. + + +_Separating_ + +As already mentioned, a machine frequently found in wholesale plants is +the separator, or grader. This apparatus, which is the same in principle +in all countries, but varies in size and form according to local +requirements, consists of a series of perforated screens. The +perforations differ in size; and as the coffee is shaken on them, the +small beans drop through the holes, the larger ones passing across the +screen and dropping into a receptacle or chute ready for the next +operation. The screens are made to grade the beans into large and small +peaberry; large, medium, and small flat beans; brokens; and other +commercial sizes. The average separator will grade fifteen to twenty +bags of coffee in an hour. + +[Illustration: Green-coffee-milling machine having a capacity of forty +bags of green coffee per hour; with sifter, feed-pipe suction, and a +final separate suction at the discharge hopper] + +[Illustration: Green-coffee separator without fan; with feed elevator, +discharge chutes, and motor drive. View of right-hand side and feed end] + +[Illustration: GREEN-COFFEE SEPARATING AND MILLING MACHINES] + + +_Milling_ + +Milling machines, for cleaning the green coffee, operate on practically +the same principle the world over, varying in capacity and details of +construction. A popular type used in the United States has two metal +cylinders, one set within the other, and revolving in opposite +directions. The inner cylinder is ribbed with flanges, and the outer one +is lined with wire cloth. As these cylinders revolve, the beans pass +between them rubbing against themselves and the rough sides of the +cylinders. This action serves to remove dirt and other foreign matter +that may be clinging to the beans, and also gives them an attractive +polish. An exhaust fan sucks away the dirt milled off in the process. +This type of machine will mill about forty bags of green coffee in an +hour. + + +_Mixing or Blending Green Coffee_ + +Most roasters blend the different types of coffee while green. Some +blend them after they have been roasted separately. When blended before +roasting, the coffees are mixed by a machine built especially for that +purpose. The mixing machine in general use in all countries consists of +a large metal cylinder which, in wholesale operations, is revolved by +the factory's general power plant or by a separate motor. The cylinder +is equipped on the inside with sets of reverse-screw mixing flanges that +tumble the beans around until they are thoroughly blended; and there is +usually a fan attachment to remove dust. This operation serves also to +smooth down and to polish the surfaces of the beans, which adds to the +style of the coffee when roasted. The average blending machine will mix +from ten to twenty bags of coffee at a time. The actual mixing requires +less than five minutes, but a longer period is needed for feeding and +discharging. This is the last of the so-called "green-coffee +operations". The next step is roasting. + + +_Roasting by Coal, Coke, Gas, and Electricity_ + +Coffee is roasted commercially in cylinder or ball receptacles revolving +in heated chambers, the degree of heat reaching about 420° Fahr. The +cylinder type of roaster is invariably used in the United States; while +both the cylinder and the ball types are popular in England, France, +Germany, Holland, and other foreign countries. + +[Illustration: AN ENGLISH FOUR-MACHINE GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT + +The equipment includes three Morewood indirect-flame, and one quick +direct-flame machines] + +Each roasterman has his own opinion about the fuel that gives the best +result, and throughout the world the choice lies between anthracite +coal, coke, and gas; though hard wood is frequently used in countries +where other fuels are not available or not economical. Electric heat has +been tried for commercial roasting in Germany (1906), in England (1909), +and in the United States (1918); but the experimenters have always found +the cost of electric fuel to be prohibitive in competition with coal and +gas. An electric roaster was demonstrated at the Food Conservation Show +in New York, in 1918, at a time when the federal government was urging +the necessity of conserving coal as a war economy measure. The inventor +claimed that his machine would reduce roasting cost, improve the flavor +and the aroma, and maintain a constant and easily controlled heat. He +declared also that when roasted in his devices, less coffee was required +for brewing. + +An expert coffee-roasting-machinery man who has been working on the +development of a practical electric roaster says that if it were +possible to bake the coffee in an oven, just as the baker does his +bread, the fuel cost would then compare favorably with that of gas or +coal. It is because the heat chamber must have an exhaust to release the +chaff and smoke that the use of electricity to replace the heat loss +proves prohibitive when compared with coal or gas. + +In all types of coal and coke burning roasters, the cylinders are heated +by a fire underneath; while in gas roasters, the flame may be underneath +or within the cylinder itself. Roasters in which the heat is within the +cylinder are known as direct-flame or inner-heated machines. All three +systems are used in the United States and Europe. + + +_Facts About Coffee Roasting_ + +The modern commercial roasting outfit is as near fool-proof as human +genius has been able to devise. The more advanced types are almost +automatic in operation, and are designed to insure uniformity of roasts. +In such machines the green coffee is conveyed to the roasting cylinder +by means of bucket elevators, which pour the beans into a feed hopper. +From the feed hopper, the coffee is dumped through the opening in the +front head-piece into the cylinder. The cylinder is perforated, and has +inside flanges which keep tossing the coffee about while the cylinder +revolves, so that the coffee will not burn during the roasting process. + +[Illustration: GERMAN GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT EQUIPPED WITH +IDEAL-RAPID MACHINES] + +To roast coffee by coal or coke usually requires from twenty-five to +thirty minutes, depending on the moisture-content of the beans; whether +they are spongy or flinty; whether a light, medium, or dark roast is +desired; and on the skill of the operator. Gas roasting requires from +fifteen to twenty minutes. The quicker the roast, the better the coffee, +is the opinion of many trade leaders, one of whom[325] says: + + It is a growing belief that in roasts of short duration the largest + percentage of the aromatic properties is retained. A slow roast has + the effect of baking and does not give full development; also, slow + roasts seldom produce bright roasts, and they usually make the + coffee hard instead of brittle, even when the color standard has + been attained. + +[Illustration: FRENCH GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT EQUIPPED WITH MODERNE +MACHINES] + +While coffees of widely varying degrees of moisture require somewhat +different treatment, the consensus of opinion is that the best results +are obtained from a slow fire at the beginning, until some of the +moisture has been driven off, when the stronger application of heat may +be given for development. An intense heat in the beginning often results +in "tipping", or charring, the little germ at the end, the most +sensitive part of the bean. + +Scorched beans have been caught at some point in the cylinder, often in +a bent flange. Burning on one face, sometimes called "kissing the +cheeks", is caused by the too rapid revolution of the cylinder, so that +some of the coffee "carries over". In the best practise, crowding of +cylinders is avoided; many roasters making it a rule not to exceed +ninety percent of the rated capacity of the cylinder. + +Those operating gas roasters may effect a fuel economy by running a low +grade coffee in the cylinder after the last roast has been drawn and the +gas extinguished; five minutes' revolution absorbs the heat and drives +off a proportion of moisture. The coffee, which may then be left in the +cylinder, requires less time and fuel in the morning, and the roast is +finished while the cylinder is warming up. Double roasting brightens a +roast, but is a detriment to the cup quality. A dull roasting coffee may +be improved by revolving the green coffee in a cylinder without heat for +twenty minutes, which has the effect of milling. + +The use of a small amount of water upon roasts gives better control by +checking the roast at the proper point--the crucial time of its greatest +heat; also, it swells and brightens the coffee, and tends to close the +outer pores. While the addition of water is open to abuse, few roasters +have soaked their coffees enough to offset the natural shrinkage as much +as three or four percent. Such practise would result greatly to the +detriment of the cup quality. + +There is no universal standard for the degree to which coffee should be +roasted. In the United States, there are demands for all degrees; from +the light roast, in favor in England, to the extremely dark roast in +vogue in France, Italy, Brazil, Turkey, and in the producing countries. +The North American trade recognizes these different roasts: light, +cinnamon, medium, high, city, full city, French, and Italian. The city +roast is a dark bean, while full city is a few degrees darker. In the +French roast, the bean is cooked until the natural oil appears on the +surface; and in the Italian, it is roasted to the point of actual +carbonization, so that it can be easily powdered. Germany likes a roast +similar to the French type; while Scandinavia prefers the high Italian +roast. + +In the United States, the lighter roast is favored on the Pacific coast; +the darkest, in the South; and a medium-colored roast, in the Eastern +states. The cinnamon roast is most favored by the trade in Boston. + +While coffee roasting in the United States usually takes from fifteen to +thirty minutes, depending on the fuel and the machine employed, +manufacturers of gas machines on the German market claim to roast it in +superior fashion in from three and a half to ten minutes.[326] This +subject is discussed more in detail in chapter XXXIV. + +Coffee loses weight during the roasting process, the loss varying +according to the degree of roasting and the nature of the bean. Coffee +roasters figure, however, that the average loss is sixteen percent of +the weight of the green bean. It has been estimated that one hundred +pounds of coffee in the cherry produces twenty-five pounds in the +parchment; that one hundred pounds in parchment produces eighty-four +pounds of cleaned coffee; and that one hundred pounds of cleaned coffee +produces eighty-four pounds roasted. + +[Illustration: JUMBO COFFEE ROASTER, IN THE ARBUCKLE COFFEE-ROASTING +PLANT, NEW YORK + +There are four of these machines. The cylinders are twelve feet in +diameter, six feet deep, and can roast 5,000 pounds of coffee every +half-hour. The hard-coal brick furnace is seen at the left, from which a +blower forces the heated air through a pipe into the revolving cylinder +of coffee. The coffee is fed from above and is emptied into the cooling +pans beneath] + +[Illustration: AN EIGHT-CYLINDER GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT + +A view of Reid, Murdoch & Co.'s roasting room, Chicago, equipped with +Monitor machines] + +During the roasting process the coffee undergoes a great chemical +change. After it has been in the cylinder a short time, the color of the +bean becomes a yellowish brown, which gradually deepens as it cooks. +Likewise, as the beans become heated, they shrivel up until about half +done, or at the "developing" point. At this stage, they begin to swell, +and then "pop open", increasing fifty percent in bulk.[327] This is when +the experienced roasterman turns on all the heat he can command to +finish the roasting as quickly as possible. + + +_"Dry" and "Wet" Roasts_ + +At frequent intervals, he thrusts his "trier"--an instrument shaped +somewhat like an elongated spoon--into the cylinder, and takes out a +sample of coffee to compare with his type sample. When the coffee is +done, he shuts off the heat and checks the cooking by reducing the +temperature of the coffee and of the cylinder as quickly as can be done. +In the wet roast method he will spray the coffee, while the cylinder is +still revolving, with three to four quarts of water to every 130 pounds +of coffee. In the dry method he depends altogether upon his cooling +apparatus. + +Roasters generally are not in favor of the excessive watering of coffee +in and after the roasting process for the purpose of reducing shrinkage. +"Heading" the coffee, or checking the roast before turning it out of the +roasting cylinder, is quite another matter and is considered legitimate. +Where coffees are watered in the cylinder at the close of the roast to +reduce the shrinkage, it is possible to get back only about four percent +of the shrinkage by such treatment and the practise is frowned upon by +the best roasters. + +Generally speaking, water is turned into the roasting cylinder to quench +the roast. The amount varies with the style of machine, whether gas or +coal. Usually the water turns to steam, and the result is not an +absorption of the water but a momentary checking of the roast with a +tendency to swell and to brighten the coffee. This is, comparatively +speaking, a "dry roast", but not an absolutely dry roast. It is doubtful +if more than one percent of American coffee roasters employ an +absolutely "dry" roast--it does not give satisfactory results. The word +has been abused for advertising purposes. Of course, a dry roasted +coffee is a better article for making a satisfactory beverage than one +that has been soaked with water; but the word "dry" must be given a +definite meaning, which the trade generally will agree to uphold, if it +is to have any real meaning or value to the consumer. Until some +standard for roasted coffee shall be established, it is to be feared the +term "dry roast" will continue to be used for coffee roasted by almost +any other process. + +[Illustration: UPPER-STORY VIEW OF A JUBILEE PLANT, SHOWING ROASTER, +COOLER, AND STONER EQUIPMENT + +The parts under roasting-room floor are shown in the illustration below] + +[Illustration: LOWER-STORY VIEW OF THE SAME PLANT FROM ABOUT THE SAME +ANGLE + +Showing connection from floor hopper to stoner on the left, and +suspended bucket-elevator boot with four-bag dump hopper on the right] + +[Illustration: COMPLETE GAS COFFEE-PLANT INSTALLATION] + +The Bureau of Chemistry held a hearing in 1914 at Washington, at which +the question of a ruling on watering coffees was discussed. The trade +was well represented, but no agreement was reached. It was deemed +inadvisable to make a definite rule on the watering of coffee; because +the water content can not be controlled, as the bean starts to absorb +moisture as soon as it leaves the roaster. + + +_On Roasting Coffee Efficiently_ + +A.L. Burns, New York, is well qualified to speak on this subject. He +says: + + Roasting coffee is not so difficult a matter as is often claimed by + operators and "experts" who seek thus to magnify their importance; + but it is nevertheless a process about which a great deal may be + learned in the school of practical experience. With one of our + modern machines anybody with ordinary intelligence and nerve can + take off a roast after one trial which would pass muster in many + establishments, but that same person applying himself to the + roasting job for a week will either be turning out vastly better + roasts or will have demonstrated that he never can excel as a + roasterman. + + Modern coffee roasting machines provide for easy control of the + heat (from coal, coke, or gas fuel), for constantly mixing the + coffee in such a manner that the heat is transmitted uniformly to + the entire batch, for carrying away all steam and smoke rapidly, + for easy testing of the progress of the roast, and for immediate + discharge when desired. The operator's problem therefore is the + regulation of the heat and deciding just when the desired roasting + has been accomplished. + + If all coffees were alike, roasting would soon be almost automatic. + In some plants most of the work is on one uniform grade or blend. + But coffees which vary greatly in moisture-content, in flinty or + spongy nature, and in various other characteristics, will puzzle + the operator until he establishes a personal acquaintance with them + in various combinations in repeated roasting operations. The + roasterman therefore must be able to observe closely, to draw + sensible conclusions, and to remember what he learns. Roasting + coffee is work of a sort which anybody can do, which a few people + can do really well, and no one so well but that further improvement + is possible. + + There is no absolute standard of what the best roasting results + are. Some dealers want the coffee beans swelled up to the bursting + point, while others would object to so showy a development. Some + care nothing at all about appearance as compared with cup value, + while others insist on a bright style even at some sacrifice of + quality. Business judgment must decide what goods can be sold most + profitably. + + The loss of coffee in weight in the roasting operation, or + shrinkage as it is called, is a matter which offers opportunities + for false claims of advantage in roasting processes. Anybody can + see that if just as good roasted coffee could be produced with a + lessened shrinkage there would be a chance for a decided increase + in profits. It is a sort of finding-money proposition which always + turns out to be too good to be true. The purpose of roasting coffee + is to produce an article entirely different from green coffee, + which is accomplished mainly by driving out moisture. If coffee is + roasted thoroughly, inside as well as outside, so as to give the + greatest roasted coffee value, it must sustain a proper loss in + weight which there is no legitimate way to avoid. The amount of + shrinkage varies a great deal with the kind of coffee and its age, + also with the kind of roasting desired. + + Adding a little water to the coffee at the end of the operation has + the advantage of checking the roast at the desired point and + helping to swell and brighten the coffee, but it is a practice + which is sometimes abused by soaking the coffee with water so as to + reduce the shrinkage. This is done either dishonestly, to steal + coffee which belongs to somebody else, or foolishly; for the + heavier coffee has a lessened cup value which more than + counterbalances the apparent gain. + +[Illustration: BURNS JUBILEE GAS ROASTER] + + +_A Typical Coal Roaster_ + +A typical United States coal roaster is shown in the accompanying cut. +It is the latest form of that type of Burns machine which requires a +brickwork setting. The picture shows the roaster ready to operate, +except for smoke pipe and power connections. + +[Illustration: BURNS COAL ROASTER WITH BRICKWORK SETTING] + +The front of the machine shown has a cast-iron plate having brackets +which support the cylinder front bearing, and double fire doors below +for the furnace and the ash pit. The movable part of the roaster is +hidden by the front head, a heavy casting which stands still except when +moved by hand through a half-turn for feeding and discharging. + +The cylinder is driven by gears at the back, revolving constantly at +uniform speed. The inside of the cylinder is arranged with +reverse-spiral flanges which mix the coffee perfectly and make uneven +roasting impossible; and they discharge promptly every grain of coffee +when the front-head opening is turned to the lower position. The roaster +is generally operated with coal fuel, but can be used with gas by +installing a suitable burner under the cylinder. + +[Illustration: OPEN PERFORATED CYLINDER WITH FLEXIBLE BACK HEAD] + +COST CARD FOR ROASTERS + +_Showing the value added to the cost of green coffee by +roasting_ + +By A.C. Aborn + +BASIS: 16 percent Shrinkage. +3/4 cent a pound for Roasting. + +Cost Green, Cost Roasted, +Cents per Lb. Cents per Lb. + +5 6.85 +5-1/8 6.99 +5-1/4 7.14 +5-3/8 7.29 +5-1/2 7.44 +5-5/8 7.59 +5-3/4 7.74 +5-7/8 7.89 + +6 8.04 +6-1/8 8.19 +6-1/4 8.33 +6-3/8 8.48 +6-1/2 8.63 +6-5/8 8.78 +6-3/4 8.93 +6-7/8 9.08 + +7 9.23 +7-1/8 9.37 +7-1/4 9.52 +7-3/8 9.67 +7-1/2 9.82 +7-5/8 9.97 +7-3/4 10.12 +7-7/8 10.27 + +8 10.42 +8-1/8 10.57 +8-1/4 10.71 +8-3/8 10.86 +8-1/2 11.01 +8-5/8 11.16 +8-3/4 11.31 +8-7/8 11.46 + +9 11.61 +9-1/8 11.76 +9-1/4 11.90 +9-3/8 12.05 +9-1/2 12.20 +9-5/8 12.35 +9-3/4 12.50 +9-7/8 12.65 + +10 12.80 +10-1/8 12.95 +10-1/4 13.10 +10-3/8 13.24 +10-1/2 13.39 +10-5/8 13.54 +10-3/4 13.69 +10-7/8 13.84 + +11 13.99 +11-1/8 14.14 +11-1/4 14.29 +11-3/8 14.43 +11-1/2 14.58 +11-5/8 14.73 +11-3/4 14.88 +11-7/8 15.03 + +12 15.18 +12-1/8 15.33 +12-1/4 15.48 +12-3/8 15.63 +12-1/2 15.77 +12-5/8 15.92 +12-3/4 16.07 +12-7/8 16.22 + +13 16.37 +13-1/8 16.52 +13-1/4 16.67 +13-3/8 16.82 +13-1/2 16.97 +13-5/8 17.11 +13-3/4 17.26 +13-7/8 17.41 + +14 17.56 +14-1/8 17.71 +14-1/4 17.86 +14-3/8 18.01 +14-1/2 18.15 +14-5/8 18.30 +14-3/4 18.45 +14-7/8 18.60 + +15 18.75 +15-1/8 18.90 +15-1/4 19.05 +15-3/8 19.20 +15-1/2 19.35 +15-5/8 19.49 +15-3/4 19.64 +15-7/8 19.79 + +16 19.94 +16-1/8 20.09 +16-1/4 20.24 +16-3/8 20.39 +16-1/2 20.54 +16-5/8 20.68 +16-3/4 20.83 +16-7/8 20.98 + +17 21.13 +17-1/8 21.28 +17-1/4 21.43 +17-3/8 21.58 +17-1/2 21.73 +17-5/8 21.87 +17-3/4 22.02 +17-7/8 22.17 + +18 22.32 +18-1/8 22.47 +18-1/4 22.62 +18-3/8 22.77 +18-1/2 22.92 +18-5/8 23.07 +18-3/4 23.21 +18-7/8 23.36 + +19 23.51 +19-1/8 23.66 +19-1/4 23.81 +19-3/8 23.96 +19-1/2 24.11 +19-5/8 24.26 +19-3/4 24.40 +19-7/8 24.55 + +20 24.70 +20-1/8 24.85 +20-1/4 25.00 +20-3/8 25.15 +20-1/2 25.30 +20-5/8 25.45 +20-3/4 25.60 +20-7/8 25.75 + +21 25.89 +21-1/8 26.04 +21-1/4 26.19 +21-3/8 26.34 +21-1/2 26.49 +21-5/8 26.64 +21-3/4 26.79 +21-7/8 26.93 + +22 27.08 +22-1/8 27.23 +22-1/4 27.38 +22-3/8 27.53 +22-1/2 27.68 +22-5/8 27.83 +22-3/4 27.98 +22-7/8 28.13 + +23 28.27 +23-1/8 28.42 +23-1/4 28.57 +23-3/8 28.72 +23-1/2 28.87 +23-5/8 29.02 +23-3/4 29.17 +23-7/8 29.32 + +24 29.46 +24-1/8 29.61 +24-1/4 29.76 +24-3/8 29.91 +24-1/2 30.06 +24-5/8 30.21 +24-3/4 30.36 +24-7/8 30.51 + +25 30.65 +25-1/8 30.80 +25-1/4 30.95 +25-3/8 31.10 +25-1/2 31.25 +25-5/8 31.40 +25-3/4 31.55 +25-7/8 31.70 + +26 31.85 +26-1/8 31.99 +26-1/4 32.14 +26-3/8 32.29 +26-1/2 32.44 +26-5/8 32.59 +26-3/4 32.74 +26-7/8 32.89 + +27 33.04 +27-1/8 33.18 +27-1/4 33.33 +27-3/8 33.48 +27-1/2 33.63 +27-5/8 33.78 +27-3/4 33.93 +27-7/8 34.08 + +28 34.23 +28-1/8 34.38 +28-1/4 34.52 +28-3/8 34.67 +28-1/2 34.82 +28-5/8 34.97 +28-3/4 35.12 +28-7/8 35.27 + +29 35.42 +29-1/8 35.57 +29-1/4 35.71 +29-3/8 35.86 +29-1/2 36.01 +29-5/8 36.16 +29-3/4 36.31 +29-7/8 36.46 + +30 36.61 +30-1/8 36.76 +30-1/4 36.90 +30-3/8 37.05 +30-1/2 37.20 +30-5/8 37.35 +30-3/4 37.50 +30-7/8 37.65 + +31 37.80 +31-1/8 37.95 +31-1/4 38.10 +31-3/8 38.24 +31-1/2 38.39 +31-5/8 38.54 +31-3/4 38.69 +31-7/8 38.84 + +32 38.90 +32-1/8 39.14 +32-1/4 39.29 +32-3/8 39.43 +32-1/2 39.58 +32-5/8 39.73 +32-3/4 39.88 +32-7/8 40.03 + + +FACTORY PREPARATION + +A GREEN COFFEE SHRINKAGE TABLE + +_Showing shrinkage in roasting of raw coffee in quantities from sixty +pounds up to three hundred pounds, and at six different shrinkage +percentages_ + +Compiled by R.C. Wilhelm, New York + + RAW 12% 13% 14% 15% 16% 17% + + 60 52-3/4 52-1/4 51-1/2 51 50-1/2 49-3/4 + 61 53-3/4 53 52-1/2 51-3/4 51-1/4 50-3/4 + 62 54-1/2 54 53-1/4 52-1/4 52 51-1/2 + 63 55-1/2 54-3/4 54 53-1/2 53 52-1/4 + 64 56-1/4 55-3/4 55 54-1/2 53-3/4 53 + 65 57-1/4 56-1/2 56 55-1/4 54-1/2 54 + 66 58 57-1/2 56-3/4 56 55-1/2 54-3/4 + 67 59 58-1/4 57-3/4 57 56-1/4 55-1/2 + 68 59-3/4 59-1/4 58-1/2 57-3/4 57 56-1/2 + 69 60-3/4 60 59-1/4 58-3/4 58 57-1/4 + 70 61-1/2 61 60-1/4 59-1/2 58-3/4 58 + 71 62-1/2 61-3/4 61 60-1/4 59-3/4 59 + 72 63-1/4 62-3/4 62 61 60-1/2 59-3/4 + 73 64-1/4 63-1/2 62-3/4 62 61-1/4 60-1/2 + 74 65 64-1/2 63-3/4 63 62-1/4 61-1/2 + 75 66 65-1/4 64-1/2 63-3/4 63 62-1/4 + 76 67 66 65-1/4 64-1/2 63-3/4 63 + 77 67-3/4 67 66-1/4 65-1/2 64-3/4 64 + 78 68-3/4 68 67 66-1/4 65-1/2 64-3/4 + 79 69-1/2 68-3/4 68 67-1/4 66-1/2 65-3/4 + 80 70-1/2 69-3/4 68-3/4 68 67-1/4 66-1/2 + 81 71-1/4 70-1/2 69-3/4 69 68 67-1/4 + 82 72-1/4 71-1/2 70-1/2 69-3/4 69 68 + 83 73 72-1/4 71-1/2 70-1/2 69-3/4 69 + 84 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 71-1/2 70-1/2 69-3/4 + 85 74-3/4 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 71-1/4 70-1/2 + 86 75-3/4 74-3/4 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 71-1/4 + 87 76-1/2 75-3/4 75 74 73-1/4 72-1/4 + 88 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-3/4 74-3/4 73-3/4 73 + 89 78-1/2 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-3/4 74-3/4 74 + 90 79-1/4 78-1/4 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-3/4 75 + 91 80-1/2 79-1/4 78-1/4 77-1/2 76-1/2 75-1/2 + 92 81 80 79-1/4 78-1/4 77-1/4 76-1/2 + 93 82 81 80 79 78-1/4 77-1/4 + 94 82-3/4 81-3/4 80-3/4 80 79 78 + 95 83-3/4 82-3/4 81-3/4 80-3/4 79-3/4 79 + 96 84-1/2 83-1/2 82-1/2 81-3/4 80-3/4 79-3/4 + 97 85-1/2 84-1/2 83-1/2 82-1/2 81-1/2 80-1/2 + 98 86-1/4 85-1/4 84-1/4 83-1/4 82-1/2 81-1/2 + 99 87-1/4 86-1/4 85-1/4 84-1/4 83-1/4 82-1/4 + 100 88 87 86 85 84 83 + 101 89 87-1/2 86-1/2 85-1/2 84-1/2 83-1/2 + 102 89-3/4 88-3/4 87-3/4 86-3/4 85-3/4 84-3/4 + 103 90-3/4 89-3/4 88-3/4 87-1/2 86-1/2 85-1/2 + 104 91-1/2 90-1/2 89-1/2 88-1/2 87-1/2 86-1/2 + 105 92-1/2 91-1/2 90-1/4 89-1/4 88-1/4 87-1/4 + 106 93-1/4 92-1/4 91-1/4 90-1/4 89 88 + 107 94-1/4 93-1/4 92 91 90 88-3/4 + 108 95 94 93 91-3/4 90-3/4 89-3/4 + 109 96 95 93-3/4 92-3/4 91-1/2 90-1/2 + 110 96-3/4 95-3/4 94-3/4 93-1/2 92-1/2 91-3/4 + 111 97-3/4 96-3/4 95-1/2 94-1/2 93-1/4 92-1/4 + 112 98-1/2 97-1/2 96-1/2 95-1/4 94-1/4 93 + 113 99-1/2 98-1/4 97-1/4 96 95 93-3/4 + 114 100-1/2 99-1/4 98 97 95-3/4 94-3/4 + 115 101-1/4 100-1/2 99 97-3/4 96-3/4 95-1/2 + 116 102 101 99-3/4 98-1/2 97-1/2 96-1/4 + 117 103 101-3/4 100-1/2 99-1/2 98-1/4 97 + 118 103-3/4 102-1/2 101-1/2 100-1/4 99 98 + 119 104-3/4 103-1/2 102-1/4 101 100 98-3/4 + 120 105-1/2 104-1/2 103 102 101 99-1/2 + 121 106-1/2 105-1/4 104 102-3/4 101-1/2 100-1/2 + 122 107-1/2 106 105 103-1/2 102-1/2 101-1/2 + 123 108-1/4 107 105-3/4 104-1/2 103-1/4 102 + 124 109 108 106-1/2 105-1/2 104 103 + 125 110 108-3/4 107-1/2 106-1/4 105 103-3/4 + 126 111 109-1/2 108 107 106 104-1/2 + 127 111-3/4 110-1/2 109-1/4 108 106-3/4 105-1/2 + 128 112-1/2 111-1/2 110 109 107-1/2 106 + 129 113-1/2 112-1/4 111 109-3/4 108-1/4 107 + 130 114-1/2 113 112 110-1/2 109 108 + 131 115-1/4 114 112-3/4 111-1/4 110 108-3/4 + 132 116 115 113-1/2 112 111 109-1/2 + 133 117 115-3/4 114-1/4 113 111-3/4 110-1/4 + 134 118 116-1/2 115-1/2 114 112-1/2 111 + 135 118-3/4 117-1/2 116 114-3/4 113-1/4 112 + 136 119-1/2 118-1/2 117 115-1/2 114 113 + 137 120-1/2 119-1/4 117-3/4 116-1/2 115 113-3/4 + 138 121-1/2 120 118-1/2 117-1/2 116 114-1/2 + 139 122-1/4 121 119-1/2 118-1/4 116-3/4 115-1/4 + 140 123-1/4 121-3/4 120-1/2 119 117-1/2 116-1/4 + 141 124 122-3/4 121-1/4 119-3/4 118-1/2 117 + 142 125 123-1/2 122 120-3/4 119-1/4 117-3/4 + 143 125-3/4 124-1/2 123 121-1/2 120 118-3/4 + 144 126-3/4 125-1/4 123-3/4 122-1/2 121 119-1/2 + 145 127-1/2 126-1/4 124-3/4 123-1/4 121-3/4 120-1/4 + 146 128-1/2 127 125-1/2 124 122-3/4 121-1/4 + 147 129-1/4 128 126-1/2 125 123-1/2 122 + 148 130-1/4 128-3/4 127-1/4 125-3/4 124-1/4 122-3/4 + 149 131 129-3/4 128-1/4 126-3/4 125-1/4 123-3/4 + 150 132 130-1/2 129 127-1/2 126 124-1/2 + 151 133 131-1/4 129-3/4 128-1/4 126-3/4 125-1/4 + 152 133-3/4 132-1/4 130-3/4 129-1/4 127-3/4 126-1/4 + 153 134-3/4 133 131-1/2 130 128-1/2 127 + 154 135-1/2 134 132-1/2 131 129-1/4 127-3/4 + 155 136-1/2 134-3/4 133-1/4 131-3/4 130-1/4 128-3/4 + 156 137-1/4 135-3/4 134-1/4 132-1/2 131 129-1/2 + 157 138-1/4 136-1/2 135 133-1/2 132 130-1/4 + 158 139 137-1/2 136 134-1/4 132-3/4 131-1/4 + 159 140 138-1/4 136-3/4 135-1/4 133-1/2 132 + 160 140-3/4 139-1/4 137-1/2 136 134-1/2 132-3/4 + 161 141-3/4 140 138-1/2 136-3/4 135-1/4 133-3/4 + 162 142-1/2 141 139-1/4 137-3/4 136 134-1/2 + 163 143-1/2 141-3/4 140-1/4 138-1/2 137 135-1/4 + 164 144-1/4 142-3/4 141 139-1/2 137-3/4 136 + 165 145-1/4 143-1/2 142 140-1/4 138-1/2 137 + 166 146 144-1/2 142-3/4 141 139-1/2 137-3/4 + 167 147 145-1/4 143-1/2 142 140-1/4 138-1/2 + 168 147-3/4 146-1/4 144-1/2 142-3/4 141 139-1/2 + 169 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 143-3/4 142 140-1/4 + 170 149-1/2 148 146-1/4 144-1/2 142-1/4 141 + 171 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 143-3/4 142 + 172 151-1/4 149-3/4 148 146-1/4 144-1/2 142-3/4 + 173 152-1/4 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 143-1/2 + 174 153 151-1/2 149-3/4 148 146-1/4 144-1/2 + 175 154 152-1/4 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 145-1/4 + 176 155 153 151-1/4 149-1/2 147-3/4 146 + 177 155-3/4 154 152-1/4 150-1/2 148-3/4 147 + 178 156-3/4 154-3/4 153 151-1/4 149-1/2 147-3/4 + 179 157-1/2 155-3/4 154 152-1/4 150-1/4 148-1/2 + 180 158-1/2 156-1/2 154-3/4 153 151-1/4 149-1/2 + 181 159-1/4 157-1/2 155-3/4 153-3/4 152 150-1/4 + 182 160-1/4 158-1/4 156-1/2 154-3/4 153 151 + 183 161 159-1/4 157-1/2 155-1/2 153-3/4 152 + 184 162 160 158-1/4 156-1/2 154-1/2 152-3/4 + 185 162-3/4 161 159 157-1/4 155-1/2 153-1/2 + 186 163-3/4 161-3/4 160 158 156-1/4 154-1/2 + 187 164-1/2 162-3/4 160-3/4 159 157 155-1/4 + 188 165-1/2 163-1/2 161-3/4 160 158 156 + 189 166-1/4 164-1/2 162-1/2 160-3/4 156-3/4 156-3/4 + 190 167-1/4 165-1/4 163-1/2 161-1/2 159-1/2 157-3/4 + 191 168 166-1/4 164-1/4 162-1/4 160-1/2 158-1/2 + 192 169 167 165 163-1/4 161-1/4 159-1/4 + 193 169-3/4 168 166 164 162 160-1/4 + 194 170-3/4 168-3/4 166-3/4 165 163 161 + 195 171-1/2 169-3/4 167-3/4 165-3/4 163-3/4 161-3/4 + 196 172-1/2 170-1/2 168-1/2 166-1/2 164-3/4 162-3/4 + 197 173-1/4 171-1/2 169-1/2 167-1/2 165-1/2 163-1/2 + 198 174-1/4 172-1/4 170-1/4 168-1/4 166-1/4 164-1/4 + 199 175 173-1/4 171-1/4 169-1/4 167-1/4 165-1/4 + 200 176 174 172 170 168 166 + 201 177 174-3/4 173 170-3/4 168-3/4 166-3/4 + 202 177-3/4 175-3/4 173-3/4 171-3/4 169-3/4 167-3/4 + 203 178-3/4 176-1/2 174-1/2 172-1/2 170-1/2 168-1/2 + 204 179-1/2 177-1/2 175-1/2 173-1/2 171-1/4 169-1/4 + 205 180-1/2 178-1/4 176-1/4 174-1/4 172-1/4 170-1/4 + 206 181-1/4 179-1/4 177-1/4 175 173 171 + 207 182-1/4 180 178 176 174 171-3/4 + 208 183 181 179 176-3/4 174-3/4 172-3/4 + 209 184 181-3/4 179-3/4 177-3/4 175-1/2 173-1/2 + 210 184-3/4 182-3/4 180-1/2 178-1/2 176-1/2 174-1/4 + 211 185-3/4 183-1/2 181-1/2 179-1/4 177-1/4 175-1/4 + 212 186-1/2 184-1/2 182-1/4 180-1/4 178 176 + 213 187-1/2 185-1/4 183-1/4 181 179 176-3/4 + 214 188-1/4 186-1/4 184 182 179-3/4 177-1/2 + 215 189-1/4 187 185 182-3/4 180-1/2 178-1/2 + 216 190 188 185-3/4 183-1/2 181-1/2 179-1/4 + 217 191 188-3/4 186-1/2 184-1/2 182-1/4 180 + 218 191-3/4 189-3/4 187-1/2 185-1/4 183 181 + 219 192-3/4 190-1/2 188-1/4 186-1/4 184 181-3/4 + 220 193-1/2 191-1/2 189-1/4 187 184-3/4 182-1/2 + 221 194-1/2 192-1/4 190 187-3/4 185-3/4 183-1/2 + 222 195-1/4 193-1/4 191 188-3/4 186-1/2 184-1/4 + 223 196-1/4 194 191-3/4 189-1/2 187-1/4 185 + 224 197 195 192-3/4 190-1/2 188-1/4 186 + 225 198 195-3/4 193-1/2 191-1/4 189 186-3/4 + 226 199 196-1/2 194-1/4 192 189-3/4 187-1/2 + 227 199-3/4 197-1/2 195-1/4 193 190-3/4 188-1/2 + 228 200-3/4 198-1/4 196 193-3/4 191-1/2 189-1/4 + 229 201-1/2 199-1/4 197 194-3/4 192-1/4 190 + 230 202-1/2 200 198 195-1/2 193-1/2 191 + 231 203-1/4 201 198-3/4 196-1/2 194-1/4 192 + 232 204 202 199-1/2 197 195 192-1/2 + 233 205 202-3/4 200-1/4 198 195-3/4 193-1/4 + 234 206 203-1/2 201 199 196-1/2 194 + 235 206-3/4 204-1/2 202 199-3/4 197-1/2 195 + 236 207-1/2 205 203 200-1/2 198 196 + 237 208-1/2 206-1/4 203-3/4 201-1/2 199 196-3/4 + 238 209-1/2 207 204-1/2 202-1/4 200 197-1/2 + 239 210-1/4 208 205-1/2 203-1/4 200-3/4 198-1/4 + 240 211 208-3/4 206-1/4 204 201-1/2 199 + 241 212 209-3/4 207-1/4 204-3/4 202-1/2 200 + 242 213 210-1/2 208 205-3/4 203 201 + 243 213-3/4 211-1/2 209 206-1/2 204 201-3/4 + 244 214-3/4 212-1/4 210 207-1/4 205 202-1/2 + 245 215-1/2 213 210-3/4 208-1/4 205-3/4 203-1/4 + 246 216-1/2 214 211-1/2 209 206-1/2 204 + 247 217-1/4 215 212-1/2 210 207-1/2 205 + 248 218 216 213 211 208 206 + 249 219 216-3/4 214-1/2 211-1/2 209-1/4 207 + 250 220 217-1/2 215 212-1/2 210 207-1/2 + 251 221 218-1/4 215-3/4 213-1/4 210-3/4 208-1/4 + 252 222 219 216-3/4 214 212 209 + 253 222-1/2 220 217-1/2 215 212-1/2 210 + 254 223-1/2 221 218-1/2 216 213-1/4 211 + 255 224-1/4 222 219-3/4 216-3/4 214-1/4 211-1/2 + 256 225 223 220 218 215 212 + 257 226 223-3/4 221 218-3/4 216 213 + 258 227 224-1/2 222 219-1/2 216-3/4 214 + 259 228 225-1/4 222-3/4 220-1/4 217-1/2 215 + 260 229 226 224 221 218 216 + 261 229-3/4 227 225 222 219 216-3/4 + 262 230-1/2 228 225-1/2 222-3/4 220 217-1/2 + 263 231-1/2 229 226-1/4 223-1/2 221 218-1/4 + 264 232 230 227 224 222 219 + 265 233 230-3/4 228 225 222-3/4 220 + 266 234 231-1/2 228-3/4 226 223-1/2 220-3/4 + 267 235 232-1/4 229-1/2 227 224-1/4 221-1/2 + 268 236 233 230-1/2 228 225 222 + 269 236-3/4 234 231-1/4 228-1/2 226 223-1/4 + 270 237-1/2 235 232 229-1/2 226-3/4 224 + 271 238-1/2 235-3/4 233 230-1/4 227-1/2 225 + 272 239 237 234 231 228 226 + 273 240 237-3/4 234-3/4 232 229 226-3/4 + 274 241 238-1/2 235-1/2 233 230 227-1/2 + 275 242 239-1/4 236-1/2 233-3/4 231 228-1/4 + 276 243 240 237-1/4 234-1/2 232 229 + 277 243-3/4 241 238-1/4 235-1/2 232-3/4 230 + 278 244-1/2 242 239 236-1/2 233-1/2 230-3/4 + 279 245-1/2 243 240 237 234-1/2 231-1/2 + 280 246-1/2 243-3/4 241 238 235-1/4 232-1/2 + 281 247-1/4 244-1/2 241-3/4 238-3/4 236 233-1/4 + 282 248 245-1/2 242-1/2 239-1/2 237 234 + 283 249 246-1/4 243-1/4 240-1/2 237-3/4 235 + 284 250 247 244 241-1/2 238-1/2 235-3/4 + 285 250-3/4 248 245 242-1/4 239-1/4 236-1/2 + 286 251-1/2 249 246 243 240 237-1/2 + 287 252-1/2 249-3/4 246-3/4 244 241 238-1/4 + 288 253-1/2 250-1/2 247-1/2 245 242 239 + 289 254-1/4 251-1/2 248-1/2 245-3/4 242-3/4 239-3/4 + 290 255 252-1/2 249-1/2 246-1/2 243-1/2 240-3/4 + 291 256 253-1/4 250-1/4 247-1/4 244-1/2 241-1/2 + 292 257 254 251 248 245-1/2 242-1/2 + 293 257-3/4 255 252 249 246-1/4 243-1/4 + 294 258-1/2 256 253 250 247 244 + 295 259-1/2 256-3/4 253-3/4 250-3/4 247-3/4 244-3/4 + 296 260-1/2 257-1/2 254-1/2 251-1/2 248-1/2 245-1/2 + 297 261-1/4 258-1/2 255-1/2 252-1/2 249-1/2 246-1/2 + 298 262 259-1/4 256-1/2 253-1/2 250-1/2 247-1/2 + 299 263 260 257-1/4 254-1/4 251-1/4 248-1/4 + +[Illustration: TRYING THE ROAST] + + +_Cooling and Stoning_ + +"Coffee which leaves the roaster beautifully uniform in appearance", +says A.L. Burns, "may lose all uniformity by delayed or inadequate +cooling. Separated beans of coffee will cool off by themselves; but when +heaped together, the inner part of the mass will get hotter and even +take fire.... Coffee must be spread over a considerable surface, or all +kept moving, and have at the same time a lot of air forced through it. +Otherwise, there will be some darkening and over-development of part of +the coffee, and a loss of the uniformity which is the first requirement +of good roasting." + +[Illustration: MONITOR GAS ROASTER] + +[Illustration: A GROUP OF ROASTING-ROOM ACCESSORIES] + +The cooling apparatus consists of a movable, box-like metal car which +can be brought up to the front of the roaster to the revolving +cylinders. The car has a perforated false bottom, to which is attached a +powerful exhaust-fan system that sucks the heat out of the coffee. In +large plants, utilizing two or more floors, the tilting-type cooling +car is favored. This car permits instant discharge through an opening in +the floor into a receiving tank suspended from the ceiling below and +connected with the stoning apparatus. Recently, a flexible-arm cooler +has been invented that provides full fan suction to a cooler car at all +points in its track travel from the roaster to the emptying position. + +[Illustration: DUMPING THE ROAST IN A COAL ROASTING PLANT + +The roasted coffee is being turned into the cooling car, equipped with a +swinging "flexarm" that keeps it always in connection with a suspended +header pipe; the cooling being started as soon as the coffee leaves the +roaster. The cooled coffee, by tipping the box, goes into a floor +hopper] + +The stoner, an essential part of the modern roasting plant, has for its +function the removal of stones and other foreign matter of which the +green-coffee operations have failed to get rid. The stoner is usually +built in direct combination with the cooling equipment, and does its +work by means of a gravity separation in an upward-moving column of air. +The coffee passes into the suction boot of the stoner, either directly +from the cooler box or from a floor hopper into which the cooler dumps, +and is carried up the stoner pipe, or "riser", by an air current of +ample power which can be accurately regulated. This insures the carrying +up of coffee only, the stones remaining at the bottom of the machine and +being dumped at intervals into a pan underneath. The coffee, passing up +the riser pipe, is delivered into a large "stoner hopper" which is +usually hung to the ceiling of the roasting room. The correct +construction of this hopper is of great importance, as the coffee must +be deposited completely without breakage, and the air must pass on +through the suction fan carrying nothing except bits of loose chaff. + +A different type of cooler is in the form of an upright cylinder, +consisting of two metal perforated drums, one set within the other. The +inner drum is sufficiently small to allow the coffee to move freely +between the drums. Inside the smaller one is an exhaust pipe which draws +the heat and chaff out of the coffee. This device is recommended for use +only in connection with wet roasted coffee. + +Still another type consists of a single perforated cylinder set +horizontal with the floor, and revolving alongside of an exhaust box +which sucks out the heat and chaff as the coffee is tumbled about in the +cylinder. A rocking type, that is not generally employed, is constructed +on the principle of the screen used by housebuilders to separate coarse +sand from the fine, and is pivoted at the middle so that it can be +rocked end to end. + +[Illustration: A FOUR-BAG COFFEE FINISHER] + + +_Finishing or Glazing_ + +Finishing whole-bean roasted coffee, by giving it a friction polish +while it is still moist, using a glaze solution or water only, is a +practise not harmful if the proper solutions are employed. Roasted +coffee dulls in ordinary handling, and it is claimed that coating not +only improves its appearance, but serves also to preserve the natural +flavor and aroma of the bean. A machine having flat-sided wooden +cylinders with ventilated heads, and operated two-thirds full of coffee +so as to get an effective rolling motion, is generally employed. +Coatings composed of sugar and eggs are popular, but their use should be +stated on the label. + +Coffee roasters are divided on this question of coffee-coating. The best +thought of the trade is undoubtedly opposed to the practise when it is +done to conceal inferiority or abnormally to reduce shrinkage. Some New +York coffee roasters, who made a thorough investigation of the matter, +found coating coffee with a wholesome material not injurious and the +coated coffee better in the cup. Dr. Harvey W. Wiley found, in the +celebrated Ohio case against Arbuckle Brothers, that coating coffee with +sugar and eggs produced beneficial results, and that the coating +preserved the bean. The Bureau of Chemistry has never issued any ruling +on the subject of coating coffee. + + +_Blending Roasted Coffee_ + +After cooling and stoning, unless it is to be polished or glazed, the +coffee is ready for grinding and packing if it has been blended in the +green state. Otherwise, the next step will be to mix the different +varieties before grinding, although some packers blend the different +kinds after they have been ground. To mix whole-bean roasted coffee +without hurting its appearance is rather difficult, and there is no +regular machine for such work. + +[Illustration: BURNS SAMPLE-COFFEE ROASTER] + +Rarely is a single kind of coffee drunk straight. The common practise in +all countries is to mix different varieties having opposing +characteristics so as to obtain a smoother beverage. This is called +blending, a process that has attained the standing of an art in the +United States. Most package coffees are blends. In addition to other +qualities, the practical coffee blender must have a natural aptitude for +the work. He must also have long experience before he becomes +proficient, and must be acquainted with the different properties of all +the coffees grown, or at least of those that come to his market. +Furthermore, he must know the variations in characteristics of current +crops; for in most coffees no two crops are equal in trade values. +Innumerable blends are possible with more than a hundred different +coffees to draw upon. + +A blend may consist of two or more kinds of coffee, but the general +practise is to employ several kinds; so that, if at any time one can not +be obtained, its absence from the blend will not be so noticeable as +would be the case if only two or three kinds were used. + +In blending coffees, consideration is given first to the shades of +flavor in the cup and next to price. The blender describes flavors as, +acidy, bitter, smooth, neutral, flat, wild, grassy, groundy, sour, +fermented, and hidey; and he mixes the coffees accordingly to obtain the +desired taste in the cup. Naturally the wild, sour, groundy, fermented, +and hidey kinds are avoided as much as possible. Coffees with a Rio +flavor are used only in the cheaper blends. + +Generally speaking, a properly balanced blend should have a full rich +body as a basis; and to this should be added a growth to give it some +acid character, and one to give it increased aroma. + +Personal preference is the determining factor in making up a blend. Some +blenders prefer a coffee with plenty of acid taste; while others choose +the non-acid cup. For the first-named kind, the blender will mix +together the coffees that have an acidy characteristic; while for a +non-acidy blend, he will mix an acidy growth with one having a neutral +flavor. + +[Illustration: LAMBERT ECONOMIC COFFEE-ROASTING OUTFIT FOR COAL FIRE + +This is a self-contained plant for one or two bags, and comprises a +roaster, rotary cooler, elevator feed hopper, electric motor, and +stoning and chaffing attachments. It may be equipped for gas] + +Coffees can be divided into four great classes, the neutral-flavored, +the sweet, the acidy, and the bitter. All East Indian coffees, except +Ceylons, Malabars, and the other Hindoostan growths, are classified as +bitter, as are old brown Bucaramangas, brown Bogotas, and brown Santos. +The acid coffees are generally the new-crop washed varieties of the +western hemisphere, such as Mexicans, Costa Ricas, Bogotas, Caracas, +Guatemalas, Santos, etc. However, the acidity may be toned down by age +so that they become sweet or sweet-bitter. Red Santos is generally a +sweet coffee, and is prized by blenders. High-grade washed Santo Domingo +and Haiti coffees are sweet both when new crop and when aged. + +Practical coffee blenders do not mix two new-crop acid coffees, or two +old-crop bitter kinds, unless their bitterness or acidity is +counteracted by coffees with opposite flavors. One blender insists that +every blend should contain three coffees. + +[Illustration: CHALLENGE PULVERIZER] + +Some Bourbon and flat-beaned Santos coffees are better when new, and +some are better when old; but a blend of fine old-crop coffee with a +snappy new-crop coffee gives a better result than either separately. A +new-crop Bourbon and an old yellow flat bean make a better blend than a +new-crop flat bean and an old-crop Bourbon. Probably the very best +result in a low-priced blend may be obtained by using one-half old-crop +Bourbon Santos with one-half new-crop Haiti or Santo Domingo of the +cheaper grades. + +Typical low-priced coffee blends in the United States may be made up of +a good Santos, possibly a Bourbon, and some low-cost Mexican, Central +American, Colombian, or Venezuelan coffee, the Santos counteracting +these acidy Milds. + +Going next higher in the scale of price, fancy old Bourbon Santos is +used with one-third fancy old Cucuta or a good Trujillo. + +For a blend costing about five cents more a pound retail, one-third +fancy old Cucuta or Merida is blended with fancy old Bourbon Santos. + +[Illustration: MONITOR COFFEE-GRANULATING MACHINE] + +The highest-priced blend may contain two-thirds of a fine private estate +Sumatra and one-third Mocha or Longberry Harari. + +[Illustration: COLES NO. 22 GRINDING MILL] + +Alfred W. McCann, while advertising manager for Francis H. Leggett & +Co., New York, in 1910, evolved a new coffee distinction based on the +argument that certain coffees like Mochas, Mexicans, Bourbons, and Costa +Ricas were developed in the cup through the action on them of cream or +milk; while others, such as Bogotas, Javas, Maracaibos, etc., flattened +out when cream or milk was added. He argued, accordingly, that breakfast +coffees should be made up from the former, but that the latter should +not be used except for after-dinner coffees, to be drunk black.[328] +William B. Harris, then coffee expert for the United States Department +of Agriculture, took issue with Mr. McCann, claiming that if a coffee is +watery and lacks body, it will not take kindly to milk or cream, not +because the chemical action of milk or cream flattens it out, but +because there is nothing there in the first place. The strength of the +brew being equal, all coffees will take cream or milk, Mr. Harris +held.[329] + +[Illustration: BURNS NO. 12 GRINDING MILL + +Designed for hotel and restaurant trade] + +[Illustration: MONITOR STEEL-CUT GRINDER, SEPARATOR, AND CHAFFER] + +M.J. McGarty said in 1915 that he had tried out many coffees in the cup, +and could not see that adding milk made any difference. However, he +found that sometimes a line of coffees will contain a sample that +flattens out at the drinking point (the point where the boiling water +has cooled to permit of its being drunk); and he thought this was what +Mr. McCann had in mind, as, by adding milk to such a coffee, it was +brought back to the drinking point. In other words, it was Mr. McGarty's +opinion that, in blending coffees, those coffees which hold their own +from the start, or boiling point, until they become cold, or even +improve right through, are more desirable for blending purposes; and +that those that are best at the drinking point should be given the +preference.[330] + + +_Coffee Blends for Restaurants_ + +William B. Harris[331] believes that the coffee of prime importance in +preparing restaurant blends is Bogota. He advises the use of a +full-bodied Bogota and an acid Bourbon Santos in the proportion of +three-fourths Bogota to one-fourth Santos. Blends may also be made up +from combinations of Bogota, Mexicans, and Guatemalas. + +According to Mr. Harris, the average blend of good coffee when made up, +two and one-half pounds of coffee to five gallons of water, will produce +a liquor of good color and strength. For many hotels, however, this may +not answer, as it is not heavy enough. More coffee must then be used, or +ten percent of chicory added. A blend with chicory can be made by using +two-thirds Bogota, one-third Bourbon Santos, and ten percent chicory. +No steward, hotel man, or restaurant man should, however, advertise +"coffee" on his menu, and then serve a drink employing chicory; because, +while there is no federal law against such a practise, there are state +laws against it. Chicory is all right in its place; and many prefer a +drink made from coffee and chicory; but such a drink can not properly be +called coffee. + +Hotel men should purchase their coffee in the bean, and do their own +grinding. Then they need never have cause to complain that their coffee +man deceived them, or that some salesman misled them. The hotel steward +wishing to furnish his patrons with a heavy-bodied coffee, particularly +a black after-dinner coffee, _without chicory_, will use three, four, or +even four and one-half pounds of ground coffee to five gallons of water. + +With so wide a choice of coffees to choose from, a coffee blender can +make up many combinations to meet the demands of his trade. Probably no +two blenders use exactly the same varieties in exactly the same +proportions to make up a blend to sell at the same price. However, they +all follow the same general principles laid down in the foregoing flavor +classification of the world's coffees. + + +_Grinding and Packaging Coffee_ + +[Illustration: JOHNSON CARTON-FILLING, WEIGHING, AND SEALING MACHINE] + +Unless the coffee is to be sold in the bean, it is sent to the grinding +and packing department, to be further prepared for the consumer. Since +the federal food law has been in effect, the public has gained +confidence in ground and bean coffee in packages; and today a large part +of the coffee consumed in the United States is sold in one and two pound +cartons and cans, already blended and ready for brewing. + +[Illustration: THE IDEAL STEEL-CUT MILL] + +A progressive coffee-packing house may have three different styles of +grinding machines; one called the granulator for turning out the +so-called "steel-cut" coffee; the second, a pulverizer for making a +really fine grind; and the third, a grinding mill for general factory +work and producing a medium-ground coffee. + +Commercial coffee-grinding machines are alike in principle in all +countries, the beans being crushed or broken between toothed or +corrugated metal or stone members, one revolving and the other being +stationary. While all grinding machines are alike in principle, they may +vary in capacity and design. The average granulator will turn out about +five hundred pounds of "steel-cut" coffee in an hour; the pulverizer, +from seventy-five to two hundred pounds; and the average grinding mill +from five hundred to six hundred pounds. Some types of grinding machines +have chaff-removing attachments to remove, by air suction, the chaff +from the coffee as it is being ground. + +A large number of trade terms for designating different grinds of coffee +are used in the United States, some of them meaning the same thing, +while similar names are sometimes contradictory. A canvass of the +leading American coffee packers in 1917[332] discovered that there were +fifteen terms in use, and that there were thirty-four different meanings +attached to them. For the term "fine" there were five different +definitions; "medium" had five; "coarse", seven; "pulverized", four; +"steel-cut", seven; "ground", two; "powdered", one; "percolator", two; +"steel-cut-chaff-removed", one; "Turkish ground", one; while +"granulated", "Greek ground", "extra fine", "standard", and "regular" +were not defined. + +The term "steel-cut" is generally understood to mean that in the +grinding process the chaff has been removed and an approximate +uniformity of granules has been obtained by sifting. The term does not +necessarily mean that the grinding mills have steel burrs. In fact, most +firms employ burrs made of cast-iron or of a composition metal known as +"burr metal", because of its combined hardness and toughness. + +The "steel-cut" idea is another of those sophistries for which American +advertising methods have been largely responsible in the development of +the package-coffee business in the United States. The term "steel-cut" +lost all its value as an advertising catchword for the original user +when every other dealer began to use it, no matter how the ground coffee +was produced. When the public has been taught that coffee should be +"steel-cut", it is hard to sell it ground coffee unless it is called +"steel-cut"; although a truer education of the consumer would have +caused him to insist on buying whole bean coffee to be ground at home. + +[Illustration: SMYSER PACKAGE-MAKING-AND-FILLING MACHINE AT THE ARBUCKLE +PLANT, NEW YORK + +This machine was invented by Henry E. Smyser of Philadelphia, who +secured the first patent in 1880, but it has been much improved by the +Arbuckle engineers. The half shown on the left makes the one-pound paper +bags complete, including the separate lining of parchment, fills the +bag, automatically inserts a premium list at the same time, packs it +down, seals it, and delivers it on a short conveyor to the other half +(shown on the right) where the package is wrapped in the outside +glassine paper and pushed out on a table for the girls to put into +shipping cases] + +"Steel-cut" coffee, that is, a medium-ground coffee with the chaff blown +out, does not compare in cup test with coffee that has been more +scientifically ground and not given the chaff removal treatment that is +largely associated in the public mind with the idea of the steel-cut +process. + +[Illustration: MACHINE FOR AUTOMATICALLY PACKING COFFEE IN CARTONS + +Five distinct operations are performed by the units comprising this +Pneumatic installation, viz., carton-feeding, bottom-sealing, lining, +weighing and top-sealing] + +According to the results of the trade canvass previously referred to, it +would appear that the terms most suited to convey the right idea of the +different grades of grinding, and likely to be acceptable to the +greatest number, would be "coarse" (for boiling, and including all the +coarser grades); "medium" (for coffee made in the ordinary pot, +including the so-called "steel-cut"); "fine" (like granulated sugar, and +used for percolators); "very fine" (like cornmeal, and used for drip or +filtration methods); "powdered" (like flour, and used for Turkish +coffee). + +Coffee begins to lose its strength immediately after roasting, the rate +of loss increasing rapidly after grinding. In a test carried out by a +Michigan coffee packer,[333] it was discovered that a mixture of a very +fine with a coarse grind gives the best results in the cup. It was also +determined that coarse ground coffee loses its strength more rapidly +than the medium ground; while the latter deteriorates more quickly than +a fine ground; and so on, down the scale. His conclusions were that the +most satisfactory grind for putting into packages that are likely to +stand for some time before being consumed is a mixture consisting of +about ninety percent finely ground coffee and ten percent coarse. His +theory is that the fine grind supplies sufficiently high body +extraction; the coarse, the needful flavor and aroma. On this irregular +grind a United States patent (No. 14,520) has been granted, in which the +inventor claims that the ninety percent of fine eliminates the +interstices--that allow too free ventilation in a coarse ground +coffee--and consequently prevents the loss of the highly volatile +constituents of the ten percent of coarse-ground particles, and at the +same time gives a full-body extraction. + + +_Making and Filling Containers_ + +As stated before, a large proportion of the coffee sold in the United +States is put up into packages, ready for brewing. Such containers are +grouped under the name of the material of which they are made; such as +tin, fiber, cardboard, paper, wood, and combinations of these materials, +such as a fiber can with tin top and bottom. Generally, coffee +containers are lined with chemically treated paper or foil to keep in +the aroma and flavor, and to keep out moisture and contaminating odors. + +As the package business grew in the United States, the machinery +manufacturers kept pace; until now there are machines that, in one +continuous operation, open up a "flat" paper carton, seal the bottom +fold, line the carton with a protecting paper, weigh the coffee as it +comes down from an overhead hopper into the carton, fold the top and +seal it, and then wrap the whole package in a waxed or paraffined +paper, delivering the package ready for shipment without having been +touched by a human hand from the first operation to the last. Such a +machine can put out fifteen to eighteen thousand packages a day. + +Another type of machine automatically manufactures two and three-ply +paper cans such as are used widely for cereal packages. It winds the +ribbons of heavy paper in a spiral shape, automatically gluing the +papers together to make a can that will not permit its contents to leak +out. The machine turns out its product in long cylinders, like mailing +tubes, which are cut into the desired lengths to make the cans. The +paper or tin tops and bottoms are stamped out on a punch press. + +Coffee cans are generally filled by hand; that is, the can is placed +under the spout of an automatic filling and weighing machine by an +operator who slips on the cover when the can is properly filled. The +weighing machine has a hopper which lets the coffee down into a device +that gauges the correct amount, say a pound or two pounds, and then +pours it into the can. The machine weighs the can and its contents, and +if they do not show the exact predetermined weight, the device +automatically operates to supply the necessary quantity. After weighing, +the can is carried on a traveling belt to the labeling machine, where +the label is automatically applied and glued. Then the can is put +through a drying compartment to make the label stick quickly. + + +[Illustration: COMPLETE COFFEE-CARTONING OUTFIT IN OPERATION + +The girl is feeding the "flats" into an Improved Johnson bottom-sealer. +The carton travels to a Scott weigher on the right and thence to the +top-sealer on the left] + +Paper bags are filled much the same way as the tin and the fiber cans. +In fact, some packers fill their paper and fiber cartons by the same +system; although the tendency among the largest companies is to instal +the complete automatic packaging equipment, because of its speed and +economy in packaging. Frequently, the weighing machines are used in +filling wooden and fiber drums holding twenty-five, fifty, and one +hundred pounds of coffee, to be sold in bulk to the retailer. + +[Illustration: THREE TYPES OF AUTOMATIC COFFEE-WEIGHING MACHINES + +Left--Duplex net weigher. Center--Pneumatic cross-weight machine. +Right--Scott net weigher] + + +_Coffee Additions and Fillers_ + +In all large coffee-consuming countries, coffee additions and fillers +have always been used. Large numbers of French, Italian, Dutch, and +German consumers insist on having chicory with their coffee, just as do +many Southerners in the United States. + +The chief commercial reason for using coffee additions and fillers is to +keep down the cost of blends. For this purpose, chicory and many kinds +of cooked cereals are most generally used; while frequently roasted and +ground peas, beans, and other vegetables that will not impair the flavor +or aroma of the brew, are employed in foreign countries. Before +Parliament passed the Adulterant Act, some British coffee men used as +fillers cacao husks, acorns, figs, and lupins, in addition to chicory +and the other favorite fillers. + +Up to the year 1907, when the United States Food and Drugs Act became +effective, chicory and cereal additions were widely used by coffee +packers and retailers in this country. With the enforcement of the law +requiring the label of a package to state when a filler is employed, the +use of additions gradually fell off in most sections. + +In botanical description and chemical composition chicory, the most +favored addition, has no relationship with coffee. When roasted and +ground, it resembles coffee in appearance; but it has an entirely +different flavor. However, many coffee-drinkers prefer their beverage +when this alien flavor has been added to it. + + +_Treated Coffees and Dry Extracts_ + +The manufacture of prepared, or refined, coffees has become an important +branch of the business in the United States and Europe. Prepared coffees +can be divided into two general groups: treated coffees, from which the +caffein has been removed to some degree; and dry coffee extracts +(soluble coffee), which are readily dissolved in a cup of hot or cold +water. + +To decaffeinate coffee, the most common practise is to make the green +beans soft by steaming under pressure, and then to apply benzol or +chloroform or alcohol to the softened coffee to dissolve and to extract +the caffein. Afterward, the extracting solvents are driven out of the +coffee by re-steaming. However, chemists have not yet been able to expel +all the caffein in treating coffee commercially, the best efforts +resulting in from 0.3 to 0.07 percent remaining. After treatment, the +coffee beans are then roasted, packed, and sold like ordinary coffee. + +[Illustration: VACUUM DRUM DRIER + +Vacuum drum drier, No. 1 size; diameter of drum, 12 inches; length, 20 +inches; used for converting coffee extract and other liquids into dry +powder form. This is the smallest size, and was developed for drying +smaller quantities of liquids than could be handled economically in the +larger sizes. To provide accessibility of the interior for cleansing, +the outer casing may be moved back on the track of the bedplate (as +shown in the cut), so that free access may be had to the drum and +interior of the casing. + +RAPID-CIRCULATION EVAPORATOR + +Used to concentrate coffee extracts and other liquids. The tubes are +easily reached through the open door for cleansing. Interior of the +vapor body is reached through a manhole. + +REAR VIEW OF DRUM DRIER + +Vacuum drum dryer. No. 1 size; rear view, showing outer casing rolled +back from the drum. + +CROSS-SECTION OF VACUUM DRIER + +This shows the interior arrangement and principle of operation. The +drawing represents a larger size than the photograph, and while the +arrangement of some parts is slightly different, the principle of +operation is the same. + +UNITS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SOLUBLE COFFEE] + +In manufacturing dry coffee extract in the form of a powder that is +readily soluble in water, the general method is to extract the drinking +properties from ground roasted coffee by means of water, and to +evaporate the resulting liquid until only the coffee powder is left. +Several methods have been developed and patented to prevent the valuable +flavor elements from being evaporated with the water. + +A typical dry-coffee-extract-making equipment consists of a battery of +percolators, or "leachers", a vacuum evaporating device, and a vacuum +drier. The leachers do not differ materially from the ordinary +restaurant percolators, a battery usually including from three to seven +units, each charge of water going through all the percolations. The +resulting heavy liquid then goes to the evaporator to be concentrated +into a thick liquor. The evaporator consists of a horizontal cylindrical +vapor compartment connected with an inclined cylindrical steam chest in +which are numerous tubes, or flues, that occupy almost the whole chest. +These tubes are heated by steam. The coffee liquor is passed through the +tubes at high speed and thrown with great force against a baffle plate +at the opening to the vapor chest. The vapor passes around the baffle +plate to a separator. The liquor drops to the lower part of the +steam-chest (which is free from tubes), and is ready to be drawn out for +the next process, the drying. + +At this stage, the extract is a heavily concentrated syrup and is ready +to be converted into powder. This is done in the vacuum drier, which +consists of a hollow revolving drum surrounded by a tightly sealed +cast-iron casing. The drum is heated by steam injected into its +interior, and is revolved in a high vacuum. In operation, a coating of +coffee liquor is applied automatically, by means of a special device, to +the outside of the drum. The liquor is taken by gravity from the +reservoir containing the liquid supply and is forced upward by means of +a pump into the liquid supply pan, directly under the drum, with +sufficient pressure to cause the liquid to adhere to the drum, the +excess liquor overflowing from the pan into the reservoir. The coating +on the drum is controlled or regulated by a spreader. The heat and the +vacuum reduce the extract to a dry powder in less than one revolution of +the drum. As the drum completes three-quarters of a turn, a scraper +knife removes the coffee powder, which is delivered to a receiver below +the drum. Modern vacuum-drum driers have a capacity of from twenty-five +to five hundred pounds of dry soluble coffee per hour. + +C.W. Trigg and W.A. Hamor were granted a patent in the United States in +1919 on a new process for making an aromatized coffee extract. In this +process, the caffeol of the coffee is volatilized and is then brought +into contact with an absorbing medium such as is used in the extraction +of perfumes. The absorbing medium is then treated with a solvent of the +caffeol, and the solution is separated from the petrolatum. Then the +coffee solution is concentrated to an extract by evaporation; after +which, the extract and the caffeol are combined into a soluble coffee. +Five additional patents were granted on this same process in 1921. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING OF COFFEE + + _How coffees are sold at wholesale--The wholesale salesman's place + in merchandising--Some coffee costs analyzed--Handy coffee-selling + chart--Terms and credits--About package coffees--Various types of + coffee containers--Coffee package labels--Coffee package + economies--Practical grocer helps--Coffee sampling--Premium method + of sales promotion_ + + +Coffee is sold at wholesale in the United States chiefly by about 4,000 +wholesale grocers, who handle also many other items of food; and by +roasters, who make a specialty of preparing the green coffee for +consumption, and who feature either bulk or trade-marked package goods. + +Much the largest proportion of the wholesale coffee trade today is made +up of roasted coffees, though some wholesalers still sell the green bean +to retail distributers who do their own roasting. Most of the roasted +coffee sold is ground; although in some parts of the United States there +is at present a growing consumer demand for coffee in the bean. Of the +coffee sold in trade-marked packages in 1919 in the United States, about +seventy-five percent was ground ready for brewing. + +The larger wholesale houses generally confine their operations to the +section of the country in which they are located, but some of the +biggest coffee-packing firms seek national distribution. In both cases, +branch houses are usually established at strategic points to facilitate +the serving of retail customers with freshly roasted coffee at all +times. + +In recent years, too, it has become a general practise for the home +offices, or main headquarters, to advertise their product in magazines, +newspapers, street cars, and by mail and on billboards; while the +branches solicit trade in their territories by means of traveling +salesmen, local newspaper advertisements, booklets, circulars, and +demonstrations at food shows. + + +_The Wholesale Salesman_ + +The traveling salesman is probably the most effective agency in securing +the retailer's orders for coffee. A good coffee salesman not only sells +coffee, but he teaches his customer how he can best build up and hold +his coffee trade. He acquaints the retailer with all the talking points +about the coffee he handles, how to feature it in store displays and +advertisements, how to stage demonstrations and to work up special +sales. + +If he is a _good_ salesman, he does not permit the merchant to buy more +coffee than he can dispose of while it is still fresh. And he shows the +dealer the folly of handling too many brands of package coffees. If he +sells coffee in bulk, the efficient salesman has also a sound working +knowledge of blending principles, and is able to suggest the kinds of +coffee to blend to suit the particular requirements of each grocer's +trade. In short, he takes an intelligent interest in his customer's +business, and co-operates with him in building up a local coffee trade. + + +_Some Coffee Costs Analyzed_ + +In estimating the price at which he must sell his coffee to make a fair +profit, the wholesale coffee merchant has many items of expense to +consider. To the cost of the green coffee he must add: the cost of +transportation to his plant; the loss in shrinkage in roasting, which +ranges from fifteen to twenty percent; packaging costs, if he is a +packer; the items of expense in doing business, such as wages and +salaries, advertising, buying and selling, freight, express, warehouse +and cartage, postage and office supplies, telephone and telegraph, +credit and collection; and the fixed overhead charges for interest, +heat, light, power, insurance, taxes, repairs, equipment, depreciation, +losses from bad debts, and miscellaneous items.[334] The average loss +for bad debts among grocers in 1916 was 0.03 percent of the total sales, +according to the director of business research, Harvard University, who +estimated also that the common figure for credit and collection expense +was 0.06 percent. The total cost of doing business has been estimated as +ranging between twelve and twenty percent of the total annual sales, so +that a bag of green coffee costing $16 in New York or New Orleans costs +the coffee packer in the Middle West from $22.33 to $24.56, according to +the expense of carrying on his business. + + +_Terms and Credits_ + +Wholesale coffee trade contract terms and credits are not dissimilar +from those in other lines of commerce. The wholesaler helps the retailer +finance his business to the extent of granting him thirty to sixty days +in which to pay his bill, offering him a cash discount if the invoice is +paid within ten days of date of sale. Until recent years, these terms +were frequently abused, the customer demanding much longer credits and +often taking a ten-day cash discount after thirty or more days had +elapsed. This abuse was particularly prevalent from 1907 to 1913, when +coffee prices were low and competition was especially keen.[335] In +addition, the retailers often demanded special deliveries of supplies, +which added to the wholesalers' costs; and some retailers refused to pay +the cost of cartage from the cars to their stores. + +With the coming of high prices after the close of the World War, the +wholesalers showed a tendency to tighten up their credit and discount +terms, the National Coffee Roasters Association especially recommending +thirty days' credit, or at most sixty days, and a maximum cash discount +rate of two percent. + +Another trade abuse which has been corrected almost altogether was the +practise of "selling coffee to be billed as shipped"; that is, the +wholesaler held coffee on order, and billed only when delivered, even +though several weeks or months had passed before shipment. + + +_About Package Coffees_ + +Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the sale of coffee in +packages has increased steadily until now (1922) this form of +distribution competes strongly with bulk coffee sales. While bulk coffee +is still preferred in some eastern sections of the United States, coffee +packers are making deep inroads there, to the extent that practically +all high and medium grade retailers feature package coffees, either +under their own brand name, or that of a coffee specialty house. + +The prime requisite for success in any package coffee is the composition +of the blend. One of the leaders in the field, which we will call Y, is +said to be composed of Bogota, Bourbon Santos, and Mexican. In March, +1922, it was being sold at retail in New York for 42 cents. A competing +brand, which we will call Z, is said to be a blend of Bogota and Bourbon +Santos. It was being sold at retail in New York, at the same period for +the same price. Simultaneously, in the retail stores of a well known +chain system, a bulk blend composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos and +forty percent Bogota was to be had loose for 29 cents. + +The second important factor that contributes to package coffee success +is the container. It must be of such a character as will best preserve +the freshness--the flavor and the aroma of the coffee--until it reaches +the consumer. + +Package coffee has not yet won universal favor. Some of the arguments +used against it are: that the price is generally higher than the same +grade in bulk; that it leads to price-cutting by stores that can afford +to sell it at about cost as a leader for other articles; that the margin +of profit is frequently too close for some retailers: that when the +market advances, some packers change their blends to keep down cost and +to maintain the advertised price; and that, when packed ground, there is +a rapid loss of flavor, aroma, and strength. + +[Illustration: COAL ROASTING PLANT IN A NEW YORK FACTORY + +THE ROASTED BEANS HAVE JUST BEEN DUMPED INTO THE COOLER BOX] + +COFFEE-SELLING CHART + +BY A.J. DANNEMILLER + +Showing Prices to Be Obtained to Realize Certain Percents _on Sales_ +of Roasted Coffee + +_Cost Roasted_ +_& Packed_ 10% 11% 12% 13% 14% 15% 16% 17% + +4 4.44 4.50 4.55 4.61 4.67 4.72 4.77 4.82 +4-1/2 5.00 5.06 5.12 5.18 5.24 5.30 5.36 5.43 +5 5.55 5.62 5.68 5.75 5.82 5.89 5.96 6.03 +5-1/2 6.11 6.18 6.25 6.33 6.41 6.49 6.57 6.65 +6 6.67 6.74 6.81 6.89 6.97 7.06 7.15 7.24 +6-1/2 7.23 7.31 7.38 7.47 7.55 7.84 7.74 7.84 +7 7.78 7.87 7.95 8.05 8.15 8.25 8.35 8.45 +7-1/2 8.34 8.43 8.52 8.62 8.72 8.83 8.93 9.04 +8 8.89 8.99 9.09 9.20 9.31 9.42 9.53 9.65 +8-1/2 9.45 9.55 9.66 9.77 9.87 9.99 10.12 10.25 +9 10.00 10.12 10.23 10.35 10.47 10.59 10.72 10.85 +9-1/2 10.56 10.68 10.80 10.92 11.04 11.17 11.31 11.45 +10 11.11 11.24 11.37 11.49 11.63 11.77 11.90 12.05 +10-1/2 11.66 11.81 11.93 12.07 12.21 12.36 12.49 12.65 +11 12.22 12.37 12.50 12.64 12.85 12.95 13.08 13.26 +11-1/2 12.77 12.93 13.07 13.21 13.37 13.54 13.68 13.86 +12 13.33 13.49 13.64 13.79 13.95 14.12 14.28 14.46 +12-1/2 13.89 14.05 14.21 14.37 14.53 14.71 14.88 15.06 +13 14.44 14.62 14.78 14.93 15.11 15.30 15.47 15.66 +13-1/2 15.00 15.18 15.33 15.51 15.69 15.88 16.07 16.27 +14 15.55 15.73 15.90 16.08 16.28 16.48 16.67 16.84 +14-1/2 16.11 16.29 16.48 16.65 16.86 17.05 17.26 17.47 +15 16.66 16.85 17.05 17.23 17.44 17.65 17.85 18.07 +15-1/2 17.23 17.43 17.61 17.80 18.03 18.22 18.45 18.67 +16 17.78 17.98 18.18 18.38 18.60 18.83 19.05 19.28 +16-1/2 18.33 18.54 18.75 18.97 19.18 19.41 19.64 19.88 +17 18.89 19.10 19.33 19.52 19.76 20.01 20.24 20.48 +17-1/2 19.44 19.66 19.89 20.10 20.35 20.59 20.83 21.08 +18 20.00 20.22 20.45 20.67 20.93 21.18 21.43 21.69 +18-1/2 20.55 20.79 21.02 21.24 21.51 21.77 22.02 22.29 +19 21.11 21.35 21.59 21.84 22.09 22.36 22.62 22.90 +19-1/2 21.66 21.91 22.16 22.41 22.68 22.95 23.21 23.50 +20 22.22 22.47 22.73 22.99 23.25 23.54 23.81 24.11 +20-1/2 22.77 23.03 23.30 23.55 23.83 24.14 24.40 24.70 +21 23.33 23.60 23.87 24.14 24.42 24.70 25.00 25.30 +21-1/2 23.88 24.16 24.43 24.71 25.00 25.29 25.59 25.90 +22 24.44 24.72 25.00 25.28 25.58 25.92 26.19 26.51 +22-1/2 24.99 25.29 25.57 25.85 26.16 26.47 26.78 27.12 +23 25.55 25.85 26.14 26.42 26.74 27.06 27.38 27.71 +23-1/2 26.11 26.41 26.70 27.00 27.32 27.66 27.97 28.32 +24 26.67 26.97 27.26 27.58 27.90 28.24 28.57 28.92 +24-1/2 27.22 27.54 27.84 28.15 28.49 28.83 29.16 29.52 +25 27.78 28.09 28.41 28.73 29.07 29.41 29.76 30.12 + +_Cost Roasted_ +_& Packed_ 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% 23% 24% 25% + +4 4.88 4.94 5.00 5.07 5.13 5.20 5.26 5.33 +4-1/2 5.49 5.57 5.63 5.70 5.77 5.84 5.91 6.00 +5 6.10 6.18 6.25 6.33 6.42 6.50 6.55 6.68 +5-1/2 6.72 6.80 6.88 6.97 7.06 7.15 7.24 7.33 +6 7.33 7.42 7.50 7.60 7.70 7.80 7.90 8.00 +6-1/2 7.94 8.03 8.13 8.24 8.33 8.45 8.56 8.67 +7 8.54 8.65 8.75 8.86 8.96 9.09 9.21 9.33 +7-1/2 9.15 9.26 9.30 9.50 9.63 9.75 9.87 10.00 +8 9.76 9.88 10.00 10.13 10.26 10.39 10.53 10.67 +8-1/2 10.37 10.40 10.63 10.76 10.90 11.04 11.19 11.33 +9 10.98 11.12 11.25 11.40 11.54 11.70 11.85 12.00 +9-1/2 11.59 11.73 11.88 12.03 12.18 12.34 12.51 12.67 +10 12.20 12.34 12.50 12.66 12.82 12.98 13.16 13.33 +10-1/2 12.81 12.95 13.12 13.29 13.46 13.63 13.81 14.00 +11 13.43 13.57 13.75 13.93 14.10 14.28 14.47 14.67 +11-1/2 14.03 14.19 14.38 14.56 14.74 14.93 15.13 15.33 +12 14.65 14.81 15.00 15.19 15.38 15.58 15.79 16.00 +12-1/2 15.24 15.43 15.63 15.83 16.02 16.23 16.45 16.67 +13 15.85 16.05 16.25 16.45 16.67 16.87 17.10 17.33 +13-1/2 16.46 16.67 16.88 17.08 17.31 17.53 17.76 18.00 +14 17.07 17.28 17.50 17.72 17.95 18.17 18.40 18.67 +14-1/2 17.68 17.90 18.13 18.35 18.59 18.83 19.07 19.33 +15 18.29 18.51 18.75 18.98 19.23 19.48 19.74 20.00 +15-1/2 18.90 19.13 19.38 19.61 19.87 20.12 20.39 20.67 +16 19.51 19.75 20.00 20.25 20.51 20.77 21.05 21.33 +16-1/2 20.12 20.38 20.63 20.88 21.16 21.42 21.70 22.00 +17 20.73 21.99 21.25 21.51 21.78 22.07 22.36 22.67 +17-1/2 21.34 21.60 22.88 22.15 22.43 22.72 23.03 23.33 +18 21.95 22.22 22.50 22.78 23.05 23.37 23.68 24.00 +18-1/2 22.56 22.84 23.13 23.42 23.70 24.02 24.34 24.67 +19 23.17 23.45 23.75 24.05 24.34 24.67 25.00 25.33 +19-1/2 23.78 24.07 24.38 24.68 24.99 25.32 25.66 26.00 +20 24.39 24.68 25.00 25.31 25.64 25.97 26.32 26.67 +20-1/2 25.00 25.30 25.63 25.94 26.28 26.61 26.97 27.33 +21 25.62 25.92 26.25 26.58 26.92 27.26 27.63 28.00 +21-1/2 26.22 26.54 26.88 27.22 27.56 27.91 28.28 28.67 +22 26.83 27.16 27.50 27.86 28.10 28.56 28.94 29.33 +22-1/2 27.44 27.78 28.13 28.48 28.85 29.22 29.61 30.00 +23 28.06 28.38 28.75 29.11 29.48 29.86 30.26 30.67 +23-1/2 28.66 29.00 29.38 29.76 30.12 30.51 30.92 31.33 +24 29.27 29.62 30.00 30.38 30.77 31.17 31.58 32.00 +24-1/2 29.88 30.24 30.63 31.02 31.41 31.81 32.24 32.67 +25 30.49 30.86 31.25 31.65 32.05 32.47 32.90 33.33 + +NOTE, FOR EXAMPLE: Coffee costing 13.50 per 100 pounds +(see first column), to realize 17% _on sales_, must bring +16.27; which really represents 21% _on cost_ + +Friends of package coffees point to the saving in time in handling in +the store; to the fact that the contents of a package are not +contaminated by odors or dirt; that the blends are prepared by experts +and are always uniform; that the coffee is always properly roasted; and, +in the case of package ground coffee, properly ground; that the brand +names are widely and consistently advertised; and that the retailer has +the benefit of the packer's co-operation in building up sales campaigns, +by means of booklets and local advertising. + + +_Various Types of Coffee Containers_ + +Five types of containers are used for packing coffee, namely, cardboard +cartons, paper bags, fiber or paper cans, tin cans, and composite (tin +and fiber) cans and packages. Fiber packages include paraffin-lined as +well as those that have been chemically treated with other water-proof +and flavor-retaining substances. + +The carton is popular, because it takes up less room in storage and in +shipment to the packing plant, and also because the label can be printed +directly on the package. Another economy feature is its adaptability to +the automatic packaging machine, which transforms it from a flat sheet +into a wrapped and sealed package of coffee. Moisture-proof and +flavor-retaining inner liners and outside wrappers are generally used to +prevent rapid deterioration of the coffee's strength and aroma. + +Paper bags are the least expensive containers to be obtained; and when +lined with foil or prepared paper, they are considered to be +satisfactory. Like the carton, the label can be printed directly on the +bag. They also lend themselves to close packing in shipping cases. + +Another popular type of container is the paper, or fiber, can which is +made of fiber board with a slip cover. Fiber cans are also made with +tin tops and bottoms, the metal parts supplying a measure of rigidity to +the package. These composite packages are made round, square, oblong, or +cylindrical. + +Paraffined containers are characterized by an outer covering of glossy +paraffin, and are made in various shapes. In some makes, the paraffin is +forced into the pores of the paper base, making for added +flavor-retaining and moisture-proof properties. In this type of package +the label may also be printed direct on the package. + +In recent years, vacuum packed coffee has won great favor, first in the +West and latterly in the East. Tin cans are used. Vacuum sealing +machines close the containers at the rate of forty to fifty a minute. +Private tests by responsible coffee men are said to have shown that +coffee in the bean or ground, when vacuum packed, retains its freshness +for a longer period than when packed by any other method. + + +_Labels_ + +Coffee packers must give due attention to certain well defined laws +bearing on package labels. Before the Federal Pure Food Act went into +effect on January 1, 1907, many coffee labels bore the magic names of +"Mocha" and "Java," when in fact neither of those two celebrated coffees +were used in the blend. Even mixtures containing a large percentage of +chicory, or other addition, were labeled "Pure Mocha and Java Coffee." +The enactment of the pure food law ended this practise, making it +compulsory that the label should state either the actual coffees used in +the blend, or a brand name, together with the name of either the packer +or the distributer. When chicory or other addition is used, the fact +must be stated in clear type directly following the brand name. The +reading matter on the label should contain facts only, and should not +bear extravagant claims of superior quality or of methods of preparing +or packing that have not been followed. + + +_Coffee Packaging Economies_ + +During the United States' participation in the World War, tin became +practically unobtainable, and coffee packers turned to paper and fiber +containers as substitutes in packaging nearly all grades. In this war +period, commercial economy became a fetish in the business world; and +coffee packers worked to save not only material, but shipping space, +labor, and time. Paper and fiber containers proved to be not only +practical but economical packages. Because of their war-time experience, +many packers changed permanently to square and oblong containers. They +found these containers could be packed "solid" in shipping cases, +leaving no unfilled space between packages as is the case with +cylindrical cans; also, smaller shipping cases could be used. As a +further measure of economy, several packers changed from the square +"knocked-down" paper or fiber carton to the oblong carton that is made +up, filled, and sealed by automatic machinery from a flat, printed sheet +of cardboard. This type of container is generally lined or wrapped with +a moisture-proof and flavor-retaining paper. + +There has been a tendency in recent years to standardize coffee packages +as a means of working out packaging and shipping economies. One of the +leading American proponents[336] of standardization said: + + One of the first arguments raised against standardization is that + it eliminates individuality, and individuality is one of the big + guns covering the front line trenches in the war of competition. + The folly of recommending that every one-pound coffee carton, for + instance, should be of exactly the same size and shape is + immediately apparent; but let us not confuse such unification with + standardization. + + Assuming that a pound of coffee may be safely contained in + seventy-two cubic inches, we find that a carton three inches thick + by four inches wide by six inches high will serve our purpose; and, + as an illustration of extremes, a carton three inches thick by + three inches wide by eight inches high, or one [carton] two inches + thick by six inches wide by six inches high, will each have exactly + the same cubical contents. In fact, there is an almost infinite + variety of combinations of dimensions which will contain + substantially seventy-two cubic inches. + +As an example of how coffee packages can be standardized this authority +cites the following sizes of flat-sheet containers and their respective +dimensions and capacities: + + THICK AND WIDE HIGH CONTENTS +Size Inches Inches Cubic Ins. + 1 lb. 2-5/8 by 4-1/2 6-1/4 73.83 +1/2 lb. 2-1/4 by 3-1/8 5-1/4 36.91 +1/4 lb. 1-9/16 by 2-5/8 4-1/2 18.46 + +[Illustration: VARIOUS TYPES OF COFFEE CONTAINERS + +THIS GROUP OF LEADING TRADE-MARKED COFFEES ILLUSTRATES THE WIDE VARIANCE +IN STYLES OF CONTAINERS USED BY COFFEE-ROASTERS. THE PACKAGES SHOWN ARE +AS FOLLOWS: + +1--Double carton. 2, 3--Cartons. 4--Fiber sides, tin top and bottom, +friction cover. 5--Vacuum tin can. 6--Fancy paper bag. +7--Machine-wrapped paper package. 8--Fancy paper bag. 9--Carton with +patented opening and closing device. 10--Wrapped paper package. 11--Tin +can with slip cover. 12--All-fiber can with slip cover. 13--Tin can with +slip cover. 14--Lithographed tin can with friction cover. 15, 16--Tin +cans with slip covers. 17--Squat tin can. 18--Napa-can. 19, 20, +21--Vacuum tin cans.] + +The advantages claimed for these packages are that each is well +proportioned and makes a good selling appearance; each bears a direct +relation to the other two; and all may be handled with uniformly good +results on the same set of standardized packaging machinery. One size of +shipping case, instead of three, may be used to hold exactly the same +number of pounds of coffee, regardless of whether shipped in one-pound, +half-pound, or quarter-pound cartons. For smaller dealer assortments, +any two, or all three sizes also exactly fit the following standard +shipping cases: + +For 36 lbs., 13-7/8" by 16-1/2" by 12-3/4" high +For 54 lbs., 13-7/8" by 16-1/2" by 19-1/8" high + +This standardization of packages and shipping containers results in a +lower cost of containers and a smaller stock to carry, with attendant +reductions in details in purchasing and billing departments, in +inventories, and in many other overhead expense factors. + + +_Practical Grocer Helps_ + +Wholesale coffee merchandising does not properly end with the delivery +of a shipment of coffee to a retailer. The progressive wholesaler knows +that it is to his best interest to help that grocer sell his coffee as +quickly as possible; to make a good profit on a quick turn-over; and to +dispose of it before the coffee has deteriorated. + +Practical co-operation between wholesaler and retailer is one of the +most important factors in coffee merchandising. In these days of keen +and unremitting competition, neither agency can stand alone for long. +The progressive wholesaler does not sell a retailer a poorer quality of +coffee for any particular grade than his trade calls for, and he does +not load him up with more than can be disposed of while still fresh. He +gauges the capacity and facilities of each retail customer, and then +gives him practical help to keep the stock moving. + +The packer of branded coffees helps by advertising to the consumer in +magazines and newspapers, always featuring the name of his brands; and +he supplies the grocer with educational pamphlets and booklets on the +growing, preparation, and merits of coffee in general, with an added +fillip about the desirability of his particular brand. Through his +salesmen the packer shows the grocer how to display the coffee on the +counter and in the window, and often supplies him with placards and +cut-outs featuring his brand. He co-operates in staging special coffee +demonstrations in the store; instructs the retailer in the importance of +teaching his clerks how to talk and to sell coffee intelligently; and +how to prepare advertising copy for his local newspaper, so as to get +the fullest measure of profit from the wholesaler's national or +sectional advertising. + + +_Coffee Sampling_ + +The sampling method of creating a demand for merchandise has been tried +in the wholesale coffee trade, only to be abandoned by the majority of +packers. With other and more satisfactory ways of creating consumer +interest, promiscuous sampling was found to be too expensive, in view of +the comparatively small returns. One indictment against sampling is that +it does not make any more impression on the average person than does an +advertisement that appears only once, and is then abandoned. Wideawake +merchants have learned that the public's memory is exceedingly short; +and that they must keep "hammering" with advertisements to establish and +to maintain a demand for their products. + +It would seem that the logical place for sampling is in the retailer's +store, especially in connection with demonstrations. Many progressive +grocers stimulate interest in their coffees by serving, on special +demonstration days, small cups of freshly brewed coffee, giving the +customer a small sample of the brand or blend used, to be taken home to +see if the same pleasing results can be obtained there also. Generally +this form of sampling, when properly conducted, has shown a larger +percentage of returns than any other method. + + +_Premium Method of Sales Promotion_ + +For many years, the premium method of sales promotion has been an +important factor in wholesale coffee merchandising, as well as in retail +distribution. The premium system has been characterized as a form of +advertising; and many coffee packers and wholesalers prefer to spend +their advertising appropriations in that way rather than in transitory +printed advertisements in newspapers and general magazines. + +While certain forms of the system have been legislated out of existence +in some states, friends of the plan claim that it is a true +profit-sharing method which "blesses both him that gives and him that +takes"; and that it is an advanced and legitimate means of promoting +business, when properly conducted. They assert that it is a system of +sales promotion whereby the advertising expense, plus a large +percentage of the profits of the business stimulated thereby, is +automatically returned to the dealer buyer, without increasing cost or +lowering the quality of the product so advertised; that it eliminates +advertising waste by producing a given volume of sales for a given +expenditure of money; that it reduces the cost of advertising by +prompting a continuous series of purchases at one advertising expense; +that it promotes cash payments and discourages credit business. Premium +users claim that the force of a printed advertisement is often spent in +stimulating the first purchase; while to secure a premium, the purchaser +must continue to buy the commodity carrying the premium, or trade with +the giver of the premium until merchandise of a stipulated value or +quantity has been purchased. + +In general practise, the premium-giving coffee packer or wholesaler may +either offer the retailer an inducement in the form of a desirable store +fixture, household article, or item for his personal use; or he may +offer it to the consumer through the retailer. + +The methods of giving the premium are numerous. To the retailer he may +give the article outright with each purchase of a stipulated quantity of +his coffee; or he may offer it as a prize to the retail distributer +selling the most coffee in a certain period in a specified territory. +Frequently the premium is of such value that the wholesaler can not give +it with any quantity of coffee a distributer can dispose of in a short +time; so he issues coupons or certificates with each purchase, +permitting the retailer to redeem the premium when he has saved the +required number. Or, the retailer may get the premium with the first +purchase by paying the difference in cash. + +In giving premiums to consumers, the wholesaler follows the same general +plan used with retailers, except that in most cases the coupons are +packed with the coffee and are redeemable at the retailer's store. +Sometimes, however, the consumer sends the coupons or certificates to +the wholesaler, getting the premium direct from him. In another phase of +the premium system, the retailer works independently of the wholesaler, +buying and giving away his own premiums to promote or to hold trade for +his store. This phase is explained in the chapter on retail coffee +merchandising. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: LUHRS, OF POUGHKEEPSIE, N.Y., FEATURES FRESHLY ROASTED +COFFEE IN HIS WINDOW + +Smoke from the roasters is blown into street through the coffee pot +hanging over the door] + +[Illustration: JOHNSON, OF RED OAK, IOWA, ROASTS BEFORE THE CUSTOMER + +Showing a Royal roasting and grinding equipment] + +[Illustration: FRESH ROASTED-COFFEE IDEA IN RETAIL MERCHANDISING] + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +RETAIL MERCHANDISING OF ROASTED COFFEE + + _How coffees are sold at retail--The place of the grocer, the tea + and coffee dealer, the chain store, and the wagon-route distributer + in the scheme of distribution--Starting in the retail coffee + business--Small roasters for retail dealers--Model coffee + departments--Creating a coffee trade--Meeting + competition--Splitting nickels--Figuring costs and profits--A + credit policy for retailers--Premiums_ + + +Coffee is sold at retail in the United States through seven distinct +channels of trade; the independent retail grocers (about 350,000) +handling about forty percent of the 1,300,000,000 pounds sold annually; +and the other sixty percent being sold by chain stores, mail-order +houses, house-to-house wagon-route distributers, specialty tea and +coffee stores, department stores, and drug stores. Since the beginning +of the twentieth century, the independent grocers' monopoly in retail +coffee-merchandising has been dwindling at a rate that has seriously +alarmed those interests and their friends. + +B.C. Casanas of New Orleans, addressing a convention of the National +Association of Retail Grocers in the United States, in 1916, said that +the wholesale coffee roasters of the country had invested in their +business $60,000,000; and that $135,000,000 worth of roasted coffee was +sold by them every year. + +Considering the methods of merchandising, the seven retail distributing +agencies may be grouped into three distinct classes. The first class +would comprise the independent grocer, the chain store, the department +store, the drug store, and the specialty store, all of which maintain +stores where the consumer comes to buy. The second class takes in the +mail-order house, which solicits orders and delivers its coffee by mail, +and sometimes by freight or express. The third class covers the +wagon-route dealer, who goes from house to house seeking trade, and +delivers his coffee on order at regular periods direct to the consumer +in the home. As an inducement to contracting for large quantities to be +delivered in weekly or bi-weekly periods, the house-to-house dealer +generally gives some household article, or the like, as a premium to +establish good-will and to retain the trade of his customers. + +New impetus was given to the method of selling coffee by mail when the +parcel post system was adopted by the federal government in 1912; and +since then this plan has become an important factor in retail +coffee-merchandising. Generally, the mail-order houses confine their +sales efforts to agricultural districts and small towns, soliciting +trade by catalogs, by circular letters, and by advertisements in local +newspapers, and in magazines which circulate chiefly among dwellers in +rural districts. + +The majority of wagon-route distributers depend upon the lure of their +premiums, and on personal calls, to develop and to hold their coffee +trade. The leading wagon-route companies, sometimes called "premium +houses", maintain offices and plants in large cities adjacent to the +territories to which they confine their sales efforts. At strategic +points, they have district agents who engage the wagon men that do the +actual soliciting of orders and that deliver the coffee. All wagon-route +companies handle other products besides coffee, specializing in tea, +spices, extracts, and such household goods as soap, perfumes, and other +toilet requisites that promise a quick sale and frequent re-orders. Some +of their competitors complain that they handle only the more profitable +lines, leaving the independent local grocer to supply the housekeeper +with the items on which the margin of profit is comparatively small. + +Wagon-route coffee-retailing began to make itself felt seriously about +the year 1900. At first, the premiums usually consisted of a cup and +saucer with the first order, the customer being led to continue buying +until at least a full set of dishes had been acquired. Later, the range +of premiums was expanded; until today the wagon man offers several +hundred different articles that can be used in the home or for personal +wear or adornment. Practically all the leading wagon-route concerns +favor the advance premium method; that is, a special canvasser induces a +consumer to contract for a large quantity of coffee and other products +in return for receiving the premium at once, though the coffee is +delivered only as the customer wants it, generally two pounds every two +weeks. The wagon man delivers the coffee, and is usually held +responsible for the customer fulfilling the agreement, and is expected +to secure repeat orders with other premiums. + +[Illustration: A PREMIUM TEA AND COFFEE DEALER'S DISPLAY ROOM + +This is the headquarters store of the Geo. F. Hellick Co., Easton, Pa., +a successful wagon coffee distributer. The premium merchandise is shown +in the foreground: the sales counter, coffee mill, and display of teas, +coffees, extracts, spices, etc., being in the right background] + +The importance of the wagon-route plan of coffee-retailing is shown by +the fact that in 1921 there were six hundred houses of this kind in the +United States; and it was estimated that they distributed eight percent +of the total amount of the coffee consumed in the country. The biggest +company was capitalized at $16,000,000, and operated eleven hundred +wagons. Most of the wagon-route concerns were operating in the central +states, practically one-third of them covering the states of Illinois, +Wisconsin, Indiana, and Iowa. Pennsylvania is also a wagon-route-dealer +center. + +[Illustration: TYPICAL CHAIN-STORE INTERIOR EQUIPMENT + +This is the Atlantic & Pacific Co.'s store in Rhinebeck, New York. There +are nearly 5,000 other stores like it in the United States] + +The premium wagon-route distributers have an organization called the +National Retail Tea and Coffee Merchants' Association. It is composed of +126 members--all of whom use premiums--who operate over two thousand +wagons. The largest single wagon-route operator is the Jewel Tea Company +of Chicago. The members of this organization claimed to have served more +than 2,000,000 families in 1920. + +In the chain-store system of merchandising we see the opposite extreme +of coffee retailing. The wagon-route man features his delivery service; +while in the chain-store plan, all customers must pay cash and carry +home their parcels. Though the earliest established chain stores gave +premiums, the practise has now been generally abandoned. Roasting, +blending, and packing coffee in a large central plant, the chain-store +operator advertises that he can sell coffee at a price lower than his +competitors. As a rule, only one grade of coffee is offered for sale. +While it is generally a good medium value, many consumers prefer better +quality and go to the independent grocer for it. Others patronize the +grocer because of his convenient delivery service, and because he gives +credit on purchases. Chain-store organizations seem to be growing +rapidly, however; the largest of the chains, the Great Atlantic & +Pacific Tea Co., reporting in 1921 that it had nearly five thousand +branches throughout the country, which sell 40,000,000 pounds of coffee +annually. This chain has a capitalization of $12,000,000, and in 1920 +sold $225,000,000 worth of groceries, as compared with $154,718,124 in +the preceding year. This company opens about five hundred new stores +every year. + +The chain-store men are organized in the National Chain Store Grocers +Association, having thirty members, representing 12,000 stores, +operating in eighteen states. It is estimated that there are fifty +responsible chain-store grocery organizations in the United States, +representing about 30,000 stores. The chain-store grocer turns his stock +over from twelve to twenty-five times a year, sells for cash, makes no +deliveries, and claims to save the consumer an average of fifteen +percent in buying. These stores do business on a net margin not +exceeding three percent on sales, as against the average retail grocer's +thirty percent, while their average gross cost of doing business has +been stated as between thirteen and one-half percent (lowest) and +eighteen and one-half percent (highest). + +According to Alfred H. Beckmann, secretary-treasurer of the National +Chain Store Grocers' Association,[337] "Public appreciation of the chain +grocery store is rapidly growing. Ten years ago it was estimated that +chain stores in what is known as the Metropolitan district of New York +did about 12-1/2 percent of the volume of business in their line, while +today it is estimated at about fifty percent". + +It is estimated that the fifty-odd chain store organizations in the +United States distribute through their 30,000 stores 270,000,000 pounds +of coffee a year, or about twenty percent of the total amount consumed +in the United States. + + +_Starting in the Retail Coffee Business_ + +When taking up the retail merchandising of coffee, the practical grocer +learns all he can about the popular grades to be had in the principal +markets, and how the coffees are grown, roasted, blended, and ground. He +also ascertains the best methods of brewing, testing out each grade and +kind on his own table, if he does not have testing facilities in his +store. He studies the relative trade values of different varieties of +coffee, and the requirements of his particular clientèle. + +An interesting analysis of some 250 grocery stores in the United +States[338] made in 1919, showed that twenty-nine percent of the dealers +bought all their coffee from wholesale grocers, forty-eight percent +exclusively from roasters and specialty wholesalers, ten percent got +over one-half of their coffee from wholesale grocers, and thirteen +percent bought less than one-half from the wholesale grocery houses. + +[Illustration: THE FAMILIAR A & P STORE FRONT] + +[Illustration: LAYOUT FOR COFFEE AND TEA DEPARTMENT] + +There are two fundamental plans on which a retailer builds a successful +coffee business--by buying coffee already roasted, and by buying it +green and roasting it in the store. Each plan has its advantages; but +its practicability depends upon conditions in different localities. + +Beyond acquiring a general talking knowledge about coffees, the retailer +buying his stocks roasted in bulk or package form does not generally +need the intimate knowledge of his goods required by the grocer who +roasts his own coffee. If he grinds the coffee for his customers he must +know the type of grind best suited to the way the coffee is to be +brewed, and must be able to tell the best brewing method. + +The practical grocer who makes up his own blend is acquainted with +blending principles and methods. "While he can not expect to be as +expert as the large wholesale blender, he should know that green coffees +are generally classified by blenders in five great divisions; (1) +Brazils, including Santos, Bourbon and flat bean, Rios, Victorias, and +Bahias; (2) Washed milds, embracing, as of the most commercial value, +Bogotas, Bucaramangas, Guatemalas, Mexicans, Costa Ricans, Maracaibos, +and Meridas; (3) Unwashed milds, such as Maracaibos, Bucaramangas, La +Guairas, and Mexicans; (4) Javas, Sumatras, and Padangs; (5) Mocha, and +Harari." + +[Illustration: ONE OF THE RETAIL COFFEE-ROASTING STATIONS IN SOUTHERN +CALIFORNIA] + +[Illustration: CLOSE-UP OF THE MINIATURE MANUFACTURING PLANT, SHOWING +THE ROASTING AND GRINDING EQUIPMENT] + +[Illustration: APPLYING THE SPECIALIST IDEA TO COFFEE MERCHANDISING + +The Pacific Stores Co., Los Angeles, cutting out deliveries, premiums, +and solicitors, has built up a business of more than 100 bags of coffee +daily, selling direct to the consumer in a chain of 100 booths patterned +after the country-roadside gasoline stations; each one having its own +roaster] + +[Illustration: SELF-CONTAINED MONITOR GAS ROASTER, COOLER, AND STONER] + +It has been found by experience that a good assortment for the average +retailer to carry consists of Santos, because of price; a natural +unwashed Maracaibo or Bucaramanga, because of full body and general +blending values; and a washed coffee, preferably a Bogota, which gives +quality and character to a blend. In stocking up with these coffees, the +practical merchant avoids Santos with a strong or Rioy flavor, bitter or +"hidey" Maracaibos, and acidy or thin Bogotas.[339] + +A grocer equipped with these coffees has the Santos for his low-priced +seller. For his medium grade he blends Santos and Maracaibo, +half-and-half. The next higher grade is made up of one-third each of the +three coffees; while the best blend consists either of half-and-half +Bogota and Maracaibo, or three-quarters Bogota and one-quarter +Maracaibo. + +The chief advantage of these three coffees is that they blend well in +any way they are mixed; and the dealer with a little experience, and +working with the two necessary ideas in mind--satisfactory coffee and +price--can make up various combinations. + +In view of the fact that the United States imports coffee from more than +a hundred different sections of the world, and that there are wide +variations in flavor among the coffees produced in each of the hundred, +it is easy to understand that the blender has an almost unlimited supply +from which to make up a blend with a distinctive individuality. +Practically all coffee importers, and most wholesalers, are thoroughly +acquainted with the relative trade values of the different coffees, and +help their customers make up desirable blends. + + +_Small Roasters for Retail Dealers_ + +While the wholesale coffee roaster is obliged to instal a large and +somewhat complex equipment, the retailer must use a small, compact, +self-contained unit that does not take up much space in his store, and +that is easily operated. Retail roasting machines are constructed on the +same general principle as the wholesale roaster. The roasting cylinder +is generally revolved by electric power, and the heat is derived from +gas or gasoline fuel. Cooling is by air suction in a box attached to the +roaster. The capacities of the machines range from ten to three hundred +pounds, the operating cost running from approximately eight cents per +hundred pounds for gas fuel and ten cents for electric power. The +roasters cost from three hundred dollars for the smaller sizes, to +fifteen hundred for the one-bag type; and to two thousand or three +thousand dollars for the two-bag type. + +One coffee-roaster-machinery manufacturer has recently brought out a +gas-fired, electrically operated fifty-pound miniature coffee-roasting +plant designed for retail stores, which comprises a roaster, a rotary +cooler, and a stoning device, that sells for six hundred and fifty +dollars. + +[Illustration: ROYAL GAS COFFEE ROASTER FOR RETAIL STORES] + +Retail coffee roasting is similar to the wholesale operation. When the +cylinder has become heated, the green coffee is run in and allowed to +roast in the revolving cylinder for about half an hour. If the coffee is +the average green kind, the full heat may be applied at once; but if old +and dry, a lesser degree is used. When the roast begins to snap, the +flame is turned lower to allow the beans to cook through evenly; and +when nearly done, it is almost extinguished. During the operation, the +roasterman, who may be the proprietor or a clerk delegated to the work, +frequently "samples" the coffee by taking out a small quantity with his +"trier" and comparing the color of the roast with a type sample. When +the colors match exactly, the coffee is dumped automatically into the +cooler box just below the cylinder opening; and when sufficiently cooled +off, is ready for grinding to order. + +A large number of retailers roast coffee in their stores; and the most +successful find that besides being able to make a feature of freshly +roasted coffee, they can save money and increase their sales. One +progressive grocer found that he was able to get eighty-eight pounds of +roasted coffee out of one hundred pounds of green coffee, as compared +with the wholesaler's eighty-four pounds; that he could buy green coffee +at a closer price than roasted; and that it cost him less for labor, +fuel, overhead, and similar items, than it did the wholesale roaster to +turn out a roast.[340] + +[Illustration: BURNS HALF-BAG GAS ROASTING, COOLING, AND STONING OUTFIT] + +[Illustration: LAMBERT JUNIOR GAS ROASTING, COOLING, AND STONING OUTFIT +FOR RETAIL STORES (Capacity fifty pounds)] + +A chain of coffee specialty stores in which the coffee is roasted fresh +every day was started in California about the year 1916; and according +to reports, it met with almost instant success. In this system, the +proprietor buys the green coffee in large quantities, and it is roasted +in each of his specialty stores, which are located in public markets, +store windows, and alongside heavily traveled highways. The roasting +machinery is invariably set up in front of the store where passers-by +can easily see it in operation--and also smell the coffee roasting. Four +years after starting the first store, there were fifty in operation +along the Pacific Coast, doing an annual business of about $600,000, +some units taking in more than $7,000 a month. + + +_Model Coffee Departments_ + +Authorities generally agree that a well laid out coffee department not +only increases a grocer's coffee business, but speeds up sales in other +departments as well. Coffee lovers, and they are legion in the United +States, are inclined to "shop around" for a coffee that suits their +taste; and when they have found the store that sells it, they buy their +other groceries there also. Another argument advanced in favor of a +coffee department is that coffee pays more money into the retailer's +cash drawer than any other grocery item.[341] + +Most successful retail coffee merchandisers establish the coffee +department near the entrance to the store, where it can be seen through +a window by passers-by, especially if there is an ornamental roasting +and grinding equipment. It has been found that a department situated at +the left of the entrance is almost certain to draw attention because +people are inclined to glance in that direction first. Some merchants, +having the space, erect attractive booths, designed somewhat like the +familiar food-show booths, directly in front of the door, after the +fashion of department stores when holding a special sale on a certain +article. Such a booth is generally used for demonstration purposes, and +is decorated with signs and possibly with bunting. A permanent +department is usually less ornamental, but still attractive. In telling +how he made a success of his department, one American grocer said that +he was careful that his fixtures were not so ornamental as to draw +attention from the goods. While the decorations were always attractive, +they were subordinated sufficiently to form a background for his coffee +display. + +[Illustration: FAULDER AND SIMPLEX GAS ROASTERS IN AN ENGLISH FACTORY + +The Faulder (on the left) is a 28-lb. indirect machine and the Simplex +(also 28 lbs. capacity) is of the direct-flame, quick-roaster type] + +The most popular layout is the conventional counter system behind which +the clerk stands to serve the customer on the other side. There are many +advocates of the counter that is built into the shelving, believing that +the closer the customers are brought to the coffee, the more they will +be inclined to buy. This system also makes for cleanliness, doing away +with the possibility of the runway behind the counter becoming a +catch-all for dirt, torn paper, bits of wood, and the like. + +[Illustration: ILLUSTRATING THE COFFEE ROASTERS USED BY THE SHOP-KEEPERS +OF FRANCE + +These machines are of the ball-cylinder type, and use gas as fuel; the +cylinder is revolved by electric power. Invariably they stand where they +can be seen from the street] + +The modern coffee department has counters divided into compartments +having glass fronts. This type serves both as a storage place for coffee +and for display purposes. The top of the counter is used for wrapping up +parcels, etc., and also for displaying bulk and package coffees. In the +well regulated store, the counter top is never used for storage, all +stock being kept on shelves or in the counter's compartments. Good +merchants find that cleanliness pays; and that a "littered up" store +drives away desirable custom. The wise proprietor never allows a clerk +to weigh out coffee after handling cheese, onions, and other odorous +articles, without first thoroughly washing his hands. He knows that few +food products in his store will more quickly absorb undesirable odors +and flavors than coffee; and consequently he is careful to protect his +coffee from contamination. In the better stores, the proprietor will +either take charge of the coffee department himself, or will delegate a +competent man who will do nothing else. + +The wide-awake retail coffee roaster always features his roasting +machine, which is generally highly ornamental and draws attention even +when not in use. Some progressive merchants plan to roast coffee at noon +time and at night, when homeward-bound passers-by are hungry and are +particularly susceptible to the pungent aroma of roasting coffee. It is +a quite common plan for the retail roaster to arrange the exhaust of the +machine so that the full strength of the odor is blown into the street. + + +_Creating a Coffee Trade_ + +Because of steady sales and quick profits, there is keener competition +in retail coffee-merchandising than in other food products. But, all +things being equal, any intelligent person can create and hold a +profitable trade if he follows approved business methods--and works. The +best practise among coffee merchants shows that the prime essential is +good coffee, freshly roasted and ground. After that comes intelligent +and unremitting sales-promotion work. + +[Illustration: SMALL GERMAN ROASTERS + +On the left is a hand roaster for wood or coal fuel; on the right is a +gas machine.] + +The many ingenious trade-building plans worked out successfully by +grocers in all parts of the country are too numerous to describe in a +book of this character; but the methods cited in the following, all of +which have been tested in actual working conditions, will serve to +indicate the fundamentals of good retail coffee-sales promotion. + +Among the chief sales-winning methods are demonstrations in the store, +at local food shows, and at church socials, picnics or functions, +judicious sampling either in person or by mail, personal canvassing from +house to house, circularizing by mail, linking up window displays with +current happenings, local newspaper and outdoor poster advertising, and +selling coffee by telephone. Most of the foregoing plans are worked +intermittently. The telephone, however, is a most important sales factor +and should be employed constantly and consistently.[342] Many successful +stores consider the telephone, properly used, the greatest single +sales-help in retail coffee-merchandising. + +[Illustration: POPULAR FRENCH RETAIL ROASTER + +Employing coal, charcoal, or wood fuel] + +One grocer had such faith in this method that he paid half the annual +telephone rental for a large number of his best-paying customers. +Another large merchandiser put in an individual telephone for each of +his salesmen, who called up his regular customers each day to suggest +articles for that day's order, always of course mentioning their +"superior brand of coffee." Telephoning is the next step to personal +contact; and if tactfully done, is considered to be even more +advantageous, because of the time it saves both the customer and the +store keeper. + +[Illustration: UNO CABINET GAS ROASTER WITH COOLING UNIT + +A popular English type] + +Coffee demonstrations in stores are easily arranged, in most cases. The +main consideration is fresh coffee of good quality served daintily and +hot. Lacking a coffee urn, some grocers make their brews in large-size +home-service coffee-making devices. Those most advanced in the correct +method of brewing use the drip process. It is generally agreed that +demonstrations should not be held too often. They not only cut into +profits, but lose much of their advertising value. Food-show +demonstrations require more elaborate equipment, consisting of a +decorated booth, educational booklets, posters, and exhibits of +different kinds of coffee, both green and roasted, whole bean and +ground. Generally, coffee packers co-operate with retail demonstrators +by supplying gratis the coffee to be brewed, if the names of their +brands are suitably displayed. They supply also posters, signs, samples, +and booklets for free distribution. + +Window displays form one of the best means of advertising at the command +of the average grocer, and one of the least expensive. A popular coffee +display consists of a series of educational "windows," starting with +green beans in the bags in which they are shipped from the growing +country. Generally the bags, mats, or bundles are obtained from the +wholesale house, and are filled almost to the top with some inexpensive +stuffing, the green coffee being spread over the top to give the +appearance of a full bag. Pictures showing how the coffee is grown, +harvested, prepared, and shipped, are frequently used in such a display. +The next exhibit consists of whole roasted coffee spread thickly over +the window floor to create the impression of bulk, accompanied by a few +pans of green coffee by way of contrast, and with pictures showing +scenes in coffee roasting plants. A barrel, lined with blue paper, and +lying on its side with roasted coffee beans spilling out, serves as a +centerpiece for such a display. Following this, comes a coffee package +window, accompanied by pictures showing how coffee is roasted, ground, +and packed. This completes the series; but there are many variations +that have proved successful as trade builders. + +[Illustration: EDUCATIONAL WINDOW EXHIBIT + +This window won first prize for the western district in the $2,000 +window-trimming contest of National Coffee Week in 1920. Action was +furnished by a small electric pump, which kept a steady stream of coffee +flowing from a coffee pot into the coffee cup] + + +_Meeting Competition_ + +Since the advent of the wagon-route distributer and the chain store, the +independent retail grocer has been faced with the problem of how to +regain at least a fair measure of the coffee trade he has lost. The +grocer is not only concerned about his profits on coffee sales, but on +other goods as well; for a trade investigation has shown that a large +percentage of the regular customers of the retailer are held to the +store by their purchases of coffee and tea. This means that if coffees +and teas are bought from the wagon-route distributer and the chain +store, the balance of a family's order is "shopped around." + +To meet this competition, the best authorities agree that the +independent grocer should feature coffee in every practical way, such as +soliciting coffee trade from each customer that enters the store; give +up offering coffee on a price basis, and make up his own blends from +good quality growths; perhaps make up his own brand and push it at every +opportunity; display coffee artistically, with frequent changes of +layouts; and have occasional store demonstrations. He should see that +the coffee is roasted properly, and that it is always fresh; that the +selling effort is not expended on the lowest-priced blend, but on a +grade that can be recommended for cup merit. This should be a leader, +but a lower-price coffee could be carried to suit the trade that buys on +price. Persistent efforts should be made to educate the last-named class +of customers to use the better grades, which in the end are cheaper and +give better satisfaction. In short, the grocer should work consistently +to establish a vogue for his leader blend on the basis of merit. + +[Illustration: A BETTER-CLASS AMERICAN GROCERY INTERIOR + +Showing the coffee bins in orderly array, and the electric coffee +grinder] + + +_Profits and Costs_ + +Because of its influence on other grocery items, coffee can often be +sold at a close margin of profit, particularly if a competitor's store +or wagons are cutting into a grocer's neighborhood trade. Twenty-five +percent is recommended as a reasonable gross profit on coffee in most +cases, although some grocers make less, and not a few make more; the +range being usually from twenty to thirty-nine percent. The independent +dealer should meet chain-store competition in coffee on a price basis, +making a special on a superior grade and figuring to get not more than +three cents profit per pound, like his competitor. A bag of roasted +coffee will bring back three dollars gain, and the cash to pay for +another--and the grocer has kept his customers, ninety percent of whom, +theoretically, will have bought their other food supplies from him. As a +matter of fact, in the last year of the World War retailers showed a +tendency to demand cash on sales of all grocery items. This practise +reduces the cost of operation and allows the storekeeper to reduce his +prices. A large number of grocers charge a small percentage of the total +sale for credit privileges, and five or ten cents for each delivery +below a certain total value of the purchase price of the articles to be +delivered. As a result, they have been able to meet chain-store +competition. Collective buying has also been a factor in offsetting the +inroads of the "chains." + +[Illustration: A PRIZE-WINNING WINDOW DISPLAY + +This unusual display of coffee-flavored eatables won first prize for the +southern district in the National Coffee Week window-trimming contest. +The cakes, pies, tarts, and other pastries which constituted the main +feature rested in a bed of green coffee. The customer's interest was +cleverly attracted to the dealer's brand by a pyramid of large coffee +cans in the center background and by two miniature dining-room sets.] + + +_Splitting Nickels_ + +One of the reasons advanced for the loss of coffee trade by retail +grocers is that they price their blends in "round numbers", that is 20, +25, 30, or 40 cents; while their competitors "split nickels", selling +their product at 18, 23, 28, or 38 cents. + +Most of the retail enterprises in other lines of trade have built up +their business on the penny-change plan; and many coffee men believe +this should become the universal merchandising method among retail +distributers of coffee.[343] + +One of the leading advocates of "splitting nickels" has worked out a +chart to show how coffee should be priced to make predetermined profits. +(See next page.) + +TABLE SHOWING PROFIT PERCENTAGE ON SALES + +If Your +Coffee And You Sell At +Costs 25c. 26c. 27c. 28c. 29c. 30c. 31c. 32c. 33c. + +20c. 20% 23% 26% 28% 31% 33% 35% 37% 39% +20-1/2c. 18% 21% 24% 26% 29% 31% 33% 35% 37% +21c. 16% 19% 22% 25% 27% 30% 32% 34% 36% +21-1/2c. 14% 17% 20% 23% 25% 28% 30% 32% 34% +22c. 12% 15% 18% 21% 24% 26% 29% 31% 33% +22-1/2c. 10% 13% 16% 19% 22% 25% 27% 29% 31% +23c. 8% 11% 14% 17% 20% 23% 25% 28% 30% +23-1/2c. 6% 9% 13% 16% 19% 21% 24% 26% 28% +24c. 4% 7% 11% 14% 17% 20% 22% 25% 27% +24-1/2c. 2% 5% 9% 12% 15% 18% 21% 23% 25% +25c. 0% 3% 7% 10% 13% 16% 19% 21% 24% +25-1/2c. 2% 5% 8% 12% 15% 17% 20% 22% +26c. 0% 3% 7% 10% 13% 16% 18% 21% +26-1/2c. 1% 5% 8% 11% 14% 17% 19% +27c. 0% 3% 6% 10% 12% 15% 18% +27-1/2c. 1% 5% 8% 11% 14% 16% +28c. 0% 3% 6% 9% 12% 15% + + +_Figuring Costs and Profits_ + +While the cost of conducting a retail grocery business naturally varies +according to local conditions and the size of the enterprise, an +investigation among some 250 stores in small and large cities made in +1919 by the Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University, showed that +the average cost was fourteen percent; that the net profit averaged two +and three-tenths percent; and that stock was turned about seven times a +year. Gross profits ran from ten and one-half percent to twenty-six and +four-one-hundredths percent of the net sales, the most typical figure +being sixteen and nine-tenths percent. Sales cost formed the largest +single item of expense, varying from three and forty-one hundredths to +nine and ninety-four hundredths percent, with the bulk of figures +showing around one and eight-tenths percent. + +According to advanced business practise the cost of doing business +should be based on these fourteen points: + + 1. Charge interest on the net amount of the total investment at the + beginning of the business year, exclusive of real estate. + + 2. Charge rental on real estate or buildings at a rate equal to + that which would be received if renting or leasing to others. + + 3. Charge, in addition to what is paid for hired help, an amount + equal to what the proprietor's services would be worth to others; + also treat in like manner the services of any member of the family + employed in the business and not on the regular payroll. + + 4. Charge depreciation on all goods carried over on which a less + price may have to be made because of damage or any other cause. + + 5. Charge depreciation on buildings, tools, fixtures, or anything + else suffering from age or wear and tear. + + 6. Charge donations and subscriptions paid. + + 7. Charge all fixed expenses, such as taxes, insurance, water, + lights, fuel, etc. + + 8. Charge all incidental expenses, such as drayage, postage, office + supplies, livery expenses of horses and wagons, telegrams and + telephones, advertising, canvassing, etc. + + 9. Charge losses of every character, including goods stolen, or + sent out and not charged, allowances made customers, all debts, + etc. + + 10. Charge collection expense. + + 11. Charge any other expense not enumerated above. + + 12. When it is ascertained what the sum of all the foregoing items + amounts to, prove it by the books, which will give the total + expense for the year; divide this figure by the total of sales, and + it will show the percent which it has cost to do business. + + 13. Take this percent and deduct it from the price of any article + sold, then subtract from the remainder what it cost (invoice price + and freight), and the result will show the net profit or loss on + the article. + + 14. Go over the selling prices of the various articles and see what + are profits; then get busy in putting your selling figures on a + profitable basis and talk it over with your competitor as well. + + +_A Credit Policy for Retailers_ + +While the minor factors governing a credit policy for retailers vary +with local conditions, the fundamental principles are alike everywhere, +and should have the thoughtful consideration of all retail distributers +of coffee. After a retail grocery store experience of twenty-five years, +a past president of the National Association of Retail Grocers of the +United States[344] found that a grocer should insist upon references and +a thorough investigation of every new applicant for credit, refusing the +privilege when the prospective customer hesitates to give the needed +information; that he should arrange a date for periodical payments, +explaining that this is necessary so that the storekeeper can arrange to +meet his own bills, which will enable him to discount his invoices and +to sell his goods cheaper; that statements of accounts should be sent +out promptly and never a few days late; that he should insist on payment +in full when due, requesting the customer to call if an extension of +time is asked; that he should not let the customers decide when they +will pay bills, bearing in mind that the possible loss of a few +customers who do not pay promptly is offset by the advantages of cash +when promised; that he should never abandon the hope of collecting an +old account, but should try the method of sending statements only to the +surest customers, sending a clerk for the collection of all other +accounts; that he should personally examine all uncollected accounts +every month, insisting on a reason for failure to pay; that he should +study his customers and not trust those who give a bad impression; that +he should have the courage to say "No" when necessary; not to be +satisfied with merely a financial rating on a credit applicant, but to +ascertain his general reputation and character; and to help to eliminate +the "dead beats" by giving careful attention to all requests received +from other retailers for credit information. + + +_Premiums for Retailers_ + +House-to-house dealers are the largest users of premiums among coffee +distributers. Most of them operate under what is known as the +advance-premium method. + +The plan followed by house-to-house dealers until about 1910 was to +issue checks redeemable in premiums after a certain amount of tea, +coffee, or other products had been purchased. This practise has not been +entirely abandoned; but in most instances, the premium is now handed to +the consumer in advance of the initial purchase, in consideration of the +buyer's promise to use a stipulated quantity of tea, coffee, or other +merchandise. The driver of the wagon generally carries a portfolio +illustrating numerous premium items redeemable through the purchase of +varying amounts of merchandise. + +Many retail coffee stores also employ premiums, using both the old-style +and "advance" methods. This type of store, however, is being supplanted +by the chain grocery store. + +Some independent retail grocers use premiums to a limited extent. These +usually carry a small line of premiums, featuring a piece of +kitchenware, or other inexpensive item, with bulk coffee. + +It is significant that one of the largest chain-store organizations in +the United States--the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company--uses few +premiums today, although its business was founded on the premium idea. + +[Illustration: AN AMERICANIZED ENGLISH GROCER'S SHOP + +Ernest Carter's store at St. Albans, England, operated under the name of +Thomas Oakley & Co., has a distinctly American atmosphere, accounted for +by the fact that the fittings were supplied by an American manufacturer, +the Walker Bin Co., of Penn Yan, N.Y. The tea and coffee department is +shown in the foreground. The coffee is roasted in the window] + +Trading stamps, which are sold to grocers and other merchants by firms +making a specialty of this form of premium-giving are little used +nowadays. The average retail grocer is antagonistic to trading stamps, +as a result of the methods of certain unscrupulous stamp-dealers. +Legislation against trading stamps is in effect in many states. + +[Illustration: SOME PACKAGE COFFEES THAT ADVERTISING HAS MADE FAMOUS] + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE ADVERTISING + + _Early coffee advertising--The first coffee advertisement in 1587 + was frank propaganda for the legitimate use of coffee--The first + printed advertisement in English--The first newspaper + advertisement--Early advertisements in colonial America--Evolution + of advertising--Package coffee advertising--Advertising to the + trade--Advertising by means of newspapers, magazines, billboards, + electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and by + samples--Advertising for retailers--Advertising by government + propaganda--The Joint Coffee Trade publicity campaign in the United + States--Coffee advertising efficiency_ + + +In a work of this character the chapter on advertising must of necessity +be in story form. It may tell what has been accomplished in advertising +coffee, and perhaps point the way to greater achievement. In so far as +possible, the story is supplemented by illustrations, which here tell +the story even better than words. + +Advertising to the trade or the consumer calls for expert advice. There +are successful trade journalists who are competent to supply such +advertising counsel; and new-comers in the field should consult them +first. These men are in the best position to suggest the means for +successful accomplishment. They know the men who are best qualified to +render assistance for all media, and are glad to recommend those who can +be most helpful. + +Jarvis A. Wood has said that advertising is causing another to know, to +remember, and to do. If we agree with this excellent definition, then +the first coffee advertisers were the early physicians and writers who +told their fellows something about the berry and the beverage made from +it. + +Rhazes and Avicenna told the story in Latin, and appear to have +recommended a coffee decoction as a stomachic, as far back as the tenth +century. Many other early physicians refer to it. Thus it was that +coffee was solemnly introduced to the consumer as a medicine. The first +step made by the berry from the cabinets of the curious, where it was +known as an exotic seed, was into the apothecaries' shops, where it was +sold and advertised as a drug. Next, the coffee drink was advertised and +sold by lemonade venders; then by the proprietors of the coffee houses +and cafés; and finally the coffee merchant sold and advertised the green +and roasted bean. + +Rauwolf told the Germans about it in 1582; Abd-al-Kâdir wrote his famous +_Argument in favor of the legitimate use of coffee_ in Arabic about +1587; Alpini carried the news to Italy in 1592; English travelers wrote +about the beverage in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; French +Orientalists described it about the same time; and America learned about +it long before the green beans were offered for sale in Boston in 1670. + +Because of its frank propaganda character, Abd-al-Kâdir's manuscript may +rightly be called the earliest advertisement for coffee. The author was +a lawyer-theologian, a follower of Mahomet, and as such was eager to +convince his contemporaries that coffee drinking was not incompatible +with the prophet's law. + +Soon the news of the day became the advertising of the morrow. In 1652 +appeared the first printed advertisement for coffee in English. It was +in the form of a shop-bill, or handbill, issued by Pasqua Rosée from the +first London coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill; and the +original is preserved in the British Museum. + +It is pictured on page 55, chapter X, and is worthy of close +examination. It reads: + + The Vertue of the _COFFEE_ Drink + + First publiquely made and sold in England, by _Pasqua Rosée_. + + The Grain or Berry called _Coffee_, groweth upon little Trees, only + in the _Deserts of Arabia_. + + It is brought from thence, and drunk generally throughout all the + Grand Seigniors Dominions. + + It is a simple innocent thing, composed into a Drink, by being + dryed in an Oven, and ground to Powder, and boiled up with Spring + water, and about half a pint of it to be drunk, fasting an hour + before, and not Eating an hour after, and to be taken as hot as + possibly can be endured; the which will never fetch the skin off + the mouth, or raise any Blisters, by reason of that Heat. + + The Turks drink at meals and other times, is usually _Water_, and + their Dyet consists much of _Fruit_, the _Crudities_ whereof are + very much corrected by this Drink. + + The quality of this Drink is cold and Dry; and though it be a + Dryer, yet It neither _heats_, nor _inflames_ more then _hot + Posset_. + + It so closeth the Orifice of the Stomack, and fortifies the heat + within, that it's very good to help digestion, and therefore of + great use to be taken about 3 or 4 a Clock afternoon, as well as in + the morning. + + It much quickens the _Spirits_, and makes the Heart _Lightsome_. It + is good against sore Eys, and the better if you hold your Head over + it, and take in the Steem that way. + + It suppresseth Fumes exceedingly, and therefore good against the + _Head-ach_, and will very much stop any _Defluxion of Rheums_, that + distil from the _Head_ upon the _Stomack_, and so prevent and help + _Consumptions_; and the _Cough of the Lungs_. + + It is excellent to prevent and cure the _Dropsy_, _Gout_, and + _Scurvy_. + + It is known by experience to be better than any other Drying Drink + for _People in years_, or _Children_ that have any _running humors_ + upon them, as the _Kings Evil_,&c. + + It is very good to prevent _Mis-carryings_ in _Child-bearing + Women_. + + It is a most excellent Remedy against the _Spleen_, _Hypocondriack + Winds_, or the like. + + It will prevent _Drowsiness_, and make one fit for business, if one + have occasion to _Watch_; and therefore you are not to Drink of it + _after Supper_, unless you intend to be watchful, for it will + hinder sleep for 3 or 4 hours. + + _It is observed that in Turkey, where this is generally drunk, that + they are not trobled with the Stone, Gout, Dropsie, or Scurvey, and + that their Skins are exceedingly cleer and white._ + + It is neither _Laxative_ nor _Restringent_. + + Made and sold in St. _Michaels Alley_ in _Cornhill_, by Pasqua + Rosée, at the Signe of his own Head. + +The noteworthy thing about this advertisement is, that in comparison +with the best copy of today, it has high merit. For this early +advertisement seems to have embodied in it superbly well those +qualifications which modern advertising experts agree are essential +requirements for success--measured in terms of sales to the consumer. We +shall return to it later. + +The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appeared in the form of a +"reader" in the issue of _The Publick Adviser_, London, for the week of +Tuesday, May 19, to Tuesday, May 26, 1657. _The Publick Adviser_ was a +weekly pamphlet partaking of the nature of a commercial news-letter. The +advertisement was sandwiched between a reader advertising a doctor of +physick and one for an "artificer," the latter being a ladies' +hair-dresser. It was as follows: + + In _Bartholomew_ Lane on the back side of the Old Exchange, the + drink called _Coffee_, (which is a very wholesom and Physical drink, + having many excellent vertues, closes the Orifice of the Stomack, + fortifies the heat within, helpeth Digestion, quickneth the + Spirits, maketh the heart lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, + Coughs, or Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Dropsie, Gout, + Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others is to be sold both in the + morning, and at three of the clock in the afternoon.) + +About the time that Pascal opened the first coffee house in Paris in +1672, the Paris shop-keepers began to advertise coffee by broadsides. A +good example is the following,[345] the text of which closely resembles +the original by Pasqua Rosée: + + _The most excellent Virtue of the Berry called_ Coffee. + + _Coffee_ is a Berry which only grows in the desert of _Arabia_, + from whence it is transported into all the Dominions of the Grand + Seigniour, which being drunk dries up all the cold and moist + humours, disperses the wind, fortifies the Liver, eases the dropsie + by its purifying quality, 'tis a Sovereign medicine against the + itch, and corruptions of the blood, refreshes the heart, and the + vital beating thereof, it relieves those that have pains in their + Stomach, and cannot eat; It is good also against the indispositions + of the brain, cold, moist, and heavy, the steam which rises out of + it is good against the _Rheums_ of the eyes, and drumming in the + ears: 'Tis excellent also against the shortness of the breath, + against _Rheums_ which trouble the Liver, and the pains of the + Spleen; It is an extraordinary ease against the Worms: After having + eat or drunk too much: Nothing is better for those that eat much + Fruit. + + The daily use hereof in a little while will manifest the aforesaid + effect to those, that being indisposed shall use it from time to + time. + +The following are typical London trade advertisements of 1662 and 1663. +The first is from the _Kingdom's Intelligencer_ of June 5, 1662, and +reads as follows: + + At the Exchange Ally from Cornhill into Lumber Street neer the + Conduit, at the Musick-Room belonging to the Palsgrave's Hall, is + sold by retayle the right coffee powder; likewise that termed the + Turkey Berry, well cleansed at 30d. per pound ... the East India + berry (so called) of the best sorts at 20d. per pound, of which at + present in divers places there is very bad, which the ignorant for + cheapness do buy, and is the chief cause of the now bad coffee + drunk in many plaies (sic). + +The _Intelligencer_ for December 21, 1663, contained the following +advertisement: + + There is a Parcel of Coffee-Berry to be put to publique sale upon + Wednesday, the 23, instant, at 6 a clock in the evening at the + Globe Coffee-house at the end of St. Bartholomew Lane, over against + the North Gate of the Royall Exchange.... And if any desire to be + further informed they may repair to Mr. Brigg, Publique Notary at + the said Globe Coffee-house. + +Dufour's treatise on _The Manner of Making Coffee, Tea and Chocolate_, +published in Lyons, 1684, was generally regarded as propaganda for the +beverage; and, indeed, it proved an excellent advertisement, being +quickly translated into English and several other languages. + +In 1691 we find advertised in the _Livre Commode_ of Paris a portable +coffee-making outfit to fit the pocket. + +The first coffee periodical, _The New and Curious Coffee House_, was +issued at Leipzig by Theophilo Georgi in 1707, being a kind of house +organ for what was, perhaps, the first kaffee-klatsch; the +publisher-proprietor, however, admitted that the idea of making his +coffee salon a resort for the literati was obtained from Italy. + +[Illustration: FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT SOLELY FOR COFFEE IN THE +UNITED STATES + +_New York Daily Advertiser_, February 9, 1790] + +In chapter X we have described a number of broadsides, handbills, and +pamphlets having to do with the introduction of the coffee drink into +London between 1652 and 1675. The advertising student would do well to +refer to them because they serve to show how completely the true merits +of the beverage were lost sight of by those who urged its more fantastic +claims. It is interesting to note, however, that this early copy was of +a high order of typographical excellence; indeed, the display letter +used for the word coffee is often like that found in copy in the United +States two hundred and fifty years after. Also, it should be noted that +"apt 'illustration's' artful aid" was first employed in 1674. Again, +note this curious contrast. Two hundred and sixty-nine years ago all the +resources of advertising were being laid under contribution to make +propaganda for coffee as the great _cure_ for many ailments of which +nowadays the enemies of coffee would have us believe coffee is the +cause! Those who have possessed themselves of the facts about coffee +know that both arguments are equally fantastic. + +Coffee was mentioned in shop-keepers' announcements appearing in the +_Boston News Letter_ as early as 1714, and in other newspapers of the +colonies during the eighteenth century, usually being offered for sale +at retail with strange companions. In 1748 "tea, coffee, indigo, +nutmegs, sugar, etc.," were advertised for sale at a shop in Dock +Square, Boston. The following advertisement from the _Columbian +Centinel_, Boston, April 26, 1794, is typical: + + GROCERIES AT NO. 44 _CORNHILL_ Norton and Holyoke Respectfully + inform their friends and the publick, that they have for sale, at + their Shop, No. 44 _Cornhill_, formerly the Post-Office. + + A GENERAL ASSORTMENT OF GROCERIES among which are the following + articles: Teas, Spices, Coffee, Cotton, Indigo, Starch, Chocolate, + Raisins, Figs, Almonds, and Olives; West India Rum, best French + Brandy, excellent Cherry Wine, pure as imported, etc., etc., all + which they will sell as low as any store in Boston. + + _Any article not liked will be taken again, and the money + returned._ + +It appears that the first advertisement dealing with coffee alone was +published in the _New York Daily Advertiser_ for February 9, 1790; and +this was primarily an advertisement of a wholesale coffee roasting +factory rather than an advertisement of coffee per se. + +This advertisement, and a later one published in Loudon's _New York +Packet_ for January 1, 1791, also of a coffee manufactory, are +reproduced herewith. + +Not until package coffee began to come into vogue in the sixties was +there any change in the stereotyped business-card form followed by all +dealers in coffee. And even then the monotony was varied only by +inserting the brand name, such as "Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java +Coffee. Put up only by Lewis A. Osborn"; "Government coffee in tin foil +pound papers put out by Taber & Place's Rubia Mills." + + +_Evolution of Coffee Advertising_ + +Real progress in coffee advertising, as in publicity for other lines of +trade and industry, began in the United States. Here too, it has been +brought to its lowest degradation and to its highest efficiency. The +entire process has taken something less than fifty years. + +[Illustration: EARLY COFFEE ADVERTISING IN UNITED STATES + +Printed in the _New York Packet_, January 1, 1791] + +The first step forward was the picture handbill. The handbill, or +dodger, had been common enough in England and on the Continent, where, +for upward of two hundred years it had served as an advertising medium, +in company with the more robust broadside, and in competition with the +pamphlet and newspaper. It remained for America, however, to glorify the +handbill by means of colored pictures; and one of the earliest and best +specimens of the picture handbill is the Arbuckle circular here +illustrated. + +[Illustration: FIRST HANDBILL IN COLORS FOR PACKAGE COFFEE ABOUT 1872] + +Soon the handbill copy began to appear in the newspapers, but mostly +without the illustrations. Later newspaper developments were to +introduce more of the picture element, decorative border, and design. +The ideas of European artists were freely drawn upon, but put to so +utilitarian uses that their originators would scarce have recognized +them. + +In the _Ladies Home Journal_ for December, 1888, the Great London Tea +Company, Boston, an early mail-order house, advertised, "We have made a +specialty since 1877 of giving premiums to those who buy tea and coffee +in large quantities." In the same issue, there was an advertisement of +Seal Brand and Crusade Brand coffee by Chase & Sanborn, Boston. Dilworth +Bros., Pittsburgh, were also among the early users of magazine space. + +The menace of the cereal coffee-substitute evil had grown to such +proportions at the beginning of the twentieth century, that the coffee +men began to be concerned about it. Misleading and untruthful +"substitute" copy was freely accepted by nearly all media. The package +labels were as bad, if not worse. With the advent of the pure food law +of 1906, the cereal label abuse was reformed; but not until the "truth +in advertising" movement became a power to be reckoned with, nearly ten +years later, were the coffee men granted a substantial measure of +protection in the magazines and newspapers. Meanwhile, many coffee men, +lacking organization and a knowledge of the facts about coffee, +unwittingly played into the hands of the substitute-fakers by publishing +unfortunate defensive copy which made confusion worse confounded in the +consumer's mind. + +[Illustration: REVERSE SIDE OF THE ARBUCKLE HANDBILL (IN COLORS) OF +1872] + +[Illustration: A ST. LOUIS HANDBILL OF 1854] + +At one time there were nearly one hundred coffee-substitute concerns +engaged in a bitter, untruthful campaign directed against coffee. The +most conspicuous offender employed the principle of auto-suggestion and +found a goodly number of pseudo-physicians and bright advertising minds +that were quite willing to prostitute their finest talents to aid him in +attacking an honorable business. + +[Illustration: ADVERTISING-CARD COPY, 1873] + +In one year $1,765,000 was spent in traducing the national beverage. The +burden of the cereal-faker's song was that coffee was the cause of all +the ills that flesh is heir to, and that by stopping its use for ten +days and substituting his panacea, these ills would vanish. + +Of course, there were many people (but they were the minority) who knew +that the caffein content of coffee was a pure, safe stimulant that did +not destroy the nerve cells like such false stimulants as alcohol, +morphine, etc.; and that while too much could be ingested from abuse of +any beverage containing it, nature always effected a cure when the abuse +was stopped. + +However, there was undoubtedly created in the public mind a suspicion, +that threatened to develop into a prejudice, and that affected otherwise +sane and normal people, that perhaps coffee was not good for them. + +Then came the winter of the coffee men's discontent. Floundering about +in a veritable slough of cereal slush, without secure foothold or a true +sense of direction, coffee advertising went miserably astray when its +writers began to assure the public that _their_ brands were guiltless of +the crimes charged in the cereal men's indictment. In this, of course, +they unwittingly aided and abetted the cereal fakers. For example, one +roaster-packer advertised, "The harmful ingredient in coffee is the +tannin-bearing chaff, which our roasting and grinding process completely +removes." Scientific research has since proved the fallacy of this idea. + +[Illustration: HANDBILL COPY OF THE SEVENTIES] + +[Illustration: BOX-END STICKER, 1833] + +Another roaster said, "if coffee works havoc with your nerves and +digestion, it is because you are not using a fresh roasted, thoroughly +cleaned, correctly cured coffee. Our method of preparing gives you the +strength and aroma without its nerve-destroying qualities." A well known +coffee packer advertised, "Our coffee is free from the dust and bitter +tannin--the only injurious property in coffee." Still another packer +informed the consumer that "by a very special steel cutting process" he +sliced the coffee beans "so that the little cells containing the +volatile oil (the food product) are not broken." + +A prominent Chicago packer put out a new brand of coffee which he +claimed was "non-intoxicating," "poisonless," and the "only pure +coffee." A New Yorker, not to be out-done, brought out a coffee that he +said contained all the stimulative properties of the original coffee +berries, but with every trace of acid removed, every undesirable element +eliminated. "Also," he added for good measure, "this coffee may be used +freely without harming the digestive organs or impairing the nervous +system." + +And one package-coffee man became so exercised over cereal competition +that he brought out a _grain_ "coffee" of his own, which he actually +advertised as "the nearest approach to coffee ever put on the market, +having all the merits without any objectionable features, strengthening +without stimulating, satisfying without shattering the nerves." + +And so history again repeated itself in America. Five hundred years +after the first religious persecution of the drink in Arabia, we find it +being persecuted by commercial zealots in the United States. And even in +the house of its friends, coffee was being stabbed in the back. The +coffee merchants themselves presented the spectacle of "knocking" it by +inference and innuendo. + +Something had to be done. As cereal drinks, standing on their own feet, +the coffee "substitutes" would have attracted little notice. It was only +by trading on the allegation that they were _substitutes for coffee_ +that they made any headway. The original offender sold his product as +"coffee," which was an untruth, as he later admitted there was not a +bean of coffee in it. He boldly advertised: "Blank coffee for persons +who can't digest ordinary coffee." + +When it became no longer possible to perpetrate an untruth on the +package label, there still remained the newspapers and billboards. For +years before fake-advertising laws and an outraged public opinion made +recourse to these no longer possible, it was a common practise to use +the newspapers and billboards to promote the idea that here was a +different coffee; and in this way to create a demand for a package, +which, when purchased, was found to tell a different story. + +[Illustration: A CHASE & SANBORN ADVERTISEMENT, 1888 + +As printed in _Harper's_ and _Scribner's Magazines_] + +As late as 1911, one of our most respected New York dailies was carrying +an advertisement calling the product "coffee," although fairness +demands it be recorded that the coffee part of the announcement was +stricken out when _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_ called the +attention of the publisher to its misleading character. This trade +paper, from its start, had been urging the coffee men to organize for +defense. The agitation bore fruit at last, first in the starting of the +National Coffee Roasters Association, and later in the inception of the +movement that resulted in the international advertising campaign for +coffee now in progress in the United States. + +Meanwhile, the cereal coffee-substitute had been thoroughly discredited +by governmental analysis, although even today newspaper publishers are +to be found here and there who are willing to "take a chance" with +public opinion and who will admit to their advertising columns such +misleading statements for the substitute, as "it has a coffee-like +flavor." + +[Illustration: A GOLDBERG CARTOON, 1910] + +[Illustration: NEWSPAPER COPY USED BY CHASE AND SANBORN ABOUT 1900] + +In the United States today, coffee advertising has reached a high plane +of copy excellence. Our coffee advertisers lead all nations. The +educational work started by _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, fostered +by the National Coffee Roasters Association, and developed by the Joint +Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, has laid low many of the bugaboos +raised by the cereal sinners. The coffee men, however, have left +considerable room for improvement. There are still some who are given to +making exaggerated claims in their publicity, who make reflections upon +competitors in a way to destroy public confidence in coffee, and who +display an ignorance of, or a lack of confidence in, their product by +continuing to claim that their brands do not contain what they assert +are injurious or worthless constituents. It is to be hoped that in time +these abuses will yield to the further enlightening influence of the +trade press, and of the organizations that are continually working for +trade betterment. + +Before the international coffee campaign started in 1919, the National +Coffee Roasters Association promoted two national coffee weeks, one in +1914 and another in 1915, wherein excellent groundwork was done for the +big joint coffee trade propaganda that followed. Some original research +also was done along lines of proper grinding and correct coffee brewing. +A better-coffee-making committee, under the direction of Edward Aborn of +New York, rendered yeoman's service to the cause. Much educational work +was done in schools and colleges, among newspaper editors, and in the +trade. This campaign was the first co-operative publicity for coffee. +Among other things, it put a nation-wide emphasis on iced coffee as a +delectable summer drink and, for the first time, stressed the correct +making of the beverage by drip and filtration methods instead of by +boiling, which had long been one of the most crying evils of the +business. + +[Illustration: CHART SHOWING MONEY SPENT ON ADVERTISING COFFEE AND +SUBSTITUTES + +Only advertisements printed in magazines and periodicals are considered +in making this calculation] + + +_Package Coffee Advertising_ + +Coffee advertising began to take on a distinctive character with the +introduction of Ariosa by John Arbuckle in 1873. Some of the early +publicity for this pioneer package coffee appears typographically crude, +judged by modern standards; but the copy itself has all the needful +punch, and many of the arguments are just as applicable today as they +were a half-century ago. Take the handbill copy illustrated. It was done +in three colors, and the argument was new and most convincing. The +reverse side copy is also extremely effective. Note the expert-roaster +argument and coffee-making directions; some of these may still be found +in current coffee advertising. + +Most of the original Arbuckle advertising was by means of circulars or +broadsides, although some newspaper space was employed. Premiums were +first used by John Arbuckle as an advertising sales adjunct, and they +proved a big factor in putting Ariosa on the map. Mr. Arbuckle created +the kind of word-of-mouth publicity for his goods that is the most +difficult achievement in the business of advertising. It caused so deep +and lasting an impression, that in some sections it has persisted +through at least five decades. The advertising moral is: Get people to +_talk_ your brand. + +Since the death of its founder, the Arbuckle copy has been changed to +fit modern conditions. That it has kept pace with all the forward +movements in business and advertising is evident from the specimens +which help to illustrate this chapter. A significant change is to be +noted in the fact that, for the first time in its history, "the greatest +coffee business in the world" has adopted a policy of advertising to the +trade as well as to the consumer, thus giving its publicity a well +rounded character which it formerly lacked. + +The evolution of other notable package coffees is also shown by +illustration. Several concerns blazed new trails that have since been +picked up and followed by competing brands. + +[Illustration: CHARTS SHOWING PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION AND COFFEE AND +SUBSTITUTE ADVERTISING] + +Among the many long-established advertised package-coffee successes may +be mentioned: + +Arbuckle's Yuban and Ariosa; McLaughlin's XXXX; Chase & Sanborn's Seal +Brand; Dwinell-Wright's White House; Weir's Red Ribbon; B. Fischer & +Company's Hotel Astor; Brownell & Field's Autocrat; Bour's Old Master; +Scull's Boscul; Seeman Brothers' White Rose; Blanke's Faust; Baker's +Barrington Hall; Woolson Spice Company's Golden Sun; International +Coffee Company's Old Homestead; Kroneberger's Old Reserve; Western +Grocer Company's Chocolate Cream; Leggett's Nabob; Clossett & Dever's +Golden West; R.C. Williams' Royal Scarlet; Merchants Coffee Company's +Alameda; Widlar Company's C.W. brand; Meyer Bros.' Old Judge; Nash-Smith +Tea and Coffee Company's Wedding Breakfast; J.A. Folger & Company's +Golden Gate; Ennis Hanley Blackburn Coffee Company's Golden Wedding; +M.J. Brandenstein & Company's M.J.B.; Hills Brothers' Red Can, the Young +& Griffin Coffee Company's Franco-American, and the Cheek-Neal Coffee +Company's Maxwell House. + +It was estimated that the amount of money spent by the larger coffee +roasters upon all forms of publicity in the United States in 1920 was +about $3,000,000. + +Charts prepared by Charles Coolidge Parlin of the division of commercial +research of the Curtis Publishing Company, and checked by the +Publishers' Information Bureau, show the advertising for coffee and for +coffee substitutes in thirty leading publications from 1911 to 1920; and +compare the advertising for coffee and coffee substitutes in 1920 with a +chart of per capita consumption. It should be noted that the figures +exclude all other forms of advertising, such as newspapers, +bill-posting, street-car signs, electric signs, and so forth. + +Experience has proven that a package coffee, to be successful, must have +back of it expert knowledge on buying, blending, roasting, and packing, +as well as an efficient sales force. These things are essential: (1) a +quality product; (2) a good trade-mark name and label; (3) an efficient +package. With these, an intelligently planned and carefully executed +advertising and sales campaign will spell success. Such a campaign +comprehends advertising directed to the dealer and to the consumer. It +may include all the approved forms of publicity, such as newspapers, +magazines, billboards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, +and samples. One phase of trade advertising which should not be +overlooked is dealer helps. The extent to which the roaster-packer, or +the promoter of a new package coffee, should utilize the various +advertising media or go into dealer helps must, of course, depend upon +the size of the advertising appropriation. + +[Illustration: AN EFFECTIVE CUT-OUT] + +Many roaster-packers supply grocers handling their coffee with dealer +helps in the shape of weather-proof metal signs for outside display, +display racks, store and window display signs, cut-outs, blotters, +consumer booklets, newspaper electros, stereopticon slides, moving +pictures, demonstrations, samples, etc. Dealer selling schemes based on +points have also been found helpful in promoting sales. + + +_Advertising to the Trade_ + +Until a comparatively recent date, the green coffee importer, selling +the roasting trade, has not realized the need of advertising. He has +inclined to the belief that he did not need to advertise, because, in +most instances, green coffee is not sold by the mark; and, to a certain +extent, price has been the determining factor. + +During late years, however, many green coffee firms have come to realize +that there is a good-will element that enters into the equation which +can be fostered by the intelligent use of advertising space in the +coffee roaster's trade journal. Also, a few importers are now featuring +trade marks in their advertising, thus building up a tangible trade-mark +asset in addition to good will. + +For a number of years the green coffee trade used the business card type +of advertisement; but some are now utilizing a more up-to-date style of +copy, as typified by the advertisements of Leon Israel & Brothers and +W.R. Grace & Company. Specimens of other green coffee advertising of the +better kind are here reproduced. + +Advertising campaigns in behalf of package coffees can not be fully +effective without the proper use of trade publications. Advertising in +the dealer's paper has many advantages. It is good missionary work for +the salesman. It creates confidence in the mind of the dealer. It is an +excellent means for demonstrating to the retailer that he is being +considered in the scheme of distribution--that no attempt is being made +to force the goods upon him through consumer advertising alone. +Trade-paper advertising also offers the packer the opportunity to +acquaint the dealer with the selling points in favor of the brand +advertised, thus saving the time of the salesman. An increasing number +of coffee packers are now using the advertising columns of trade papers, +and some typical advertisements are reproduced herewith. + + +_Advertising by Various Mediums_ + +Billboard and other outdoor advertising, also car cards, are being used +to a considerable extent for coffee publicity. Painted outdoor signs +have been the back-bone of one middle-west roaster's campaign for a +number of years. Both car cards and billboards are growing in popularity +because they enable the coffee packer to reproduce his package in its +natural colors and permit also of striking displays. Such firms as +Arbuckle Brothers, New York; Dayton Spice Mills, Dayton, Ohio; W.F. +MCLaughlin & Company, Chicago; the Puhl-Webb Company, Chicago; the Bour +Company, Toledo; B. Fischer & Company, New York; and the Cheek-Neal +Coffee Company, Nashville and New York, are consistent users of this +character of advertising. Electric signs also have proved effective for +coffee advertising. Reproductions of some characteristic outdoor and +car-card advertisements are to be found in these pages. + +Motion pictures are a comparatively new development in coffee +advertising. One of the first coffee roasters to adopt this plan of +publicity was S.H. Holstad & Company, Minneapolis. The film used +depicted the cultivation and preparation of coffee for the market, also +the complete roasting and packaging operations. The A.J. Deer Company, +manufacturers of coffee mills and roasters, Hornell, N.Y., was another +pioneer in the use of coffee films. Jabez Burns & Sons, coffee-machinery +manufacturers, followed with an educational coffee picture. The National +Packaging Machinery Company, of Boston, is another concern that has +utilized films for advertising purposes, showing its machines in +operation in a coffee-packing plant. Many roasters made use of the +coffee film produced by the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee. + +In using advertising films, it is customary for the roaster to arrange +for a showing at one or more theaters. The advertising in the local +papers features the coffee brands, also the name of the local dealer, +the latter being furnished with tickets which he distributes among his +retail customers. There are several concerns making a business of +supplying commercial films and of getting distribution for them. + +Another form of theater publicity is that of the advertising +slide--stereopticon views thrown upon the screen between feature +pictures. Many packers find these are effective for cultivating the +dealer, it being customary to show the brand name, together with that of +the local distributer. + + +_Advertising for Retailers_ + +When retailers analyze the people to whom they sell coffee, they usually +find three types. First, there is the woman who thinks she is an expert +judge of coffee, but who is unable to find anything to suit her +cultivated taste. Then there is the new housewife, possibly a bride of a +few months, who knows very little about coffee, but wants to find a good +blend that both she and her husband will like. The third is the most +acceptable class, the satisfied people who have found coffee that +delights them, day after day. + +[Illustration: HOW COFFEE IS ADVERTISED TO THE TRADE + +Left to right, good examples of green coffee publicity--center, +well-arranged package-coffee copy] + +W. Harry Longe, a Texas retailer, has prepared the following "ready +made" copy appeals for the three classes. To "Mrs. +Know-it-all-about-Coffee," this style has been found effective: + + IMPROVE THE COFFEE AND YOU IMPROVE THE MEAL + + The corner of the table that holds the coffee urn is the balancing + point of your dinner. If the coffee is a "little off" for some + reason or other--probably it's the coffee's own fault--things don't + seem as good as they might; but when it is "up to taste" the meal + is a pleasure from start to finish. If the "balancing point" is + giving you trouble, let ANY BLEND Coffee properly regulate it for + you. 35 cents, three pounds for $1. + + ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY + +For the good lady who is anxious to find a suitable blend of coffee, and +who desires information, this is a good appeal: + + A SUCCESSFUL SELECTION + + Of the coffee that goes into the every-morning cup will arrive on + the day when ANY BLEND is first purchased. Many homes have been + without such a success now for a long time, but, of course, they + didn't know of ANY BLEND--and even now it is hard to really know + ANY BLEND till you try it. That is why we seem to insist that you + ask for an introduction by ordering a pound. + + ANY BLEND TEA & COFFEE COMPANY + +Taking both classes and dealing with them alike: + + "BLENDED TO BALANCE" + + Is a good descriptive phrase of ANY BLEND coffee, for care is taken + in the preparation that the strength does not overpower the flavor. + The aim of the blender is to get an acceptable and delightful + drinking quality. He has been more than successful, as you will see + when you try ANY BLEND, 35 cents, three pounds for $1. + + ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY + +The satisfied class, of course, is not averse to making a change, and it +is well, occasionally, for the dealer to let his own satisfied customers +know he still believes in his goods. The argument might take this form: + + A SERVICE THAT SAVES + + Is the serving of ANY BLEND, when coffee is desired. ANY BLEND + saves many things. It saves worry, for it is always uniform in + flavor and strength. It saves time, for when you order ANY BLEND we + grind it just as fine or just as coarse as your percolator or pot + demands. ANY BLEND also saves expense, because there is no waste, + as you know just how much to use, every time, to make a certain + number of cups. 35 cents, three pounds for $1. + + ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY + +Again, possible new customers may listen to this appeal: + + TO PROVE YOUR APPROVAL + + Of ANY BLEND coffee, you are asked to try just one pound. We know + you will like it, for it is blended and roasted and ground as an + exceptional coffee should be, with the care that a good coffee + demands. Prove to yourself that you approve of this method of + preparing coffee. 35 cents, three pounds for $1. + + ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY + +In some households the cook is permitted to do the ordering, and usually +the cook does not read the daily papers with an eye for coffee ads. To +reach this individual through her mistress: + + CAN YOU NAME YOUR COFFEE? + + Or is it one of those many unknown brands that comes from the store + at the order of your cook? Let the cook do the ordering, for you + are lucky if you have one you can rely upon, but tell her you + prefer ANY BLEND to the No-Name Blend you may now be using. ANY + BLEND has one distinct advantage over all others; It Is freshly + roasted. Tell the kitchen-lady, now, to order ANY BLEND. + + ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY + + +_Advertising by Government Propaganda_ + +Advertising coffee by government propaganda has been indulged in with +more or less success by the British government in behalf of certain of +its colonial possessions; by the French and the Dutch; by Porto Rico, +Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Brazil. The markets most cultivated have been +Italy, France, England, Russia, Japan, and the United States. + +Great Britain began the development of coffee cultivation in its +colonies in 1730. Parliament first reduced the inland duties. In many +ways it has since sought to encourage British-grown coffee, building up +a favoritism for it that is still reflected in Mincing Lane quotations. +The Netherlands government did the same thing for Java and Sumatra; and +France rendered a similar service to her own colonies. + +Since Porto Rico became a part of the United States, several attempts +have been made by the island government and the planters to popularize +Porto Rico coffee in the United States. Scott Truxtun opened a +government agency in New York in 1905. Acting upon the counsel and +advice of the author, he prosecuted for several years a vigorous +campaign in behalf of the Porto Rico Planters' Protective Association. +The method followed for coffee was to appoint official brokers, and to +certify the genuineness of the product. Owing to insufficient funds and +the number of different products for which publicity was sought, the +coffee campaign was only moderately successful. + +Mortimer Remington, formerly with the J. Walter Thompson Company, a New +York advertising agency, was appointed in 1912 commercial agent for the +Porto Rico Association, composed of island producers and merchants. Some +effective advertising in behalf of Porto Rico coffee was done in the +metropolitan district, where a number of high-class grocers were +prevailed upon to stock the product, which was packed under seal of the +association. As before, however, the other products handled--including +cigars, grape-fruit, pineapples, etc.--handicapped the work on coffee, +and the enterprise was abandoned. Subsequent efforts by the Washington +government to assist the Porto Ricans in evolving a practical plan to +extend their coffee market in the United States came to naught because +of too much "politics." + +Beginning with the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco in 1915, +the government of Guatemala started a propaganda for its coffee in the +United States; as the European market, which had up till then absorbed +seventy-five percent of its product, was closed to it, owing to the +World War. E.H. O'Brien, a coffee broker of San Francisco, directed the +publicity. Some full pages were used in newspapers, but the main efforts +were directed at the coffee-roasting trade. The campaign, so far as it +went, was highly successful. + +Costa Rica also gave special encouragement to coffee-trade interests +that offered to expand the United States market for Costa Rica coffee +during the World War. + +For many years Colombia has been talking of making propaganda here for +its coffee, but thus far nothing of a constructive character has been +done. + +São Paulo began in 1908 to make propaganda for its coffee by subsidizing +companies and individuals in consuming countries to promote consumption +of the Brazil product. A contract was entered into between the state of +São Paulo and the coffee firms of E. Johnston & Company and Joseph +Travers & Son, of London, to exploit Brazil coffee in the United +Kingdom. Similar contracts were made with coffee firms in other European +countries, notably in Italy and France. The subsidies were for five +years and took the form of cash and coffee. The English company was +known as the "State of São Paulo (Brazil) Pure Coffee Company, Ltd." +Fifty thousand pounds sterling was granted this enterprise, which +roasted and packed a brand known as "Fazenda;" promoted demonstrations +at grocers' expositions; and advertised in somewhat limited fashion. The +general effect upon the consumption of coffee in England was negligible, +however, although at one time some five thousand grocers were said to +have stocked the Fazenda brand. A feature of this propaganda was the use +of the Tricolator (an American device since better known in the United +States) to insure correct making of the beverage, Brazil also made +propaganda for its coffee in Japan, in 1915, as part of certain +undertakings involving the immigration of Japanese laborers to Brazil. + +The Comité Français du Café was formed in Paris in July, 1921, to +co-operate with Brazil in an enterprise designed to increase the +consumption of coffee in France. + +The chief fault in most of the coffee propagandas here and abroad has +been the doubtful practise of subsidizing particular coffee concerns +instead of spending the funds in a manner designed to distribute the +benefits among the trade as a whole. This mistake, and local politics in +the producing countries, have made for ultimate failure. A notable +exception is the latest propaganda for Brazil coffee in the United +States, where all the various interests, the the São Paulo government, +the growers, exporters, importers, roasters, jobbers, and dealers, have +co-operated in a plan of campaign to advertise coffee _per se_, and not +to secure special privilege to any individual, house, or group. + + +_Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Campaign_ + +Twenty years ago the author began an agitation for co-operative +advertising, by the coffee trade. He suggested as a slogan, "Tell the +truth about coffee;" and it is gratifying to find that many of his +original ideas have been embodied in the present joint coffee trade +publicity campaign, now in its fourth year. + +[Illustration: THEODORE LANGGAARD DE MENEZES] + +The coffee roasters at first were slow to respond to the co-operative +advertising suggestion, because in those days competition was more +unenlightened than now, and therefore more ruthless. It needed +organization to bring the trade to a better understanding of the +benefits certain to be shared by all when their individual interests +were pooled in a common cause. Leaders of the best thought in the trade, +however, were quick to realize that only by united effort was it +possible to achieve real progress; and when it was suggested that the +first step was to organize the roasting trade, the idea took so firm a +hold that it only needed some one to start it to bring together in one +combination the keenest minds in the business. + +The coffee roasters organized their national association in 1911. The +author of this work urged that co-operative advertising based upon +scientific research should be done by the roasters themselves +independently of the growers; but it was found impracticable to unite +diverging interests on such an issue, and so the leaders of the movement +bent all their energies toward promoting a campaign that would be backed +jointly by growers and distributers, since both would receive equal +benefit from any resulting increase in consumption. Brazil, the source +of nearly three-quarters of the world's coffee, was the logical ally; +and an appeal was made to the planters of that country. A party of ten +leading United States roasters and importers visited Brazil in 1912 at +the invitation of the federal government. + +In Brazil, as in the United States, progress resulted from organization. +The planters of the state of São Paulo, who produce more than one-half +of all coffee used in the United States, were the first to appreciate +the propaganda idea. After their attempts to interest the national +government failed, the São Paulo coffee men founded the _Sociedade +Promotora da Defesa do café_ (Society to Promote the Defense of Coffee), +and persuaded their state legislature to pass a law taxing every bag of +coffee shipped from the plantations of that state in a period of four +years. This tax, amounting to one hundred reis per bag of 132 pounds, or +about two and one-half cents United States money at even exchange rates, +is collected by the railroads from the shippers, and turned over to the +_Sociedade_. + +The Brazilian Society sent to the United States a special envoy, +Theodore Langgaard de Menezes, to conclude arrangements; and on March 4, +1918, in New York, the pact was signed whereby São Paulo was to +contribute to the publicity campaign in the United States approximately +$960,000 at the rate of $240,000 a year for four years; and the members +of the trade in the United States were to contribute altogether +$150,000[346]. The success of the negotiations was due to the skilful +management of Ross W. Weir in the United States, and to the superior +salesmanship of Louis R. Gray, the Arbuckle representative in Brazil. + +[Illustration: JOINT COFFEE TRADE PUBLICITY COMMITTEE IN UNITED STATES] + +Supervision of the advertising in the United States was delegated to +five men, representing both the importing and roasting branches of the +trade, and designated as the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee of +the United States. Three of these committeemen, Ross W. Weir, of New +York; F.J. Ach, of Dayton, Ohio; and George S. Wright, of Boston, are +roasters; and two, William Bayne, Jr., and C.H. Stoffregen, both of New +York, are importers and jobbers, or green-coffee men. The committee +organized with Mr. Weir as chairman, Mr. Wright as treasurer, and Mr. +Stoffregen as secretary. At the invitation of the committee, C.W. Brand +of Cleveland, then president of the National Coffee Roasters +Association, attended committee meetings, and assisted in determining +the policies of the campaign. Headquarters were established at 74 Wall +Street, in the heart of the New York coffee district, with Felix Coste +as secretary-manager, and Allan P. Ames as publicity director. N.W. Ayer +& Son, advertising agents of Philadelphia, who had engineered the plan +of campaign from the start of the movement in the National Coffee +Roasters Association, handle the advertising account. + +[Illustration: CHART SHOWING PLAN OF ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN] + +São Paulo's contribution to the advertising fund is sent in monthly +instalments to the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee under an +agreement that it shall be expended only for magazine and newspaper +space. + +[Illustration: JOINT-COMMITTEE MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER COPY, 1919] + +[Illustration: COPY THAT STRESSED THE HEALTHFULNESS OF COFFEE, +1919-1920] + +Supplementing this Brazilian contribution, is the fund raised by +voluntary subscriptions from the coffee trade of the United States on +the basis of one cent per bag handled annually. This American fund is +used for the expenses of administration, for educational advertising +outside of magazine and newspaper space, and for various kinds of trade +promotion and dealer stimulation. + +[Illustration: THE JOINT COMMITTEE'S HOUSE ORGAN] + +The first advertising appeared in April, 1919, in 306 leading newspapers +in 182 large cities, with a total circulation of more than 16,000,000. +The cities chosen represented all the centers of wholesale coffee +distribution. + +Magazine advertising began in June of the same year, using twenty-one +periodicals, all of national circulation. This list has been changed +from time to time to meet the special needs of the campaign. + +More than fifty grocery-trade magazines have carried the committee's +dealer advertising, although not all of these have been used +continuously. Every part of the country was represented on the +trade-paper list. + +Full pages have been run each month in nine of the leading national +medical journals. These advertisements were written by a physician of +national reputation. Under the caption, "The Case for Coffee," these +advertisements have discussed the properties of coffee from the +physiological standpoint, and have asked the doctors to judge it fairly. + +From the start the committee's advertising has been broadly educational. +The properties of coffee have been discussed; charges against coffee +have been answered. The housekeeper has been told how to get the best +results from the coffee she buys; hotel and restaurant proprietors have +been reminded that many of them owe their prosperity largely to a +reputation for serving good coffee; new uses have been exploited for +coffee, as a flavoring agent for desserts and other sweets; employers +have been taught the important service good coffee may render in +increasing the comfort and efficiency of their working forces. + +[Illustration: INTRODUCTORY MEDICAL-JOURNAL COPY] + +Magazine and newspaper advertising is only the nucleus of the campaign. +The effect of such "white space" publicity is increased by simultaneous +efforts to "merchandise" the campaign, to stimulate the interest of the +wholesale and retail trade, to encourage private-brand advertising, and +to reach the consumer by other kinds of publicity recognized as +essential factors in a well rounded national advertising effort. These +activities may be summarized as follows: + +[Illustration: TELLING THE DOCTORS THE TRUTH ABOUT COFFEE, 1920] + +INFORMATION SERVICE. This department answers inquiries and supplies +material for household editors, and for newspaper and magazine writers. +Through a national clipping service, it keeps in touch with all +published matter relating to coffee. Its special duty is to answer +attacks on coffee and the coffee trade. Merchants and dealers make it a +practise, when they find misleading articles or editorials in their +local newspapers, to send clippings to the committee's headquarters to +be handled there as the situation warrants. + +SCIENTIFIC COFFEE RESEARCH. Twenty-two thousand, five hundred dollars of +the American fund have been appropriated thus far for scientific coffee +research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The reports of +this research will be distributed to the coffee trade throughout the +country, and should prove valuable in all branches of coffee +merchandising. The findings will be distributed by the committee to +schools and colleges, and to consumers through national advertising. + +[Illustration: SOME OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE'S ATTRACTIVE BOOKLETS] + +THE COFFEE CLUB. This organization was established for the purpose of +educating the consumer through constructive team work by the roasters' +and jobbers' salesman and the retail dealer. Under this plan, the +committee has distributed 50,000 transparent signs for dealers' windows, +and 5,000 bronze coffee-club buttons for coffee salesmen. By reference +to the Coffee Club in national magazine and newspaper advertising, the +retailer is given a chance to tie up with the campaign. Membership in +the club is limited to those who are contributing to the publicity fund, +and to their salesmen and customers. The club publishes a monthly +bulletin in newspaper form, giving the news of the campaign. This has a +circulation of 27,000 among wholesalers, salesman, and dealers. + +[Illustration: MORE MEDICAL JOURNAL COPY, 1920] + +BOOKLETS. The committee has published six booklets, which have reached +a total circulation of more than one and a half million copies. These +booklets are sold at cost to the coffee trade. The committee reports +that, on an average, one hundred requests for them are received daily at +its office from consumers in different parts of the country, and that +the booklets are the means of a constant campaign of education in +American homes and schools. + +BRAND ADVERTISING. The committee is constantly making efforts to +increase the amount of private advertising by coffee roasters, and it +estimates that brand advertising has increased at least three hundred +percent since the national campaign began. Reproductions of the +committee's advertisements, proofs of advertising electrotypes, and copy +suggestions are circulated in advance to all roasters and to a large +number of retailers, by means of the monthly organ, _The Coffee Club_. + +COFFEE WEEK. During the week of March 29 to April 4, 1920, the committee +organized and financed the third national coffee week, which was +observed by retailers throughout the country. The feature of this week +was a window-trimming contest for which prizes of $2,000 were +distributed among several hundred grocers. The contest resulted in +displays of coffee in nearly 10,000 grocery windows, and greatly +increased the sale and consumption of coffee during this period. + +MOTION PICTURES. The United States fund financed the production and +distribution of a coffee motion picture, 128 prints of which were sold +to roasters, who exhibited them throughout the country. This picture was +shown during coffee week to more than six hundred theater audiences, and +it remains in the possession of the trade as an active advertising +medium. + +[Illustration: SPECIMENS OF THE 1921 MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER COPY] + +[Illustration: EDUCATING THE DOCTOR IN THE FACTS ABOUT COFFEE, 1922] + +NEW USES FOR COFFEE. An important factor in increasing consumption has +been the promotion of new uses for coffee. In winter, this has taken the +form or recipes and suggestions for coffee as a flavoring agent; and in +warm weather, there has been a publicity drive for iced coffee. + + +_Propaganda Results_ + +The joint coffee trade publicity campaign is progressive. New features +are being developed, and plans are laid well in advance. It is expected +that the reports of the scientific research will furnish fresh material +for both direct and indirect advertising. + +One of the interesting prospects is a school exhibit, demand for which +has been revealed by requests from a large number of teachers, +principals, and school superintendents. Efforts to increase the +popularity of a product as widely used as coffee suggest almost +unlimited opportunities. + +The campaign has brought into co-operation producers in one country, and +manufacturers and distributers in another country, several thousand +miles apart. Its international character, and also the fact that it +deals with a product of almost universal use, may account for the +attention this campaign has received, not only in the United States, but +in every country where advertising is a business factor. + +This kind of coffee publicity has given the consumer a better knowledge +of coffee, and broken down much of the prejudice against coffee that +rested upon popular misunderstanding of its physiological effects. + +As best evidence of its sincere wish to give the public the whole truth +about coffee, the committee points to the fact that a portion of its +funds is being used to finance the scientific investigation at the +Massachusetts Institute of Technology. + +Felix Coste, the secretary-manager of the campaign, spends much of his +time traveling about the country and addressing gatherings of coffee +wholesalers and dealers. By this means, and by continuous +circularization and correspondence, the trade is kept constantly in +touch with the developments of the campaign. + +[Illustration: MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING COPY, SPRING OF 1922] + +[Illustration: PRIVATE BRAND COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1921 + +Report from 77 Advertisers] + +Although Brazil is the only coffee-producing country at present +co-operating, the advertising has treated all coffees alike. Efforts are +being made to have the coffee growers of other countries contribute on a +basis proportionate to the benefit they derive. Support from all the +coffee countries on the same scale as that on which the producers of São +Paulo are contributing would almost double the size of the fund. + +[Illustration: SPECIMEN OF EARLY YUBAN COPY] + + +_Coffee Advertising Efficiency_ + +Reverting to the original advertisement for coffee in English, when we +compare it with the latest examples of advertising art, it is of the +same order of merit. But Pasqua Rosée had no advertising experts to +advise him and no precedents to follow. Pasqua Rosée was a native of +Smyrna, who was brought to London by a Mr. Edwards, a dealer in Turkish +merchandise, to whom he acted as a sort of personal servant. One of his +principal duties was the preparation of Mr. Edwards' morning drink of +Turkish coffee. + +"But the novelty thereof," history tells us, "drawing too much company +to him, he [Mr. Edwards] allowed his said servant, with another of his +son-in-law, to sell it publicly." So it came about that Pasqua Rosée set +up a coffee house in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill. + +And since Pasqua Rosée's idea, naturally, was to acquaint the London +public with the virtues and delectable qualities of the product of which +his prospective customers were naturally uniformed, he put into his +advertisement those facts and arguments which he felt would be most +likely to attract attention, to excite interest, and to convince. If the +reader will glance at Rosée's advertisement, which is reproduced on page +55, he will be struck with the well-nigh irresistible charm of his +unaffected, straightforward bid for patronage. Having no advertising +fetishes to warp his judgment, he told an interesting story in a natural +manner, carrying conviction. It matters not that some of the virtues +attributed to the drink have since been disallowed. He believed them to +be true. Few there were in those days who knew the real "truth about +coffee." + +Even his typography, unstudied from the standpoint of modern "display," +is attractive, appropriate, and exceedingly pleasant to the eye. And +since at that time there was no cereal substitute or other bugaboos to +contend against, and to hinder him from doing the simple, obvious thing +in advertising, he did that very thing--and did it exceedingly well. + +[Illustration: HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION IN ADVERTISING] + +[Illustration: PACKAGE-COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1922 + +Specimens of newspaper copy used by some of the most enterprising +package-coffee advertisers, East and West] + +In fact, in the historic advertisement, Pasqua Rosée set an example and +established a copy standard which had a very beneficial effect on all +the coffee advertising of that early date. This will be evident from a +glance at the accompanying exhibits of other early advertisements. It +was not until the days of so-called "modern" advertising that coffee +publicity reached low-water mark in efficiency and value. In these dark +days most coffee advertisers ignored the principles discovered and +applied in other lines of grocery merchandising. Instead of telling +their public how good their product was, they actually followed the +opposite course, and warned the public against the dangers of coffee +drinking! Instead of saying to the public, "Coffee has many virtues, and +our brand is one of the best examples," their text said in effect, +"Coffee has many deleterious properties; some, or most, of which have +been eliminated in our particular brand." + +They were, for the most part, apostles of negation. + +[Illustration: EMPHASIZING THE SOCIAL-DISTINCTION ARGUMENT] + +[Illustration: DRAWING UPON HISTORY FOR SOCIAL-INTERCOURSE ATMOSPHERE] + +Hopeful signs, however, are multiplying that this condition of things in +the coffee industry has passed, and that the practise of telling the +coffee story with certitude will soon become general. + +We may well applaud the publicity work of all coffee advertisers who +follow where Pasqua Rosée led--those who tell the public how good coffee +is to drink and how much good it does you if you drink it. Considering +the advertising and typographical resources available to the modern +advertiser, it certainly should be possible for this message to be +conveyed to the public with at least some of the charm of the first +coffee message. + +One of the most notable examples of how to advertise coffee well is that +set by Yuban coffee. Unquestionably, Yuban is doing in a thoroughly +up-to-date and appropriate fashion what Pasqua Rosée started out to do +in 1652. + +The effect on those who give only a superficial glance at a Yuban +advertisement is to arouse a keen desire to enjoy a cup of Yuban coffee. +To induce such a state of mind is, of course, the object of all good +advertising. + +[Illustration: AN ELECTRIC SIGN THAT IMPRESSED CHICAGO + +There were 4,000 bulbs in this advertisement, which measured 50 x 55 +feet. The rental was $3,500 a month] + +Yuban advertisements have utilized two vital principles in influencing +the minds of consumers. In the first place, they have made a cup of +coffee seem to be a very delectable drink. In the second place, they +have made the serving of a cup of coffee seem to be of the greatest +social value. + +One does not see in a Yuban advertisement any reference to the "removal +of caffein", or to Yuban's "freedom from defects common to other +coffees." There is no reference to the ill effects of drinking ordinary +coffee. Yuban wastes no valuable space in unselling coffee. Instead, the +whole intent, effectively carried out, is to paint an enticing picture +by descriptive phraseology, typographic "manner", and illustrative +treatment. + +Until Yuban came, those of us in the coffee trade who had given the +matter thought had often wondered why, with the wealth of material +available to writers of coffee advertisements, so little had been done +to make the product alluring--why so little had been done to give +atmosphere to the product. So many interesting things may be said about +the history of coffee; the spread of the industry through various +countries; how Brazil came to be the coffee-producing country of the +world; how coffee is cultivated, harvested, and shipped; how it is +stored, roasted, handled, delivered--in short, the entire process by +which coffee reaches the breakfast table from the plantations of the +tropics. Yuban made effective use of this material. + +Simply to tell these things in an interesting, natural, convincing way +makes coffee appear as a healthful, delicious drink; whereas the +negative, defensive sort of advertising, that plays into the hands of +the substitutes, puts coffee in the wrong light. + +[Illustration: HOW THREE WELL KNOWN BRANDS OF COFFEE HAVE BEEN +ADVERTISED OUTDOORS] + +[Illustration: ATTENTION-ATTRACTING CAR CARDS, SPRING OF 1922] + +[Illustration: EFFECTIVE ICED-COFFEE COPY--ADAPTABLE FOR ANY BRAND] + +When one reads Yuban advertisements, they are seen to be an entirely +acceptable and appropriate presentation of coffee merit and thoroughly +in accord with the principles of good advertising, as exemplified in all +other lines of trade. The wonder grows why so many coffee advertisers +have been content to remain in the defensive, controversial position +into which the alarmist coffee-substitute advertising has jockeyed them. + +The Yuban advertisements are not without their faults; errors of +historical facts can be found in them; definitions are sometimes mixed; +some of the drawings might be better; but, in the main, the copy is +convincing and praiseworthy. + +In Yuban advertisements the things that have been so long left undone +have now been done in a masterful way. If we refer to the accompanying +illustrations, we can see how effectively the public is being led to +realize and believe in: + +1. The intrinsic desirability of coffee--the actual pleasure to be +derived from the act of partaking of it. + +2. That it is delightful medium for social intercourse--part of the +essential equipment for an intimate chat or more general assemblage of +friends. + +3. That its proper service is a badge of social distinction--the mark of +a successful hostess. + +These three thoughts, dominant in Yuban advertising, should be woven +into the fabric of all coffee advertising. For with these three +thoughts, Arbuckle Brothers have blazed the trail for the right thing in +coffee advertising. + +The Yuban case has been so largely dwelt upon here because it sets so +bright and shining an example. Much that is praiseworthy in it and more +along the same lines is true of White House, Hotel Astor, and Seal +Brand; but the copy shown will illustrate this better than any comment. + +[Illustration: EUROPEAN ADVERTISING NOVELTY IN NEW YORK + +The absence of visible wheels aroused much curiosity in this slow-moving +vehicle] + +[Illustration: COENTIES SLIP, NEW YORK, IN THE DAYS OF SAILING VESSELS + +Many coffee ships from the West Indies, Arabia and the Dutch East Indies +unloaded their cargoes here--From a copper-plate etching by F. Lee +Hunter] + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +THE COFFEE TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES + + _The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston--Some early + sales--Taxes imposed by Congress in war and peace--The first coffee + plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-grinder, and coffee-pot + patents--Early trade marks for coffee--Beginnings of the coffee + urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee + business--Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting + establishments in the trade from the eighteenth century to the + twentieth_ + + +It appears from the best evidence obtainable that the coffee trade of +the United States was started by a woman, one Dorothy Jones of Boston. +At least, Dorothy Jones was the first person in the colonies to whom a +license was issued, in 1670, to sell coffee. It is not clear whether she +sold the product in the green bean, roasted, "garbled" (ground), or +"ungarbled". + +Soon after the introduction of the coffee drink into the New England, +New York, and Pennsylvania colonies, trading began in the raw product. +William Penn bought his green coffee supplies in the New York market in +1683, paying for them at the rate of $4.68 a pound. Benjamin Franklin +engaged in the retail coffee business in Philadelphia, in 1740, as a +kind of side line to his printing business. + +"Tea, coffee, indigo, nutmegs, sugar etc." were being advertised for +sale in 1748 at a shop in Boston, "under the vendue-room in +Dock-Square." Coffee was also to be had in that year at the shop of +Ebenezer Lowell in King Street, and at the Sign of the Four Sugar Loaves +near the head of Long Wharf. + +During the sway of the coffee houses, coffee fell from $4.68 a pound to +40 cents a pound in 1750, and to 22 cents a pound just before the +Revolution. As the war came on, however, dealers began to force up +prices on a dwindling market. The situation became so serious that in +January, 1776, the Philadelphia Commission of Inspection issued a +fair-price list, setting an arbitrary price of eleven pence per pound on +coffee in bag lots. Persons found violating this price were to be +"exposed to public view as sordid vultures preying on the vitals of the +country." + +Despite this threat, J. Peters in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, wrote to a +Philadelphia friend, "I cannot purchase any coffee without taking, too, +one bill a tierce of Claret & Sour, and at £6.8 per gall.... I have been +trying day for day, & never could get a grain of Coffee so as to sell it +at the limited price these six weeks. It may be bought, but at 25/ per +lb." + +The important part played by the coffee houses of colonial America, +beginning with the establishment of the London coffee house in Boston, +in 1689, the King's Arms in New York in 1696, and Ye coffee house in +Philadelphia in 1700, has been related. + +"Females" of ye olde Boston, staging in 1777 a "coffee party" which +rivaled in a small way the famous Tea Party in 1773, personally +chastised a profiteer hoarder of foodstuffs, and confiscated some of his +stock, according to a letter from Abigail Adams to her distinguished +husband, later second president of the United States. + +Writing at Boston, under date of July 31, 1777, Abigail wrote to John, +then attending the Continental Congress at Philadelphia: + + There is a great scarcity of sugar and coffee, articles which the + female part of the state is very loath to give up, especially + whilst they consider the great scarcity occasioned by the merchants + having secreted a large quantity. It is rumored that an eminent + stingy merchant, who is a bachelor, had a hogshead of coffee in his + store, which he refused to sell under 6 shillings per pound. + + A number of females--some say a hundred, some say more--assembled + with a cart and trunk, marched down to the warehouse, and demanded + the keys. + + Upon his finding no quarter, he delivered the keys, and they then + opened the warehouse, hoisted out the coffee themselves, put it + into a trunk, and drove off. A large concourse of men stood amazed, + silent spectators of the whole transaction. + +In 1783-84 the Congress of the United States considered the imposition +of a duty on "seven classes of goods consumed by the rich or in general +use; liquors, sugars, teas, coffees, cocoa, molasses and pepper; the tax +to be determined by the yearly imports." + +At that time there was being imported twelve times as much Bohea tea as +of all others, but tea consumption was only one-twelfth pound per +capita. Total tea imports were 325,000 pounds. "Low as was the +importation of tea", says John Bach McMaster, "that of coffee was lower +still by a third. Indeed, it was scarcely used outside of the great +cities." The average annual coffee imports at that period were 200.000 +pounds. + +Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts introduced chicory into the United +States in 1785. + +The first import duty, of two and one-half cents a pound, was levied on +coffee by the United States in 1789. The principal sources of supply up +to that time were the Dutch East Indies, Arabia, Haiti, and Jamaica; and +most of the business was in the hands of Dutch and English traders. + +What is thought to be the first wholesale coffee-roasting plant in +America began operations at 4 Great Dock (now Pearl) Street, New York, +early in 1790. In that same year the first American advertisement for +coffee appeared in the _New York Daily Advertiser_. A second "coffee +manufactory" started up at 232 Queen (also Pearl) Street, New York, late +in 1790. + +In the same year, 1790, the government increased the import duty on +coffee to four cents a pound. In 1794 the tax was raised to five cents a +pound. + +In George Washington's household account book for 1793 appears an entry +showing a purchase of coffee from Benjamin Dorsay, a Philadelphia +grocer, for eight dollars. The quantity is not given. + +About 1804 Captain Joseph Ropes in the ship Recovery, of Salem, Mass., +brought from Mocha the first cargo of coffee and other East Indian +produce in an American bottom. + +The first cargo of Brazil coffee, consisting of 1,522 bags, was received +at Salem, Mass., per ship Marquis de Someruelas in 1809. Brazil's total +production that year was less than 30,000 bags; but by 1871 more than +2,000,000 bags were exported. + +Java coffee could be bought on the Amsterdam market in 1810 for 42 to 46 +cents. By 1812, there had been an advance to $1.08 per pound. Holland, +not Brazil, ruled the world's coffee markets in those days. + +When the war of 1812 made necessary more revenue, imports of coffee were +taxed ten cents a pound. A war-time fever of speculation in tea and +coffee followed, and by 1814 prices to the consumer had advanced to such +an extent (coffee was 45 cents a pound) that the citizens of +Philadelphia formed a non-consumption association, each member pledging +himself "not to pay more than 25 cents a pound for coffee and not to +consume tea that wasn't already in the country." + +The coffee duty was reduced in 1816 to five cents a pound; in 1830, to +two cents; in 1831, to one cent; and in 1832 coffee was placed on the +free list. It remained there until 1861, when a duty of four cents a +pound was again imposed as a war-revenue measure. This was increased to +five cents in 1862. It was reduced to three cents in 1871; and the duty +was repealed in 1872. Coffee has remained on the free list ever since. + +The manufacture of machinery required in the coffee business began in +the eighteenth century. The first coffee-grinder patent in the United +States was issued to Thomas Bruff, Sr., in 1798. The first United States +patent on an improvement on a roaster was issued to Peregrine Williamson +of Baltimore in 1820. The first United States patent on a +coffee-plantation machine, a coffee huller, was granted to Nathan Reed +of Belfast, Me., in 1822. The first United States coffee-maker patent +was issued to Lewis Martelley of New York, in 1825. + +[Illustration: FIRST UNITED STATES COFFEE-GRINDER PATENT] + +Charles Parker, of Meriden, Conn., began work on the original Parker +coffee mill in 1828. + +A complete English coffee roasting and grinding plant was installed in +New York City by James Wild in 1833-34. + +About 1840, Central America began making shipments of coffee to the +United States. + +James Carter, of Boston, was granted (1846) a United States patent on an +improved form of cylindrical coffee roaster, which subsequently was +largely adopted by the trade in the United States, being popularly known +as the Carter "pull-out". + +[Illustration: CARTER'S PULL-OUT ROASTER PATENT] + +The Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. of Buffalo began in 1857 the +manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. Marcus Mason invented his +first pulper in 1860; but the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery +under the firm name of Marcus Mason & Co. did not begin in the United +States until 1873. + +The first paper-bag factory in the United States to make bags for loose +coffee, began operations in Brooklyn in 1862. + +The first ground-coffee package was put on the New York market about +1860-63 by Lewis A. Osborn. It was known as Osborn's Celebrated Prepared +Java Coffee and was later exploited by Thomas Reid as Osborn's Old +Government Java. + +In 1864, Jabez Burns was granted a patent on the Burns roaster which was +to revolutionize the coffee-roasting business. + +In 1865, John Arbuckle brought out in Pittsburgh the first roasted +coffee in individual packages "like peanuts", the forerunner of the +Ariosa package. + +In 1869, B.G. Arnold started the first big speculation in coffee and for +ten years thereafter he was absolute dictator of the American coffee +trade. + +In 1869, three United States patents on a copper coffee urn lined with +block tin were granted to Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet of New York. + +In 1870, John Gulick Baker, one of the founders of the Enterprise +Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania, was granted a United States +patent on a coffee grinder which subsequently became one of the most +popular store mills. + +The first trade mark registered for coffee or coffee essence bears the +number 425, with date August 22, 1871, first use 1870, and is in the +name of Butler, Earhart & Co., Columbus, Ohio. The words "essence of +coffee" appeared on the label. The next coffee mark was registered by +Butler, Earhart & Co., October 3, 1871, number 455, first use, 1870. It +consists of the word "Buckeye" with a branch of the buckeye +(horse-chestnut) tree. + +[Illustration: FIRST REGISTERED TRADE MARK FOR COFFEE, 1871] + +The next registration for coffee was in the name of John Ashcroft of +Brooklyn. It is numbered 533, and the date is November 28, 1871. It +consists of an anchor and chain enclosing a star. Ashcroft registered +also a design of a coffee pot with the words "Mocha Steam", January 2, +1872. + +Today there are nearly three thousand registered trade-mark names used +for coffee on file in the United States Patent Office in Washington. + +In 1873, Ariosa, the first successful national brand of package coffee, +was launched in Pittsburg by John Arbuckle. + +In the same year, 1873, the first United States patent on a coffee +substitute was issued to E. Dugdale of Griffin, Ga. + +In 1878, Chase & Sanborn, the Boston coffee roasters, were the first to +pack and to ship roasted coffee in sealed cans. A lead seal was used for +the large packages of bulk coffee; the smaller sizes being sealed by the +label, which was made to cover the body of the can and to reach up over +the slip cover, so as to make a sealed package, to open which the label +must be broken. + +In 1878, Jabez Burns, the coffee-machinery man, founded the _Spice +Mill_, the first publication in America devoted to the coffee and spice +trades. + +In 1879, Charles Halstead brought out the first metal coffee pot with a +china interior. + +In 1880, Henry E. Smyser, of Philadelphia, invented a +package-making-and-filling machine for coffee, the forerunner of the +weighing-and-packing machine, the control of which later on by John +Arbuckle led to the coffee-sugar war with the Havemeyers. Smyser was +superintendent at the plant of the Weikel & Smith Spice Company, +Philadelphia. Other patents on weighing and package-making machines were +granted him in 1884, 1888, and 1891. In 1892, he began to assign his +patents to Arbuckle Brothers, some fifteen in all being granted him from +1892 to 1898. He died in 1899. + +The year 1880 was notable for the many failures in the American coffee +trade, as a result of syndicate planting and speculative buying of +coffees in Brazil, Mexico, and Central America. + +In 1881, Steele & Price, of Chicago, were the first to introduce to the +trade all-paper cans, made of strawboard, for coffee. + +In 1881, the New York Coffee Exchange was incorporated, beginning +business the year following at Beaver and Pearl Streets. In 1885, the +property of the Exchange was transferred to the Coffee Exchange of the +City of New York, incorporated by special charter. + +In 1884, the Chicago Liquid Sack Company brought out the first +combination paper and tin-end containers for coffee. + +The year 1887-88 was marked by a big boom in coffee, the total sales on +the Coffee Exchange amounting to 47,868,750 bags. Between July 1886 and +June 1887 prices advanced 1,485 points. + +In 1888, the Engelberg Huller Company of Syracuse, New York, began the +manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. + +[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL ARBUCKLE COFFEE PACKAGES] + +In 1891, the New England Automatic Weighing Machine Company, Boston, +Mass. began the manufacture of machines to weigh coffee into cartons and +other packages; and in 1894, installed in the Chase & Sanborn plant at +Boston the first automatic weighing machine in the coffee trade. The New +England concern was subsequently (1901) succeeded by the Automatic +Weighing Machine Company of Newark, N.J. + +In 1893, the first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America +(Tupholme's English machine) was installed by F.T. Holmes at the plant +of the Potter-Parlin Company, New York. + +In 1893, Cirilo Mingo, of New Orleans, was granted a United States +patent on a method of aging green coffee to give it the characteristics +of green coffee stored in a confined space for a long period. The +operation consisted in placing layers of green coffee between dry and +wet empty coffee bags, and permitting the beans to absorb eight to ten +percent of the moisture in a period extending from six to sixteen hours. +This was one of the earliest efforts to mature and age green coffee in +the United States. + +In 1894, the business of the Pneumatic Scale Corporation, Norfolk Downs, +Mass., had its start in Quincy, Mass. where the first pneumatic weighing +machine was installed by the Purity Dried Fruits Cleansing Company. In +1895, the Electric Scale Company was organized to build the machines, +the subsequent development of this line of packaging machinery for +coffee being directed by the Pneumatic Scale Corporation, Ltd., which +succeeded it. + +In 1895, Adolph Kraut introduced the German-made grease-proof lined +paper bags for coffee to the American coffee trade. That same year, +Thomas M. Royal, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture in the United +States of a fancy duplex-lined paper bag for coffee. + +In 1896, natural gas was first used in the United States as a fuel for +roasting coffee. + +In 1897, Joseph Lambert, Vermont, first introduced to the coffee trade a +self-contained coffee roasting outfit without the brick setting required +until then. + +In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania was the +first regularly to employ an electric motor to drive a coffee mill. + +The overproduction of coffee began to be so serious a question by 1898, +that J.D. Olavarria, a distinguished Venzuelan, proposed a plan for the +restriction of coffee cultivation and the regulation of coffee exports +from countries suffering from overproduction. In this same year, the +bears forced Rio 7's down to four and one-half cents on the New York +Coffee Exchange. + +In 1898, Edward Norton, of New York, was granted a United States patent +on a vacuum process for canning foods, subsequently applied to coffee. +Others followed. Hills Brothers, of San Francisco, were the first to +pack coffee in a vacuum, under the Norton patents, in 1900. M.J. +Brandenstein & Company, of San Francisco, began to pack coffee in vacuum +cans in 1914. Vacuum sealing machines to pack coffee under the Norton +patents are now made by the Perfect Vacuum Canning Company of New York. + +About 1899, Dr. Sartori Kato of Tokio, who had invented a soluble tea in +Japan, came to Chicago and produced a soluble coffee (introduced to the +consumer in 1901) on which he was granted a patent in 1903. In 1906, G. +Washington of New York, an American chemist living in Guatemala City, +produced a refined soluble coffee which was put on the United States +market three years later. The full story of soluble coffee in America is +told in chapter XXXI. (See page 538.) + +The first gear-driven electric coffee mill was introduced to the trade +by the Enterprise Manufacturing Company of Pennsylvania in 1900. + +In 1901, there appeared in New York the first issue of _The Tea and +Coffee Trade Journal_, devoted to the interests of the tea and coffee +trades. + +In 1900-01, Santos permanently displaced Rio as the world's largest +source of supply. + +In 1901, the American Can Company began the manufacture and sale of tin +coffee cans in the United States. In this year Landers, Frary & Clark's +Universal coffee percolator was granted a United States patent; and +Joseph Lambert, of Marshall, Mich., brought out one of the earliest +machines to employ gas as a fuel for the indirect roasting of coffee. It +was in 1901, also, that F.T. Holmes joined the Huntley Manufacturing +Company, of Silver Creek, N.Y., which began to build the Monitor +gas-fired direct-flame coffee roasters. + +In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Company (Braun Company, successor) and +Henry Troemner, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture and sale of +gear-driven electric coffee grinders. + +As a result of the agitation for some way to deal with the +overproduction of coffee, the Pan-American Congress, meeting in Mexico +City in 1902, called an international coffee congress for New York in +the fall of that same year. It met from October 1 to October 30; but at +the close, the problem seemed no nearer solution than at the beginning. +In 1906, Brazil produced its record-breaking crop of 20,000,000 bags, +and the state of São Paulo inaugurated a plan to valorize coffee. + +In 1902, the first fancy duplex paper bag made by machinery from a roll +of paper was produced by the Union Bag & Paper Corporation. It was of +sulphite fiber inside, and glassine outside; a style afterward reversed, +so as to have the glassine the inner tube. + +In 1902, the Jagenberg Machine Company, Inc. (absorbed by the Pneumatic +Scale Corporation in 1921) began the introduction to the trade of the +United States of a line of German-made automatic packaging-and-labeling +machines for coffee. Subsequently, the Johnson Automatic Sealer Company, +Battle Creek, Mich., became well known as manufacturers of a line of +automatic adjustable carton-sealing, wax-wrapping machines, package +conveyors, and automatic scales. Among other automatic weighers that +have figured in the development of the coffee business, mention should +be made of The National Packaging Machinery Company's Scott machine, of +E.D. Anderson's Triumph, and of Hoepner's Unit System. + +In 1903, as a result of overproduction in Brazil, Santos 4's dropped to +three and fifty-five hundredths cents on the New York Coffee Exchange, +the lowest price ever recorded for coffee. + +In 1903, also, there was granted the first United States patent on an +electric coffee-roaster, the patentee being George C. Lester of New +York. + +In 1904, green coffee prices on the New York Coffee Exchange were forced +up to eleven and eighty-five hundredths cents by a speculative clique +led by D.J. Sully. + +In 1905, the A.J. Deer Co., Buffalo, N. Y. (now of Hornell, N.Y.) began +the sale of its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers on the +instalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling coffee +mills through hardware jobbers. + +In 1905, F.A. Cauchois introduced to the trade his Private Estate coffee +maker, a filtration device employing Japanese filter paper. Finley +Acker, of Philadelphia, obtained a patent the same year on a +side-perforation percolator employing "porous or bibulous paper" as a +filtering medium. + +In 1906, H.D. Kelly, of Kansas City, was granted a United States patent +on an urn coffee machine employing a coffee extractor in which the +ground coffee was continually agitated before percolation by a vacuum +process. + +In 1907, P.E. Edtbauer (Mrs. E. Edtbauer), of Chicago, was granted a +United States patent on a duplex automatic weighing machine, the first +simple, fast, accurate and moderate-priced machine for weighing coffee. +Eight others followed up to 1920. + +In 1907, the new Pure Food and Drugs Act came into force in the United +States, making it obligatory to label all coffees correctly and causing +many trade practises to be altered or thrown into the discard. The most +important rulings that followed are referred to in more detail in +chapter XXIII, telling how green coffees are bought and sold. + +In 1908, the Porto Rico coffee planters, presented a memorial to the +Congress asking for a protective tariff of six cents a pound on all +foreign coffees. Hawaii and the Philippines, also were to have +benefited by the protection asked for. The Congress failed to grant the +planters' prayer. This appeal for protection was repeated in 1921, when +the Congress was asked to place a duty of five cents a pound on all +foreign coffees. + +In 1908, J.C. Prims, of Battle Creek, Mich. was granted a United States +patent on a corrugated cylinder improvement for a gas and coal coffee +roaster of fifty to one hundred and thirty pounds capacity designed for +retail stores. This machine was acquired the year following by the A.J. +Deer Company, and was re-introduced to the trade as the Royal roaster. + +In 1908, Brazil's valorization-of-coffee enterprise was saved from +disaster by a combination of bankers and the Brazil Government. A loan +of $75,000,000 was placed, through Hermann Sielcken of New York, with +banking houses in England, Germany, France, Belgium, and America. The +complete story of this undertaking is told in chapter XXXI. + +In 1909, Ludwig Roselius brought to America from Germany the +caffein-free coffee which for several years had been manufactured and +sold in Bremen under the Myer, Roselius, and Wimmer patent. In 1910, the +product was first sold here by Merck & Company under the name of Dekafa, +later Dekofa, and in 1914, by the Kaffee Hag Corporation as Kaffee Hag. + +In 1911 all-fiber parchment-lined Damptite cans for coffee were +introduced to the trade by the American Can Company. + +As a result of preliminary meetings of Mississippi Valley coffee +roasters held in St. Louis in May and June, 1911, when the Coffee +Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Association was organized, a national +association under the same name was started in Chicago, November 16-17, +1911. The complete story of the growth of this most important coffee +trade organization in the United States is told in the next chapter. + +In 1912, the United States government, after having examined into the +valorization enterprise, brought suit against Hermann Sielcken, _et +al._, to force the sale of valorized coffee stocks held in this country +under the valorization agreement. + +In October, 1914, the first national coffee week to advertise coffee was +promoted by the National Coffee Roasters Association. + + +_Merchants Coffee House Memorial_ + +On May 23, 1914, the Lower Wall Street Business Men's Association +unveiled a bronze memorial tablet set in the wall of the nine-story +office building occupied by the Federal Refining Company on the +southeast corner of Wall and Water Streets, the former site of the +Merchants' coffee house. This is the building where _The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal_ had its offices for nine years before moving to 79 Wall +Street. + +[Illustration: MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE TABLET + +Bronze marker, placed May 23, 1914, on the building occupying the site +of the old coffee house] + +Seth Low, introduced by William Bayne, Jr., president of the Lower Wall +Street Business Men's Association, gave an interesting sketch of the +history of the coffee house. Abram Wakeman, secretary of the +association, spoke, followed by Wilberforce Eames, of the American +history division of the New York Public Library. + +After the flag that veiled the memorial tablet had been drawn aside, +attention was called to a bronze chest which was hermetically sealed, +and in which had been placed papers and other documents reflecting the +life of New York today. The chest was given over to the keeping of the +New York Historical Society, with the understanding that it was not to +be opened until 1974, which will be the two-hundredth anniversary of the +union of the Colonies. + +It was from the Merchants' coffee house that the letter of May 23, 1774, +was written in reply to the Committee of Correspondence in Boston. The +letter suggested a "Congress of Deputies" from the Colonies, and called +for a "virtuous and spirited Union." The coffee house is consequently +regarded as the birthplace of the Union. + + +_Recent Activities_ + +A second national coffee week was held in October, 1915, under the +auspices of the National Coffee Roasters' Association. + +In 1916, the Coffee Exchange of the City of New York changed its name to +the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, to admit of sugar trading. + +In 1916, the National Paper Can Company of Milwaukee first introduced to +the trade its new hermetically sealed all-paper can for coffee. + +In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind., was granted two United States +patents on cutting rolls to cut and not grind or crush corn, wheat, or +coffee. This idea was incorporated in the Ideal steel cut coffee mill +subsequently marketed by the B.F. Gump Company, Chicago. + +In 1918, the World War caused the United States government to place +coffee importers, brokers, jobbers, roasters, and wholesalers under a +war-time licensing system to control imports and prices. + +In 1918, John E. King, of Detroit, was granted a United States patent on +an irregular grind of coffee consisting of coarsely grinding ten percent +of the product and finely grinding ninety percent. + +The most notable event of the year 1919 was the inauguration by the +Brazil planters, in co-operation with an American joint coffee trade +publicity committee, of the million-dollar campaign to advertise coffee +in the United States. + +In 1919, as a result of frost damage, and of an orgy of speculation in +Brazil, prices for green coffee on the New York Exchange were forced to +the highest levels since 1870; and a new high record was established for +futures, twenty-four and sixty-five hundredths cents for July contracts. + +In 1919, Floyd W. Robison, of Detroit, was granted a United States +patent on a process for aging green coffee by treating it with +micro-organisms, the product being known as Cultured coffee. + +In the spring of 1920, there was held the third national coffee week, +this time under the auspices of the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity +Committee. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS IN THE UNITED +STATES + + _A brief history of the growth of coffee trading--Notable firms and + personalities that have played important parts in green coffee in + the principal coffee centers--Green coffee trade + organizations--Growth of the wholesale coffee-roasting trade, and + names of those who have made history in it--The National Coffee + Roasters Association--Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting + establishments in the United States_ + + +Coffee trading in the American colonies probably had its beginnings +about the middle of the seventeenth century. Tea seems to have preceded +coffee as an article of merchandise. Several merchants in the New +England and New York settlements imported small quantities of coffee +with other foodstuffs toward the close of the seventeenth century. + +The early supplies of the green bean were brought from the Dutch East +Indies, Arabia, Haiti, and Jamaica. About 1787, the French opened +Mauritius and Bourbon to American ships, which then began to bring back +coffee and tea to the Atlantic-coast cities. Mocha coffee was being +imported direct in American bottoms about 1804. Coffee from Brazil was +first imported by the United States in 1809. Central America began +shipping coffee to the United States in 1840. The total coffee imports +in 1876 were 339,789,246 pounds, valued at $56,788,997, and received +chiefly from Brazil, Haiti, British and Dutch East Indies, the West +Indies, and Mexico. + +New York early became the leading green-coffee market of the country. + +There was a number of large importing merchants in New York in 1760, +nearly all of whom brought in coffee. Among them were Isaac and Nicholas +Gouverneur, Robert Murray, Walter and Samuel Franklin, John and Henry +Cruger, the Livingstons, the Beekmans, Lott & Low, Philip Cuyler, +Anthony Van Dam, Hugh and Alexander Wallace, Leonard and Anthony +Lispenard, Theophylact Bache, and William Walton. + +Some early green-coffee prices per pound were as follows: + +1683--18s. 9d.; 1743--5s.; 1746--5s.; 1774--9s.; 1781[347]--96s. O.T.; +1782--2s. 1d. O.T.; 1783--1s.; 1789--10 cents. + +Leading New York coffee importers in 1786 were Henry Sheaff, on the dock +between Burling Slip and the Fly Market; John Rooney, 26 Cherry Street; +William Eccles, 10 Hunters Key; Ludlow & Goold, 47 Wall Street; Scriba, +Schroppel & Starmen, 17 Queen Street; and William Taylor, Crane Wharf. + +The wholesale coffee roaster appeared about 1790; and from that time the +separation between the green-coffee trader and the coffee roaster became +more marked. In 1794 the principal green-coffee importers in New York +were: Lawrence & Van Zandt; D. Smith & Co., 323 Pearl Street; Gilchrist +Dickinson, 17 Taylor's Wharf; Armstrong & Barnewall, 129 Water Street; +William Bowne, 265 Pearl Street; Stephen Cole & Son, 26 Ferry Street; +J.S. De Lessert & Co., 123 Front Street; Joseph Thebaud, 262 Pearl +Street; Nathaniel Cooper & Co., 38 Little Dock Street; Coll. M'Gregor, +28 Wall Street; David Wagstaff, 137 Front Street; Conkling & Lloyd, 15 +Taylor's Wharf; and S.B. Garrick, Westphal & Co., 43 Cherry Street. + +[Illustration: Hermann Sielcken + +B.G. Arnold + +F.B. Arnold + +Joseph Purcell + +SOME DEPARTED DOMINANT FIGURES IN THE NEW YORK GREEN COFFEE TRADE] + +The leading New York coffee importers in 1848 were Henry and William +Delafield, 108 Front Street; and Des Arts & Henser, 78 Water Street. + +There were seven leading New York coffee importers in 1854, as follows: +Aymar & Co., 34 South Street; Henry Coit & Son, 43 South Street; Henry +Delafield, 129 Pearl Street; Howland & Aspinwall, 54 South Street; Mason +& Thompson, 33 Pearl Street; J.L. Phipps & Co., 19 Cliff Street; and +Moses Taylor & Co., 44 South Street. + +Following the so-called "consortium" of 1868, the ramifications of which +centered in Frankfort-on-the-Main--its speculations finally ending in +disaster to many--the green-coffee trade was in a precarious condition +until well into the eighties. "Previously," says a contemporary writer, +"it had been the safest and prettiest of all colonial produce." + +About 1868, "iron steamers began to be freely availed of as carriers of +coffee; and later on, the telegraph became a factor, rendering the +business more exciting and expensive". + +Coffee consumption in the United States had, moreover, increased from +one pound per capita in 1790 to nine pounds per capita in 1882. + +1892-93 the biggest figure in the world's coffee trade was George +Kaltenbach, a German living in Paris, whose resources were estimated at +twelve million to fifteen million dollars, and whose holdings at one +time were said to be one million bags. He was reported to have made +$1,500,000 on his coffee corner. In September, 1892, he bested a bull +clique and forced prices down to twelve cents. Aided by three other +European operators, he then started a bull syndicate, and put the price +up to seventeen cents. The story of this corner, and of other notable +coffee booms and panics, is told in more detail in chapter XXXI. + + +_Early Days of the Green Coffee Business_. + +For a long time New York was the only important entry port for green +coffee. Before the rise of New Orleans and San Francisco, many inland +coffee roasters and grocers had their own buyers in the New York market. +The coffee district that still clings about lower Wall Street is rich in +memories of by-gone merchants who once were big factors in the trade, +and whose names, in many instances, have been handed down from +generation to generation in the businesses that have survived them. + +Any reference to the early days of the green-coffee importing, jobbing, +and brokerage business in New York would not be complete without mention +of a few of the pioneers: + +P.C. Meehan is eighty-four years old at the time of writing (1922) and +is dean of the New York green-coffee trade. With James H. Briggs he +formed the firm of Briggs & Meehan. This later became Meehan & Schramm, +with Arnold Schramm. The latter withdrew, and the firm became Creighton, +Morrison & Meehan. Finally, Mr. Meehan established the present firm of +P.C. Meehan & Co. + +[Illustration: James H. Taylor + +H. Simmonds + +Edwin H. Peck + +P.C. Meehan + +THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH THE NEW YORK GREEN COFFEE TRADE DATES BACK NEARLY +FIFTY YEARS] + +When Mr. Schramm withdrew from the firm of Meehan & Schramm he founded +the house of Arnold Schramm, Inc. Upon his retirement, this was +succeeded by Sprague & Rhodes, the firm being composed of Benjamin +Rhodes and Irvin A. Sprague. + +Next oldest to P.C. Meehan in the New York green-coffee trade is +Clarence Creighton, who started with Youngs & Amman, later C. Amman & +Co., then Waite, Creighton & Morrison, then Creighton, Morrison & +Meehan. Upon the breaking up of this firm, Mr. Creighton formed a +partnership with James Ashland, under the name of Creighton & Ashland. +He later operated alone, and died August 15, 1922. + +James H. Taylor is another "old-timer" who is still active. He began +with T.T. Barr & Co. Later, with F.T. Sherman, he formed the firm of +Sherman & Taylor. When Mr. Sherman withdrew, the firm became James H. +Taylor & Co. Mr. Taylor is now with Minford, Lueder & Co. He has been +five years president, eleven years treasurer, and twenty-six years on +the board of governors of the New York Coffee Exchange. + +One of the most honored names in the green coffee trade of New York is +that of Peck. Edwin H. Peck began, at the age of seventeen years, with +Hart & Howell, butter and cheese merchants. He then went in the same +business for himself. Four years later, he abandoned this to go into the +coffee brokerage business with his brother, Walter J. Peck. In about +five years, the brothers branched into the coffee importing and jobbing +business under the firm name of Edwin H. Peck & Co. Later it was changed +to the present style of E.H. & W. J. Peck. Since the death of Walter J. +Peck in 1909, Edwin H. has conducted the business. The latter was a +member of the board of governors of the New York Coffee Exchange for +twelve years, and has been an important factor in the upbuilding of that +institution. + +William D. Mackey began with Small Bros. & Co. He then went into +partnership with C.K. Small as Mackey & Small. Later, he formed the firm +of Arnold, Mackey & Co. with Francis B. Arnold. The latter dropped out, +and the firm became Mackey & Co. He is now operating alone. Mr. Mackey +was another of the incorporators of the New York Coffee Exchange. + +Alexander H. Purcell, a brother of Joseph Purcell, entered the employ of +Bowie Dash & Co. as a boy. From there he went to Williams, Russell & +Co., then to the Union Coffee Co., and later to Hard & Rand. He is now +head of the firm of Alex. H. Purcell & Co. + +Robert C. Stewart first became known with Booth & Linsley. He later went +with Joseph J. O'Donohue & Sons, leaving there to establish the present +firm of R.C. Stewart & Co. + +Another old-timer, Joseph D. Pickslay, may be seen at his desk in +Williams, Russell & Co.'s office every day, although Frank Williams, who +began with Winthrop G. Ray & Co., and Frank C. Russell, both of +Williams, Chapin & Russell, and then of Williams, Russell & Co., have +passed on. Fred P. Gordon, now head of Fred P. Gordon & Co., was +formerly with Williams, Russell & Co. + +The Mitchell brothers, William L. and George, forming the firm of +Mitchell Bros., have been familiar Front Street figures for many years. + +A. Wakeman, "the historian of the coffee trade," as he is often called, +began with Olendorf, Case & Gillespie. Later he went with Thompson & +Bowers, and then became a member of the firm of Baiz & Wakeman. He is +now in business alone. For thirty-eight years Mr. Wakeman has been +secretary of the Lower Wall Street Business Men's Association. He is the +author of _History and Reminiscences of Lower Wall Street and Vicinity_. + +H. Simmonds, of Simmonds & Bayne; later, of Simmonds & Newton; then, of +the Brazil Coffee Co.; and finally, of H. Simmonds & Co., is at the time +of writing one of the oldest coffee merchants on Front Street, having +been in business in Baltimore and New York for more than fifty years. He +has a desk in the office of his son, W. Lee Simmonds, of W. Lee Simmonds +& Co. + +Bayne is another well known Front Street name. The firm of William Bayne +& Co. was established by William Bayne, Sr., in Baltimore. The business +was moved to New York about 1885. The founder's three sons, William, +Jr., Daniel K., and L. P., entered the employ of the firm in Baltimore, +and moved with it to New York. + +Daniel K. Bayne became associated with Henry Sheldon & Co., and later +was a member of Simmonds & Bayne. He then returned to William Bayne & +Co. and was senior partner at the time of his death in 1915. William +Bayne, Jr., for many years one of the governors and a past-president and +vice-president of the New York Coffee Exchange, and his brother, L.P. +Bayne, now conduct the business. + +John T. Foley, now of the Commercial Coffee Co., began with Kirkland +Bros. From there he went to Ezra Wheeler & Co., then to H.W. Banks & +Co., Thompson, Shortridge & Co., and William Hosmer Bennett & Son. + +Joshua Walker formed a partnership with James Stewart as Stewart & +Walker. Since the retirement of Mr. Stewart some years ago, Mr. Walker +has been in business alone. + +Three other veterans of the trade are still in the harness: Louis +Seligsberg, formerly of Wolf & Seligsberg, is now alone; Henry Schaefer +has been at the head of S. Gruner & Co. since the death of Siegfried +Gruner; Col. William P. Roome, who operated for some time as Wm. P. +Roome & Co., is now head of the coffee department of Acker, Merrall & +Condit Co. + +[Illustration: O.G. Kimball Boston + +James C. Russell New York + +James W. Phyfe New York + +C.E. Bickford San Francisco + +GREEN COFFEE TRADE BUILDERS WHO HAVE PASSED ON] + +Gregory B. Livierato, who founded the business of Livierato Bros. at +Port Said, with branches at Aden and Marseilles, and later at Hodeida +and Harar, entered the green coffee trade of New York in 1855, although +his L F Mocha marks had been introduced here many years before. He +remained here for eighteen years, returned to his home in Cephalonia, +Greece, in 1904, and died there in 1905. His nephew, B.A. Livierato, +then assumed charge of the New York coffee business, which in 1913 +became the Livierato-Kidde Co., with B.A. Livierato and Frank Kidde. + +Benjamin Green Arnold, one-time "coffee king," first became well known +as a member of Arnold, Sturgess & Co., afterward B.G. Arnold & Co. Mr. +Arnold was one of the incorporators, and the first president, of the New +York Coffee Exchange. Francis B. Arnold, with Arnold, Sturgess & Co., +later of Arnold, Mackey & Co., afterward Arnold, Dorr & Co., was a son +of Benjamin Greene Arnold; and to him and to Major John R. McNulty +belongs a great part of the credit for the organization of the New York +Coffee Exchange. Major McNulty was with Minford, Thompson & Co., and +then formed the firm of J.R. McNulty & Co. + +Bowie Dash, a member of the famous Arnold-Kimball-Dash triumvirate, +began with Scott & Meiser, later Scott, Meiser & Co., then Scott & Dash, +afterward Scott, Dash & Co., and finally Bowie Dash & Co. Other well +known men with this last company were L.F. Mason, A.C. Foster, S.L. +Swazey, L.J. Purdy, and John B. Overton. + +Then there were: Rufus G. Story; Thomas Minford, Francis Skiddy, and +George J. Nevers, of Skiddy, Minford & Co.; W.D. Thompson, of Minford, +Thompson & Co., later L.W. Minford & Co., afterward Minford, Lueder & +Co., Thompson, Shortridge & Co., later Thompson Bros., then Thompson & +Davis; John Randall, with L.W. Minford & Co., later, with J.C. Runkle & +Co.; Eugene and James O'Sullivan of Eugene O 'Sullivan & Co. + +The following names figured prominently in the trade's early history: +Charles Maguire, of James H. Taylor & Co.; George F. Gilman, organizer +of the Great American Tea Co. and of the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea +Co.; H.W. Banks, of Reeve, Case & Banks, afterward of Stanton, Sheldon & +Co., later Sheldon, Banks & Co., and then of H.W. Banks & Co.; Henry +Sheldon, of Stanton, Sheldon & Co., later Sheldon, Banks & Co.; and then +Henry Sheldon & Co.; William McCready, with Small Bros. & Co., later +with H.W. Banks & Co., and then with B.H. Howell, Son & Co., C.R. +Blakeman, with Gross, March & Co., afterward with Wm. Scott's Sons & +Co.; William Scott, of William Scott & Sons, later Wm. Scott's Sons & +Co., including George W. Vanderhoef, who later succeeded to the business +under the name of George W. Vanderhoef & Co.; Christopher and Leander S. +Risley, of C. Risley & Co.; and Charles Naphew, with C. Risley & Co., +later with Edwin H. Peck & Co. + +[Illustration: William Bayne New York + +George W. Crossman New York + +George Westfeldt New Orleans + +Wm. H. Bennett New York + +THEIR RACE IS RUN, THEIR COURSE IS DONE] + +Another group of old-timers includes: William Newbold, with Ezra Wheeler +& Co., later alone; Augustus Ireland, with Ezra Wheeler & Co.; J.M. +Edwards, of Edwards & Maddux, later of J.M. Edwards & Co.; Frank M. +Anthony, of J.M. Edwards & Co.; H. Clay Maddux, one of the incorporators +of the New York Coffee Exchange, of Edwards & Maddux; Baron Thomsen, of +Thomsen & Co.; Gustave Amsinck, of G. Amsinck & Co.; James N. Jarvie, +with Small Bros. & Co., later of Arbuckle Bros.; John C. Lloyd, of John +C. Lloyd & Co., afterward with Arbuckle Bros.; John Small, of Smalls & +Bacon, later Small Bros. & Co.; Williamson Bacon, of Smalls & Bacon, +afterward of Williamson Bacon & Co.; C.K. Small, of Mackey & Small, +Anson Wales Hard and George Rand, of Hard & Rand; Joseph Purcell, first +of W.J. Porter & Co., and then of Hard & Rand; Henry F. McCreery, with +O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, later of Hard & Rand; William Sorley and John W. +O'Shaughnessy, of O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, Mr. O'Shaughnessy later +forming John W. O'Shaughnessy & Co., and Mr. Sorley going to Hard & +Rand. Mr. Sorley was one of the incorporators of the New York Coffee +Exchange. + +[Illustration: 112 FRONT STREET, NEW YORK, IN 1879 + +A group of old-time green coffee men, including R. C. Stewart, J.D. +Pickslay, Frank Williams, Charles P. Chapin, and Fred P. Gordon] + +Special mention should be made of: Kirkland & von Sacks; A. Kirkland, +one of the incorporators of the New York Coffee Exchange, with Small +Bros. & Co., then with W.J. Kirkland as Kirkland Bros., and, upon the +dissolution of that firm, with F.H. Leggett & Co.; Thomas Rutter & Co.; +Teacle Wallace Lewis, with Rowland, Humphreys & Co., later head of the +coffee department of Carter, Macy & Co., and still later, head of T.W. +Lewis & Co.; Abraham Sanger, of Sanger, Beers & Fisher, later Sanger & +Wells; J.W. Wilson & Co.; Dykes & Wilson; Peter, John, and Joseph J. +O'Donohue, of John O'Donohue's Sons; Joseph J. O'Donohue & Sons; Otis W. +Booth, of Booth & Linsley; A.G. Hildreth; James H. Kirby, of B.G. Arnold +& Co., later of Kirby, Halstead & Chapin, afterward Kirby & Halstead; +Major Henry D. Tyler; Thomas H. Messenger & Co.; Harvey H. Palmer, of +H.H. Palmer & Co.; B. O. Bowers, of Wilson & Bowers, later Thompson & +Bowers; and August Haeussler, first with C. Risley & Co., then with J. +H. Labaree & Co., and finally with the green coffee department of Geo. +H. McFadden & Brother. + +John Hanley, with Carey & Co., later of Hanley & Kinsella, St. Louis; +Robert C. Hewitt, Jr., who wrote one of the early books on coffee +(_Coffee, its History, Cultivation, and Uses_, 1872), of Hewitt & Phyfe, +later Jas. W. Phyfe & Co.; James W. Phyfe of Hewitt & Phyfe, later Jas. +W. Phyfe & Co.; Daniel A. Shaw, of Jas. W. Phyfe & Co.; B. Lahey, of +Jas. W. Phyfe & Co.; and Winthrop G. Ray & Co. + +These names, too, will live long in green coffee history: Reid, Murdock +& Fischer, New York and Chicago; Charles A. and Watts Miller, and David +Palmer, of D.J. Ely & Co., formerly D.J. & Z.S. Ely Co., New York and +Baltimore; Harry Miller, with D.J. Ely & Co., later of Miller & +Walbridge; Augustus Walbridge, of Smith & Walbridge, afterward Augustus +M. Walbridge, Inc.; Clarence Smith, of M.V.R. Smith's Sons, later of +Smith & Walbridge; Stevens, Armstrong & Hartshorn, later Stevens & +Armstrong, then Stevens Bros. & Co., and finally Reamer, Turner & Co., +including Abraham Reamer, Sr., and William F. Turner. + +[Illustration: AT 87 WALL STREET, N.Y., YEARS AGO + +Among the green coffee men in this picture are Clarence Creighton, John +Enright, Chris Arndt, W. Lee Simmonds, John Ashlin, F. Loderose, Julius +Steinwender, and Clinton Whiting] + +[Illustration: WALL AND FRONT STREETS, NEW YORK, SPRING OF 1922 + +Looking up Wall Street from the East River. The first cross street is +Front; beyond are to be seen the Munson, Stock Exchange, and Bankers' +Trust Company's buildings, with Trinity Church marking the Broadway +gateway] + +Other familiar old-time names were: George W. Pritchard, of George W. +Pritchard & Sons; Dayton & Co.; Dimond & Lally, later Dimond & Gardes; +Arthur W. Brown; Robert Russell, of Russell & Co.; J. F. Pupke and +Thomas Reid, of Pupke & Reid, later Eppens, Smith & Wiemann, afterward +Eppens, Smith & Co., with William H. and Frederick P. Eppens; Joseph A. +O'Brien, with Pupke & Reid, and later in business for himself; R.P. +McBride, of the Union Pacific Tea Co.; Ripley Ropes; Saportas Bros.; +Mayer Bros. & Co. of Hamburg, with Moses G. Hanauer, manager, and D.K. +Young and Herman Hanauer, salesmen; H.M. Humphreys, with J.W. Doane & +Co., later with Arbuckle Bros.; Henry Nordlinger, of Henry Nordlinger & +Co.; Charles Campbell, of W.R. Grace & Co.; D.A. DeLima, of D.A. & J. +DeLima, later D.A. DeLima & Co.; Henry Kunhardt and George F. Kuhlke, of +Kunhardt & Co.; Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, later Bliss, Dallett & Co., +general managers of the Red D line of steamships; Prendergast Bros.; +W.H. and George W. Crossman, of W.H. Crossman & Bros., later Crossman & +Sielcken, with Hermann Sielcken, afterward Sorenson & Nielson; F. Probst +& Co.; H. H. Swift & Co.; J.L. Phipps & Co.; James Bennett and Joseph +Becker, of Bennett & Becker; and Arnold, Hines & Co. (Diamond A Mocha), +later Arnold, Cheney & Company. + +Honorable mention should be accorded: Samuel Wilde (Old Dutch Mills); +John Phoenix, with Husted, Ferguson & Titus, later of J.W. Phoenix & +Co.; H.K. Thurber, of H.K. & F.B. Thurber & Co.; Michael Barnicle, with +Walter Storm, later Storm, Smith & Co., then Abbey, Freeman & Co., then +with Husted, Wetmore & Titus, and finally alone; August Stumpp, of +August Stumpp & Co.; J.K. and E.B. Place; Beards & Cummings, later +Beards & Cottrell, then S.S. Beard & Co.; Philip and Henry Dater, of +Philip Dater & Co.; Hugh Edwards, of Edwards & Raworth; William Bennett, +of Wm. Hosmer Bennett & Son; Kalman Haas, of Haas Bros.; J.C. Runkle & +Co.; Thomas T. Barr and Fred T. Sherman, of Barr, Lally & Co., later +T.T. Barr & Co.; Henry Hentz & Co.; Elmenhorst & Co.; A.S. Lascelles & +Co.; D. Henderson (Harry) and John Wells, of Wells Bros.; G. Weyl & Co., +later Norton, Weyl & Beven, and then Weyl & Norton; Warren & Co.; J.H. +Labaree & Co.; Schultz & Ruckgaber; Henry Eyre; Rowland, Terry & +Humphreys, later Rowland & Humphreys; Bentley, Benton & Co.; Winter & +Smilie; Weston & Gray; John S. Wright, one of the incorporators of the +New York Coffee Exchange, of Wright, Hard & Co.; Watjen, Toel & Co.; A. +Behrens & Co.; "Steve" Matheson, of S. Matheson, Jr. & Co.; C. Wessels & +Bros., later Wessels, Kulenkampff & Co., and finally Fromm & Co.; Julius +Steinwender, of Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.; Leon Israel, of Leon +Israel & Bros.; Herklotz, Corn & Co.; Ponfold, Schuyler & Co.; Maitland, +Phelps & Co., later Maitland, Coppell & Co.; F.H. Leggett, of F.H. +Leggett & Co.; Carhart & Brother; George W. Flanders, of George W. +Flanders & Co.; Jonas P. O'Brien; George S. Wallen, of George S. Wallen +& Co.; Charles F. Blake, of Blake & Bullard; and Martin J. Glynn, of +McDonald & Glynn, later Martin J. Glynn & Co., who had their office at +Front Street and Old Slip for twenty-five years. + +Three other names closely associated with the early days of the New York +green-coffee trade were: Glover, Force & Co., later Waterbury & Force, +then W.H. Force & Co., and finally W.S. Force & Co., weighers and +forwarders; Daniel Reeve, of Reeve & Van Riper, mixers and hullers; and +John H. Draper & Co., auctioneers. + + +_Growth of the Leading Coffee Ports_ + +Twenty-two years ago, when the century opened, New York passed over her +docks a total of 676,000,000 pounds of coffee, which represented +eighty-six percent of the total for the country. In 1920, juggling the +figures a little, she imported 767,000,000 pounds, which was fifty-nine +percent of the total. While she was thus practically marking time, she +watched New Orleans run wild with an increase from 44,000,000 pounds to +380,000,000 pounds, or 763 percent gain; this meaning also the supplying +of twenty-nine percent of the country's demands instead of five percent, +while San Francisco in the same time jumped from 24,000,000 pounds to +137,000,000 pounds, or 470 percent gain, her share of the total trade +now being ten percent instead of three percent in 1900. These gains, +however, have not all been made at the expense of the city on the +Hudson. In 1900, Baltimore was a close rival of New Orleans and was far +ahead of all other ports except New York; but a decline in her imports +began about 1903, and was so swift, that five years later her imports +were almost negligible. + +[Illustration: LOOKING SOUTH FROM WALL STREET INTO THE HEART OF THE +GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT + +On the left-hand corner is Hard & Rand's, opposite Leon Israel & Bros.' +building, and beyond are many other leading green coffee firms.] + +[Illustration: LOOKING NORTH FROM WALL STREET. HERE A FEW WELL KNOWN +COFFEE FIRMS ARE LOCATED + +The trend of the trade is south from Wall St. rather than north] + +[Illustration: FRONT STREET, NEW YORK'S GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT, IN 1922] + +IMPORTS OF COFFEE AT LEADING PORTS OF ENTRY IN THE UNITED STATES + + New York New Orleans San Francisco Total Imports + _Pounds_ _Pounds_ _Pounds_ _Pounds_ + +1900 676,227,269 44,335,717 24,562,578 787,991,911 +1913 554,571,449 263,382,962 36,067,073 863,130,757 +1914 633,400,209 308,008,145 46,721,824 1,001,528,317 +1915 758,160,133 307,868,932 45,844,060 1,118,690,524 +1916 814,394,074 308,513,290 71,346,788 1,201,104,485 +1917 932,098,113 274,989,692 97,821,069 1,319,870,802 +1918 779,025,781 219,330,461 134,729,019 1,143,890,889 +1918[K] 757,710,001 146,621,857 130,178,288 1,052,201,501 +1919[K] 804,177,446 356,608,477 160,426,467 1,333,564,067 +1920[K] 767,242,636 380,293,701 137,043,281 1,297,439,310 +1921[K] 790,559,919 331,036,770 139,069,286 1,340,979,776 + +[K] Calendar years. All others fiscal years. + +New Orleans began her advance at about the same time that Baltimore +began to fall off, so that her rise to a place of importance as a coffee +port has been practically coincident with the twentieth century. Her +first big step upward was in 1901, from 44,000,000 to 72,000,000 pounds, +and was followed by another the next year to 115,000,000. Thereafter +there was a steady gain to 213,000,000 pounds in 1906 and to 301,000,000 +pounds in 1910, and after that wide fluctuations, especially during the +war. In 1918, doubtless because of the draining of shipping to the North +Atlantic service, there was a heavy slump; but immediately after the +war, in the calendar year 1919, there was a big jump to a record mark, +up to that time, of 356,000,000 pounds. This was followed by the record +of 380,000,000 pounds in the calendar year 1920, although the 1921 +figure of 331,036,770 shows a falling off of nearly 50,000,000 pounds. + +San Francisco's growth, on the other hand, is of recent occurrence. The +story is told farther along in this chapter, how the city was definitely +placed on the coffee map by the provision of adequate shipping +facilities to Central America. The outbreak of the war in Europe, +however, which loosened the grip of European nations on the coffee crops +of Central America, was the prime cause of San Francisco's rise in the +coffee world, affording her an opportunity of which she had the +enterprise to take full advantage. In 1913, her imports were only about +36,000,000 pounds, at which mark they had stood for many years. There +was only a slight gain until 1916, when 71,000,000 pounds were recorded; +but this increased to 97,000,000 pounds in 1917, to 134,000,000 pounds +in 1918 (fiscal year), and to 160,000,000 pounds in the calendar year +1919. In 1920, there was a falling off to 137,000,000 pounds, and it may +be that the high figure reached the year before represents about the +maximum that her natural market, the Pacific-coast region, can well +absorb. + +For the benefit of those who like to do their own interpreting of +figures, we present in the table at the top of this page the official +record for recent years. + +The leading importers of Brazil coffee direct to New York and Baltimore +in 1894, as compiled by William H. Force & Co., were as follows. +Included in this list are a number of names well known in the green and +roasted coffee trades of other cities: + +DIRECT IMPORTERS OF BRAZIL COFFEE + _New York, 1894_ + + _Bags_ + +Arbuckle Bros. 688,726 +W.H. Crossman & Bro. 355,864 +Hard & Rand. 345,541 +W.F. McLaughlin & Co. 227,935 +J.W. Doane & Co. 207,170 +Steinwender, Stoffregen Co. 132,482 +J.L. Phipps & Co. 54,617 +Dannemillers & Co. 49,449 +E. Levering & Co. 47,322 +Aug. Stumpp. 44,959 +Thomson & Taylor Spice Co. 44,017 +G. Amsinck & Co. 38,350 +E.H. & W.J. Peck. 33,278 +J.H. Labaree & Co. 32,071 +Fitch & Howland. 31,515 +Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co. 25,951 +C.D. Lathrop & Co. 23,263 +Taylor & Levering. 21,501 +Heinrich Haase. 18,976 +William T. Levering. 18,796 +T.G. Lurman & Co. 18,017 +Elmenhorst & Co. 16,221 +Sprague, Warner & Co. 14,856 +Sorver, Damon & Co. 14,675 +Sutton & Vansant 13,957 +John O'Donohue's Sons 13,681 +Hoffman, Lee & Co. 13,598 +S.R. Alexander 12,805 +Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co. 12,719 +Baker & Young 11,906 +Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co. 11,318 +Durand & Kasper Co. 11,124 +Wm. Schotten & Co. 11,005 +C.G. Bullard & Co. 10,653 +H.W. Banks & Co. 10,351 +Ellis Bros. 10,282 +Jacob Baiz 9,146 +A. Lueder & Co. 8,492 +C.F. Pitt & Sons 8,262 +G.F. Gillman 7,927 +Bell, Conrad & Co. 6,528 +N. Martin & Co. 6,507 +J.B. O'Donohue & Co. 6,102 +Steele, Wedeles Co. 5,700 +G.O. Gordon 5,550 +Sherman Bros. & Co. 4,998 +F. MacVeagh & Co. 4,763 +Benedict & Co. 4,717 +Chase & Sanborn 4,505 +West & Melchers 4,500 +Mokaska Mfg. Co. 4,013 +Haebler & Co. 4,000 +Robt. Crooks & Co. 3,509 +M.M. Levy & Co. 3,037 +J.A. Tolman Co. 3,004 +Tracy & Avery Co. 3,000 +Wells Bros. 2,800 +Kirby, Halsted & Chapin Co. 2,754 +W.M. Hoyt Co. 2,252 +Gt. A. & P. Tea Co. 2,250 +Foote & Knevals 2,000 +L.W. Minford & Co. 1,800 +Wm. Bayne & Co. 1,755 +Indiana Coffee Co. 1,650 +W.K. Carson & Co. 1,501 +Miller, Smith & Co. 1,500 +Rufus Woods 1,498 +J.G. Flint 1,345 +Davenport & Morris 1,250 +Canada 1,140 +Westfeldt Bros. 1,000 +Edw. Westen T. & S. Co. 800 +Corbin, May & Co. 750 +F. Cannon & Co. 618 +Adam Roth Gro. Co. 500 +Scudder, Gale Gro. Co. 500 +J.H. Taylor & Co. 500 +Wm. B. Willson 500 +Dwinell, Wright & Co. 500 +Swift, Billings & Co. 500 +New Orleans Coffee Co. 500 +B. Fischer & Co. 401 +Smith & Schipper 300 +Ulman, Lewis & Co. 281 +Ridenour, Baker Gro. Co. 250 +W.H. Minor 250 +Nave & McCord Merc. Co. 202 +Skiddy, Minford & Co. 196 +Rossbach & Bro. 184 +L. Wolff 149 +Reimers & Meyer 50 +W.F. Jackson 5 + --------- +Total 2,791,642 + +DIRECT IMPORTERS OF BRAZIL COFFEE + _Baltimore, 1894_ + + _Bags_ +E. Levering & Co. 40,965 +T.G. Lurman & Co. 29,325 +C.M. Stewart & Co. 25,499 +Thornton Rollins 21,436 +William T. Levering 15,884 +Steinwender, Stoffregen 12,852 +W.B. Willson 11,540 +Hoffman, Lee & Co. 8,953 +Rufus Woods 8,020 +P.T. George & Co. 7,463 +Taylor & Levering 6,440 +Benedict & Co. 5,434 +Brazil Trading Co. 2,666 +C.F. Pitt & Sons 2,505 +J.W. Doane & Co. 2,500 +Enterprise Coffee Co. 1,811 +H.M. Wagner & Co. 504 +C.D. Lathrop & Co. 503 +Mokaska Manufacturing Co. 500 +Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co. 500 +Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co. 404 +G. Amsinck & Co. 400 +Indiana Coffee Co. 251 + ------- +Total 206,355 + + +_Early Days of Green Coffee in New Orleans_ + +The history of New Orleans as a coffee port may be considered as +beginning with the transfer of Louisiana by Napoleon Bonaparte to the +United States in 1803. In this year, according to Martin's _History of +Louisiana_, New Orleans imported 1438 bags of coffee of 132 pounds each. +In the latter part of the eighteenth century, settlers in large numbers +had crossed the Allegheny Mountains from the Atlantic states into the +valley of the Ohio River; and their crops of grain and provisions were +exported by means of cheaply constructed rafts and boats, which were +floated down the river to New Orleans, where they were generally broken +up and sold for use as lumber and firewood--there being, at that time, +no power available for propelling them back against the current of the +river. + +From 1803 until 1820, on account of the difficulty of navigating +upstream, New Orleans imports did not increase as rapidly as exports. In +1814, however, the first crude steamboat had begun to carry freight on +the river; and by 1820, the supremacy of New Orleans as the gateway of +the Mississippi Valley had been for the time established by this new +means of transportation. The coffee-importing business flourished; and, +from its modest beginning in 1803, grew to 531,236 bags in 1857. + +By this time, however, New Orleans had begun to feel the competition of +the Erie Canal, and of the systems of east and west railroad lines which +had been in the course of active construction during the preceding +fifteen years. The railroad systems which had as their ports Boston, New +York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, entered upon a desperate war of +freight rates, each in the endeavor to establish the supremacy of its +own port. As the building of railroads had been entirely east and west, +and no large amount of capital had been invested in north and south +lines, much of the business of the valley was diverted to the Atlantic +ports, apparently never to return to New Orleans. + +In 1862, on account of the blockade of the port, not a bag of coffee was +imported through New Orleans, and practically none came in until the +year 1866, when the small amount of 55,000 bags was the total for the +year. At about this time, Boston and Philadelphia became negligible +importing quantities; the business of Baltimore continued to be quite +prosperous; and New York rapidly increased her imports and took the +commanding position. + +[Illustration: IN THE NEW ORLEANS COFFEE DISTRICT] + +New Orleans had increased her coffee imports to 250,000 bags in 1871, +and the yearly imports continued at about this figure until the last +decade of the century, when the business began to expand. The imports +had reached a total of 337,000 bags in 1893-1894; and of 373,000 in +1896-97. This was the beginning of a new era, and the coffee business of +New Orleans entered upon the period of its greatest growth. Imports were +514,000 bags in 1900-01, and were slightly more than twice that by +1903-04. In 1909-10 the imports had again doubled, and had reached a +total for the twelve months ending July 1, 1909, of slightly more than +2,000,000 bags; while the figures for the calendar year 1909 totaled +2,500,000 bags. + +Borino & Bro., 77 Gravier Street, were the largest importers of coffee +in New Orleans in 1869. The principal importers in 1880 were P. Poursine +& Co., Westfeldt Bros., Dymond & Gardes, Schmidt & Ziegler, J.L. Phipps +& Co., Geo. O. Gordon & Co., and Smith Bros. + +Shipments were by sailing vessels, a full cargo being about 5000 bags. +Fancy grades, like Golden Rios, washed and peaberries, were shipped in +double bags. Musty coffees were common, and every bag in a cargo was +sampled for must. S. Jackson was first to issue regular manifests. With +the entry of steamers into the coffee transport business, New Orleans +was placed at a disadvantage as steamer rates were about twenty cents a +bag higher to New Orleans than to New York, and imports were limited. +The subsequent revival of the business was due largely to Hard & Rand. +Being unable to obtain steamer rates equal to those quoted in New York, +Hard & Rand chartered steamers for New Orleans; and soon the trade began +to offer cost and freight to New Orleans, and the business grew from +about 350,000 bags of green coffee per annum to 2,500,000 bags. + +One of the best remembered names in the green coffee trade of New +Orleans is that of Charles Dittman (1848-1920), who for nearly fifty +years was one of the leading coffee commission merchants of the country. +Mr. Dittman entered the coffee business with Napier & Co., representing +E. Johnston & Co., of Rio de Janeiro. In 1875, upon the death of Mr. +Napier, the firm changed to Johnston, Gordon & Co., later to G.O. +Gordon, and in 1886 to the Charles Dittmann Co. Since his death in +1920, the business has been continued by F.V. Allain and Charles +Dittmann, Jr. + +[Illustration: A SECTION OF THE GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT OF NEW ORLEANS + +Most of the buildings shown here are occupied by green coffee importing +houses. The one on the right with the balconies is the old Board of +Trade Building] + + +_Green Coffee in San Francisco_ + +In the early days of the green coffee business in San Francisco these +names stood out as most important among the coffee importers: Hellmann +Bros. & Co., Montealegre & Co., E.L.G.S. Steele & Co., and Urruella & +Urioste. + +From their many friends in Central America, they, and others in their +line, obtained small consignments that were bought by the roasters +according to their immediate needs. Often as many as five or six buyers +would share in a parcel of fifty bags, as they were not in the custom of +filling up the larder for days of want. There always seemed to be +sufficient for every one, and bull movements and corners had not then +become the vogue. + +Just as today, the mainstays of the early San Francisco trade were +coffees produced in Costa Rica, Salvador, and Guatemala, although some +were brought from the Colima district of Mexico. The broker had a +comparatively easy job in selling his wares. Samples of the lots would +be given to him in carefully sealed glass bottles, and usually the buyer +would trust his discerning eye to judge correctly the quality of the +goods, not even taking the trouble to uncork the bottle. Size, color, +and imperfections would be his criterion. + +The leading coffee importers at San Francisco in 1875 were B.E. Auger & +Co., 409 Battery; S.A. Carit & Co., 405 Front Street; Hellmann Bros. & +Co., 525 Front Street; Adolphe Low & Co., 208 California Street; S.C. +Merrill & Co., 204 California Street; Parrott & Co., 306 California +Street; and Urruella & Urioste, 405 Front Street. + +The annual consumption of green coffee in San Francisco in the early +eighties was estimated at 100,000 bags. + +A marked change in the coffee business of San Francisco was brought +about by the discovery that the differences in the taste of coffees +could not be accurately detected from their color or from the size of +bean. To Clarence E. Bickford belongs the credit of having discovered +the cup qualities of high-grown Central American coffees. He was +employed at the time by a broker named Hockhofler, and probably did not +realize what far-reaching effect his discovery would have on the future +of San Francisco's coffee trade; but no other factor has contributed so +much to its growth. When the roasters began to examine coffees for their +taste, values were of course revolutionized. Antiguas, and other +high-grown coffees, that had theretofore been penalized for the small +size of bean, soon brought a premium, and have ever since been in great +demand. It goes without saying that the new classification was of +material assistance to the roasters in bettering their output, as +blending was then put on a scientific basis. + +About the middle of the nineties San Francisco began to function as a +distributing center, and shipments were made from there to St. Louis and +Cincinnati. The selection of coffees on their cup merit was undoubtedly +a factor of considerable importance in creating new outlets; although it +is generally conceded that the winning personality of C.E. Bickford +helped considerably. Mr. Bickford, by this time, had succeeded his +former employer. He served the trade by living up to the best standards +of business practise until his death in 1908; when the institution he +founded was continued by E.H. O'Brien under the name of C.E. Bickford & +Co. + +[Illustration: CALIFORNIA STREET, THE COFFEE-TRADING CENTER OF SAN +FRANCISCO] + +San Francisco imported 175,293 bags of coffee in 1900. Imports had grown +to 256,183 bags by 1906; and the following were the leading importers, +as taken from a compilation by C.E. Bickford & Co.: + +IMPORTERS OF COFFEE BY SEA + _San Francisco, 1906_ + + + _Bags_ + +Haas Bros. 38,947 +Otis, McAllister & Co. 34,342 +Jno. T. Wright 21,741 +Geo. A. Moore & Co. 17,851 +Castle Bros. 17,397 +Lastreto & Co. 15,609 +Bloom Bros. 14,372 +W.R. Grace & Co. 14,143 +Baruch & Co. 9,400 +Schwartz Bros. 7,310 +Dieckmann & Co. 6,981 +H. Hackfeld & Co., Ltd. 4,466 +M.J. Brandenstein & Co. 4,281 +Urioste & Co. 4,081 +Goldtree, Liebes & Co. 3,962 +J.Z. Posadas. 3,950 +Mohns-Frese Com. Co. 3,714 +Welch & Co. 3,385 +Thannhauser & Co. 3,328 +E. Mejia 2,965 +Hind, Rolph & Co. 2,814 +Hellmann Bros. & Co. 2,170 +Parrott & Co. 2,137 +J.A. Folger & Co. 2,094 +S.L. Jones & Co. 2,042 +Ariza & Lombard 1,133 +Hamberger-Polhemus Co. 1,096 +Theo. H. Davies & Co., Ltd. 955 +Livierato Frères 927 +J.D. Spreckels & Bros. Co. 828 +McCarthy Bros. 795 +W. Loaiza & Co. 642 +Wm. Halla 591 +H.W. Burmester 582 +Williams, Dimond & Co. 399 +M. Phillips & Co. 381 +Alexander & Baldwin 358 +London, Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd. 333 +P.J. Knudsen Co. 309 +Ballou & Cosgrove 300 +M. Schweitzer & Co. 300 +Johnson-Locke Merc. Co. 270 +The Lewin-Meyer Co. 250 +Sperry Flour Co. 231 +Canadian Bank of Commerce 200 +Porto Rico Coffee Co. 148 +McChesney & Sons 145 +Bowring & Co. 145 +China & Java Export Co. 140 +John Weissman 126 +Montealegre & Co. 120 +W.H. Miller 109 +Maldonado & Co. 105 +De Fremery & Co. 100 +Sundries 683 + ------- +Total 256,183 + +[Illustration: BIRD'S EYE VIEW OF SAN FRANCISCO'S COFFEE DISTRICT] + +The imports of green coffee at San Francisco in 1914-15 amounted to +about 400,000 bags. The beginning of the World War was almost +coincidental with an energetic campaign waged by San Francisco coffee +interests to popularize Central American coffees, and particularly +Guatemalas, in this country. The time was well chosen, as the world's +exposition at San Francisco offered a good opportunity to acquaint the +public with the fine qualities of Guatemala growths. Furthermore, it was +necessary to create new markets for these coffees, which in former years +had been very extensively used in Europe. Figures show that San +Francisco's efforts were crowned with success. In 1916, the importation +increased by fifty percent; and in 1917, importations were double those +of 1915. In 1918, a total of nearly 1,000,000 bags was reached; and this +mark was passed by almost 200,000 in 1919. In 1920, 971,567 bags were +imported. + +The origin of San Francisco's fight for control of Central American +coffee dates back to the years 1908 to 1910, when the German Kosmos Line +was fighting the Pacific Mail for the Central and South American +shipping business. W.R. Grace & Co., at that time, were already the +heaviest shippers of American merchandise to the Latin-American +countries; and while their own steamers were not touching at Central +American ports, they were handling merchandise from the United States +and nitrates from the South American countries in their own bottoms, and +were also engaged as general carriers for that trade. The fight directed +by the Kosmos Line against the Pacific Mail, which at that time was +under the control of the Southern Pacific Company, was accordingly +directed against the Grace interests also, so far as South American +countries were concerned. The fight was long and bitter, and costly to +both sides. At times, the contenders offered to take freight, not only +without charge, but to pay the shipper a premium for the privilege of +carrying his freight. + +Differences were finally settled in conference; but the experience +taught the American interests that they could survive in any territory +only if at all times they were able to provide their own cargoes for +their own boats, as had been accomplished with nitrate in South America. +J.H. Rosseter, the Grace manager, who later became well known as +director of operations of the United States Shipping Board during the +war, undertook an extended trip to Central America in 1912 to study the +situation at close range. There was only one product of Central America +that was available in cargo quantities, namely coffee; and naturally his +attention was drawn to the possibility of carrying coffee to San +Francisco to provide return cargoes for ships of the Pacific Mail, or +associated lines, carrying merchandise for the Central American +countries. + +While in Guatemala, Mr. Rosseter outlined a future policy in regard to +Central American coffees; the basis being his firm determination that +coffees grown in Central America, and logically and geographically +tributary to San Francisco distribution, should come to San Francisco in +largely increasing quantities. + +Up to that time San Francisco had received, on an average, only 200,000 +bags of Central American coffee annually for the ten preceding years; +while Europe had received about 1,500,000 bags a year. The quantity +necessary to make San Francisco a factor would call for an importation, +on an average, of 750,000 bags--a quantity almost four times as large as +then established. + +This was an extremely ambitious undertaking, considering the conditions +then prevailing in Central America. European countries were firmly +entrenched in the coffee business in Central America, with Germany +leading in Guatemala, France in Salvador and Nicaragua, England and +France contending for superiority in Costa Rica, and the United States +getting only the leavings. + +The European countries held their position in the Central American +Coffee trade by liberal financing, and a thorough knowledge of the +varying qualities of coffee produced on the different plantations. San +Francisco, the only important port in the United States dealing in +Central American coffees, had neither strong financial entrenchment in +Central America nor expert knowledge of coffee quality. Year after year, +San Francisco merchants had depended on consignments chosen by the +consignors. This rendered quality selection of coffees by the importers +impossible. + +Rosseter, being primarily a steamship man, tackled the proposition from +the standpoint of transportation, figuring that if he could establish +and maintain preferential steamer service to San Francisco, and steady +freight rates, a great step would be accomplished toward the desired +end. This led to his interest in the Pacific Mail Company, of which the +final outcome was his present position as vice-president of the +reorganized Pacific Mail Company. In that capacity he maintained, +practically throughout the entire period of the World War, freight rates +on coffee from Central America to San Francisco that gave that Pacific +port an immediate and definite advantage. + +This gave merchants in San Francisco the chance to build up a steady +trade, and prevented other ports in the United States from entering into +serious competition with San Francisco as a distributing point for +Central American coffees. The view taken by Rosseter was as far-sighted +as it was broad. He argued that with the end of the war there would be +no strength in a scattering distribution of Central American coffees by +New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco; and the only promise of +maintenance of the business for the United States would be in +maintaining unity of distribution in one port of the United States, +namely San Francisco. + +The first year open to European competition after the war showed that +San Francisco was well able to maintain its lead in Central American +coffees. Today, the mortgages formerly held by European merchants on the +native coffee plantations, and the control thereby of the produce of +these plantations, are in the hands of American merchants; and what is +more, out of general merchandising and importing by merchants of San +Francisco there have developed expert coffee departments in all of the +larger houses. The years of the war brought the product of virtually all +plantations in Central America to the intimate knowledge of these expert +coffee departments; and today the advantage that Europe formerly had--of +knowing exactly what a specific plantation produced--is possessed by +San Francisco merchants. + +This is no small advantage when we consider that in Guatemala and Costa +Rica, qualities vary from plantation to plantation, and that often on +adjoining plantations there is from three to five cents a pound +difference in quality, from the standpoint of cup merit. + +One can not buy coffee in Central America as in Brazil, as these +countries are not highly organized commercially, and the importers here +are forced to assume the rôle of the Brazilian _commisario_ and banker. +The crop has to be financed from six to nine months before it is brought +to the port; and the securities covering such advances are at best of +questionable value, on account of political insecurity, and the +ever-threatening earthquakes, and the uncertainty of the elements. +Distribution of the coffee after it has been brought to San Francisco +also involves many difficulties, notwithstanding that the demand is +good. This will be better realized when we consider that the Pacific +coast, from Alaska to Mexico, and eastward as far as the Rocky +Mountains, embraces a population of about 8,000,000, whose annual +consumption is estimated at 400,000 bags; and that, as already stated, +treble that quantity was imported to San Francisco in 1919. + +In 1900, ninety-nine firms were engaged in the green coffee importing +business (some were roasters also) in New York; six in Philadelphia; +twenty-eight in San Francisco; twelve in New Orleans. In 1920, there +were two hundred and sixteen in New York; thirty-one in San Francisco; +fifteen in New Orleans. + + +_Green Coffee Trade Organizations_ + +Previous to the organization of the roasters, the only kind of coffee +organization in this country of more than local importance was the New +York Coffee Exchange, which came into existence in 1881, the +organization meeting being held in the offices of B.G. Arnold & Co., at +166 Pearl Street, New York. The Exchange was incorporated December 7, +1881, the incorporators being Benjamin Green Arnold, Francis B. Arnold, +William D. Mackey, John S. Wright, William Sorley, Joseph A. O'Brien, H. +Clay Maddux, C. McCulloch Beecher, Geo. W. Flanders, and John R. +McNulty. B.G. Arnold was the first president. Soon afterward, rooms were +rented and fitted up for trading purposes at 135 Pearl Street, at the +junction of Beaver and Pearl Streets, and only two blocks away from the +more pretentious structure now housing the Coffee Exchange. Actual +trading operations did not begin until March 7, 1882. + +The New York Coffee Exchange was the world's first coffee-trade +organization of national proportions. Havre's exchange was inaugurated +in 1882, under the name of the Coffee Terminal Market. Five years later, +coffee exchanges were opened in Amsterdam and Hamburg; while the +exchanges of London, Antwerp, and Rotterdam did not come into existence +until the year 1890. The exchange in Trieste, Italy, was organized in +1905; while the Coffee Trade Association of London was started in 1916. +The first exchange in Santos was started in 1914. + +The success of the New York Coffee Exchange led to its imitation in +other coffee ports of the United States. Baltimore started a similar +organization, early in 1883, under the name of the Baltimore Coffee +Exchange; but after a short existence, it petered out. New Orleans +organized a green coffee trading association in 1889, as a coffee +committee of the Board of Trade. It is still active. The Green Coffee +Association of New Orleans, Inc., which is distinct from the Coffee +Committee, was established January 7, 1920. San Francisco did not have a +trading exchange until 1918, in which year the Green Coffee Association +of the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce began operations. + + +_Growth of the Coffee-Roasting Trade_ + +The wholesale coffee roasting business in the United States seems to +have started in the closing years of the eighteenth century. In +February, 1790, a "new coffee manufactory" began business at 4 Great +Dock Street, New York, and the proprietor announced that he had provided +himself at considerable expense with the proper utensils "to burn, grind +and classify coffee on the European plan." He sold the freshly roasted +product "in pots of various sizes from one to twenty weight, well packed +down, either for sea or family use so as to keep good for twelve +months." + +A second roasting plant started up at 232 Queen Street, New York, nearly +opposite the governor's house, toward the close of 1790. This second +coffee roasting plant was known in 1794 as the City Coffee Works. James +Thompson operated a "coffee manufactory" at 25 Thames Street in 1795. In +this year there was also the "Old Ground Coffee Works" in Pearl Street, +formerly Hanover Square, "three doors below the bank at number 110," +operating "two mills, one pair French burr stones" but no orders were +accepted here for less than six pounds, at "two pence advanced from the +roasting loss." + +Other coffee manufactories followed in the large towns of the new +states; and, always, the coffee was treated "on the European plan." This +meant that it was "burnt over a slow coal fire, making every grain a +copper color and ridding it all of dust and chaff." There was usually a +difference in price of three to four pence a pound between the green and +roasted product. Packages of roasted coffee under the half-dozen weight +were sold in New York in 1791 for two shillings and three pence per +pound, allowance being made for grocers at a distance. In those days, +the favorite container was a narrow-mouthed pot or jar of any size. This +was the first crude coffee package. In retailing the product, +cornucopias made of newspapers, or any other convenient wrapping, were +first employed; but, with the introduction of paper bags in the early +sixties, the housekeeper soon became educated to this more sanitary form +of carry package, and its permanence was quickly assured. + +The following were listed in Longworth's _Almanack_ as coffee roasters +in New York in 1805: John Applegate; Cornelius Cooper; Benjamin Cutler, +104 Division Street; George Defendorf, 83 Chapel Street; William Green; +Cornelius Hassey, 14 Augustus Street; Joseph M'Ginley, 28 Moore Street; +John W. Shaw, 43 Oliver Street; John Sweeney, Mulberry Street; Patience +Thompson, 23 Thames Street. + +Elijah Withington came from Boston to New York in 1814. He set up a +coffee roaster in an alley behind the City Hall and engaged a big, +raw-boned Irishman to run it. This was the beginning of a coffee +roasting business that has continued until the present day. Withington +dealt in Padang interiors, Jamaica, and West Indian coffees, and +numbered many society folk among his customers. Withington's business +removed to 7 Dutch Street in 1829: and the firm became Withington & Pine +in 1830. + +The roasted coffee business in New York had grown to such proportions in +1833 and gave such promise, that James Wild considered it a good +investment to bring over from England for his new coffee manufactory in +New York a complete power machinery equipment for roasting and grinding +coffee. There was also an engine to run it. It was set up in Wooster +Street opposite the present Washington Square. + +Samuel Wilde, son of Joseph Wilde, of Dorchester, Mass., came to New +York about 1840 to make his fortune. He was a young man with vision; and +first applied himself with diligence to the hardware and looking-glass +business. When he found that most of his customers were theaters and +saloons, his religious scruples bade him abandon it, which he did. + +Meanwhile, in 1844, Withington's pioneer roasting enterprise had +admitted Norman Francis and Amos S. Welch as general partners, and +Samuel and Charles C. Colgate as special partners, under the style of +Withington, Francis & Welch. It so continued until 1848, when Samuel +Wilde--who had selected the coffee business as more honorable than the +one in which he started--was admitted, and the firm became Withington & +Wilde. + +Mr. Withington retired in 1851, and Samuel Wilde associated with him in +the business his sons Joseph and Samuel, Jr., the title becoming Samuel +Wilde & Sons. Samuel Wilde, Sr., died in 1862. The title then became +Samuel Wilde's Sons. Joseph Wilde died in 1878, and Samuel Wilde, Jr. in +1890, the business being left to and continuing with a younger brother, +John, from 1878 to 1894, when John's son, Herbert W. Wilde, became a +member of the firm, which continues the old title at 466 Greenwich +Street, as Samuel Wilde's Sons Company, having been incorporated in +1902. John Wilde died in 1914. + +Another grandson of Samuel Wilde is William B. Harris, who engaged in +the coffee roasting business in Front Street from 1904 to 1917. From +1908 to 1918 he acted as coffee expert for the United States Department +of Agriculture. William B. Harris is a son of Samuel L. Harris, who +married a daughter of Samuel Wilde, and who for a number of years was +connected with Samuel Wilde's Sons. + +[Illustration: PIONEERS IN THE ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS OF NEW YORK CITY + +With approximate dates of their entry into the trade] + +Although a number of roasters and grinders for family use were patented +in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century, the +coffee merchants depended almost entirely on English manufacturers for +their wholesale equipment until 1846, when James W. Carter of Boston +brought out his "pull-out" roaster. This machine, and others like it, +encouraged the development of the coffee-roasting business, so that when +the Civil War came, coffee manufactories were well scattered over the +country. The demand for something better in coffee-machinery equipment +was answered by Jabez Burns with his machine for filling and discharging +without moving the roasting cylinder from the fire. + +Among the early grocery concerns in New York that were also coffee +roasters were: R.C. Williams & Co., starting as Mott & Williams in 1811, +changing to R.S. Williams & Co. in 1821, to Williams & Potter in 1851, +and to its present title in 1882; Acker, Merrall & Condit Co., founded +in 1820; Park & Tilford, founded in 1840; Austin, Nichols & Co., founded +in 1855; and Francis H. Leggett & Co., founded in 1870. + +There were twenty-one "coffee roasters and spice factors" in New York in +1848. Among them were: Beard & Cummings. 281 Front Street; Henry B. +Blair, 129 Washington Street; Colgate Gilbert, 93 Fulton Street; Wright +Gillies, 236 Washington Street; and Withington, Wilde & Welch, 7 Dutch +Street. In this year, two coffee importers, fourteen tea importers, and +forty-one tea dealers were listed in the _City Directory_. + +The _Directory_ for 1854 listed twenty-seven coffee roasters and spice +factors, among them, in addition to the above, being Peter Haulenbeek, +328 Washington Street; Levi Rowley, 102 West Street; William J. Stitt, +159 Washington Street; and George W. Wright, 79 Front Street. In those +days not all the wholesale coffee factors were roasters; there was much +trade roasting by a few large plants. + +While the coffee-roasting business of Samuel Wilde's Sons appears to be +the oldest in New York, having descended in a practically unbroken line +from 1814, several others continued considerably past the half-century +mark, and among them special mention should be accorded to: Levi +Rowley's Star Mills, dating back to 1823; Beard & Cummings, 1834; Wright +Gillies & Bro., 1840; Loudon & Son, the Metropolitan Mills, 1853; and +the Eppens Smith Co., present day successors of Thomas Reid's Globe +Mills of 1855. + +The Star Mills in Duane Street became a real factor in the wholesale +coffee-roasting business on Manhattan Island about 1823. At a later +date, Levi Rowley secured control, and under his able direction the +business flourished. Benedict & Gaffney bought the Star Mills from +Rowley in 1885. A few years later the firm became Benedict & Thomas, +then Thomas & Turner, and finally the R.G. Thomas Co. R.G. Thomas sold +the equipment in 1920, ending the manufacturing end of the business just +about a century from the time it started. Mr. Thomas is now with Russell +& Co. Before being identified with the Star Mills, he was for twenty +years with Packard & James, 123 Maiden Lane. + +While still a lad of nineteen, Wright Gillies came from a Newburgh farm +in 1838, and obtained a clerkship in a tea store in Chatham Street, now +Chambers and Duane Street. He branched out for himself in the tea and +coffee business at 232 Washington Street in 1840, removing in 1843 to +236, which had a courtyard where he installed a horse-power coffee +roaster. In the same building, over the store, lived Thomas McNell and +his wife. Mr. McNell afterward became a member of the firm of Smith & +McNell, proprietors of the Washington Street hotel and restaurant, for +many years one of New York City's landmarks. + +The coffee business, thus started by Wright Gillies, is still conducted, +as the Gillies Coffee Co., by the same family and at practically the +same location; and it is interesting to note that the roasting room +still has the original arrangement, partly below the street level but +with the machinery in view from the sidewalk. This arrangement was +characteristic of the old roasting establishments. + +[Illustration: GROUP OF OLD-TIME NEW YORK COFFEE ROASTERS, 1892 + +Standing, left to right, W.H. Eppens, Fred Reid, unknown, Julius A. +Eppens, Fred Eppens. Seated, left to right, John F. Pupke, Thomas Reid, +Henry Mayo, Fred Akers, Alexander Kirkland] + +James W. Gillies, a younger brother, came from Newburgh in 1848 to +assist in the enterprise. Young Gillies superintended the horse-power +roaster and drove the light spring delivery cart. Soon the firm became +Wright Gillies & Bro. Fires visited the business in 1849 and in 1858; +but each time it arose the stronger for the experience. Wright Gillies +retired in 1884, and James W. Gillies assumed entire charge under the +name of the Gillies Coffee Co. He continued active until his death in +1899. The business was incorporated by his children under the same name +in 1906. + +Edwin J. Gillies, son of James W. Gillies, started a separate coffee +business at 245 Washington Street, in 1882. In 1883 he admitted as a +partner James H. Schmelzel, a fellow Columbia alumnus. The enterprise +was successful for many years, being incorporated under the title of +Edwin J. Gillies & Co., Inc. It was consolidated in 1915 with the +business of Ross W. Weir & Co., 60 Front Street, Edwin J. Gillies +becoming a vice-president (with L. S. Cooper also vice-president) of the +corporation of Ross W. Weir, Inc. + +Burns & Brown started in the coffee roasting business in 1853 in an old +building at the corner of Washington and Chambers Streets for which they +paid an annual rental of one thousand dollars. This was the beginning of +the Metropolitan Mills, opposite to the present location of Loudon & +Son, 181 Chambers Street, the latest successors to the business. Burns & +Brown continued for two years, when they failed, and Wright Gillies & +Bro. succeeded, and put in Ebenezer Welsh as manager. Later, Wright +Gillies & Co. sold out the plant to Capt. Edward C. Russell, who +associated with him his son-in-law, Edward A. Phelps, Jr. At the +dissolution of this partnership in 1870, the firm became Trusdell & +Phelps. Mr. Phelps succeeded Trusdell, and sold out to Loudon & Stellwag +in 1877. They were succeeded by Loudon & Johnson in 1879, and this firm +continued until 1910, when James D. Johnson retired, and the firm of +Loudon & Son took charge. These were J. Carlyle Loudon and his son, +Howard C. Loudon, who died in 1911. The firm name of Loudon & Son +continues. + +One of the most vigorous personalities of the sixties, and one whose +influence extended well into this generation, was Thomas Reid. Born in +Bridgeport, England, he came to the United States as a boy, and started +his business career as a grocer's clerk in Brooklyn. Within three months +after landing, he bought out his employer. He entered the wholesale +coffee-roasting business at 105 Murray Street, New York, in 1855, in +partnership with a Mr. Townsend under the style of the Globe Mills, +which were the predecessors of the Eppens Smith Co. now in Warren +Street. Jabez Burns, inventor of the Burns coffee roaster, before this a +teamster for Henry Blair, was at one time bookkeeper for the Globe +Mills. In 1864, Mr. Burns sold to the Globe Mills the first roasters of +his manufacture--two one-bag, four-foot machines that were given a place +alongside of four of the old-style Carter pull-outs. + +Mr. Townsend died the first year of the Globe Mills' existence; and +Thomas Reid continued without a partner until 1863, when he became +associated with John F. Pupke, as Pupke & Reid. The business was then at +269 Washington Street. Thomas Reid was resourceful and enterprising; +also he had vision. He saw the day of package coffee coming, and nearly +"beat" John Arbuckle to it. As early as 1861 we find him advertising in +the _City Directory_, "spices put up in every variety of package." + +Lewis A. Osborn, 69 Warren Street, New York, and 81-83 South Water +Street, Chicago, was advertising "Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java +Coffee--put up only by Lewis A. Osborn" in 1863-64. Thomas Reid appears +to have acquired this brand and to have begun its exploitation as +"Osborn's Old Government Java," a ground package coffee, and certainly +one of the earliest package coffees. However, this brand never attained +the national vogue achieved by John Arbuckle's package coffee, which +first appeared in 1865, although the name Ariosa was not given it until +1873. + +Between 1855 and 1865 there were only half-a-dozen wholesale coffee +roasters on Manhattan Island, and Thomas Reid was their leader. Much of +his work was roasting for the trade, and this undoubtedly interfered +with the logical development of his package-coffee ideas. + +The firm became Pupke, Reid & Phelps in 1882. In 1885, it became the +original Eppens-Smith Co.; later, the Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co., and +lastly, the Eppens Smith Co. Thomas Reid was vice-president of the +Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co., and continued in that position until his +death in 1902. Julius Eppens is the present head of the business. + +Other package coffees of the sixties were Government coffee put out by +Taber & Place's Rubia Mills, 353-355 Washington Street, in "tin foil +pound papers," and L. Bruckmann & Co.'s London Club, packed at 107 +Warren Street. + +Another old-time New York coffee-roasting business is that of Samuel S. +Beard & Co. This business was founded in 1834 on Front Street by Eli +Beard (father of Samuel S. Beard,) and W.A. Cummings as Beard & +Cummings. In 1872, the firm moved to Duane Street, where it was joined +by Messrs. S.S. Beard and Cottrell, and the new firm became Beards & +Cottrell. Mr. Cottrell retired in 1883, and the firm became Samuel S. +Beard & Co. Upon the death of S.S. Beard in 1905, James H. Murray, who +had been with the concern for many years, became head of the house. Mr. +Murray died six months later. The business moved in 1913 to 92 Front +Street, where it continues as a stock company, with J.R. Westfal as +manager. + +Austin C. Fitzpatrick, well known among New York coffee roasters, is a +graduate of the Thomas Reid school, having entered the business of this +pioneer roaster in 1865. He was western salesman for Pupke & Reid until +1871, when he became associated with Rufus G. Story under the firm name +of R. G. Story & Co. Later, he formed a partnership with Howard E. Case, +buying out the old house of Beard & Howell. When Mr. Case retired in +1887, the firm became A.C. Fitzpatrick & Co. This title continued for +twelve years, when the Knickerbocker Mills were taken over, and the +business was incorporated as the Knickerbocker Mills Co., with Mr. +Fitzpatrick as president. The Knickerbocker Mills, acquired by the +corporation, had been founded in 1842 and were for more than forty years +at 154-156 Chambers Street. The business is now at 196-198 Chambers +Street. + +[Illustration: JULIUS A. EPPENS, NEW YORK] + +Many of the pioneers in the coffee roasting business of this country +were men who came from the British Isles and Germany. A notable figure +from the latter country was Benedickt Fischer, who knew coffee in +Germany before coming to New York in his nineteenth year. He started at +323-329 Greenwich Street, near Duane Street, in 1859. His first roaster +was a primitive affair built under the E.J. Hyde patent by the Coffee +Roaster & Mill Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia. It was turned by hand +by Fischer and his helper. This was about 1862. In 1864, the business +required larger quarters, and was removed to the corner of Duane and +Greenwich Streets. A new plant was erected at the corner of Beach and +Greenwich Streets in 1894, and the present plant was erected at the +corner of Franklin and Greenwich Streets in 1906. Upon the death of +Benedickt Fischer in 1903, the business passed under the control of +William H. Fischer, son of Benedickt, and Benedickt's son-in-law, +Charles E. Diefenthaler, for many years associated with the house. At +present, the company is a corporation, with C.E. Diefenthaler, +president; T.F. Diefenthaler, vice-president and treasurer; and T.O. +Budenbach, secretary. + +Bowie Dash, a commanding figure in the New York green coffee trade, +founded the Holland Coffee Co., roasters, in 1885. He placed H. Bartow +in charge. Mr. Dash himself was never active in the affairs of the +company. J. Bowie Dash, son of Bowie Dash, entered the Holland Coffee +Co. as a boy. Bowie Dash died in 1894. Mr. Bartow left The Holland +Coffee Co. in 1897 and J. Bowie Dash became president. He sold the +company in 1917 to S.B. Morrison, who consolidated it with his Esperanza +Coffee Co. The business is still conducted as the Holland Coffee Co., +with Mr. Morrison as president, at 162 Front Street. + +George Fisher was a well known coffee roaster of the sixties. He began +in the old Hope Mills, 71 Fulton Street, and, at the age of thirty, +entered into partnership with D.C. Ripley, establishing the Hudson +Mills. The firm became Sanger, Beers & Fisher in 1868; Mr. Fisher +retired in 1882; and died in 1896. + +Peter Haulenbeek began work as delivery boy in a grocery store. He +entered the coffee business in the sixties in the employ of Wright +Gillies, and went into the wholesale coffee-roasting trade under his own +name at 170 Duane Street in 1876. His son, John W. Haulenbeek, Sr., came +into his father's business in 1887. Peter Haulenbeek died January 15, +1894, and the firm name was changed to John W. Haulenbeek & Co. The +business remained in the same building up to 1916, when it was moved to +its present location at 393 Greenwich Street. John W. Haulenbeek, Jr., +of the third generation, is now active in the business. + +A leading figure in the sixties was James Brown, who started as an +engineer, rose to a partnership, and retired after the Civil War, a +wealthy man. He was a partner with Thomas Reid in the old Globe Mills. +He was also associated with B. Fischer in the firm of Fischer, Kirby & +Brown, and established the firm of Brown & Scott in Duane Street, where +Peter Haulenbeek succeeded to the business. Afterward, he continued in +the firms of Brown & Jones and Bisland & Brown, and died in 1898. + +Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffney was a formidable combination in the +coffee-roasting business in its day. Thomas Van Loan was for thirty +years a partner in the firm of W.J. Stitt & Co. (William J. Stitt was in +business at 173 Washington Street in the fifties). Joseph Maguire was a +practical spice grinder. Hugh Gaffney was with Brown & Scott until the +firm retired in 1879, and for ten years thereafter he traveled for B. +Fischer & Co. Then he became a member of the firm of Benedict & +Gaffney. Ill health caused his temporary retirement; but he returned to +the business in 1897 when he organized the firm of Van Loan, Maguire & +Gaffney. Joseph Maguire died in 1904. + +[Illustration: THOMAS VAN LOAN, NEW YORK] + +Mr. Gaffney died on March 20, 1912, and the name of the business was +changed to Van Loan & Co., with Thomas Van Loan as the head of the +business, under which name and management it still continues at 64 North +Moore Street. + +O'Donohue is a well known name in the development of both the green and +roasted coffee trade of New York City. John O'Donohue was a leader in +the green coffee business in 1830. It was John O'Donohue's Sons in 1873. +John B. O'Donohue, son of Peter O'Donohue and grandson of the original +John, after leaving John O'Donohue's Sons, formed a partnership with +Robert C. Stewart (the present head of R.C. Stewart & Co.) to engage in +the green coffee jobbing business as O'Donohue & Stewart. This +partnership was dissolved in 1893. For a few years, John O'Donohue was +associated with the coffee-roasting firm of Wing Bros. & Hart. About +1898, he formed the O'Donohue Coffee Co. at 284 Front Street. In 1910, +this was consolidated with the Potter Coffee Co. and Bennett, Sloan & +Co. to form the Potter, Sloan, O'Donohue Co. The firm dissolved in 1915. +Ellis M. Potter came to New York from the Potter-Parlin Spice Mills in +Cincinnati. Mr. O'Donohue died in 1918. + +In the seventies Frederick Akers was proprietor of the oldest and best +known trade roasting establishment in New York. The plant was known as +the Atlas Mills, and was at 17 Jay Street. Mr. Akers died in 1901. The +same year, William J. Morrison and Walter B. Boinest, former employees +of Akers, formed a partnership to carry on the same kind of business at +413 Greenwich Street. It is still at that address under the name of +Morrison & Boinest Co. + +Col. William P. Roome, a Chesterfieldian figure among New York coffee +roasters, came into the trade in 1876, when he established the firm of +William P. Roome & Co., with T.L. Vickers as partner. In the Civil War +that had preceded, young Roome (he was then nineteen) had distinguished +himself as a conspicuous hero of the Sixth Army Corps, having entered +the service as a second lieutenant in the Sixty-fifth New York +Volunteers. + +William P. Roome & Co. first engaged in the importation of tea, but they +added coffee to the business in 1889. Col. Roome disposed of it in 1903 +to assume charge of the tea and coffee department of the Acker, Merrall +& Condit Company, a position which he still holds. + +Frederick A. Cauchois, another picturesque figure among New York coffee +roasters, entered the trade as a clerk in the New York office of Chase & +Sanborn in 1875. After further tutelage under Frank Williams in the +coffee brokerage business, he bought the old Fulton Mills (Colgate +Gilbert & Co., 1848), in Fulton Street, where he did some of the most +original advertising for coffee that the trade has seen. His Private +Estate coffee in little burlap bags, his donkey train that carried the +bags of green coffee through the streets of the metropolis, his system +of delivering fresh coffee daily to the grocery trade, and his Japanese +paper filter device to insure the proper making of the coffee, made him +famous. He brought something of the spirit of the old English coffee +house to America, and incorporated it in Keen's Chop House in New York. +He died in 1918. + +The business of Russell & Co. was founded by Robert S. Russell & Frank +Smith at 107 Water Street in 1875. In 1895, S.L. Davis, one of the +present owners, formerly with Merrit & Ronaldson, became a partner. In +1900, Frank C. Russell, son of the senior member, was admitted to a +partnership; and upon the death of his father in 1904, he and Mr. Davis +became owners of the business. + +Ross W. Weir, who, in addition to being a successful New York coffee +roaster, has also attained prominence as president of the National +Coffee Roasters Association and chairman of the Joint Coffee Trade +Publicity Committee, handling the million dollar coffee advertising +campaign, was born in New York in 1859, the son of J.B. Weir, one of the +pioneer forty-niners, who at one time was engaged in the export +commission business in San Francisco. + +Mr. Weir began his business career as a general utility boy in the +jobbing grocery house of S.H. Williamson, 36 Broadway, New York, in +1875. Then he was a clerk for Park & Tilford, office man with Arbuckle +Bros, and with Geo. C. Chase & Co., tea importers, for two years, +afterward being admitted to a junior partnership. In 1886, the firm of +Ross W. Weir & Co. was formed to engage in the roasting of coffee and +importing and jobbing of teas at 105 Front Street. In 1887, the business +was removed to 58-60 Front Street. When the corporation of Ross W. Weir, +Inc. was formed in 1915 to take over the business of E.J. Gillies & Co. +Inc., Mr. Weir became president and treasurer of the combined +organization. + +[Illustration: COL. WILLIAM P. ROOME, NEW YORK] + + +_Pioneer Wholesale Coffee Roasters_ + +A reference to other pioneers in the wholesale coffee-roasting trade may +not be amiss here, even though it involves a repetition of some names +that have been given special mention in the case of New York. In the +list that follows are included the most prominent firms and the best +known names that helped make roasted coffee history in the United States +in the nineteenth century, particularly from 1845 to 1900: + +NEW YORK. The most prominent firms in the business in New York in the +sixties were: Thomas Reid & Co., Globe Mills; Geo. A. Merwin & Co.; Levi +Rowley, Star Mills; A.B. Thorn; Fischer & Lehmann, later Fischer & +Thurber, and Fischer, Kirby & Brown; Knickerbocker & Cooke; A.D. +Thurber; Wm. J. Stitt & Co.; Samuel Wilde's Sons. + +In the seventies, in addition to most of the above list, there were: +Pupke & Reid; Arbuckle Bros.; Edward A. Phelps, Jr.; Bonnett, Schenck & +Earle; Fischer & Lansing; J.G. Worth; Jackson & Co.; Charles Conway; +Neidlinger & Schmidt; James L. Arcularius; S.M. Beard, Sons & Co.; H.K. +Thurber & Co.; Wright Gillies & Bro.; Bennett & Becker; Great American +Tea Co.; Brown & Scott. + +Between 1876 and 1900 the following well known names appeared in the +trade: Frederick Akers; Eppens-Smith Co., afterward Eppens, Smith & +Wiemann Co., and later Eppens Smith Co.; B. Fischer & Co.; R.P. McBride; +Fitzpatrick & Case, afterward A.C. Fitzpatrick & Co.; Great Atlantic & +Pacific Tea Co.; Loudon & Johnson; Edwin Scott; Peter Haulenbeek, +afterward Haulenbeek & Mitchell, and Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling Co.; +Joseph Stiner & Co.; Austin, Nichols & Co.; Bennett, Sloan & Co.; +Gillies Coffee Co.; Benedict & Gaffney, afterward Van Loan, Maguire & +Gaffney; Ross W. Weir & Co.; Union Pacific Tea Co.; Hillis Plantation +Co.; Edwin J. Gillies & Co.; Jones Bros.; Holland Coffee Co.; Samuel +Crooks & Co.; Benedict & Thomas. + +[Illustration: PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE NORTHERN AND EASTERN +UNITED STATES + +1--W.F. McLaughlin, Chicago; 2--J.G. Flint, Milwaukee; 3--Frank J. +Geiger, Indianapolis; 4--Samuel Mahood, Pittsburgh; 5--Henry A. +Stephens, Cleveland; 6--W.H. Harrison, Cincinnati; 7--Albert A. Sprague, +Chicago; 8--D.Y. Harrison, Cincinnati; 9--William Grossman, Milwaukee; +10--Edward Canby, Dayton; 11--Thomas J. Boardman, Hartford; 12--Francis +Widlar, Cleveland; 13--O.W. Pierce, Sr., Lafayette. Ind.; 14--A.M. +Thomson Chicago; 15--Samuel Young, Pittsburgh; 16--Alvin M. Woolson, +Toledo; 17--Martin Hayward, Boston; 18--George C. Wright, Boston; +19--William Boardman, Hartford; 20--James S. Sanborn, Boston; 21--James +Heekin, Cincinnati; 22--James F. Dwinell, Boston; 23--Caleb Chase, +Boston] + +BOSTON. Among the pioneers in the coffee-roasting business in Boston +were: N. Berry & Sons; Blanchard & Bro.; Carter, Mann & Co.; Noah Davis +& Co.; Dyer & Co.; E. Emerson; Flint Bros. & Co.; J.T. & N. Glines; +Hayward & Co.; Geo. W. Higgins & Co.; Hill, Dwinell & Co.; H.B. Newhall; +Richardson & Lane; N. Robinson & Co.; Russell & Fessenden; Stickney & +Poor; E.H. Swett; the Tremont Coffee & Spice Mills; Swain, Earle & Co.; +and the Martin L. Hall Co. + +Between 1876 and 1900 these names were among those added: Shapleigh +Coffee Co.; Gilman L. Parker; W.S. Quinby & Co.; Thomas Wood & Co. + +Dwinell & Co. and Hayward & Co. both engaged in the coffee roasting +business about 1845. In 1876, they, James F. Dwinell, Martin Hayward, +and his brother-in-law George C. Wright, joined hands under the name of +Dwinell, Hayward & Co. In 1894, Mr. Hayward having previously retired, +the name of the firm was changed to Dwinell, Wright & Co. Mr. Dwinell +died in 1898; and in 1899, Mr. Wright formed a Massachusetts corporation +under the present name, Dwinell-Wright Co. George C. Wright died, 1910, +and his son, George S. Wright, who had been treasurer, became president. +A grandson, Warren M. Wright, and a nephew, G. E. Crampton, together +with R.O. Miller and Charles H. Holland, are active in the present +conduct of the business. + +Caleb Chase with Messrs. Carr and Raymond founded the firm of Carr, +Chase & Raymond at 32 Broad Street in 1864. The name was changed to +Chase, Raymond & Ayer in 1871. James S. Sanborn, who had formerly been +in the coffee and spice trade at Lewiston, Me., with a branch office in +Boston, combined with Caleb Chase to form Chase & Sanborn in 1878. +Charles D. Sias was admitted to the firm in 1882. A Montreal office was +opened in 1884. Charles E. Sanborn, son of James S., was admitted in +1888. James S. Sanborn died in 1903, and Charles E. Sanborn died two +years later. Charles D. Sias died in 1913. + +Swain, Earle & Co. were established about 1868. In the same year, Byron +T. Thayer entered the employ of the firm as a bookkeeper. He was taken +into partnership in 1884, and upon the death of Mr. Earle, became +managing partner. In 1915, he was the sole surviving partner of the +company. He died in the latter part of 1921; and the business was +absorbed by Alexander H. Bill & Co. in January, 1922. + +PHILADELPHIA. The following were the most prominent Philadelphia coffee +roasters in 1861: Grever & Bro.; Henry Hinkle; William Johnston; George +Kelly; Thornley & Ryan; Thornley & Bro.; Vankorn, Guggenheimer & Co.; +D.J. Chapman; Bohler & Weikel; Charles Kroberger; and James R. Webb & +Son. + +Later came: Robert J. Rule & Bro.; G. Boyd & Co.; Nutrio Mfg. Co.; C.J. +Fell & Bro.; R.R. & A. Deverall; C. Thomas; William H. Cheetham, Jr.; +Hill & Thornley; George Ogden & Co.; Weikel & Smith; and Alexander +Sheppard. + +Between 1876 and 1900 these names appear; Henry A. Fry & Co.; Robert +Smith & Sons; B.S. Janney, Jr. & Co.; and Weikel & Smith Spice Co. + +Robert Smith came as a country lad to Philadelphia, and drove a wagon +for Jesse Thornley, a coffee roaster. In a few years, he had secured an +interest in the firm; and in 1860, the name was changed to Thornley & +Smith. Mr. Thornley died in 1872, and Mr. Smith bought out the Thornley +interests and traded as Robert Smith until 1889. In that year, he +admitted his eldest son, Robert A. Smith, into the firm, which became +Robert Smith & Son. William T., another son, was admitted in 1889, the +firm name being changed again to Robert Smith & Sons. Robert Smith, Sr., +retired in 1902. In the same year his youngest son, George H. Smith, was +admitted to the firm, and it became Robert Smith's Sons, the active +members being William T. and George H. Smith. + +James R. Webb established the coffee roasting business of James R. Webb +& Son in 1833. It was taken over by Alexander Sheppard in 1870. Later it +became Alex. Sheppard & Sons, Inc. Mr. Sheppard died in 1916, and the +business has been conducted by a corporation in which his four children +are the principal stockholders. + +CHICAGO. Some pioneers in the Chicago trade were: Alfred H. Blackall; +Excelsior Mills (Downer & Co.); Huntoon & Towner; W.F. McLaughlin; +Knowles, Cloyes & Co.; Thomson & Taylor; H.F. Griswold; G.M. Hall; John +L. Davies & Co.; Bell, Conrad & Webster; Sprague, Warner & Co.; Lee & +Murbach; A. Stephens & Co.; and Whiting, Goeble & Co. + +In the period between 1876 and 1900 the following became well known: +Sprague, Warner & Griswold; Reid, Murdoch & Fischer; E.B. Millar Spice +Co.; Wm. M. Hoyt Co.; Franklin MacVeagh & Co.; Sherman Bros. & Co.; H.C. +& C. Durand; A.H. Pratt; McNeil & Higgins Co.; J.H. Bell & Co.; J.H. +Conrad & Co.; Steele-Wedeles Co.; Krag-Reynolds Co.; Arbuckle Bros., and +Puhl-Webb Co. + +H.C. Durand organized the wholesale grocery house of Durand & Co. in +1851. Calvin Durand entered the firm in 1879, and the name was changed +to H.C. & C. Durand. Adam J. Kaspar began to work in a retail grocery. +In 1875, he went with the wholesale grocery firm of James Forsythe & Co. +and two years later with H.C. & C. Durand. In 1894, the name was changed +to Durand & Kasper. H.C. Durand died in 1901, and Calvin Durand died in +1911. Durand & Kasper merged, 1921, with Henry Horner & Co. and McNeil & +Higgins into the Wholesale Grocers Corporation. + +Samuel A. Downer founded the Excelsior Mills (Downer & Co.) in 1853. +Sidney O. Blair entered the employ of the company in 1871. E.B. Millar & +Co. took over the business in 1878, incorporating under that name in +1882. Mr. Blair retired in 1913, and W.S. Rice was elected president. He +died in 1918, and Mr. Blair was re-elected president; with W.C. Shope, +vice-president; and C.S. Mauran, secretary and treasurer. + +In the spring of 1862, Albert A. Sprague came to Chicago from Vermont. +With Z. B. Stetson he formed the firm of Sprague & Stetson, wholesale +grocers. Mr. Stetson retired the following year, and a new partnership +was formed with Ezra J. Warner, under the name of Sprague & Warner. In +1864, O.S.A. Sprague, a young brother of the senior partner, was +admitted to the firm, which was reorganized under the style of Sprague, +Warner & Co. Under this name it has since continued. About the year +1876, machinery was installed, and the roasting of coffee began. Oscar +Remmer entered the employ of the company in 1878 at the age of 16, and +became manager of the mill department in 1895. In 1912, he was made a +member of the board of directors, and was elected vice-president in +1919. O.S.A. Sprague died in 1909, Ezra J. Warner Sr. in 1910, and +Albert A. Sprague in 1915. + +In 1865, A.M. Thomson, at that time a salesman for A.H. Blackall, owner +of the American Mills, arranged with a Mr. Berg and a Mr. Davis to go in +the coffee-roasting business with him as Berg, Thomson & Davis. After a +year, however, the name became A.M. Thomson. James Thomson, a brother, +came into the firm in 1868, and it was then called A.M. & James Thomson. +A year later, it became A.M. Thomson again. In 1872, immediately after +the fire, Mr. Taylor, a member of the firm of Whiting & Taylor, joined +Mr. Thomson under the firm name of Thomson & Taylor. They continued the +business under this name about ten years, until it was incorporated in +1883 under the name of Thomson & Taylor Spice Co. Among the wholesale +grocers who became stockholders at that time was W.S. Warfield, of +Quincy, Ill., who, in 1901, with his son, John D. Warfield, bought most +of Mr. Thomson's holdings and obtained a controlling interest. The name +was changed in 1920 to the Thomson & Taylor Co. + +William F. McLaughlin founded the firm of W.F. McLaughlin & Co. in 1865. +He died in 1905; and the business was incorporated with his son, George +D., as president, and another son, Frederick, as secretary and +treasurer. + +The Puhl-Webb Company, founded, 1882, as a partnership by Thomas J. Webb +and John Puhl, was incorporated in 1896. + +ST. LOUIS. The following were among the pioneer coffee firms of St. +Louis, dating back to the 1860-70 decade: James H. Forbes; Flint, Evans +& Co.; Wm. Schotten & Co.; Fred W. Meyer; H. & J. Menown; Cavanaugh, +Rearick & Co.; and Frederick A. Churchill & Co. + +From 1876 to 1900 there were added: Nash, Smith & Co.; Fink & Nasse Co.; +Hanley & Kinsella Coffee & Spice Co.; Flugel & Popp; C.F. Blanke Tea & +Coffee Co.; Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.; David G. Evans & Co.; and the +Aroma Coffee & Spice Co. + +David Nicholson established a tea and coffee business under the name of +the Franklin Tea Warehouse in 1853. A year later, James H. Forbes, born +in Kinross, Scotland, bought out Nicholson. In 1857, A.E. Forbes, his +son, came into the store after school hours, and was admitted to +partnership in 1870. The retail end of the business was dropped in 1880. +Robert M., the younger son of James H., was taken into the firm a few +years after A.E. Forbes. James H. Forbes died in 1890, and the business +has since been carried on by his sons as the James H. Forbes Tea & +Coffee Co. James H. Forbes installed the first Burns roaster in St. +Louis, and always claimed to have been the first man to roast coffee in +the middle west. + +William Schotten began his roasting business in 1862, although he had +been in the grocery business since 1847. A short time later, a brother, +Christian Schotten, came to the United States from Germany and was +admitted to partnership, the firm becoming William Schotten & Bro. +Christian died in 1866, and a brother-in-law, Henry Verborg, was +admitted, the name being changed to William Schotten & Co. William died +in 1874, and the business devolved upon his eldest son, Hubertus. In +1878, another son, Julius J., was taken in at the age of 17. Hubertus +died in 1897, and Julius became manager and sole proprietor. He died in +1919. Since that time, his son, Jerome J., has carried on the business, +which continues under the name of the Wm. Schotten Coffee Co. + +The firm of David G. Evans & Co. was founded in 1856 by David G. Evans +under the style of Flint, Evans & Co., changed in 1870 to David G. Evans +& Co. David G. Evans died in 1916, and the name of the company was +changed in 1917, to the David G. Evans Coffee Co., with Gwynne Evans, a +son of David G., as president of the corporation. + +The George Nash Grocery Co. bought the Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills from +the estate of Mathew Hunt in 1870. About this time Michael E. Smith, who +had been with the concern for a number of years, was made a partner. The +firm was incorporated in 1887 as the Nash-Smith Tea & Coffee Co. George +Nash, Sr., died in 1910. + +CINCINNATI. Among the pioneer coffee roasters in Cincinnati were: John +C. Appenzeller; Blook & Varwig; J. Brock; Cincinnati Spice Mills; Eagle +Spice Mills; Harrison & Wilson; Parker & Dixon; Kilgour & Taylor; J.M. +Krout; Succop & Lips; and H.R. Droste. + +After the centennial year and previous to 1900, the following names were +added: Potter & Parlin; James Heekin & Co.; Flugel & Popp; Utter, Adams +& Ellen; J. Henry Koenig & Co.; F.W. Hinz; and the Woolson Spice Co. + +D.Y. Harrison, then thirty-five years old, came from Newark, N.J., and +settled in Cincinnati in 1843, opening a coffee roasting business as +Harrison & Wilson. He used an old pull-out roaster with first a negro, +and then a horse-power tread-mill, for power. A few years later, W.H. +Harrison, a son of the founder, was admitted to the firm, the name at +that time being Parker & Harrison. D.Y. Harrison died in 1872. Fire +totally destroyed the plant in 1875. W.H. Harrison then formed a +partnership with J.W. Utter, and started in again. He sold out to his +partner in 1883 and went in business for himself as W.H. Harrison & Co. +D.Y. Harrison is said to have been the first man to roast coffee west of +Pittsburg. + +The Heekin Company was established in 1870 by James Heekin and Barney +Corbett as a partnership under the name of Corbett & Heekin. In a short +time, Corbett died; and the name of the firm was then changed to James +Heekin & Co. Alexander Stuart was admitted to the partnership about +1883, and retired four years later. James J. Heekin, older son of James +Heekin, was admitted to partnership in 1892. Charles Lewis, after twenty +years' experience in the coffee trade in Louisville, Cincinnati, and New +York, was admitted to the firm in 1895. James Heekin died in 1904. Upon +his death, a corporation was formed under the name of the James Heekin +Company, with Charles Lewis as president, continuing until he retired in +1919. In this year a new corporation, called the Heekin Company, was +formed, taking over the business of the James Heekin Co. and the Heekin +Spice Co., the latter having been organized in 1899. James J. Heekin was +chosen president of the new company, with Albert E. Heekin, +vice-president; and Robert E. Heekin, secretary and general manager. + +[Illustration: PIONEER COFFEE ROASTERS OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN +UNITED STATES + +1--J.B. Sinnot, New Orleans; 2--Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis; +3--Charles Stoffregen, St. Louis; 4--W.T. Jones, New Orleans; 5--J.A. +Folger. jr., San Francisco; 6--M.E. Smith, St. Louis; 7--A.E. Forbes, +St. Louis; 8--David G. Evans, St. Louis; 9--W.J. Kinsella, St. Louis; +10--James H. Forbes, St. Louis; 11--J.A. Folger, Sr., San Francisco; +12--Joseph Closset, Portland, Ore.; 13--J. Zinsmeister, Louisville; +14--Wm. Schotten, St. Louis; 15--A. Schilling, San Francisco; 16--M.J. +Brandenstein, San Francisco; 17--J.O. Cheek, Nashville; 18--A.H. Devers, +Portland, Ore.] + +LOUISVILLE. Pioneers in this early center of coffee roasting in the +south were: Thornton & Hawkins; Charles J. Bouche; H.N. Gage; A. +Engelhard; and Jacob Zinsmeister. + +R.J. Thornton & Co. were founded in 1837 by Richard J. Thornton and +Thomas Hawkins, as Thornton & Hawkins. Thornton died in 1860. His +interests remained, but the firm changed to Hawkins & Thornton. Hawkins +died in 1877, and Mrs. Thornton, having purchased the Hawkins interest, +ran the business as R.J. Thornton & Co. until her death in 1885. John +Hayes, her son-in-law, then bought the company; and when he died in +1904, his widow ran the business with Thomas A. Crawford as manager. +Mrs. Hayes, the last of the Thornton family, died in 1919, and her +interests were sold to Crawford and R.H. Dorn, an old employee. The firm +first roasted coffee about 1846. It is interesting to note that the +plant has occupied the present site since its founding, eighty-four +years ago. + +Albert Engelhard, Sr., founded in 1855 a wholesale grocery house which +later became A. Engelhard & Sons, Inc. In 1879, George; in 1882, Victor +H.; and in 1883, Albert, Jr.; all sons of the founder, entered the +business. Upon moving into larger quarters in 1890, all of the sons were +taken in as partners. Albert Engelhard, Sr., retired in 1892, and the +management was assumed by Victor H. The business increased rapidly, and +in 1897 the firm moved to its present location. Incorporated in 1901, +the wholesale grocery end was abandoned in 1903, and the concern became +a strictly coffee, tea, and spice house. Victor H. Engelhard died in +1918; and his sons, Victor, Jr., and R.W. Engelhard, who had been in the +business for several years, assumed active management. Victor Engelhard, +Sr., was prominent in coffee affairs and in the early work of the +National Coffee Roasters Association. + +Jacob Zinsmeister, of J. Zinsmeister & Sons, was another old-time +Louisville coffee man. Before he started roasting, he was a big factor +in the green coffee trade. The business was established in 1866 at New +Albany, Ind., by Frank Zinsmeister, Sr., but was later moved to +Louisville. Jacob Zinsmeister was taken into the business in 1872, and +the name was changed to Frank Zinsmeister & Son. He is still active in +business, although he has turned the management over to his three sons. + +NEW ORLEANS. Men and firms active in early coffee roasting in New +Orleans were: Shaw's Louisiana Coffee and Spice Mills; Ruliff, Clark & +Co.; R. Poursini & Co.; and Smith & McKenna. + +Between 1876 and 1900 were added: New Orleans Coffee Co.; Smith Bros. & +Co.; Southern Coffee Polishing Mills; and Cage & Drew. + +Smith Bros. & Co. were organized in 1863 as Smith & McKenna. Mr. McKenna +died in 1872, and the firm name was changed to Smith Bros. & Co. The two +Smith brothers died in 1891, and 1892. About 1900, the name became Smith +Bros. & Co., Ltd., and J.B. Sinnot, who had been employed for a number +of years by the firm, gained control. The company failed in 1913. Mr. +Sinnot then entered the coffee brokerage business, in which he remained +until his death in 1917. + +Born in New Orleans in 1865, Daniel H. Hoffman started work as a sample +clerk in the office of E.P. Cottraux, who was at that time the only +coffee broker in New Orleans. In 1887, Mr. Hoffman started in business +for himself. In 1894, he opened the Southern Coffee Polishing Mills, +which have since become the Southern Coffee Mills, Inc. + +W.T. Jones, for many years in business as a coffee broker in Keokuk, +Iowa, founded the New Orleans Coffee Co. in 1890. He died in 1919. + +R.H. Cage and J.C. Drew organized in 1898 the firm of Cage & Drew. In +1900, they established the Louisiana Coffee Mills, under the name and +style of Cage, Drew & Co., Ltd. + +Ben C. Casanas joined the New Orleans Coffee Co. as a city salesman, and +later became a road salesman. He withdrew in 1901 to organize the +Merchants Coffee Co. of New Orleans, Ltd. + +SAN FRANCISCO. Pioneer coffee roasters in San Francisco were: J.A. +Folger & Co.; Charles Berhard; H. Gates; D. Ghirardelli & Co.; E. Loeven +& Co.; Marden & Myrick; Maine & Eckerenkotter; G. Venard; and Charles +Zwick. + +Between 1876 and 1900 the following were added: A. Schilling & Co.; W.H. +Miner; Siegfried & Brandenstein; George W. Caswell. + +J.A. Folger & Co. were established in 1850 as Wm. H. Bovee & Co. A few +years later, the name became Marden & Folger, Mr. Folger having been +connected with the old firm. In the early sixties the name was changed +to J.A. Folger & Co. Two employees were taken into the firm in 1878. +These were A. Schilling and a Mr. Lamb. The company was now called +Folger, Schilling & Co. This partnership was dissolved in 1881, and the +business continued as J. A. Folger & Co. Mr. Folger died in 1890, and +the firm was then incorporated under the same name. + +Shortly after Folger, Schilling & Co. was dissolved, A. Schilling and +George Volkman formed the firm of A. Schilling & Co. Mr. Schilling began +his career as an office boy with J.A. Folger in 1871. + +M.J. Brandenstein and John C. Siegfried formed a co-partnership under +the name of Siegfried & Brandenstein in 1880. Mr. Brandenstein bought +out his partner in 1894, and took in his brothers, Manfred and Edward, +the firm name becoming M. J. Brandenstein & Co. + +George W. Caswell started in the retail tea and coffee business in San +Francisco under his own name in 1885. In 1898, the business became +wholesale only. It was incorporated in 1901 as the George W. Caswell Co. +The company took over the brands and travelling organization of Lievre, +Frick & Co., which went into a dissolution of partnership in 1902. + +MILWAUKEE. Prominent among early coffee roasters of Milwaukee were: W. & +J. G. Flint; James Ryan & Co.; J.B. Reynolds; Jewett & Sherman; and C.E. +Andrews & Co. Later we find added the Wm. Grossman Co. + +J.G. Flint and Wyman Flint founded the business known as W. & J.G. Flint +in 1858. J.G. Flint bought out his brother in 1880 and continued as the +J.G. Flint Co., owner of the Star Coffee and Spice Mills. He died in +1896. The business was incorporated in 1901 as the J.G. Flint Co., with +W.K. Flint, a son of J.G., as president. The Jewett & Sherman Co. took +control in 1911. + +Professor Milo P. Jewett, Professor S.S. Sherman, and his brother, +William Sherman, founded the firm of Jewett, Sherman & Co. in 1867, and +continued under that name until 1875, when it was incorporated as Jewett +& Sherman Co., with Milo P. Jewett as president, and Henry B. Sherman, +secretary and treasurer. Professor S.S. Sherman and his sons, Fred and +Henry B., sold out their interests in 1878 and formed a new business in +Chicago under the name of Sherman Bros. & Co. William M. Sherman then +became president of Jewett & Sherman Co., and Charles A. Murdock, a +nephew of S.S. and William Sherman, was made secretary and treasurer. +Mr. Murdock withdrew in 1881 and established the C.A. Murdock Mfg. Co. +in Kansas City. In that same year, William H. Sherman, another nephew, +became a stockholder and one of the directors of Jewett & Sherman Co. +Dr. Lewis Sherman succeeded his father as president of the company in +1891, and served in that capacity until his death in 1915, when he was +succeeded by his son, Lewis Sherman, who is president of the company at +the present time (1922). John Horter, who is now secretary, joined the +business in 1877. + +William Grossman started in the wholesale grocery business in 1886. John +and Henry Dahlman were admitted to partnership in 1889. About three +years later, the latter closed out his interests to J.F.W. Imbusch. The +present corporation was established in 1892 as Wm. Grossman & Co. The +firm was incorporated August 1, 1916, as the Wm. Grossman Co., with Wm. +Grossman as president, George A. Grossman as vice-president, and Paul E. +Apel as secretary and treasurer. + +Another old-time coffee man of Milwaukee was Charles A. Clark, who had +been in the coffee business for nearly twenty years before he organized +the present business of Clark & Host Co. + +TOLEDO. The pioneer roasting firms here seem to have been: Warren & +Bedwell; and J.B. Baldy & Co. Later, after 1876, we find added the Bour +Company, and the Woolson Spice Co. + +The latter company was founded in 1882 by A.M. Woolson, who up to that +time had conducted a successful retail grocery business for several +years. The Woolson Spice Co. was sold to H.O. Havemeyer of New York in +1896, the reputed sale price being $2,000,000. A.M. Woolson retired from +business at that time. Upon the death of Mr. Havemeyer, the company +passed into the hands of Hermann Sielcken; and when he died, an +American company secured control. + +[Illustration: GROUND COFFEE PRICE LIST OF 1862] + +The Bour Company was incorporated in 1892, following a partnership which +had succeeded to a small business concern under the name of the Eagle +Spice Company. The principal stockholders were: J.M. Bour, F.G. +Kendrick, and Albro Blodgett. Mr. Blodgett bought the Bour interests in +1909 and with S.W. Beckley, who had been sales manager for a number of +years, acquired practically all the other outside interests. The name +was changed in 1921 to the Blodgett-Beckley Co., the officers being +Albro Blodgett, president, S.W. Beckley, vice-president and manager, and +Henry P. Blodgett, secretary and treasurer. + +CLEVELAND. Pioneers in Cleveland were: Smith & Curtis; A. Stephens & +Sons; John H. Ganse; and W.D. Drake & Co. In 1870, we find Edwards, +Townsend & Co.; Knight, Eberman & Co.; Talbot, Winslow & Co.; Williams & +Tait; and Lemmon & Son, added. + +Beards & Cummings, coffee roasters of New York City, established a +branch in Cleveland under the management of Alvan Stephens in 1855. +Later, Stephens took over the business for himself and changed the name +to Frisbie & Stephens. In 1861 Alvan's sons, Henry A. and Samuel R., +were admitted and the firm became A. Stephens & Sons. Alvan Stephens +died in 1873, and Samuel moved to Chicago to open a branch. He died in +1878. Henry A. continued the business until 1881, when Francis Widlar +was admitted to partnership, and the name was changed to Stephens & +Widlar. Henry A. Stephens died in 1897, and A.L. Somers, H.H. Hewitt, +and D.D. Hudson, all old employees, were admitted, and the firm name was +changed to F. Widlar & Co. Carl W. Brand, a nephew of Francis Widlar, +joined the company in 1898. Upon the death of his uncle, the business +was incorporated as the Widlar Co., and Mr. Brand became president in +1910. + +PITTSBURGH. Next to New York, Pittsburg was one of the first cities to +forge to the front as a coffee-roasting center. These are the firms that +were among the leaders in the period between 1860 and 1870: Arbuckles & +Co.; W.T. Bown & Bro.; Dilworth Bros.; Rinehart & Stevens; T.C. Jenkins +& Bro.; Carter Bros. & Co.; J.S. Dilworth & Co.; Jesse H. Lippincott; +Shields & Boucher; and Haworth & Dewhurst. + +Samuel Young, Samuel Mahood, and E. B. Mahood formed a partnership as +Young, Mahood & Co. in 1879. E.B. Mahood withdrew in 1890. Samuel Mahood +retired in 1906, and the company was incorporated as the Young-Mahood +Company, with Samuel Young as president, and W. James Mahood as +vice-president and general manager. + +PORTLAND, OREGON. Early roasters in the trade of this city were: J.F. +Jones; H. C. Hudson & Co.; Marden & Folger; Verdier & Closset; and +Closset & Devers. + +Joseph and Emile Closset formed a partnership as Closset Bros, in 1880. +A.H. Devers, who had been a salesman with Folger, Schilling & Co., San +Francisco, and later with A. Schilling & Co., bought out Emile Closset +in 1883, and the firm became Closset & Devers. Joseph Closset died in +1915. + +BALTIMORE. Pioneer roasters in Baltimore were: Joseph Braas; Daniel +Many; George Pearson; Sylvester Ruth; and John G. Siegman. These were +quickly followed by Barclay & Hasson; Zoller & Little; Benjamin Berry; +Jesse Lazear; and others. + +Later, after 1876, came: E. Levering & Co.; the Enterprise Coffee Co.; +C.D. Kenny; J.W. Laughlin & Co., now Le Morgan Coffee Co.; and the Saxon +Coffee Company. + +DETROIT. In Detroit in 1860-70 were: Evans & Walker; Farrington, +Campbell & Co.; A.R. & W.F. Linn; J.H. Riggs; and Palmer, Warner & Co. +After 1876 were added Sinclair, Evans & Elliot; Huber & Stendel; and +J.A. Parent & Co. + +OTHER CITIES. Names of pioneer roasters of other towns in 1860 and 1870 +were: George Boardman, Albany, N.Y.; Chubuck & Saunders, Binghamton, +N.Y.; George W. Hayward, and P.J. Ferris, Buffalo, N.Y.; Lorimore Bros., +and George R. Forrester, Elmira, N.Y.; Hatch & Jenks, Jamestown, N.Y.; +N.B. Beede, Newburgh, N.Y.; A.F. Booth, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.; Ethridge, +Tuller & Co., Rome, N.Y.; M.N. Van Zandt & Co., L.B. Eddy & Co., and +C.T. Moore, Rochester, N.Y.; Ostrander, Loomis & Co., and Jacob Crouse & +Co., Syracuse, N.Y.; C.H. Garrison, Troy, N.Y.; Hinchman & Howard, and +J. Griffiths & Co., Utica, N.Y.; B.F. Hoopes, Bloomington, Ill.; C.P. +Farrell, and Charles Richards, Peoria, Ill.; Slemmons & Conkling, +Springfield, Ill.; Henry Wales, Bridgeport, Conn.; A.B. Gillett, Wm. +Boardman & Sons, Hartford Steam Coffee & Spice Mills, and Park, Fellowes +& Co., Hartford, Conn.; Benj. Peck & Kellum, and Steele & Emery, New +Haven, Conn.; W.S. Scull & Co., Camden, N.J.; Theo. F. Johnson & Co., +and the Pioneer Mills, Newark, N.J.; Charles A. Dunham, New Brunswick, +N.J.; James Ronan and Wm. Dolton & Co., Trenton, N.J.; Butler, Earhart & +Co., Columbus, Ohio; C.A. Trentman & Bro., and J.D. Beach & Co., Dayton, +Ohio; W. & S. Stevens, and F.C. Dietz, Zanesville, Ohio; J.E. Tone, Des +Moines, Iowa; H.P. Hess, Cornell & Smith, and E. Warne, Easton, Pa.; +E.S. Forster, Erie, Pa.; Haehnlen Bros., Harrisburg, Pa.; D.G. +Yuengling, Pottsville, Pa.; A. G. Zilmore & Co., Scranton, Pa.; Granger +& Co., Titusville, Pa.; Huestis & Hamilton, and B. Trentman & Son, Ft. +Wayne, Ind.; S. Hamill & Co., Keokuk, Ia.; H.H. Lee, and Maguire & +Gillespie, Indianapolis, Ind.; Joseph Strong, Terre Haute, Ind.; Curtis +& Burnham, Leavenworth, Kan.; Yates & Dudley, Lexington, Ky.; A. Turner, +Wheeling, W. Va.; Granger & Hodge, and Nathaniel Crocker, St. Paul, +Minn.; W.W. Totten & Bro., Nashville, Tenn.; Henry Burns, Savannah, Ga.; +A. McFarland, Springfield, Mass.; Alexander Wills & Co., Montreal, +Canada; and Peter Hendershot, St. Catherine, Canada. + +Between 1876 and 1900, many other names came into prominence, and among +them mention should be made of: H. Hulman, Terre Haute, Ind.; A.B. Gates +& Co., and Schnull & Krag, Indianapolis, Ind.; O.W. Pierce Co., and +Geiger-Tinney Co., Lafayette, Ind.; Twitchell, Champlin & Co., Portland, +Me.; Nave-McCord Mfg. Co., Mokaska Mfg. Co., and the Midland Spice Co., +St. Joseph, Mo.; Beaham-Moffatt Mfg. Co., and C.A. Murdock & Co., Kansas +City, Mo.; Clarke Bros. & Co., T. S. Grigor & Co., Consolidated Coffee +Co., and McCord, Brady Co., Omaha, Neb.; Dayton Spice Mills Co., and +Canby, Ach & Canby, Dayton, Ohio; Ohio Coffee & Spice Co., and Butler, +Crawford & Co., Columbus, Ohio; Bacon, Stickney & Co., Albany, N.Y.; +Charles R. Groff Co., St. Paul, Minn.; John G. Schuler, Covington, Ky.; +J.W. Thomas & Son, Nashville, Tenn.; Geo. F. Hanley & Co., Los Angeles, +Cal.; C.S. Morey Mercantile Co., Denver, Col.; and W.G. Lown Coffee Co., +Washington, D.C. + +William Boardman, founder of Wm. Boardman & Sons Co., Hartford, Conn., +began roasting coffee at Wethersfield in 1841 with a hand-power roaster, +using wood for fuel. He moved his plant to Hartford in 1850. In the same +year, his son Thomas J., after serving a fifteen-year apprenticeship in +a country store, entered his father's employ. Three years later, he and +his brother, William F.J. Boardman, were admitted to the firm, the name +being changed to Wm. Boardman & Sons. Howard F. Boardman, a son of +Thomas J., began working in the business in 1880, and was admitted to +partnership in 1888. The same year, the founder died and William F.J. +retired. The business has since been conducted by Thomas J. and Howard +F. Boardman. + +The company was incorporated in 1898, and John Pepion was admitted. The +president of the company, Thomas J. Boardman, is at the time of writing +ninety years old. He still takes a very active interest in the +business, and his "cup sense" is as acute as ever. + +The O.W. Pierce Company, Lafayette, Ind. was founded in 1847 by Oliver +Webster Pierce, Sr. Except for three years in the fifties, when the firm +was known as Reynolds, Hatcher & Pierce, it has been known as the O.W. +Pierce Company since it was established. The company was incorporated in +1905 with O.W. Pierce, Jr. as its head. The senior Mr. Pierce died in +1921. The firm first roasted coffee in 1891. Prior to that time it had +been in the wholesale grocery business. + +The William S. Scull Co., Camden, N.J., was established in 1858 by +William S. Scull, whose father had been in the retail tea and coffee +business. William Scull died in 1916. H. Newmark founded H. Newmark & +Co. in Los Angeles in 1865. He retired in 1886, and Maurice H. Newmark +was made a full partner. The present name is M.A. Newmark & Co. + +In 1868, Major David B. Hamill entered, as junior partner, the firm of +S. Hamill & Co., Keokuk, Iowa, of which his father, Smith Hamill, was +the head. Smith Hamill died in 1890, and David B. became head of the +firm. He died in 1916. + +William Tackaberry was a junior partner in the firm of S. Hamill & Co., +Keokuk, Iowa. He began a business of his own in the same city in 1868. +Ten years later, he moved the company to Sioux City, and continued there +as the Wm. Tackaberry Co. + +Joel O. Cheek began traveling for the wholesale grocery house of Webb, +Hughes & Co., Nashville, Tenn., in 1873. Later, he was admitted to +partnership, the firm becoming Webb, Cheek & Co., and then Cheek, Norton +& Neal. He formed the Nashville Coffee & Mfg. Co., in 1899. It was +merged in 1901 into the Cheek-Neal Coffee Co. + +Jekiel and Isaac E. Tone began the business of Tone Bros. at Des Moines, +Iowa, in March, 1873, with one roaster and one spice mill. The business +was incorporated in 1897. Jekiel Tone died in 1900, and Isaac E. Tone in +1916. The business is now (1922) carried on by W.E. and Jay E. Tone. + +Edward Canby began business in Dayton, Ohio, in 1875, succeeding the +firm of J.D. Beach & Co. He retired in 1886, and the business was left +in charge of Frank L. Canby and P.J. Ach. The latter had entered the +employ of Canby in 1877. He secured an interest in the business in 1882, +and became a partner in 1890. When the company was incorporated as +Canby, Ach & Canby in 1904, he was elected president. Mr. Ach has been +very prominent in the affairs of the National Coffee Roasters +Association since its organization. + +Frank J. Geiger began in the tea, coffee, and spice business in +Lafayette, Ind., under the name of Culver & Geiger. Mr. Culver, who had +never been active, died in 1889, and in 1892 the Geiger-Tinney Company +was formed with F.J. Geiger as president. The plant was moved to +Indianapolis in 1901 with William L. Horn as vice-president, and Henry +C. Tinney as secretary and treasurer. The name was changed to the +Geiger-Fishback Co. in 1912, and Mr. Geiger retired. Frank S. Fishback +acquired all the stock of the company in 1918, and the name was changed +to the Fishback Co. with F.S. Fishback, president; John S. Fishback, +treasurer; and F. C. Fishback, secretary. + +S. Holstad joined the Thomson & Taylor Spice Co of Chicago in 1892. He +left in 1901 and went to Minneapolis, where he became a member of the +firm of Atwood & Hoisted. He withdrew in 1908 to form the firm of S. +Holstad & Co., with Charles Ekelund and Alexander W. Kreiser as +partners. After the withdrawal of Mr. Holstad from Atwood & Holstad, Mr. +Atwood continued as Atwood & Co. + +F.P. Atha began work as a coffee salesman with Holman & Co., Terre +Haute, Ind. He went to San Francisco in 1899 and entered the employ of +J.A. Folger & Co., and introduced Folger products east of the Rockies. +He opened the Kansas City branch in 1907; and a year later, he was +admitted to the firm and made vice-president and general manager. + + +_The National Coffee Roasters Association_ + +The first effort to organize the coffee roasters of the United States +dates back to 1885, when several St. Louis coffee roasters came together +in a kind of gentlemen's agreement not to cut the price of roasting +green coffee, which had declined, owing to ruthless competition, from +$1.00 to 10 cents a bag. The various parties to the agreement posted +$500 checks each as forfeits, not to violate the price as fixed. After +one year, a check was cashed; but the principal claimed his lapse was +clerical and not in violation of the agreement. However, as a result of +the argument that followed, the organization was disbanded. + +[Illustration: MEMBERS OF THE ORGANIZATION CONVENTION OF THE NATIONAL +COFFEE ROASTERS ASSOCIATION, ST. LOUIS, MAY 26, 1911 + +Reading from left to right: W.B. Johnson, St. Louis; W.T. Jones, New +Orleans; George Schulte, St. Louis; C.F. Blanke, St. Louis; Ben Casanas, +New Orleans; Carl Stoffregen, St. Louis; Edward D. Hanly, Kansas City; +H.C. Grote, St. Louis; James Menown, St. Louis; Frank P. Atha, Kansas +City; Henry Petring, St. Louis; J.M. McFadden, Dubuque, Iowa; Joseph +Maury, Memphis; T.F. Halligan, Davenport; F.J. Ach, Dayton; Carl Brand, +Cleveland; Wm. Fisher, St. Louis; M.H. Gasser, Toledo; Julius J. +Schotten, St. Louis; E.W. Bockman, Paducah, Ky.; Louis Christopherson, +St. Louis; Felix Coste, St. Louis; W.E. Tone, Des Moines; Robert Meyer, +St. Louis; Fred Roth, St. Louis; M.E. Smith. St. Louis; J.B. +Dubrouilett, St. Louis; Floyd Norwine, St. Louis] + +As early as 1900, leaders of the trade's best thought began to urge the +need of a national organization among coffee roasters. + +As a result of informal meetings between men like Robert M. Forbes, +Julius J. Schotten, Robert Meyer, and Messrs. Roth and Homeyer, around +the luncheon table in St. Louis, to discuss trade abuses and bring about +better trade co-operation, the subject of a St. Louis organization of +coffee roasters began to be agitated about 1906. It was not until four +years later, however, that the idea took definite form. + +On September 14, 1910, the Traffic Association of St. Louis Coffee +Importers was organized, starting out with a membership of ten firms, +its chief object being to obtain an adjustment of freight rates to and +from St. Louis as advantageous as those prevailing for Chicago and New +York. + +This association--of which Robert Meyer was the first president, and +H.L. Homeyer, vice-president, J.S. Hartman, secretary, and G.H. Petring, +treasurer--was the forerunner of the National Coffee Roasters Traffic +and Pure Food Association organized in 1911 and now known as the +National Coffee Roasters Association. + +At the organization meeting of the national association twenty-six +coffee-roasting establishments in the Mississippi Valley were +represented at the conference held May 26-27 in the Planters Hotel, St. +Louis. The objects of the new body were announced in the constitution, +as: + + _First_: To foster and promote a feeling of fellowship and good + will among its members, and on broad and equitable lines to advance + the welfare of the coffee trade and the consumer. + + _Second_: To eliminate or minimize abuses, methods and practises + inimical to the proper conduct of business. + + _Third_: To assist in the enactment and enforcement of uniform pure + food laws which in their operations shall deal justly and equitably + with the rights of the consumer and the trade. + +The association started with these officers: Julius J. Schotten, St. +Louis, President; M.H. Gasser, Toledo, vice-president; W.E. Tone, Des +Moines, treasurer, and W.J.H. Bown, St. Louis, secretary. + +Meanwhile, as a result of an agitation started by _The Tea and Coffee +Trade Journal_, a meeting of New York and eastern coffee roasters was +called at the Fulton Club, New York, October 27, 1911, to discuss plans +for a national organization. M. H. Gasser attended this meeting, and +told of the plan of the western roasters to organize such an +organization at a meeting called for Chicago the following month. The +promoters of the eastern organization subsequently abandoned their +efforts in favor of the western group. + +[Illustration: ROBERT MEYER, ST. LOUIS + +First president of the Coffee Roasters' original organization] + +At the first convention of the National Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure +Food Association, held in Chicago, November 16-17, 1911, all the +foregoing officers were retained, the office of second vice-president +was created, and Frank R. Seelye was selected to fill it. + +That the organization idea was popular among the roasters was evident +from the fact that at the close of the convention it was announced that +the membership was then seventy-one firms in cities as far east as +Virginia and as far west as Kansas City. The convention demonstrated +that the association was really a national organization, which quieted +suspicions prevalent in some quarters of the trade in the east that it +was chiefly a Mississippi Valley unit. + +The first convention is remembered principally because of Hermann +Sielcken's defense of the Brazil coffee valorization plan, which was +then the big question of the coffee trade. The titles of some of the +other addresses will serve to indicate how the scope of the association +had enlarged since its organization a few months before: "An Attack on +Valorization" by Thomas J. Webb, of Chicago; "Uniform Food Laws", by +W.T. Jones, of New Orleans; "Penny-Change Systems," by R.W. McCreery, of +Marshalltown, Ia; "Traffic and Freight Abuses," by W.E. Tone, of Des +Moines; "Transportation Problems," by Carl H. Stoffregen, St. Louis; +"Coffee Publicity," by F.H. Henrici, of Chicago; "Coffee Roasters' Costs +and Accounting," by F.J. Ach, Chicago. The first convention proved a +success, and attracted attention. + +The second annual convention, held in New York, November 13-15, 1912, +showed that the association had grown to a membership of 135 firms +located in all parts of the country, and that its influence had extended +throughout the whole trade. Valorization continued to be a much +discussed subject. Hermann Sielcken and others again defending it in +speeches; but the majority of the association seemed opposed to the +scheme. Probably the most important feature of the convention was the +report of the committee of nine men who had visited Brazil to +investigate conditions there and to interest the Brazilian coffee +growers in an advertising campaign. An address on this subject was made +by the editor of _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, in which he +suggested a plan for propaganda and advocated scientific research to +find out the truth about coffee. + +The election of officers resulted in the selection of F.J. Ach, Dayton, +as president; Frank R. Seelye, Chicago, first vice-president; Ross W. +Weir, New York, second vice-president; and Robert Meyer, St. Louis, +treasurer. + +The 1912 convention changed the name of the association to the National +Coffee Roasters Association, dropping the words "Traffic and Pure Food" +from the original title. + +[Illustration: JULIUS J. SCHOTTEN--1911-12] + +[Illustration: F.J. ACH--1912-14] + +[Illustration: ROSS W. WEIR--1914-16] + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: FRANK R. SEELYE--1916-17] + +[Illustration: BEN C. CASANAS--1917-18] + +[Illustration: CARL W. BRAND--1918-21] + +[Illustration: FORMER PRESIDENTS, NATIONAL COFFEE ROASTERS ASSOCIATION] + +The third convention, which was held November 12-14, 1913, in +Cincinnati, demonstrated that the scope of usefulness of the association +was still growing, as shown by the resolutions which approved better +coffee-making publicity; favored a national coffee day; urged the +appointment of inspectors at ports of entry to prevent the importation +of green coffee under government standard No. 8; condemned the excessive +watering of coffee and all coffee coatings; and provided for the +appointment of an agent to visit Brazil to furnish members with +"reliable" reports on crop flowering. + +F.J. Ach was re-elected president; Ross W. Weir succeeded F.R. Seelye as +first vice-president; W.T. Jones succeeded Mr. Weir as second +vice-president, and Robert Meyer was retained as treasurer. + +Secretary G.W. Toms, who had been appointed in April, 1913, reported +that the association had made a net gain of thirteen members, bringing +the total up to 144. + +The membership of the association had been increased by twenty names +when the fourth annual convention was opened in New Orleans, November +16-19, 1914, making the total 164. + +Better coffee making, roasting economies, a national coffee week, and +improved methods of handling green coffee in ports and warehouses, were +the principal topics considered at the 1914 meeting. As a result of the +discussions, the association went on record in its resolutions as being +against the misbranding of both green and roasted coffee; favored the +creation of a United States board of coffee experts; and the +establishment of an association trade-mark bureau. + +For the ensuing year Ross W. Weir, New York, was chosen president; J.O. +Cheek, Nashville, first vice-president; T.F. Halligan, Davenport, second +vice-president; and W.T. Morley, Worcester, treasurer. + +The decision to get together on a comprehensive national publicity +campaign in the interest of coffee was the outstanding feature of the +fifth annual convention, which was held in St. Louis, November 8-11, +1915, in the same room in the Planters Hotel in which the association +was organized in 1911. From a body of twenty-six roasters, the +association had grown in five years to a membership of 201 firms and +individuals. + +Among the more important things done at this convention was the decision +to undertake a practical publicity plan to advertise coffee; the +adoption of a uniform cost-and-freight contract; the proposal to prepare +educational matter on coffee for the schools; and the recommendation to +employ a chemist to carry on research work. There were spirited +discussions also on gas, coal, and coke as roasting fuels; on the best +way to get retailer co-operation, and whether it was advisable to +continue the national coffee week idea. President Weir, Vice-Presidents +Cheek and Halligan, and Treasurer Morley were re-elected. + +The sixth annual convention, held in Atlantic City, November 14-17, +1916, placed emphasis on research into grinding and brewing; on plans +for doing something practical to help grocers regain their lost coffee +trade; and on an investigation into the scientific costs of roasting. +The admittance of green coffee and allied interests into the association +was also discussed, and it was resolved to make the subject an order of +business for special consideration at the next convention. + +At this meeting Frank R. Seelye, Chicago, was elected president; Ben C. +Casanas, New Orleans, first vice-president; J.M. McFadden, Dubuque, +second vice-president; and M.H. Gasser, Toledo, treasurer. The +membership was reported as being 204, showing a net increase of three +during the year. + +The seventh convention, held in Chicago, November 14-15, 1917, came when +the first movement of American soldiers to European battlefields was +begun, and patriotism was the keynote of the meeting. Because of the +stress of the times, the program was cut to two days, instead of the +three days of former meetings. + +The outstanding features of the convention were: the decision not to +admit green coffee men to the association; the decision to establish a +permanent headquarters; the announcement that Brazil was then collecting +funds for its part in the national advertising campaign; and the +proposal by John E. King, Detroit, that the term "lead number" be used +instead of "caffetannic acid", which he asserted was a misnomer. The +executive committee was authorized to employ a secretary-manager. The +shorter terms and credits idea was endorsed by the association. + +These officers were elected for the next year; Ben C. Casanas, New +Orleans, president; S.H. Holstad, Minneapolis, first vice-president; +Edward Aborn, New York, second vice-president; M.H. Gasser, Toledo, +treasurer. + +The influenza epidemic, which swept the country the latter part of 1918, +caused the postponement of many business and public gatherings, and the +eighth annual roasters convention did not assemble until December 5-6, +in Cleveland--at only ten days' notice. Unlike previous occasions, this +was in reality a combined convention of all roasted and green coffee men +in the trade, both association members and non-members. No regular +program was followed, the meeting being somewhat in the character of a +trade conference. + +The salient features of the convention were the decisions: to double the +annual dues, in order to provide for a paid secretary-manager and to +establish permanent headquarters; to organize a spice grinders' section; +and to ask the government to remove all restrictions on coffee trading. +The Food Administration's coffee regulations came in for severe +criticism. + +The election of officers resulted in Carl W. Brand, Cleveland, becoming +president; Robert M. Forbes, St. Louis, first vice-president; J.A. +Folger, San Francisco, second vice-president; and Lewis Sherman, +Milwaukee, treasurer. + +The ninth convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association was of +greater import to all branches of the coffee trade than any that had +preceded it. The results of the meeting showed the association had gone +far since the organization meeting in St. Louis in 1911. As in 1916, the +convention was held in Atlantic City, November 12-14, 1919, and drew +delegates from as far west as San Francisco and Seattle. + +The most important subjects before the meeting were the reports of the +Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, read by Ross W. Weir, chairman, +and Felix Coste, secretary-manager. The committee had been organized +during the year to carry on the national coffee-advertising campaign, +and announced at the convention its publicity plans for the next year, +which included a national coffee week, a national showing of the +committee's coffee film, and the issuance of several educational +booklets. Other outstanding features included the description of how the +association planned to conduct a research into the cost of doing a +wholesale coffee-roasting business, the investigation to be made by +Columbia University; addresses attacking the meat packers' invasion of +the coffee roasting and distributing field; a paper, and discussions, on +shorter terms and uniform discounts; the recommendation to employ a +traveling field secretary who would hold periodical meetings with local +branches; and the condemnation of guaranteeing prices against decline +and giving advance notices of changes of prices. + +The convention unanimously agreed to the re-election of President Brand, +Vice-Presidents Forbes and Folger, and Treasurer Sherman. + +The tenth annual meeting was held in St. Louis, November 10-12, 1920. +Scientific cost finding, short terms and discounts, the national +advertising campaign, the activities of the N.C.R.A. freight-forwarding +bureau, and laboratory-research were the main topics of this years' +gathering. The membership was reported to be 310. A feature of the +meeting was the first industrial exhibit by twenty-five supply houses. +Among the things accomplished were: + +The recommendation that members co-operate in determining the invisible +supply of coffee in the United States at stated periods; increasing +annual dues from $50 to $60 for members having $50,000 or less +capitalization, and from $100 to $120 for firms having more than $50,000 +capital; restricting membership to purely wholesale coffee roasters and +distributers; and offering co-operation to hotel-men and +restaurant-keepers in standardizing and improving their coffee +beverages. + +The St. Louis meeting was notable in violating association precedent by +unanimously electing Carl W. Brand president for the third consecutive +term. Other officers were: J.A. Folger, San Francisco, first +vice-president, R.O. Miller, Chicago, second vice-president; Charles A. +Clark, Milwaukee, treasurer. + +The eleventh annual meeting, held in New York, November 1-3, 1921, set +the high-water mark of the organization's record of achievement. This +convention took the first definite steps toward the amalgamation of the +green and roasted coffee interests in one association. Brazil sent a +delegation of coffee men to invite a similar delegation to pay a return +visit to Brazil. It was announced also that São Paulo was about to +double its tax contribution to the national advertising campaign. Among +other things done, were: the appropriation of $1500 to work out a +uniform cost-accounting system for roasters; the recommendation that +coffee importers insist upon the use of American ships by Brazilian +exporters; the formulation of a cost-and-freight arbitration contract +for use with São Paulo exporters; the formation of a new membership +class roasting up to 6000 bags a year; and the decision to make a +national campaign to put the selling of coffee on a uniform thirty-days +credit, two percent cash in ten days basis. Professor S.C. Prescott, +reporting on the research work being done at the Massachusetts Institute +of Technology, said a better brew of coffee could be obtained at a +temperature of 185 degrees than at the boiling point; that glass, china, +or enameled-ware pots were to be preferred, and that the filtration +method is superior to that employed in the pumping percolator. + +[Illustration: JOEL O. CHEEK, NASHVILLE + +President of the National Coffee Roasters Association, 1922] + +The Industrial Exposition included displays by twenty-eight +manufacturers of machinery and supplies, and was voted a success. Many +of the exhibits were of a distinctly educational character. + +The following officers were elected for 1921-22: President, Joel O. +Cheek, Nashville, Tenn.; first vice-president, Webster Jones, San +Francisco; second vice-president, Joseph E. Maury, Memphis, Tenn.; +treasurer, Frank Ennis, Kansas City. + + +_Coffee Roaster Statistics_ + +As might be expected, considering the leading place that New York holds +as a port of entry for coffee, the roasting and grinding of coffee is +more important in the eastern section of the country than in any other. +But there are many establishments for preparing coffee scattered +throughout the south and the middle west, and the business has grown to +considerable proportions on the Pacific coast. New York state leads in +number of establishments and is followed by Pennsylvania, California, +Missouri, Ohio, and Illinois. The chief southern state is Texas, +followed by Louisiana and Kentucky, although Maryland and Louisiana lead +in value of product. Missouri has more plants than any other state in +the middle west, and is followed by Illinois, though the capital +invested and the value of the output are much greater in the latter than +in the former. + +COFFEE AND SPICE ROASTING AND GRINDING +ESTABLISHMENTS--CENSUS OF 1914 + + + _Value of_ +_States_ _Number_ _Capital_ _product_ + +Alabama 8 $155,000 $331,000 +California 43 3,619,000 9,584,000 +Colorado 9 445,000 1,168,000 +Connecticut 7 136,000 435,000 +Dist. of Col. 5 294,000 428,000 +Florida 19 219,000 697,000 +Georgia 6 80,000 169,000 +Illinois 34 8,159,000 22,045,000 +Indiana 12 941,000 1,790,000 +Iowa 14 1,752,000 3,804,000 +Kansas 6 144,000 396,000 +Kentucky 17 541,000 1,561,000 +Louisiana 17 1,657,000 4,241,000 +Maryland 14 1,643,000 4,393,000 +Massachusetts 21 3,678,000 8,675,000 +Michigan 16 502,000 1,618,000 +Minnesota 11 1,531,000 4,729,000 +Mississippi 5 27,000 94,000 +Missouri 37 6,152,000 14,299,000 +Nebraska 6 405,000 1,262,000 +New Jersey 17 828,000 3,451,000 +New York 136 9,910,000 31,675,000 +Ohio 35 6,578,000 13,312,000 +Oklahoma 6 191,000 757,000 +Oregon 9 757,000 2,050,000 +Pennsylvania 77 2,454,000 6,967,000 +Tennessee 7 465,000 1,648,000 +Texas 36 970,000 3,326,000 +Virginia 9 413,000 1,137,000 +Washington 25 1,023,000 2,237,000 +West Virginia 3 73,000 71,000 +Wisconsin 8 362,000 809,000 +Other states 21 492,000 1,590,000 + ____ ___________ ____________ +Total 696 $56,596,000 $150,749,000 + +The distribution of the business of preparing coffee is shown by the +figures of the Census Bureau, which reports for 1914 a total of 696 +establishments under the designation "Coffee and spice, roasting and +grinding." It was found to be necessary to adopt this classification +inasmuch as most establishments handle both coffee and spices. Of the +696, however, 658 had coffee as their principal product, and the figures +may thus be taken as indicating fairly well the general distribution of +the coffee-manufacturing industry. These figures, for the various +states, are shown on page 515. + +Preliminary figures for the 1919 census show that the value of the +product almost doubled in the five years 1914-19, amounting to +$304,740,000 in 1919, while the number of establishments increased from +696 to 794, of which 769 specialize in coffee. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +SOME BIG MEN AND NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS + + _B.G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the + American "coffee kings"--John Arbuckle, the original package-coffee + man--Jabez Burns, the man who revolutionized the roasted coffee + business by his contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and + writer--Coffee-trade booms and panics--Brazil's first valorization + enterprise--War-time government control of coffee--The story of + soluble coffee_ + + +In the history of the coffee trade of the United States, several names +stand out because of sensational accomplishments, and because of notable +contributions made to the development of the industry. In green coffee, +we have B.G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken the last, of the +"coffee kings"; in the roasting business, there was John Arbuckle, the +original national-package-coffee man; and in the coffee-roasting +machinery business, Jabez Burns, inventor, manufacturer, and writer. + + +_The First "Coffee King"_ + +Benjamin Green Arnold came to New York from Rhode Island in 1836 and +took a job as accountant with an east-side grocer. He was thrifty, +industrious, and kept his own counsel. He was a born financial leader. +Fifteen years later he was made a junior partner in the firm. By 1868, +the bookkeeper of 1836 was the head of the business, with a line of +credit amounting to half a million dollars--a notable achievement in +those days. + +Mr. Arnold embarked upon his big speculation in coffee in 1869. For ten +years he maintained his mastery of the market, and in that time amassed +a fortune. It is related that one year's operations of this daring +trader yielded his firm a profit of a million and a quarter of dollars. + +[Illustration: BENJAMIN GREEN ARNOLD] + +B.G. Arnold was the first president of the New York Coffee Exchange. He +was one of the founders of the Down Town Association in 1878. The +president of the United States was his friend, and a guest at his +luxurious home. But the high-price levels to which Arnold had forced the +coffee market started a coffee-planting fever in the countries of +production. Almost before he knew it, there was an overproduction that +swamped the market and forced down prices with so amazing rapidity that +panic seized upon the traders. Few that were caught in that memorable +coffee maelstrom survived financially. + +Arnold himself was a victim, but such was the man's character that his +failure was regarded by many as a public misfortune. Some men differed +with him as to the wisdom of promoting a coffee corner, and protested +that it was against public policy; but Arnold's personal integrity was +never questioned, and his mercantile ability and honorable business +dealings won for him an affectionate regard that continued after his +fortune had been swept away. + +After the collapse of the coffee corner, Mr. Arnold resumed business +with his son, F.B. Arnold. He died in New York, December 10, 1894, in +his eighty-second year. The son died in Rome in 1906. The business which +the father founded, however, continues today as Arnold, Dorr & Co., one +of the most honored and respected names in Front Street. + + +_Hermann Sielcken, the Last Coffee King_ + +If B.G. Arnold was first coffee king, Hermann Sielcken was last, for it +is unlikely that ever again, in the United States, will it be possible +for one man to achieve so absolute a dictatorship of the green coffee +business. + +There never was a coffee romance like that of Hermann Sielcken's. Coming +to America a poor boy in 1869, forty-five years later, he left it many +times a millionaire. For a time, he ruled the coffee markets of the +world with a kind of autocracy such as the trade had never seen before +and probably will not see again. And when, just before the outbreak of +the World War, he returned to Germany for the annual visit to his +Baden-Baden estate, from which he was destined never again to sally +forth to deeds of financial prowess, his subsequent involuntary +retirement found him a huge commercial success, where B.G. Arnold was a +colossal failure. It was the World War and a lingering illness that, at +the end, stopped Hermann Sielcken. But, though he had to admit himself +bested by the fortunes of war, he was still undefeated in the world of +commerce. He died in his native Germany in 1917, the most commanding, +and the most cordially disliked, figure ever produced by the coffee +trade. + +Hermann Sielcken was born in Hamburg in 1847, and so was seventy years +old when he died at Baden-Baden, October 8, 1917. He was the son of a +small baker in Hamburg; and before he was twenty-one, he went to Costa +Rica to work for a German firm there. He did not like Costa Rica, and +within a year he went to San Francisco, where, with a knowledge of +English already acquired, he got a job as a shipping clerk. This was in +1869. A wool concern engaged him as buyer, and for about six years he +covered the territory between the Rockies and the Pacific, buying wool. +On one of these trips he was in a stage-coach wreck in Oregon and nearly +lost his life. He received injuries affecting his back from which he +never fully recovered, and which caused the stooped posture which marked +his carriage through life thereafter. When he recovered, he came to New +York seeking employment, and obtained a clerical position with L. +Strauss & Sons, importers of crockery and glassware. In 1880, married +Josephine Chabert, whose father kept a restaurant in Park Place. + +Sielcken had learned Spanish in Costa Rica, and this knowledge aided him +to a place with W.H. Crossman & Bro. (W.H. and George W. Crossman) +merchandise commission merchants in Broad Street. He was sent to South +America to solicit consignments for the Crossmans, and was surprisingly +successful. For six or eight months every South American mail brought +orders to the house. Then, as the story goes, his reports suddenly +ceased. Weeks and months passed, and the firm heard nothing from him. + +The Crossmans speculated concerning his fate. It was thought he might +have caught a fever and died. It was almost impossible to trace him; at +the same time it distressed them to lose so promising a representative. +Giving up all hope of hearing from him again, they began to look around +for some one to take his place. Then, one morning, he walked into the +office and said, "How do you do?" just as if he had left them only the +evening before. The members of the firm questioned him eagerly. He +answered some of their questions; but most of them he did not. Then he +laid a package on the table. + +[Illustration: HERMANN SIELCKEN] + +"Gentlemen", he said, "I have given a large amount of business to you, +far more than you expected, as the result of my trip. I have a lot more +business which I can give to you. It's all in black and white in the +papers in this package. I think any person who has worked as hard as I +have, and so well, deserves a partnership in this firm. If you want +these orders, you may have them. They represent a big profit to you. +Good work deserves proper reward. Look these papers over, and then tell +me if you want me to continue with you as a member of this firm." + +After the Crossmans had looked those papers over they had no doubt of +the advisability of taking Sielcken into partnership. He was admitted as +a junior in 1881-82 and became a full partner in 1885. For more than +twenty years Hermann Sielcken was the human dynamo that pushed the firm +forward into a place of world prominence. He was the best informed man +on coffee in two continents; and when, in 1904, the firm name was +changed to Crossman & Sielcken--W.H. Crossman having died ten years +before--he was well prepared to assert his rights as king of the trade. +He proved his kingship by his masterful handling of valorization three +years later. + +Sielcken was many times credited with working "corners" in coffee; but +he would never admit that a corner was possible in anything that came +out of the ground; and to the end, he was insistent in his denials of +ever having cornered coffee. As a daring trader, he won his spurs in a +sensational tilt with the Arbuckles in the bull campaign of 1887. +Because of this, he became one of the most feared and hated men in the +Coffee Exchange. For a while, coffee did not offer enough play for his +tremendous energy and ambition. He embarked in various +enterprises--among them, the steel industry and railroads. No one was +too big for Sielcken to cross lances with. He bested John W. Gates in a +titanic fight, in American Steel and Wire. He quarreled with E.H. +Harriman and George J. Gould over the possession of the Kansas City, +Pittsburgh, and Gulf Railroad, now known as the Kansas City Southern, +and, backed by a syndicate of Hollanders, obtained control. + +While still busy with the Kansas City Southern enterprise Sielcken began +work on the coffee valorization scheme that he carried to a successful +conclusion in spite of the law of supply and demand and the interference +of the Congress of the United States. Valorization by the São Paulo +government, and by coffee merchants, having proved a failure; Sielcken +showed how it could be done with all the American coffee merchants +eliminated--except himself. In this way, he secured for himself the +opportunity he had long been seeking--the chance to bestride the coffee +trade like a colossus. The story is told farther along in this chapter. + +When his partner, George W. Crossman, died in 1913, it was discovered +that the two men had a remarkable contract. Each had made a will giving +one million dollars to the other. Then Sielcken bought his late +partner's interest in the firm for $5,166,991. + +His first wife having died at Mariahalden, his home in Baden-Baden, +seven years before, Sielcken married at Tessin, Germany, in 1913, Mrs. +Clara Wendroth, a widow with two children, and the daughter of the late +Paul Isenberg, a wealthy sugar planter of the Hawaiian Islands. At that +time the coffee king was dividing his time between the Waldorf-Astoria, +New York, which he called his American home, and his wonderful estate in +the fatherland. This latter was a two-hundred-acre private park +containing four villas and a marvelous bath-house for guests besides the +main villa; a rose-garden in which were cultivated one hundred +sixty-eight varieties on some twenty thousand bushes; a special +greenhouse for orchids; and landscaped grounds calling for the service +of six professional gardeners and forty assistants. Here he delighted to +entertain his friends. Frequently, there were fifteen to twenty of them +for dinner on the garden terrace; and, as the moon came up through the +tall hemlocks and shone through the majestic pines brought from Oregon, +a full military band from Heidelberg, adown the hillside among the rose +trees, mingled its music with the dinner discussions. There was nothing +at that dinner table but peace and harmony, although every language in +Europe was spoken; for Sielcken knew them all from his youth. Sometimes +he entertained his guests with stories of his California life, and +sometimes with those of shipwrecks in South America. + +All the post-telegraph boys in Baden knew every foot of the sharply +winding road up the Yburg Strasse to Villa Mariahalden; and the guests +therein have counted more than eighty cables received, and more than +thirty sent in a single day. And those daily cable messages were to and +from all quarters of the globe, and to and from the master, who handled +them all, without even a secretary or typewriter. Nowhere in the entire +establishment was there even an appearance of business, except as the +messages came and went on the highway. Sielcken manifested his greatest +delight in showing his friends his orchids, his roses, his pigeons, his +trout, and his trees. + +Like Napoleon, this merchant prince required only five hours sleep. It +was his custom to go to bed at one and to be up at six. Did he wish to +know anything that the cables did not bring him, he jumped into his +eighty-horse-power Mercedes with a party of guests and was off with the +sunrise, down the Rhine Valley, on his way to Paris or Hamburg; and +before one realized that he was gone, he was back again. + +In 1913, Sielcken admitted to partnership in his firm two employees of +long service, John S. Sorenson and Thorlief S.B. Nielsen. He went to +Germany in 1914, shortly before the beginning of the World War, and +remained at Mariahalden until he died in 1917. Sielcken never would +believe that war was possible until it had actually started. Up to the +last moment in July, 1914, he was cabling his New York partner that +there would probably be no hostilities. He lost a bet of a thousand +pounds made with a visiting Brazilian friend a few days before war was +declared. The guest believed war inevitable and won. A few days before +Sielcken's death the old firm was dissolved under the Trading with the +Enemy Act, being succeeded by the firm of Sorenson & Nielsen. The former +had been with the business thirty-four years, and the latter thirty-two +years. The alien property custodian took over Sielcken's interest for +the duration of the war. + +Rumors in 1915 that the German government was extorting large sums of +money from Sielcken brought denials from his associates here. After the +war, it was confirmed that no such extortions took place. + +Sielcken always claimed American citizenship. There was a widely +circulated story, never proved, that he tore up his citizenship papers +in 1912 when the United States government began its suit to force the +sale of coffee stocks held here under the valorization agreement. The +Supreme Court of California in 1921 decided that he _was_ a citizen, and +his interests and those of his widow, amounting to $4,000,000, held by +the alien property custodian, were thereupon released to his heirs. It +appeared in evidence that he took out his citizenship papers in San +Francisco in 1873-74, but lost them in a shipwreck off the coast of +Brazil in 1876. The San Francisco fire destroyed the other records; but +under act of legislature re-establishing them, the citizenship claim was +declared valid. + +Hermann Sielcken never liked the title of "coffee king." He was once +asked about this appellation, and turned smartly upon the interviewer. + +"Nonsense," he said. "I am no king. I don't like the term, because I +never heard of a 'king' who did not fail." + +Sielcken had no use for titles. T.S.B. Nielsen says that at a dinner +party in Germany in 1915 he heard Sielcken explain to a large number of +guests that the United States was the best country because there a man +was appraised at his real value. What he did, and how he lived, +counted--not birth or titles. + +While his greatest achievement was, of course, the valorization +enterprise, he played a not unimportant rôle in the Havemeyer-Arbuckle +sugar-trust fight. He aided the late Henry O. Havemeyer to secure +control of the Woolson Spice Co. of Toledo in 1896, so as to enable the +Havemeyer's to retaliate with Lion brand coffee for the Arbuckles' +entrance into the sugar business. The Woolson Spice Co. sold the Lion +brand in the middle west, and the American Coffee Co. sold it in the +east. That was the beginning of a losing price-war that lasted ten +years. At the end, Sielcken took over the Woolson property at a price +considerably lower than originally paid for it. In 1919, the Woolson +Spice Co. brought suit against the Sielcken estate, alleging a loss of +$932,000 on valorization coffee sold to it by Sielcken just after the +federal government began its suit in 1912 to break up the valorization +pool in the United States. The Woolson Spice Co. paid the "market +price", as did the rest of the buyers of valorization coffee; but it was +charged that Sielcken, as managing partner of Crossman & Sielcken, sold +the coffee to the Woolson Spice Co., of which he was president, "at +artificially enhanced prices and in quantities far in excess of its +legitimate needs, concealing his knowledge that before the plaintiff +could use the coffee, the price would decline." Sielcken collected for +the coffee sold $3,218,666. + +When the United States government crossed lances with Sielcken in 1912 +over the valorization scheme, it looked for a time as if he would be +unhorsed. But men and governments were all the same to Sielcken; and at +the end of the fight it was discovered that not only was he +undefeated--for the government never pressed its suit to conclusion--but +that his prestige as king and master mind of the coffee trade had gained +immeasurably by the adventure. + +Hermann Sielcken typified German efficiency raised to the nth power. He +was a colossus of commerce with the military alertness of a Bismarck. +His mental processes were profound, and his vision was far-reaching. He +was a resourceful trader, an austere friend, a shrewd and uncompromising +foe. Physically, he was a big man with a bull neck and black, piercing +eyes. His policy in coffee was one of blood and iron. He brooked no +interference with his plans, and he was ruthless in his methods of +dealing with men and governments. Usually silent and uncommunicative, +occasionally he exploded under stress; and when he did so, there was no +mincing of words. He knew no fear. Newspaper criticism annoyed him but +little; and he had a kind of contempt for the fourth estate as a whole, +although he knew how to use it when it suited his purpose. He avoided +the limelight, and never courted publicity for himself. Socially he was +a princely host; but few knew him intimately, except perhaps in his +native Germany. + +Sielcken's widow was married in New York, February 11, 1922, to Joseph +M. Schwartz, the Russian baritone of the Chicago Opera Company. + + +_The Story of John Arbuckle_ + +John Arbuckle, for nearly fifty years the honored dean of the American +coffee trade, pioneer package-coffee man, some time coffee king, sugar +merchant, philanthropist, and typical American, came from fine, rugged +Scotch stock. He was the son of a well-to-do Scottish woolen-mill owner +in Allegheny, Pa., where he was born, July 11, 1839. He often said he +was raised on skim milk. He received a common school education in +Pittsburgh and Allegheny. He and Henry Phipps, the coke and steel head, +are said to have occupied adjoining desks in one of the public schools, +Andrew Carnegie being at that time in another grade of the same school. +He had a strong bent for science and machinery; and, although he chose +the coffee instead of the steel business for his career, the basis of +his success was invention. He also attended Washington and Jefferson +College at Washington, Pennsylvania.[348] + +The Arbuckle business was founded at Pittsburg, in 1859, when Charles +Arbuckle, his uncle Duncan McDonald, and their friend William Roseburg, +organized the wholesale grocery firm of McDonald & Arbuckle. One year +later John Arbuckle, the younger brother of Charles Arbuckle, was +admitted to the firm, and the firm name was changed to McDonald & +Arbuckles. McDonald and Roseburg retired from the firm a few years +later, leaving the business in the hands of the two youthful, hopeful, +and energetic brothers, who under the firm name of Arbuckles & Co., soon +made their firm one of the important wholesale grocery houses in +Pennsylvania. Although little thinking at the time that their greatest +success was to be achieved in coffee, and that a new idea of one of the +partners--that of marketing roasted coffee in original packages--would +make their name familiar in every hamlet in the country, yet the first +two entries in the original day-book of McDonald & Arbuckles record +purchases of coffee. + +Prior to the sixties, coffee was not generally sold roasted or ground, +ready for the coffee pot. Except in the big cities, most housewives +bought their coffee green, and roasted it in their kitchen stoves as +needed. John Arbuckle, having become impressed with the wasteful methods +and unsatisfactory results of this kitchen roasting, had already begun +his studies of roasting and packaging problems, studies that he never +gave up. How, first to roast coffee scientifically, and then to preserve +its freshness in the interval between the roaster and the coffee pot, +continued to be an absorbing study until his death. The range of his +work may be illustrated by reference to his first and his last patents. +In 1868, he patented a process of glazing coffee, which had for its +object the preservation of the flavor and aroma of coffee by sealing the +pores of the coffee bean. Thirty-five years later, he patented a huge +coffee roaster in which, more closely than in any other roaster, he felt +he could approach his ideal of roasting coffee--that ideal being to hold +the coffee beans in suspension in superheated air during the entire +roasting process, and not to allow them to come in contact with a heated +iron surface. + +By 1865, John Arbuckle had satisfied himself that a carefully roasted +coffee, packed while still warm in small individual containers, would +measurably overcome the objections to selling loose coffee in a roasted +state. So in that year (1865), although not without the misgivings of +his elder brother, and even in the face of the ridicule of competitors, +who derided the plan of selling roasted coffee "in little paper bags +like peanuts", Arbuckles & Co. introduced the new idea, namely, roasted +coffee in original packages. The story of the development of that simple +idea, which soon spread from coast to coast, and of how it laid the +foundations of a great fortune, is one of the romances of American +business. + +Although Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java Coffee, a ground-coffee +package, first put on the New York market by Lewis A. Osborn, and later +exploited by Thomas Reid in the early sixties, appears to have been the +original package coffee, much of the fame attached to the name of +Arbuckle comes from its association with the Ariosa coffee package, +which was the first successful national brand of package coffee. It was +launched in 1873. The Ariosa premium list (premiums have been a feature +of the Arbuckle business since 1895) includes a hundred articles. Almost +anything from a pair of suspenders or a toothbrush, to clocks, wringers, +and corsets may be obtained in exchange for Ariosa coupons. + +The common belief that the name Ariosa was made up from the words Rio +and Santos (said to be the component parts of the original blend) is +erroneous. It was arbitrarily coined, though it is not known what +considerations prompted it. One story has it that the "A" stands for +Arbuckle, the "rio" for Rio, and the "sa" for South America. + +Early in the seventies, the great business opportunities of New York +City had attracted the two brothers, and a branch was established in New +York in charge of John Arbuckle, the main business in Pittsburg being +left in the care of his brother Charles. The growth of the New York +branch soon made it necessary for Charles Arbuckle to leave the +Pittsburg business in charge of trusted employees, and to come to New +York. In time, the coffee business of the New York house overshadowed +the grocery lines; and the latter were abandoned there, so that the +entire energy of the firm in New York might be devoted to the coffee +business, which thenceforth was operated under the firm name of Arbuckle +Bros. The Arbuckle coffee business, which began with a single roaster in +1865, had eighty-five machines running in Pittsburg and New York in +1881. + +Charles Arbuckle died in 1891, and John Arbuckle admitted as partners +his nephew, William Arbuckle Jamison, and two employees, William V.R. +Smith and James N. Jarvie, the business continuing under the former name +of Arbuckle Bros. The most important step taken by the firm while thus +constituted was its entrance into the sugar refining business in 1896. +That entrance had to be forced against the bitterest opposition of a +so-called sugar trust, and brought on a "war" signalized by the most +ruthless cutting of prices of both coffee and sugar. This war was costly +to both sides; but when it had ended, Arbuckle Bros. remained unshaken +in the preeminence of their package-coffee business and had acquired +also great publicity and a fine trade in refined sugar. + +[Illustration: JOHN ARBUCKLE] + +Arbuckles were always large consumers of sugar in connection with their +coffee glaze, and having introduced the package sugar idea with their +customers some years before, they at last made up their minds to refine +for their own needs and thus to save the profits paid to "the +Havemeyers". It is generally conceded that John Arbuckle's shrewdness +and business sagacity in having previously acquired the Smyser patents +on a weighing and packing machine, and his control of it, really led to +the coffee-sugar war. "This packing machine", said the _Spice Mill_, +when Henry E. Smyser died in 1899, "puts him [Smyser] with the greatest +inventors of our day." + +The sugar trust met the Arbuckle challenge by invading the +coffee-roasting field. This they accomplished by securing a controlling +interest for $2,000,000 in one of the largest competing roasting plants +in the country, that of the Woolson Spice Co., of Toledo, Ohio, that had +in the Lion brand, a ready-made package coffee wherewith to fight +Ariosa. The re-organization of the Woolson Spice Co. in 1897, when A. M. +Woolson was relieved of the office of president, disclosed, among +others, the names of Hermann Sielcken in close juxtaposition to that of +H.O. Havemeyer on the board of directors. Both men helped to make +coffee-trade history. + +The trade found the coffee-sugar war the all-absorbing topic for several +years. Hot debates were held on the question as to whether, on one hand, +the Arbuckles had the right to enter the sugar-refining business and, on +the other, as to whether the sugar-trust had a right to retaliate. The +answer seemed to be "yes" in both instances. + +In two years, John Arbuckle's model sugar refinery in Brooklyn was +turning out package sugar at the rate of five thousand barrels a day. +The Woolson Spice Co. was credited with spending unheard-of sums of +money in advertising Lion brand coffee. The eastern newspaper displays +alone exceeded anything ever before attempted in this line. However, +many people are of the opinion that it was a tactical error on the part +of the sugar interests to spend so much money advertising a Rio coffee +in the central and New England states, while John Arbuckle was confining +his activities to the south and the west, where there already existed a +Rio taste among consumers. + +The legal fight which the Arbuckles carried on with the Havemeyers for +the control of the sugar business in this celebrated coffee-sugar war is +said to have cost millions on both sides. + +Eventually, the Havemeyers were glad to be relieved of their coffee +interests, but John Arbuckle continued to sell both coffee and sugar. + +Mr. Arbuckle married Miss Mary Alice Kerr in Pittsburg, in 1868. She +died in 1907. His many charities included boat trips for children, +luxurious farm vacations for tired wage-earners, boat-raising and +life-saving schemes, a low-priced home for working girls and men on an +old full-rigged ship lying off a New York dock, which he called his +"Deep Sea Hotel," and a vacation enterprise for young men and young +women at New Paltz, N.Y., which was known as the "Mary and John Arbuckle +Farm." A magazine for children, called _Sunshine_, was another +benevolent enterprise of his. + +When John Arbuckle died at his Brooklyn home, March 27, 1912, he had +been ill only four days. The New York Coffee Exchange closed at two +o'clock the day following, after adopting appropriate resolutions and +appointing a committee to attend the funeral. His estate in New York was +valued at $33,000,000. + +W.V.R. Smith and James N. Jarvie retired from the firm in 1906; and John +Arbuckle and his nephew W.A. Jamison continued it as sole owners and +partners until Mr. Arbuckle's death in 1912. Mr. Arbuckle died childless +and a widower, leaving as his only heirs his two sisters, Mrs. Catherine +Arbuckle Jamison and Miss Christina Arbuckle. Mrs. Jamison is the widow +of the late Robert Jamison, who had been a prominent drygoods merchant +in Pittsburg. William A. Jamison is her eldest and only living son. +Following the death of John Arbuckle, a new partnership was formed in +which Mrs. Jamison, Miss Arbuckle, and Mr. Jamison became the partners +and owners, and that partnership, without change of name, continues. +Probably there is no other mercantile establishment of similar size in +the country that is carried on as a partnership, and none which after +more than sixty years is so exclusively owned by members of the +immediate family of its founders. + +The Arbuckle business, as it is today, is John Arbuckle's best monument. +All that it is he foresaw; for behind those keen, penetrating eyes, +there was wonderful vision. Simple in his tastes; democratic in his +dress, in his habits and his speech; he was one of the most approachable +of our first captains of industry. Many of the younger generation in the +coffee business have found inspiration in contemplating John Arbuckle's +achievements. As represented in what has been called "the world's +greatest coffee business", these include other package coffees, such as +Yuban, Arbuckle's Breakfast, Arbuckle's Drinksum, and Arbuckle's +Certified Java and Mocha. The pioneer Ariosa brand is still being sold; +although it is interesting to note that the demand for ground Ariosa is +increasing, marking the swing of the pendulum of public taste away from +the original bean package to the so-called "steel-cut," or ground, +coffee package. Will it swing back again, some day? Many coffee men +believe it will. If it does, good old Ariosa, with its coating of sugar +and eggs, will no doubt be on the job to meet it. + +Yuban was launched in the fall of 1913. It is a high-grade package +coffee, whereas Ariosa is popular-priced. In addition to the package +coffee business, Arbuckle Bros. have many other activities. They deal in +green coffee as well as roasted coffee in bulk. The wholesale grocery +business in Pittsburg continues under the old name of Arbuckles & Co.; +while in Chicago, Arbuckle Bros. have a branch equipped with a +coffee-roasting-and-packaging plant, also spice-grinding and +extract-manufacturing plants, and do a large business in teas. A branch +in Kansas City distributes the products manufactured in New York and +Chicago. In Brazil, offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro, Santos, +and Victoria, as Arbuckle & Co. In Mexico, Arbuckle Bros. are +established at Jalapa, with branches at Cordoba and Coatepec. In season, +the warehouses and hulling plants at those points employ as many as 650 +hands preparing Mexican coffee for shipment to New York. + +Arbuckle Bros. are direct importers of green coffee on a large scale, +and are known also as heavy buyers "on the street." The roasting +capacity of their Brooklyn plant is from 8,000 to 9,000 bags per day. +The cylinder equipment of twenty-four Burns roasters is supplemented by +four "Jumbo" roasters of Arbuckle build, each capable of roasting +thirty-five bags at one time. The Ariosa package business grew from the +smallest beginnings to more than 800,000 packages per day. Individual +brands have not held their lead of late years; but the volume of +package-coffee business is greater than ever. Many jobbers now pack +brands of their own, besides handling the Arbuckle brands. + +Distribution of roasted coffees outside Chicago and Kansas City is +accomplished through the medium of more than one hundred stock depots +in as many different cities of the United States. + +To operate the world's greatest coffee business is no small undertaking; +and when this is coupled with an important sugar-refining business and a +waterfront warehouse-and-terminal business, plenty of room is needed. So +we find the plant along the Brooklyn waterfront occupying an area of a +dozen city blocks. An idea of the extent and diversity of the activities +of the plant may be gained from a brief reference to the utilities, and +the trades, and even the professions, that are required to make the +wheels go round. + +To ship more than one hundred cars of coffee and sugar in a single day +calls for shipping facilities that could be had only by organizing a +railroad and waterfront terminal, known as Jay Street Terminal, equipped +with freight station, locomotives, tugboats, steam lighters, car floats, +and barges. City deliveries of coffee and sugar call for a fleet of +thirty-five large motor trucks that are housed in the firm's own garage +and kept in repair in their own shops. Although motor trucks are fast +replacing the faithful horse; and the time will never come again when +Arbuckle Bros. will boast of their stable of nearly two hundred horses +that were generally acknowledged to be the finest string of draft horses +in the city, some fifty or sixty of their faithful animals still are in +harness; and so the stable, with blacksmith shop, harness shop, and +wagon-repair shops, are serving their respective purposes, though on a +reduced scale. A printing shop vibrates with the whirr of mammoth +printing presses turning out thousands upon thousands of coffee-wrappers +and circulars; and doubtless it will be news to many that the first +three-color printing press ever built was expressly designed and built +for Arbuckle Bros. Then there is a sunny first-aid hospital on top of +the Pearl Street warehouse where a physician is ever ready to relieve +sudden illness and accidental injuries. On the eleventh floor there is a +huge dining room where the Brooklyn clerical forces get their noonday +lunches. This feeding of the inner man (and woman) is matched by the +power-house where twenty-six large steam boilers must be fed their quota +of coal. In the winter months, when Warmth must come for the workers as +well as power for the wheels, the coal consumption runs up as high as +four hundred tons per day. + +The barrel factory, with a daily capacity of 6,800 sugar barrels, is +located about a mile away, where barrel staves and heads are received +from the firm's own stave mill in Virginia, made from logs cut on their +own timber lands in Virginia and North Carolina. A more self-contained +plant would be hard to imagine, and so we find that even the last +activity in its operations--that of washing and drying the emptied sugar +bags--is also provided for. That this is "some laundry" goes without +saying, when it is recalled that in the busy sugar season the firm dumps +from eight to ten thousand bags of raw sugar per day, and that these +bags are washed and dried daily as emptied. A huge rotary drier of the +firm's own design does the work of about three miles of clothes lines. + +Even after the coffees have been sold and paid for, there still remains +an important task, and that is to redeem the signature coupons which the +consumers cut from the packages and return for premiums. Lest some +regard this as an insignificant phase of the business, it may be stated +that in a single year the premium department has received over one +hundred and eight million coupons calling for more than four million +premiums. These premiums included 818,928 handkerchiefs; 261,000 pairs +of lace curtains; 238,738 shears; and 185,920 Torrey razors. Finger +rings are perennial favorites, and so insistent is the demand for the +rings offered as premiums, that Arbuckle Bros. are regarded as the +largest distributors of finger rings in the world. One of their premium +rings is a wedding ring; and if all the rings of this pattern serve +their intended purpose, it is estimated that the firm has assisted at +eighty thousand weddings in a year. + +Turning from the utilities at the plant to the trades and professions +represented, other than the trained sugar and coffee workers, the +following are constantly employed: physicians, chemists, mechanical +engineers, civil engineers, electrical engineers, railroad engineers and +brakemen, steamboat captains and engineers, chauffeurs, teamsters, +wagon-makers, harness-makers, machinists, draughtsmen, blacksmiths, +tinsmiths, coppersmiths, coopers, carpenters, masons, painters, +plumbers, riggers, typesetters and pressmen, and last but not least, +the chef and table waiters. + +One of the most remarkable things about the growth of this business +enterprise is that it is not the result of buying out, or consolidating +with, competitors; but has resulted from a steady wholesome growth along +conservative business lines. Consolidations are often desirable and +effective; but when a great business has been built without any such +consolidations, the conclusion is inevitable that somewhere in the +establishment there must have been a corresponding amount of wisdom, +foresight, energy, and honorable business dealing. Those were the things +for which John Arbuckle stood firm, and for which he will always be +remembered. + + +_Jabez Burns, Inventor, Manufacturer, Writer_ + +Jabez Burns was a person of real importance to the American coffee trade +from 1864, when he began to manufacture his improved roaster, until his +death, at the age of sixty-two, in 1888. His success depended more on +unusual character than unusual ability, although he was really gifted as +regards mechanical invention. He loved to acquire practical information, +and arrived confidently at common-sense conclusions; and he exercised a +wide and helpful influence, because he liked to give expression to +opinions that he considered sound and useful. + +Mr. Burns was born in London in 1826. The family moved soon after to +Dundee, Scotland, and came to New York in 1844. They were people of +small means and independent thinking. The father, William G. Burns, had +been more interested in the Chartist social movement than in any settled +business activity. An uncle, also named Jabez Burns, became a popular +Baptist preacher in London. + +The first winter in America found youthful Jabez teaching a country +school at Summit, N.J. Then he began in New York (1844-45) as teamster +for Henry Blair, a prosperous coffee merchant who attended a little +"Disciples" church in lower Sixth Avenue where many Scottish families +congregated. There also Burns met Agnes Brown, daughter of a Paisley +weaver, and married her in 1847. A brave young pair they were, who found +all sorts of odd riches--just as if a fast-growing family could somehow +make up for a slow-growing income. There were hopes, too, that the +contrivances Burns kept inventing might bring wealth; and some extra +money did come from the sale of early patents, including one in 1858 for +the Burns Addometer, a primitive adding machine. + +But Mr. Burns had continued regularly in the employ of coffee and spice +firms, and at one time he was bookkeeper for Thomas Reid's Globe Mills. +He advanced slowly, because he lacked real trading talent; but he was +learning all about the handling of goods, from purchase to final +delivery; and when he quit bookkeeping for the old Globe Mills, and +began to build his patent roaster, he could advise clients reliably +about every factory detail. + +He was soon looked on as an authority. He wrote some articles for the +_American Grocer_, a series on "Food Adulteration" being reprinted; and +in 1878, he began the quarterly publication of his thirty-two-page +_Spice Mill_, which soon became a monthly, and gained the interested +attention of practically the entire coffee and spice trade. + +Through the columns of this paper, in circulars, by letters, and in a +pocket volume called the _Spice Mill Companion_, he distributed +information on coffee, spices, and baking powder, and gave valuable +advice to beginners in the coffee-roasting business. Not a few coffee +roasters were started on the way to fortune by the counsel of Jabez +Burns. He died in New York, September 16, 1888. + +Jabez Burns founded the business of Jabez Burns & Sons in 1864, +beginning the manufacture of his patent coffee roaster at 107 Warren +Street, New York. Since then, there have been four removals. In +December, 1908, the business moved to its present uptown location, at +the northwest corner of Eleventh Avenue and Forty-third Street, +occupying a six-story building which was doubled in size in 1917. This +Burns factory has been referred to as "the unique coffee-machinery +workshop", the greatest establishment of its kind in the United States. + +Upon the death of its founder the business was continued; first, as the +firm of Jabez Burns & Sons, composed of his sons, Jabez, Robert, and A. +Lincoln Burns; and later, in 1906, incorporated as Jabez Burns & Sons, +Inc., with Robert Burns as president, Jabez Burns as vice-president, +and A. Lincoln Burns as secretary and treasurer. Jabez Burns died August +6, 1908. The present officers are: Robert Burns, president; A. Lincoln +Burns, vice-president; William G. Burns, general manager; and C.H. +Maclachlan, secretary and treasurer. + +[Illustration: JABEZ BURNS] + +A. Lincoln Burns succeeded his father as editor of the _Spice Mill_. +William H. Ukers was made editor in 1902, and he continued until 1904, +when he left to assume editorial direction of _The Tea and Coffee Trade +Journal_. + + +_Coffee-Trade Booms and Panics_ + +In the last fifty years there have been many spectacular attempts to +corner the coffee market in Europe and the United States. The first +notable occurrence of this kind did not originate in the trade itself. +It took place in 1873, and was known as the "Jay Cooke panic", being +brought about by the famous panic of that name in the stock market. + +As a result of the Jay Cooke failure, it was impossible to obtain money +from the banks. Hence buyers were forced to keep out of the coffee +market; and as a consequence, the price for Rios dropped from +twenty-four cents to fifteen cents in the course of the trading period +of one day[349]. + +Another interesting development during that year was of foreign origin. +A coffee syndicate was organized in Europe, financed by the powerful +German Trading Company of Frankfort, with agencies in London, Rotterdam, +Antwerp, and Brazil. For more than eight years this proved to be a +highly successful undertaking, largely controlling the principal +producing and consuming markets. + +As far as the American coffee trade is concerned, the first sensational +upheaval took place in 1880-81. This period witnessed the collapse of +the first great coffee trade combination in this country--the so-called +"syndicate", comprising O.G. Kimball, B.G. Arnold, and Bowie Dash, +sometimes known as the "trinity". + +The period of high coffee prices, commencing in 1870, had greatly +stimulated production in many Mild-coffee producing countries, as well +as in Brazil, and as a consequence the syndicate found its burden +becoming extremely heavy early in 1880. In January of that year our +visible supply amounted roughly to 767,000 bags. While this was reduced +to about 740,000 bags in July, the latter likewise proved to be +decidedly burdensome, especially as another liberal crop was beginning +to move in producing countries. The excessive volume of supplies was +especially marked, because distributing trade during the summer was +strikingly dull, as the majority of buyers were holding off, in view of +the prospective liberal new crops. At that time Java coffee was a big +item in American markets, whereas Santos was just about beginning to be +a factor. + +The syndicate found that it had its hands full supporting the Brazil +grades, and hence had to let the Javas go. As a result, the latter, +which had sold at twenty-four and three-quarters cents in January, 1880, +fell to nineteen and one-half cents in July, to eighteen cents in +November and to sixteen cents in December. As a matter of fact, the +syndicate was practically the only buyer of Brazil coffee during the +fall of 1880; and as a consequence, Rios, which had started the year at +fourteen and one-half to sixteen and one-quarter cents, were down to +twelve and three-quarters cents in December, 1880, and had dropped nine +and one-half cents when the break in the market culminated in June, +1881. + +The first whispers of financial troubles growing out of these adverse +conditions were heard in October, 1880; and on the 27th of that month +the first failure was announced--that of C. Risley & Co., with +liabilities placed at $800,000 and assets at $400,000. This firm had +been doing business in the local market for about thirty years. The +efforts of the receivers to dispose of this company's large stock +naturally served to accelerate the decline; and the final impetus came +on December 6, when the New York trade heard of the death, two days +previously, of O.G. Kimball, of Boston, one of the most prominent +merchants there. This precipitated the big crash of December 7, when +B.G. Arnold & Co., the largest New York firm, suspended with estimated +liabilities of $750,000 to $1,000,000. The official statement later +placed the liabilities at $2,157,914, and assets at $1,400,000, of which +$884,198 were secured. Within three days this failure was followed by +the suspension of Bowie Dash & Co., with liabilities estimated at +$1,400,000. + +For weeks thereafter there was virtually no market. With all of these +distress holdings pressing for liquidation, buyers, as was natural, were +extremely timid. In the meantime, the import arrivals showed further +enlargement at various southern ports, as well as at New York. Total +arrivals at this port during 1881 were almost 12,400,000 pounds heavier +than for the preceding year. The growing importance of Santos as a +market factor was demonstrated by the fact that shipments from there in +1881 were 1,198,625 bags, compared with about 628,900 bags in 1876-77. +According to the best informed members of the trade at that time, the +losses sustained by the various firms that were forced to the wall +aggregated between $5,000,000 and $7,000,000. + +The utterly demoralized conditions prevailing while this collapse was in +progress, and the practical elimination of a market in the true sense of +the word, furnished the principal impetus for the organization of the +New York Coffee Exchange. At that time, the Havre market was the only +one with an exchange. The local body was organized in December, 1881, +and started business in March, 1882. + + +_The Cable Break of 1884_ + +The second noteworthy movement, embracing an advance of four to four and +one-half cents and a recession of slightly more than three cents, +covered a period of about eight months shortly after the Exchange was +organized. Various local and out-of-town firms were interested in the +bulge which carried Rio coffee in this market from about seven cents in +July, 1883, up to eleven and one-half cents late in November. By the +middle of December, the price had fallen to nine and one-quarter cents, +the final break to eight and one-quarter cents occurring late in March +of the following year. At that time, there was no direct cable +communication with Brazil; and as a result of a temporary break in the +roundabout service by way of Portugal, the New York and Baltimore agents +of the Brazilian syndicate were unable to put up additional margins in +this market, and their accounts were closed out. This happened on a +Saturday; and by the following Monday, partial cable remittances arrived +and all accounts were settled in full with interest from Saturday to +Monday. + + +_The Great Boom_ + +What is generally described as "the great boom" of the coffee trade +occurred in 1886-87, and had its inception in unsatisfactory crop news +from Brazil. The crop of 1887-1888, it was estimated, would be extremely +small; and it turned out to be only 3,033,000 bags. These advices and +low estimates led to the formation of a "bull" clique, comprising +operators in New York, Chicago, New Orleans, Brazil, and Europe, who set +a price of twenty-five cents for December contracts as their goal. +Toward the end of June, 1886, when this campaign started, No. 7 Rio in +New York was worth about seven and one-half cents, with June contracts +on the Exchange quoted at seven and sixty-five hundredths cents. With +Brazilian crop news still more discouraging, the advance thereafter was +almost continuous, and on June 1, 1887, December contracts sold at +twenty-two and one-quarter cents--a new high price record, that was not +exceeded for thirty-two years, when twenty-four and sixty-five +hundredths cents were paid for July contracts in June, 1919. After +reaching twenty-two and one-quarter cents, prices suffered an abrupt +reversal. Ten days later the closing price for December was twenty-one +and four-tenth cents. Then the real crash began. On Saturday, June 11, +the panic started with another claim of cable trouble; and in the short +session, December coffee broke from twenty and fifteen-hundredths to +eighteen and sixty-five hundredths cents, closing at a loss for the day +of 275 points. The first sale of December on Monday was at seventeen and +four-tenths cents, or 125 points lower; and after numerous erratic +variations, the price broke to sixteen cents, a drop of six and +one-quarter cents in less than two weeks. Business on that day was of +enormous volume, in round numbers 412,000 bags; and approximately +$1,500,000 was put up in margins. For the next three days the decline +was temporarily halted, and December, at one time, was up three and +one-quarter cents from the bottom (nineteen and one-quarter cents). On +June 17, another battle commenced, December dropping back to seventeen +cents. Then came a rally to eighteen and one-tenth cents, a drop to +sixteen and one-half cents; another rally to eighteen and one-tenth, +and, on June 24, another break to the previous low level of sixteen +cents for December. This sharp reversal in less than a month was +traceable largely to more favorable news from Brazil, the 1888-89 crop +being estimated at 6,827,000 bags. + +Following a rally to nineteen and six-tenths cents during the next month +(July, 1887), the pendulum again swung downward. The climax came with +the culmination of the "European fiasco" of the spring of 1888. Reports +were received that various European coffee firms had failed; and future +contracts in the American market sold as low as nine cents in March. + + +_A Famous European Bull Campaign_ + +The next campaign of interest lasted more than two and a half years. In +September, 1891, there was a corner in the local market which forced the +September price up to seventeen and one-quarter cents. George +Kaltenbach, a wealthy speculator living in Paris, combining with three +operators in Havre, Hamburg, and Antwerp, succeeded in breaking the +corner, forcing the price down to ten and eight-tenths cents. They then +changed to the bull side, buying heavily in all markets of the world. +This was continued until early in 1893, bringing the price back to +fifteen cents. Although his associates then returned to the bear side, +Kaltenbach kept on buying; and aided by bad crop reports from Brazil, he +worked the price up as high as seventeen and seven-tenths cents. At one +time it was said that his profits were more than one million dollars. +The collapse of this deal occurred in May, 1893, involving thirty firms +in Hamburg, Havre, and Rotterdam. As Kaltenbach could not keep his large +New York holdings margined, they were thrown on the market, bringing +about a sharp break, and causing the failure of his New York agents, +T.M. Barr & Co. + +The present era of large crops began in 1894, Brazil's production for +1894-95 being placed at 6,695,000 bags. Nevertheless, Guzman Blanco, a +former president of Venezuela, then living in Paris, and said to be +worth about $20,000,000, attempted to run a corner in April, 1895. He +bought 200,000 bags of spot coffee in Havre warehouses and accumulated a +big line of futures in various markets. Assisted by reports of cholera +in Rio and some reduction in Brazilian crops, he enjoyed temporary +success, the price of Rio 7s in New York rising to fifteen and one-half +cents in October, 1895. Thereafter, there was an almost continuous +decline. In the spring of 1898, a vigorous bear campaign was conducted, +largely in the form of market letters; and by November, Rio 7s here had +dropped to four and one-half cents. + + +_The Bubonic Plague Boom_ + +The so-called "bubonic plague boom" halted this prolonged downward +movement for a time in 1899-1900. The boom derived its name from the +outbreak of bubonic plague in Brazil, as a result of which the ports of +that country were quarantined. In addition, Brazilian steamers arriving +at New York were placed in quarantine; and the impossibility of +unloading their cargoes caused a temporary shortage. As a result, prices +rose from four and one-quarter cents in September, 1899, to eight and +one-quarter cents in July, 1900. The quarantine being lifted, the bears +again became aggressive; and by April, 1901, they had forced the price +back to five cents. + +There was another short-lived attempt to establish a corner in +September, 1901. Receipts at Rio and Santos had been running light, +encouraging a local clique embracing Skiddy, Minford & Company; W.H. +Crossman & Bro.; and Gruner & Company, to endeavor to gain control. The +arrivals at Brazilian ports suddenly increased to the largest volume +ever known up to that time; and, with vigorous opposition from operators +in Havre, the corner here was speedily broken. + +The opening of the new century witnessed the beginning of another new +coffee era, Santos permanently displacing Rio as the world's largest +source of supply. The figures for 1900-01 were: Santos, 2,945,000 bags; +Rio, 2,413,000 bags. + +Huge crops then became a regular thing in Brazil. That of 1901-02 was +far in excess of estimates, being 15,000,000 bags; while 20,000,000 bags +were produced in 1902-03. As a result, the world's coffee trade became +completely demoralized for the time being. In August, 1902, contracts +for July, 1903, delivery sold at six and one-tenths cents. By June, +1903, they had fallen to three and fifty-five hundredths cents, the +lowest price ever recorded for coffee. + + +_The Southern Boom_ + +As is invariably the case when prices reach extreme levels, either high +or low, the pendulum swung back rapidly in the other direction. Based on +the unprecedentedly low prices, the so-called "cotton crowd" started +what was generally known as "the southern boom". Various cotton traders +in New York and the South, under the leadership of D.J. Sully, the +one-time "cotton king", and ably assisted by prominent local coffee +firms, became extremely active on the buying side; and by February, +1904, they had forced the price up to eleven and eighty-five hundredths +cents. This figure, the highest since 1896, was reached on February 2, +which proved to be another day of enormous speculative dealings, +involving roundly 462,000 bags. This marked another turning point; the +three succeeding days of record-breaking operations on the Exchange +witnessing a break of roughly two cents. Mr. Sully went on a vacation on +February 3, and the Sielcken interests sold on a large scale. Business +for that day was placed at 555,000 bags, closing prices being about +one-half cent lower. This brought on enormous liquidation by western +bulls on the following day, approximately 500,000 bags. As a result, +prices lost twenty-five to sixty-five points on a turn-over of about +642,000 bags. All records for business were smashed on the following +day, February 5. The official record was 689,000 bags, but trade +estimates made it more than 1,000,000 bags. On that day, southern +interests liquidated heavily, causing net losses of eighty to ninety +points. Doubtless the break would have been more severe had it not been +for buying by the Sielcken people and several other strong interests at +and below seven and one-quarter cents for September contracts. + + +_The Story of Valorization_ + +The valorization, or equalization, of coffee originated in Brazil. When +the original plan was threatened with disaster, Hermann Sielcken stepped +in and saved the Brazil planters from ruin; the Brazil government from +possible revolution; and, incidentally, won for himself and those who +were his partners in the enterprise much unenviable notoriety. + +The principle of valorization is generally conceded to be economically +unsound, because it encourages overproduction. And valorization in +Brazil would have been a failure, had it not been for a fortuitous +combination of short crops, Hermann Sielcken's genius, and the World +War. Because of the lessons learned in this experience, Brazil's +subsequent valorization enterprises have run more smoothly. + +A rapidly increasing world demand, a wonderfully fertile soil, and cheap +labor kept the Brazil coffee industry in a flourishing condition nearly +to the close of 1889. Coffee consumption was increasing, especially in +the United States. By April 1890, the average import price per pound of +Rio No. 7 in this country was nineteen cents; and Brazil was supplying +only about half our needs. Virgin soil was still available in Brazil, +and immigration furnished all the needful labor. Easy profits led to +increased investment and careless methods. Her planters were drunk with +prosperity. For six years, nearly all the three million inhabitants of +São Paulo, Brazil's largest coffee producing state, "entirely gave up +planting corn, rice, beans, everything they needed. They bought them +because coffee was so immensely profitable that they put all their labor +in coffee." + +Brazil had been going through a period of low exchange. Paper money fell +below par. The exaggerated issues of it, which provoked the collapse of +exchange, suddenly endowed Brazil with an abundant circulation of money. +Production was enormously stimulated. New undertakings sprang up on +every hand. Armies of agricultural laborers were recruited in Europe and +shipped into the coffee districts. And then, to make the story short, +supply passed demand, surplus stocks began to appear, prices began to +fall, and fell until they dropped below the cost of production. + +It was in 1896-97, when the new trees came into bearing by the tens and +hundreds of thousands, that São Paulo's folly began to tell. By October +of that year the price of Rio No. 7 in New York had fallen to about +seven cents. The decline continued, until, in 1903, it hung around five +cents. Then began the winter of São Paulo's discontent. Too late, the +state government tried by taxing new coffee estates, to force the +planters to raise crops to supply their own necessities. The times grew +harder. + +Mortgages held by large coffee houses and bankers were being foreclosed. +The industry was passing into European hands. The smaller planters were +becoming desperate; and desperation is only a step from revolution. The +government of the state of São Paulo knew this; and to save the state, +it finally promised it would buy the next coffee crop, and would hold it +for the planters at such a price as would be necessary to continue the +industry. The protagonists of this plan to valorize coffee were Dr. +Jorge Tibiriçá, Dr. Augusto Ramos, and Dr. Albuquerque Lins. + +During all the period covering São Paulo's rise and fall in coffee, the +financial genius who was to lead her again into the land of plenty had +been quietly acquiring a knowledge of her problems--also, the ability to +make money out of their solution. + +Valorization was undertaken to save the coffee industry. Its intent was +good, even if the theory was bad. The scheme was not new, and there were +no encouraging precedents to augur its success. The situation was +desperate and seemed to justify the trial of a desperate remedy. São +Paulo attempted to carry the load; but her resources were insufficient. + +The bumper world crop of 19,090,000 bags in 1901-02 was followed, in +1906-07, with another extraordinary yield of 24,307,000 bags, of which +Brazil alone produced 20,192,000 bags. To make good its promise to the +planters, ready cash was needed; and so the São Paulo government sent a +special commissioner to Europe to get it. For sixty years the +Rothschilds had acted as Brazil's bankers. The commissioner went to the +Rothschilds first. He was flatly refused. After that, he was turned down +by practically every bank on the continent. It looked as if the bankers +had entered into a gentlemen's agreement to make it unanimous. Then the +commissioner bethought himself of the coffee merchants; and that thought +naturally suggested Hermann Sielcken, who, singularly enough, happened +to be conveniently resting at nearby Baden-Baden. In August, 1906, the +commissioner waited upon Mr. Sielcken and begged his aid. + +It was Sielcken's hour of triumph. For years he had been soliciting +Brazil. Now the tables were turned, and Brazil was asking favors of +Sielcken. + +The rest of the story is best told by Robert Sloss, who wrote it for +_World's Work_ from information furnished by trade authorities--and even +by Mr. Sielcken, himself, in various speeches, newspaper articles, and +on the witness stand. It is presented here with certain minor +corrections by the author: + + "Well, what do you want me to do?" asked Hermann Sielcken of the + commissioner from the state of São Paulo. + + "We want you to finance for us five to eight million bags of + coffee," said the commissioner blandly. + + Here was an adventure. Here was a proposition to lift bodily out of + the market half as much coffee as the world's total production had + averaged for the ten preceding years when prices had been so low. + Presumably, if this were done, prices would be doubled. But Hermann + Sielcken shook his head. + + "No," he said, "there is not the slightest chance for it, not the + slightest." And then he pointed out that there would be "no + financial assistance coming from anywhere" if the São Paulo + planters kept on raising such ridiculously large crops of coffee. + + The commissioner assured him that the prospect was for smaller + crops in future. Hermann Sielcken was not so sure about it "At a + price low enough," he mused, "I might be able to raise funds to pay + eighty percent on a value of seven cents a pound for Rio No. 5." + + The commissioner was dismayed. His government had already promised + to take coffee from the planters at about a cent a pound above the + market, and the market then stood at nearly eight cents. The + government would have to dig to make up the difference. Hermann + Sielcken's terms were the best that could be got, however, and the + commissioner accepted them. + + From that time forth Hermann Sielcken was the head of the movement. + He approached a few large coffee merchants, including his former + rivals, Arbuckle Brothers, and drew up a contract. The merchants + agreed to advance eighty percent of the sum required to buy two + million bags of coffee at seven cents a pound. If the market went + above seven cents, the government was to make no purchases. If it + fell below seven cents, the government was to make good the + difference to the merchants by cable. + + Before the season was well advanced the unexpected happened. Brazil + was reaping the largest coffee harvest in the history of the world. + The two million bags of coffee purchased by the government were as + a drop in a bucket. Financed by Hermann Sielcken, Schroeder, the + great London banker, and a few prominent European merchants, the + government was forced to buy almost nine million bags. Toward the + end of 1907, the government had lifted half of the world's visible + supply of coffee, but the market stood only a trifle above six + cents a pound. The government was practically bankrupt. + + Hermann Sielcken now enlisted the Rothschilds on his side, and + shifted the financial burden from the shoulders of the coffee + merchants to those of the Paris bankers and their American + associates. Then the Rothschilds imposed their conditions on the + government of Brazil. A national law was passed determining a heavy + penalty for any one who planted a new coffee tree in Brazil. The + government guaranteed that not more than mine million bags of the + next coffee crop and not more than ten million bags of any + succeeding crop should be exported. + + By the end of 1911, the coffee market stood well above thirteen + cents. Here was a rise of more than one hundred percent in two + years, more than sixty percent in six months. Evidently, + valorization coffee in the hands of the bankers' committee had + become a gilt-edged security. But how? + + During the five crop years since the "plan" was launched on the + heights above Baden, nearly 90,000,000 bags of coffee had been + raised in the world. The bankers' committee still held 5,108,000 + bags of this. At the highest estimate, consumption had exceeded + production by only 4,000,000 bags. Here was a shortage of only a + little more than ten percent in supply as against demand, so far as + crops go. Yet there had been a rise of more than one hundred + percent in two years in the price of coffee on the New York Coffee + Exchange.... Upon the merchant's ability to deliver coffee on the + New York Coffee Exchange depends the price of coffee in the world. + That explains why the bankers' committee from the beginning refused + absolutely to sell valorization coffee on the public exchanges of + the world. In Europe, they put it up at auction; and when it didn't + go, it was bought in for them. In America, they announced in a + printed circular that valorization coffee would be sold only on + condition that the purchaser would not deliver it on the New York + Coffee Exchange. + + Hermann Sielcken absolutely refused to sell coffee to the merchants + on the Exchange. Arbuckle Brothers kept on buying coffee heavily, + as if they would corner the market. They resold the coffee, + however, at private sales, exacting a written contract from the + buyer that he would not deliver the coffee on the New York Coffee + Exchange, or resell it to any one that would so deliver it. The + Coffee Exchange began an investigation, but nothing ever came of + it. + + Shortly after the valorization committee had apparently cleared up + $25,000,000 in one year, the restriction as to the delivery of + valorization coffee on the New York Coffee Exchange was officially + removed. Yet neither from Hermann Sielcken nor from Arbuckle + Brothers, it is charged, could one buy any coffee to deliver for + that purpose. In 1911, coffee rose to sixteen cents per pound. + +At the end, it was found that the committee's holdings had been marketed +at the various sales on a basis, for Santos 4s, from eight and +five-eighths cents minimum, to the final sale here forced by the United +States government, at which time the price realized was sixteen and +three-quarter cents for Santos 4s, and fourteen cents for Rio 7s. + +The one fly in the valorization ointment was Senator G.W. Norris, of +Nebraska, who early in 1911 called for a congressional investigation of +the operations of the valorization syndicate, which he said was costing +the American people $35,000,000 a year. The attorney-general was +instructed to report as to whether or not there was a coffee trust. It +was a leisurely investigation, which encountered many snags placed in +its way by those who believed it would be against international policy +to question too closely the participation of the Brazil government in +the enterprise. Politics played no inconsiderable part in the +investigation, which dragged along until May 18, 1912, when an action +was begun in the Federal District Court for the southern district of New +York, alleging conspiracy in restraint of trade on the part of Hermann +Sielcken; Bruno Schroeder, of J. Henry Schroeder & Co.; Edouard Bunge; +the Vicomte des Touches; Dr. Paulo da Silva Prado; Theodor Wille; the +Société Generale; and the New York Dock Co.; also praying for injunction +and receivership of the valorization coffee then stored in the United +States, and amounting to 746,539 bags. The injunction was denied. + +Immediately thereafter, rumors began to circulate that the government's +coffee suit would never be tried. The Brazilian ambassador threatened +diplomatic interference, and Attorney-General Wickersham let it be known +that a friendly settlement might be effected. Sielcken boldly challenged +the authorities to prosecute the case, and even seemed to invite +criminal proceedings against himself. Saving the government's face, and +Brazil's face, at one and the same time, proved to be a long and tedious +process. + +Meanwhile, Senator Norris introduced in Congress a bill designed to give +the government power to seize importations of coffee when restraint of +trade was proved. It was vigorously opposed by many prominent +green-coffee men and roasters; but in February, 1913, it became enacted +into a law. It effectively killed all future valorization schemes in so +far as direct participation by this country is concerned. + +About December 1, 1912, Attorney-General Wickersham accepted good-faith +assurances from Mr. Sielcken's attorney--who represented also the Brazil +government--and agreed that if the valorization coffee stored here was +sold to bona-fide purchasers before April 1, 1913, the government's suit +would be dismissed. In May, 1913, the attorney-general of the new Wilson +administration, which came into office in March of that year, issued a +statement saying that, good-faith assurances having been received from +the Brazil government that the understanding was fulfilled in letter and +spirit before the date set by the previous attorney-general, and the +entire amount of coffee disposed of to eighty dealers in thirty-three +cities, the suit would be dismissed. + +In the United States Senate about the same time, Senator Norris renewed +his attack on "the international coffee trust". He charged that the +coffee sale was not as represented, but merely a transfer, and called +upon the Department of Justice for the facts, with names of the alleged +purchasers. + +Attorney-General McReynolds, on May 7, 1913, declined to send to the +Senate the official correspondence in regard to the Brazil +coffee-valorization matter, because it was "incompatible with the public +interests." He did, however, send other papers on the subject. The +secretary of state sent copies of some correspondence; but the documents +were not made public. This ended the matter, although Senator Norris +called for a congressional investigation, charging that the +attorney-general had been handed a "gold brick". + +Sielcken contented himself with remarking that the suit was a mistake in +the first place, and that it was a foregone conclusion the government +would be defeated. Also, he offered $5,000 to any one who could explain +the Norris bill. + +Valorization, then, was started by the state of São Paulo in 1905, when +a law was passed authorizing the state to enter into an agreement with +the other Brazil states and the federal government for the adoption of +measures which would assure the valorization of coffee and facilitate a +propaganda abroad for increased consumption. + +The states of São Paulo, Minãs Geraes, and Rio de Janeiro proposed, +early in 1906, to withdraw from the markets such quantities of coffee as +would keep down exports and maintain profitable prices. The plan +comprehended the interested states borrowing about $75,000,000 from +European and United States bankers with which to buy up the surplus +coffee. To take care of interest and amortization, a tax of three francs +per bag of 132 pounds (about 57 cents) was to be levied on all coffee +exports, collectable at Santos and Rio de Janeiro. Further +coffee-planting was to be checked by enforcing the law which carried a +tax sufficiently high to operate toward restriction. + +When it was understood that Brazil's federal government would not +endorse the plan _in toto_, it was abandoned by Rio de Janeiro and Minãs +Geraes. However, the state of São Paulo in the course of the next two +years borrowed some $30,000,00 on its own account for valorization +purposes, obtaining half the amount direct from foreign banking +interests, and the remainder, through the Brazilian federal government, +from London sources. + +This first valorization was abandoned in favor of the Sielcken plan, +which the federal government ratified in July, 1908. By this new plan +São Paulo borrowed $75,000,000 from the syndicate composed of American, +English, German, French, and Belgian bankers. Out of this it repaid the +$30,000,000 loan. The 1908 loan was to expire in ten years, in 1919. +Under the plan of the new loan, it was agreed that certain amounts of +the valorized coffee should be stored as collateral in warehouses in +New York and Europe in charge of a committee of seven, who were +authorized to sell the coffee in the market in specified quantities and +at prices that would not disturb the price of other coffees. The +composition of the committee was as follows: Dr. Francisco Ferreira +Ramos, of São Paulo and Antwerp; who was succeeded by Dr. Paulo da Silva +Prado; the Vicomte des Touches, of Havre; the Société Generale, of +Paris; the firm of Theodor Wille, of Hamburg; Hermann Sielcken, of New +York; Edouard Bunge, of Antwerp; and Baron Bruno Schroeder, of J. Henry +Schroeder & Co., of London. + +Brazil agreed to purchase 10,000,000 bags and to hold them off the +market until conditions warranted their sale. It was also agreed that +the total exports of unvalorized stocks from Brazil would be restricted +to 10,000,000 bags for 1907-08, and to 10,500,000 bags for 1909-10. In +addition, a surtax of five francs gold per bag (96-1/4 cents) was placed +on every bag exported to pay carrying charges. The management of the +government's holdings was placed in the hands of the international +committee. This committee issued bonds which were quickly subscribed +for; and because of its efficient handling of its huge holdings, prices +held steady in spite of the record-breaking Brazilian crop of nearly +20,192,000 bags in 1906-07, and a later one in 1909-10 of about +15,000,000 bags. Indeed, there was an advance of about ten dollars a bag +between 1904 and 1911. + +Valorization had the effect of stabilizing the Brazil market, and giving +the planters and allied interests the assistance they needed to ward off +the disaster that threatened them through overproduction. The United +States government action in 1912 forced the sale of the valorized stocks +held in this country, and the Congress passed the law making it +impossible again to offer for sale in America stocks of coffee held +under similar valorization agreements. + +The coffee situation became so serious in 1913, that São Paulo again +entered the money market for another loan, borrowing $37,500,000 through +the good offices of the Brazilian federal government, following this up +two years later with another loan of $21,000,000. According to a +semi-official statement issued in Brazil early in 1919, the status of +valorization at that time was that the first loan of $75,000,000 of +1908, had been entirely liquidated, and the two later loans were greatly +reduced. At the same time, it was announced by the president of the +state of São Paulo that the surtax of five frances would be withdrawn as +soon as the liquidation of the loans had been completed. This surtax, +however, is still in effect. In 1919, the São Paulo government proposed +advancing the _pauta_, or export duty, very materially. A strong protest +was made by all the exporters; and a compromise was at last effected by +which the proposed increase in the _pauta_ was canceled, and the +existing surtax of five francs per bag continued as an offset. + +The valorization project just described was the second of its kind, a +former attempt having proved a failure. At that time (1870), the +Brazilian government had been a large purchaser of Rio coffee, buying it +in lieu of exchange, as it had large remittances to make. The coffee was +sold through G. Amsinck & Co., and it is believed that heavy losses were +sustained. + +Since the Sielcken valorization enterprise, the Brazilian government has +promoted two more valorizations, one in 1918, another early in 1922. + + +_War-Time Government Control of Coffee_ + +The board of managers of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc., +had realized, late in 1917, that war-time government control of coffee +trading was likely in view of the government's activities in other +commodities. To guard against the danger of a sudden announcement of +such action, the president of the Exchange was empowered from month to +month, at each meeting of the board, to suspend trading at any time that +conditions warranted; so that, when President Wilson announced, on +January 31, 1918, that all dealers in green coffees were to be licensed, +the Exchange was fully prepared. Trading was suspended pending further +information, and owing to the farsightedness of the board of managers, +all danger of a panic in the market was averted. + +By 1917, the allies had stopped shipments of coffee to Germany through +neighbors who had been her sole source of supply. Stocks in all the +producing countries were accumulating, and São Paulo had embarked on +another valorization scheme to protect her planters. The markets of +Europe were entirely controlled by the governments; and the United +States was practically the only free and open market. The market here +was steady and without particular animation, and showed none until the +end of November, 1917. At that time, speculation activities, steamer +scarcity, and the steady advance in freights, became decided influences +in the market; and prices began to advance. + +Freights on shipments from Brazil had advanced from one dollar and +twenty cents per bag early in the year to unheard-of prices; and, before +the bubble burst, had reached as high as four dollars per bag. With this +steadily advancing freight, speculation in coffee became more active; +and prices naturally began to rise. The relative cheapness of coffee +compared with all other commodities; the fact that coffee here had shown +very little advance; the prospect of an early peace; the large European +demand to follow; were favorite bull arguments. The market became +excited; speculative buying was general, every one, apparently, wanted +to buy coffee; and twenty cents per pound for Santos 4s in the near +future was a common prediction. + +The United States food administrator had shown his antipathy to +uncontrolled exchange operations by his action on sugar, wheat, corn, +and other commodities, dealt in on the exchanges; consequently, the +proclamation of President Wilson regarding coffee was not a surprise to +those who had been watching the situation closely, especially as on +January 30, 1918 (the day before the proclamation) the president of the +Coffee Exchange was summoned by telegraph to appear in Washington to +discuss ways for a proper control of the article, and the best means to +bring about such control. As a result of this summons, a committee of +the entire trade, representing the Exchange, the green-coffee dealers +and importers, the roasters, and the brokers, was appointed by the +Exchange to confer with the food administrator at once, in order to work +out a plan whereby the business could be kept going. After a long +conference, rules agreed upon were approved that became the basis on +which business was conducted until the withdrawal of all regulations +regarding coffee in January, 1919. Much trade criticism followed the +publication of some of these rules. + +George W. Lawrence, president of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, +was called to Washington on February 28, 1918, to take charge of a newly +created coffee division under Theodore F. Whitmarsh, chief of the +distribution division of the food administration. In this position he +rendered a signal service to the trade and to his country. Although +subjected to a cross-fire of criticism from many green and roasted +coffee interests, he never wavered in the performance of his full duty; +and his good judgment, tact, and loyalty to American ideals, won for him +a high place in the regard of all those who had the best interests of +the country at heart. He was ably assisted in his work by Walter F. +Blake, of Williams, Russell & Company, New York; and by F.T. Nutt, Jr., +treasurer of the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange. + +A coffee advisory board was appointed in June 1918, to serve as a +go-between for the trade and the food administration. Those who served +on this committee were: Henry Schaefer, of S. Gruner & Co., New York, +chairman; Carl H. Stoffregen, of Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co., New +York, secretary; and William Bayne, Jr., of William Bayne & Co., New +York; S.H. Dorr, of Arnold, Dorr & Co., New York; A. Schierenberg, of +Corn, Schwarz & Co., New York; Leon Israel, of Leon Israel & Bro., New +York; Joseph Purcell, of Hard & Rand, New York; B.F. Peabody, of T. +Barbour Brown & Co., New York; J.D. Pickslay, of Williams, Russell & +Co., New York; Charles L. Meehan, of P.C. Meehan & Co., New York; B.C. +Casanas, of Merchants Coffee Co., New Orleans; John R. Moir, of Chase & +Sanborn, Boston; and B. Meyer, of Stewart, Carnal & Co., New Orleans. + +Others in the trade who served the food administration during the period +of the World War were George E. Lichty, president of the Black Hawk +Coffee & Spice Co., Waterloo, Iowa; and Theodore F. Whitmarsh, +vice-president and treasurer of Francis H. Leggett & Co., New York. + +The visible supply of coffee for the United States on January 1, 1918, +was 2,887,308 bags. The world's visible supply was given as 10,012,000 +bags; but to be added to this were more than 3,000,000 bags held by the +São Paulo government. Thus there was little reason to fear a coffee +shortage. That coffee should be permitted, with this large amount in +view, to run wild as to price, was certainly not the intention of the +food administrator, whose purpose was to keep foods moving to the United +States forces and allies, and as far as possible, to keep reasonable +prices for the United States consumers. Steadily advancing prices of +foods meant increasing cost of labor, general unrest, and a difficult +situation to meet at a period when the situation as a whole was most +critical. + +Trouble for the coffee trade was imminent early in 1918, when the +shipping board, backed by experts, decided, or attempted to decide, that +coffee was not a food product; that no vessels could be had for its +transportation; and that it must be put on the list of prohibited or +restricted commodities. Mr. Hoover, however, insisted that coffee was a +very necessary essential, and that tonnage must be provided for an +amount sufficient at all times to keep the visible supply for the United +States up to at least 1,500,000 bags of Brazil coffee; and this figure +was ultimately accepted and carried out by the shipping board. + +These figures, based on the deliveries of the two preceding years, and +with dealers limited to ninety days stock in the country, were deemed +ample to care for all requirements. It was figured that by November 1, +1918, the freight situation would be relieved to such an extent by the +new vessels building, that the amount could be increased should it be +found necessary. The food administration, through the war trade board, +offered steamer room to importers of record of the years 1916-17 at +$1.70 per bag. The first few vessels were promptly filled on a basis of +nine and one-quarter to nine and five-eighths cents, c. & f., for Santos +4s, well described. About the same time, our army and navy were able to +buy at eight to eight and three-eighths cents f.o.b. Santos, for +shipment by their own vessels. After the first few vessels offered by +the War Trade Board were filled, the trade became indifferent. The +warehouses in Brazil were loaded with stocks; vessels to carry coffee +were assured buyers at a fixed rate (profits limited); and, as there was +no apparent reason for an advance, buyers were willing to let the +producing countries carry the stock. + +The last week in June brought very cold weather in São Paulo, and cables +reported heavy frost. The news was not taken seriously by the trade at +large. "Frost news" from Brazil was no novelty, and in the past had +always been looked upon as a regular and seasonable method of bulling +the market. This year, however, the frost was a fact, and the market +began to move upward with surprising speed. Reports of the damage to the +trees varied from forty to eighty percent. Quotations from Santos +advanced two cents per pound in as many days. United States buyers were +not disposed to follow the advance; offerings of steamer room were +declined; and boats booked for coffee, owing to the lack of cargoes, +were transferred elsewhere. Meanwhile the market continued to advance +rapidly. The allies were holding the enemy, and peace prospects were +brighter. From September 1 to November 15, the records of the food +administration showed very small purchases. The buyers did not believe +in the frost. With the news of the armistice, Brazil markets went wild; +and Santos 4s, which had sold at eight and one-quarter cents in May, +were quoted at twenty and one-half cents by December 10. + +The food administration had decided, on February 6, 1918, after +consulting the committee appointed by the Exchange, and on their advice +and recommendation, to permit trading in futures on the following plan: +a fixed maximum price of eight and one-half cents per pound for the spot +month, with a carrying charge not to exceed fifteen points per pound for +delivery for each succeeding month. Thus the price for March delivery +was fixed at eight and one-half cents, while July delivery could be sold +at nine and one-tenths cents; but when July arrived, it became the spot +month, and eight and one-half cents was the maximum at which it could be +sold. + +This rule effectively stopped speculation, but failed to work out +satisfactorily to the trade. Experience proved that a maximum fixed +price at which coffee could be traded in would have produced much better +results. Business on the Exchange followed its usual course, and the +customary hedging of purchases was done by dealers. The indifference of +buyers, already referred to, had resulted in a heavy decrease of the +United States visible supply; and it had shrunk to 2,445,000 bags on +September 1; to 2,173,098 bags on October 1; to 1,857,260 bags on +November 1. Included in these amounts were at least 500,000 bags, held +in New York by foreign owners, which could not be sold; and of the +balance left, there was undoubtedly a liberal amount sold against on the +Exchange for future delivery. By October, the situation had become +acute. Dealers who had classified themselves as jobbers or importers had +gone into the retail classification in order to evade the limitations of +profit allowed jobbers, and were limiting their sales to lots of +twenty-five bags or fewer. Dealers who had legitimately hedged their +holdings were unable to buy in. + +The Exchange officials showed no disposition to relieve the situation; +and as all prices had reached the maximum price for every month +permitted, the food administration, on November 1, 1918, ordered the +liquidation of all contracts outstanding, bought or sold, by not later +than November 9. This was done; and the coffee covered by such contracts +was released to the trade. + +The regulations governing transactions on the Exchange were withdrawn on +December 5, 1918; and, after a long argument, the Exchange decided to +re-open for trading on December 26, 1918. Opening transactions amounted +to 25,000 bags on a basis of seventeen and one-half cents per pound or +nine cents over the prices at which contracts had been liquidated. On +December 28 the price had declined to fifteen and one-half cents. In the +opinion of many of our best merchants, the Exchange should have been +closed during the war, as it failed to be of any real service. That it +was operating at a fixed price for the spot month only, made it of no +value to the trade during this period. Of its loyalty to the government, +and its evident desire to assist there can be no question; but its +cheerful acceptance of the burdens laid upon it proved largely futile. + +The action of the food administration in confining the coffee business +solely to licensed dealers and to a fixed profit on actual cost; in +limiting dealers to ninety days stock; and in prohibiting resales, was +the cause of much unjust criticism. The regulations were based on the +general rules of the food administration, and applied to coffee quite as +equitably as did the regulations governing other food commodities under +control and license. As a matter of fact, they were much less rigorous +in some ways than the regulations applying to many other articles. For +example, ninety days stock based on sales for 1916-17 was allowed on +coffee. There was no other article on the food list to which this +liberality was permitted. A forty to sixty days stock would probably be +found to be the maximum permitted to be carried of other food products. + +The general proclamation of the food administration of November 1, 1917, +declared: + + These general and special rules and regulations are promulgated by + the President to accomplish three principal objects, viz: 1st, to + limit the prices charged by every licensee "to a reasonable amount + over expenses and forbid the acquisition of speculative profits + from a rising market"; 2d, to keep all food commodities moving in + as direct a line as possible and with as little delay as + practicable to the consumer; 3d, to limit as far as practicable + contracts for future delivery and dealing in future contracts. + +From the foregoing it will be apparent that a profit to be allowed based +on "market value" for coffees was an impossibility, unless this law had +been altered to allow all licensees of other commodities to share. +Coffee profits were fixed by the food administration on the advice of, +and with acceptance by, the coffee committee. They started too low; and +were made more liberal, when the first figures were shown to be +impossible. George W. Lawrence reports a conversation that he had with +the food administrator on this particular subject, and that was +characteristic of his broadness. Mr. Hoover said, "The coffee dealers +are complaining of the profits permitted them. I want them satisfied; +and if the profits are not reasonable, I shall put them where they will +be. This war is not going to last always; and at its conclusion I want +every American merchant in a position to be able to continue his +business and be no worse off than when the war started." + +Resales were prohibited, or limited to one transaction, in order to +prevent an accumulation of profits, that, added to each transfer, would +result ultimately in higher prices to the consumer. + +The fixing of profit based on cost, and not on market or replacement +value, is a thing that is impossible in normal times. Carried to the +last degree, it would mean ruination; for no provision is made for +declines in the market, and resulting losses. As a war measure it was +inevitable, and so endured. In normal times it is like trying to make +water run uphill. With a united people, it worked; but one can not have +a World War always to unite the people. It has been said that government +regulation of coffees caused a large increase in price to the consumer. +This would be hard to prove. The trade, generally, that refused to buy +at ten to twelve cents per pound because it did not, or would not +believe the reports of frost damage, and thought prices too high, was +frantically bidding up to twenty and twenty-two cents for 4s in March +and April, 1919. According to the ideas of some enthusiasts, fifty cents +was not an impossibility. Naturally such a bubble must burst eventually. +Government control had nothing to do with such natural conditions as +frost, or as the buyers' indifference. Expansion and inflation were in +the air, and had to run their course. The year 1920 brought the +aftermath; and in the deflation, coffee, with all other commodities, +went down to prices far below its intrinsic value. The expected European +demand did not materialize; the interior buyer was overloaded with +stock; and the losses of the coffee trade in 1920 will, it is to be +hoped, never be repeated. + + +_The Story of Soluble Coffee_ + +For nearly two decades, many coffee men and chemists have been seeking a +soluble coffee, or dried coffee extract, that would simplify the +preparation of the beverage. Thus far, all the products that have +appeared on the market are somewhat deficient in aroma and in the more +delicate flavors of coffee. A satisfying average cup of coffee can be +prepared from the better brands; the chief advantages of which are +rapidity of preparation, absence of any grounds, and uniformity of +drink. + +Considerable progress has been made in certain directions; enough to +warrant telling here, though briefly, the story of soluble coffee to +date. + +Some there are among trade experts and coffee connoisseurs who maintain +soluble coffee is an _ignis fatuus_; that it can never be manufactured +without destroying the aromatic principle; that at best it is a delusion +and a snare. Certainly, many absurd claims have been made for some of +the soluble coffees on the market. However, there are others that are +not without their merits; and the story of their introduction to the +trade and the consuming public is entertaining and instructive. + +Dr. Sartori Kato, a Japanese chemist, of Tokio, brought a soluble tea to +Chicago about 1899. It was not a commercial success; but it served to +bring him in touch with some coffee men and chemists, for whom he +produced a soluble coffee in the same year. A company was organized to +promote the product. It was called the Kato Coffee Co., and included, in +addition to Dr. Kato; Fillip Kreissel, a chemist; W.R. Ruffner, a +green-coffee broker; and I.D. Richheimer, a coffee roaster. Kato's +soluble coffee was first sold to the public at the Pan-American +Exposition in 1901. The first quantity order was received from Captain +Baldwin and by him used with satisfaction on the Ziegler Arctic +expedition. United States patents on a coffee concentrate, and process +for making the same (soluble coffee), were granted to Sartori Kato of +Chicago, assignor to the Kato Coffee Co., of the same place, on August +11, 1903. + +G. Washington, who was born in Belgium of English parents, and who was +living temporarily in Guatemala City, invented about 1906, a soluble +coffee that was made ready for the market in 1909. + +The George Washington Coffee Refining Co. was organized in 1910 to put +the Washington product on the market, which it did first under the name, +Red E coffee. This was later changed to G. Washington's Prepared Coffee, +as an alternative to Washington's Coffee Extract, a name which was +favorably regarded by all except certain authorities at the national +capital. Associated with Mr. Washington at the start of the enterprise +were: E. Van Etten, former vice-president of the New York Central +Railroad; W.J. Arkell; Bartlett Arkell, of the Beechnut Packing Co.; +C.M. Warner, of the Warner Sugar Refining Co.; and Charles E. Proctor, +of the Singer Sewing Machine Co. + +The G. Washington Coffee Refining Company has its coffee-roasting and +preparing plant in Brooklyn; but its process is a secret one, and has +never been patented. + +F. Lehnhoff Wyld, who was the Washingtons' family physician when they +lived in Guatemala City, and with whom Mr. Washington had discussed his +work in soluble coffee, duplicated the Washington product in 1913; and, +with E.T. Cabarrus, he organized the _Société du Café Soluble Belna_, +Brussels, Belgium, to put on the European market a refined soluble +coffee under the brand name Belna. + +Eight or ten United States patents have been granted on soluble coffees +that have never been applied commercially. + +Nowhere has soluble coffee met with such success as in the United +States, where a number of brands followed the Kato and G. Washington +products. Among them, mention should be made of the C.F. Blanke Tea & +Coffee Company's Magic Cup, afterward Fairy Cup, and later, Faust brand, +brought out in 1912; the Baker Importing Co.'s Barrington Hall Soluble +Coffee, brought out in 1917; and the Charles G. Hires Co.'s brand, +introduced to the trade in 1918. + +It was the World War that brought soluble coffee to the front. E.F. +Holbrook, formerly in charge of the coffee section, subsistence +division, United States War Department, said, "The use of mustard gas by +the Germans made it one of the most important articles of subsistence +used by the army." Early in the war, soluble coffee was added to the +reserve ration, three-quarters of an ounce being considered at first the +proper amount per ration. After trying to put it up in sticks, tablets, +capsules, and other forms, it was determined that the best method was to +pack it in envelopes. A month before the signing of the armistice, the +New York depot was notified that after January 1, 1919, the requirements +of soluble coffee were to be 25,000 pounds per day in addition to +quantities packed in reserve rations, bringing the total daily output to +42,500 pounds per day. Arrangements were made to have the total output +of the New York zone, 40,000 pounds per day, packed in quarter-ounce +envelopes, twenty-four to a sealed can. + +I.D. Richheimer, promoter of the original soluble coffee of Kato and the +Kato patent, organized the Soluble Coffee Co. of America in 1918, to +supply soluble coffee to the American army overseas. After the +armistice, the company began licensing other merchants under the Kato +patent or offering to process the merchants' own coffee for them if +desired. + +William A. Hamor and Charles W. Trigg, Pittsburgh, assignors to John E. +King, Detroit, were granted a United States patent in 1919 on a process +for making a new soluble coffee. Their process consists in bringing the +volatilized caffeol in contact with a petrolatum, or absorbing medium, +where it is held until needed for combination with the evaporated coffee +extract. The King Coffee Products Corp. of Detroit was organized in 1920 +to manufacture this product, known as Minute coffee, and a coffee base +for soft drinks, the latter being marketed under the name of Coffee Pep. +Mr. King had believed for many years that soluble coffee was destined to +solve many of the vexations of the coffee business, and had been +experimenting with the idea since 1906. To facilitate his +investigations, he established a fellowship at the Mellon Institute of +Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, in 1914, in charge of Charles W. Trigg. +This chemically controlled research evolved a product which, after +passing through the laboratory stage, was placed upon a small unit plan +basis, and then patented. Five additional patents on the product were +granted Messrs. Trigg and David S. Pratt in 1921; and all were assigned +to John E. King. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: THE EARLIEST COFFEE MANUSCRIPT, 1587 + +Pages from the Arabian writing by Abd-al-Kâdir, photographed for this +work in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +A HISTORY OF COFFEE IN LITERATURE + + _The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, + history, drama, philosophic writing, and fiction of the seventeenth + and eighteenth centuries and on the writers of today--Coffee quips + and anecdotes_ + + +Any study of the literature of coffee comprehends a survey of selections +from the best thought of civilized nations, from the time of Rhazes +(850-922) to Francis Saltus. We have seen in chapter III how Rhazes, the +physician-philosopher, appears to have been the first writer to mention +coffee; and was followed by other great physicians, like Bengiazlah, a +contemporary, and Avicenna (980-1037). + +Then arose many legends about coffee, that served as inspiration for +Arabian, French, Italian, and English poets. + +Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Mocha, is said to have discovered the virtues +of coffee about 1454, and to have promoted the use of the drink in +Arabia. Knowledge of the new beverage was given to Europeans by the +botanists Rauwolf and Alpini toward the close of the sixteenth century. + +The first authentic account of the origin of coffee was written by +Abd-al-Kâdir in 1587. It is the famous Arabian manuscript commending the +use of coffee, preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, and +catalogued as "Arabe, 4590." + +Its title written in Arabic is as follows: + +[Arabic] +___ ___ ___ ___ + 4 3 2 1 + +which is pronounced (reading right to left): + +omdat as safwa fi hall al kahwa +___ ___ ___ _____ + 1 2 3 4 + +or; in the literary style: omdatu s safwati fi hallu 'l kahwati which +means--literally, (the corresponding words being underlined and +numbered) + +"The maintenance of purity as + ___________ ______ + 1 2 +regards the legitimacy of coffee." + _________ ______ + 3 4 + +or, more freely, "Argument in favor of the legitimate use of coffee." + +[Arabic] kahwa, is the Arabic word for coffee. + +The author is Abd-al-Kâdir ibn Mohammad al Ansâri al Jazari al Hanbali. +That is, he was named Abd-al-Kâdir, son of Mohammed. + +_Abd-al-Kâdir_ means "slave of the strong one" (i.e., of God); while _al +Ansâri_ means that he was a descendant of the _Ansâri_ (i.e., "helpers"), +the people of Medina who received and protected the Prophet Mohammed +after his flight from Mecca; _al Jazari_ means that he was a man of +Mesopotamia; and _al Hanbali_ that in law and theology he belonged to +the well known sect, or school, of the Hanbalites, so called after the +great jurist and writer, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who died at Bagdad A.H. 241 +(A.D. 855). The Hanbalites are one of the four great sects of the Sunni +Mohammedans. + +Abd-al-Kâdir ibn Mohammed lived in the tenth century of the Hegira--the +sixteenth of our era--and wrote his book in 996 A.H., or 1587 A.D. +Coffee had then been in common use since about 1450 A.D. in Arabia. It +was not in use in the time of the Prophet, who died in 632 A.D.; but he +had forbidden the drink of strong liquors which affect the brain, and +hence it was argued that coffee, as a stimulant, was unlawful. Even +today, the community of the Wahabis, very powerful in Arabia a hundred +years ago, and still dominant in part of it, do not permit the use of +coffee. + +Abd-al-Kâdir's book is thought to have been based on an earlier writing +by Shihâb-ad-Dîn Ahmad ibn Abd-al-Ghafâr al Maliki, as he refers to the +latter on the third page of his manuscript; but if so, this previous +work does not appear to have been preserved. La Roque says Shihâb-ad-Dîn +was an Arabian historian who supplied the main part of Abd-al-Kâdir's +story. La Roque refers also to a Turkish historian. + +Research by the author has failed to disclose anything about +Shihâb-ad-Dîn save his name (_al Maliki_ means that he belonged to the +Malikites, another of the four great Sunni sects), and that he wrote +about a hundred years before Abd-al-Kâdir. No copy of his writings is +known to exist. + +The illustrations show the title page of Abd-al-Kâdir's manuscript, the +first page, the third page, and the fly leaf of the cover, the latter +containing an inscription in Latin made at the time the manuscript was +first received or classified. It reads: + + Omdat al safouat fl hall al cahuat. + + De usu legitimo et licito potionis quae vulgo Café nuncupatur. + Authore Abdalcader Ben Mohammed al Ansâri. Constat hic liber + capitibus septem, et ab authore editus est anno hegirae 996 quo + anno centum et viginti anni effluxerant ex quo huius potionis usus + in Arabia felice invaluerat + +The translation of the Latin is: + + Concerning the legitimate and lawful use of the drink commonly + known as café by Abdalcader Ben Mohammed al Ansâri. The book is + composed in seven chapters and was brought out by the author in the + year of the Hegira 996 at which time a hundred and twenty years had + passed since the use of this drink had become firmly established in + Arabia Felix. + + +_Coffee in Poetry_ + +The Abd-al-Kâdir work immortalized coffee. It is in seven chapters. The +first treats of the etymology and significance of the word cahouah +(kahwa), the nature and properties of the bean, where the drink was +first used, and describes its virtues. The other chapters have to do +largely with the church dispute in Mecca in 1511, answer the religious +objectors to coffee, and conclude with a collection of Arabic verses +composed during the Mecca controversy by the best poets of the time. + +De Nointel, ambassador from the court of Louis XIV to the Ottoman Porte, +brought back with him to Paris from Constantinople the Abd-al-Kâdir +manuscript, and another by Bichivili, one of the three general +treasurers of the Ottoman Empire. The latter work is of a later date +than the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript, and is concerned chiefly with the +history of the introduction of coffee into Egypt, Syria, Damascus, +Aleppo, and Constantinople. + +The following are two of the earliest Arabic poems in praise of coffee. +They are about the period of the first coffee persecution in Mecca +(1511), and are typical of the best thought of the day: + + IN PRAISE OF COFFEE + + _Translation from the Arabic_ + + O Coffee! Thou dost dispel all cares, thou art the object of desire + to the scholar. + + This is the beverage of the friends of God; it gives health to + those in its service who strive after wisdom. + + Prepared from the simple shell of the berry, it has the odor of + musk and the color of ink. + + The intelligent man who empties these cups of foaming coffee, he + alone knows truth. + + May God deprive of this drink the foolish man who condemns it with + incurable obstinacy. + + Coffee is our gold. Wherever it is served, one enjoys the society + of the noblest and most generous men. + + O drink! As harmless as pure milk, which differs from it only in + its blackness. + +Here is another, rhymed version of the same poem: + +IN PRAISE OF COFFEE + +_Translation from the Arabic_ + +O coffee! Doved and fragrant drink, thou drivest care away, +The object thou of that man's wish who studies night and day. +Thou soothest him, thou giv'st him health, and God doth favor those +Who walk straight on in wisdom's way, nor seek their own repose. +Fragrant as musk thy berry is, yet black as ink in sooth! +And he who sips thy fragrant cup can only know the truth. +Insensate they who, tasting not, yet vilify its use; +For when they thirst and seek its help, God will the gift refuse. +Oh, coffee is our wealth! for see, where'er on earth it grows, +Men live whose aims are noble, true virtues who disclose. + + COFFEE COMPANIONSHIP + + _Translation from the Arabic_ + + Come and enjoy the company of coffee in the places of its + habitation; for the Divine Goodness envelops those who partake of + its feast. + + There the elegance of the rugs, the sweetness of life, the society + of the guests, all give a picture of the abode of the blest. + + It is a wine which no sorrow could resist when the cup-bearer + presents thee with the cup which contains it. + + It is not long since Aden saw thy birth. If thou doubtest this, see + the freshness of youth shining on the faces of thy children. + + Grief is not found within its habitations. Trouble yields humbly to + its power. + + It is the beverage of the children of God, it is the source of + health. + + It is the stream in which we wash away our sorrows. It is the fire + which consumes our griefs. + + Whoever has once known the chafing-dish which prepares this + beverage, will feel only aversion for wine and liquor from casks. + + Delicious beverage, its color is the seal of its purity. + + Reason pronounces favorably on the lawfulness of it. + + Drink of it confidently, and give not ear to the speech of the + foolish, who condemn it without reason. + +During the period of the second religious persecution of coffee in the +latter part of the sixteenth century, other Arabian poets sang the +praises of coffee. The learned Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr ben Abid Iesi wrote +a book entitled _The Triumph of Coffee_, and the poet-sheikh +Sherif-Eddin-Omar-ben-Faredh sang of it in harmonious verse, wherein, +discoursing of his mistress, he could find no more flattering comparison +than coffee. He exclaims, "She has made me drink, in long draughts, the +fever, or, rather, the coffee of love!" + +The numerous contributions by early travelers to the literature of +coffee have been mentioned in chronological order in the history +chapters. After Rauwolf and Alpini, there were Sir Antony Sherley, +Parry, Biddulph, Captain John Smith, Sir George Sandys, Sir Thomas +Herbert, and Sir Henry Blount in England; Tavernier, Thévenot, Bernier, +P. de la Roque, and Galland in France; Delia Valle in Italy; Olearius +and Niebhur in Germany; Nieuhoff in Holland, and others. + +Francis Bacon wrote about coffee in his _Hist. Vitae et Mortis_ and +_Sylva Sylvarum_, 1623-27. Burton referred to it in his "_Anatomy of +Melancholy_" in 1632. Parkinson described it in his _Theatrum Botanicum_ +in 1640. In 1652, Pasqua Rosée published his famous handbill in London, +a literary effort as well as a splendid first advertisement. + +Faustus Nairon (Banesius) produced in Rome, in 1671, the first printed +treatise devoted solely to coffee. The same year Dufour brought out the +first treatise in French. This he followed in 1684 with his work, _The +manner of making coffee, tea, and chocolate_. John Ray extolled the +virtues of coffee in his _Universal Botany of Plants_, published in +London in 1686. Galland translated the Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript into +French in 1699, and Jean La Roque published his _Voyage de l'Arabie +Heureuse_ in Paris in 1715. Excerpts from nearly all these works appear +in various chapters of this work. + +Leonardus Ferdinandus Meisner published a Latin treatise on coffee, tea, +and chocolate in 1721. Dr. James Douglas published in London (1727) his +_Arbor yemensis fructum cofè ferens, or a description and history of the +Coffee Tree_. This work laid under contribution many of the Italian, +German, French, and English scholars mentioned above; and the author +mentioned as other sources of information: Dr. Quincy, Pechey, Gaudron, +de Fontenelle, Professor Boerhaave, Figueroa, Chabraeus, Sir Hans +Sloane, Langius, and Du Mont. + +In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the poets and dramatists of +France, Italy, and England found a plentiful supply in what had already +been written on coffee; to say nothing of the inspiration offered by the +drink itself, and by the society of the cafés of the period. + +French poets, familiar with Latin, first took coffee as the subject of +their verse. Vaniére sang its praises in the eighth book of his +_Praedium rusticum_; and Fellon, a Jesuit professor of Trinity College, +Lyons, wrote a didactic poem called, _Faba Arabica, Carmen_, which is +included in the _Poemata didascalica_ of d'Olivet. + +Abbé Guillaume Massieu's _Carmen Caffaeum_, composed in 1718, has been +referred to in chapter III. It was read at the Academy of Inscriptions. +One of the panegyrists of this author, de Boze, in his _Elogé de +Massieu_, says that if Horace and Virgil had known of coffee, the poem +might easily have been attributed to them; and Thery, who translated it +into French, says "it is a pearl of elegance in a rare jewel case." + +The following translation of the poem from the Latin original was made +for this work: + +COFFEE + +_A Poem by Guillaume Massieu of the French Academy_ + +(A literal prose translation from the original Latin in the British +Museum.) + +How coffee first came to our shores, +What the nature of the divine drink is, what its use, +How it brings ready aid to man against every kind of evils, +I shall here begin to tell in simple verse. + +You soft-spoken men, who have often tried the sweetness of this drink, +If it has never deceived your wishes or mocked your hopes +With its empty results, be propitious and lend a willing ear to our song. +And may you, O Phoebus, kindly be present, to acknowledge +As your gift the power of herbs and healthful plants, and to +Dispel sad diseases from our bodies; for they say you are +The author of this blessing, and may you spread your +Gifts among peoples, and everywhere far and wide throughout the entire +world. + +Across Libya afar, and the seven mouths of the swollen Nile, +Where Asia most joyfully spreads in immense fields +Rich in various resources and filled with fragrant woods, +A region extends. The Sabeans of old inhabited it. +I believe indeed Nature, that best parent of all things, +Loved this place more than all others with a tender love. +Here the air of Heaven always breathes more mildly. +The sun has a gentler power; here are flowers of a different clime; +And the earth with fertile bosom brings forth various fruits, +Cinnamon, casia, myrrh, and fragrant thyme. +Amid the resources and gifts of this blessed land, +Turned to the sun and the warm south winds, +A tree spontaneously lifts itself into the upper air. +Growing nowhere else, and unknown in earlier centuries, +By no means great in size, it stretches not far its +Spreading branches, nor lifts a lofty top to heaven; +But lowly, after the manner of myrtle or pliant broom, +It rises from the ground. Many a nut bends its rich branches. +Small, like a bean, dark and dull in color, +Marked by a slight groove in the centre of its hull. + +To transplant this growth to our own fields +Many have tried, and to cultivate it with great care. +In vain; for the plant has not responded to the zeal +And desires of the planters, and has rendered vain their long labor; +Before day the root of the tender herb has withered away. +Either this has happened through fault of climate, or grudging +Earth refuses to furnish fit nourishment to the foreign plant. + +Therefore come thou, whoever shall be possesed by a love for coffee, +Do not regret having brought the healthful bean from the far +Remote world of Arabia; for this is its bountiful mother country. +The soothing draught first flowed from those regions through other +Peoples; thence through all Europe and Asia, +and next made its way through the entire world. + +Therefore, what you shall know to be sufficient for your needs, +Do you prepare long beforehand; let it be your care to have collected +Yearly a copious store, and providently fill small granaries, +As of yore the farmer, early mindful and provident of the future, +Collected crops from his fields and garnered them in his barns, +And turned his attention to the coming year. + +None the less, meanwhile, must the utensils for coffee be cared for. Let +not vessels suited for drinking the beverage be lacking, And a pot, +whose narrow neck should be topped by a small cover And whose body +should swell gradually into an oblong shape. When these things shall +have been provided by you, let your Next care be to roast well the beans +with flames, and to grind them when roasted. Nor should the hammer cease +to crush them with many a blow, Until they lay aside their hardness, and +when thoroughly ground, Become fine powder; which forthwith pack either +in a bag or a box made for such uses. And wrap it in leather, and smear +it over with soft wax, lest Narrow chinks be open, or hidden channels. +Unless you prevent these, by a secret path gradually small Particles and +whatever of value exists, and the entire strength, Would leave, wasting +into empty air. + +[Illustration: CAMEL TRANSPORT BETWEEN HARAR AND DIRE-DAOUA, ABYSSINIA] + +[Illustration: SUN-DRYING IN LA LAGUNA, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS] + +[Illustration: COFFEE SCENES IN THE NEAR AND THE FAR EAST] + +There is also a hollow machine, like a small tower, which they +Call a mill, in which you can bruise the useful fruit of the +Roasted bean and crush it with frequent rubbing; +A revolving pivot in the middle, on an easy wheel turning, +Twists its metal joints on a creaking stem. +The top of the wheel, you know, is pierced with an ivory handle +Which will have to be turned by hand, through a thousand revolutions, +And through a thousand circles it moves the pivot. +When you put a kernel in, you will turn the handle with quick hand-- +No delay--and you will wonder how the crackling kernel is +With much grinding quickly reduced to a powder. +Once only the lower compartment receives on its kindly bosom +The crushed grains, which are placed in the very depths of the box. + +But why do we linger over these less important matters? Greater things +call us. Then is it time to drain the sweet Draught, either under the +new light of the early sun In the morning, when an empty stomach demands +food; Or, when, after the splendid feasts of a magnificent table The +overburdened stomach suffers from too heavy load, and Unequal to the +demands made upon it, seeks the aid of external heat. Then come, when +now the pot grows ruddy in the fire Crackling beneath, and you shall +behold the liquid, swelling With mingled powdered coffee, now bubble +around the brim, Draw it from the fire. Unless you should do this, the +force of The water would break forth suddenly, overflowing, and would +Sprinkle the beverage on the fire beneath. Therefore, let no such +accident disturb your joys. You should keep watch carefully when the +water no longer Restrains itself and bubbles with the heat; then return +The pot to the fire thrice and four times, until the powdered Coffee +steams in the midst of the fire and blends thoroughly with the +surrounding water. + +This soothing drink ought to be boiled with skill, to be drunk With +art--not in the way men are wont to drink other beverages--And with +reason; for when you shall have taken it steaming from A quick fire, and +gradually all the dregs have settled to the Very bottom, you shall not +drink it impatiently at one gulp. But rather, sip it little by little, +and between draughts Contrive pleasant delays; and sipping, drain it in +long draughts, So long as it is still hot and burns the palate. For then +it is better, then it permeates our inmost bones, and Penetrating within +to the center of our vitals and our marrow, It pervades all our body +with its vivifying strength. Often even merely inhaling the odor with +their nostrils, men Have welcomed it, when it has bubbled up from the +bottom, More refreshing than the breeze. So much pleasure is there in a +delicious odor. + +And now there remains awaiting us the other part of our task, To make +known the secret strength of the divine draught. But who could hope to +understand this wonderful blessing Or to be able to pursue so great a +miracle in verse? For really, when coffee has quietly glided into your +body, Taking itself within, it sheds a vital warmth through your Limbs, +and inspires joyous strength in your heart. Then if There is anything +undigested, with fire's help, it heats the Hidden channels, and loosens +the thin pores, through which the Useless moisture exudes, and seeds of +diseases flee from all your veins. + +Wherefore come, O you who have a care for your health! You, whose triple +chin hangs on your breast, Who drag your heavy stomach of great bulk, It +is fitting for you, first of all, to indulge in the warm Beverage; for +indeed it will dry the hideous flow of moisture Which oppresses your +limbs, and sends forth streams of perspiration from your whole body. And +in a short time, the swelling of your fat belly will Gradually begin to +decrease, and it will lighten your members, now oppressed by their heavy +weight. + +O happy peoples, on whom Titan, rising, looks with his first light! +Here, a rather free use of wine has never done harm. Law and religion +forbid us to quaff the flowing wine. Here one lives on coffee. Here, +then, flourishing with joyous strength One pursues life and knows not +what diseases are, Nor that child of Bacchus and companion of high +living--Gout; Nor what innumerable diseases through this union are ready +to attack our world. + +Yet, indeed, the soothing power of this invigorating drink Drives sad +cares from the heart, and exhilarates the spirits. I have seen a man, +when he had not yet drained a mighty Draught of this sweet nectar, walk +silently with slow gait, His brow sad, and forehead rough with +forbidding wrinkles. This same man who had hardly bathed his throat with +the sweet Drink--no delay--clouds fled from his wrinkled brow; and He +took pleasure in teasing all with his witty sayings. Nor yet did he +pursue any one with bitter laughter. For this Harmless drink inspires no +desire of offending, the venom Is lacking, and pleasant laughter without +bitterness pleases. + +And in the entire East this custom of coffee drinking Has been accepted. +And, now, France; you adopt the foreign custom, So that public shops, +one after the other, are opened for Drinking Coffee. A hanging sign of +either ivy or laurel invites the passers-by. Hither in crowds from the +entire city they assemble, and While away the time in pleasant drinking. +And when once the feelings have grown warm, acted upon by The gentle +heat, then good-humored laughter, and pleasant Arguments increase. +General gaiety ensues, the places about resound with joyous applause. +But never does the liquid imbibed overpower weary minds, but Rather, if +ever slumber presses their heavy eyes and dulls The brain; and their +strength, blunted, grows torpid in the Body, coffee puts sleep to flight +from the eyes, and slothful inactivity from the whole frame. Therefore +to absorb the sweet draught would be an advantage For those whom a great +deal of long-continued labor awaits And those who need to extend their +study far into the night. + +And here I shall make known who taught the use of this pleasant Drink; +for its virtue, unknown, has lain hidden through many Years; and +reviewing, I shall relate the matter from the very beginning. + +An Arab shepherd was driving his young goats to the well-known Pastures. +They were wandering through lonely wastes and cropping The grasses, when +a tree heavy with many berries--never seen before--met their eyes. At +once, as they were able to reach the low branches, they began To pull +off the leaves with many a nibble, and to pluck the tender Growth. Its +bitterness attracts. The shepherd, not knowing this, Was meanwhile +singing on the soft grass and telling the story of his loves to the +woods. But when the evening star, rising, warned him to leave the field, +And he led back his well-fed flock to their stalls, he perceived That +the beasts did not close their eyes in sweet sleep, but Joyous beyond +their wont, with wonderful delight throughout the Whole night jumped +about with wanton leaps. Trembling with sudden Fear, the shepherd stood +amazed; and crazed by the sound, he Thought these things were being done +through some wicked trick of a neighbor, or by magic art. + +Not far from here a holy band of brethren had built their Humble home in +a remote valley; their lot it was to chant Praises of God, and to load +his altars with fitting gifts. Although throughout the night the +deep-toned bell resounded With great din, and summoned them to the +sacred temple, often The coming of dawn found them lingering on their +couches, Having forgotten to rise in the middle of the night. So great +was their love of sleep! + +In charge of the sacred temple, revered and obeyed by his Willing +brethren, was the master, an aged man, a heavy mass of white hair on +head and chin. The shepherd, hastening, came to him and told him the +story, Imploring his aid. The old man smiled to himself; but He agreed +to go, and investigate the hidden cause of the miracle. + +When he has come to the hills, he observes the lambs, together With +their mothers, gnawing the berries of an unknown plant, And cries, "This +is the cause of the trouble!" And saying no More, he at once picks the +smooth fruit from the heavily-laden Tree, and carries it home, places +it, when washed, in pure Water, cooking it over the fire, and fearlessly +drinks a large Cup of it. Forthwith a warmth pervades his veins, a +living Force is diffused through his limbs, and weariness is dispelled +from his aged body. Then, at length, the old man exulting in the +blessing thus found, Rejoices, and kindly shares with all his brothers. +They eagerly At early night-fall, indulge in pleasant banquets and drain +great bowls. No longer is it hard for them to break off sweet sleep and +to leave their soft beds as formerly. O fortunate ones! whose hearts the +sweet draught has often Bathed. No sluggish torpor holds their minds, +they briskly Rise for their prescribed duties and rejoice to outstrip +the rays of the first light. + +You also, whose care it is to feed minds with divine eloquence And to +terrify with your words the souls of the guilty, you also Should indulge +in the pleasant drink; for, as you know, it Strengthens weakness. Keen +vigor is gained for the limbs from This source, and spreads through the +whole body. From this source, Too, shall come new strength and new power +to your voice. You also, whom oft harmful vapors harass, whose sick +brain the dangerous vertigo shakes, Ah, come! In this sweet liquid is a +ready medicine And none other better to calm undue agitation. Apollo +planted this power for himself, they say, The story is worthy to be +sung. + +Once a disease most deadly to life assailed the disciples of Apollo's +Mount. It spread far and wide, and attacked the brain itself. Already +all the people of genius were suffering with this Disease; and the arts, +deserted, were languishing along with The workers. Some even pretended +to have the disease, and Assuming feigned suffering, gave themselves +over to an idle life. Unpleasing work grew distasteful, and deadly +inertia increased Everywhere. It pleased all, now released from work and +labors, To indulge in care-free quiet. Apollo, full of indignation, did +not endure longer that the deadly Contagion of such easy ruin should +creep over them thus. And, That he might take away from seers all means +of deception, he Enticed from the rich bosom of the earth this friendly +plant, Than which no other is more ready either to refresh for work the +Mind wearied by long studies, or to sooth troublesome sorrows of the +head. + +O plant, given to the human race by the gift of the Gods! No other out +of the entire list of plants has ever vied with you. On your account +sailors sail from our shores And fearlessly conquer the threatening +winds, sandbanks and Dreadful rocks. With your nourishing growth you +surpass dittany, Ambrosia, and fragrant panacea. Grim diseases flee from +you. To You trusting health clings as a companion, and also the merry +Crowd, conversation, amusing jokes, and sweet whisperings. + +The poet Belighi toward the close of the sixteenth century composed a +poem, which, freely translated, runs: + +In Damascus, in Aleppo, in great Cairo, +At every turn is to be found +That mild fruit which gives so beloved a drink, +Before coming to court to triumph. +There this seditious disturber of the world, +Has, by its unparalleled virtue, +Supplanted all wines from this blessed day. + +Jacques Delille (1738-1813) the didactic poet of nature, in _chant vi_ +of his "_Three Reigns of Nature_," thus apostrophizes the "divine +nectar" and describes its preparation: + +DIVINE COFFEE + +_Translation from the French_ + +A liquid there is to the poet most dear, +'T was lacking to Virgil, adored by Voltaire, +'T is thou, divine coffee, for thine is the art, +Without turning the head yet to gladden the heart. +And thus though my palate be dulled by age, +With joy I partake of thy dear beverage. +How glad I prepare me thy nectar most precious, +No soul shall usurp me a rite so delicious; +On the ambient flame when the black charcoal burns, +The gold of thy bean to rare ebony turns, +I alone, 'gainst the cone, wrought with fierce iron teeth. +Make thy fruitage cry out with its bitter-sweet breath; +Till charmed with such perfume, with care I entrust +To the pot on my hearth the rare spice-laden dust: +First to calm, then excite, till it seethingly whirls, +With an eye all attention I gaze till it boils. +At last now the liquid comes slow to repose; +In the hot, smoking vessel its wealth I depose, +My cup and thy nectar; from wild reeds expressed, +America's honey my table has blest; +All is ready; Japan's gay enamel invites-- +And the tribute of two worlds thy prestige unites: +Come, Nectar divine, inspire thou me, +I wish but Antigone, dessert and thee; +For scarce have I tasted thy odorous steam, +When quick from thy clime, soothing warmths round me stream, +Attentive my thoughts rise and flow light as air, +Awaking my senses and soothing my care. +Ideas that but late moved so dull and depressed, +Behold, they come smiling in rich garments dressed! +Some genius awakes me, my course is begun; +For I drink with each drop a bright ray of the sun. + +Maumenet addressed to Galland the following verses: + +If slumber, friend, too near, with some late glass should creep-- + Dull, poppy-perfumed sleep-- +If a too fumous wine confounds at length thy brain-- + Take coffee then--this juice divine +Shall banish sleep and steam of vap'rous wine, +And with its timely aid fresh vigor thou shalt find. + +Castel, in his poem, _Les Plantes_ (The Plants) could not omit the +coffee trees of the tropics. He thus addressed them in 1811: + +Bright plants, the favorites of Phoebus, + In these climes the rarest virtues offer, +Delicious Mocha, thy sap, enchantress, + Awakens genius, outvalues Parnasse! + +In a collection of the _Songs of Brittany_ in the Brest library there +are many stanzas in praise of coffee. A Breton poet has composed a +little piece of ninety-six verses in which he describes the powerful +attraction that coffee has for women and the possible effects on +domestic happiness. The first time that coffee was used in Brittany, +says an old song of that country, only the nobility drank it, and now +all the common people are using it, yet the greater part of them have +not even bread. + +A French poet of the eighteenth century produced the following: + +LINES ON COFFEE + +_Translation from the French_ + +Good coffee is more than a savory cup, +Its aroma has power to dry liquor up. +By coffee you get upon leaving the table +A mind full of wisdom, thoughts lucid, nerves stable; +And odd tho' it be, 't is none the less true, +Coffee's aid to digestion permits dining anew. +And what 's very true, tho' few people know it, +Fine coffee 's the basis of every fine poet; +For many a writer as windy as Boreas +Has been vastly improved by the drink ever glorious. +Coffee brightens the dullness of heavy philosophy, +And opens the science of mighty geometry. +Our law-makers, too, when the nectar imbibing, +Plan wondrous reforms, quite beyond the describing; +The odor of coffee they delight in inhaling, +And promise the country to alter laws ailing. +From the brow of the scholar coffee chases the wrinkles, +And mirth in his eyes like a firefly twinkles; +And he, who before was but a hack of old Homer, +Becomes an original, and that 's no misnomer. +Observe the astronomer who 's straining his eyes +In watching the planets which soar thro' the skies; +Alas, all those bright bodies seem hopelessly far +Till coffee discloses his own guiding star. +But greatest of wonders that coffee effects +Is to aid the news-editor as he little expects; +Coffee whispers the secrets of hidden diplomacy, +Hints rumors of wars and of scandals so racy. +Inspiration by coffee must be nigh unto magic, +For it conjures up facts that are certainly tragic; +And for a few pennies, coffee's small price per cup, +"Ye editor's" able to swallow the Universe up. + +Esménard celebrated Captain de Clieu's romantic voyage to Martinique +with the coffee plants from the Jardin des Plantes, in some admirable +verses quoted in chapter II. + +Among other notable poetic flights in praise of coffee produced in +France mention should be made of: "_L'Elogé du Café_" (Eulogy of Coffee) +a song in twenty-four couplets, Paris, Jacques Estienne, 1711; _Le Café_ +(Coffee), a fragment from the fourth _chant_ (song) of _La Grandeur de +Dieu dans les merveilles de la Nature_ (The Grandeur of God in the +Wonders of Nature) Marseilles; _Le Café_, extract from the fourth +gastronomic song, by Berchoux; "_A Mon Café_" (To My Coffee), stanzas +written by Ducis; _Le Café_, anonymous stanzas inserted in the +_Macedoine Poetique_, 1824; a poem in Latin in the Abbé Olivier's +collection; _Le Bouquet Blanc et le Bouquet Noir, poesie en quatre +chants; Le Café_, C.D. Mery, 1837; _Elogé du Café_, S. Melaye, 1852. + +Many Italian poets have sung the praises of coffee. L. Barotti wrote his +poem, _Il Caffè_ in 1681. Giuseppe Parini (1729-1799), Italy's great +satirical and lyric poet and critic of the eighteenth century, in _Il +Giorno_ (_The Day_), gives a delightful pen picture of the manners and +customs of Milan's polite society of the period. William Dean Howells +quotes as follows from these poems (his own translation) in his _Modern +Italian Poets_. The feast is over, and the lady signals to the cavalier +that it is time to leave the table: + + Spring to thy feet +The first of all, and, drawing near thy lady, +Remove her chair and offer her thy hand, +And lead her to the other room, nor suffer longer +That the stale reek of viands shall offend +Her delicate sense. Thee with the rest invites +The grateful odor of the coffee, where +It smokes upon a smaller table hid +And graced with Indian webs. The redolent gums +That meanwhile burn, sweeten and purify +The heavy atmosphere, and banish thence +All lingering traces of the feast. Ye sick +And poor, whom misery or whom hope, perchance! +Has guided in the noonday to these doors. +Tumultuous, naked, and unsightly throng, +With mutilated limbs and squalid faces, +In litters and on crutches from afar +Comfort yourselves, and with expanded nostrils +Drink in the nectar of the feast divine +That favourable zephyrs waft to you; +But do not dare besiege these noble precincts, +Importunately offering her that reigns +Within your loathsome spectacle of woe! +And now, sir, 't is your office to prepare +The tiny cup that then shall minister, +Slow sipped, its liquor to thy lady's lips; +And now bethink thee whether she prefer +The boiling beverage much or little tempered +With sweet; or if, perchance, she likes it best, +As doth the barbarous spouse, then when she sits +Upon brocades of Persia, with light fingers, +The bearded visage of her lord caressing. + +This is from _Il Mezzogiorno_ (_Noon_). The other three poems, rounding +out _The Day_, are _Il Mattino_ (_Morning_), _Il Vespre_ (_Evening_), +and _La Notte_ (_Night_). In _Il Mattino_, Parini sings: + +Should dreary hypochondria's woes oppress thee, +Should round thy charming limbs in too great measure +Thy flesh increase, then with thy lips do honor +To that clear beverage, made from the well-bronzed, +The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends thee, +And distant Mocha too, a thousand ship-loads; +When slowly sipped it knows no rival. + +Belli's _Il Caffè_ supplies a partial bibliography of the Italian +literature on coffee. There are many poems, some of them put to music. +As late as 1921, there were published in Bologna some advertising verses +on coffee by G.B. Zecchini with music by Cesare Cantino. + +Pope Leo XIII, in his Horatian poem on _Frugality_ composed in his +eighty-eighth year, thus verses his appreciation of coffee: + +Last comes the beverage of the Orient shore, +Mocha, far off, the fragrant berries bore. +Taste the dark fluid with a dainty lip, +Digestion waits on pleasure as you sip. + +Peter Altenberg, a Vienna poet, thus celebrated the cafés of his native +city: + +TO THE COFFEE HOUSE! + +When you are worried, have trouble of one sort or another--to the coffee + house! +When she did not keep her appointment, for one reason or other--to the + coffee house! +When your shoes are torn and dilapidated--coffee house! +When your income is four hundred crowns and you spend five hundred--coffee + house! +You are a chair warmer in some office, while your ambition led you to seek + professional honors--coffee house! +You could not find a mate to suit you--coffee house! +You feel like committing suicide--coffee house! +You hate and despise human beings, and at the same time you can not be + happy without them--coffee house! +You compose a poem which you can not inflict upon friends you meet in the + street--coffee house! +When your coal scuttle is empty, and your gas ration exhausted--coffee + house! +When you need money for cigarettes, you touch the head waiter in + the--coffee house! +When you are locked out and haven't the money to pay for unlocking the + house door--coffee house! +When you acquire a new flame, and intend provoking the old one, you take + the new one to the old one's--coffee house! +When you feel like hiding you dive into a--coffee house! +When you want to be seen in a new suit--coffee house! +When you can not get anything on trust anywhere else--coffee house! + +English poets from Milton to Keats celebrated coffee. Milton (1608-1674) +in his _Comus_ thus acclaimed the beverage: + + One sip of this +Will bathe the drooping spirits in delight +Beyond the bliss of dreams. + +Alexander Pope, poet and satirist (1688-1744), has the oft-quoted lines: + +Coffee which makes the politician wise, +And see through all things with his half-shut eyes. + +In Carruthers' _Life of Pope_, we read that this poet inhaled the steam +of coffee in order to obtain relief from the headaches to which he was +subject. We can well understand the inspiration which called forth from +him the following lines when he was not yet twenty: + +As long as Mocha's happy tree shall grow, +While berries crackle, or while mills shall go; +While smoking streams from silver spouts shall glide, +Or China's earth receive the sable tide, +While coffee shall to British nymphs be dear, +While fragrant steams the bended head shall cheer, +Or grateful bitters shall delight the taste, +So long her honors, name and praise shall last. + +Pope's famous _Rape of the Lock_ grew out of coffee-house gossip. The +poem contains the passage on coffee already quoted: + +For lo! the board with cups and spoons is crowned; +The berries crackle and the mill turns round; +On shining altars of Japan they raise +The silver lamp: the fiery spirits blaze: +From silver spouts the grateful liquors glide, +While China's earth receives the smoking tide. +At once they gratify their scent and taste. +And frequent cups prolong the rich repast +Straight hover round the fair her airy band; +Some, as she sipped, the fuming liquor fanned: +Some o'er her lap their careful plumes displayed, +Trembling, and conscious of the rich brocade. +Coffee (which makes the politician wise, +And see through all things with his half-shut eyes.) +Sent up in vapors to the baron's brain +New stratagems, the radiant lock to gain. + +Pope often broke the slumbers of his servant at night by calling him to +prepare a cup of coffee; but for regular serving, it was his custom to +grind and to prepare it upon the table. + +William Cowper's fine tribute to "the cups that cheer but not +inebriate", a phrase which he is said to have borrowed from Bishop +Berkeley, was addressed to tea and not to coffee, to which it has not +infrequently been wrongfully attributed. It is one of the most pleasing +pictures in _The Task_. + +Cowper refers to coffee but once in his writings. In his _Pity for Poor +Africans_ he expresses himself as "shocked at the ignorance of slaves": + +I pity them greatly, but I must be mum +For how could we do without sugar and rum? +Especially sugar, so needful we see; +What! Give up our desserts, our coffee and tea? + +thus contenting himself, like many others, with words of pity where more +active protest might sacrifice his personal ease and comfort. + +Leigh Hunt (1784-1859), and John Keats (1795-1834), were worshippers at +the shrine of coffee; while Charles Lamb, famous poet, essayist, +humorist, and critic, has celebrated in verse the exploit of Captain de +Clieu in the following delightful verses: + +THE COFFEE SLIPS + +Whene'er I fragrant coffee drink, +I on the generous Frenchman think, +Whose noble perseverance bore +The tree to Martinico's shore. +While yet her colony was new, +Her island products but a few; +Two shoots from off a coffee tree +He carried with him o'er the sea. +Each little tender coffee slip +He waters daily in the ship. +And as he tends his embryo trees. +Feels he is raising 'midst the seas +Coffee groves, whose ample shade +Shall screen the dark Creolian maid. +But soon, alas! His darling pleasure +In watching this his precious treasure +Is like to fade--for water fails +On board the ship in which he sails. +Now all the reservoirs are shut. +The crew on short allowance put; +So small a drop is each man's share. +Few leavings you may think there are +To water these poor coffee plants-- +But he supplies their grasping wants, +Even from his own dry parched lips +He spares it for his coffee slips. +Water he gives his nurslings first, +Ere he allays his own deep thirst, +Lest, if he first the water sip, +He bear too far his eager lip. +He sees them droop for want of more; +Yet when they reach the destined shore, +With pride the heroic gardener sees +A living sap still in his trees. +The islanders his praise resound; +Coffee plantations rise around; +And Martinico loads her ships +With produce from those dear-saved slips. + +In John Keats' amusing fantasy, _Cap and Bells_, the Emperor Elfinan +greets Hum, the great soothsayer, and offers him refreshment: + +"You may have sherry in silver, hock in gold, or glass'd champagne + ... what cup will you drain?" + +"Commander of the Faithful!" answered Hum, +"In preference to these, I'll merely taste +A thimble-full of old Jamaica rum." +"A simple boon," said Elfinan; "thou mayst +Have Nantz, with which my morning coffee's laced." + +But Hum accepts the glass of Nantz, without the coffee, "made racy with +the third part of the least drop of _crème de citron_, crystal clear." + +Numerous broadsides printed in London, 1660 to 1675, have been referred +to in chapter X. Few of them possess real literary merit. + +"Coffee and Crumpets" has been much quoted. It was published in +_Fraser's Magazine_, in 1837. Its author calls himself "Launcelot +Littledo". The poem is quite long, and only those portions are printed +here that refer particularly to "Yemen's fragrant berry": + +COFFEE AND CRUMPETS + +_By Launcelot Littledo of Pump Court, Temple, Barrister-at-law._ + +There's ten o'clock! From Hampstead to the Tower +The bells are chanting forth a lusty carol; +Wrangling, with iron tongues, about the hour, +Like fifty drunken fishwives at a quarrel; +Cautious policemen shun the coming shower; +Thompson and Fearon tap another barrel; +"_Dissolve frigus, lignum super foco. +Large reponens._" Now, come Orinoco! + +To puff away an hour, and drink a cup, +A brimming _breakfast_-cup of ruddy Mocha-- +Clear, luscious, dark, like eyes that lighten up +The raven hair, fair cheek, and _bella boca_ +Of Florence maidens. I can never sup +Of perigourd, but (_guai a chi la tocca!_) +I'm doomed to indigestion. So to settle +This strife eternal,--Betty, bring the kettle! + +Coffee! oh, Coffee! Faith, it is surprising. +'Mid all the poets, good, and bad, and worse. +Who've scribbled (Hock or Chian eulogizing) +Post and papyrus with "Immortal verse"-- +Melodiously similitudinising +In Sapphics languid or Alcaics terse +No one, my little brown Arabian berry,. +Hath sung thy praises--'tis surprising! very! + +Were I a poet now, whose ready rhymes. +Like Tommy Moore's, came tripping to their places-- +Reeling along a merry troll of chimes, +With careless truth,--a dance of fuddled Graces; +Hear it--_Gazette_, _Post_, _Herald_, _Standard_, _Times_, +I'd write an epic! Coffee for its basis; +Sweet as e'er warbled forth from cockney throttles +Since Bob Montgomery's or Amos Cottle's. + +Thou sleepy-eyed Chinese--enticing siren, +Pekoe! the Muse hath said in praise of thee, +"That cheers but not inebriates"; and Byron +Hath called thy sister "Queen of Tears", Bohea! +And he, Anacreon of Rome's age of iron, +Says, how untruly "_Quis non potius te_." +While coffee, thou--bill-plastered gables say, +Art like old Cupid, "roasted every day." + +I love, upon a rainy night, as this is, +When rarely and more rare the coaches rattle +From street to street, to sip thy fragrant kisses; +While from the Strand remote some drunken battle +Far-faintly echoes, and the kettle hisses +Upon the glowing hob. No tittle-tattle +To make a single thought of mine an alien +From thee, my coffee-pot, my fount Castalian. + +The many intervening verses cover an unhappy termination to an otherwise +delightful ball. He is sitting with his charming "Mary", about to ask +her to be his bride, when the unfortunate overturning of a glass of red +wine into her white satin gown, at the same time overthrows all his +dreams of bliss, "for the shrew displaces the angel he adored", and he +resigns himself to the life of "a man in chambers." + +'Tis thus I sit and sip, and sip and think. +And think and sip again, and dip in _Fraser_, +A health, King Oliver! to thee I drink: +Long may the public have thee to amaze her. +Like _Figaro_, thou makest one's eyelids wink, +Twirling on practised palm thy polished razor-- +True Horace temper, smoothed on attic strop; +Ah! thou couldst "_faire la barbe a tout l'Europe_." + + * * * * * + +Come, Oliver, and tell us what the news is; +An easy chair awaits thee--come and fill 't. +Come, I invoke thee, as they do the muses, +And thou shalt choose thy tipple as thou wilt. +And if thy lips my sober cup refuses, +For ruddier drops the purple grape has spilt, +We can sing, sipping in alternate verses, +Thy drink and mine, like Corydon and Thyrsis. + + * * * * * + +Fill the bowl, but not with wine. +Potent port, or fiery sherry; +For this milder cup of mine +Crush me Yemen's fragrant berry. + + * * * * * + +Gentle is the grape's deep cluster, +But the wine's a wayward child; +Nectar _this_! of meeker lustre-- +_This_ the cup that "draws it mild." +Deeply drink its streams divine-- +Fill the cup, but not with wine. + +Prior and Montague inserted the following poetic vignette in their _City +Mouse and Country Mouse_, written in burlesque of Dryden's _Hind and +Panther_: + +Then on they jogg'd; and since an hour of talk +Might cut a banter on the tedious walk, +As I remember, said the sober mouse, +I've heard much talk of the Wits' Coffee-house; +Thither, says Brindle, thou shalt go and see +Priests supping coffee, sparks and poets tea; +Here rugged frieze, there quality well drest, +These baffling the grand Senior, those the Test, +And there shrewd guesses made, and reasons given, +That human laws were never made in heaven; +But, above all, what shall oblige thy sight, +And fill thy eyeballs with a vast delight, +Is the poetic judge of sacred wit, +Who does i' th' darkness of his glory sit; +And as the moon who first receives the light, +With which she makes these nether regions bright, +So does he shine, reflecting from afar +The rays he borrowed from a better star; +For rules, which from Corneille and Rapin flow, +Admired by all the scribbling herd below, +From French tradition while he does dispense +Unerring truths, 't is schism, a damned offense, +To question his, or trust your private sense. + +Geoffrey Sephton, an English poet and novelist, many years resident in +Vienna, whose fantastic stories and fairy tales are well known in +Europe, has written the following sonnets on coffee: + +TO THE MIGHTY MONARCH, KING KAUHEE[350] + +_By Geoffrey Sephton_ + +I + +Away with opiates! Tantalising snares +To dull the brain with phantoms that are not. +Let no such drugs the subtle senses rot +With visions stealing softly unawares +Into the chambers of the soul. Nightmares +Ride in their wake, the spirits to besot. +Seek surer means, to banish haunting cares: +Place on the board the steaming Coffee-pot! +O'er luscious fruit, dessert and sparkling flask, +Let proudly rule as King the Great Kauhee, +For he gives joy divine to all that ask, +Together with his spouse, sweet _Eau de Vie_ +Oh, let us 'neath his sovran pleasure bask. +Come, raise the fragrant cup and bend the knee! + +II + +O great Kauhee, thou democratic Lord, +Born 'neath the tropic sun and bronzed to splendour +In lands of Wealth and Wisdom, who can render +Such service to the wandering Human Horde +As thou at every proud or humble board? +Beside the honest workman's homely fender, +'Mid dainty dames and damsels sweetly tender, +In china, gold and silver, have we poured +Thy praise and sweetness, Oriental King. +Oh, how we love to hear the kettle sing +In joy at thy approach, embodying +The bitter, sweet and creamy sides of life; +Friend of the People, Enemy of Strife, +Sons of the Earth have born thee labouring. + +In America, too, poets have sung in praise of coffee. The somewhat +doubtful "kind that mother used to make" is celebrated in James Whitcomb +Riley's classic poem: + +LIKE HIS MOTHER USED TO MAKE[351] + +_"Uncle Jake's Place," St. Jo., Mo., 1874._ + +"I was born in Indiany," says a stranger, lank and slim, +As us fellers in the restaurant was kindo' guyin' him, +And Uncle Jake was slidin' him another punkin pie +And a' extry cup o' coffee, with a twinkle in his eye-- +"I was born in Indiany--more'n forty years ago-- +And I hain't ben back in twenty--and I'm work-in' back'ards slow; +But I've et in ever' restarunt twixt here and Santy Fee, +And I want to state this coffee tastes like gittin' home, to me!" +"Pour us out another. Daddy," says the feller, warmin' up, +A-speakin' crost a saucerful, as Uncle tuk his cup-- +"When I see yer sign out yander," he went on, to Uncle Jake-- +"'Come in and git some coffee like yer mother used to make'-- +I thought of _my_ old mother, and the Posey county farm, +And me a little kid again, a-hangin' in her arm, +As she set the pot a-bilin', broke the eggs and poured 'em in"-- +And the feller kindo' halted, with a trimble in his chin; +And Uncle Jake he fetched the feller's coffee back, and stood +As solemn, fer a minute, as a' undertaker would; +Then he sorto' turned and tiptoed to'rds the kitchen door--and next, +Here comes his old wife out with him, a-rubbin' of her specs-- +And she rushes fer the stranger, and she hollers out, "It's him!-- +Thank God we've met him comin'!--Don't you know yer mother, Jim?" +And the feller, as he grabbed her, says,--"You bet I hain't forgot-- +But," wipin' of his eyes, says he, "yer coffee's mighty hot!" + +One of the most delightful coffee poems in English is Francis Saltus' +(d. 1889) sonnet on "the voluptuous berry", as found in _Flasks and +Flagons_: + +COFFEE + +Voluptuous berry! Where may mortals find +Nectars divine that can with thee compare, +When, having dined, we sip thy essence rare, +And feel towards wit and repartee inclined? + +Thou wert of sneering, cynical Voltaire, +The only friend; thy power urged Balzac's mind +To glorious effort; surely Heaven designed +Thy devotees superior joys to share. + +Whene'er I breathe thy fumes, 'mid Summer stars, +The Orient's splendent pomps my vision greet. +Damascus, with its myriad minarets, gleams! +I see thee, smoking, in immense bazaars, +Or yet, in dim seraglios, at the feet +Of blond Sultanas, pale with amorous dreams! + +Arthur Gray, in _Over the Black Coffee_ (1902) has made the following +contribution to the poetry of coffee, with an unfortunate reflection on +tea, which might well have been omitted: + +COFFEE + +O, boiling, bubbling, berry, bean! +Thou consort of the kitchen queen-- +Browned and ground of every feature, +The only aromatic creature, +For which we long, for which we feel, +The breath of morn, the perfumed meal. + +For what is tea? It can but mean, +Merely the mildest go-between. +Insipid sobriety of thought and mind +It "cuts no figure"--we can find-- +Save peaceful essays, gentle walks, +Purring cats, old ladies' talks-- + + * * * * * + +But coffee! can other tales unfold. +Its history's written round and bold-- +Brave buccaneers upon the "Spanish Main", +The army's march across the lenght'ning plain, +The lone prospector wandering o'er the hill, +The hunter's camp, thy fragrance all distill. + +So here's a health to coffee! Coffee hot! +A morning toast! Bring on another pot. + + +_The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_ published in 1909 the following +excellent stanzas by William A. Price: + +AN ODE TO COFFEE + +Oh, thou most fragrant, aromatic joy, impugned, abused, and often stormed + against, +And yet containing all the blissfulness that in a tiny cup could be + condensed! +Give thy contemners calm, imperial scorn-- +For thou wilt reign through ages yet unborn! + +Some ancient Arab, so the legend tells, first found thee--may his memory be + blest! +The world-wide sign of brotherhood today, the binding tie between the East + and West! +Good coffee pleases in a Persian dell, +And Blackfeet Indians make it more than well. + +The lonely traveler in the desert range, if thou art with him, smiles at + eventide-- +The sailor, as thy perfume bubbles forth, laughs at the ocean as it rages + wide-- +And where the camps of fighting men are found +Thy fragrance hovers o'er each battleground. + +"Use, not abuse, the good things of this life"--that is a motto from the + Prophet's days, +And, dealing with thee thus, we ne'er shall come to troublous times or + parting of the ways. +Comfort and solace both endure with thee, +Rich, royal berry of the coffee tree! + + +The _New York Tribune_ published in 1915 the following lines by Louis +Untermeyer, which were subsequently included in his "---- _and Other +Poets_."[352] + +GILBERT K. CHESTERTON RISES TO THE TOAST OF COFFEE + +Strong wine it is a mocker; strong wine it is a beast. +It grips you when it starts to rise; it is the Fabled Yeast. +You should not offer ale or beer from hops that are freshly picked, +Nor even Benedictine to tempt a benedict. +For wine has a spell like the lure of hell, and the devil has mixed the + brew; +And the friends of ale are a sort of pale and weary, witless crew-- +And the taste of beer is a sort of a queer and undecided brown-- +But, comrades, I give you coffee--drink it up, drink it down. +With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc. + +Oh, cocoa's the drink for an elderly don who lives with an elderly niece; +And tea is the drink for studios and loud and violent peace-- +And brandy's the drink that spoils the clothes when the bottle breaks in + the trunk; +But coffee's the drink that is drunken by men who will never be drunk. +So, gentlemen, up with the festive cup, where Mocha and Java unite; +It clears the head when things are said too brilliant to be bright! +It keeps the stars from the golden bars and the lips of the tipsy town; +So, here's to strong, black coffee--drink it up, drink it down! +With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc. + + +The American breakfast cup is celebrated in up-to-date American style in +the following by Helen Rowland in the _New York Evening World_: + +WHAT EVERY WIFE KNOWS + +Give me a man who drinks good, hot, dark, strong coffee for breakfast! +A man who smokes a good, dark, fat cigar after dinner! +You may marry your milk-faddist, or your anti-coffee crank, as you will! +But I know the magic of the coffee pot! +Let me make my Husband's coffee--and I care not who makes eyes at him! +Give me two matches a day-- +One to start the coffee with, at breakfast, and one for his cigar, after + dinner! +And I defy all the houris in Christendom to light a new flame in his heart! + +Oh, sweet supernal coffee-pot! +Gentle panacea of domestic troubles, +Faithful author of that sweet nepenthe which deadens all the ills that + married folks are heir to. +Cheery, glittering, soul-soothing, warmed hearted, inanimate friend! +What wife can fail to admit the peace and serenity she owes to _you_? +To you, who stand between her and all her early morning troubles-- +Between her and the before-breakfast grouch-- +Between her and the morning-after headache-- +Between her and the cold-gray-dawn scrutiny? +To you, who supply the golden nectar that stimulates the jaded masculine + soul, +Soothes the shaky masculine nerves, stirs the fagged masculine mind, + inspires the slow masculine sentiment, +And starts the sluggish blood a-flowing and the whole day right! + +What is it, I ask you, when he comes down to breakfast dry of mouth, and + touchy of temper-- +That gives him pause, and silences that scintillating barb of sarcasm on + the tip of his tongue, +With which he meant to impale you? +It is the sweet aroma of the coffee-pot--the thrilling thought of that + first delicious sip! + +What is it, on the morning after the club dance, +That hides your weary, little, washed-out face and straggling, uncurled + coiffure from his critical eyes? +It is the generous coffee-pot, standing like a guardian angel between you + and him! +And in those many vital psychological moments, during the honeymoon, which + decide for or against the romance and happiness of all the rest of married + life-- +Those critical before-breakfast moments when temperament meets temperament, + and will meets "won't"-- +What is it that halts you on the brink of tragedy, +And distracts you from the temptation to answer back? +It is the absorbing anxiety of watching the coffee boil! +What is it that warms his veins and soothes your nerves, +And turns all the world suddenly from a dismal gray vale of disappointment + to a bright rosy garden of hope-- +And starts _another_ day gliding smoothly along like a new motor car? +What is it that will do more to transform a man from a fiend into an angel + than baptism in the River Jordan? +_It is the first cup of coffee in the morning!_ + + +_Coffee in Dramatic Literature_ + +Coffee was first "dramatized", so to speak, in England, where we read +that Charles II and the Duke of Yorke attended the first performance of +_Tarugo's Wiles, or the Coffee House_, a comedy, in 1667, which Samuel +Pepys described as "the most ridiculous and insipid play I ever saw in +my life." The author was Thomas St. Serf. The piece opens in a lively +manner, with a request on the part of its fashionable hero for a change +of clothes. Accordingly, Tarugo puts off his "vest, hat, perriwig, and +sword," and serves the guests to coffee, while the apprentice acts his +part as a gentleman customer. Presently other "customers of all trades +and professions" come dropping into the coffee house. These are not +always polite to the supposed coffee-man; one complains of his coffee +being "nothing but warm water boyl'd with burnt beans," while another +desires him to bring "chocolette that's prepar'd with water, for I hate +that which is encouraged with eggs." The pedantry and nonsense uttered +by a "schollar" character is, perhaps, an unfair specimen of +coffee-house talk; it is especially to be noticed that none of the +guests ventures upon the dangerous ground of politics. + +In the end, the coffee-master grows tired of his clownish visitors, +saying plainly, "This rudeness becomes a suburb tavern rather than my +coffee house"; and with the assistance of his servants he "thrusts 'em +all out of doors, after the schollars and customers pay." + +In 1694, there was published Jean Baptiste Rosseau's comedy, _Le Caffè_, +which appears to have been acted only once in Paris, although a later +English dramatist says it met with great applause in the French capital. +_Le Caffè_ was written in Laurent's café, which was frequented by +Fontenelle, Houdard de la Motte, Dauchet, the abbé Alary Boindin, and +others. Voltaire said that "this work of a young man without any +experience either of the world of letters or of the theater seems to +herald a new genius." + +About this time it was the fashion for the coffee-house keepers of +Paris, and the waiters, to wear Armenian costumes; for Pascal had +builded better than he knew. In _La Foire Saint-Germain_, a comedy by +Dancourt, played in 1696, one of the principal characters is old +"Lorange, a coffee merchant clothed as an Armenian". In scene 5, he says +to Mlle. Mousset, "a seller of house dresses" that he has been "a +naturalized Armenian for three weeks." + +Mrs. Susannah Centlivre (1667?-1723), in her comedy, _A Bold Stroke for +a Wife_, produced about 1719, has a scene laid in Jonathan's coffee +house about that period. While the stock jobbers are talking in the +first scene of act II, the coffee boys are crying, "Fresh Coffee, +gentlemen, fresh coffee?... Bohea tea, gentlemen?" + +Henry Fielding (1707-1754) published "_The Coffee-House Politician, or +Justice caught in his own trap_," a comedy, in 1730. + +_The Coffee House, a dramatick Piece by James Miller_, was performed at +the Theater Royal in Drury Lane in 1737. The interior of Dick's coffee +house figured as an engraved frontispiece to the published version of +the play. + +The author states in the preface that "this piece is partly taken from a +comedy of one act written many years ago in French by the famous +Rosseau, called 'Le Caffè', which met with great applause in Paris." +The coffee house in the play is conducted by the Widow Notable, who has +a pretty daughter for whom, like all good mothers, she is anxious to +arrange a suitable marriage. + +In the first scene, an acrimonious conversation takes place between +Puzzle, the Politician, and Bays, the poet, in which squabble the Pert +Beau and the Solemn Beau, and other habitués of the place take part. +Puzzle discovers that a comedian and other players are in the room, and +insists that they be ejected or forbidden the house. The Widow is justly +incensed, and indignantly replies: + + Forbid the Players my House, Sir! Why, Sir, I get more by them in a + Week than I do by you in seven Years. You come here and hold a + paper in your hand for an Hour, disturb the whole Company with your + Politics, call for Pen and Ink, Paper and Wax, beg a Pipe of + Tobacco, burn out half a Candle, eat half a Pound of Sugar, and + then go away, and pay Two-pence for a Dish of Coffee. I could soon + shut up my doors, if I had not some other good People to make + amends for what I lose by such as you, Sir. + +All join the Widow in scoffing and jeering, and exit the highly +discomfited Puzzle. The pretty little Kitty tricks her mother with the +aid of the Player, and marries the man of her choice, but is forgiven +when he is found to be a gentleman of the Temple. + +The play is in one act and has several songs. The last is one of five +stanzas, with music "set by Mr. Caret:" + +SONG + +What Pleasures a Coffee-House daily bestows! +To read and hear how the World merrily goes; +To laugh, sing and prattle of This, That, and T' other; +And be flatter'd and ogl'd and kiss'd too, like Mother. + +Here the Rake, after Roving and Tipling all Night, +For his Groat in the Morning may set his Head right. +And the Beau, who ne'er fouls his White fingers with Brass, +May have his Sixpen' worth of--Stare in the Glass. + +The Doctor, who'd always be ready to kill, +May ev'ry Day here take his Stand, if he will; +And the soldier, who'd bluster and challenge secure, +May draw boldly here, for--we'll hold him he's sure. + +The Lawyer, who's always in quest of his Prey, +May find fools here to feed upon every Day; +And the sage Politician, in Coffee-Grounds known, +May point out the Fate of each Crown but--his own. + +Then, Gallants, since ev'rything here you may find +That pleasures the Fancy or profits the Mind, +Come all, and take each a full Dish of Delight, +And crowd up our Coffee-House every night. + +[Illustration: SONG FROM "THE COFFEE HOUSE"] + +John Timbs tells us this play "met with great opposition on its +representation, owing to its being stated that the characters were +intended for a particular family (that of Mrs. Yarrow and her daughter) +who kept Dick's, the coffee-house which the artist had inadvertently +selected as the frontispiece. It appears," Timbs continues, "that the +landlady and her daughter were the reigning toast of the Templars, who +then frequented Dick's; and took the matter up so strongly that they +united to condemn the farce on the night of its production; they +succeeded, and even extended their resentment to everything suspected to +be this author's (the Rev. James Miller) for a considerable time after." + +Carlo Goldoni, who has been called the Molière of Italy, wrote _La +Bottega di Caffè_, (The Coffee House), a naturalistic comedy of +bourgeois Venice, satirizing scandal and gambling, in 1750. The scene is +a Venetian coffee house (probably Florian's), where several actions take +place simultaneously. Among several remarkable studies is one of a +prattling slanderer, Don Marzio, which ranks as one of the finest bits +of original character drawing the stage has ever seen. The play was +produced in English by the Chicago Theatre Society in 1912. +Chatfield-Taylor[353] thinks Voltaire probably imitated _La Bottega di +Caffè_ in his _Le Café, ou l'Ecossaise_. Goldoni was a lover of coffee, +a regular frequenter of the coffee houses of his time, from which he +drew much in the way of inspiration. Pietro Longhi, called the Venetian +Hogarth, in one of his pictures presenting life and manners in Venice +during the years of her decadence, shows Goldoni as a visitor in a café +of the period, with a female mendicant soliciting alms. It is in the +collection of Professor Italico Brass. + +Goldoni, in the comedy _The Persian Wife_, gives us a glimpse of coffee +making in the middle of the eighteenth century. He puts these words into +the mouth of Curcuma, the slave: + +Here is the coffee, ladies, coffee native of Arabia, +And carried by the caravans into Ispahan. +The coffee of Arabia is certainly always the best. +While putting forth its leaves on one side, upon the other the flowers + appear; +Born of a rich soil, it wishes shade, or but little sun. +Planted every three years is this little tree in the surface of the soil. +The fruit, though truly very small, +Should yet grow large enough to become somewhat green. +Later, when used, it should be freshly ground. +Kept in a warm and dry place and jealously guarded. + + * * * * * + +But a small quantity is needed to prepare it. +Put in the desired quantity and do not spill it over the fire; +Heat it till the foam rises, then let it subside again away from the fire; +Do this seven times at least, and coffee is made in a moment. + +In 1760 there appeared in France _Le Café, ou l'Ecossaise, comédie_, +which purported to have been written by a Mr. Hume, an Englishman, and +to have been translated into French. It was in reality the work of +Voltaire, who had brought out another play, _Socrates_, in the same +manner a short time before. _Le Café_, was translated into English the +same year under the title _The Coffee House, or Fair Fugitive_. The +title page says the play is written by "Mr. Voltaire" and translated +from the French. It is a comedy in five acts. The principal characters +are: Fabrice, a good-natured man and the keeper of the coffee house; +Constantia, the fair fugitive; Sir William Woodville, a gentleman of +distinction under misfortune; Belmont, in love with Constantia, a man of +fortune and interest; Freeport, a merchant and an epitome of English +manners; Scandal, a sharper; and Lady Alton, in love with Belmont. + +_Il Caffè di Campagna_, a play with music by Galuppi, appeared in Italy +in 1762. + +Another Italian play, a comedy called _La Caffettiéra da Spirito_ was +produced in 1807. + +_Hamilton_, a play by Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, the latter also +playing the title rôle, was produced in America by George C. Tyler in +1918. The first-act scene is laid in the Exchange coffee house of +Philadelphia, during the period of Washington's first administration. +Among the characters introduced in this scene are James Monroe, Count +Tallyrand, General Philip Schuyler, and Thomas Jefferson. + +The authors very faithfully reproduce the atmosphere of the coffee house +of Washington's time. As Tallyrand remarks, "Everybody comes to see +everybody at the Exchange Coffee House.... It is club, restaurant, +merchants' exchange, everything." + +_The Autocrat of the Coffee Stall_, a play in one act, by Harold Chapin, +was published in New York in 1921. + + +_Coffee and Literature in General_ + +An interesting book might be written on the transformation that tea and +coffee have wrought in the tastes of famous literary men. And of the two +stimulants, coffee seems to have furnished greater refreshment and +inspiration to most. However, both beverages have made civilization +their debtor in that they weaned so many fine minds from the heavy wines +and spirits in which they once indulged. + +Voltaire and Balzac were the most ardent devotees of coffee among the +French _literati_. Sir James Mackintosh (1765-1832), the Scottish +philosopher and statesman, was so fond of coffee that he used to assert +that the powers of a man's mind would generally be found to be +proportional to the quantity of that stimulant which he drank. His +brilliant schoolmate and friend, Robert Hall (1764-1831), the Baptist +minister and pulpit orator, preferred tea, of which he sometimes drank a +dozen cups. Cowper; Parson and Parr, the famous Greek scholars; Dr. +Samuel Johnson; and William Hazlitt, the writer and critic, were great +tea drinkers; but Burton, Dean Swift, Addison, Steele, Leigh Hunt, and +many others, celebrated coffee. + +Dr. Charles B. Reed, professor in the medical school of Northwestern +University, says that coffee may be considered as a type of substance +that fosters genius. History seems to bear him out. Coffee's essential +qualities are so well defined, says Dr. Reed, that one critic has +claimed the ability to trace throughout the works of Voltaire those +portions that came from coffee's inspiration. Tea and coffee promote a +harmony of the creative faculties that permits the mental concentration +necessary to produce the masterpieces of art and literature. + +Voltaire (1694-1778) the king of wits, was also king of coffee drinkers. +Even in his old age he was said to have consumed fifty cups daily. To +the abstemious Balzac (1799-1850) coffee was both food and drink. + +In Frederick Lawton's _Balzac_ we read: "Balzac worked hard. His habit +was to go to bed at six in the evening, sleep till twelve, and, after, +to rise and write for nearly twelve hours at a stretch, imbibing coffee +as a stimulant through these spells of composition." + +In his _Treatise on Modern Stimulants_, Balzac thus describes his +reaction to his most beloved stimulant: + + This coffee falls into your stomach, and straightway there is a + general commotion. Ideas begin to move like the battalions of the + Grand Army on the battlefield, and the battle takes place. Things + remembered arrive at full gallop, ensign to the wind. The light + cavalry of comparisons deliver a magnificent deploying charge, the + artillery of logic hurry up with their train and ammunition, the + shafts of wit start up like sharpshooters. Similes arise, the paper + is covered with ink; for the struggle commences and is concluded + with torrents of black water, just as a battle with powder. + +When Balzac tells how Doctor Minoret, Ursule Minoret's guardian, used to +regale his friends with a cup of "Moka," mixed with Bourbon and +Martinique, which the Doctor insisted on personally preparing in a +silver coffee pot, it is his own custom that he is detailing. His +Bourbon he bought only in the rue Mont Blanc (now the chaussé d'Antin); +the Martinique, in the rue des Vielles Audriettes; the Mocha, at a +grocer's in the rue de l'Université. It was half a day's journey to +fetch them. + +There have been notable contributions to the general literature of +coffee by French, Italian, English, and American writers. Space does not +permit of more than passing mention of some of them. + +The reactions of the early French and English writers have been touched +upon in the chapters on the coffee houses of old London and the early +Parisian coffee houses, and in the history chapters dealing with the +evolution of coffee drinking and coffee manners and customs. + +After Dufour, Galland, and La Roque in France, there were Count Rumford, +John Timbs, Douglas Ellis, and Robinson in England; Jardin and Franklin +in France; Belli in Italy; Hewitt, Thurber, and Walsh in America. + +Mention has been made of coffee references in the works of Aubrey, +Burton, Addison, Steele, Bacon, and D'Israeli. + +Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826) the great French epicure, knew coffee as few +men before him or since. In his historical elegy, contained in +_Gastronomy as a Fine Art, or the Science of Good Living_, he exclaims: + + You crossed and mitred abbots and bishops who dispensed the favors + of Heaven, and you the dreaded templars who armed yourselves for + the extermination of the Saracens, you knew nothing of the sweet + restoring influence of our modern chocolate, nor of the + thought-inspiring bean of Arabia--how I pity you! + +O. de Gourcuff's _De la Café, épître attribué à Senecé_, is deserving of +honorable mention. + +An early French writer pays this tribute to the inspirational effects of +coffee: + + It is a beverage eminently agreeable, inspiring and wholesome. It + is at once a stimulant, a cephalic, a febrifuge, a digestive, and + an anti-soporific; it chases away sleep, which is the enemy of + labor; it invokes the imagination, without which there can be no + happy inspiration. It expels the gout, that enemy of pleasure, + although to pleasure gout owes its birth; it facilitates digestion, + without which there can be no true happiness. It disposes to + gaiety, without which there is neither pleasure nor enjoyment; it + gives wit to those who already have it, and it even provides wit + (for some hours at least) to those who usually have it not. Thank + heaven for Coffee, for see how many blessings are concentrated in + the infusion of a small berry. What other beverage in the world can + compare with it? Coffee, at once a pleasure and a medicine; Coffee, + which nourishes at the same moment the mind, body and imagination. + Hail to thee! Inspirer of men of letters, best digestive of the + gourmand. Nectar of all men. + +In Bologna, 1691, Angelo Rambaldi published _Ambrosia arabica, caffè +discorso_. This work is divided into eighteen sections, and describes +the origin, cultivation, and roasting of the bean, as well as telling +how to prepare the beverage. + +During the time that Milan was under Spanish rule, Cesare Beccaria +directed and edited a publication entitled _Il Caffè_, which was +published from June 4, 1764, to May, 1766, "edited in Brescia by +Giammaria Rizzardi and undertaken by a little society of friends," +according to the salutatory. Besides the Marchese Beccaria, other +editors and contributors were Pietro and Alexander Verri, Baillon, +Visconti, Colpani, Longhi, Albertenghi, Frisi, and Secchi. The same +periodical, with the same editorial staff, was published also in Venice +in the Typografia Pizzolato. + +Another publication called _Il Caffè_, devoted to arts, letters, and +science, was published in Venice in 1850-52. Still another, having the +same name, a national weekly journal, was published in Milan, 1884-89. + +An almanac, having the title _Il Caffè_, was published in Milan in 1829. + +A weekly paper, called _Il Caffè Pedrocchi_, was published in Padua in +1846-48. It was devoted to art, literature and politics. + +A publication called _Coffee and Surrogates_ (tea, chocolate, saffron, +pepper, and other stimulants) was founded by Professor Pietro Polli, in +Milan, in 1885; but was short-lived. + +An early English magazine (1731) contains an account of divination by +coffee-grounds. The writer pays an unexpected visit, and "surprised the +lady and her company in close cabal over their coffee, the interest very +intent upon one whom, by her address and intelligence, he guessed was a +tire woman, to which she added the secret of divining by coffee grounds. +She was then in full inspiration, and with much solemnity observing the +atoms around the cup; on the one hand sat a widow, on the other a maiden +lady. They assured me that every cast of the cup is a picture of all +one's life to come, and every transaction and circumstance is delineated +with the exactest certainty." + +The advertisement used by this seer is quite interesting: + + An advise is hereby given that there has lately arrived in this + city (Dublin) the famous Mrs. Cherry, the only gentlewoman truly + learned in the occult science of _tossing of coffee grounds_; who + has with uninterrupted success for some time past practiced to the + general satisfaction of her female visitants. Her hours are after + prayers are done at St. Peter's Church, until dinner. + + (N.B. She never requires more than 1 oz. of coffee from a single + gentlewoman, and so proportioned for a second or third person, but + not to exceed that number at any one time.) + +If the one ounce of coffee represented her payment for reading the +future, the charge could not be considered exorbitant! + +English writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were +noticeably affected by coffee, and the coffee-houses of the times have +been immortalized by them; and in many instances they themselves were +immortalized by the coffee houses and their frequenters. In the chapters +already referred to and at the close of this chapter, will be found +stories, quips, and anecdotes, in which occur many names that are now +famous in art and literature. + +Modern journalism dates from the publication, April 12, 1709, of the +_Tatler_, whose editor was Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729) the Irish +dramatist and essayist. He received his inspiration from the coffee +houses; and his readers were the men that knew them best. In the first +issue he announced: + + All accounts of gallantry, pleasure and entertainment shall be + under the article of White's Coffee House; poetry under that of + Will's Coffee House; learning under the title of Grecian; foreign + and domestic news you will have from St. James's Coffee House, and + what else I shall on any other subject offer shall be dated from my + own apartment. + +Steele's _Tatler_ was issued three times weekly until 1711, when it +suspended to be succeeded by the _Spectator_, whose principal +contributor was Joseph Addison (1672-1719), the essayist and poet, and +Steele's school-fellow. + +Sir Richard Steele immortalized the Don and Don Saltero's coffee house +in old Chelsea in No. 34 of the _Tatler_, wherein he tells us of the +necessity of traveling to know the world, by his journey for fresh air, +no farther than the village of Chelsea, of which he fancied that he +could give an immediate description--from the five fields, where the +the robbers lie in wait, to the coffee house, where the literati sit in +council. But he found, even in a place so near town as this, that there +were enormities and persons of eminence, whom he before knew nothing of. + +The coffee house was almost absorbed by the museum, Steele says: + + When I came into the coffee-house, I had not time to salute the + company, before my eyes were diverted by ten thousand gimcracks + round the room, and on the ceiling. When my first astonishment was + over, comes to me a sage of thin and meagre countenance, which + aspect made me doubt whether reading or fretting had made it so + philosophic; but I very soon perceived him to be that sort which + the ancients call "gingivistee", in our language "tooth-drawers". I + immediately had a respect for the man; for these practical + philosophers go upon a very practical hypothesis, not to cure, but + to take away the part affected. My love of mankind made me very + benevolent to Mr. Salter, for such is the name of this eminent + barber and antiquary. + +The Don was famous for his punch, and for his skill on the fiddle. He +drew teeth also, and wrote verses; he described his museum in several +stanzas, one of which is: + +Monsters of all sorts are seen: + Strange things in nature as they grew so; +Some relicks of the Sheba Queen, + And fragments of the fam'd Bob Crusoe. + +Steele then plunges into a deep thought why barbers should go farther in +hitting the ridiculous than any other set of men; and maintains that Don +Saltero is descended in a right line, not from John Tradescant, as he +himself asserts, but from the memorable companion of the Knight of +Mancha. Steele certifies to all the worthy citizens who travel to see +the Don's rarities, that his double-barreled pistols, targets, coats of +mail, his sclopeta (hand-culverin) and sword of Toledo, were left to his +ancestor by the said Don Quixote; and by his ancestor to all his progeny +down to Saltero. Though Steele thus goes far in favor of Don Saltero's +great merit, he objects to his imposing several names (without his +license) on the collection he has made, to the abuse of the good people +of England; one of which is particularly calculated to deceive religious +persons, to the great scandal of the well-disposed and may introduce +heterodox opinions. (Among the curiosities presented by Admiral Munden +was a coffin, containing the body or relics of a Spanish saint, who had +wrought miracles.) Says Steele: + + He shows you a straw hat, which I know to be made by Madge Peskad, + within three miles of Bedford; and tells you "It is Pontius + Pilate's wife's chambermaid's sister's hat." To my knowledge of + this very hat, it may be added that the covering of straw was never + used among the Jews, since it was demanded of them to make bricks + without it. Therefore, this is nothing but, under the specious + pretense of learning and antiquities, to impose upon the world. + There are other things which I can not tolerate among his rarities, + as, the china figure of the lady in the glass-case; the Italian + engine, for the imprisonment of those who go abroad with it; both + of which I hereby order to be taken down, or else he may expect to + have his letters patent for making punch superseded, be debarred + wearing his muff next winter, or ever coming to London without his + wife. + +Babillard says that Salter had an old grey muff, and that, by wearing it +up to his nose, he was distinguishable at the distance of a quarter of a +mile. His wife was none of the best, being much addicted to scolding; +and Salter, who liked his glass, if he could make a trip to London by +himself, was in no haste to return. + +Don Saltero's proved very attractive as an exhibition, and drew crowds +to the coffee house. A catalog was published of which were printed more +than forty editions. Smollett, the novelist, was among the donors. The +catalog, in 1760, comprehended the following rarities: + + Tigers' tusks; the Pope's candle; the skeleton of a Guinea-pig; a + fly-cap monkey, a piece of the true Cross; the Four Evangelists' + heads cut out on a cherry stone; the King of Morocco's + tobacco-pipe; Mary Queen of Scots' pincushion; Queen Elizabeth's + prayer-book; a pair of Nun's stockings; Job's ears, which grew on a + tree; a frog in a tobacco stopper; and five hundred more odd + relics! + +The Don had a rival, as appears by _A Catalogue of the Rarities to be +seen at Adam's, at the Royal Swan, in Kingsland-road, leading from +Shoreditch Church, 1756_. Mr. Adams exhibited, for the entertainment of +the curious: + + Miss Jenny Cameron's shoes; Adam's eldest daughter's hat; the heart + of the famous Bess Adams, that was hanged at Tyburn with Lawyer + Carr, January 18, 1736-37; Sir Walter Raleigh's tobacco pipe; Vicar + of Bray's clogs; engine to shell green peas with; teeth that grew + in a fish's belly; Black Jack's ribs; the very comb that Abraham + combed his son Isaac and Jacob's head with; Wat Tyler's spurs; + rope that cured Captain Lowry of the head-ach, ear-ach, tooth-ach, + and belly-ach; Adam's key of the fore and back door of the Garden + of Eden, etc., etc. + +These are only a few out of five hundred other equally marvellous +exhibits. + +The success of Don Saltero in attracting visitors to his coffee house, +induced the proprietor of the Chelsea bunhouse to make a similar +collection of rarities, to attract customers for his buns; and to some +extent it was successful. + +In the first number of the _Spectator_, Addison says: + + There is no place of general resort wherein I do not often make my + appearance. Sometimes I am seen thrusting my head into a round of + politicians at Will's, and listening with great attention to the + narratives that are made in those little circular audiences. + Sometimes I smoke a pipe at Child's, and while I seem attentive to + nothing but the _Postman_, overhear the conversation of every table + in the room. I appear on Sunday nights at St. James' coffee house, + and _sometimes_ join the little committee of politics in the inner + room as one who comes there to hear and improve. My face is + likewise very well known at the Grecian, the Cocoa Tree, and in the + theatres both of Drury Lane and the Hay Market. I have been taken + for a merchant upon the Exchange for above these ten years, and + sometimes pass for a Jew in the assembly of stock jobbers at + Jonathan's; in short, wherever I see a cluster of people, I always + mix with them, though I never open my lips, but in my own club. + +In the second number he tells that: + + I am now settled with a widow woman, who has a great many children + and complies with my humor in everything. I do not remember that we + have exchanged a word together for these five years; my coffee + comes into my chamber every morning without asking for it, if I + want fire I point to the chimney, if water, to my basin; upon which + my landlady nods as much as to say she takes my meaning, and + immediately obeys my signals. + +Three of Addison's papers in the _Spectator_ (Nos. 402, 481, and 568) +are humorously descriptive of the coffee houses of the period. No. 403 +opens with the remark that: + + The courts of two countries do not so much differ from one another, + as the Court and the City, in their peculiar ways of life and + conversation. In short, the inhabitants of St. James, + notwithstanding they live under the same laws, and speak the same + language, are a distinct people from those of Cheapside, who are + likewise removed from those of the Temple on the one side, and + those of Smithfleld on the other, by several climates and degrees + in their way of thinking and conversing together. + +For this reason, the author takes a ramble through London and +Westminster, to gather the opinions of his ingenious countrymen upon a +current report of the king of France's death. + + I know the faces of all the principal politicians within the bills + of mortality; and as every coffee-house has some particular + statesman belonging to it, who is the mouth of the street where he + lives, I always take care to place myself near him, in order to + know his judgment on the present posture of affairs. And, as I + foresaw the above report would produce a new face of things in + Europe, and many curious speculations in our British coffee-houses, + I was very desirous to learn the thoughts of our most eminent + politicians on that occasion. + + That I might begin as near the fountain-head as possible, I first + of all called in at St. James's, where I found the whole outward + room in a buzz of politics; the speculations were but very + indifferent towards the door, but grew finer as you advanced to the + upper end of the room, and were so much improved by a knot of + theorists, who sat in the inner room, within the steams of the + coffee-pot, that I there heard the whole Spanish monarchy disposed + of, and all the line of Bourbons provided for in less than a + quarter of an hour. + + I afterwards called in at Giles's, where I saw a board of French + gentlemen sitting upon the life and death of their grand monarque. + Those among them who had espoused the Whig interest very positively + affirmed that he had departed this life about a week since, and + therefore, proceeded without any further delay to the release of + their friends in the galleys, and to their own re-establishment; + but, finding they could not agree among themselves, I proceeded on + my intended progress. + + Upon my arrival at Jenny Man's I saw an alert young fellow that + cocked his hat upon a friend of his, who entered just at the same + time with myself, and accosted him after the following manner: + "Well, Jack, the old prig is dead at last. Sharp's the word. Now or + never, boy. Up to the walls of Paris, directly;" with several other + deep reflections of the same nature. + + I met with very little variation in the politics between Charing + Cross and Covent Garden. And, upon my going into Will's, I found + their discourse was gone off, from the death of the French King, to + that of Monsieur Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and several other + poets, whom they regretted on this occasion as persons who would + have obliged the world with very noble elegies on the death of so + great a prince, and so eminent a patron of learning. + + At a coffee-house near the Temple, I found a couple of young + gentlemen engaged very smartly in a dispute on the succession to + the Spanish monarchy. One of them seemed to have been retained as + advocate for the Duke of Anjou, the other for his Imperial Majesty. + They were both for regarding the title to that kingdom by the + statute laws of England; but finding them going out of my depth, I + pressed forward to Paul's Churchyard, where I listened with great + attention to a learned man, who gave the company an account of the + deplorable state of France during the minority of the deceased + king. + + I then turned on my right hand into Fish-street, where the chief + politician of that quarter, upon hearing the news, (after having + taken a pipe of tobacco, and ruminated for some time) "If," says + he, "the King of France is certainly dead, we shall have plenty of + mackerel this season: our fishery will not be disturbed by + privateers, as it has been for these ten years past." He afterwards + considered how the death of this great man would affect our + pilchards, and by several other remarks infused a general joy into + his whole audience. + + I afterwards entered a by-coffee-house that stood at the upper end + of a narrow lane, where I met with a Nonjuror engaged very warmly + with a laceman who was the great support of a neighboring + conventicle. The matter in debate was whether the late French King + was most like Augustus Caesar, or Nero. The controversy was carried + on with great heat on both sides, and as each of them looked upon + me very frequently during the course of their debate, I was under + some apprehension that they would appeal to me, and therefore laid + down my penny at the bar and made the best of my way to Cheapside. + + I here gazed upon the signs for some time before I found one to my + purpose. The first object I met in the coffee-room was a person who + expressed a great grief for the death of the French King; but upon + his explaining himself, I found his sorrow did not arise from the + loss of the monarch, but for his having sold out of the Bank about + three days before he heard the news of it. Upon which a + haberdasher, who was the oracle of the coffee-house, and had his + circle of admirers about him, called several to witness that he had + declared his opinion, above a week before, that the French King was + certainly dead; to which he added, that considering the late + advices we had received from France, it was impossible that it + could be otherwise. As he was laying these together, and debating + to his hearers with great authority, there came a gentlemen from + Garraway's, who told us that there were several letters from France + just come in, with advice that the King was in good health, and was + gone out a hunting the very morning the post came away; upon which + the haberdasher stole off his hat that hung upon a wooden peg by + him, and retired to his shop with great confusion. This + intelligence put a stop to my travels, which I had prosecuted with + so much satisfaction; not being a little pleased to hear so many + different opinions upon so great an event, and to observe how + naturally, upon such a piece of news, every one is apt to consider + it to his particular interest and advantage. + +Johnson wrote in his _Life of Addison_ concerning the _Tatler_ and the +_Spectator_ that they were: + + Published at a time when two parties, loud, restless and violent, + each with plausible declarations, and both perhaps without any + distinct determination of its views, were agitating the nation; to + minds heated with political contest they supplied cooler and more + inoffensive reflections.... They had a perceptible influence on the + conversation of the time, and taught the frolic and the gay to + unite merriment with decency, effects which they can never wholly + lose. + +Harold Routh in the Cambridge _History of Literature_, speaking of the +_Spectator_, says: + + It surpassed the _Tatler_ in style and in thought. It gave + expression to the _power_ of commerce. For more than a century + traders had been characterized as dishonest and avaricious, because + playwrights and pamphleteers generally wrote for the leisure + classes, and were themselves too poor to have any but unpleasant + relations with men of business. Now merchants were becoming + ambassadors of civilization, and had developed intellect so as to + control distant and, as it seemed, mysterious sources of wealth; by + a stroke of the pen and largely through the coffee houses they had + come to know their own importance and power. + +Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) was very fond of good eating, and almost daily +entries were made in his _Diary_ of dinner delicacies that he had +enjoyed. One dinner, that he considered a great success, was served to +eight persons, and consisted of oysters, a hash of rabbits, a lamb, a +rare chine of beef; next a great dish of roasting fowl ("cost me about +30 s.") a tart, then fruit and cheese. "My dinner was noble enough ... I +believe this day's feast will cost me near 5 pounds." But it will be +noted that coffee was not mentioned as a part of the menu. + +He makes countless references to visits paid to this and that coffee +house, but records only one instance of actually drinking coffee: + + Up betimes to my office, and thence at seven o'clock to Sir G. + Carteret, and there with Sir J. Minnes made an end of his accounts, + but staid not to dinner my Lady having made us drink our morning + draft there of several wines, but I drank nothing but some of her + coffee, which was poorly made, with a little sugar in it. + +This note which he considered worthy of record was certainly not +inspired by the excellence of the good lady's matutinal coffee. + +William Cobbett (1762-1835) the English-American politician, reformer, +and writer on economics, denounced coffee as "slops"; but he was one of +a remarkably small minority. Before his day, one of England's greatest +satirists, Dean Swift, (1667-1745) led a long roll of literary men who +were devotees of coffee. + +Swift's writings are full of references to coffee; and his letters from +Stella came to him under cover, at the St. James coffee house. There is +scarcely a letter to Esther (Vanessa) Vanhomrigh which does not contain +a significant reference to coffee, by which the course of their +friendship and clandestine meetings may be traced. In one dated August +13, 1720, written while traveling from place to place in Ireland, he +says: + + We live here in a very dull town, every valuable creature absent, + and Cad says he is weary of it, and would rather prefer his coffee + on the barrenest mountain in Wales than be king here. + + A fig for partridges and quails, +Ye dainties I know nothing of ye; + But on the highest mount in Wales, +Would choose in peace to drink my coffee. + + + +In another letter, about two years later, replying to one in which +Vanessa has reproached him and begged him to write her soon, he advises: + + The best maxim I know in life, is to drink your coffee when you + can, and when you cannot, to be easy without it; while you continue + to be splenetic, count upon it I will always preach. Thus much I + sympathize with you, that I am not cheerful enough to write, for, I + believe, coffee once a week is necessary, and you know very well + that coffee makes us severe, and grave, and philosophical. + +These various references to coffee are thought to have been based upon +an incident in the early days of their friendship, when on the occasion +of the Vanhomrigh family journeying from Dublin to London, Vanessa +accidentally spilt her coffee in the chimney-place at a certain inn, +which Swift considered a premonition of their growing friendship. +Writing from Clogher, Swift reminds Vanessa: + + Remember that riches are nine parts in ten of all that is good in + life, and health is the tenth--drinking coffee comes long after, + and yet it is the eleventh, but without the two former you cannot + drink it right. + +In another letter he writes facetiously, in memory of her playful +badinage: + + I long to drink a dish of coffee in the sluttery and hear you dun + me for a secret, and "Drink your coffee; why don't you drink your + coffee?" + +Leigh Hunt had very pleasant things to say about coffee, giving to it +the charm of appeal to the imagination, which he said one never finds in +tea. For example: + + Coffee, like tea, used to form a refreshment by itself, some hours + after dinner; it is now taken as a digester, right upon that meal + or the wine, and sometimes does not even close it; or the digester + itself is digested by a liquor of some sort called a _Chasse-Café_ + [coffee-chaser]. We like coffee better than tea for taste, but tea + "for a constancy." To be perfect in point of relish (we do not say + of wholesomeness) coffee should be strong and hot, with little milk + and sugar. It has been drunk after this mode in some parts of + Europe, but the public have nowhere, we believe, adopted it. The + favorite way of taking it at a meal, abroad, is with a great + superfluity of milk--very properly called, in France _café au lait_ + (coffee _to the_ milk). One of the pleasures we receive in drinking + coffee is that, being the universal drink in the East, it reminds + of that region of the "Arabian Nights" as smoking does for the same + reason; though neither of these refreshments, which are identified + with Oriental manners, is to be found in that enchanting work. They + had not been discovered when it was written; the drink then was + sherbet. One can hardly fancy what a Turk or a Persian could have + done without coffee and a pipe, any more than the English ladies + and gentlemen, before the civil wars, without tea for breakfast. + +In his old age, Immanuel Kant, the great metaphysician, became extremely +fond of coffee; and Thomas de Quincey relates a little incident showing +Kant's great eagerness for the after-dinner cup. + + At the beginning of the last year of his life, he fell into a + custom of taking, immediately after dinner, a cup of coffee, + especially on those days when it happened that I was of his party. + And such was the importance that he attached to his little pleasure + that he would even make a memorandum beforehand, in the blank paper + book that I had given him, that on the next day I was to dine with + him, and consequently "_that there was to be coffee_." Sometimes in + the interest of conversation, the coffee was forgotten, but not for + long. He would remember and with the querulousness of old age and + infirm health would demand that coffee be brought "upon the spot." + Arrangements had always been made in advance, however; the coffee + was ground, and the water was boiling: and in the very moment the + word was given, the servant shot in like an arrow and plunged the + coffee into the water. All that remained, therefore, was to give it + time to boil up. But this trifling delay seemed unendurable to + Kant. If it were said, "Dear Professor, the coffee will be brought + up in a moment," he would say, _"Will be!_ There's the rub, that it + only _will_ be." Then he would quiet himself with a stoical air, + and say, "Well, one can die after all; it is but dying; and in the + next world, thank God, there is no drinking of coffee and + consequently no waiting for it." + + When at length the servant's steps were heard upon the stairs, he + would turn round to us, and joyfully call out: "Land, land! my dear + friends, I see land." + +Thackeray (1811-1863) must have suffered many tea and coffee +disappointments. In the _Kickleburys on the Rhine_ he asks: "Why do they +always put mud into coffee aboard steamers? Why does the tea generally +taste of boiled boots?" + +In _Arthur's_, A. Neil Lyons has preserved for all time the atmosphere +of the London coffee stall. "I would not," he says, "exchange a night at +Arthur's for a week with the brainiest circle in London." The book is a +collection of short stories. As already recorded, Harold Chapin +dramatized this picturesque London institution in _The Autocrat of the +Coffee Stall_. + +In General Horace Porter's _Campaigning with Grant_, we have three +distinct coffee incidents within fifty-odd pages; or explicitly, see +pages 47, 56, 101; where, deep in the fiercest snarls of The Wilderness +campaign we are treated to: + + General Grant, slowly sipping his coffee ... a full ration of that + soothing army beverage.... The general made rather a singular meal + preparatory to so exhausting a day as that which was to follow. He + took a cucumber, sliced it, poured some vinegar over it, and + partook of nothing else except a cup of strong coffee.... The + general seemed in excellent spirits, and was even inclined to be + jocose. He said to me, "We have just had our coffee, and you will + find some left for you." ... I drank it with the relish of a + shipwrecked mariner. + +One of the first immediate supplies General Sherman desired from +Wilmington, on reaching Fayetteville and lines of communication in +March, 1865, was, expressly, coffee; does he not say so himself, on page +297 of the second volume of his _Memoirs_? + +Still more expressly, towards the close of his _Memoirs_, and among +final recommendations, the fruit of his experiences in that whole vast +war, General Sherman says this for coffee: + + Coffee has become almost indispensable, though many substitutes + were found for it, such as Indian corn, roasted, ground and boiled + as coffee, the sweet potato, and the seed of the okra plant + prepared in the same way. All these were used by the people of the + South, who for years could procure no coffee, but I noticed that + the women always begged of us real coffee, which seemed to satisfy + a natural yearning or craving more powerful than can be accounted + for on the theory of habit. Therefore I would always advise that + the coffee and sugar ration be carried along, even at the expense + of bread, for which there are many substitutes. + +George Agnew Chamberlain's novel _Home_ contains a vivid description of +coffee-making on an old plantation, and could only have been written by +a devoted lover of this drink. Gerry Lansing, the American, has escaped +drowning in the river, and is now lost in the Brazilian forest. He finds +his way at last to an old plantation house: + + A stove was built into the masonry, and a cavernous oven gaped from + the massive wall. At the stove was an old negress, making coffee + with shaky deliberation.... The girl and the wrinkled old woman + made him sit down at the table, and then placed before him crisp + rusks of mandioc flour and steaming coffee whose splendid aroma + triumphed over the sordidness of the scene and through the nostrils + reached the palate with anticipatory touch. It was sweetened with + dark, pungent syrup and was served black in a capacious bowl, as + though one could not drink too deeply of the elixir of life. Gerry + ate ravenously and sipped the coffee, at first sparingly, then + greedily.... Gerry set down the empty bowl with a sigh. The rusks + had been delicious. Before the coffee the name of nectar dwindled + to impotency. Its elixir rioted in his veins. + +In the _Rosary_, Florence L. Barclay has a Scotch woman tell how she +makes coffee. She says: + + Use a jug--it is not what you make it in; it is how ye make it. It + all hangs upon the word fresh--freshly roasted--freshly + ground--water freshly boiled. And never touch it with metal. Pop it + into an earthenware jug, pour in your boiling water straight upon + it, stir it with a wooden spoon, set it on the hob ten minutes to + settle; the grounds will all go to the bottom, though you might not + think it, and you pour it out, fragrant, strong and clear. But the + secret is, _fresh, fresh, fresh_, and don't stint your coffee. + +Cyrus Townsend Brady's _The Corner in Coffee_ is "a thrilling romance of +the New York coffee market." + +Coffee, Du Barry, and Louis XV figure in one scene of the story of _The +Moat with the Crimson Stains_, as told by Elizabeth W. Champney in her +_Romance of the Bourbon Chateaux_.[354] It tells of the German +apprentice Riesener, who assisted his master Oeben in designing for +Louis XV a beautiful desk with a secret drawer, which it took ten years +of unremitting industry to execute. At the end, Riesener was to be +accepted by his master as a partner and a son-in-law. Little Victoire, +who loved to sit in a punt and trail her doll in the waters of the +Bievre to see to what color its frock would be changed by the dyes of +the Gobelin factory, was then only five, and Madam Oeben twenty-three. +As the years rolled by, Riesener grew to love the mother and not the +daughter, who, meanwhile, shot up into a slim girl, not of her mother's +beauty, but of a loveliness all her own. Then there was a quarrel +because the young apprentice thought the master should have resented the +suggestion of M. Duplessis that his wife pose in the nude for the +statuettes which were to hold the sconces on the king's desk; and +Riesener left in a fine youthful frenzy, vowing he would never return +while the _maître_ lived. The latter, unable to complete the masterpiece +which he loved more than anything else on earth, sought death, and +perished in the crimson waters of the Bievre. + +The _maître_ had no enemies, but his quarrel with Riesener caused a fear +to spring up in the widow's heart that the apprentice might have been +guilty of his murder, so she refused to see him when, hearing of his +master's death, he returned, stricken with remorse, to finish the desk. +On it were the statuettes modeled in perfect likeness of Mlle. de +Vaubernier, a wily little milliner of Riesener's bohemian set who had +taken this way to bring herself to the attention of Louis XV. The ruse +was successful; and after the acceptance of the desk, there was +installed a new _maîtresse en titre_, the notorious Madame Du Barry, +erstwhile the pretty milliner, Mlle. de Vaubernier. + +Later, Madame Du Barry sent for the now famous _ebeniste_ (cabinet +maker); and, when her negro page Zamore admitted him, he found His +Majesty Louis XV kneeling in front of the fireplace, making coffee for +her while she laughed at him for scalding his fingers. He had been +summoned to show the king the mechanism of the secret drawer, so +cunningly concealed in the king's desk that no one could find it. But +Riesener knew not the secret of his master, who had died without +revealing it. Then the red revolution came; and when the pretty pavilion +at Louveciennes was sacked, and its costly furniture hurled down the +cliff to the Seine, the king's desk, shattered almost beyond repair, was +carried to the Gobelins' factory and presented to Mme. Oeben in +recognition of her husband's workmanship. Then the secret compartment +was found to have been disclosed, and Riesener was absolved by a letter +therein, from the _maître_, who intimated he was about to end it all +because of paralysis. Riesener marries the widow and all ends happily. + +James Lane Allen, in _The Kentucky Warbler_, tells a tale of the Blue +Grass country and of a young hero who wanders after a bird's note to +find romance and the key to his own locked nature. Here is an incident +from his first forest adventure: + + There was one tree he curiously looked around for, positive that he + should not be blind to it if fortunate enough to set his eyes on + one--the coffee tree. That is, he felt sure he'd recognize it if it + yielded coffee ready to drink, of which never in his life had they + given him enough. Not once throughout his long troubled experience + as to being fed had he been allowed as much coffee as he craved. + Once, when younger, he had heard some one say that the only tree in + all the American forests that bore the name of Kentucky was the + Kentucky coffee tree, and he had instantly conceived a desire to + pay a visit in secret to that corner of the woods. To take his cup + and a few lumps of sugar and sit under the boughs and catch the + coffee as it dripped down.... No one to hold him back ... as much + as he wanted at last.... The Kentucky coffee tree--his favorite in + Nature! + +John Kendrick Bangs relates, in _Coffee and Repartee_[355], some amusing +skirmishes indulged in at the boarding-house table, between the Idiot +and the guests, where coffee served the purpose of enlivening the tilt: + + "Can't I give you another cup of coffee?" asked the landlady of the + School Master. + + "You may," returned the School Master, pained at the lady's + grammar, but too courteous to call attention to it save by the + emphasis with which he spoke the word "may". + + Said the Idiot: "You may fill my cup too, Mrs. Smithers." + + "The coffee is all gone," returned the landlady, with a snap. + + "Then, Mary," said the Idiot, gracefully turning to the maid, "you + may give me a glass of ice water. It is quite as warm, after all, + as the coffee and not quite so weak." + +One other little skit remains at the expense of Mrs. Smithers' coffee. +At the breakfast table, where the air, as usual, is charged with +repartee, Mr. Whitechoker, the minister, says to his landlady: + + "Mrs. Smithers, I'll have a dash of hot water in my coffee, this + morning." Then with a glance toward the Idiot, he added, "I think it + looks like rain." + + "Referring to the coffee, Mr. Whitechoker?" queried the Idiot.... + + "Ah,--I don't quite follow you," replied the Minister with some + annoyance. + + "You said something looked like rain, and I asked you if the thing + referred to was the coffee, for I was disposed to agree with you," + said the Idiot. + + "I am sure," put in Mrs. Smithers, "that a gentleman of Mr. + Whitechoker's refinement would not make any such insinuation, sir. + He is not the man to quarrel with what is set before him." + + "I must ask your pardon, Madam," returned the Idiot politely. "I + hope I am not the man to quarrel with my food, either. Indeed, I + make it a rule to avoid unpleasantness of all sorts, particularly + with the weak, under which category I find your coffee." + + +_Coffee Quips and Anecdotes_ + +Coffee literature is full of quips and anecdotes. Probably the most +famous coffee quip is that of Mme. de Sévigné, who, as already told in +chapter XI, was wrongfully credited with saying, "Racine and coffee will +pass." It was Voltaire in his preface to _Irene_ who thus accused the +amiable letter-writer; and she, being dead, could not deny it. + +That Mme. de Sévigné was at one time a coffee drinker is apparent from +this quotation from one of her letters: "The cavalier believes that +coffee gives him warmth, and I at the same time, foolish as you know me, +do not take it any longer." + +La Roque called the beverage "the King of Perfumes", whose charm was +enriched when vanilla was added. + +Emile Souvestre (1806-1854) said: "Coffee keeps, so to say, the balance +between bodily and spiritual nourishment." + +Isid Bourdon said: "The discovery of coffee has enlarged the realm of +illusion and given more promise to hope." + +An old Bourbon proverb says: "To an old man a cup of coffee is like the +door post of an old house--it sustains and strengthens him." + +Jardin says that in the Antilles, instead of orange blossoms, the brides +carry a spray of coffee blossoms; and when a woman remains unmarried, +they say she has lost her coffee branch. "We say in France, that she has +_coiffé_ Sainte-Catherine." + +Fontenelle and Voltaire have both been quoted as authors of the famous +reply to the remark that coffee was a slow poison: "I think it must be, +for I've been drinking it for eighty-five years and am not dead yet." + +In Meidinger's _German Grammar_ the "slow-poison" _bon mot_ is +attributed to Fontenelle. + +It seems reasonable to give Fontenelle credit for this _bon mot_. +Voltaire died at eighty-four. Fontenelle lived to be nearly a hundred +years. Of his cheerfulness at an advanced age an anecdote is related. In +conversation, one day, a lady a few years younger than Fontenelle +playfully remarked, "Monsieur, you and I stay here so long, methinks +Death has forgotten us." "Hush! Speak in a whisper, madame," replied +Fontenelle, "_tant mieux!_ (so much the better!) don't remind him of +us." + +Flaubert, Hugo, Baudelaire, Paul de Kock, Théophile Gautier, Alfred de +Musset, Zola, Coppée, George Sand, Guy de Maupassant, and Sarah +Bernhardt, all have been credited with many clever or witty sallies +about coffee. + +Prince Talleyrand (1754-1839), the French diplomat and wit, has given us +the cleverest summing up of the ideal cup of coffee. He said it should +be "_Noir comme le diable, chaud comme l'enfer, pur comme un ange, doux +comme l'amour._" Or in English, "black as the devil, hot as hell, pure +as an angel, sweet as love." + +This quip has been wrongfully attributed to Brillat-Savarin. Talleyrand +said also: + + A cup of coffee lightly tempered with good milk detracts nothing + from your intellect; on the contrary, your stomach is freed by it, + and no longer distresses your brain; it will not hamper your mind + with troubles, but give freedom to its working. Suave molecules of + Mocha stir up your blood, without causing excessive heat; the organ + of thought receives from it a feeling of sympathy; work becomes + easier, and you will sit down without distress to your principal + repast, which will restore your body, and afford you a calm + delicious night. + +Among coffee drinkers a high place must be given to Prince Bismarck +(1815-1898). He liked coffee unadulterated. While with the Prussian army +in France, he one day entered a country inn and asked the host if he had +any chicory in the house. He had. Bismarck said: "Well, bring it to me; +all you have." The man obeyed, and handed Bismarck a canister full of +chicory. + +"Are you sure this is all you have?" demanded the chancellor. + +"Yes, my lord, every grain." + +"Then," said Bismarck, keeping the canister by him, "go now and make me +a pot of coffee." + +This same story has been related of François Paul Jules Grévy +(1807-1891), president of France, 1879-1887. According to the French +story, Grévy never took wine, even at dinner. He was, however, +passionately fond of coffee. To be certain of having his favorite +beverage of the best quality, he always, when he could, prepared it +himself. Once he was invited, with a friend, M. Bethmont, to a hunting +party by M. Menier, the celebrated manufacturer of chocolate, at +Noisiel. It happened that M. Grévy and M. Bethmont lost themselves in +the forest. Trying to find their way out, they stumbled upon a little +wine house, and stopped for a rest. They asked for something to drink. +M. Bethmont found his wine excellent; but, as usual, Grévy would not +drink. He wanted coffee, but he was afraid of the decoction which would +be brought him. He got a good cup, however, and this is how he managed +it: + +"Have you any chicory?" he said to the man. + +"Yes, sir." + +"Bring me some." + +Soon the proprietor returned with a small can of chicory. + +"Is that all you have?" asked Grévy. + +"We have a little more." + +"Bring me the rest." + +When he came again, with another can of chicory, Grévy said: + +"You have no more?" + +"No, sir." + +"Very well. Now go and make me a cup of coffee." + +As already told, Louis XV had a great passion for coffee, which he made +himself. Lenormand, the head gardener at Versailles, raised six pounds +of coffee a year which was for the exclusive use of the king. The king's +fondness for coffee and for Mme. Du Barry gave rise to a celebrated +anecdote of Louveciennes which was accepted as true by many serious +writers. It is told in this fashion by Mairobert in a pamphlet +scandalizing Du Barry in 1776: + + His Majesty loves to make his own coffee and to forsake the cares + of the government. One day the coffee pot was on the fire and, his + Majesty being occupied with something else, the coffee boiled over. + "Oh France, take care! Your coffee _f---- le camp_!" cried the + beautiful favorite. + +Charles Vatel has denied this story. + +It is related of Jean Jacques Rousseau that once when he was walking in +the Tuileries he caught the aroma of roasting coffee. Turning to his +companion, Bernardino de Saint-Pierre, he said, "Ah, that is a perfume +in which I delight; when they roast coffee near my house, I hasten to +open the door to take in all the aroma." And such was the passion for +coffee of this philosopher of Geneva that when he died, "he just missed +doing it with a cup of coffee in his hand". + +Barthez, confidential physician of Napoleon the first, drank a great +deal of it, freely, calling it "the intellectual drink." + +Bonaparte, himself, said: "Strong coffee, and plenty, awakens me. It +gives me a warmth, an unusual force, a pain that is not without +pleasure. I would rather suffer than be senseless." + +Edward R. Emerson[356] tells the following story of the Café Procope. +One day while M. Saint-Foix was seated at his usual table in this café +an officer of the king's body-guard entered, sat down, and ordered a cup +of coffee, with milk and a roll, adding, "It will serve me for a +dinner." At this, Saint-Foix remarked aloud that a cup of coffee, with +milk and a roll, was a confoundedly poor dinner. The officer +remonstrated. Saint-Foix reiterated his remark, adding that nothing he +could say to the contrary would convince him that it was _not_ a +confoundedly poor dinner. Thereupon a challenge was given and accepted, +and the whole company present adjourned as spectators to a duel which +ended by Saint-Foix receiving a wound in the arm. + +"That is all very well," said the wounded combatant; "but I call you to +witness, gentlemen, that I am still profoundly convinced that a cup of +coffee, with milk and a roll, is a confoundedly poor dinner." + +At this moment the principals were arrested and carried before the Duke +de Noailles, in whose presence Saint-Foix, without waiting to be +questioned, said: + +"Monseigneur, I had not the slightest intention of offending this +gallant officer who, I doubt not, is an honorable man; but your +excellency can never prevent my asserting that a cup of coffee, with +milk and a roll, is a confoundedly poor dinner." + +"Why, so it is," said the Duke. + +"Then I am not in the wrong," persisted Saint-Foix; "and a cup of +coffee"--at these words magistrates, delinquents, and auditory burst +into a roar of laughter, and the antagonists forthwith became warm +friends. + +"Boswell in his _Life of Johnson_ tells a story of an old chevalier de +Malte, of _ancienne noblesse_, but in low circumstances, who was in a +coffee house in Paris, where was also Julien, the great manufacturer at +Gobelins, of fine tapestry, so much distinguished for the figures and +the colours. The chevalier's carriage was very old. Says Julien with a +plebeian insolence, 'I think, sir, you had better have your carriage new +painted.' + +"The chevalier looked at him with indignant contempt, and answered: + +"'Well, sir, you may take it home and dye it.' + +"All the coffee house rejoiced at Julien's confusion." + +Sydney Smith (1771-1845) the English clergyman and humorist, once said: +"If you want to improve your understanding, drink coffee; it is the +intellectual beverage." + +Our own William Dean Howells pays the beverage this tribute: "This +coffee intoxicates without exciting, soothes you softly out of dull +sobriety, making you think and talk of all the pleasant things that ever +happened to you." + +The wife of the president of the United States prefers coffee to tea. +Afternoon guests at the White House may be refreshed, if they choose, by +a sip of tea. But while tea is on tap for callers, Mrs. Harding always +has coffee for those who, like herself, prefer it. + + +_Old London Coffee-House Anecdotes_ + +A good-sized volume might be compiled of the many anecdotes that have +been written about habitués of the London coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. + +[Illustration: DR. JOHNSON'S SEAT AT THE CHESHIRE CHEESE] + +Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), the lexicographer, was one of the most +constant frequenters of the coffee houses of his day. His big, awkward +figure was a familiar sight as he went about attended by his satellite, +young James Boswell, who was to write about him for the delight of +future generations in his marvelous _Life of Johnson_. The intellectual +and moral peculiarities of the man found a natural expression in the +coffee house. Johnson was fifty-four and Boswell only twenty-three when +the two first met in Tom Davies' book-shop in Covent Garden. The story +is told by Boswell with great particularity and characteristic naiveté: + + Mr. Davies mentioned my name, and respectfully introduced me to + him. I was much agitated, and recollecting his prejudice against + the Scotch, of which I had heard so much, I said to Davies, "Don't + tell him where I come from." "From Scotland," cried Davies + roguishly. "Mr. Johnson," said I, "I do indeed come from Scotland, + but I cannot help it." I am willing to flatter myself that I meant + this as a light pleasantry to sooth and conciliate him, and not as + a humiliating abasement at the expense of my country. But however + that might be, this speech was somewhat unlucky, for with that + quickness of wit for which he was so remarkable, he seized the + expression, "come from Scotland!" which I used In the sense of + being of that country; and, as if I had come away from it, or left + it, he retorted, "That, sir, I find is what a great many of your + countrymen cannot help." + +Nothing daunted, however, Boswell within a week called upon Johnson in +his chambers. This time the doctor urged him to tarry. Three weeks later +he said to him, "Come to me as often as you can." Within a fortnight +thereafter Boswell was giving the great man a sketch of his own life and +Johnson was exclaiming, "Give me your hand; I have taken a liking to +you." + +[Illustration: ORIGINAL COFFEE ROOM, OLD COCK TAVERN] + +When people began to ask, "Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson's heels?" +Goldsmith replied: "He is not a cur; he is only a bur. Tom Davies flung +him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of sticking." + +Thus began one of the strangest friendships, out of which developed the +most delightful biography in all literature. Boswell's taste for +literary adventures, and Johnson's literary vagrancy met in a +companionship that found much satisfaction in the bohemianism of the +inns and coffee houses of old London. Boswell thus describes the +eccentric doctor's outlook on this mode of living: + + We dined today at an excellent inn at Chapel-House, where Mr. + Johnson commented on English coffee houses and inns remarking that + the English triumphed over the French in one respect, in that the + French had no perfection of tavern life. There is no private house, + (said he) in which people can enjoy themselves so well, as at a + capital tavern. Let there be ever so great plenty of good things, + ever so much grandeur, ever so much elegance, ever so much desire + that everybody should be easy; in the nature of things it cannot + be: there must always be some degree of care and anxiety. The + master of the house is anxious to entertain his guests; the guests + are anxious to be agreeable to him; and no man, but a very impudent + dog indeed, can as freely command what is in another man's house, + as if it were his own. Whereas, at a tavern, there is a general + freedom from anxiety. You are sure you are welcome: and the more + noise you make, the more trouble you give, the more good things you + call for, the welcomer you are. No servants will attend you with + the alacrity which waiters do, who are incited by the prospect of + an immediate reward in proportion as they please. No, Sir, there is + nothing which has yet been contrived by man, by which so much + happiness is produced as by a good tavern or inn. He then repeated, + with great emotion, Shenstone's lines: + +"Whoe'er has travell'd life's dull round, + Where'er his stages may have been, +May sigh to think he still has found + His warmest welcome at an inn." + + + +Patient delving into Johnsoniana is rewarded with many anecdotes about +the mad doctor philosopher and his faithful reporter who delighted in +translating his genius to the world. + +Boswell was a wine-bibber, but Johnson confessed to being "a hardened +and shameless tea drinker." When Boswell twigged him for abstaining from +the stronger drink, the doctor replied: "Sir, I have no objection to a +man's drinking wine if he can do it in moderation. I find myself apt to +go to excess in it and therefore, after having been for some time +without it, on account of illness, I thought it better not to return to +it." + +Another time he said of tea: "What a delightful beverage must that be +that pleases all palates at a time when they can take nothing else at +breakfast." + +[Illustration: FIREPLACE IN THE COFFEE ROOM OF THE OLD COCK TAVERN] + +[Illustration: MORNING GOSSIP IN THE COFFEE ROOM OF THE OLD COCK +TAVERN] + +In his early days Johnson had David Garrick as an unwilling pupil. After +the actor had become famous and his prosperity had turned his head, he +was wont to "put the table in a roar" by mimicking the doctor's +grimaces. There is a story that on the occasion of a certain dinner +party where both were guests, Garrick indulged in a coarse jest on the +great man's table manners. After the merriment had subsided, Doctor +Johnson arose solemnly and said: + +"Gentlemen, you must doubtless suppose from the extreme familiarity with +which Mr. Garrick has thought fit to treat me that I am an acquaintance +of his; but I can assure you that until I met him here, I never saw him +but once before--and then I paid five shillings for the sight." + +A certain sycophant, thinking to curry favor with Johnson, took to +laughing loud and long at everything he said. Johnson's patience at last +became exhausted, and after a particularly objectionable outburst, he +turned upon the boor with: + +"Pray sir, what is the matter? I hope I have not said anything which you +can comprehend!" + +Because of his physical and mental disabilities Dr. Johnson was not a +good social animal. Nevertheless, when it pleased his humor, he could be +the cavalier, for his mind overcame every impediment. + +It is related of him that once when a lady who was showing him around +her garden expressed her regret at being unable to bring a particular +flower to perfection, he arose gallantly to the occasion by taking her +hand and remarking: + +"Then, madam, permit me to bring perfection to the flower!" + +Again, when Mrs. Siddons, the great English tragedienne, called upon him +in his chambers and the servant did not promptly bring her a chair, his +quick wit made capital of the incident by the remark: + +"You see, madam, wherever you go there are no seats to be had!" + +John Thomas Smith in his _Antiquarian Rambles in the Streets of London_ +(1846), tells an amusing incident in the life of Sir George Etherege, +the playright, who having run up a bill at Locket's ordinary, a coffee +house much frequented by dramatists of the period, and finding himself +unable to pay, began to absent himself from the place. Mrs. Locket +thereupon sent a man to dun and to threaten him with prosecution if he +did not pay. Sir George sent back word that if she stirred a step in the +matter he would kiss her. On receiving this answer, the good lady, much +exasperated, called for her hood and scarf, and told her husband, who +interposed, that "she would see if there was any fellow alive who would +have the impudence--" "Prithee! my dear, don't be so rash," said her +husband; "there is no telling what a man may do in his passion." + +Richard Savage, the English poet and friend of Johnson, who included him +in his famous _Lives of the Poets_, was arrested for the murder of James +Sinclair after a drunken brawl in Robinson's coffee house in 1727. He +was found guilty, but narrowly escaped the death penalty by the +intercession of the countess of Hertford. A feature of his trial was the +extraordinary charge to the jury of Judge Page, who for his hard words +and his love of hanging, is damned to everlasting fame in the verse of +Pope. The charge was: + + Gentlemen of the jury! You are to consider that Mr. Savage is a + very great man, a much greater man than you or I, gentlemen of the + jury; that he wears very fine clothes, much finer than you or I, + gentlemen of the jury; that he has an abundance of money in his + pocket, much more money than you or I, gentlemen of the jury; but, + gentlemen of the jury, is it not a very hard case, gentlemen of the + jury, that Mr. Savage should therefore kill you or me, gentlemen of + the jury? + +Albert V. Lally[357] has made a collection of old coffee-house +anecdotes. Among them are the following: + + The story is told of how Sir Richard Steele in Button's Coffee + House was once made the umpire in an amusing difference between two + unnamed disputants. These two were arguing about religion, when one + of them said: "I wonder, sir, you should talk of religion, when + I'll hold you five guineas you can't say the Lord's prayer." + "Done," said the other, "and Sir Richard Steele shall hold the + stakes." The money being deposited the gentleman began with, "I + believe in God", and so went right through the creed. "Well," said + the other when he had finished, "I didn't think he could have done + it." + + * * * * * + + There is another story of a famous judge, Sir Nicholas Bacon, who + was importuned by a criminal to spare his life on account of + kinship. "How so," demanded the judge. "Because my name is Hog and + yours is Bacon; and hog and bacon are so near akin that they cannot + be separated." + + "Ay," responded the judge dryly, "but you and I cannot yet be + kindred, for hog is not bacon until it is well hanged." + + * * * * * + + On another occasion a nervous barrister, pleading before this same + judge, began with repeated references to his "unfortunate client." + "Go on, sir," said the judge, "so far the Court is with you." + + * * * * * + + Of Jonathan Swift it is related that a gentleman who had sought to + persuade him to accept an invitation to dinner said, in way of + special inducement, "I'll send you my bill of fare." "Send me + rather your bill of company," retorted Swift, showing his + appreciation of the truth that not that which is eaten, but those + who eat, form the more important part of a good dinner. + +On the occasion when the "dreadful Judge Jeffreys" was trying Compton, +bishop of London, before the Court of High Commission, that prelate, as +Campbell relates in his _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, complained of +having no copy of the indictment. Jeffreys replied to this excuse that +"all the coffee houses had it for a penny." The case being resumed after +the lapse of a week, the bishop again protested that he was unprepared, +owing to his continued difficulty in obtaining a copy of the necessary +document. Jeffreys was obliged once more to adjourn the case, and in so +doing offered this bantering apology: + +"My lord," said he, "in telling you our commission was to be seen in +every coffee house, I did not speak with any design to reflect on your +lordship, as if you were a haunter of coffee houses. I abhor the +thoughts of it!" + +As the Judge had once been distinctly opposed to the party and +principles which he went to such a length in supporting, so had he +formerly owed something to the very institution against which his last +blow was directed. Roger North relates (and Campbell repeats the story) +that, "after he was called to the bar, he used to sit in coffee houses +and order his man to come and tell him that company attended him at his +chamber; at which he would huff and say, 'let them stay a little, I will +come presently,' and thus made a show of business." + +John Timbs, in his _Clubs and Club Life in London_, has a host of +anecdotes and stories of the old London coffee houses, among them the +following: + + Garraway's noted coffee-house, situated in Change-alley, Cornhill, + had a threefold celebrity; tea was first sold in England here; it + was a place of great resort in the time of the South Sea Bubble; + and was later a place of great mercantile transactions. The + original proprietor was Thomas Garway, tobacconist and coffee-man, + the first who retailed tea, recommending it as a cure of all + disorders. + +[Illustration: "HIS WARMEST WELCOME AT AN INN" + + The George Inn of today has retained a portion of its old + galleries, the original of which completely surrounded the + courtyard in typical "Dickens Inn" style. The visitor can imagine + Mr. Pickwick emerging from the door of one of the bedrooms and + calling into the yard to Sam Weller. In the old-fashioned coffee + room on the ground floor one may still lunch and dine enclosed in + high bench seats] + + Ogilby, the compiler of the _Britannia_, had his standing lottery + of books at Mr. Garway's Coffee-house from April 7, 1673, till + wholly drawn off. And, in the "Journey through England," 1722, + Garraway's, Robins's, and Joe's are described as the three + celebrated coffee-houses: "In the first, the People of Quality, who + have business in the City, and the most considerable and wealthy + citizens frequent. In the second the Foreign Banquiers, and often + even Foreign Ministers. And in the third, the buyers and sellers of + stock." + + Wines were sold at Garraway's in 1673, "by the candle", that is, by + auction, while an inch of candle burns. In the _Tatler_, No. 147, + we read: "Upon my coming home last night, I found a very handsome + present of French wine, left for me, as a taste of 216 hogshead, + which are to be put on sale at 20£ a hogshead, at Garraway's + Coffee-house, in Exchange alley" etc. The sale by candle is not, + however, by candlelight, but during the day. At the commencement of + the sale, when the auctioneer has read a description of the + property, and the conditions on which it is to be disposed of, a + piece of candle, usually an inch long, is lighted, and he who is + the last bidder at the time the light goes out is declared the + purchaser. + + Swift, in his _Ballad on the South Sea Scheme_, 1721, did not + forget Garraway's: + +There is a gulf, where thousands fell, + Here all the bold adventurers came, +A narrow sound, though deep as hell, + 'Change alley is the dreadful name. + +Subscribers here by thousands float, + And jostle one another down, +Each paddling in his leaky boat, + And here they fish for gold and drown. + +Now buried in the depths below, + Now mounted up to heaven again, +They reel and stagger to and fro, + At their wits' end, like drunken men. + +Meantime secure on Garway cliffs, + A savage race, by shipwrecks fed, +Lie waiting for the founder'd skiffs, + And strip the bodies of the dead. + + Dr. Jno. Radcliff, who was a rash speculator in the South Sea + Scheme, was usually planted at a table at Garraway's about Exchange + time, to watch the turn of the market; and here he was seated when + the footman of his powerful rival, Dr. Edward Hannes, came into + Garraway's and inquired by way of a puff, if Dr. H. was there. Dr. + Radcliff, who was surrounded with several apothecaries and + chirurgeons that flocked about him, cried out, "Dr. Hannes is not + here," and desired to know "who wants him?" The fellow's reply was, + "such a lord and such a lord;" but he was taken up with the dry + rebuke, "No, no, friend, you are mistaken; the Doctor wants those + lords." One of Radcliff's ventures was five thousand guineas upon + one South Sea project. When he was told at Garraway's that 'twas + all lost, "Why," said he, "'tis but going up five thousand pair of + stairs more." "This answer," says Tom Brown, "deserved a statue." + + * * * * * + + Jonathan's Coffee-house was another Change-alley coffee-house, + which is described in the _Tatler_, No. 38, as "the general mart of + stock-jobbers," and the _Spectator_, No. 1, tells us that he + "sometimes passes for a Jew in the assembly of stock-jobbers at + Jonathan's." This was their rendezvous, where gambling of all sorts + was carried on, notwithstanding a former prohibition against the + assemblage of the jobbers, issued by the City of London, which + prohibition continued unrepealed until 1825. + + * * * * * + + The _Spectator_, No. 16, notices some gay frequenters of the + Rainbow Coffee-house in Fleet Street: "I have received a letter + desiring me to be very satirical upon the little muff that is now + in fashion; another informs me of a pair of silver garters buckled + below the knee, that have been lately seen at the Rainbow + Coffee-house in Fleet Street." + + Mr. Moncrieff, the dramatist, used to tell that about 1780, this + house was kept by his grandfather, Alexander Moncrieff, when it + retained its original title of "The Rainbow Coffee-house." + + * * * * * + + Nando's Coffee-house at the east corner of Inner Temple-lane, No. + 17, Fleet-Street, by some confused with Groom's house, No. 16, was + the favourite haunt of Lord Thurlow before he dashed into law + practice. At this coffee-house a large attendance of professional + loungers was attracted by the fame of the punch and the charms of + the landlady, which, with the small wits, were duly admired by and + at the bar. One evening, the famous cause of Douglas _v._ the Duke + of Hamilton was the topic of discussion, when Thurlow being + present, it was suggested, half in earnest, to appoint him junior + counsel, which was done. This employment brought him acquaintance + with the Duchess of Queensberry, who saw at once the value of a man + like Thurlow, and recommended Lord Bute to secure him by a silk + gown. + + * * * * * + + Dick's Coffee-house, at No. 8, Fleet-street, (south side, near + Temple Bar) was originally "Richard's", named from Richard Torner, + or Turner, to whom the house was let in 1680. Richard's was + frequented by Cowper, when he lived in the Temple. In his own + account of his insanity, Cowper tells us: + + "At breakfast I read the newspaper, and in it a letter, which, the + further I perused it, the more closely engaged my attention. I + cannot now recollect the purport of it; but before I had finished + it, it appeared demonstratively true to me that it was a libel or + satire upon me. The author appeared to be acquainted with my + purpose of self-destruction, and to have written that letter on + purpose to secure and hasten the execution of it. My mind, + probably, at this time began to be disordered; however it was, I + was certainly given to a strong delusion. I said within myself, + 'Your cruelty shall be gratified; you shall have your revenge,' and + flinging down the paper in a fit of strong passion, I rushed + hastily out of the room; directing my way towards the fields, where + I intended to find some house to die in; or, if not, determined to + poison myself in a ditch, where I could meet with one sufficiently + retired." + + * * * * * + + Lloyd's Coffee-house was one of the earliest establishments of its + kind; it is referred to in a poem printed in the year 1700, called + the _Wealthy Shopkeeper, or Charitable Christian_: + +Now to Lloyd's Coffee-house he never fails, +To read the letters, and attend the sales. + + In 1710, Steele (_Tatler_, No. 246) dates from Lloyd's his Petition + on Coffee-house Orators and Newsvendors. And Addison, in + _Spectator_, April 23, 1711, relates this droll incident: "About a + week since there happened to me a very odd accident, by reason of + one of these my papers of minutes which I had accidentally dropped + at Lloyd's Coffee-house, where the auctions are usually kept. + Before I missed it, there were a cluster of people who had found + it, and were diverting themselves with it at one end of the + coffee-house. It had raised so much laughter among them before I + observed what they were about, that I had not the courage to own + it. The boy of the coffee-house, when they had done with it, + carried it about in his hand, asking everybody if they had dropped + a written paper; but nobody challenging it, he was ordered by those + merry gentlemen who had before perused it, to get up into the + auction pulpit, and read it to the whole room, that if anybody + would own it they might. The boy accordingly mounted the pulpit, + and with a very audible voice read what proved to be minutes, which + made the whole coffee-house very merry; some of them concluded it + was written by a madman, and others by somebody that had been + taking notes out of the _Spectator_. After it was read, and the boy + was coming put of the pulpit, the _Spectator_ reached his arm out, + and desired the boy to given it him; which was done according. This + drew the whole eyes of the company upon the _Spectator_; but after + casting a cursory glance over it, he shook his head twice or thrice + at the reading of it, twisted it into a kind of match, and lighted + his pipe with it. 'My profound silence,' says the _Spectator_, + 'together with the steadiness of my countenance, and the gravity of + my behaviour during the whole transaction, raised a very loud + laugh on all sides of me; but as I had escaped all suspicion of + being the author, I was very well satisfied, and applying myself to + my pipe and the _Postman_, took no further notice of anything that + passed about me.'" + + * * * * * + + The Smyrna Coffee-house in Pall Mall, was, in the reign of Queen + Anne, famous for "that cluster of wise-heads" found sitting every + evening from the left side of the fire to the door. The following + announcement in the _Tatler_, No. 78, is amusing: "This is to give + notice to all ingenious gentlemen in and about the cities of London + and Westminster, who have a mind to be instructed in the noble + sciences of music, poetry and politics, that they repair to the + Smyrna Coffee-house, in Pall Mall, betwixt the hours of eight and + ten at night, where they may be instructed gratis, with elaborate + essays 'by word of mouth', on all or any of the above-mentioned + arts." + + * * * * * + + St. James's Coffee-house was the famous Whig coffee-house from the + time of Queen Anne till late in the reign of George III. It was the + last house but one on the southwest corner of St. James's street, + and is thus mentioned in No. 1 of the _Tatler_: "Foreign and + Domestic News you will have from St. James's Coffee-house." It + occurs also in the passage quoted previously from the _Spectator_. + The St. James's was much frequented by Swift; letters for him were + left here. In his Journal to Stella he says: "I met Mr. Harley, and + he asked me how long I had learnt the trick of writing to myself? + He had seen your letter through the glass case at the Coffee-house, + and would swear it was my hand." + + Elliott, who kept the coffee-house, was, on occasions, placed on a + friendly footing with his guests. Swift, in his Journal to Stella, + November 19, 1710, records an odd instance of this familiarity: + "This evening I christened our coffee-man Elliott's child; when the + rogue had a most noble supper, and Steele and I sat amongst some + scurvy company over a bowl of punch." + + In the first advertisement of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's "Town + Eclogues," they are stated to have been read over at the St. + James's Coffee-house, when they were considered by the general + voice to be productions of a Lady of Quality. From the proximity of + the house to St. James's Palace, it was much frequented by the + Guards; and we read of its being no uncommon circumstance to see + Dr. Joseph Warton at breakfast in the St. James's Coffee-house, + surrounded by officers of the Guards, who listened with the utmost + attention and pleasure to his remarks. + + To show the order and regularity observed at the St. James's, we + may quote the following advertisement, appended to the _Tatler_. + No. 25; "To prevent all mistakes that may happen among gentlemen of + the other end of the town, who come but once a week to St. James's + Coffee-house, either by miscalling the servants, or requiring such + things from them as are not properly within their respective + provinces, this is to give notice that Kidney, keeper of the + book-debts of the outlying customers, and observer of those who go + off without paying, having resigned that employment, is succeeded + by John Sowton; to whose place of enterer of messages and first + coffee-grinder, William Bird is promoted; and Samuel Burdock comes + as shoe-cleaner in the room of the said Bird." + + But the St. James's is more memorable as the house where originated + Goldsmith's celebrated poem, "Retaliation." The poet belonged to a + temporary association of men of talent, some of them members of the + Club, who dined together occasionally here. At these dinners he was + generally the last to arrive. On one occasion, when he was later + than usual, a whim seized the company to write epitaphs on him as + "the late Dr. Goldsmith", and several were thrown off in a playful + vein. The only one extant was written by Garrick, and has been + preserved, very probably, by its pungency: + +Here lies poet Goldsmith, for shortness called Noll; +He wrote like an angel, but talked like poor Poll. + + Goldsmith did not relish the sarcasm, especially coming from such a + quarter; and, by way of _retaliation_, he produced the famous poem, + of which Cumberland has left a very interesting account, but which + Mr. Forster, in his "Life of Goldsmith", states to be "pure + romance". The poem itself, however, with what was prefixed to it + when published, sufficiently explains its own origin. What had + formerly been abrupt and strange in Goldsmith's manners, had now so + visibly increased, as to become matter of increased sport to such + as were ignorant of its cause; and a proposition made at one of the + dinners, when he was absent, to write a series of epitaphs upon him + (his "country dialect" and his awkward person) was agreed to, and + put in practice by several of the guests. The active aggressors + appear to have been Garrick, Doctor Bernard, Richard Burke, and + Caleb Whitefoord. Cumberland says he, too, wrote an epitaph; but it + was complimentary and grave, and hence the grateful return he + received. Mr. Forster considers Garrick's epitaph to indicate the + tone of all. This, with the rest, was read to Goldsmith when he + next appeared at the St. James's Coffee-house, where Cumberland, + however, says he never again met his friends. But "the Doctor was + called on for Retaliation," says the friend who published the poem + with that name, "and at their next meeting produced the following, + which I think adds one leaf to his immortal wreath." + "'Retaliation'", says Sir Walter Scott, "had the effect of placing + the author on a more equal footing with his Society than he had + ever before assumed." + + Cumberland's account differs from the version formerly received, + which intimates that the epitaphs were written before Goldsmith + arrived: whereas the pun, "the late Dr. Goldsmith" appears to have + suggested the writing of the epitaphs. In the "Retaliation", + Goldsmith has not spared the characters and failings of his + associates, but has drawn them with satire, at once pungent and + good-humoured. Garrick is smartly chastised; Burke, the Dinner-bell + of the House of Commons, is not let off; and of all the more + distinguished names of the Club, Thomson, Cumberland, and Reynolds + alone escape the lash of the satirist. The former is not mentioned, + and the two latter are even dismissed with unqualified and + affectionate applause. + + Still we quote Cumberland's account of the "Retaliation" which is + very amusing from the closely circumstantial manner in which the + incidents are narrated, although they have so little relationship + to truth: "It was upon a proposal started by Edmund Burke, that a + party of friends who had dined together at Sir Joshua Reynolds's + and my house, should meet at the St. James's Coffee-house, which + accordingly took place, and was repeated occasionally with much + festivity and good fellowship. Dr. Bernard, Dean of Derry; a very + amiable and old friend of mine, Dr. Douglas, since Bishop of + Salisbury; Johnson, David Garrick, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Oliver + Goldsmith, Edmund and Richard Burke, Hickey, with two or three + others, constituted our party. At one of these meetings, an idea + was suggested of extemporary epitaphs upon the parties present; pen + and ink were called for, and Garrick, offhand, wrote an epitaph + with a good deal of humour, upon poor Goldsmith, who was the first + in jest, as he proved to be in reality, that we committed to the + grave. The Dean also gave him an epitaph, and Sir Joshua + illuminated the Dean's verses with a sketch of his bust in pen and + ink, inimitably caricatured. Neither Johnson nor Burke wrote + anything, and when I perceived that Oliver was rather sore, and + seemed to watch me with that kind of attention which indicated his + expectation of something in the same kind of burlesque with theirs; + I thought it time to press the joke no further, and wrote a few + couplets at a side-table, which, when I had finished, and was + called upon by the company to exhibit, Goldsmith, with much + agitation, besought me to spare him; and I was about to tear them, + when Johnson wrested them out of my hand, and in a loud voice read + them at the table. I have now lost recollection of them, and, in + fact, they were little worth remembering; but as they were serious + and complimentary, the effect upon Goldsmith was the more pleasing + for being so entirely unexpected. The concluding line, which was + the only one I can call to mind, was: + + "All mourn the poet, I lament the man. + + "This I recollect, because he repeated it several times, and seemed + much gratified by it. At our next meeting he produced his epitaphs + ... and this was the last time he ever enjoyed the company of his + friends." + + * * * * * + + Will's Coffee-house, the predecessor of Button's, and even more + celebrated than that coffee-house, was kept by William Urwin. It + first had the title of the Red Cow, then of the Rose, and, we + believe, is the same house alluded to in the pleasant story in the + second number of the _Tatler_. "Supper and friends expect we at the + Rose." + + Dean Lockier has left this life-like picture of his interview with + the presiding genius (Dryden) at Will's. + + "I was about seventeen when I first came up to town," says the + Dean, "an odd-looking boy, with short rough hair, and that sort of + awkwardness which one always brings up at first out of the country + with one. However, in spite of my bashfulness and appearance, I + used, now and then, to thrust myself into Will's to have the + pleasure of seeing the most celebrated wits of that time, who then + resorted thither. The second time that ever I was there, Mr. Dryden + was speaking of his own things, as he frequently did, especially of + such as had been lately published. 'If anything of mine is good,' + says he, ''tis 'Mac-Flecno', and I value myself the more upon it, + because it is the first piece of ridicule written in heroics.' On + hearing this I plucked up my spirit so far as to say, in a voice + but just loud enough to be heard, 'that "Mac-Flecno" was a very + fine poem, but that I had not imagined it to be the first that was + ever writ that way.' On this, Dryden turned short upon me, as + surprised at my interposing; asked me how long 'I had been a dealer + in poetry'; and added, with a smile, 'Pray, Sir, what is it that + you did imagine to have been writ so before?'--I named Boileau's + 'Lutrin' and Tassoni's 'Secchia Rapita,' which I had read, and knew + Dryden had borrowed some strokes from each. ''Tis true,' said + Dryden, 'I had forgot them.' A little after, Dryden went out, and + in going, spoke to me again, and desired me to come and see him the + next day. I was highly delighted with the invitation; went to see + him accordingly; and was well acquainted with him after, as long as + he lived." + + * * * * * + + Will's Coffee-house was the open market for libels and lampoons, + the latter named from the established burden formerly sung to them: + +_Lampone, lampone, camerada lampone._ + + There was a drunken fellow, named Julian, who was a characterless + frequenter of Will's, and Sir Walter Scott has given this account + of him and his vocation: + + "Upon the general practice of writing lampoons, and the necessity + of finding some mode of dispersing them, which should diffuse the + scandal widely while the authors remained concealed, was founded + the self-erected office of Julian, Secretary, as he called himself, + to the Muses. This person attended Will's, the Wits' Coffee-house, + as it was called; and dispersed among the crowds who frequented + that place of gay resort copies of the lampoons which had been + privately communicated to him by their authors. 'He is described,' + says Mr. Malone, 'as a very drunken fellow, and at one time was + confined for a libel.'" + + * * * * * + + Tom Brown describes 'a Wit and a Beau set up with little or no + expense. A pair of red stockings and a swordknot set up one, and + peeping once a day in at Will's, and two or three second-hand + sayings, the other.' + + * * * * * + + Pepys, one night, going to fetch home his wife, stopped in Covent + Garden, at the Great Coffee-house there, as he called Will's, where + he never was before: "Where," he adds, "Dryden, the poet (I knew at + Cambridge), and all the Wits of the town, and Harris the player, + and Mr. Hoole of our College. And had I had time then, or could at + other times, it will be good coming thither, for there, I perceive, + is very witty and pleasant discourse. But I could not tarry, and, + as it was late, they were all ready to go away." + + Addison passed each day alike, and much in the manner that Dryden + did. Dryden employed his mornings in writing, dined _en famille_, + and then went to Will's, "only he came home earlier o' nights." + + Pope, when very young, was impressed with such veneration for + Dryden, that he persuaded some friends to take him to Will's + Coffee-house, and was delighted that he could say that he had seen + Dryden. Sir Charles Wogan, too, brought up Pope from the Forest of + Windsor, to dress _a la mode_, and introduce at Will's + Coffee-house. Pope afterwards described Dryden as "a plump man with + a down look, and not very conversible," and Cibber could tell no + more "but that he remembered him a decent old man, arbiter of + critical disputes at Will's." Prior sings of-- + + The younger Stiles, +Whom Dryden pedagogues at Will's! + + Most of the hostile criticism on his Plays, which Dryden has + noticed in his various Prefaces, appear to have been made at his + favourite haunt, Will's Coffee-house. + + Dryden is generally said to have been returning from Will's to his + house in Gerard Street, when he was cudgelled in Rose Street by + three persons hired for the purpose by Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, + in the winter of 1679. The assault, or "the Rose-alley Ambuscade," + certainly took place; but it is not so certain that Dryden was on + his way from Will's, and he then lived in Long-acre, not Gerard + Street. + + It is worthy of remark that Swift was accustomed to speak + disparagingly of Will's, as in his "Rhapsody on Poetry:" + +Be sure at Will's the following day +Lie snug, and hear what critics say; +And if you find the general vogue +Pronounces you a stupid rogue, +Damns all your thoughts as low and little; +Sit still, and swallow down your spittle. + + Swift thought little of the frequenters of Will's: "he used to say, + the worst conversation he ever heard in his life was at Will's + Coffee-house, where the wits (as they were called) used formerly to + assemble; that is to say, five or six men who had writ plays or at + least prologues, or had a share in a miscellany, came thither, and + entertained one another with their trifling composures, in so + important an air as if they had been the noblest efforts of human + nature, or that the fate of kingdoms depended on them." + + In the first number of the _Tatler_, poetry is promised under the + article of Will's Coffee-house. The place, however, changed after + Dryden's time: "you used to see songs, epigrams, and satires in the + hands of every man you met, you have now only a pack of cards; and + instead of the cavils about the turn of the expression, the + elegance of the style, and the like, the learned now dispute only + about the truth of the game." "In old times, we used to sit upon a + play here, after it was acted, but now the entertainment's turned + another way." + + The _Spectator_ is sometimes seen "thrusting his head into a round + of politicians at Will's, and listening with great attention to the + narratives that are made in these little circular audiences." Then, + we have as an instance of no one member of human society but that + would have some little pretension for some degree in it, "like him + who came to Will's Coffee-house upon the merit of having writ a + posie of a ring." And, "Robin, the porter who waits at Will's, is + the best man in town for carrying a billet: the fellow has a thin + body, swift step, demure looks, sufficient sense, and knows the + town." + + After Dryden's death, in 1701, Will's continued for about ten years + to be still the Wits' Coffee-house, as we see by Ned Ward's + account, and by the "Journey through England" in 1722. + + Pope entered with keen relish into society, and courted the + correspondence of the town wits and coffee-house critics. Among his + early friends was Mr. Henry Cromwell, one of the _cousinry_ of the + Protector's family: he was a bachelor, and spent most of his time + in London; he had some pretensions to scholarship and literature, + having translated several of Ovid's Elegies, for Tonson's + Miscellany. With Wycherly, Gay, Dennis, the popular actors and + actresses of the day, and with all the frequenters of Will's, + Cromwell was familiar. He had done more than take a pinch out of + Dryden's snuff-box, which was a point of high ambition and honor at + Will's; he had quarrelled with him about a frail poetess, Mrs. + Elizabeth Thomas, whom Dryden had christened Corinna, and who was + also known as Sappho. Gay characterized this literary and eccentric + beau as + +Honest, hatless Cromwell, with red breeches: + + it being his custom to carry his hat in his hand when walking with + ladies. What with ladies and literature, rehearsals and reviews, + and critical attention to the quality of his coffee and Brazil + snuff, Henry Cromwell's time was fully occupied in town. Cromwell + was a dangerous acquaintance for Pope at the age of sixteen or + seventeen, but he was a very agreeable one. Most of Pope's letters + to his friends are addressed to him at the Blue Hall, in Great + Wild-street, near Drury Lane, and others to "Widow Hambledon's + Coffee-house, at the end of Princes-street, near Drury-lane, + London." Cromwell made one visit to Binfield; on his return to + London, Pope wrote to him, "referring to the ladies in particular," + and to his favorite coffee. + + * * * * * + + Will's was the great resort for the wits of Dryden's time, after + whose death it was transferred to Button's. Pope describes the + houses as "opposite each other, in Russell-street, Covent Garden," + where Addison established Daniel Button, in a new house, about + 1712; and his fame, after the production of _Cato_, drew many of + the Whigs thither. Button had been servant to the Countess of + Warwick. The house is more correctly described as "over against + Tom's, near the middle of the south side of the street." + + Addison was the great patron of Button's; but it is said that when + he suffered any vexation from his Countess, he withdrew from + Button's house. His chief companions, before he married Lady + Warwick, were Steele, Budgell, Philips, Carey, Davenant, and + Colonell Brett. He used to breakfast with one or other of them in + St. James's-place, dine at taverns with them, then to Button's, and + then to some tavern again, for supper in the evening; and this was + the usual round of his life, as Pope tells us in Spencer's + Anecdotes, where Pope also says: "Addison usually studied all the + morning, then met his party at Button's, dined there, and stayed + five or six hours; and sometimes far into the night. I was of the + company for about a year, but found it too much for me; it hurt my + health, and so I quitted it." Again: "There had been a coldness + between me and Mr. Addison for some time, and we had not been in + company together for a good while anywhere but at Button's + Coffee-house, where I used to see him almost every day." + + Here Pope is reported to have said of Patrick, the lexicographer, + that "a dictionary-maker might know the meaning of one word, but + not of two put together." + + Button's was the receiving house for contributions to _The + Guardian_, for which purpose was put up a lion's head letter box, + in imitation of the celebrated lion at Venice, as humorously + announced. Thus: + + "N.B.--Mr. Ironside has, within five weeks last past, muzzled three + lions, gorged five, and killed one. On Monday next the skin of the + dead one will be hung up, _in terrorem_, at Button's Coffee-house." + + * * * * * + + "I intend to publish once every week the roarings of the Lion, and + hope to make him roar so loud as to be heard over all the British + nation. I have, I know not how, been drawn into tattle of myself, + more majorum, almost the length of a whole _Guardian_. I shall + therefore fill up the remaining part of it with what still relates + to my own person, and my correspondents. Now I would have them all + know that on the 20th instant, it is my intention to erect a Lion's + Head, in imitation of those I have described in Venice, through + which all the private commonwealth is said to pass. This head is to + open a most wide and voracious mouth, which shall take in such + letters and papers as are conveyed to me by my correspondents, it + being my resolution to have a particular regard to all such matters + as come to my hands through the mouth of the Lion. There will be + under it a box, of which the key will be in my own custody, to + receive such papers as are dropped into it. Whatever the Lion + swallows I shall digest for the use of the publick. This head + requires some time to finish, the workmen being resolved to give it + several masterly touches, and to represent it as ravenous as + possible. It will be set up in Button's Coffee-house, in Covent + Garden, who is directed to show the way to the Lion's Head, and to + instruct any young author how to convey his works into the mouth of + it with safety and secrecy." + + * * * * * + + "I think myself obliged to acquaint the publick, that the Lion's + Head, of which I advertised them about a fortnight ago, is now + erected at Button's Coffee-house, in Russell-street, Covent Garden, + where it opens its mouth at all hours for the reception of such + intelligence as shall be thrown into it. It is reckoned an + excellent piece of workmanship, and was designed by a great hand in + imitation of the antique Egyptian lion, the face of it being + compounded out of that of a lion and a wizard. The features are + strong and well furrowed. The whiskers are admired by all that have + seen them. It is planted on the western side of the Coffee-house, + holding its paws under the chin, upon a box, which contains + everything that he swallows. He is, indeed, a proper emblem of + knowledge and action, being all head and paws." + + * * * * * + + "Being obliged, at present, to attend a particular affair of my + own, I do empower my printer to look into the arcana of the Lion, + and select out of them such as may be of publick utility; and Mr. + Button is hereby authorized and commanded to give my said printer + free ingress and egress to the lion, without any hindrance, let, or + molestation whatsoever, until such time as he shall receive orders + to the contrary. And, for so doing, this shall be his warrant." + + * * * * * + + "My Lion, whose jaws are at all times open to intelligence, informs + me that there are a few enormous weapons still in being; but that + they are to be met with only in gaming houses and some of the + obscure retreats of lovers, in and about Drury-lane and Covent + Garden." + + * * * * * + + This memorable Lion's Head was tolerably well carved: through the + mouth the letters were dropped into a till at Button's; and beneath + were inscribed these two lines from Martial: + +_Cervantur magnis isti Cervicibus ungues; +Non nisi delicta pascitur ille fera._ + + The head was designed by Hogarth, and is etched in Ireland's + "Illustrations." Lord Chesterfield is said to have once offered for + the Head fifty guineas. From Button's it was removed to the + Shakspeare's Head Tavern, under the Piazza, kept by a person named + Tomkyns; and in 1751, was, for a short time, placed in the Bedford + Coffee-house immediately adjoining the Shakspeare, and there + employed as a letter-box by Dr. John Hill, for his _Inspector_. In + 1769, Tomkyns was succeeded by his waiter, Campbell, as proprietor + of the tavern and lion's head, and by him the latter was retained + until November 8, 1804, when it was purchased by Mr. Charles + Richardson, of Richardson's Hotel, for 17£ 10s., who also possessed + the original sign of the Shakspeare's Head. After Mr. Richardson's + death in 1827, the Lion's Head devolved to his son, of whom it was + bought by the Duke of Bedford, and deposited at Woburn Abbey, where + it still remains. + + Pope was subjected to much annoyance and insult at Button's. Sir + Samuel Garth wrote to Gay, that everybody was pleased with Pope's + Translation, "but a few at Button's;" to which Gay adds, to Pope, + "I am confirmed that at Button's your character is made very free + with, as to morals, etc." + +[Illustration: ALEXANDER POPE AT BUTTON'S COFFEE HOUSE--1730 + +From a drawing by Hogarth. The man opposite the seated figure is thought +to be Pope] + + Cibber, in a letter to Pope, says: "When you used to pass your + hours at Button's, you were even there remarkable for your + satirical itch of provocation; scarce was there a gentleman of any + pretension to wit, whom your unguarded temper had not fallen upon + in some biting epigram, among which you once caught a pastoral + Tartar, whose resentment, that your punishment might be + proportionate to the smart of your poetry, had stuck up a birchen + rod in the room, to be ready whenever you might come within reach + of it; and at this rate you writ and rallied and writ on, till you + rhymed yourself quite out of the coffee-house." The "pastoral + Tartar" was Ambrose Philips, who, says Johnson, "hung up a rod at + Button's, with which he threatened to chastise Pope." + + Pope, in a letter to Crags, thus explains the affair: "Mr. Philips + did express himself with much indignation against me one evening at + Button's Coffee-house (as I was told), saying that I was entered + into a cabal with Dean Swift and others, to write against the Whig + interest, and in particular to undermine his own reputation and + that of his friends, Steele and Addison; but Mr. Philips never + opened his lips to my face, on this or any like occasion, though I + was almost every night in the same room with him, nor ever offered + me any indecorum. Mr. Addison came to me a night or two after + Philips had talked in this idle manner, and assured me of his + disbelief of what had been said, of the friendship we should always + maintain, and desired I would say nothing further of it. My Lord + Halifax did me the honour to stir in this matter, by speaking to + several people to obviate a false aspersion, which might have done + me no small prejudice with one party. However, Philips did all he + could secretly to continue to report with the Hanover Club, and + kept in his hands the subscriptions paid for me to him, as + secretary to that Club. The heads of it have since given him to + understand, that they take it ill; but (upon the terms I ought to + be with such a man) I would not ask him for this money, but + commissioned one of the players, his equals, to receive it. This is + the whole matter; but as to the secret grounds of this malignity, + they will make a very pleasant history when we meet." + + Another account says that the rod was hung up at the bar of + Button's, and that Pope avoided it by remaining at home--"his + usual custom." Philips was known for his courage and superior + dexterity with the sword; he afterwards became justice of the + peace, and used to mention Pope, whenever he could get a man in + authority to listen to him, as an enemy to the Government. + + At Button's the leading company, particularly Addison and Steele, + met in large flowing flaxen wigs. Sir Godfrey Kneller, too, was a + frequenter. + + The master died in 1731, when in the _Daily Advertiser_, October 5 + appeared the following: + + "On Sunday morning, died, after three days' illness, Mr. Button, + who formerly kept Button's Coffee-house, in Russell-street, Covent + Garden: a very noted house for wits, being the place where the Lyon + produced the famous _Tatlers_ and _Spectators_, written by the late + Mr. Secretary Addison and Sir Richard Steele, Knt., which works + will transmit their names with honour to posterity." + + * * * * * + + Among other wits who frequented Button's were Swift, Arbuthnot, + Savage, Budgell, Martin Folkes, and Drs. Garth and Armstrong. In + 1720, Hogarth mentions "four drawings in Indian ink" of the + characters at Button's Coffee-house. In these were sketches of + Arbuthnot, Addison, Pope (as it is conjectured) and a certain Count + Viviani, identified years afterwards by Horace Walpole, when the + drawings came under his notice. They subsequently came into + Ireland's possession. + + Jemmy Maclaine, or M'Clean, the fashionable highwayman, was a + frequent visitor at Button's. Mr. John Taylor, of the _Sun_ + newspaper, describes Maclaine as a tall, showy, good-looking man. A + Mr. Donaldson told Taylor that, observing Maclaine paid particular + attention to the barmaid of the Coffee-house, the daughter of the + landlord, he gave a hint to the father of Maclaine's dubious + character. The father cautioned the daughter against the + highwayman's addresses, and imprudently told her by whose advice he + put her on her guard; she as imprudently told Maclaine. The next + time Donaldson visited the coffee-room, and sitting in one of the + boxes, Maclaine entered, and in a loud tone said, "Mr. Donaldson, I + wish to _spake_ to you in a private room." Mr. D. being unarmed, + and naturally afraid of being alone with such a man, said, in + answer, that as nothing could pass between them that he did not + wish the whole world to know, he begged leave to decline the + invitation. "Very well," said Maclaine, as he left the room, "we + shall meet again." A day or two after, as Mr. Donaldson was walking + near Richmond, in the evening, he saw Maclaine on horseback; but + fortunately, at that moment, a gentleman's carriage appeared in + view, when Maclaine immediately turned his horse towards the + carriage, and Donaldson hurried into the protection of Richmond as + fast as he could. But for the appearance of the carriage, which + presented better prey, it is possible that Maclaine would have shot + Mr. Donaldson immediately. + + Maclaine's father was an Irish Dean; his brother was a Calvinist + minister in great esteem at the Hague. Maclaine himself had been a + grocer in Welbeck-street, but losing a wife that he loved + extremely, and by whom he had one little girl, he quitted his + business with two hundred pounds in his pockets which he soon + spent, and then took to the road with only one companion, Plunket, + a journeyman apothecary. + + Maclaine was taken in the autumn of 1750, by selling a laced + waistcoat to a pawnbroker in Monmouth-street, who happened to carry + it to the very man who had just sold the lace. Maclaine impeached + his companion, Plunket, but he was not taken. The former got into + verse: Gray, in his "Long Story," sings: + +A sudden fit of ague shook him; +He stood as mute as poor M'Lean. + + Button's subsequently became a private house, and here Mrs. + Inchbald lodged, probably, after the death of her sister, for whose + support she practised such noble and generous self-denial. Mrs. + Inchbald's income was now 172£ a year, and we are told that she now + went to reside in a boarding-house, where she enjoyed more of the + comforts of life. Phillips, the publisher, offered her a thousand + pounds for her Memoirs, which she declined. She died in a + boarding-house at Kensington, on the 1st of August, 1821, leaving + about 6,000£ judiciously divided amongst her relatives. Her simple + and parsimonious habits were very strange. "Last Thursday," she + writes, "I finished scouring my bedroom, while a coach with a + coronet and two footmen waited at my door to take me an airing." + + "One of the most agreeable memories connected with Button's," says + Leigh Hunt, "is that of Garth, a man whom, for the sprightliness + and generosity of his nature, it is a pleasure to name. He was one + of the most amiable and intelligent of a most amiable and + intelligent class of men--the physicians." + + It was just after Queen Anne's accession that Swift made + acquaintance with the leaders of the wits at Button's. Ambrose + Philips refers to him as the strange clergyman whom the frequenters + of the Coffee-house had observed for some days. He knew no one, no + one knew him. He would lay his hat down on a table, and walk up and + down at a brisk pace for half an hour without speaking to any one, + or seeming to pay attention to anything that was going forward. + Then he would snatch up his hat, pay his money at the bar, and walk + off, without having opened his lips. The frequenters of the room + had christened him "the mad parson." One evening, as Mr. Addison + and the rest were observing him, they saw him cast his eyes several + times upon a gentleman in boots, who seemed to be just come out of + the country. At last, Swift advanced towards this bucolic + gentleman, as if intending to address him. They were all eager to + hear what the dumb parson had to say, and immediately quitted their + seats to get near him. Swift went up to the country gentleman, and + in a very abrupt manner, without any previous salute, asked him, + "Pray, Sir, do you know any good weather in the world?" After + staring a little at the singularity of Swift's manner and the + oddity of the question, the gentleman answered, "Yes, Sir, I thank + God I remember a great deal of good weather in my time."--"That is + more," replied Swift, "than I can say; I never remember any weather + that was not too hot or too cold, too wet or too dry; but, however + God Almighty contrives it, at the end of the year 'tis all very + well." + + * * * * * + + Sir Walter Scott gives, upon the authority of Dr. Wall, of + Worcester, who had it from Dr. Arbuthnot himself, the following + anecdote--less coarse than the version generally told. Swift was + seated by the fire at Button's; there was sand on the floor of the + coffee-room, and Arbuthnot, with a design to play upon this + original figure, offered him a letter, which he had been just + addressing, saying at the same time, "There--sand that"--"I have + got no sand," answered Swift, "but I can help you to a little + _gravel_." This he said so significantly, that Arbuthnot hastily + snatched back his letter, to save it from the fate of the capital + of Lilliput. + + * * * * * + + Tom's Coffee-house in Birchin-lane, Cornhill, though in the main a + mercantile resort, acquired some celebrity from its having been + frequented by Garrick, who, to keep up an interest in the City, + appeared here about twice in a winter at 'Change time, when it was + the rendezvous of young merchants. + + * * * * * + + Hawkins says: "After all that has been said of Mr. Garrick, envy + must own that he owed his celebrity to his merit; and yet, of that + himself so diffident, that he practiced sundry little but innocent + arts, to insure the favour of the public:" yet, he did more. When a + rising actor complained to Mrs. Garrick that the newspapers abused + him, the widow replied, "You should write your own criticisms; + David always did." + + * * * * * + + One evening, Murphy was at Tom's, when Colley Cibber was playing at + whist, with an old general for his partner. As the cards were dealt + to him, he took up every one in turn, and expressed his + disappointment at each indifferent one. In the progress of the game + he did not follow suit, and his partner said, "What! have you not a + spade, Mr. Cibber?" The latter, looking at his cards, answered, "Oh + yes, a thousand;" which drew a very peevish comment from the + general. On which, Cibber, who was shockingly addicted to swearing, + replied, "Don't be angry, for--I can play ten times worse if I + like." + + * * * * * + + The celebrated Bedford Coffee-house, in Covent Garden, once + attracted so much attention as to have published, "Memoirs of the + Bedford Coffee-house," two editions, 1751 and 1763. It stood "under + the Piazza, in Covent Garden," in the northwest corner, near the + entrance to the theatre, and has long ceased to exist. + + * * * * * + + In the _Connoisseur_, No. 1, 1754, we are assured that "this + Coffee-house is every night crowded with men of parts. Almost every + one you meet is a polite scholar and a wit. Jokes and bon-mots are + echoed from box to box: every branch of literature is critically + examined, and the merit of every production of the press, or + performance of the theatres, weighed and determined." + + And in the above-named "Memoirs" we read that "this spot has been + signalized for many years as the emporium of wit, the seat of + criticism, and the standard of taste.--Names of those who + frequented the house: Foote, Mr. Fielding, Mr. Woodward, Mr. Leone, + Mr. Murphy, Mopsy, Dr. Arne. Dr. Arne was the only man in a suit of + velvet in the dog-days." + + Stacie kept the Bedford when John and Henry Fielding, Hogarth, + Churchill, Woodward, Lloyd, Dr. Goldsmith and many others met there + and held a gossiping shilling rubber club. Henry Fielding was a + very smart fellow. + + The _Inspector_ appears to have given rise to this reign of the + Bedford, when there was placed here the Lion from Button's, which + proved so serviceable to Steele, and once more fixed the dominion + of wit in Covent Garden. + + The reign of wit and pleasantry did not, however, cease at the + Bedford at the demise of the _Inspector_. A race of punsters next + succeeded. A particular box was allotted to this occasion, out of + hearing of the lady of the bar, that the _double entendres_, which + were sometimes very indelicate, might not offend her. + + The Bedford was beset with scandalous nuisances, of which the + following letter, from Arthur Murphy to Garrick, April 10, 1768, + presents a pretty picture: + + "Tiger Roach (who used to bully at the Bedford Coffee-house because + his name was Roach) is set up by Wilke's friends to burlesque + Luttrel and his pretensions. I own I do not know a more ridiculous + circumstance than to be a joint candidate with the Tiger. O'Brien + used to take him off very pleasantly, and perhaps you may, from his + representation, have some idea of this important wight. He used to + sit with a half-starved look, a black patch upon his cheek, pale + with the idea of murder, or with rank cowardice, a quivering lip, + and a downcast eye. In that manner he used to sit at a table all + alone, and his soliloquy, interrupted now and then with faint + attempts to throw off a little saliva, was to the following + effect:--'Hut! hut! a mercer's 'prentice with a bag-wig;--d---- n + my s---- l, if I would not skiver a dozen of them like larks! Hut! + hut! I don't understand such airs!--I'd cudgel him back, breast and + belly, for three skips of a louse!--How do you do, Pat? Hut! hut! + God's blood--Larry, I'm glad to see you; 'Prentices! a fine thing + indeed!--Hut! hut! How do you do, Dominick!--D---- n my s---- l, + what's here to do!' These were the meditations of this agreeable + youth. From one of these reveries he started up one night, when I + was there, called a Mr. Bagnell out of the room, and most + heroically stabbed him in the dark, the other having no weapon to + defend himself with. In this career, the Tiger persisted, till at + length a Mr. Lennard brandished a whip over his head, and stood in + a menacing attitude, commanding him to ask pardon directly. The + Tiger shrank from the danger, and with a faint voice + pronounced--'Hut! what signifies it between you and me? Well! well! + I ask your pardon.' 'Speak louder, Sir; I don't hear a word you + say.' And indeed he was so very tall, that it seemed as if the + sound, sent feebly from below, could not ascend to such a height. + This is the hero who is to figure at Brentford." + + * * * * * + + Foote's favourite coffee-house was the Bedford. He was also a + constant frequenter of Tom's, and took a lead in the Club held + there, and already described. + + Dr. Barrowby, the well-known newsmonger of the Bedford, and the + satirical critic of the day, has left this whole-length sketch of + Foote: + + "One evening (he says) he saw a young man extravagantly dressed out + in a frock suit of green and silver lace, bag-wig, sword, bouquet, + and point ruffles, enter the room (at the Bedford), and immediately + join the critical circle at the upper end. Nobody recognized him; + but such was the ease of his bearing, and the point of humor and + remark with which he at once took up the conversation, that his + presence seemed to disconcert no one, and a sort of pleased buzz of + 'who is he?' was still going round the room unanswered, when a + handsome carriage stopped at the door; he rose, and quitted the + room, and the servants announced that his name was Foote, and that + he was a young gentleman of family and fortune, a student of the + Inner Temple, and that the carriage had called for him on its way + to the assembly of a lady of fashion". Dr. Barrowby once turned the + laugh against Foote at the Bedford, when he was ostentatiously + showing his gold repeater, with the remark--'Why, my watch does not + go!' 'It soon _will go_,' quietly remarked the Doctor. Young + Collins, the poet, who came to town in 1744 to seek his fortune, + made his way to the Bedford, where Foote was supreme among the wits + and critics. Like Foote, Collins was fond of fine clothes, and + walked about with a feather in his hat, very unlike a young man who + had not a single guinea he could call his own. A letter of the time + tells us that "Collins was an acceptable companion everywhere; and + among the gentlemen who loved him for a genius, may be reckoned the + Doctors Armstrong, Barrowby, Hill, Messrs. Quin, Garrick, and + Foote, who frequently took his opinions upon their pieces before + they were seen by the public. He was particularly noticed by the + geniuses who frequented the Bedford and Slaughter's Coffee-houses." + + * * * * * + + Ten years later (1754) we find Foote again supreme in his critical + corner at the Bedford. The regular frequenters of the room strove + to get admitted to his party at supper; and others got as near as + they could to the table, as the only humor flowed from Foote's + tongue. The Bedford was now in its highest repute. + + Foote and Garrick often met at the Bedford, and many and sharp were + their encounters. They were the two great rivals of the day. Foote + usually attacked, and Garrick, who had many weak points, was mostly + the sufferer. Garrick, in early life, had been in the wine trade, + and had supplied the Bedford with wine; he was thus described by + Foote as living in Durham-yard, with three quarts of vinegar in the + cellar, calling himself a wine-merchant. How Foote must have abused + the Bedford wine of this period! + + One night, Foote came into the Bedford, where Garrick was seated, + and there gave him an account of a most wonderful actor he had just + seen. Garrick was on the tenters of suspense, and there Foote kept + him a full hour. Foote brought the attack to a close by asking + Garrick what he thought of Mr. Pitt's histrionic talents, when + Garrick, glad of the release, declared that if Pitt had chosen the + stage, he might have been the first actor upon it. + + Another night, Garrick and Foote were about to leave the Bedford + together, when the latter, in paying the bill, dropped a guinea; + and not finding it at once, said, "Where on earth can it be gone + to?"--"Gone to the devil, I think," replied Garrick, who had + assisted in the search.--"Well said, David!" was Foote's reply, + "let you alone for making a guinea go further than anybody else." + + Churchill's quarrel with Hogarth began at the shilling rubber club, + in the parlour of the Bedford; when Hogarth used some very + insulting language towards Churchill, who resented it in the + _Epistle_. This quarrel showed more venom than wit. "Never," says + Walpole, "did two angry men of their abilities throw mud with less + dexterity." + + Woodward, the comedian, mostly lived at the Bedford, was intimate + with Stacie, the landlord, and gave him his (W.'s) portrait, with a + mask in his hand, one of the early pictures by Sir Joshua Reynolds. + Stacie played an excellent game at whist. One morning about two + o'clock, one of the waiters awoke him to tell him that a nobleman + had knocked him up, and had desired him to call his master to play + a rubber with him for one hundred guineas. Stacie got up, dressed + himself, won the money, and was in bed and asleep, all within an + hour. + + * * * * * + + After Macklin had retired from the stage, in 1754, he opened that + portion of the Piazza-houses, in Covent Garden, afterwards known as + the Tavistock Hotel. Here he fitted up a large coffee-room, a + theatre for oratory, and other apartments. To a three-shilling + ordinary he added a shilling lecture, or "School of Oratory and + Criticism;" he presided at the dinner table, and carved for the + company; after which he played a sort of "Oracle of Eloquence." + Fielding has happily sketched him in his "Voyage to Lisbon": + "Unfortunately for the fishmongers of London, the Dory only resides + in the Devonshire seas; for could any of this company only convey + one to the Temple of luxury under the piazza, where Macklin, the + high priest, daily serves up his rich offerings, great would be the + reward of that fishmonger." + + In the Lecture, Macklin undertook to make each of his audience an + orator, by teaching him how to speak. He invited hints and + discussions; the novelty of the scheme attracted the curiosity of + numbers; and this curiosity he still further excited by a very + uncommon controversy which now subsisted, either in imagination or + reality, between him and Foote, who abused one another very + openly--"Squire Sammy," having for his purpose engaged the Little + Theatre in the Haymarket. + + Besides this personal attack, various subjects were debated here + in the manner of the Robin Hood Society, which filled the Orator's + pocket, and proved his rhetoric of some value. + + Here is one of his combats with Foote. The subject was Duelling In + Ireland, which Macklin had illustrated as far as the reign of + Elizabeth. Foote cried, "Order;" he had a question to put. "Well, + Sir," said Macklin, "what have you to say on this subject," "I + think, Sir" said Foote, "this matter might be settled in a few + words. What o'clock is it, Sir?" Macklin could not possibly see + what the clock had to do with a dissertation upon Duelling, but + gruffly reported the hour to be half-past nine. "Very well," said + Foote, "about this time of the night every gentleman in Ireland + that can possibly afford it is in his third bottle of claret, and + therefore in a fair way of getting drunk; and from drunkenness + proceeds quarrelling, and from quarrelling, duelling, and so + there's an end of the chapter." The company were much obliged to + Foote for his interference, the hour being considered; though + Macklin did not relish this abridgment. + + The success of Foote's fun upon Macklin's Lectures, led him to + establish a summer entertainment of his own at the Haymarket. He + took up Macklin's notion of applying Greek tragedy to modern + subjects, and the squib was so successful that Foote cleared by it + 500£ in five nights, while the great Piazza Coffee-room in Covent + Garden was shut up, and Macklin in the _Gazette_ as a bankrupt. + + But when the great plan of Mr. Macklin proved abortive, when as he + said in a former prologue, upon a nearly similar occasion-- + +From scheming, fretting, famine and despair. +We saw to grace restor'd an exiled player; + + when the town was sated with the seemingly-concocted quarrel + between the two theatrical geniuses, Macklin locked his doors, all + animosity was laid aside, and they came and shook hands at the + Bedford; the group resumed their appearance, and, with a new + master, a new set of customers was seen. + + * * * * * + + Tom King's Coffee-house was one of the old night-houses of Covent + Garden Market; it was a rude shed immediately beneath the portico + of St. Paul's Church, and was one "well known to all gentlemen to + whom beds are unknown." Fielding in one of his Prologues says: + +What rake is ignorant of King's Coffee-house? + + It is in the background of Hogarth's print of _Morning_ where the + prim maiden lady, walking to church, is soured with seeing two + fuddled _beaux_ from King's Coffee-house caressing two frail women. + At the door there is a drunken row, in which swords and cudgels are + the weapons[358]. + + Harwood's _Alumni Etonenses_, p. 239, in the account of the Boys + elected from Eton to King's College, contains this entry: "A.D. + 1713, Thomas King, born at West Ashton, in Wiltshire, went away + scholar in apprehension that his fellowship would be denied him; + and afterwards kept that Coffee-house in Covent Garden, which was + called by his own name." + + Moll King was landlady after Tom's death: she was witty, and her + house was much frequented, though it was little better than a shed. + "Noblemen and the first _beaux_," said Stacie, "after leaving Court + would go to her house in full dress, with swords and bags, and in + rich brocaded silk coats, and walked and conversed with persons of + every description. She would serve chimney-sweepers, gardeners, and + the market-people in common with her lords of the highest rank. Mr. + Apreece, a tall thin man in rich dress, was her constant customer. + He was called Cadwallader by the frequenters of Moll's." It is not + surprising that Moll was often fined for keeping a disorderly + house. At length, she retired from business--and the pillory--to + Hempstead, where she lived on her ill-earned gains, but paid for a + pew in church, and was charitable at appointed seasons, and died in + peace in 1747. + + * * * * * + + The Piazza Coffee-house at the northeastern angle of Covent Garden + Piazza, appears to have originated with Macklin's; for we read in + an advertisement in the _Publick Adviser_, March 5, 1756; "The + Great Piazza Coffee-room, in Covent Garden." + + The Piazza was much frequented by Sheridan; and here is located the + well-known anecdote told of his coolness during the burning of + Drury-lane Theatre, in 1809. It is said that as he sat at the + Piazza, during the fire, taking some refreshment, a friend of his + having remarked on the philosophical calmness with which he bore + his misfortune, Sheridan replied: + + "A man may surely be allowed to take a glass of wine by his _own + fireside_." + + * * * * * + + Sheridan and John Kemble often dined together at the Piazza, to be + handy to the theatre. During Kemble's management, Sheridan had + occasion to make a complaint, which brought a "nervous" letter from + Kemble, to which Sheridan's reply is amusing enough. Thus, he + writes: "that the management of a theatre is a situation capable of + becoming _troublesome_, is information which I do not want, and a + discovery which I thought you made long ago." Sheridan then treats + Kemble's letter as "a nervous flight," not to be noticed seriously, + adding his anxiety for the interest of the theatre, and alluding to + Kemble's touchiness and reserve; and thus concludes: + + "If there is anything amiss in your mind not arising from the + _troublesomeness_ of your situation, it is childish and unmanly not + to disclose it. The frankness with which I have dealt towards you + entitles me to expect that you should have done so. + + "But I have no reason to believe this to be the case; and + attributing your letter to a disorder which I know ought not to be + indulged, I prescribe that thou shalt keep thine appointment at the + Piazza Coffee-house, tomorrow at five, and, taking four bottles of + claret instead of three, to which in sound health you might stint + yourself, forget that you ever wrote the letter, as I shall that I + ever received it." + +"R.B. Sheridan." + + The Piazza facade, and interior, were of Gothic design. When the + house was demolished, in its place was built the Floral Hall, after + the Crystal Palace model. + + * * * * * + + The Chapter Coffee-house was a literary place of resort in + Paternoster Row, more especially in connection with the + Wittinagemot of the last century. A very interesting account of the + Chapter, at a later period (1848) is given by Mrs. Gaskell. + + Goldsmith frequented the Chapter, and always occupied one place, + which for many years after was the seat of literary honor there. + There are leather tokens of the Chapter Coffee-house in existence. + + * * * * * + + Child's Coffee-house, in St. Paul's Churchyard, was one of the + _Spectator's_ houses. "Sometimes," he says, "I smoke a pipe at + Child's and whilst I seem attentive to nothing but the _Postman_, + overhear the conversation of every table in the room." It was much + frequented by the clergy; for the _Spectator_, No. 609, notices the + mistake of a country gentleman in taking all persons in scarfs for + Doctors of Divinity, since only a scarf of the first magnitude + entitles him to "the appellation of Doctor from his landlady and + the _Boy at Child's_." + + Child's was the resort of Dr. Mead, and other professional men of + eminence. The Fellows of the Royal Society came here. Whiston + relates that Sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Halley and he were once at + Child's when Dr. H. asked him, W., why he was not a member of the + Royal Society? Whiston answered, because they durst not choose a + heretic. Upon which Dr. H. said, if Sir Hans Sloane would propose + him, W., he, Dr. H., would second it, which was done accordingly. + + The propinquity of Child's to the Cathedral and Doctors' Commons, + made it the resort of the clergy, and ecclesiastical loungers. In + that respect, Child's was superseded by the Chapter, in Paternoster + Row. + + * * * * * + + The London Coffee-house was established previous to the year 1731, + for we find of it the following advertisement: + +"May, 1731. + + "Whereas, it is customery for Coffee-houses and other + Public-houses, to take 8s. for a quart of Arrack, and 6s. for a + quart of Brandy or Rum, made into Punch: + + "This is to give notice, + + "That James Ashley has opened on Ludgate Hill, the London + Coffee-house, Punch-house, Dorchester Beer and Welsh Ale Warehouse, + where the finest and best old Arrack, Rum and French Brandy is made + into Punch, with the other of the finest Ingredients--viz., A quart + of Arrack made into Punch for six shillings; and so in proportion + to the smallest quantity, which is half-a-quartern for fourpence + half-penny. A quart of Rum or Brandy made into Punch for four + shillings; and so in proportion to the smallest quantity, which is + half-a-quartern for fourpence half-penny; and gentlemen may have it + as soon made as a gill of Wine can be drawn." + + The premises occupied a Roman site; for, in 1800, in the rear of + the house, in a bastion of the City Wall, was found a sepulchral + monument dedicated to Claudina Martina by her husband, a provincial + Roman soldier; here also were found a fragment of a statue of + Hercules and a female head. In front of the Coffee-house + immediately west of St. Martin's Church, stood Ludgate. + + * * * * * + + The London Coffee-house was noted for its publishers' sales of + stock and copyrights. It was within the rules of the Fleet prison; + and in the Coffee-house were "locked up" for the night such juries + from the Old Bailey Sessions, as could not agree upon verdicts. The + house was long kept by the grandfather and father of Mr. John + Leech, the celebrated artist. + + A singular incident occurred at the London Coffee-house, many years + since: Mr. Brayley, the topographer, was present at a party here, + when Mr. Broadhurst, the famous tenor, by singing a high note, + caused a wine-glass on the table to break, the bowl being separated + from the stem. + + * * * * * + + From _The Kingdom's Intelligencer_, a weekly paper, published by + authority, in 1662, we learn that there had just been opened a "new + coffee-house," with the sign of the Turk's Head, where was sold by + retail "the right coffee-powder," from 4s. to 6s. 8d. per pound; + that pounded in a mortar, 2s; East Indian berry, 1s. 6d.; and the + right Turkie berry, well garbled, at 3s. "The ungarbled for lesse, + with directions how to use the same." Also Chocolate at 2s. 6d. per + pound; the perfumed from 4s. to 10s.; "also, Sherbets made in + Turkie, of lemons, roses and violets perfumed; and Tea, or Chaa, + according to its goodness. The house seal is Morat the Great. + Gentlemen customers and acquaintances are (the next New Year's Day) + invited to the sign of the Great Turk at this new Coffee-house, + where Coffee will be on free cost." Morat figures as a tyrant in + Dryden's "Aurung Zebe." There is a token of this house, with the + sultan's head, in the Beaufoy collection[359]. + + Another token in the same collection, is of unusual excellence, + probably by John Roettier. It has on the obverse, Morat ye Great + Men did mee call,--Sultan's head; reverse, Where eare I came I + conquered all.--In the field, Coffee, Tobacco, Sherbet, Tea, + Chocolate, retail in Exchange Alee. "The word Tea," says Mr. Burn, + "occurs on no other tokens than those issued from 'the Great Turk' + Coffee-house, in Exchange alley;" in one of its advertisements, + 1662, tea is from 6s. to 60s. a pound. + + Competition arose. One Constantine Jennings in Threadneedle-street, + over against St. Christopher's Church, advertised that coffee, + chocolate, sherbet, and tea, the right Turkey berry, may be had as + cheap and as good of him as is anywhere to be had for money; and + that people may there be taught to prepare the said liquors gratis. + + Pepys, in his "Diary," tells, September 25, 1669, of his sending + for "a cup of Tea, a China Drink, he had not before tasted." Henry + Bennet, Earl of Arlington, about 1666, introduced tea at Court. + And, in his "Sir Charles Sedley's Mulberry Garden," we are told + that "he who wished to be considered a man of fashion always drank + wine-and-water at dinner, and a dish of tea afterwards." These + details are condensed from Mr. Burn's excellent "Beaufoy + Catalogue," 2nd edition, 1855. + + * * * * * + + In Gerard-street, Soho, also, was another Turk's Head Coffee-house, + where was held a Turk's Head Society; in 1777, we find Gibbon + writing to Garrick: "At this time of year (August 14) the Society + of the Turk's Head can no longer be addressed as a corporate body, + and most of the individual members are probably dispersed: Adam + Smith, in Scotland; Burke in the shades of Beaconsfield; Fox, the + Lord or the devil knows where." + + The place was a kind of headquarters for the Loyal Association + during the Rebellion of 1745. Here was founded "The Literary Club" + and a select body for the Protection and Encouragement of Art. + Another Society of Artists met in Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane, + from the year 1739 to 1769. After continued squabbles, which lasted + for many years, the principal artists met together at the Turk's + Head, where many others having joined them, they petitioned the + King (George III) to become patron of a Royal Academy of Art. His + Majesty consented; and the new Society took a room in Pall Mall, + opposite to Market-lane, where they remained until the King, in the + year 1771, granted them apartments in Old Somerset House. + + * * * * * + + The Turk's Head Coffee-house, No. 142, in the Strand, was a + favourite supping-house with Dr. Johnson and Boswell, in whose Life + of Johnson are several entries, commencing with 1763--"At night, + Mr. Johnson and I supped in a private room at the Turk's Head + Coffee-house, in the Strand; 'I encourage this house,' said he, + 'for the mistress of it is a good civil woman, and has not much + business'." Another entry is--"We concluded the day at the Turk's + Head Coffee-house very socially." And, August 3, 1673--"We had our + last social meeting at the Turk's Head Coffee-house, before my + setting out for foreign parts." + + The name was afterwards changed to "The Turk's Head, Canada and + Bath Coffee-house," and was a well frequented tavern and hotel. + + * * * * * + + At the Turk's Head, or Miles's Coffee-house, New Palace-yard, + Westminster, the noted Rota Club met, founded by Harrington, in + 1659; where was a large oval table, with a passage in the middle, + for Miles to deliver his coffee.[360] + + * * * * * + + For many years previous to the streets of London being completely + paved, "Slaughter's Coffee-house" was called "The Coffee-house on + the Pavement." Besides being the resort of artists, Old Slaughter's + was the house of call for Frenchmen. + + St. Martin's-lane was long one of the headquarters of the artists + of the last century. "In the time of Benjamin West," says J.T. + Smith, "and before the formation of the Royal Academy, + Greek-street, St. Martin's-lane, and Gerard-street, was their only + colony. Old Slaughter's Coffee-house, in St. Martin's-lane, was + their grand resort in the evenings, and Hogarth was a constant + visitor." He lived at the Golden Head, on the eastern side of + Leicester Fields, in the northern half of the Sabloniere Hotel. The + head he cut out himself from pieces of cork, glued and bound + together; it was placed over the street-door. At this time, young + Benjamin West was living in chambers, in Bedford-street, Covent + Garden, and had there set up his easel; he was married in 1765, at + St. Martin's Church. Roubiliac was often to be found at Slaughter's + in early life; probably before he gained the patronage of Sir + Edward Walpole, through finding and returning to the baronet the + pocket-book of bank-notes which the young maker of monuments had + picked up in Vauxhall Gardens. Sir Edward, to remunerate his + integrity, and his skill, of which he showed specimens, promised to + patronize Roubiliac through life, and he faithfully performed this + promise. Young Gainsborough, who spent three years amid the works + of the painters in St. Martin's-lane, Hayman, and Cipriani, who + were all eminently convival, were, in all probability, frequenters + of Slaughter's. Smith tells us that Quin and Hayman were + inseparable friends, and so convival, that they seldom parted till + daylight. + + Mr. Cunningham relates that here, "in early life, Wilkie would + enjoy a small dinner at a small cost. I have been told by an old + frequenter of the house, that Wilkie was always the last dropper-in + for dinner, and that he was never seen to dine in the house by + daylight. The truth is, he slaved at his art at home till the last + glimpse of daylight had disappeared." + + Haydon was accustomed, in the early days of his fitful career, to + dine here with Wilkie. In his "Autobiography," in the year 1808, + Haydon writes: "This period of our lives was one of great + happiness; painting all day, then dining at the Old Slaughter + Chop-house, then going to the Academy until eight to fill up the + evening, then going home to tea--that blessing of a studious + man--talking over respective exploits, what he, Wilkie, had been + doing and what I had been doing, and, then frequently to relieve + our minds fatigued by their eight and twelve hours' work, giving + vent to the most extraordinary absurdities. Often have we made + rhymes on odd names, and shouted with laughter at each new line + that was added. Sometimes lazily inclined after a good dinner, we + have lounged about, near Drury Lane or Covent Garden, hesitating + whether to go in, and often have I (knowing first that there was + nothing I wished to see) assumed a virtue I did not possess, and + pretending moral superiority, preached to Wilkie on the weakness of + not resisting such temptations for the sake of our art and our + duty, and marched him off to his studies, when he was longing to + see Mother Goose." + + J.T. Smith refers to Old Slaughter's as "formerly the rendezvous of + Pope, Dryden and other wits, and much frequented by several + eminently clever men of his day." + + Thither came Ware, the architect, who, when a little sickly boy, + was apprenticed to a chimney-sweeper, and was seen chalking the + street-front of Whitehall, by a gentleman who purchased the + remainder of the boy's time; gave him an excellent education; then + sent him to Italy, and, upon his return, employed him, and + introduced him to his friends as an architect. Ware was heard to + tell this story while he was sitting to Roubiliac for his bust. + Ware built Chesterfield House and several other noble mansions, and + compiled a Palladio, in folio: he retained the soot in his skin to + the day of his death. He was very intimate with Roubiliac, who was + an opposite eastern neighbour of Old Slaughter's. Another + architect, Gwynn, who competed with Mylne for designing and + building Blackfriars Bridge, was also a frequent visitor at Old + Slaughter's, as was Gravelot, who kept a drawing-school in the + Strand, nearly opposite to Southampton-street. + + Hudson, who painted the Dilettanti portraits; M'Ardell, the + mezzotinto-scraper; and Luke Sullivan, the engraver of Hogarth's + March to Finchley, also frequented Old Slaughter's; likewise + Theodore Gardell, the portrait painter, who was executed for the + murder of his landlady: and Old Moser, keeper of the Drawing + Academy in Peter's-court. + + Parry, the Welsh harper, though totally blind, was one of the first + draught-players in England, and occasionally played with the + frequenters of Old Slaughter's; and here in consequence of a bet. + Roubiliac introduced Nathaniel Smith (father of John Thomas), to + play at draughts with Parry; the game lasted about half an hour; + Parry was much agitated, and Smith proposed to give in; but as + there were bets depending, it was played out, and Smith won. This + victory brought Smith numerous challenges; and the dons of the + Barn, a public-house, in St. Martin's-lane, nearly opposite the + church, invited him to become a member; but Smith declined. The + Barn, for many years, was frequented by all the noted players of + chess and draughts; and it was there that they often decided games + of the first importance, played between persons of the highest + rank. + + * * * * * + + The Grecian Coffee-house, Devereux-court, Strand, (closed in 1843) + was named from Constantine, of Threadneedle street, the _Grecian_ + who kept it. In the _Tatler_ announcement, all accounts of learning + are to be "under the title of the Grecian;" and, in the _Tatler_, + No. 6: "While other parts of the town are amused with the present + actions (Marlborough's) we generally spend the evening at this + table (at the Grecian) in inquiries into antiquity, and think + anything new, which gives us new knowledge. Thus, we are making a + very pleasant entertainment to ourselves in putting the actions of + Homer's Iliad into an exact journal." + + The _Spectator's_ face was very well known at the Grecian, a + coffee-house "adjacent to the law." Occasionally it was the scene + of learned discussion. Thus Dr. King relates that one evening, two + gentlemen, who were constant companions, were disputing here, + concerning the accent of a Greek word. This dispute was carried to + such a length, that the two friends thought proper to determine it + with their swords; for this purpose they stepped into + Devereux-court, where one of them (Dr. King thinks his name was + Fitzgerald) was run through the body, and died on the spot. + + The Grecian was Foote's morning lounge. It was handy, too, for the + young Templar, Goldsmith, and often did it echo with Oliver's + boisterous mirth; for "it had become the favourite resort of the + Irish and Lancashire Templars, whom he delighted in collecting + around him, in entertaining with a cordial and unostentatious + hospitality, and in occasionally amusing with his flute, or with + whist, neither of which he played very well!" Here Goldsmith + occasionally wound up his "Shoemaker's Holiday" with supper. + + It was at the Grecian that Fleetwood Shephard told this memorable + story to Dr. Tancred Robinson, who gave Richardson permission to + repeat it. "The Earle of Dorset was in Little Britain, beating + about for books to his taste: there was 'Paradise Lost'. He was + surprised with some passages he struck upon, dipping here and there + and bought it; the bookseller begged him to speak in his favour, if + he liked it, for they lay on his hands as waste paper.... Shephard + was present. My Lord took it home, read it, and sent it to Dryden, + who in a short time returned it. 'This man,' says Dryden, 'cuts us + all out, and the ancients, too!'" + + * * * * * + + George's Coffee-house, No. 213, Strand, near Temple Bar, was a + noted resort in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. When it + was a coffee-house, one day, there came in Sir James Lowther, who + after changing a piece of silver with the coffee-woman, and paying + twopence for his dish of coffee, was helped into his chariot, for + he was very lame and infirm, and went home: some little time + afterwards, he returned to the same coffee-house, on purpose to + acquaint the woman who kept it, that she had given him a bad + half-penny, and demanded another in exchange for it. Sir James had + about £40,000 per annum. + + Shenstone, who found "the warmest welcome at an inn," found + George's to be economical. "What do you think," he writes, "must be + my expense, who love to pry into everything of the kind? Why, truly + one shilling. My company goes to George's Coffee-house, where, for + that small subscription I read all pamphlets under a three + shillings' dimension; and indeed, any larger would not be fit for + coffee-house perusal." Shenstone relates that Lord Oxford was at + George's, when the mob, that were carrying his Lordship in effigy, + came into the box where he was, to beg money of him, amongst + others; this story Horace Walpole contradicts, adding that he + supposes Shenstone thought that after Lord Oxford quitted his place + he went to the coffee-house to learn news. + + Arthur Murphy frequented George's, "where the town wits met every + evening." Lloyd, the law-student, sings: + +By law let others toil to gain renown! +Florio's a gentleman, a man o' the town. + +He nor courts clients, or the law regarding, +Hurries from Nando's down to Covent Garden. +Yet, he's a scholar; mark him in the pit, +With critic catcall sound the stops of wit! +Supreme at George's, he harangues the throng, +Censor of style, from tragedy to song. + + * * * * * + + The Percy Coffee-house, Rathbone-place, Oxford-street, no longer + exists; but it will be kept in recollection for its having given + name to one of the most popular publications of its class, namely, + the "Percy Anecdotes," by Sholto and Reuben Percy, Brothers of the + Benedictine Monastery of Mont Benger, in forty-four parts, + commencing in 1820. So said the title pages, but the names and the + locality were _supposé_. Reuben Percy was Thomas Byerly, who died + in 1824; he was the brother of Sir John Byerley, and the first + editor of the _Mirror_, commenced by John Limbird, in 1822. Sholto + Percy was Joseph Clinton Robertson, who died in 1852; he was the + projector of the _Mechanics' Magazine_, which he edited from its + commencement to his death. The name of the collection of Anecdotes + was not taken, as at the time supposed, from the popularity of the + "Percy Reliques," but from the Percy Coffee-house, where Byerley + and Robertson were accustomed to meet to talk over their joint + work. The _idea_ was, however, claimed by Sir Richard Phillips, who + stoutly maintained that it originated in a suggestion made by him + to Dr. Tilloch and Mr. Mayne, to cut the anecdotes from the many + years' files of the _Star_ newspaper, of which Dr. Tilloch was the + editor; and Mr. Byerley assistant editor; and to the latter + overhearing the suggestion, Sir Richard contested, might the "Percy + Anecdotes" be traced. They were very successful, and a large sum + was realised by the work. + + * * * * * + + Peele's Coffee-house, Nos. 177 and 178, Fleet-street, east corner + of Fetter-lane, was one of the coffee-houses of the Johnsonian + period; and here was long preserved a portrait of Dr. Johnson, on + the keystone of a chimney-piece, stated to have been painted by Sir + Joshua Reynolds. Peele's was noted for files of newspapers from + these dates: _Gazette_, 1759; _Times_, 1780; _Morning Chronicle_, + 1773; _Morning Post_, 1773; _Morning Herald_, 1784; _Morning + Advertiser_, 1794; and the evening papers from their commencement. + The house is now a tavern. + + +_Coffee Literature and Ideals_ + +The bibliography at the end of this work will serve to indicate the +nature and extent of the general literature of coffee. Not that it is +complete or nearly so; it would require twice the space to include +mention of all the fugitive bits of verse, essays, and miscellaneous +writings in newspapers, and periodicals, dealing with the poetry and +romance, history, chemistry, and physiological effects of coffee. Only +the early works, and the more notable contributions of the last three +centuries, are included in the bibliography; but there is sufficient to +enable the student to analyze the lines of general progress. + +A study of the literature of coffee shows that the French really +internationalized the beverage. The English and Italians followed. With +the advent of the newspaper press, coffee literature began to suffer +from its competition. + +The complexities of modern life suggest that coffee drinking in +perfection, the esthetics, and a new literature of coffee may once more +become the pleasure of a small caste. Are the real pleasures of life, +the things truly worth while, only to the swift--the most efficient? Who +shall say? Are not some of us, particularly in America, rather prone to +glorify the gospel of work to such an extent that we are in danger of +losing the ability to understand or to enjoy anything else? + +Granted that this is so, coffee, already recognized as the most grateful +lubricant known to the human machine, is destined to play another part +of increasing importance in our national life as a kind of national +shock-absorber as well. But its rôle is something more than this, +surely. When life is drab, it takes away its grayness. When life is sad, +it brings us solace. When life is dull, it brings us new inspiration. +When we are a-weary, it brings us comfort and good cheer. + +The lure of coffee lies in its appeal to our finer sensibilities; and +signs are not wanting that that pursuit of the long, sweet happiness +that every one is seeking will lead some of us (even in big bustling +America) into footpaths that end in places where coffee will offer much +of its pristine inspiration and charm. It probably will not be a coffee +house anything like that of the long ago, but perhaps it will be a kind +of modernized coffee club. Why not? + +[Illustration: A COFFEE HOUSE IN HOLLAND, ABOUT 1650 + +After the etching by J. Beauvarlet from a painting by Adriaen Van Ostade +(1610-1675), which is said to be the earliest picture of a coffee house +in western Europe] + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +COFFEE IN RELATION TO THE FINE ARTS + + _How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, + engraving, sculpture, caricature, lithography, and music--Epics, + rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee--Beautiful specimens + of the art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee + service of various periods in the world's history--Some historical + relics_ + + +Coffee has inspired the imagination of many poets, musicians, and +painters. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries those whose genius +was dedicated to the fine arts seem to have fallen under its spell and +to have produced much of great beauty that has endured. To the painters, +engravers, and caricaturists of that period we are particularly indebted +for pictures that have added greatly to our knowledge of early coffee +customs and manners. + +Adriaen Van Ostade (1610-1685), the Dutch genre painter and etcher, +pupil of Frans Hals, in his "Dutch Coffee House" (1650), shows the +genesis of the coffee house of western Europe about the time it still +partook of some of the tavern characteristics. Coffee is being served to +a group in the foreground. It is believed to be the oldest existing +picture of a coffee house. The illustration is after the etching by J. +Beauvarlet in the graphic collection at Munich. + +William Hogarth (1697-1764), the famous English painter and engraver of +satirical subjects, chose the coffee houses of his time for the scenes +of a number of his social caricatures. In his series, "Four Times of the +Day," which throws a vivid light on the street life of London of the +period of 1738, we are shown Covent Garden at 7:55 A.M. by the clock on +St. Paul's Church. A prim maiden lady (said to have been sketched from +an elderly relation of the artist, who cut him out of her will) on her +way home from early service, accompanied by a shivering foot-boy, is +scandalized by the spectacle presented by some roystering blades issuing +from Tom King's notorious coffee house to the right. The _beaux_ are +forcing their attentions upon the more comely of the market women in the +foreground. Tom King was a scholar at Eton before he began his ignoble +career. At the date of this picture, it is thought he had been succeeded +by his widow, Moll King, also of scandalous repute. + +Scene VI of the "Rake's Progress" by Hogarth is laid at the club in +White's chocolate (coffee) house, which Dr. Swift described as "the +common rendezvous of infamous sharpers and noble cullies." The rake has +lost all his recently acquired wealth, pulls off his wig and flings +himself upon the floor in a paroxysm of fury and execration. In allusion +to the burning of White's in 1733, flames are seen bursting from the +wainscot, but the pre-occupied gamblers take no heed, even of the +watchman crying "Fire!" To the left is seated a highwayman, with horse +pistol and black mask in a skirt pocket of his coat. He is so engrossed +in his thoughts that he does not notice the boy at his side offering a +glass of liquor on a tray. The scene well depicts the low estate to +which White's had fallen. It recalls a bit of dialogue from Farquhar's +_Beaux' Stratagem_ (act III, scene 2), where Aimwell says to Gibbet, who +is a highwayman: "Pray, sir, ha'nt I seen your face at Will's Coffee +House?" "Yes sir, and at White's, too," answers the highwayman. + +[Illustration: IN THE CLUB AT WHITE'S COFFEE HOUSE, 1733 + +From a painting in the series, "The Rake's Progress," by William +Hogarth] + +After the fire, the club and chocolate house were removed to Gaunt's +coffee house. The removal was thus announced in the _Daily Post_ of May +3: + + This is to acquaint all noblemen and gentlemen that Mr. Arthur + having had the misfortune to be burnt out of White's Chocolate + House is removed to Gaunt's Coffee House, next the St. James Coffee + House in St. James Street, where he humbly begs they will favour + him with their company as usual. + +Alessandro Longhi (1733-1813) the Italian painter and engraver, called +the Venetian Hogarth, in one of his pictures presenting life and manners +in Venice during the years of her decadence, shows Goldoni, the +dramatist, as a visitor in a café of the period, with a female mendicant +soliciting alms. + +In the Louvre at Paris hangs the "Petit Déjeuner" by François Boucher +(1703-1770), famous court painter of Louis XV. It shows a French +breakfast-room of the period of 1744, and is interesting because it +illustrates the introduction of coffee into the home; it shows also the +coffee service of the time. + +In Van Loo's portrait of Madame de Pompadour, second mistress and +political adviser of Louis XV of France, the coffee service of a later +period of the eighteenth century appears. The Nubian servant is shown +offering the marquise a demi-tasse which has just been poured from the +covered oriental pot which succeeded the original Arabian-Turkish +boiler, and was much in vogue at the time. + +Coffee and Madame du Barry (or would it be more polite to say Madame du +Barry and coffee?) inspired the celebrated painting of Madame de +Pompadour's successor in the affections of Louis "the well beloved." +This is entitled "Madame du Barry at Versailles", and in the Versailles +catalog it is described as painted by Decreuse after Drouais. Decreuse +was a pupil of Gros, and painted many of the historical portraits at +Versailles. + +[Illustration: TOM KING'S COFFEE HOUSE IS COVENT GARDEN, 1738 + +From a printing in the series, "Four Times of the Day," by William +Hogarth] + +Malcolm C. Salaman, in his _French Color Prints of the XVIII Century_, +referring to Dagoty's print of this picture, done in 1771, says, "the +original has been attributed to François Hubert Drouais, but there can +be little doubt that the original portraiture was from the hand of the +engraver (Dagoty), as the style is far inferior to Drouais." He thus +describes it: + + Here we see the last of Louis XV's mistresses, sitting in her + bedroom in that alluring retreat of hers at Louveciennes, near the + woods of Marly, as she takes her cup of coffee from her pet + attendant, the little negro boy, Zamore, as the Prince de Conti had + named him, all brave in red and gold. Doubtless she is expecting + the morning visit of the King, no longer the handsome young + gallant, but old and leaden-eyed, and puffy-cheeked; and perhaps it + will be on this very morning that she will wheedle Louis, in a + moment of extravagant badinage, into appointing the negro boy to be + Governor of the Chateau and Pavilion of Louveciennes at a handsome + salary, just as, on another day, she playfully teased the jaded old + sensualist into decorating with the cordon bleu her cuisinière when + it was triumphantly revealed to him that the dinner he had been + praising with enthusiastic gusto was, after all, the work of a + woman cook, the very possibility of which he had contemptuously + doubted. But as we look at these two, the royal mistress and her + little black favorite, we forget the "well beloved" and his + voluptuous pleasures and indulgences, for in the shadows we see + another picture, some twenty years on, when the proud + unconscionable beauty, no longer _reine de la main gauche_, stands + before the dreaded Tribunal of the Terror, while Zamore, the + treacherous, ungrateful negro, dismissed from his service at + Louveciennes and now devoted to the committee of public safety, and + one of her implacable accusers, sends her shrieking to the + guillotine. + +[Illustration: "PETIT DÉJEUNER," BY BOUCHER + +Showing the home coffee service of the period of 1744] + +[Illustration: COFFEE SERVICE IN THE HOME OF MADAME DE +POMPADOUR--PAINTING BY VAN LOO] + +The introduction of the coffee house into Europe was memorialized by +Franz Schams, the genre painter, pupil of the Vienna Academy, in a +beautiful picture entitled "The First Coffee House in Vienna, 1684," +owned by the Austrian Art Society. A lithographic reproduction was +executed by the artist and printed by Joseph Stoufs in Vienna. There are +several specimens in the United States; and the illustration printed on +page 48 has been made from one of these in the possession of the author. + +The picture shows the interior of the Blue Bottle, where Kolschitzky +opened the first coffee house in Vienna. The hero-proprietor stands in +the foreground pouring a cup of the beverage from an oriental coffee +pot, and another is suspended from the coffee-house sign that hangs over +the fireplace. In the fire alcove a woman is pounding coffee in a +mortar. Men and women in the costumes of the period are being served +coffee by a Vienna _mädchen_. + +[Illustration: MADAME DU BARRY AND HER SLAVE BOY ZAMORE--PAINTING BY +DECREUSE] + +The painters Marilhat, Descamps, and de Tournemine have pictured café +scenes; the first in his "Café sur une route de Syrie", which was shown +at the Salon of 1844; the second in his "Café Turc", which figured at +the Exposition of 1855; and the third in his "Café en Asia Mineure", +which received honors at the Salon of 1859, and attracted attention at +the Universal Exposition of 1867. + +A decorative panel designed for the buffet at the Paris Opera House by +S. Mazerolles was shown at the Exposition of 1878. A French artist, +Jacquand, has painted two charming compositions; one representing the +reading room, and the other the interior, of a café. + +Many German artists have shown coffee manners and customs in pictures +that are now hanging in well known European galleries. Among others, +mention should be made of C. Schmidt's "The Sweets Shop of Josty in +Berlin", 1845; Milde's "Pastor Rautenberg and His Family at the Coffee +Table", 1833; and his "Manager Classen and His Family at the Afternoon +Coffee Table", 1840; Adolph Menzel's "Parisian Boulevard Café", 1870; +Hugo Meith's "Saturday Afternoon at the Coffee Table"; John Philipp's +"Old Woman with Coffee Cup"; Friedrich Walle's "Afternoon Coffee in the +Court Gardens at Munich"; Paul Meyerheim's "Oriental Coffee House"; and +Peter Philippi's (Dusseldorf) "Kaffeebesuch." + +At the Exposition des Beaux Arts, Salon of 1881, there was shown P.A. +Ruffio's picture, "Le café vient au secours de la Muse" (Coffee comes to +the aid of the Muse), in which the graceful form of an oriental ewer +appears. + +The "Coffee House at Cairo," a canvas by Jean Léon Gérôme (1824-1904) +that hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, has been much +admired. It shows the interior of a typical oriental coffee house with +two men near a furnace at the left preparing the beverage; a man seated +on a wicker basket about to smoke a hooka; a dervish dancing; and +several persons seated against the wall in the background. + +[Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE AT CAIRO--PAINTING BY GÉRÔME IN THE +METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK] + +The New York Historical Society acquired in 1907 from Miss Margaret A. +Ingram an oil painting of the "Tontine Coffee House." It was painted in +Philadelphia by Francis Guy, and was sold at a raffle, after having been +admired by President John Adams. It shows lower Wall Street in +1796-1800, with the Tontine coffee house on the northwest corner of Wall +and Water Streets, where its more famous predecessor, the Merchants +coffee house, was located before it moved to quarters diagonally +opposite. + +Charles P. Gruppe's (_b._ 1860) painting showing General "Washington's +Official Welcome to New York by City and State Officials at the +Merchants Coffee House," April 23, 1789, just one week before his +inauguration as first president of the United States, is a colorful +canvas that has been much praised for its atmosphere and historical +associations. It is the property of the author. + +The art museums and libraries of every country contain many beautiful +water-colors, engravings, prints, drawings, and lithographs, whose +creators found inspiration in coffee. Space permits the mention of only +a few. + +T.H. Shepherd has preserved for us Button's, afterward the Caledonien +coffee house, Great Russell Street, Covent Garden, in a water-color +drawing of 1857; Tom's coffee house, 17 Great Russell Street, Covent +Garden, 1857; Slaughter's coffee house in St. Martin's Lane, 1841; also, +in 1857, the Lion's Head at Button's, put up by Addison and now the +property of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn. + +[Illustration: "KAFFEEBESUCH" + +From the painting by Peter Philippi] + +[Illustration: "COFFEE COMES TO THE AID OF THE MUSE" + +From the painting by Ruffio] + +Hogarth figures in the Sam Ireland collection with several original +drawings of frequenters of Button's in 1730. + +Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827) the great English caricaturist and +illustrator, has given us several fine pictures of English coffee-house +life. His "Mad Dog in a Coffee House" presents a lively scene; and his +water-color of "The French Coffee House" is one of the best pictures we +have of the French coffee house in London as it looked during the latter +half of the eighteenth century. + +During the campaign in France in 1814, Napoleon arrived one day, +unheralded, in a country presbytery, where the good curé was quietly +turning his hand coffee-roaster. The emperor asked him, "What are you +doing there, abbé?" "Sire", replied the priest, "I am doing like you. I +am burning the colonial fodder." Charlet (1792-1845) made a lithograph +of the incident. + +Several French poet-musicians resorted to music to celebrate coffee. +Brittany has its own songs in praise of coffee, as have other French +provinces. There are many epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas--and even a +comic opera by Meilhat, music by Deffes, bearing the title, _Le Café du +Roi_, produced at the Théâtre Lyrique, November 16, 1861. + +[Illustration: "MAD DOG IN A COFFEE HOUSE"--CARICATURE BY ROWLANDSON] + +Fuzelier wrote, in honor of coffee, a cantata, set to music by Bernier. +This is the burden of the poet's song: + +Ah coffee, what climes yet unknown, +Ignore the clear fires that thy vapors inspire! +Thou countest, in thy vast empire +Those realms that Bacchus' reign disown. +Favored liquid, which fills all my soul with delights, +Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade, +We vanquish e'en sleep by thy fortunate aid, +Thou hast rescued the hours sleep would rob from our nights. +Favored liquid which fills all my soul with delights, +Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade. + + Oh liquid that I love, + Triumphant stream of sable, + E'en for the gods above, + Drive nectar from the table. + Make thou relentless war + On treacherous juices sly, + Let earth taste and adore + The sweet calm of the sky. + Oh liquid that I love, + Triumphant stream of sable, + E'en for the gods above, + Drive nectar from the table. + +During the early vogue of the café in Paris, a _chanson_, entitled +_Coffee_, reproduced here, was set to music with accompaniment for the +piano by M.H. Colet, a professor of harmony at the Conservatoire. +Printed in the form of a placard, and put up in cafés, it received the +approbation of, and was signed by, de Voyer d'Argenson, at that time +(1711) lieutenant of police. The poetry is not irreproachable. It can +hardly be attributed to any of the well known poets of the time; but +rather to one of those bohemian rimesters that wrote all too abundantly +on all sorts of subjects. It is the development of a theory concerning +the properties of coffee and the best method of making it. It is +interesting to note that the uses of advertising were known and +appreciated in Paris in 1711; for in the _chanson_ there appears the +name and address of one Vilain, a merchant, rue des Lombards, who was +evidently in fashion at that period. The translation of the stanza +reproduced is as follows: + +COFFEE--A CHANSON + + If you, with mind untroubled, + Would flourish, day by day, +Let each day of the seven + Find coffee on your tray. +It will your frame preserve from every malady, +Its virtues drive afar, la! la! +Migrain and dread catarrh--ha! ha! + Dull cold and lethargy. + +The most notable contribution to the "music of coffee," if one may be +permitted the expression, is the _Coffee Cantata_ of Johann Sebastian +Bach (1685-1750) the German organist and the most modern composer of the +first half of the eighteenth century. He hymned the religious sentiment +of protestant Germany; and in his _Coffee Cantata_ he tells in music the +protest of the fair sex against the libels of the enemies of the +beverage, who at the time were actively urging in Germany that it should +be forbidden women, because its use made for sterility! Later on, the +government surrounded the manufacture, sale, and use of coffee with many +obnoxious restrictions, as told in chapter VIII. + +[Illustration: NAPOLEON AND THE CURÉ--LITHOGRAPH BY CHARLET] + +Bach's _Coffee Cantata_ is No. 211 of the _Secular Cantatas_, and was +published in Leipzig in 1732. In German it is known as _Schweigt stille, +plaudert nicht_ (Be silent, do not talk). It is written for soprano, +tenor, and bass solos and orchestra. Bach used as his text a poem by +Piccander. The cantata is really a sort of one-act operetta--a jocose +production representing the efforts of a stern parent to check his +daughter's propensities in coffee drinking, the new fashioned habit. One +seldom thinks of Bach as a humorist; but the music here is written in a +mock-heroic vein, the recitatives and arias having a merry flavor, +hinting at what the master might have done in light opera. + +[Illustration: COFFEE--A CHANSON; MUSIC BY COLET, 1711] + +The libretto shows the father Schlendrian, or Slowpoke, trying by +various threats to dissuade his daughter from further indulgence in the +new vice, and, in the end, succeeding by threatening to deprive her of a +husband. But his victory is only temporary. When the mother and the +grandmother indulge in coffee, asks the final trio, who can blame the +daughter? + +Bach uses the spelling coffee--not _kaffee_. The cantata was sung as +recently as December 18, 1921, at a concert in New York by the Society +of the Friends of Music, directed by Arthur Bodanzky. + +Lieschen, or Betty, the daughter, has a delightful aria, beginning, "Ah, +how sweet coffee tastes--lovelier than a thousand kisses, sweeter far +than muscatel wine!" the opening bars of which are reproduced on page +598. + +As the text is not long, it is printed here in its entirety. + +[Illustration: STATUE OF KOLSCHITZKY IN VIENNA] + + _CHARACTERS_ + +MESSENGER AND NARRATOR _Tenor_ +SLOWPOKE _Bass_ +BETTY, DAUGHTER TO SLOWPOKE _Soprano_ + + TENOR (_Recitative_): Be silent, do not talk, but notice what will + happen! Here comes old Slowpoke with his daughter Betty. He's + grumbling like a common bear--just listen to what he says. + + (_Enter_ SLOWPOKE _muttering_): What vexatious things one's + children are! A hundred thousand naughty ways! What I tell my + daughter Betty might as well be told to the moon! (_Enter_ BETTY.) + + SLOWPOKE (_Recitative_): You naughty child, you mischievous girl, + oh when can I have my way--give up your coffee! + + BETTY: Dear father, do not be so strict! If I can't have my little + demi-tasse of coffee three times a day, I'm just like a dried up + piece of roast goat! + + BETTY (_Aria_): Ah! How sweet coffee tastes! Lovelier than a + thousand kisses, sweeter far than muscatel wine! I must have my + coffee, and if any one wishes to please me, let him present me + with--coffee! + + SLOWPOKE _(Recitative_): If you won't give up coffee, young lady, I + won't let you go to any wedding feasts--I won't even let you go + walking! + + BETTY: O yes! Do let me have my coffee! + + SLOWPOKE: What a little monkey you are, anyway! I will not let you + have any whale-bone skirts of the present fashionable size! + + BETTY: Oh, I can easily fix _that_! + + SLOWPOKE: But I won't let you stand at the window and watch the new + styles! + + BETTY: That doesn't bother me, either. But be good and let me have + my coffee! + + SLOWPOKE: But from my hands you'll get no silver or gold ribbon for + your hair! + + BETTY: Oh well! so long as I have what does satisfy me! + + SLOWPOKE: You wretched Betty, you! You won't give in to me? + + SLOWPOKE (_Air_): Oh these girls--what obstinate dispositions they + do have! They certainly are not easy to manage! But if one hits the + right spot--oh well, one _may_ succeed! + + SLOWPOKE, _with an air of being sure of success this time_ + (_Recitative_): Now please do what father says. + + BETTY: In everything, except about coffee. + + SLOWPOKE: Well, then, you must make up your mind to do without a + husband. + + BETTY: Oh--yes? Father, a husband? + + SLOWPOKE: I swear you can't have him-- + + BETTY: Till I give up coffee? Oh well--coffee--let it be + forgotten--dear father--I will not drink--none! + + SLOWPOKE: _Then_ you can have one! + + BETTY (_Aria_): Today, dear father--do it _today_. (_He goes out._) + Ah, a husband! Really this suits me exactly! When they know I must + have coffee, why, before I go to bed to-night I can have a valiant + lover! (_Goes out._) + + TENOR (_Recitative_): Now go hunt up old Slowpoke, and just watch + him get a husband for his daughter--for Betty is secretly making it + known "that no wooer may come to the house, unless he promises me + himself, and has it put in the marriage contract that he will allow + me to make coffee whenever I will!" + +[Illustration: "AH, HOW SWEET COFFEE TASTES--LOVELIER THAN A THOUSAND +KISSES, SWEETER FAR THAN MUSCATEL WINE!" + +Opening bars of Betty's aria in Bach's _Coffee Cantata_, 1732] + + (_Enter_ SLOWPOKE _and_ BETTY, _singing--as chorus--with_ TENOR.) + + TRIO: The cat will not give up the mouse, old maids continue + "coffee-sisters!"--the mother loves her drink of coffee--grandma, + too, is a coffee fiend--_who_ now will blame the daughter! + +[Illustration: THE MOST BEAUTIFUL COFFEE HOUSE IN THE WORLD + +The Caffè Pedrocchi in Padua, Italy, empire period, erected by the poor +lemonade vendor and coffee seller, Antonio Pedrocchi.] + +Research has discovered only one piece of sculpture associated with +coffee--the statue of the Austrian hero Kolschitzky, the patron saint of +the Vienna coffee houses. It graces the second-floor corner of a house +in the Favoriten Strasse, where it was erected in his honor by the +Coffee Makers' Guild of Vienna. The great "brother-heart" is shown in +the attitude of pouring coffee into cups on a tray from an oriental +service pot. + +The celebrated Caffè Pedrocchi, the center of life in the city of Padua, +Italy, in the early part of the nineteenth century, is one of the most +beautiful buildings erected in Italy. Its use is apparent at first +glance. It was begun in 1816, opened June 9, 1831, and completed in +1842. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776-1852), an obscure Paduan coffee-house +keeper, tormented by a desire for glory, conceived the idea of building +the most beautiful coffee house in the world, and carried it out. + +Artists and craftsmen of all ages since the discovery of coffee have +brought their genius into play to fashion various forms of apparatus +associated with the preparation of the coffee drink. Coffee roasters and +grinders have been made of brass, silver, and gold; coffee mortars, of +bronze; and coffee making and serving pots, of beautiful copper, pewter, +pottery, porcelain, and silver designs. + +In the Peter collection in the United States National Museum there is to +be seen a fine specimen of the Bagdad coffee pot made of beaten copper +and used for making and serving; also, a beautiful Turkish coffee set. +In the Metropolitan Museum in New York there are some beautiful +specimens of Persian and Egyptian ewers in faience, probably used for +coffee service. Also, in American and continental museums are to be seen +many examples of seventeenth-century German, Dutch, and English bronze +mortars and pestles used for "braying" coffee beans to make coffee +powder. + +[Illustration: COFFEE GRINDER SET WITH JEWELS + +In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York] + +A very beautiful specimen of the oriental coffee grinder, made of brass +and teakwood, set with red and green glass jewels, and inlaid in the +teakwood with ivory and brass, is at the Metropolitan. This is of +Indo-Persian design of the nineteenth century. + +The Metropolitan Museum shows also many specimens of pewter coffee pots +used in India, Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, Russia, and England in +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. + +One can guess at the luxuriousness of the coffee pots in use in France +throughout the eighteenth century by noting that from March 20, 1754, to +April 16, 1755, Louis XV bought no fewer than three gold coffee pots of +Lazare Duvaux. They had carved branches, and were supplied with "chafing +dishes of burnished steel" and lamps for spirits of wine. They cost, +respectively, 1,950, 1,536, and 2,400 francs. In the "inventory of +Marie-Josephe de Saxe, Dauphine of France", we note, too, a "two cup +coffee pot of gold with its chafing dish for spirits of wine in a +leather case." + +The Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster of the seventeenth century was +often a work of art. The specimen illustrated is rich in decorative +motifs associated with the best in Florentine art. + +Madame de Pompadour's inventory disclosed a "gold coffee mill, carved in +colored gold to represent the branches of a coffee tree." The art of +gold, which sought to embellish everything, did not disdain these homely +utensils; and one may see at the Cluny Museum in Paris, among many mills +of graceful form, a coffee mill of engraved iron dating from the +eighteenth century, upon which are represented the four seasons. We are +told, however, that it graced the "sale after the death of Mme. de +Pompadour", which, of course, makes it much more valuable. + +[Illustration: ITALIAN WROUGHT-IRON COFFEE ROASTER + +Courtesy of _Edison Monthly_] + +"The tea pot, coffee pot and chocolate pot first used in England closely +resembled each other in form", says Charles James Jackson in his +_Illustrated History of English Plate_, "each being circular in plan, +tapering towards the top, and having its handle fixed at a right angle +with the spout." + +[Illustration: Tea Pot, 1670 + +Coffee Pot, 1681 + +Coffee Pot, 1689 + +SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY TEA POTS AND COFFEE POTS] + +He says further: + + The earliest examples were of oriental ware and the form of these + was adopted by the English plate workers as a model for others of + silver. It apparently was not until after both tea and coffee had + been used for several years in this country [England] that the tea + pot was made proportionately less in height and greater in diameter + than the coffee pot. This distinction, which was probably due to + copying the forms of Chinese porcelain tea pots, was afterwards + maintained, and to the present day the difference between the tea + pot and the coffee pot continued to be mainly one of height. + +The coffee pot illustrated (1681) formerly belonged to the East India +Company, and is preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is +almost identical with a tea pot (1670) in the same museum, except that +its straight spout is fixed nearer to the base, as is its +leather-covered handle, which, with the sockets into which it fits, +forms a long recurving scroll fixed opposite to and in line with the +spout. Its cover, which is hinged to the upper handle socket, is high +like that of the 1670 tea-pot; but instead of the straight outline of +that cover, this is slightly waved and surmounted by a somewhat flat +button-shaped knob. Engraved on the body is a shield of arms, a chevron +between three crosses fleury, surrounded by tied feathers. The +inscription is, "The Guift of Richard Sterne Eq to ye Honorable East +India Compa." + +This pot is nine and three-quarters inches in height by four and +seven-eighths inches in diameter at the base; it bears the London +hall-marks of 1681-82 and the maker's mark "G.G." in a shaped shield, +thought by Jackson to be George Garthorne's mark. + +The 1689 coffee pot illustrated is the property of King George V. It +bears the London hall-marks of 1689-90, and the mark of Francis +Garthorne. Its tall, round body tapers toward the top, and has applied +moldings on the base and rim. Its spout is straight and tapers upward to +the level of the rim of the pot. Its handle is of ebony, +crescent-shaped, and riveted into two sockets fixed at a right angle +with the spout. The lid is a high cone surmounted by a small vase-shaped +finial, and is hinged to the upper socket of the handle. On no part of +the pot is there any ornamentation other than the royal cipher of King +William III and Queen Mary, which is engraved on the reverse side of the +body. This example, which measures nine inches in height to the top of +its cover, resembles very closely in form the East India Company's +tea-pot just referred to; but as teapots with much lower bodies appear +to have come into fashion before 1689, this pot was probably used as a +coffee pot from the first. + +The 1692 coffee pot of lantern shape is the property of H.D. Ellis, and +has its spout curved upward at the top, being furnished with a small, +hinged flap and a scroll-shaped thumb-piece attached to the rim of the +cover. The body and cover were originally quite plain, the embossing and +chasing with symmetrical rococo decoration being added later, probably +about 1740. Jackson says the wooden handle is not the original one, +which was probably C-shaped. The pot bears the usual London hall-marks +for the year 1692 and the maker's mark is "G G" upon a shaped shield, a +mark recorded upon the copper plate belonging to the Goldsmiths' +company, which Mr. Cripps thinks was that of George Garthorne. The +characteristics of this lantern shaped coffee pot are: + + 1. The straight sides, so rapidly tapering from the base upward + that in a height of only six inches the base diameter of four and + three-eighths inches tapers to a diameter of no more than two and + one-half inches at the rim. + + 2. The nearly straight spout, furnished with a flap or shutter. + + 3. The true cone of the lid. + + 4. The thumb-piece, which is a familiar feature upon the tankards + of the period. + + 5. The handle fixed at right angles to the spout. + +[Illustration: LANTERN COFFEE POT, 1692] + +[Illustration: FOLKINGHAM POT, 1715-16] + +Mr. Ellis, in a paper before the Society of Antiquaries[361] on the +earliest form of coffee pot, says: + + If coffee was first introduced into this country by the Turkey + merchants, nothing is more probable than that those who first + brought the berry, brought also the vessel in which it was to be + served. Such a vessel would be the Turkish ewer whose shape is + familiar to us, the same today as two hundred years ago, for in the + East things are slow to change. And throughout the reign of the + second Charles, so long as the extended use of coffee in the houses + of the people was retarded by the opposition of the Women of + England, and by the scarcely less powerful influence of the King's + Court, the small requirements of a mere handful of coffee-houses + would be easily met by the importation of Turkish vessels. + Reference to the coffee-house keepers' tokens in the Beaufoy + collection in the Guildhall Museum shows that many of the traders + of 1660-1675 adopted as their trade sign a hand pouring coffee from + a pot. This pot is invariably of the Turkish ewer pattern. It is + true that there is nothing to show that the Turks themselves ever + served coffee from the ewer, but it is scarcely conceivable that + the English coffee-house keepers should have adopted as their trade + sign, their pictorial advertisement, so to speak, a vessel which + had no connection with the commodity in which they dealt, and which + would convey no meaning associated with coffee to the public. But + as soon as the extended use of the beverage created a demand which + stimulated a home manufacture of coffee-pots, a new departure is + apparent. The undulating outlines beloved by the Orientals, bowed + as their scimitars, curvilinear as their graceful flowing script, + do not commend themselves to the more severe Western taste of the + period which had then declared its preference for sweet simplicity + in silversmiths' work, such as we see in the basons, cups, and + especially the flat-topped tankards of that day. The beauty of the + straight line had asserted its power, and fashion felt its sway. + Such was the feeling that produced the coffee-pot of 1692, the + straight lines of which continued in vogue until the middle of the + following century, when a reaction in favour of bulbous bodies and + serpentine spouts set in. + +[Illustration: WASTELL POT, 1720-21] + +Some of the more notable of the coffee-house-keepers' tokens in the +Guildhall Museum were photographed for this work. They are described and +illustrated in chapter X. + +There are illustrated other silver coffee pots in the Victoria and +Albert Museum, by Folkingham (1715-16), and by Wastell (1720-21), the +latter pot being octagonal. + +There is illustrated also a design in tiles that were let into the wall +of an ancient coffee house in Brick Lane, Spitalfields, known as the +"Dish of Coffee Boy" in the catalog of the collection of London +antiquities in the Guildhall Museum. Mr. Ellis thinks this belongs to a +period a little earlier, but certainly not later, than 1692; the coffee +pot represented being exactly of the lantern shape. It is an oblong sign +of glazed Delft tiles, decorated in blue, brown, and yellow, +representing a youth pouring coffee. Upon a table, by his side, are a +gazette, two pipes, a bowl, a bottle, and a mug; above, on a scroll, is, +"dish of coffee boy." + +[Illustration: "DISH OF COFFEE BOY" DESIGN IN DELFT TILES 1692] + +Modifications of the lantern began to appear with great rapidity in +England. In the coffee pot of Chinese porcelain, illustrated, probably +made in China from an English model a few years later than the 1692 pot, +Mr. Ellis observes that "the spout has already lost its straightness, +the extreme taper of the body is diminished, and the lid betrays the +first tendency to depart from the straightness of the cone to the curved +outline of the dome." He adds: + + These variations rapidly intensified, and at the commencement of + the eighteenth century we find the body still less tapering and the + lid has become a perfect dome. As we approach the end of Queen + Anne's reign the thumb piece disappears and the handle is no longer + set on at right angles to the spout. Through the reign of George I + but little modification took place, save that the taper of the body + became less and less. In the Second George's time we find the + taper has almost entirely disappeared, so that the sides are + nearly parallel, while the dome of the lid has been flattened down + to a very low elevation above the rim. In the second quarter of the + eighteenth century the pear shaped coffee pot was the vogue. In the + earlier years of George III, when many new and beautiful designs in + silversmiths' work were created, a complete revolution in + coffee-pots takes place, and the flowing outlines of the new + pattern recall the form of the Turkish ewer, which had been + discarded nearly one hundred years previously. + +[Illustration: CHINESE PORCELAIN COFFEE POT + +Late seventeenth century] + +The evolution is shown by illustrations of Lord Swaythling's pot of +1731; the coffee jug of 1736; the Vincent pot of 1738; the Viscountess +Wolseley's coffee pot of copper plated with silver; the Irish coffee pot +of 1760; and the silver coffee pots of 1773-76 and of 1779-80 (see +illustrations on pages 604, 605 and 607). + +[Illustration: Vincent Pot, Hall-marked, London, 1738 + +Lord Swaythling's Pot, 1731 + +SILVER COFFEE POTS, EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + +From Jackson's "Illustrated History of English Plate"] + +There are illustrated in this connection specimens of coffee pots in +stoneware by Elers (1700), and in salt glaze by Astbury, and another of +the period about 1725. These are in the department of British and +medieval antiquities of the British Museum, where are to be seen also +some beautiful specimens of coffee-service pots in Whieldon ware, and in +Wedgwood's jasper ware. + +[Illustration: IRISH COFFEE POT, 1760 + +Hall-marked Dublin; the property of Col. Moore-Brabazon] + +[Illustration: VISCOUNTESS WOLSELEY'S COFFEE POT] + +[Illustration: A SCOFIELD POT OF 1779-80] + +[Illustration: COFFEE JUG, 1736] + +[Illustration: SILVER COFFEE POTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] + +[Illustration: SALT-GLAZE POT + +By John Astbury] + +[Illustration: ELERS WARE COFFEE POT + +Stoneware, about 1700] + +[Illustration: SALT-GLAZE POT + +About 1725] + +[Illustration: POTS IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 18TH TO 20TH CENTURIES + +1--Staffordshire; 2--English, eighteen to twentieth centuries; +3--English, blue printed ware, eighteenth to nineteenth centuries; +4--Leeds, 1760-1790; 5--Staffordshire, nineteenth to twentieth +centuries] + +Illustrated, too, are some beautiful examples of the art of the potter, +applied to coffee service, as found in the Metropolitan Museum, where +they have been brought from many countries. Included are Leeds and +Staffordshire examples of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth +centuries; a Sino-Lowestoft pot of the eighteenth-nineteenth centuries; +an Italian (_capodimonte_) pot of the eighteenth century; German pots of +the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; a Vienna coffee pot of the +eighteenth century; a French (_La Seine_) coffee pot of 1774-1793, a +Sèvres pot of 1792-1804; and a Spanish eighteenth-century coffee pot +decorated in copper luster. + +At the Metropolitan may be seen also Hatfield and Sheffield-plate pots +of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and many examples of silver +tea and coffee service and coffee pots by American silversmiths. + +[Illustration: SILVER COFFEE POTS, LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + +Left, 1776-77. Right, 1773-4.] + +Silver tea pots and coffee pots were few in America before the middle of +the eighteenth century. Early coffee-pot examples were tapering and +cylindrical in form, and later matched the tea pots with swelling drums, +molded bases, decorated spouts, and molded lids with finials. + +From notes by R.T. Haines Halsey and John H. Buck, collected by Florence +N. Levy and woven into an introduction to the Metropolitan Museum's art +exhibition catalog for the Hudson-Fulton celebration of 1909, we learn +that: + + The first silver made in New England was probably fashioned by + English or Scotch emigrants who had served their time abroad. They + were followed by craftsmen who were either born here, or, like John + Hull, arriving at an early age, learned their trade on this side. + + In England it was required that every master goldsmith should have + his mark and set it upon his work after it was assayed and marked + with the king's mark (hall-mark) testifying to the fineness of the + metal. + +[Illustration: Sino-Lowestoft, Eighteenth To Nineteenth Centuries] + +[Illustration: ITALIAN CAPODIMONTE, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] + +[Illustration: LA SEINE, 1774 + +SÈVRES, 1792 + +GERMAN POTS, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] + +[Illustration: PORCELAIN POTS IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK] + + The Colonial silversmiths marked their wares with their initials, + with or without emblems, placed in shields, circles, etc., without + any guide as to place of manufacture or date. After about 1725 it + was the custom to use the surname, with or without an initial, and + sometimes the full name. Since the establishment of the United + States the name of the town was often added and also the letters D + or C in a circle, probably meaning dollar or coin, showing the + standard or coin from which the wares were made. + +In the New York colony there were evolved silver tea pots of a unique +design, that was not used elsewhere in the colonies. Mr. Halsey says +they were used indiscriminately for both tea and coffee. In style they +followed, to a certain extent, the squat pear-shaped tea pots of the +period of 1717-18 in England, but had greater height and capacity. + +The colonial silversmiths wrought many beautiful designs in coffee, tea, +and chocolate pots. Fine specimens are to be seen in the Halsey and +Clearwater loan collections in the Metropolitan Museum. Included in the +Clearwater collection is a coffee pot by Pygan Adams (1712-1776); and +recently, there was added a coffee pot by Ephraim Brasher, whose name +appears in the _New York City Directory_ from 1786 to 1805. He was a +member of the Gold and Silversmiths' Society, and he made the die for +the famous gold doubloon, known by his name, a specimen of which +recently sold in Philadelphia for $4,000. His brother, Abraham Brasher, +who was an officer in the continental army, wrote many popular ballads +of the Revolutionary period, and was a constant contributor to the +newspapers. + +[Illustration: VIENNA COFFEE POT, 1830 + +In the Metropolitan Museum of Art] + +[Illustration: SPANISH COFFEE POT, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + +In the Metropolitan Museum] + +Judge Clearwater's collection of colonial silver in the Metropolitan +Museum, to which he is constantly adding, is a magnificent one; and the +coffee pot is worthy of it. It is thirteen and one-half inches high, +weighs forty-four ounces, exclusive of the ebony handle, has a curved +body and splayed base, with a godrooned band to the base and a similar +edge to the cover. The spout is elaborate and curved; the cover has an +urn-shaped finial; and there is a decoration of an engraved medallion +surrounded by a wreath with a ribbon forming a true lover's knot. + +[Illustration: + +By Samuel Minott By Charles Hatfield By Pygan Adams +Halsey Collection Metropolitan Museum of Art Clearwater Collection + +] + +[Illustration: + +London Pot, 1773-74 By Jacob Hurd By Paul Revere +FROM FRANCIS HILL BIGELOW'S "HISTORIC SILVER OF THE COLONIES" + +] + + +[Illustration: ENGLISH SHEFFIELD PLATE COFFEE POTS AND COFFEE URN, +EIGHTEENTH CENTURY] + +[Illustration: SILVER COFFEE POTS IN AMERICAN COLLECTIONS] + +[Illustration: COFFEE POT BY WM. SHAW AND WM. PRIEST + +Made for Peter Faneuil (about 1751-52), who gave to Boston Faneuil Hall, +called the cradle of American liberty] + +[Illustration: POT OF SHEFFIELD PLATE, 18TH CENTURY + +In the Metropolitan Museum] + +[Illustration: SILVER POT BY EPHRAIM BRASHER + +In the Clearwater Collection, Metropolitan Museum] + +In the Halsey collection is shown a silver coffee pot by Samuel Minott, +and several beautiful specimens of the handiwork of Paul Revere, whose +name is more often connected with the famous "midnight ride" than with +the art of the silversmith. Of all the American silversmiths, Paul +Revere was the most interesting. Not only was he a silversmith of +renown, but a patriot, soldier, grand master Mason, confidential agent +of the state of Massachusetts Bay, engraver, picture-frame designer, and +die-sinker. He was born in Boston in 1735, and died in 1818. He was the +most famous of all the Boston silversmiths, although he is more widely +known as a patriot. He was the third of a family of twelve children, and +early entered his father's shop. When only nineteen, his father died; +but he was able to carry on the business. The engraving on his silver +bears witness to his ability. He engraved also on copper, and made many +political cartoons. He joined the expedition against the French at Crown +Point, and in the war of the Revolution was a lieutenant-colonel of +artillery. After the close of the war, he resumed his business of a +goldsmith and silversmith in 1783. Decidedly a man of action, he well +played many parts; and in all his manifold undertakings achieved +brilliant success. There clings, therefore, to the articles of silver +made by him an element of romantic and patriotic association which +endears them to those who possess them. + +[Illustration: FRENCH SILVER COFFEE POT + +Grand Prize, Union Centrale, 1886.] + +Revere had a real talent that enabled him to impart an unwonted elegance +to his work, and he was famous as an engraver of the beautiful crests, +armorial designs, and floral wreaths that adorn much of his work. His +tea pots and coffee pots are unusually beautiful. + +Revere coffee pots are to be seen in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts as +well as in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. The Boston Museum of +Fine Arts has also a coffee pot made by William Shaw and William Priest +in 1751-52 for Peter Faneuil, the wealthiest Bostonian of his time, who +gave to Boston Faneuil Hall, New England's cradle of American liberty. + +Among other American silversmiths who produced striking designs in +coffee pots, mention should be made of G. Aiken (1815); Garrett Eoff +(New York, 1785-1850); Charles Faris (who worked in Boston about 1790); +Jacob Hurd (1702-1758, known in Boston as Captain Hurd); John McMullin +(mentioned in the Philadelphia _Directory_ for 1796); James Musgrave +(mentioned in Philadelphia directories of 1797, 1808, and 1811); Myer +Myers (admitted as freeman, New York, 1746; active until 1790; president +of the New York Silversmiths Society, 1786); and Anthony Rasch (who is +known to have worked in Philadelphia, 1815). + +In the museums of the many historical societies throughout the United +States are to be seen interesting specimens of coffee pots in pewter, +Britannia metal, and tin ware, as well as in pottery, porcelain, and +silver. Some of these are illustrated. + +[Illustration: THE GREEN DRAGON TAVERN COFFEE URN] + +As in other branches of art during the seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries, the United States were indebted to England, Holland, and +France for much of the early pottery and porcelain. Elers, Astbury, +Whieldon, Wedgwood, their imitators, and the later Staffordshire +potters, flooded the American market with their wares. Porcelain was not +made in this country previous to the nineteenth century. Decorative +pottery was made here, however, from an early period. Britannia ware +began to take the place of pewter in 1825; and the introduction of +japanned tin ware and pottery gradually caused the manufacture of pewter +to be abandoned. + +[Illustration: + +By an unknown silversmith By Paul Revere By Paul Revere + +COFFEE POTS BY AMERICAN SILVERSMITHS] + +[Illustration: TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICAN COFFEE SERVICE + +The Portsmouth Pattern, by the Gorham Co.] + +An interesting relic is in the collection of the Bostonian Society. It +is a coffee urn of Sheffield ware, formerly in the Green Dragon tavern, +which stood on Union Street from 1697 to 1832, and was a famous meeting +place of the patriots of the Revolution. It is globular in form, and +rests on a base; and inside is still to be seen the cylindrical piece of +iron which, when heated, kept the delectable liquid contents of the urn +hot until imbibed by the frequenters of the tavern. The iron bar was set +in a zinc or tin jacket to keep such fireplace ashes as still clung to +it from coming in contact with the coffee, which was probably brewed in +a stew kettle before being poured into the urn for serving. The Green +Dragon tavern site, now occupied by a business structure, is owned by +the St. Andrew's Lodge of Freemasons of Boston; and at a recent +gathering of the lodge on St. Andrew's Day, the urn was exhibited to the +assembled brethren. + +When the contents of the tavern were sold, the urn was bought by Mrs. +Elizabeth Harrington, who then kept a famous boarding-house on Pearl +Street, in a building owned by the Quincy family. The house was razed in +1847, and was replaced by the Quincy Block; and Mrs. Harrington removed +to High Street, and from there to Chauncey Place. Some of the prominent +men of Boston boarded with her for many years. At her death, the urn was +given to her daughter, Mrs. John R. Bradford. It was presented to the +society by Miss Phebe C. Bradford, of Boston, granddaughter of Mrs. +Elizabeth Harrington. + +A somewhat similar urn, made of pewter, is in the Museum of the Maine +Historical Society of Portland, Me.; another in the Museum of the Essex +Institute at Salem, Mass. + +Among the many treasured relics of Abraham Lincoln is an old Britannia +coffee pot from which he was regularly served while a boarder with the +Rutledge family at the Rutledge inn in New Salem (now Menard), Ill. It +was a valued utensil, and Lincoln is said to have been very fond of it. +It is illustrated on page 690. + +The pot is now the property of the Old Salem Lincoln League, of +Petersburg, Ill., and was donated to it, with other relics, by Mrs. +Saunders, of Sisquoc, Cal., the only surviving child of James and Mary +Ann Rutledge. Mrs. Rutledge carefully preserved this and other relics of +New Salem days; and shortly before her death in 1878, she gave them into +the keeping of her daughter, Mrs. Saunders, advising her to preserve +them until such time as a permanent home for them would be provided by a +grateful people back at New Salem, where they were associated with the +immortal Lincoln and his tragic romance with her daughter Ann. + +[Illustration: TURKISH COFFEE SET, PETER COLLECTION, UNITED STATES +NATIONAL MUSEUM, WASHINGTON] + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +THE EVOLUTION OF COFFEE APPARATUS + + _Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, + coffee-making, and coffee-serving devices from the earliest time to + the present day--The original coffee grinder, the first coffee + roaster, and the first coffee pot--The original French drip pot, + the De Belloy percolator--Count Rumford's improvement--How the + commercial coffee roaster was developed--The evolution of + filtration devices--The old Carter "pull-out" roaster--Trade + customs in New York and St. Louis in the sixties and seventies--The + story of the evolution of the Burns roaster--How the gas roaster + was developed in France, Great Britain, and the United States_ + + +A book could be written on the subject of this chapter. We shall have to +be content to touch briefly upon the important developments in the +devices employed. The changes that have taken place in the preparation +of the drink itself will be discussed in chapter XXXVI. + +In the beginning, that is, in Ethiopia, about 800 A.D., coffee was +looked upon as a food. The whole ripe berries, beans and hulls, were +crushed, and molded into food balls held in shape with fat. Later, the +dried berries were so treated. So the primitive stone mortar and pestle +were the original coffee grinder. + +The dried hulls and the green beans were first roasted, some time +between 1200 and 1300, in crude burnt clay dishes or in stone vessels, +over open fires. These were the original roasting utensils. + +Next, the coffee beans were ground between little mill-stones, one +turning above the other. Then came the mill used by the Greeks and +Romans for grain. This mill consisted of two conical mill stones, one +hollow and fitted over the other, specimens of which have been found in +Pompeii. The idea is the same as that employed in the most modern metal +grinder. + +Between 1400 and 1500, individual earthenware and metal coffee-roasting +plates appeared. These were circular, from four to six inches in +diameter, about 1/16 inch thick, slightly concave and pierced with small +holes, something like the modern kitchen skimmer. They were used in +Turkey and Persia for roasting a few beans at a time over braziers (open +pans, or basins, for holding live coals). The braziers were usually +mounted on feet and richly ornamented. + +About the same time we notice the first appearance of the familiar +Turkish pocket cylinder coffee mill and the original Turkish _ibrik_, or +coffee boiler, made of metal. Little drinking cups of Chinese porcelain +completed the service. + +The original coffee boiler was not unlike the English ale mug with no +cover, smaller at the top than at the bottom, fitted with a grooved lip +for pouring, and a long straight handle. They were made of brass, and in +sizes to hold from one to six tiny cupfuls. A later improvement was of +the ewer design, with bulbous body, collar top, and cover. + +The Turkish coffee grinder seems to have suggested the individual +cylinder roaster which later (1650) became common, and from which +developed the huge modern cylinder commercial roasting machines. + +[Illustration: THE OLDEST COFFEE GRINDER + +Ancient Egyptian mortar and pestle, probably used for pounding coffee] + +The individual coffee service of early civilization first employed crude +clay bowls or dishes for drinking; but as early as 1350, Persian, +Egyptian, and Turkish ewers, made of pottery, were used for serving. In +the seventeenth century, ewers of similar pattern, but made of metal, +were the favorite coffee-serving devices in oriental countries and in +western Europe. + +Between 1428 and 1448, a spice grinder standing on four legs was +invented; and this was later used for grinding coffee. The drawer to +receive the ground coffee was added in the eighteenth century. + +Between 1500 and 1600, shallow iron dippers with long handles and +foot-rests, designed to stand in open fires, were used in Bagdad, and by +the Arabs in Mesopotamia, for roasting coffee. These roasters had +handles about thirty-four inches long, and the bowls were eight inches +in diameter. They were accompanied by a metal stirrer (spatula) for +turning the beans. + +[Illustration: GRAIN MILL OF GREEKS AND ROMANS + +Also used for grinding coffee] + +Another type of roaster was developed about 1600. It was in the shape of +an iron spider on legs, and was designed, like that just described, to +sit in open fires. At this period pewter serving pots were first used. + +Between 1600 and 1632, mortars and pestles of wood, iron, brass, and +bronze came into common use in Europe for braying the roasted beans. For +several centuries, coffee connoisseurs held that pounding the beans in a +mortar was superior to grinding in the most efficient mill. Peregrine +White's parents brought to America on the _Mayflower_, in 1620, a wooden +mortar and pestle that were used for braying coffee to make coffee +"powder." + +[Illustration: THE FIRST COFFEE ROASTER, ABOUT 1400] + +When La Roque speaks of his father bringing back to Marseilles from +Constantinople in 1644 the instruments for making coffee, he undoubtedly +refers to the individual devices which at that time in the Orient +included the roaster plate, the cylinder grinder, the small long-handled +boiler, and _fenjeyns_ (findjans), the little porcelain drinking cups. + +[Illustration: THE FIRST CYLINDER ROASTER, ABOUT 1650] + +When Bernier visited Grand Cairo about the middle of the seventeenth +century, in all the city's thousand-odd coffee houses he found but two +persons who understood the art of roasting the bean. + +About 1650, there was developed the individual cylinder coffee roaster +made of metal, usually tin plate or tinned copper, suggested by the +original Turkish pocket grinder. This was designed for use over open +fires in braziers. There appeared about this time also a combined +making-and-serving metal pot which was undoubtedly the original of the +common type of pot that we know today. + +There appeared in England about 1660, Elford's white iron machine (sheet +iron coated with tin) which was "turned on a spit by a jack.[362]" This +was simply a larger size of the individual cylinder roaster, and was +designed for family or commercial use. Modifications were developed by +the French and Dutch. In the seventeenth century the Italians produced +some beautiful designs in wrought-iron coffee roasters. + +[Illustration: HISTORICAL RELICS IN THE PETER COLLECTION, UNITED STATES +NATIONAL MUSEUM + +1--Bagdad coffee-roasting pan and stirrer. 2--Iron mortar and pestle +used for pounding coffee. 3--Coffee mill used by General and Mrs. +Washington. 4--Coffee-roasting pan used at Mt. Vernon. 5--Bagdad coffee +pot with crow-bill spout] + +Before the advent of the Elford machine, and indeed, for two centuries +thereafter, it was the common practise in the home to roast coffee in +uncovered earthenware tart dishes, old pudding pans, and fry pans. +Before the time of the modern kitchen stove, it was usually done over +charcoal fires without flame. + +The improved Turkish combination coffee grinder with folding handle and +cup receptacle for the beans, used for grinding, boiling, and drinking, +was first made in Damascus in 1665. About this period, the Turkish +coffee set, including the long-handled boiler and the porcelain drinking +cups in brass holders, also came into vogue. + +In 1665, Nicholas Book, "living at the Sign of the Frying Pan in St. +Tulies street," London, advertised that he was "the only known man for +making of mills for grinding of coffee powder, which mills are sold by +him from forty to forty-five shillings the mill." + +By combining the long-handle idea contained in the Bagdad roaster with +that of the original cylinder roaster, the Dutch perfected a small, +closed, sheet-iron cylinder-roaster with a long handle that permitted +its being held and turned in open fire places. From 1670, and well into +the middle of the nineteenth century, this type of family roaster +enjoyed great favor in Holland, France, England, and the United States, +more especially in the country districts. The museums of Europe and the +United States contain many specimens. The iron cylinder measured about +five inches in diameter, and was from six to eight inches long, being +attached to a three or four foot iron rod provided with a wooden handle. +The green coffee was put into the cylinder through a sliding door. +Balancing the roaster over the blaze by resting the end of the iron rod +projecting from the far end of the roasting cylinder in a hook of the +usual fireplace crane, the housekeeper was wont slowly to revolve the +cylinder until the beans had turned the proper color. + +[Illustration: TURKISH COFFEE MILL + +A fine specimen in the Peter collection, United States National Museum] + +Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the pocket were much in vogue in +France in 1691. These included a roaster, a grinder, a lamp, the oil, +cups, saucers, spoons, coffee, and sugar. The roaster was first made of +tin plate or tinned copper; but for the aristocracy silver and gold were +used. In 1754, a white-silver coffee roaster eight inches long and four +inches in diameter was mentioned among the deliveries made to the army +of the king at Versailles. + +[Illustration: EARLY FRENCH WALL AND TABLE GRINDERS + +Left, seventeenth-century coffee grinder in the Musée de la Porte de +Hal--Center, wall mill, eighteenth century--Right, iron mill, eighteenth +century] + +Humphrey Broadbent, "the London coffee man" wrote in 1722: + + I hold it best to roast coffee berries in an iron vessel full of + little holes, made to turn on a spit over a charcoal fire, keeping + them continually turning, and sometimes shaking them that they do + not burn, and when they are taken out of the vessel, spread 'em on + some tin or iron plate 'till the vehemency of the heat is vanished; + I would recommend to every family to roast their own coffee, for + then they will be almost secure from having any damaged berries, or + any art to increase the weight, which is very injurious to the + drinkers of coffee. Most persons of distinction in Holland roast + their own berries. + +[Illustration: BRONZE AND BRASS MORTARS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY USED +FOR MAKING COFFEE POWDER + +Left, bronze (Germany)--Center, brass (England)--Right, bronze (Holland, +1632)] + +Between 1700 and 1800, there was developed a type of small portable +household stove to burn coke or charcoal, made of iron and fitted with +horizontal revolving cylinders for coffee roasting. These were provided +with iron handles for turning. A modification of this type of roaster +under a three-sided hood, and standing on three legs, was designed to +sit on the hearth of open fireplaces, close to the fire or in the +smoldering ashes. Because of its greater capacity, it was probably used +in the inns and coffee houses for roasting large batches. Still another +type, which made its appearance late in the eighteenth century, was the +sheet-iron roaster suspended at the top of a tall, iron, box-like +compartment, or stove, in which the fire was built. This, too, was +designed to roast coffee in comparatively large quantities. In some +examples it was provided with legs. + +Great silver coffee pots ("with all the utensils belonging to them of +the same metal") were first used by Pascal at St.-Germain's fair in +Paris in 1672. It remained for the English and American silversmiths to +produce the most beautiful forms of silver coffee pots; and there are +some notable collections of these in England and the United States. + +The oriental serving pot was nearly always of metal, tall, and, in old +models, of graceful curve, with a slightly twisted ornamental beak in +the form of an S, attached below the middle of the vessel. A handle +ornamented in the same way formed a decorative balance. + +In 1692, the lantern straight-line coffee serving pot with true cone +lid, thumb-piece, and handle fixed at right angle to the spout, was +introduced into England, succeeding the curved oriental serving pot. In +1700, coffee pots made of cheaper metals, like tin and Britannia ware, +began to appear on the home tables of the people. In 1701, silver coffee +pots appeared in England having perfect domes and bodies less tapering. +Between 1700 and 1800, silver, gold, and delicate porcelain serving pots +were the vogue among European royalty. + +[Illustration: EARLY AMERICAN COFFEE ROASTERS + +Both the cast-iron spiders and the long-handled roasters were used in +open fireplaces previous to 1770] + +In 1704, Bull's machine for roasting coffee was patented in England. +This probably marks the first use of coal for commercial roasting. + +In 1710, the popular coffee roaster in French homes was a dish of +varnished earthenware. This same year a novelty was introduced in France +in the shape of a fustian (linen) bag for infusing ground coffee. + +By 1714, the thumb-piece on English serving pots had disappeared, and +the handle was no longer set at a right angle to the spout. English +coffee-pot bodies showed a further modification in 1725, the taper +becoming less and less. + +Coffee grinders were so common in France in 1720 that they were to be +had for a dollar and twenty cents each. Their development by the French +had been rapid from the original spice grinder. At first, they were +known as coffee mills; but in the eighteenth century, roasters came to +be known by that name. They were made of iron, retaining the same +principle of the horizontal mill-stones--one of which is fixed while the +other moves--that the ancients employed for grinding wheat. They were +squat, box-shaped affairs, having in the center a shank of iron that +revolved upon a fixed, corrugated iron plate. There was also the style +that fastened to the wall. At first, the drawer to receive ground coffee +was missing, but this was supplied in later types. Before its invention, +the ground coffee was received in a sack of greased leather, or in one +treated on the outside with beeswax--probably the original of the duplex +paper bag for conserving the flavor. + +[Illustration: ROASTER WITH THREE-SIDED HOOD + +It succeeded the cast-iron spider, and was suspended from a crane, or +stood in the embers] + +[Illustration: ROASTING, MAKING, AND SERVING DEVICES + +Early seventeenth century, as pictured by Dufour] + +The French brought their innate artistic talents to bear upon coffee +grinders, just as they did upon roasters and serving pots. In many +instances they made the outer parts of silver and of gold. + +By 1750, the straight-line serving pot in England had begun to yield to +the reactionary movement in art favoring bulbous bodies and serpentine +spouts. + +About 1760, French inventors began to devote themselves to improvements +in coffee-making devices. Donmartin, a Paris tinsmith, in 1763, invented +an urn pot that employed a flannel sack for infusing. Another infusion +device, produced the same year by L'Ainé, also a tinsmith of Paris, was +known as a _diligence_. + +A complete revolution in the style of English serving pots took place in +1770, with a return to the flowing lines of the Turkish ewer; and +between 1800 and 1900, there was a gradual return to the style of +serving pot having the handle at a right angle to the spout. + +[Illustration: ENGLISH AND FRENCH COFFEE GRINDERS + +Nineteenth century] + +In 1779, Richard Dearman was granted an English patent on a new method +of making mills for grinding coffee. In 1798, the first American patent +on an improved coffee grinding mill was granted to Thomas Bruff, Sr. It +was a wall mill, fitted with iron plates, in which the coffee was ground +between two circular nuts, three inches broad and having coarse teeth +around their centers and fine shallow teeth at the edges. + +De Belloy's (or Du Belloy's) coffee pot appeared in Paris about 1800. It +was first made of tin; but later, of porcelain and silver--the original +French drip pot. This device was never patented; but it appears to have +furnished the inspiration for many inventors in France, England, and the +United States. The first French patent on a coffee maker was granted to +Denobe, Henrion, and Rouch in 1802. It was for a +"pharmacological-chemical coffee-making device by infusion." Charles +Wyatt obtained a patent the same year in London on an apparatus for +distilling coffee. The De Belloy pot is illustrated on page 622. + +In 1806, Hadrot was granted a French patent on a device "for filtering +coffee without boiling and bathed in air." This use of the word +filtering was misleading, as it was many times after in French, English, +and American patent nomenclature, where it often meant percolation or +something quite different from filtration. True percolation means to +drip through fine interstices of china or metal. Filtration means to +drip through a porous substance, usually cloth or paper. De Belloy's pot +was a percolator. So was Hadrot's. The improvement on which Hadrot got +his patent was to "replace the white iron filter (sic) used in ordinary +filtering pots by a filter composed of hard tin and bismuth" and to use +"a rammer of the same metal, pierced with holes." The rammer was +designed to press down and to smooth out the powdered coffee in an even +and uniform fashion. "It also," says Hadrot in his specification, "stops +the derangement which boiling water poured from a height can produce. It +is held by its stem a half inch from the surface of the powder so that +it receives only the action of the water which it divides and +facilitates thus the extraction which it must produce in each of the +particles." + +[Illustration: EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ROASTER + +Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.] + +A coffee percolator was invented in Paris about 1806 by Benjamin +Thompson, F.R.S., an American-British scientist, philanthropist, and +administrator. He was known as Count Rumford, a title bestowed on him by +the Pope. Rumford's invention was first given to the public in London in +1812. He has gained great credit for his device, because of an elaborate +essay that he wrote on it in Paris under the title of _The excellent +qualities of coffee and the art of making it in the highest perfection_, +and that he caused to be published in London in 1812. It was a simple +percolator pot provided with a hot-water jacket, and was a real +improvement on the French drip or percolator coffee pot invented by De +Belloy, but not at all unlike Hadrot's patented device. Count Rumford, +however, was a picturesque character, and a good advertiser. He is +generally credited with the invention of the coffee percolator; but +examination of his device shows that, strictly speaking, the De Belloy +pot was just as much a percolator, and apparently antedated it by about +six years. + +[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL FRENCH DRIP POT + +_Cafetière à la_ De Belloy] + +De Belloy employed the principle of having the boiling water drip +through the ground coffee when held in suspension by a perforated metal +or porcelain grid. This is true percolation. Hadrot did the same thing +with the improvements noted above. Count Rumford in his essay admits +that this method of making coffee was not new, but claims his +improvement was. This was to provide a rammer for compressing the ground +coffee in the upper or percolating device into a definite thickness, +this being accomplished by providing the perforated circular tin disk +water-spreader that rested on the ground coffee with four projections, +or feet, that kept the spreader within half an inch of the grid holding +the powder in suspension and free from "agitation." + +His argument was that two-thirds of an inch of ground coffee should be +leveled and compressed into a half-inch thickness before the boiling +water was introduced. Practically the same result was achieved in the De +Belloy and Hadrot pots, also provided with water-spreaders and pluggers, +but the same mathematical exactitude in the matter of the depth of the +ground coffee before the percolation started was not assured. De +Belloy's spreader did not have the projections on the under side upon +which Count Rumford laid such stress. Then there was the hot-water +jacket, which was an improvement on Hadrot's hot air bath. Inventors +that followed Rumford have made light of the importance that he attached +to scientific accuracy in coffee-making; but it is interesting to note +how many of the features of the De Belloy, Hadrot, and Rumford pots have +been retained in the modern complex coffee machines, and in most of the +filtration devices. + +[Illustration: BELGIAN, RUSSIAN, AND FRENCH PEWTER SERVING POTS + +These are in the Metropolitan Museum and are of nineteenth century +design] + +French inventors continued to apply themselves to coffee-roasting and +coffee-making problems, and many new ideas were evolved. Some of these +were improved upon by the Dutch, the Germans, and the Italians; but the +best work in the line of improvements that have survived the test of +time was done in England and the United States. + +In 1815, Sené was granted a French patent on "a device to make coffee +without boiling." In 1819, Laurens produced the original of the +percolation device in which the boiling water is raised by a tube and +sprayed over the ground coffee. The same year Morize, a Paris tinsmith +and lamp-maker, followed with a reversible, double drip pot which was +the pioneer of all the reversible filtration pots of Europe and America. +Gaudet, another tinsmith, in 1820, patented an improvement on the +percolator idea, that employed a cloth filter. By 1825, the pumping +percolator, working by steam pressure and by partial vacuum, was much +used in France, Holland, Germany, and Austria. + +Meanwhile, it was common practise to roast coffee in England in "an iron +pan or in hollow cylinders made of sheet iron"; while in Italy, the +practise was to roast it in glass flasks, which were fitted with loose +corks. The flasks were "held over clear fires of burning coals and +continually agitated." Anthony Schick was granted an English patent in +1812, on a method, or process, for roasting coffee; but as he never +filed his specifications, we shall probably never know what the process +was. The custom of the day in England was to pound the roasted beans in +a mortar, or to grind them in a French mill. + +[Illustration: COUNT RUMFORD'S PERCOLATOR] + +In 1822, Louis Bernard Rabaut was granted an English patent in which the +French drip process was reversed by using steam pressure to force the +boiling water upward through the coffee mass. Casseneuve, a Paris +tinsmith, seems to have patented practically the same idea in France in +1824. Casseneuve employed a paper filter in his machine. + +In America, a United States patent was granted in 1813 to Alexander +Duncan Moore of New Haven on a mill "for grinding and pounding coffee." +This was followed by a patent granted to Increase Wilson, of New London, +in 1818, on a steel mill for grinding coffee. + +[Illustration: PEWTER POTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES + +Left to right, they are German, Flemish, English, and Dutch specimens in +the Metropolitan Museum] + +[Illustration: PATENT DRAWINGS OF EARLY FRENCH COFFEE MAKERS + +Left, drip pot of 1806--Next two, Durant's inner-tube pot, 1827--Next +(fourth), Gandais' first practicable percolator, 1827--Right, Grandin & +Crepeaux' percolator, 1832] + +In 1815, Archibald Kenrich was granted a patent in England on "mills for +grinding coffee." + +The coffee biggin, said to have been invented by a Mr. Biggin, came into +common use in England for making coffee about 1817. It was usually an +earthenware pot. At first it had in the upper part a metal strainer like +the French drip pots. Suspended from the rim in later models there was a +flannel or muslin bag to hold the ground coffee, through which the +boiling water was poured, the bag serving as a filter. The idea was an +adaptation of the French fustian infusion bag of 1711, and of other +early French drip and filtration devices, and it attained great +popularity. Any coffee pot with such a bag fitted into its mouth came to +be spoken of as a coffee biggin. Later, there was evolved the metal pot +with a wire strainer substituted for the cloth bag. The coffee biggin +still retains its popularity in England. + + +[Illustration: EARLY FRENCH FILTRATION DEVICES + +Left, Casseneuve's filter-paper machine, 1824--Center, Gaudet's +cloth-filter pot, 1820--Right, Raparlier's percolator] + +While French inventors were busy with coffee makers, English and +American inventors were studying means to improve the roasting of the +beans. Peregrine Williamson, of Baltimore, was granted the first patent +in the United States for an improvement on a coffee roaster in 1820. In +1824, Richard Evans was granted a patent in England for a commercial +method of roasting coffee, comprising a cylindrical sheet-iron roaster +fitted with improved flanges for mixing; a hollow tube and trier for +sampling coffee while roasting; and a means for turning the roaster +completely over to empty it. + +The next year, 1825, the first coffee-pot patent in the United States +was granted to Lewis Martelley of New York. It marked the first American +attempt to perfect an arrangement to condense the steam and the +essential oils and to return them to the infusion. In 1838, Antoni +Bencini, of Milton, N.C., was granted a similar patent in the United +States. Rowland, in 1844, and Waite and Sener, in their Old Dominion pot +of 1856, tried for the same result, namely, the condensation of the +steam in upper chambers. + +[Illustration: EARLY AMERICAN COFFEE-MAKER PATENTS + +Left, Waite & Sener's Old Dominion pot--Right, Bencini's steam +condenser] + +The French meantime focused on coffee makers; and in 1827, Jacques +Augustin Gandais, a manufacturer of plated jewelry in Paris, produced a +really practicable pumping percolator. This machine had the ascending +steam tube on the exterior. The same year, 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, +a manufacturer in Chalons-sur-Marne, was granted a French patent on a +percolator employing for the first time an inner tube for spraying the +boiling water over the ground coffee. + +In 1828, Charles Parker, of Meriden, Conn., began work on the original +Parker coffee mill, which later was to bring him fame and fortune. + +The next year, 1829, the first French patent on a coffee mill was issued +to Colaux & Cie. of Molsheim. + +That same year, 1829, the Établissements Lauzaune, Paris, began to make +hand-turned iron-cylinder coffee-roasting machines. + +In 1831, David Selden was granted a patent in England for a +coffee-grinding mill having cones of cast-iron. + +The first Parker coffee-grinder patent for a household coffee and spice +mill was issued in the United States in 1832 to Edmund Parker and Herman +M. White of Meriden, Conn. The Charles Parker Company's business was +founded the same year. In 1832 and 1833, United States patents were +issued to Ammi Clark, of Berlin, Conn., also on improved coffee and +spice mills for home use. + +Amos Ransom, Hartford, Conn., was granted a United States patent on a +coffee roaster in 1833. + +The English began exporting coffee-roasting and coffee-grinding +machinery to the United States in 1833-34. + +[Illustration: FRENCH COFFEE MAKERS, NINETEENTH CENTURY + +1, 2--Improved French drip pots. 3--Persian design. 4--De Belloy pot. +5--Russian reversible pot. 6--New filter machine. 7--Glass filter pot. +8--Syphon machine. 9--Vienna Incomparable. 10--Double glass "balloon" +device] + +[Illustration: FIRST ENGLISH COMMERCIAL COFFEE-ROASTER PATENT, 1824 + +Fig. 1--End elevation. Fig. 2--Front sectional view. Fig. 3--Front +elevation, showing how the roasting cylinder was turned completely over +to empty. Fig. 4--The examiner, or trier. Fig. 5--Tube (J) to be +inserted in H of Fig. 6 to prevent escape of aroma] + +It was not until 1836 that the first French patent was issued on a +combined coffee-roaster-and-grinder to François Réné Lacoux of Paris. +The roaster was made of porcelain, because the inventor believed that +metal imparted a bad taste to the beans while roasting. + +[Illustration: EARLY FRENCH COFFEE-ROASTING MACHINES + +1--Delephine's coke machine. 2--Bernard's machine, 1841. 3--Circlet for +same. 4--Postulart's gas machine] + +In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow were granted an English patent on +a kind of urn percolator employing the vacuum process of coffee making, +the upper vessel being made of glass. The first French patent on a glass +coffee-making device, using the same principle, was granted to Madame +Vassieux, of Lyons, in 1842. These were the forerunners of the double +glass "balloons" for making coffee which later on, in the early part of +the twentieth century, attained much vogue in the United States. They +were very popular in Europe until the latter part of the nineteenth +century. + +In 1839, John Rittenhouse, of Philadelphia, was granted a United States +patent on a cast-iron mill designed to handle the problem of nails and +stones in grinding coffee. His improvement was intended to prevent +injury to the grinding teeth by stopping the machine. + +In 1840, Abel Stillman, Poland, N.Y., was granted a United States patent +on a family coffee roaster having a mica window to enable the operator +to observe the coffee while roasting. (See 10, page 630.) + +In 1841, William Ward Andrews was granted an English patent on an +improved coffee pot employing a pump to force the boiling water upward +through the coffee, which was contained in a perforated cylinder screwed +to the bottom of the pot. This was Rabaut's idea of nineteen years +before. We find it again repeated in the United States in a machine +which appeared on the New York market in 1906. + +[Illustration: BATTERY OF CARTER PULL-OUT MACHINES IN AN EARLY AMERICAN +PLANT] + +In 1841, Claude Marie Victor Bernard, of Paris, was granted a French +patent on a coffee roaster, which was an improvement designed to bring +the roasting cylinder and the fire in closer contact. This was +accomplished, to quote the quaint language of the inventor, by applying +movable legs and "by superimposing a sheet iron circlet around the edge +of the furnace to get double the quantity of heat and it presents so +much advantage that it has seemed to me worthy of being patented." (See +4, page 627.) + +But the French were only toying with the roaster, because roasting in +France was not yet a separate branch of business, as it had become in +England and the United States, where keen minds were already at work on +the purely commercial coffee-roasting machine. The application of +intensive thought in this direction was destined to bear fruit in +America in 1846, and in England in 1847. + +French inventive genius continued to occupy itself with coffee making, +and in the invention of Edward Loysel de Santais, of Paris, in 1843, +produced the first of the ideas that were later incorporated in the +hydrostatic percolator for making "two thousand cups of coffee an +hour"[363] at the exposition of 1855, and that has since been improved +upon by the Italians in their rapid-filter machines. It should be noted +that Loysel's 2,000 cups were probably demi-tasses. The modern Italian +rapid-filter machine produces about 1,000 large coffee cups per hour. + +James W. Carter, of Boston, was granted a United States patent in 1846 +on his "pull-out" roaster; and this was the machine most generally +employed for trade roasting in America for the next twenty years. Carter +did not claim to have invented the combination of cylindrical roaster +and furnace; but he did claim priority for the combination, with the +furnace and roasting vessel, of the air space, or chamber, surrounding +it, "the same being for the purpose of preventing the too rapid escape +of heat from the furnace when the air chamber's induction and eduction +air openings or passages are closed." + +The Carter "pull-out," was so called because the roasting cylinder of +sheet iron was pulled out from the furnace on a shaft supported by +standards, to be emptied or to be refilled from sliding doors in its +"sides." It was in use for many years in such old-time plants as that of +Dwinell-Wright Company, 25 Haverhill Street. Boston; by James H. Forbes +and William Schotten in St. Louis; and by D.Y. Harrison in Cincinnati. + +The picture of a roasting room with Carter machines in operation, +reproduced here, recalled to George S. Wright, the present head of the +Dwinell-Wright Company's business, the scene as he saw it so many times +when, as a boy of ten or twelve, he occasionally spent a day in his +father's factory. "The only difference I notice," he wrote the author, +"is that, according to my recollection, there was no cooler box to +receive the roasted coffee, which was dumped on the floor where it was +spread out three or four inches deep with iron rakes and sprinkled with +a watering pot. The contact of water and hot coffee caused so much steam +that the roasting room was in a dense fog for several minutes after each +batch of coffee was drawn from the fire." + +A.E. Forbes also thus recalled the Carter machine in his father's +factory in St. Louis in 1853, when he used to help after school; and +sometimes ran the roasters, after 1857: + + It was barrel shaped, having a slide the full length of one side to + fill and empty. A heavy shaft ran through the centre, resting on + the wall of the furnace at the rear end and on an upright about + eight feet from the front wall. The fire was about sixteen to + eighteen inches below the cylinder and of soft coal. The cylinder + was not perforated, the theory being to keep the vapors from + escaping.[364] This of course was erroneous. The color of the smoke + bursting from the edge of the slide was our medium of telling when + the roasting process was nearing completion, and often the cylinder + was pulled out and opened for inspection several times before that + point was reached. When just right, the belt was shifted to a loose + pulley, stopping the cylinder, which, was pulled off the fire. A + handle was attached to the shaft, the slide drawn, and the coffee + was dumped into a wooden tray which had to be shoved under the + cylinder. The coffee was stirred around in the tray until cool + enough to sack. + + The roaster man had to be a husky in those days to pick up a sack + of Rio weighing about one hundred, sixty to one hundred, + seventy-five pounds (not a hundred, thirty-two pounds, as now) and + to empty it in the cylinder. We had no overhead hoppers. + + [Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE ROASTERS + + 1, 2--English charcoal machines. 3, 5, 8--American coal-stove + roasters. 4--Remington's wheel-of-buckets (American) roaster, 1841. + 6--Wood's roaster. 7--Hyde's stove roaster. 9--Reversible stove + roaster. 10--Abel Stillman's stove roaster] + + Later we built in the rear and put in two cylinders of the Chris + Abele type, having stationary fronts and filling and emptying from + the front end. We still used soft coal, with the fire sixteen to + eighteen inches under the cylinder. + + We had other machines made locally from the Carter pattern. The + idea of the tight cylinder was to keep out smoke, as well as to + keep in the aroma. I think we were the first to use perforations, + because I remember old Jabez Burns coming along after we put in one + of his machines and remarking on it.... We had a kind of mechanical + genius for engineer at that time (he also did the roasting) and he + conceived the idea that we ought to get rid of the moisture in the + roasting coffee because it would cook quicker. When the holes + clogged up, he put in loose pieces of wire bent at the ends which + shook as the cylinder revolved and kept the holes open. Another + thing, he put a hole in the cylinder head and a stopper with a + string on it so he could get out a few grains at a time to note the + progress of the roasting--but he judged mostly by the smoke. + + The cooling box was as I have described it, but later we put in a + perforated false bottom which let out some chaff and small stones. + + On our first watering, we pulled out the slide and dashed in a + bucket of water, then closed the slide and let it revolve outside + the furnace. This was hard on the cylinder, so later we used the + sprinkling can and put on water sparingly. + + Once we had a party that wanted to put in a soapstone lined + roaster, and another near us named Salzgerber patented a + superheated-steam roaster which was shaped like our modern milk + bottle. This was covered with asbestos and worked on a central + bearing so it could be depressed for emptying and elevated for + filling. It did good work. + +Mr. Forbes' recollections of the early days of roasting and selling +coffee at retail in St. Louis are so illuminating, and paint so +interesting a picture of the period that they are printed here to +illustrate the conditions that prevailed generally at the time when the +commercial roasting machine of the United States was being developed +into the modern type. He says further: + + Selling roasted coffee was uphill work, as every one roasted coffee + in the kitchen oven. People were buying, say, at twenty cents. Our + asking twenty-five cents "roasted" called for a lot of explanation + about shrinkage, tight cylinders so the strength and flavor could + not get away, etc.; while, when they roasted a pound in the oven + the flavor scented the whole house, thus losing so much strength to + say nothing of the unevenness of their roasts--part raw, part + roasted, producing an unpleasant taste. An occasional burned roast + at home helped some. They tell of a man who, going out in the back + yard and kicking over a clod by accident, uncovered some burned + coffee. He called to his wife and wanted an explanation. She + acknowledged she had burnt it, and hid it so he would not scold. He + said, "We had better buy it roasted in the future and avoid such + accidents." + + We roasted in the cellar. We had an elaborately polished Reed & + Mann engine in one window, two brass hoppered mills in the other, + and our boiler was under the sidewalk. We had a mahogany-top + counter, oil paintings on the wall, and bin fronts of Chinamen, + etc., done by the celebrated artist, Mat Hastings (now dead); so + you see we started right. + + The fight we had to introduce roasted coffee was fierce. Our + argument was on the saving of fuel, labor, temper, scorched faces, + and anything we could think of. We talked only three coffees, Rio, + Java, and Mocha. When Santos began to come, it was hard to change + them over from the rank Rio flavor to the more mild Santos. The + latter they claimed did not have the rough taste. They missed it + and longed for the wild tang of the Rio. + + We did not import, but bought in New Orleans and from several local + wholesale grocers. No one delivered. Shipments were f.o.b. St. + Louis. Draying and packages were extra. Coffee was not cleaned or + stoned, but was sold as it came from the sack. However, we did not + use any very low grades then. If any one complained of the stones + hurting their mills, we advised them to buy ground coffee, showing + how it kept better ground as it was packed tight, whereas the + roasted was looser and the air could get through it. It was fully a + year or more before we began to sell in quantities to make it + profitable. In roasting for others, we got a cent per pound; and + after awhile, that became so much a business it paid all our + expenses. We were the first to roast coffee by steam power west of + the Mississippi and east of the Rocky Mountains. + + The tea department helped us to hold out until coffee got its hold + on the public; for in those days every one used tea and insisted on + having it good. Price was no object. How different now! + + Five years later (1862) J. Nevison, an Englishman, drifted into + town and opened at 85 North Fourth Street. He got out a very + bombastic circular which caused us to put out the one I enclose + (illustration, page 436). Then came a party named Childs; and after + him, Hugh Menown, grand-uncle of the present Menown, of Menown & + Gregory; and Mat Hunt; all passed over to the Great Majority. After + the Civil War they multiplied pretty fast, coming and going until + now we have nineteen roasting establishments in the city. + +The late Julius J. Schotten also wrote the author as follows concerning +the days of the Carter roaster and of the wholesale coffee-roasting +business founded by William Schotten in 1862: + + In the early days, every wholesale grocer was selling coffee; the + wholesale grocer controlled ninety percent of the trade in the + country. It did not pay the coffee roaster to have men on the road + selling coffee in those days. Such being the case, seventy-five + percent of the roasting done by the coffee roasters was job + roasting, at one cent a pound. + + In the beginning there were only two kinds of roasted coffee known + to the trade in this section of the country (St. Louis) and of + course one of these brands was "Rio"--the other; "Java". The former + was a genuine Rio, but the Java was mostly Jamaica coffee. + + Roasted coffee then was packed (for city trade) in five and ten + pound packages, and this size package seemed to supply the wants of + the ordinary grocer for a week. Occasionally a twenty-five pound + package, and in a few instances as much as fifty pounds of one + grade was sold at a time. + + The class of customers the coffee roasters sold in those days were + the smaller merchants; the larger stores, having their ideas as to + quality, bought their coffees green. As they had very little sale + for the roasted, they would send a half-sack, and sometimes a whole + sack to have it roasted. It took a number of years to induce the + larger grocers, and even the average grocers, to purchase their + coffee already roasted. + + Coffees were roasted in the old style, "pull-out" roaster cylinder. + That is to say, it was necessary to stop the roaster and to pull + out the cylinder to sample the coffee in order to know when to take + the coffee off the fire. When the coffee was ready to take off, the + cylinder was pulled out its entire length. It was then turned over + and a slide nine inches wide, running the full length of the + cylinder, was opened and the contents were dumped in the cooling + box. When the coffee reached the cooling box, it took two men with + hoes or wooden shovels to stir and turn it until it was properly + cooled, there being no cooling arrangements then as we have + nowadays. + + At that time there were no stoning or separating machines; and as a + bag of the ordinary green Jamaica coffee contained from three to + five pounds of stones and sticks, it was necessary to hand-pick the + coffee after it was roasted. + +[Illustration: EARLY FOREIGN AND AMERICAN COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES + +1--English adaptation of French boiler. 2--English coffee biggin. +3--Improved Rumford percolator. 4--Jones's exterior-tube percolator. +5--Parker's steam-fountain coffee maker. 6--Platow's filterer. +7--Brain's Vacuum, or pneumatic filter. 8--Beart's percolator. +9--American coffee biggin. 10--cloth-bag drip pot. 11--Vienna coffee +pot. 12--Le Brun's cafetière. 13--Reversible Potsdam cafetière. 14, +15--Gen. Hutchinson's percolator and urn. 16--Etruscan biggin] + +After Carter, the next United States coffee-roaster patent was granted +to J.R. Remington, of Baltimore, on a roaster employing a wheel of +buckets to move the green coffee beans singly through a charcoal heated +trough. It never became a commercial success. (See 4, page 630.) + +In 1847-48, William and Elizabeth Dakin were granted patents in England +on an apparatus for "cleaning and roasting coffee and for making +decoctions." The roaster specification covered a gold, silver, platinum, +or alloy-lined roasting cylinder and traversing carriage on an overhead +railway to move the roaster in and out of the roasting oven; and the +"decoction" specification covered an arrangement for twisting a +cloth-bag ground-coffee-container in a coffee biggin, or applied a screw +motion to a disk within a perforated cylinder containing the ground +coffee, so as to squeeze the liquid out of the grounds after infusion +had taken place. + +The roaster has survived, but the coffee maker was not so fortunate. The +Dakin idea was that coffee was injuriously affected by coming in contact +with iron during the roasting process. The roasting cylinder was +enclosed in an oven instead of being directly exposed to the furnace +heat. The apparatus was provided also with a "taster," or sampler, the +first of its kind, to enable the operator to examine the roasting +berries without stopping the machine. As will be seen by referring to +the picture of the model shown, the apparatus was ingenious and not +without considerable merit. Dakin & Co. are still in existence in +London, operating a machine very like the original model. + +In 1848, Thomas John Knowlys was granted a patent in England on a +perforated roasting cylinder coated with enamel. + +It is to be noted in passing that this idea of handling the green bean +with extreme delicacy, evidently obtained from the French, was never +taken seriously in the United States, whose inventors chose to handle it +with rough courage. + +[Illustration: THE DAKIN ROASTING MACHINE OF 1848] + +The first English patent on a coffee grinder was granted to Luke +Herbert in 1848. + +In 1849, Apoleoni Pierre Preterre, of Havre, was granted an English +patent on a coffee roaster mounted on a weighing apparatus to indicate +loss of weight in roasting and automatically stop the roasting process. +At the same time he secured an English patent on a vacuum percolator, +not unlike Durant's of 1827. + +In 1849 also, Thomas R. Wood, of Cincinnati, was granted a United States +patent on a spherical coffee roaster for use on kitchen stoves. It +attained considerable popularity among housewives who preferred to do +their own roasting. (See 6, page 630.) + +In 1852, Edward Gee secured a patent in England on a coffee roaster +fitted with inclined flanges for turning the beans while roasting. + +C.W. Van Vliet, of Fishkill Landing, N.Y., was granted a United States +patent in 1855 on a household coffee mill employing upper breaking and +lower grinding cones. He assigned it to Charles Parker of Meriden, Conn. +In 1860-61 several United States patents were granted John and Edmund +Parker on coffee grinders for home use. + +In 1862, E.J. Hyde, of Philadelphia, was granted a United States patent +on a combined coffee-roaster and stove fitted with a crane on which the +roasting cylinder was revolved and swung out horizontally for emptying +and refilling. This machine proved to be a commercial success. Benedickt +Fischer used one in his first roasting plant in New York. It is still +being manufactured by the Bramhall Deane Company of New York. + +[Illustration: A GLOBULAR STOVE ROASTER OF 1860] + +[Illustration: HYDE'S COMBINED ROASTER AND STOVE] + +In 1864, Jabez Burns, of New York, was granted a United States patent on +the original Burns coffee roaster, the first machine which did not have +to be moved away from the fire for discharging the roasted coffee, and +one that marked a distinct advance in the manufacture of coffee-roasting +apparatus. It was a closed iron cylinder set in brickwork. (See +illustration, page 635.) + +Jabez Burns had been a student of coffee roasting in New York for twenty +years before he produced the machine that was to revolutionize the +coffee business of the United States. He had brought with him from +England a knowledge of the trade in that country, where he first began +his business training by selling Java coffee at fourteen cents and +Sumatra at eleven cents to hotels, boarding-houses, and private +families. + +Up to the time of the Civil War, the contrivances employed for roasting +coffee in every case necessitated the removal of the roasting +apparatus--whether pan, globe, or cylinder--from the fire. The process +of causing coffee to discharge from the end of the roasting cylinder at +the pleasure of the operator while the cylinder was still in motion was +new; and the double set of flanges to produce this effect, and at the +same time, during the process of roasting, to keep the coffee equally +distributed from end to end of the cylinder, was new. Some one suggested +this last improvement was simply an Archimedean screw placed in a +cylinder, but Mr. Burns replied: "It is a double screw, a thing never +suggested by the Archimedean screw. It is, in fact, a double right and +left augur, one within the other, firmly secured together and also to +the shell or cylinder, and when the cylinder revolves the desired +result is obtained--the idea being entirely original." + +Mr. Burns had watched the development of the coffee business from the +time when the preparation of coffee was largely confined to the home, +where the approved roasting implements were hot stones, or tiles, iron +plates, skillets, and frying pans. Some of these were still in use +twenty years after he produced his first machine; and he often said that +coffee evenly roasted by such methods was just as good as if done by the +best mechanical device ever invented. He also said: "Coffee can be +roasted in very simple machinery. Some of the best we ever saw was done +in a corn popper. Patent portable roasters are almost as numerous as rat +traps or churns." + +[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL BURNS ROASTER, 1864] + +He early saw the practise of domestic roasting falling into disuse, as +it was becoming possible to supply the consumer with roasted coffee for +only a trifle more than in the green state, with all the labor and +annoyance of roasting done away with--a talking point that John Arbuckle +was quick to seize upon in his first Ariosa advertising. + +In almost every town of any size there were concerns engaged in the +roasting business. Within a few years, Burns machines were placed in all +the principal roasting centers. Pupke & Reid in New York; Flint, Evans & +Co., and James H. Forbes in St. Louis; Arbuckles & Co., in Pittsburgh; +the Weikel & Smith Spice Co. in Philadelphia; Theodore F. Johnson & Co., +in Newark; Evans & Walker in Detroit; W. & J.G. Flint in Milwaukee; and +Parker & Harrison in Cincinnati, were among his first customers. + +It is said that in 1845 there were facilities in and around New York to +roast as much coffee as was then consumed in Great Britain. Steam power +was being extensively used, and the roasting was done here for a large +part of the country. The habit was to buy roasted coffee from the coffee +and spice mills by the bag or larger quantity for country consumption; +and the grocers and small tea stores, for local consumption, bought from +twenty-five pounds upward at a time. This method cheapened the roasting +of coffee to half a cent a pound; and then good profits could be made, +for everything was cheap in those days. Even at that, it would have been +impossible for each tea dealer to have roasted his own coffee for +several times the amount, so the practise was generally adhered to all +over the country. + +Jabez Burns wrote in 1874: + + It is preposterous to suppose that household roasting will be + continued long in any part of this country, if coffee properly + prepared can be had. This is demonstrated by the remarkable + advances made in Pittsburgh and other places, where only a few + years ago the sales were chiefly in green coffee. Now the amount + roasted in Pittsburgh alone by those who make a business of it, + exceeds the entire consumption of coffee of any kind in the United + States fifty years ago. It will never pay for small stores to roast + if the large manufactories will do the work well, and if they will + not, small dealers will add proper machinery, and will eventually + become strong competing dealers. By doing the work with proper care + they will not only secure a reputation with large sales for + themselves, but will command the roasting for other parties. + +Until the Burns roaster appeared, coffee roasters were usually cylinders +that revolved upon an axis; the other devices that were tried were not +successful. Jabez Burns thus describes the first roaster he ever saw at +Hull, England: + + It consisted of a furnace, open at the top, and a perforated + cylinder with a slide door. The axis, or shaft, of the cylinder had + bearings on a frame which passed outside the furnace, while the + cylinder went down into the fire pit, the top of which could be + covered over. In this position it could be turned by means of a + crank on the end of a shaft The only means of testing was by the + escape of the steam or aroma, whichever predominated, passing out + through the perforations at the top; but so expert was the operator + and so quick to detect the aroma, that he seldom had to return the + cylinder to the fire to produce a satisfactory roast. This man + roasted fifty pounds or less in a batch for a number of retail + stores. + + Globes, consisting of two hemispheres, made of cast-iron and so + arranged that they opened to fill and discharge, but operated + substantially as above, only with the method of lowering into the + fire changed somewhat, I have seen in use in Scotland in 1840. They + were called French roasters. + + In this country a few years ago the use of the long sheet-iron + cylinder was almost universal, varying only in the method of + placing the cylinder over the fire--some sideways on a track, + others endwise, sliding on a long shaft or by turning on a crane, + in either case causing considerable labor and loss of time, which + often resulted in the hands of the inexperienced in more or less + spoiling the batch of coffee. + +From his expert knowledge of coffee and coffee-roasting problems, Jabez +Burns quickly rose to a commanding position in the industry. He was a +trade teacher and a trade builder. He had very definite ideas on +roasting. He said: + + The object of roasting is not attained until all the moisture + (water of vegetation) is driven off. Roast properly--uniformly and + sufficiently--and you will get all the aroma there is in the bean. + Coffees of various kinds can not be roasted to a uniform color. + Some will be of a light shade when sufficiently roasted while + others will have to be roasted dark to develop the aroma. + Therefore, appearance alone is not a proper test. Aroma-saving + devices have had their day. Coffee is of no use unless the aroma is + fully developed, and the more it is developed by roasting the + better it is. What passes off in the roasting process can not be + saved and is so small that if all of it in the country could be + collected and freed of all foreign matter, it would not weigh an + ounce. + + Roast coffee over a slow fire so that it will be an hour before it + has the color of roasted coffee, and, in contrast, produce in + another batch of like quantity the same color in thirty minutes, + and it will be found for all intended purposes, either to grind, + sell or drink, that the latter will be, beyond all comparison, the + best. Coffee should be roasted uniform and as quickly as possible, + only it must not be scorched or spotted, otherwise it will have a + bitter burned taste. If roasted properly it will very considerably + increase its bulk and will be plump, swelled out and crisp; easily + crushed in the hand or between the fingers. + +In his _Spice Mill Companion_, published in 1879, Jabez Burns said +further in regard to roasting: + + All coffees do not roast alike; some will be a bright light color + when done, and others will be dark before done. There are two + infallible rules, which if properly appreciated and tried will + prove to be practically useful. One is, when the aroma is + sufficiently developed to produce a sharp, cutting, but aromatic + sensation in the nose. Those who practice that way do not need to + see the roast. The other rule is that when a berry is broken it is + crisp and uniform in color inside and out. Those who are accustomed + to this method may be good coffee roasters, albeit they may not + have any nose at all. But we must state in this connection, that a + man who has no smell and is color blind is not a fit candidate for + the coffee roasting profession; and, moreover, we affirm that any + person who can not roast coffee, so far as judgment is concerned, + after a few trials, will never make a good operator. + +[Illustration: BURNS GRANULATING MILL, 1872-74] + +In 1867, Jabez Burns was granted a United States patent on an improved +coffee cooler, mixer, and grinding mill, or granulator. Another +granulator patent was issued to him in 1872. Mr. Burns had also given +the subject of cooling coffees considerable study, and his cooler was +the result. He argued that it was necessary to cool quickly. Before his +day, various methods had been employed, such as placing the coffee in +revolving drums covered with wire cloth. Sometimes a draft of cold air +was applied to the cooling drums, and the dirt and chaff blown through +the wire cloth. It was also customary in wholesale establishments to +blow cold air up through a perforated bottom, and this had been found +effective when properly applied. The Burns idea was to cool by means of +suction, causing a downward draft through the coffee and wire-cloth +bottomed box, which was found to be more uniform and efficient for +cooling purposes, as well as in controlling smoke, heat, and dust, which +by this means could be blown out of the roasting room by any convenient +outlet. + +On the subject of grinding, likewise, Mr. Burns had reached some +definite conclusions. The French and English lap and wall mills, the +English steel mills, and the Swift mills were all used in the United +States. Troemner's, the Enterprise, and others--to be mentioned later in +chronological order--were extending their use in a retail way; but Jabez +Burns confined his attention to a practicable mill for wholesale +grinding establishments. + +For manufacturing purposes, burstone mills were for many years +exclusively employed, especially one first known as the Prentiss & Page, +and later as the Page mill. There was a time when all the coffee +establishments in New York sent their coffee to Prentiss & Page to be +ground. Some of the places roasted by hand, others by horse power; and +if by steam, it was limited, and they did not have enough to spare for +grinding. + +With the march of improvement, burstone mills went into the discard. The +difficulty lay in finding men experienced in stone dressing to run them; +and the demand grew for a better style of grinding than could be done in +a mill out of face and balance. This demand was met in an altogether +different style of machine, which for twenty-five years was well known +as the Barbor mill. It was for improvements on this mill that Jabez +Burns in 1867, 1872, and 1874 obtained his granulator patents. + +The mill comprised cutters in the form of an iron roller running in near +contact with a concave, also of iron, and a revolving cylinder provided +with sieves, or screens, that received the ground material, rolled it +over the wire surface, sifting out the fine and discharging the coarse +automatically into the cutter, to be again manipulated until it was fine +enough to pass through the meshes of the screen. + +Jabez Burns patented an improved form of his roaster in 1881, and a +sample-coffee roaster in 1883, before he died in 1888; and since that +time his sons, who continue the business, have perfected a number of +improvements and brought out new machines which will be referred to in +chronological order. + +James H. Nason, of Franklin, Mass., was granted a United States patent +in 1865 on a percolator with fluid joints. + +P.H. Vanderweyde, of Philadelphia, was granted United States patents in +1866 on a percolator and a continuous coffee-filtering machine. + +Raparlier was granted a French patent on a pocket coffee-making device +in 1867. In later years, his invention became very popular among French +coffee drinkers. It was one of the early practicable forms of +double-glass-globe filtration devices. + +E.B. Manning of Middletown, Conn., was granted his first patent on a tea +and coffee pot in 1868. Others followed in 1870 and 1876. In the latter +year, John Bowman brought out the valve-type percolator which +subsequently attained great favor in American households. + +Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Company, Ltd., successors) began to +manufacture at Glasgow, Scotland, about 1870, the Napierian vacuum +coffee machine which had been invented in 1840--but never patented--by +Robert Napier of the celebrated firm of Clyde shipbuilders. This machine +makes coffee by distillation and filtration. It employs a metal globe, +and a brewer from which the coffee is syphoned over into the globe +through a tube, around the strainer-end of which, as it rests in the +coffee liquid in the brewer, there is tied a filter cloth. It is still +being manufactured by Elkington & Company. + +[Illustration: NAPIER'S VACUUM MACHINE, 1840] + +Thomas Page, a New York millwright, began the manufacture of a pull-out +coffee roaster similar to the old Carter machine, in 1868. Later, Chris +Abele, who was foreman in the Page shop, succeeded to the business; and +in 1882, he was granted a United States patent on an improvement on a +coffee roaster similar to the original Burns machine (the patent had +then expired) which he marketed under the name of Knickerbocker. + + +_German Coffee Machinery_ + +The Germans first began to show an active interest in coffee machinery +in 1860. In that year, Alexius Van Gulpen, of Emmerich, produced a +green-coffee grader; and later (1868), in partnership with J.H. Lensing +and Theodore von Gimborn, began the manufacture of coffee-roasting +machines. From this start there developed in Emmerich quite an industry +in coffee-machinery building. In 1870, Alexius Van Gulpen introduced to +the German trade a globular coffee roaster employing wood and coke as +fuel and having perforations and an exhauster. Van Gulpen and von +Gimborn are the two names most often met with in the development of +German coffee-roasting machinery. + +The first recorded German patent on a coffee roaster was issued to G. +Tubermann's Son in 1877, for "a coffee burner with vertically adjusted +stirring works." German patents were issued in 1878 to R. Muhlberg, of +Taucha, for coffee roasters with movable partitions and "screw-shaped +declining walls." Six roaster patents were issued to other inventors in +1878-79. + +Peter Pearson, of Manchester, took out a German patent on a +coffee-roasting apparatus in 1880. Fleury & Barker, of London, were +granted a coffee-roaster patent in Germany in 1881. + +After 1870, Van Gulpen devoted himself to the cylinder type of roaster, +on which he obtained several patents. The partnership between Messrs. +Van Gulpen, Lensing and von Gimborn was dissolved in 1906. They were +succeeded by the Emmericher Maschinenfabrik und Eissengiesserei, and Van +Gulpen & Co. Van Gulpen died in 1920. Among his inventions were a +circular air fan to supply fresh air to the beans while roasting; a +fire-dampening device; roasting and cooling exhausters; and a +"withdrawable" mixer remaining inside the cylinder during the roasting +process, but designed to be withdrawn at the end, discharging the +contents with a jerk into a circular cooler. These improvements are +featured in Van Gulpen & Co.'s latest Meteor machine. They make also the +Typhoon and Comet machines, and a line of globular roasters. + +A dozen coffee-roaster patents were issued in Germany in 1880-82. Among +them was one to the Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry, Van +Gulpen, Lensing & von Gimborn, Emmerich, in 1882. + +[Illustration: GERMAN GAS AND COAL ROASTING MACHINES + +Left, Perfekt gas roaster--Right, Probat coal roaster] + +Numerous coffee-cooling, coffee-grinding, and coffee-making devices were +patented in Germany from 1877 to 1885; among them Newstadt's +coffee-extract machine in 1882, safety attachments, rapid filters, +Vienna coffee makers, etc. The first Vienna coffee maker seems to have +been patented in Germany in 1879. + +The Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry acquired certain Danish +and Austrian coffee-roaster patents in 1881, and in 1892 it was granted +a German patent on a ball roaster. In the eighties this concern began +the manufacture of a closed ball, or globular, roaster with gas-heater +attachment. It acquired, in 1889, the rights for Germany to manufacture +gas roasters under the Dutch Henneman patents of 1888. In 1892, Theodore +von Gimborn was granted French and English patents on a coffee roaster +employing a naked gas flame in a rotary cylinder. In 1897, the +Emmericher concern was granted a German patent on an automatic circular +tipping cooler with power drive. Today, this factory features the Probat +and Perfekt roasters, but manufactures a general line of cylinder and +ball machines for coal, coke, and gas. + +Among others engaged in the manufacture of coffee machines in Germany +are G. W. Barth, Ludwigsburg, and Ferd. Gothot, Mulheim on Rhur. The +latter manufactures a coke or gas heated quick-roaster known as the +Ideal-Rapid, and a smaller hand-power machine, of the same type, called +Favour. + +[Illustration: OTHER GERMAN COFFEE ROASTERS + +Left, globular machine--Right, Meteor quick-roasting outfit] + + +_American, French, and British Machines_ + +In 1869, Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet, of New York, were granted three +United States patents on a coffee pot or urn made of sheet copper and +lined with pure sheet block tin. These patents were the foundation of +the successful coffee-urn business afterward built up under the name of +the Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co. + +Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Co., Ltd., successors) began, in 1870, +the manufacture of the Napierian coffee-making machine at Glasgow, +Scotland. This was a device for making coffee by distillation, employing +a metal globe syphon and brewer with filter cloth. The principle was +subsequently used in the Napier-List steam coffee machine for ships and +institutions, patented in England in 1891. + +John Gulick Baker, of Philadelphia, one of the founders of the +Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania, was granted a United +States patent in 1870, on a coffee grinder introduced to the trade as +the Enterprise Champion No. 1 store mill. Another Baker patent was +granted in 1873, and this became known as the Enterprise Champion Globe +No. 0. These mills were the pioneer machines for store use. + +In 1870, Delphine, Sr., of Marourme, France, was granted a French patent +on a tubular coffee roaster which turned over a flame. + +In the sixties and seventies, French inventors became quite active on +coffee-roaster improvements. Many patents were granted, and quite a few +were for practical small-capacity machines that have survived, and are +in use today in France and on the continent. Some supplied inspiration +for inventors in neighboring countries. Among the more notable names, +mention should be made of Martin, of St. Quentin, who produced a +sheet-iron cylinder roaster with "interior gatherer" in 1860; Marchand, +of Paris, "fan roaster with movable fire box," 1866 and 1869; Lauzaune, +Paris, "rocking system of roasting coffee in a round stove," 1873; +Ittel's glass sphere, Lyons, 1874; and Marchand and Hignette, Paris, +1877, a ball coffee roaster. + + +_Evolution of the Gas Roaster_ + +According to the patent records, Roure, of Marseilles, appears to have +produced the original gas coffee roaster in 1877. The evolution of the +gas roasting-machine was as follows: + +In 1879, H. Faulder, of Stockport, England, obtained an English patent +on an external air-blast burner applied to a cylinder gas machine, which +is still being manufactured by the Grocers Engineering and Whitmee, +Ltd., of London. Fleury and Barker, of London, followed with another +English gas machine in 1880, the heat being supplied from gas jets over +the roasting cylinder. In 1881, Peter Pearson, of Manchester, produced a +gas roaster which consisted of a wire-gauze cylinder revolving under a +metal plate heated by gas. + +[Illustration: ORIGINAL ENTERPRISE MILL] + +Beeston Tupholme, of London, was granted an English patent in 1887, on a +direct-flame gas roaster which he assigned to Joseph Baker & Sons. + +Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, took out his first patent on +the Henneman direct-flame gas roaster in Spain in 1888; and the +following year, he obtained patents in Belgium, France, and England. His +United States patents were granted in 1893-95. + +Postulart secured a patent in France for a gas coffee roaster in 1888. + +The Germans also began, in the eighties, to take the quick gas coffee +roaster seriously. In 1889, Carl Alexander Otto, of Dresden, secured a +German patent on a spiral tubular machine to roast coffee in three and a +half minutes. It was first manufactured and sold by Max Thurmer, of +Dresden, in 1891-93. + +[Illustration: MAX THURMER'S QUICK GAS ROASTER] + +[Illustration: LOADING COFFEE ON ZAMBOEKS AT HODEIDA + +These boats then transfer their cargoes to steamships lying in the +roads] + + +[Illustration: PICTURESQUE CAMEL AND BULLOCK CARTS + +Used for local coffee transport in Aden and Hodeida] + +[Illustration: PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION METHODS IN ARABIA] + +The subject of quick roasting has greatly agitated German and French +coffee men. Otto found that coffee roasted in small quantities (say +fifty grams) on a sample-roaster produced a finer flavor and aroma than +that roasted in the big machines. He set out to produce a machine that +would roast continuous small quantities in the shortest time. He built +the first commercial machine under his patent in 1893. It was shown at +the International Food Exhibition in Dresden in 1894. The latest type +manufactured by Max Thurmer, Dresden, in which firm Otto is a partner, +has a spiral five meters long and an hourly production of about 450 +pounds. The Thurmer machine, as it is called, has been sold to the trade +since 1914. + +Quick roasting is gone in for quite extensively in Germany, even in the +big trade-roasting plants, where machines to roast in ten to seventeen +minutes are common. Natural, slow cooling is most necessary with quick +roasting, according to Thurmer. On the other hand, A. Mottant, of Paris, +who also manufactures a line of quick gas-roasting machines, called +Magic, argues that quick cooling is essential after quick roasting. +Three of the Mottant machines are illustrated on pages 642 and 644. + +Other quick-roasting machines of German make are the Combinator, +Tornado, and Rekord. + +In a lecture before the Society of Medical Officers of Health, London, +October 24, 1912, William Lawton demonstrated to the satisfaction of his +audience that coffee could be roasted in 3 minutes, using a perforated +gas-roaster of his own invention.[365] + +The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America was installed in +the plant of the Potter-Parlin Co., New York, by F.T. Holmes, in 1893. +This was Tupholme's machine, patented in England in 1887, and in the +United States in 1896-97. The Potter-Parlin Co. subsequently placed the +Tupholme machines throughout the United States on a daily rental basis, +limiting its leases to one firm in a city, having obtained the exclusive +American rights from the Waygood, Tupholme Co., now the Grocers +Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd. + +[Illustration: AN ENGLISH GAS COFFEE-ROASTING PLANT + +The machines are the Morewood (Improved Faulder) sliding-burner indirect +type] + +Natural gas was first used in the United States as fuel for roasting +coffee in 1896, when it was introduced under coal roasting cylinders in +Pennsylvania and Indiana by improvised gas burners. + +[Illustration: FRENCH GLOBULAR ROASTER] + +Edwin Crawley and W.T. Johnston, Newport, Ky., assignors to the +Potter-Parlin Co., New York, were granted four United States patents on +gas coffee-roasting machines. + +In 1897, a special gas burner, not to be confused with the direct-flame +machine, was first attached to a regular Burns roaster in the United +States, and was made the basis of application for a patent. + +In 1897-99, David B. Fraser, of New York, began to market in the United +States a central-heated gas-fuel machine with an inner wire-cloth +cylinder to keep the coffee from dropping into the flame, developed +under United States patents granted to Carl H. Duehring, of Hoboken, in +1897, and to D.B. Fraser in 1899. + +M.F. Hamsley, of Brooklyn, was granted a United States patent on an +improved direct-flame gas roaster in 1898. + +Ellis M. Potter, New York, was granted in 1899, a United States patent +on an improved direct-flame gas roaster in which the flame was spread +over a large area to avoid scorching and to insure a more thorough and +uniform roast. In the Tupholme machine, the gas flame entered at one +end, and the smoke and flame went out through a stack on top. In the +Potter machine, the stack was put on the end opposite the gas intake, +with a fan to pull the flame all the way through. + +The Burns direct-flame gas roaster, with patented swing-gate head for +feeding and discharging, was introduced to the trade in 1900. The Burns +gas sample-roaster followed. + +In 1901, Joseph Lambert, of Marshall, Mich., introduced to the trade one +of the earliest indirect gas roasting machines. + +In 1901, also, T.C. Morewood, of Brentford, England, was granted an +English patent on a gas roaster fitted with a sliding burner and a +removable sampling tube. This machine is now being made by the Grocers +Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd. + +In the same year, 1901, F.T. Holmes, formerly with the Potter-Parlin +Co., joined the Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver Creek, N.Y., which +then began to build the Monitor direct-flame gas coffee roaster. Mr. +Holmes still further improved the Tupholme idea by putting gas burners +in both ends of the roasting cylinder, with the pipes bent down so as to +cause the gas flame to go first to the bottom and then up to the stack +on top. This improvement was never patented. + +[Illustration: SIROCCO MACHINE (FRENCH)] + +The Henneman direct-flame gas roaster was introduced to the United +States trade in 1905, by C.A. Cross & Co., wholesale grocers, of +Fitchburg, Mass. It was marketed here seven years, but was never a +great success. + +[Illustration: ENGLISH ROASTING AND GRINDING EQUIPMENT + +Showing one 168-pound Simplex gas roaster, with a Rapid disk grinding +machine having a capacity of 300 to 400 pounds per hour] + +In 1906, F.T. Holmes was granted a United States patent on a coffee +roaster which he assigned to the Huntley Manufacturing Co. + +J.C. Prims, of Battle Creek, Mich., was granted a United States patent +in 1908, on a corrugated cylinder improvement for a gas and coal roaster +designed for retail stores. The A.J. Deer Co., Hornell, N.Y., acquired +this machine in 1909, and began to market it as the Royal coffee +roaster. An improvement patented in 1915 by J.C. Prims was assigned to +the A.J. Deer Co. + +In 1915, and again in 1919, Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, patented their +Jubilee roaster, an inner-heated machine in which the gas is burned +inside a revolving cylinder in a combustion chamber protected from +direct coffee contact. The heat is deflected downward and then passes +upward through the coffee. + +In 1919, William Fullard (_d._ 1921), of Philadelphia, was granted a +United States patent on a "heated fresh air system" roaster, in which +the fresh air is forced by an electric fan through a pipe to a set of +coils over gas, coal, or oil flame. At the top of the coils is a +manifold, the hot air being forced through small holes to circulate in +and around a regulation perforated roasting cylinder; the vapors and +spent air are then drawn into an overhead exhaust pipe that connects +with a pipe provided with a fresh-air intake, the idea being to return +them to the roasting cylinder after being mixed with fresh air and +heated in the coils as before. This patent has not been successfully +marketed at the time of writing. The purpose is to roast by heated air +not mixed with any furnace gases. Whether this can be done with +sufficient fuel economy, and whether coffee thus roasted would have any +greater value, are questions that are raised by the coffee experts. + + +_Coffee-Grinding and Coffee-Making Chronology_ + +To return to our coffee-grinding and coffee-making chronology, it is to +be noted that in 1875-76-78, Turner Strowbridge, of New Brighton, Pa., +was granted three United States patents on a box coffee mill, first made +by Logan & Strowbridge, later the Logan & Strowbridge Iron Company, the +latter being succeeded by the Wrightsville Hardware Co. in 1906. + +[Illustration: MAGIC GAS MACHINE (FRENCH)] + +In 1878, a United States patent was issued to Rudolphus L. Webb, +assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, Conn., on an improved +box coffee grinder for home use. + +In 1878, and in 1880, United States patents were issued to John C. Dell +of Philadelphia on a store coffee mill. + +In 1879, and in 1880, United States patents were issued to Orson W. +Stowe, of the Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co., Southington, Conn., on a +household coffee mill. + +In 1879, Charles Halstead, of New York, was granted the first United +States patent on a metal coffee pot having a china interior. It was an +infuser for home use. + +In 1880, coffee pots, with tops having muslin bottoms for clarifying and +straining, were first made in the United States by the Duparquet, Huot & +Moneuse Co., of New York. + +The name Hungerford first appears in the United States patent records in +1880-81, in connection with patents granted to G.W. and G.S. Hungerford +on machines for cleaning, scouring, and polishing coffee. In 1882, the +Hungerfords, father and son, brought out a roaster. This machine and the +one patented by Chris Abele, of New York, already referred to, were +constructions resulting from the expiration of the original Burns patent +of 1864. In 1881, Jabez Burns patented the improved Burns roaster, +comprising a turn-over front head serving for both feeding and +discharging. Additional United States coffee-roaster patents were issued +to G.W. Hungerford in 1887-89. In the latter year, David Fraser, who +came to the United States from Glasgow in 1886, established the +Hungerford Co., succeeding the business of the Hungerfords, and later +being granted certain United States patents, already mentioned. In 1910, +the Hungerford Co. business was discontinued in New York; and David B. +Fraser moved to Jersey City, where he continued to operate as the Fraser +Manufacturing Co. This business was discontinued in 1918. + +Chris Abele was an active competitor of the Hungerfords and of the +Fraser Manufacturing Co.; and his Knickerbocker roaster was sold over a +wide territory. He died in 1910; and his son-in-law, Gottfried Bay, +succeeded to the business. + +[Illustration: BURNS JUBILEE GAS MACHINE] + +In 1881, the Morgan Brothers, Edgar H. and Charles, began the +manufacture of household coffee mills, the business being acquired in +1885 by the Arcade Manufacturing Co., of Freeport, Ill. The latter +concern brought out the first pound coffee mill in 1889. Its mills +became very popular in the United States. In 1900, Charles Morgan was +granted a United States patent on a glass-jar coffee mill, with +removable glass measuring cup. + +[Illustration: DOUBLE AROMATIC GAS ROASTING OUTFIT (FRENCH)] + +In 1881, Harvey Ricker, of Brooklyn, later of Minneapolis, introduced to +the trade in the United States a "minute coffee pot" and urn known as +the Boss, the name being subsequently changed to Minute. He improved and +patented the device in 1901 as the Half-Minute coffee pot. It is a +filtration device employing a cotton sack with a thickened bottom. + +In 1882, Chris Abele, of New York, patented an improvement on the +old-style Burns roaster, with openings cut in the front plate. It was +known as the Knickerbocker. As already noted, the machine was a +competitor of the Hungerford machine patented the same year. + +In 1882, a German patent was granted to Emil Newstadt, of Berlin, on one +of the earliest coffee-extract machines. + +In 1883, Jabez Burns was granted a United States patent on his improved +sample-coffee roaster. + +In 1884, the Star coffee pot, later known as the Marion Harland, was +introduced to the trade. It employed a wire-gauze drip device, called a +"filter," which was fitted to a metal pot. It was extensively advertised +and attained considerable popularity. The same year, Finley Acker, of +Philadelphia, brought out an improved coffee pot for family trade. +Later, he produced his Mo-Kof-Fee pot and an individual porcelain drip +pot for testing-table use. + +In 1885, F.A. Cauchois, New York, brought out an improved +porcelain-lined urn. + +In 1887-88, the Etruscan coffee pot was invented and put on the market +by the Etruscan Coffee Pot Co., of Philadelphia. It employed a muslin +cylinder with metal ends and a mechanism for combining "agitation, +distillation and infusion." It was not unlike the Dakin device of 1848, +previously mentioned. + +In 1890, A. Mottant, Bar-le-Duc, France, began to manufacture a line of +coffee-roasting machinery which included vertical ball-and-cylinder +machines, using wood, coal, coke, or gas for fuel. His best known makes +are Magic and Sirocco (see page 642). + +Before 1895, the commercial roaster was little used in France. Since +then, the industry has developed, but without displacing the smaller +roaster for family use. Ball roasters are popular with shop-keepers, +especially the variety manufactured by the Établissements Lauzaune at +Paris, and known as Aromatic, being equipped with electric motors. This +firm builds also a larger machine known as Moderne. + +Other makes of roasters that have attained prominence in France are the +Lambert, equipped with a steam condenser; Van den Brouck's, having the +roasting cylinder lined with wire gauze; and Resson's machine for +wholesale plants. + +The French led off with glass-cylinder roasters for home use in the +early seventies. They are still popular. One of the developments of the +last decade was known as the Bijou, and was operated by clock work. A +similar automatic machine, made of glass, was manufactured and sold in +New York in 1908 under the name of the Home roaster. As late as 1914, an +American inventor produced a home roaster for use in a stove hole. This +device had a stirrer in the cover to be rotated by hand. A similar +device was sold in 1917 under the name Savo. Home roasting, however, has +become a lost art in America. + +[Illustration: LAMBERT'S VICTORY GAS MACHINE] + +In 1897, Joseph Lambert, of Vermont, began the manufacture and sale in +Battle Creek, Mich., of the Lambert self-contained coffee roaster +without the brick setting then required for coffee-roasting machines. In +1900, he was joined by A.P. Grohens. In 1901, the Lambert Food and +Machinery Co. was organized. In 1904, the company was reorganized. Since +then, many improvements have been made under Mr. Grohens' direction. The +Lambert gas roaster, one of the first machines employing gas as fuel for +indirect roasting, dates back to 1901, as previously mentioned. The +Economic roaster is Mr. Grohens' latest development for coal or coke +fuel. It is a compact self-contained equipment operating in connection +with a new-type rotary cooler. He has also recently (1922) brought out a +gas-fired, electrically operated 600-pound Victory roaster and a +fifty-pound miniature coffee-roasting plant designed for retail stores. + +In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania was the first +regularly to employ electric motors for driving commercial coffee mills +by means of belt-and-pulley attachments. + +In 1898, the Hobart Manufacturing Co., of Troy, Ohio, introduced to the +trade another early coffee grinder connected with an electric motor and +driven by belt-and-pulley attachment. + +In 1900, the first gear-driven electric coffee grinder was put on the +market by the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania. + +In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Co., (Braun Co., successor) and Henry +Troemner, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture and sale of gear-driven +electric coffee grinders. + +In 1905, the A.J. Deer Co., Buffalo, N.Y., (now at Hornell, N.Y.) began +to sell its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers on the +instalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling coffee +mills through hardware jobbers. + +In 1905, H.L. Johnston was granted a United States patent on a coffee +mill. He assigned the patent to the Hobart Manufacturing Co. + +In 1900, Charles Lewis was granted a United States patent on an improved +reversible filtration coffee pot known as the Kin-Hee. This pot has +since been further improved, and the patent rights sold in several +foreign countries. It employs a filter cloth in place of the metal or +china strainer used in the French drip pot. + +In 1901, Landers, Frary & Clark's improved Universal percolator was +patented in the United States. This pot has proved to be one of the most +popular percolators on the American market. This firm brought out the +Universal Cafenoira, a double glass filtration device, in 1916. It is +covered by design and structural patents issued in 1916 and 1917. + +In 1900, the Burns swing-gate sample-roasting outfit was patented in the +United States. + +In 1901, Robert Burns, of New York, was granted two United States +patents on a coffee roaster and cooler. + +In 1901, Freidrich Kuchelmeister, Brux, Austria-Hungary, was granted a +United States patent on a coffee roaster having a double-walled drum, +the inner being of wire gauze, and the outer of solid iron, designed to +prevent scorching of the beans. + +In 1902, W.M. Still & Sons, London, were granted an English patent on a +steam coffee-making machine employing twelve ounces of coffee to the +gallon. + +In 1902, T.K. Baker, of Minneapolis, was granted two United States +patents on a cloth-filter coffee-making device. + +In 1903, A.E. Bronson, Jr., assignor to the Bronson-Walton Company, +Cleveland, Ohio, was granted a United States patent on a coffee mill. + +In 1903, John Arbuckle was granted a United States patent on a +coffee-roasting apparatus employing a fan to force the hot fire gases +into the roasting cylinder. From this was developed the Jumbo roaster, +now used in the Arbuckle plant, which roasts ten thousand pounds an +hour. + + +_Electric Coffee-Roasting_ + +In 1903, George C. Lester, of New York, was granted a United States +patent on an electric coffee roaster, that is, a machine to roast by +electric heat. There were two cylinders, the inner being of wire gauze, +and the outer of copper and asbestos. Between the two, four electric +heaters were placed. + +There was demonstrated in Germany, in 1906, an electric coffee roaster +employing a number of resistance coils, consisting of strips of Krupp +metal two and one-half mm. thick, five mm. broad, and thirteen and +one-half mm. long, wound on porcelain tubes, which transmitted the heat +to the air within the roasting cylinder. Analysis showed that coffee +electrically roasted contained more substances soluble in water than +that roasted by coke, as well as considerably more material soluble in +ether. This machine was invented by Captain Carl Moegling about 1900. + +[Illustration: ONE OF THE FIRST ELECTRIC COFFEE MILLS] + +Another electric-fuel-machine patent was granted in the United States to +Robert H. Talbutt, of Baltimore, in 1911. This machine had the electric +heater in the center of the roasting cylinder. An electrically heated +machine called the Ben Franklin was demonstrated in New York in 1918. + +In 1919, Everett T. Shortt, Dallas, Tex., was granted a United States +patent on an electrical roaster. + +Up to the present writing, no great progress has been made in the United +States with the roasting of coffee by electric heat. + +The Phoenix Electrical Heating Co. manufactured, and the Uno Company, +Ltd., of London, marketed an electrically heated roaster as far back as +1909. The machine was not altogether satisfactory, even to the makers; +and the Uno Company is now (1922) experimenting with a new type of +electric roaster which it expects will remedy the defects of the early +machine. The 1909 roaster was made of two concentric cylinders revolving +around a set of fixed heating elements, consisting of a series of +spiral wires held in position on fireproof clay insulators, these wires +being assembled, insulated, and brought out through the fixed center to +a terminal, or a set of terminals, at one end. In this way, no contact +brushes or rings were needed. The machine had a sampling device at one +end which threw out a few berries each time it was operated. It was not +possible to return these sample berries. Such an arrangement appeared +necessary, however, unless one was prepared to have the heating element +on the outside of the machine and to pick up the current by means of +rings or brushes. When the operator became accustomed to the coffee he +was roasting, this was not a matter of great moment, because in England, +at least, the average coffee roaster does not require a testing sample +until he is about ready to turn out and to cool the roast. + +[Illustration: ENGLISH ELECTRIC-FUEL ROASTER] + +The Uno machine had a capacity of seven pounds, and the time occupied in +roasting was from eight to ten minutes, depending on whether the roaster +had been freshly switched on or had been running for a few minutes. The +wattage was 5,520. The consumption per hundred-weight was under thirteen +units. The makers gave, as the most economical pressure on which to +work, 220 to 240 volts. The machine was operated for eighteen months in +the show window of a London retail grocer. + +In 1921, a United States patent was granted to Mark T. Seymour, Stowe, +N.Y., on an electric coffee and peanut roaster, which has the heating +element embedded in a cement-lined cylinder that contains a roasting +cage. + +In 1921, Fred J. Kuhlemeir and Ralph J. Quelle, of Burlington, Ia., were +granted a United States patent on a small household coffee roaster +electrically equipped, and roasting by electric heat. + + +_Other Machinery Patents_ + +In 1903, Luigi Giacomini, of Florence, Italy, was granted a United +States patent on a process for roasting coffee. + +[Illustration: BEN FRANKLIN ELECTRIC COFFEE ROASTER] + +In 1905, A.A. Warner, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain, +Conn., was granted two United States patents on a coffee mill. + +In 1906, Ludwig Schmidt, assignor to the Essmueller Mill Furnishing +Co., St. Louis, was granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. +This company and the Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Co., also of St. Louis, +were making machines similar to the original Burns model. The +Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Co., in 1910, brought out a self-contained +gas roaster called the St. Louis, Jr. In 1913, at a receiver's sale, +A.P. Grohens, of the Lambert Machine Co., acquired all the machinery and +patent rights of the Reuter-Jones Manufacturing Company. + +In 1904, J.W. Chapman and G.W. Kooman, assignors to Manning, Bowman & +Co., Meriden, Conn., were granted a United States patent on a coffee or +tea pot. The same year, George E. Savage and G.W. Hope were granted two +United States patents on coffee or tea pots, also assigned to Manning, +Bowman & Co. + +In 1904, Sigmund Sternau, J.P. Steppe, and L. Strassberger, assignors to +S. Sternau & Co., New York, were granted a United States patent on a +percolator. Six others were granted to Charles Nelson, and assigned to +S. Sternau & Co., in 1912 and 1913, for a percolator, the manufacture +and sale of which were discontinued in 1915. + +In 1905, a celebrated case was decided in Kansas City involving +litigation between William E. Baker, of Baker & Co., Minneapolis, and +the F.A. Duncombe Manufacturing Co., of St. Joseph, Mo., over Mr. +Baker's patent rights in a machine to produce steel-cut coffee. The suit +was brought in 1903, and Mr. Baker contended that his patent gave him +the exclusive right to the "uniformity of granules by means of the +sharply dressed mechanism" and by the use of a fan for blowing away the +silver skins, produced by his machine; while the defendant said he +obtained the same result (steel-cut coffee) by grading the granules +through screens or sieves. The defense was that Mr. Baker's process was +not a discovery; because, grinding coffee was as old as the world's +knowledge, and winnowing the chaff was equally ancient. The lower court +dismissed the bill, because the "patents sued upon are devoid of +patentable invention"; and the United States Court of Appeals confirmed +the decision. + +[Illustration: ENTERPRISE HAND STORE MILL] + +In 1905, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New York, brought out his Private +Estate coffee maker, a clever combination of the French drip and filter +processes, employing a thin layer of Japanese paper as a filtering +agent. The same year, Finley Acker, of Philadelphia, was granted a +United States patent on a percolator employing two cylinders, perforated +on the sides, with a sheet of percolator paper placed between them to +act as a filtering medium. + +In 1906, George Savage and J.W. Chapman, assignors to Manning, Bowman & +Co. of Meriden, Conn., were granted a United States patent on a coffee +percolator. + +In 1906, Alonzo A. Warner, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New +Britain, Conn., was granted a United States patent on a coffee +percolator. + +In 1906, H.D. Kelly, Kansas City, was granted a United States patent on +the Kellum Automatic coffee urn, employing a coffee extractor in which +ground coffee is continually agitated before percolation by a vacuum +process. Sixteen patents followed. + +[Illustration: LATEST TYPES OF ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN STORE MILLS] + +In 1907, Desiderio Pavoni, of Milan, Italy, was granted a patent in +Italy for an improvement on the Bezzara system for preparing and serving +coffee as a rapid infusion of a single cup, first introduced in +1903-1904. It is known as the Ideale urn, and makes 150 cups per hour. +Among other Italian rapid coffee-making machines which, with this one, +have attained considerable prominence in Europe and South America, +mention should be made of La Victoria Arduino made by Pier Teresio +Arduino, of Turin, Italy, introduced in 1909, that makes 1000 cups per +hour. It was patented in the United States in 1920. There are, also, +L'Italiana Sovereign Filter Machine (1440 cups per hour) made by Bossi, +Vernetti & Bartolini, Turin, (subsequently merged with La Victoria +Arduino-Societa Anonima); and José Baro's Express, Buenos Aires, making +600 cups an hour. + +[Illustration: THE IDEALE MACHINE (CENTER) MAKES 150 CUPS OF COFFEE AN +HOUR. THE MACHINE AT THE LEFT MAKES 1,000 CUPS AN HOUR + +A MACHINE OF THE TYPE OF THE ONE AT THE RIGHT WILL PRODUCE FROM 1,440 TO +1,800 CUPS OF COFFEE AN HOUR + +TYPES OF ITALIAN RAPID COFFEE-MAKING MACHINES] + +In 1908, A.E. White, Chicago, was granted a United States patent on a +coffee urn. He assigned it to the James Heekin Co., of Cincinnati. + +In 1908, I.D. Richheimer, Chicago, introduced his Tricolator to the +trade and the consumer. This is an aluminum device to fit any coffee +pot, combining French drip and filtration ideas, with Japanese paper as +the filtration medium. + +In 1908, an improved type of Burns roaster was patented in the United +States. The improvement consisted of an open perforated cylinder with +flexible back-head and balanced front bearing. The following year, the +Burns tilting sample-roaster for gas or electric heating units was +patented. + +In 1909, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New York, was granted a United States +patent on a coffee urn fitted with a centrifugal pump for repouring. + +In 1909, C.F. Blanke, of St. Louis, was granted two United States +patents on a china coffee pot with a cloth filter, the sides tightly, +and the bottom loosely, woven. + +In 1911, Edward Aborn, of New York, was granted a United States patent +on his Make-Right coffee-filter device. This was later incorporated with +improvements in a Tru-Bru coffee pot, on which he was granted another +patent in 1920. + +In 1912, John E. King, of Detroit, was granted a United States patent on +an improved coffee percolator for restaurants, employing a sheet of +filter paper on a ring in a metal basket; the ring to be removed once +the filter paper was in position on the perforated bottom plate of the +percolator basket. + +In 1913, F.F. Wear, Los Angeles, perfected a coffee-making device in +which a metal perforated clamp was employed to apply a filter paper to +the under-side of an English earthenware adaptation of the French drip +pot. + +In 1912, William Lawton demonstrated in London a gas coffee roaster of +his own invention, by means of which he roasted coffee "in suspension" +to a light brown color in three minutes. + +[Illustration: SHOWING HOW THE ITALIAN RAPID COFFEE MACHINE WORKS + +Left, putting coffee in the filter--Center, applying filter to +faucet--Right, turning on water and steam to make the drink] + +Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Hobart Electric Manufacturing Co., +Troy, Ohio, was granted a United States patent on a machine for refining +coffee in 1913. + +In 1914, the Phylax coffee maker, embodying an improvement on the French +drip principle, was introduced to the trade. The process was +demonstrated by Benjamin H. Calkin, of Detroit, in 1921, as "an art of +brewing coffee." + +[Illustration: LA VICTORIA ARDUINO MIGNONNE + +An electric rapid coffee maker] + +In 1914, Robert Burns, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, was +granted a United States patent on a coffee-granulating mill. + +In 1914-15, Herbert Galt, of Chicago, was granted three United States +patents on the Gait coffee pot, made of aluminum, and having two parts, +a removable cylinder employing the French drip principle, and the +containing pot. + +In 1915, the Burns Jubilee (inner-heated) gas coffee roaster was +patented in the United States and put on the market. + +In 1915, the National Coffee Roasters Association Home coffee mill, +employing an improved set screw operating on a cog-and ratchet +principle, was introduced to the trade. + +In 1916, a United States patent was granted to I.D. Richheimer, Chicago, +for an infuser improvement on his Tricolator. + +In 1916, Saul Blickman, assignor to S. Blickman, New York, was granted a +United States patent on an apparatus for making and dispensing coffee. + +In 1916, Orville W. Chamberlain, New Orleans, was granted a United +States patent on an automatic drip coffee pot. + +In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind., obtained two United States +patents on cutting rolls to cut--and not to grind or crush--corn, wheat, +or coffee. These were subsequently incorporated in the Ideal steel-cut +coffee mill and marketed to the trade by the B.F. Gump Co., Chicago. + +In 1917, Richard A. Greene and William G. Burns, assignors to Jabez +Burns & Sons, New York, were granted patents in the United States on +the Burns flexible-arm cooler (for roasted batches) providing full +fan-suction to a cooler box at all points in its track travel. + +In 1919, Joseph F. Smart, assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark, New +Britain, Conn., was granted a United States patent on a percolator. + +In 1919, Charles Morgan, assignor to the Arcade Manufacturing Co., +Freeport, Ill., was granted a United States patent on an improved +grinding mill. + +In 1919, Edward F. Schnuck, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, +was granted a United States patent on an improvement for a gas coffee +roaster. In 1920, he was granted a United States patent on an improved +process of twice cutting coffee and removing the chaff after each +cutting. + +In 1920, Natale de Mattei, of Turin, Italy, was granted a United States +patent on a rapid coffee-filtering machine. + +In 1920, Frederick H. Muller, of Chicago, was granted a United States +patent on "an art of making coffee," and on an improved apparatus for +hotels and restaurants, which comprised a series of superposed metal +containers, or cartridges, of ground coffee placed in a perforated +bucket designed to rest in a coffee urn, the cartridges being lifted out +as the boiling water poured on them sinks with the drawing off of the +"decoction" at the faucet. + +[Illustration: THE N.C.R.A. HOME COFFEE MILL] + +[Illustration: THE MANTHEY-ZORN RAPID COFFEE INFUSER AND DISPENSER] + +In 1920, Alfredo M. Salazar, of New York, was granted a United States +patent on a coffee urn in which the coffee is made at the time of +serving by using steam pressure to force the boiling water through +ground coffee held in a cloth sack attached to the faucet. + +In 1920, William H. Bruning, Evansville, Ind., was granted a United +States patent on an improved French drip pot made of aluminum and +provided with a vacuum jacket in the dripper section, and a hot-water +jacket in the serving portion, to keep the beverage hot. + +In 1921, the Manthey-Zorn Laboratories Co., of Cleveland, brought out a +rapid coffee-infuser and dispenser employing in the infuser a +centrifugal to make an extract in thirty-eight seconds, and designed to +deliver a gallon of concentrated liquid, or coffee base, every three +minutes. The dispenser automatically combines the coffee base with +boiling water in a differential faucet in the proportion desired, +usually one of base to four of water. The dispenser serves 600 cups per +hour. An additional faucet may be added which will double the capacity. + +[Illustration: THE TRICOLETTE, A PAPER-FILTER DEVICE FOR A SINGLE CUP + +Above; In position on cup--Below; opened, showing parts] + +Among foreign coffee makers applying the French drip principle, the +Vienna coffee-making machine, known in the United States as the Bohemian +coffee pot, has met with much favor in this country. Elsewhere it is +known as the Carlsbad. It is made of china, and the European +manufacturer has a patent on the porcelain strainer, or grid, which is +provided with slits that are very fine on the inner side but that widen +on the outer side to permit careful straining and to facilitate +cleaning. + +Some of the latest developments in coffee apparatus were shown at the +industrial exposition at the National Coffee Roasters Association, held +in New York, November 1-3, 1921. Among items of distinction not +heretofore included in this work, mention should be made of: an +American-French coffee biggin, being a French drip pot made of American +porcelain and fitted with a muslin strainer; a glass urn-liner, intended +to supplant the porcelain liner; and an electric repouring pump, +designed to be attached to any type of coffee urn. + +Careful research of the records of the United States patent office +discloses that the number of patents relating to coffee apparatus and +coffee preparations, issued from 1789 to 1921, is as follows: + + +UNITED STATES COFFEE PATENTS + +_Devices_ _Patents_ +Coffee Mills 185 +Coffee-roasting devices, and improvements thereon 312 +Coffee-making devices 835 +Coffee-cleaning, hulling, drying, polishing, + and plantation machinery in general 175 +Miscellaneous patents (for coating, glazing, treated + coffees, substitutes, etc.) 300 + ________ + + Total 1,807 + +It must be borne in mind that there was a number of patents granted on +machines that were intended for, and used for, coffee, but that did not +mention coffee in the specifications. Many coffee driers were listed as +"grain driers," for instance. Also, many excellent devices have been +made that were never patented. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +WORLD'S COFFEE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS + + _How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading + civilized countries--The Arabian coffee ceremony--The present-day + coffee houses of Turkey--Twentieth-century improvements in Europe + and the United States_ + + +Coffee manners and customs have shown little change in the Orient in the +six hundred-odd years since the coffee drink was discovered by Sheik +Omar in Arabia. As a beverage for western peoples, however, and more +particularly in America, there have been many improvements in making and +serving it. + +A brief survey of the coffee conventions and coffee service in the +principal countries where coffee has become a fixed item in the dietary +is presented here, with a view to show how different peoples have +adapted the universal drink to their national needs and preferences. + +To proceed in alphabetical order, and beginning with Africa, coffee +drinking is indulged in largely in Abyssinia, Algeria, Egypt, Portuguese +East Africa, and the Union of South Africa. + + +_Coffee Manners and Customs in Africa_ + +In Abyssinia and Somaliland, among the native population, the most +primitive methods of coffee making still obtain. Here the wandering +Galla still mix their pulverized coffee beans with fats as a food +ration, and others of the native tribes favor the _kisher_, or beverage +made from the toasted coffee hulls. An hour's boiling produces a +straw-colored decoction, of a slightly sweetish taste. Where the Arabian +customs have taken root, the drink is prepared from the roasted beans +after the Arabian and Turkish method. The white inhabitants usually +prepare and serve the beverage as in the homeland; so that it is +possible to obtain it after the English, French, German, Greek, or +Italian styles. Adaptations of the French sidewalk café, and of the +Turkish coffee house, may be seen in the larger towns. + +In the equatorial provinces of Egypt, and in Uganda, the natives eat the +raw berries; or first cook them in boiling water, dry them in the sun, +and then eat them. It is a custom to exchange coffee beans in friendly +greeting. + +Individual earthen vessels for making coffee, painted red and yellow, +are made by some of the native tribes in Abyssinia, and usually +accompany disciples of Islam when they journey to Mecca, where the +vessels find a ready sale among the pilgrims, most of whom are +coffee-devotees. + +Turkish and Arabian coffee customs prevail in Algeria and Egypt, +modified to some extent by European contact. The Moorish cafés of Cairo, +Tunis, and Algiers have furnished inspiration and copy for writers, +artists, and travelers for several centuries. They change little with +the years. The _mazagran_--sweetened cold coffee to which water or ice +has been added--originated in Algeria. It probably took its name from +the fortress of the same name reserved to France by the treaty of the +Tafna in 1837. It is said that the French colonial troops were first +served with a drink made from coffee syrup and cold water on marches +near Mazagran, formerly spelled Masagran. Upon their return to the +French capital, they introduced the idea, with the added fillip of +service in tall glasses, in their favorite cafés, where it became known +as _café mazagran_. Variants are coffee syrup with seltzer, and with +hot water. "This fashion of serving coffee in glasses", says Jardin, +"has no _raison d'être_, and nothing can justify abandoning the cup for +coffee." + +[Illustration: MOORISH COFFEE HOUSE IN ALGIERS] + +In the principal streets and public squares of any town in Algeria it is +a common sight to find a group of Arabs squatting about a portable +stove, and a table on which cups are in readiness to receive the boiling +coffee. The thirsty Arab approaches the dealer, and for a modest sum he +gets his drink and goes his way; unless he prefers to go inside the +café, where he may get several drinks and linger over them, sitting on a +mat with his legs crossed and smoking his _chibouque_. Indeed, this is a +typical scene throughout the Near East, where sheds or coffee +tents--sketches of the more pretentious coffee houses--coffee shops, and +itinerant coffee-venders are to be met at almost every turn. + +In an unpublished work, Baron Antoine Rousseau and Th. Roland de Bussy +have the following description of a typical Moorish café at Algiers: + + We entered without ceremony into a narrow deep cave, decorated with + the name of the café. On the right and on the left, along its + length, were two benches covered with mats; notched cups, tongs, a + box of brown sugar, all placed near a small stove, completed the + furniture of the place. In the evening, the dim light from a lamp + hanging from the ceiling shows the indistinct figures of a double + row of natives listening to the nasal cadences of a band who play a + pizzicato accompaniment on small three-stringed violins. + + Here, as in Europe, the cafés are the providential rendezvous for + idlers and gossips, exchanges for real-estate brokers and players + at cards. + + Europeans recently arrived frequent them particularly. Some go only + to satisfy their curiosity; others out of an inborn scorn for the + customs of civilization. They go to sleep as Frenchmen, they awake + Mohammedans! Their love for "Turkish art" only leads them to haunt + the native shops and to affect oriental poses. + + If we quit for a moment the interior of the city to follow between + two hedgerows of mastics or aloes, one of those capricious paths + which lead one, now up to the summit of a hill, now to the depths + of some ravine, very soon the tones of a rustic flute, the + modulations of the _Djou-wak_, will betray some cool and peaceful + retreat, some rustic café, easily recognized by its facade, pierced + with large openings. To my eyes, nothing equals the charm of these + little buildings scattered here and there along the edges of a + stream, sheltered under the thick foliage, and constantly enlivened + by the coming and going of the husbandmen of the neighborhood. + + Certain old Moors from the neighboring districts, fleeing the + noises of the city, are the faithful habitués of these agreeable + retreats. Here they instal themselves at dawn, and know how to + enjoy every moment of their day with tales of their travels and + youthful adventures, and many a legend for which their imagination + takes all the responsibility. + +[Illustration: COFFEE HOUSE IN CAIRO] + +[Illustration: HULLING COFFEE IN ADEN, ARABIA] + +Gérôme's painting of the "Coffee House at Cairo," which hangs in the +Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, gives one a good idea of the +atmosphere of the Egyptian café. The preparation and service is modified +Turkish-Arabian. The coffee is ground to a powder, boiled in an _ibrik_ +with the addition of sugar, and served frothing in small cups. +Story-tellers, singers, and dancers furnish amusement as of yore. The +Oriental customs have not changed much in this respect. Trolley cars, +victorias, and taxis may have replaced the donkeys in the new sections +of the larger Egyptian cities; but in old Alexandria and Cairo, the +approach to the native coffee house is as dirty and as odorous as ever. +Coffee is always served in all business transactions. Nowadays, the +Egyptian women chew gum and the men smoke cigarettes, French department +stores offer bargain sales, and the hotels advertise tea dances; but the +Egyptian coffee drink is still the tiny cup of coffee grounds and sugar +that it was three hundred years ago, when sugar was first used to +sweeten coffee in Cairo. + +[Illustration: COFFEE SERVICE AT A BARBER SHOP IN CAIRO] + +In Portuguese East Africa, the natives prepare and drink coffee after +the approved African native fashion, but the white population follows +European customs. In the Union of South Africa, Dutch and English +customs prevail in making and serving the beverage. + + +_Manners and Customs in Asia_ + +"Arabia the Happy" deserves to be called "the Blest", if only for its +gift of coffee to the world. Here it was that the virtues of the drink +were first made known; here the plant first received intensive +cultivation. After centuries of habitual use of the beverage, we find +the Arabs, now as then, one of the strongest and noblest races of the +world, mentally superior to most of them, generally healthy, and growing +old so gracefully that the faculties of the mind seldom give way sooner +than those of the body. They are an ever living earnest of the +healthfulness of coffee. + +The Arabs are proverbially hospitable; and the symbol of their +hospitality for a thousand years has been the great drink of +democracy--coffee. Their very houses are built around the cup of human +brotherhood. William Wallace,[366] writing on Arabian philosophy, +manners, and customs, says: + + The principal feature of an Arab house is the _kahwah_ or coffee + room. It is a large apartment spread with mats, and sometimes + furnished with carpets and a few cushions. At one end is a small + furnace or fireplace for preparing coffee. In this room the men + congregate; here guests are received, and even lodged; women rarely + enter it, except at times when strangers are unlikely to be + present. Some of these apartments are very spacious and supported + by pillars; one wall is usually built transversely to the compass + direction of the _Ka'ba_ (sacred shrine of Mecca). It serves to + facilitate the performance of prayer by those who may happen to be + in the _kahwah_ at the appointed times. + +Several rounds of coffee, without milk or sugar, but sometimes flavored +with cardamom seeds, are served to the guest at first welcome; and +coffee may be had at all hours between meals, or whenever the occasion +demands it. Always the beans are freshly roasted, pounded, and boiled. +The Arabs average twenty-five to thirty cups (findjans) a day. +Everywhere in Arabia there are to be found cafés where the beverage may +be bought. + +[Illustration: SHIPS OF THE DESERT LADEN WITH COFFEE, ARABIA] + +Those of the lower classes are thronged throughout the day. In front, +there is generally a porch or bench where one may sit. The rooms, +benches, and little chairs lack the cleanliness and elegance of the +one-time luxurious "_caffinets_" of cities like Damascus and +Constantinople, but the drink is the same. There is not in all Yemen a +single market town or hamlet where one does not find upon some simple +hut the legend, "Shed for drinking coffee". + +The Arab drinks water before taking coffee, but never after it. "Once in +Syria", says a traveler, "I was recognized as a foreigner because I +asked for water just after I had taken my coffee. 'If you belonged +here', said the waiter, 'you would not spoil the taste of coffee in your +mouth by washing it away with water.'" + +It is an adventure to partake of coffee prepared in the open, at a +roadside inn, or khan, in Arabia by an _araba_, or diligence driver. He +takes from his saddle-bag the ever-present coffee kit, containing his +supply of green beans, of which he roasts just sufficient on a little +perforated iron plate over an open fire, deftly taking off the beans, +one at a time, as they turn the right color. Then he pounds them in a +mortar, boils his water in the long, straight-handled open boiler, or +_ibrik_ (a sort of brass mug or _jezveh_), tosses in the coffee powder, +moving the vessel back and forth from the fire as it boils up to the +rim; and, after repeating this maneuver three times, pours the contents +foaming merrily into the little egg-like serving cups. + +_Cafée sultan_, or _kisher_, the original decoction, made from dried and +toasted coffee hulls, is still being drunk in parts of Arabia and +Turkey. + +Coffee in Arabia is part of the ritual of business, as in other Oriental +countries. Shop-keepers serve it to the customer before the argument +starts. Recently, a New York barber got some valuable publicity because +he regaled his customers with tea and music. It was "old stuff". The +Arabian and Turkish barber shops have been serving coffee, tobacco, and +sweetmeats to their customers for centuries. + +[Illustration: AN ARABIAN COFFEE HOUSE] + +For a faithful description of the ancient coffee ceremony of the Arabs, +which, with slight modification, is still observed in Arabian homes, we +turn to Palgrave. First he describes the dwelling and then the ceremony: + + The K'hawah was a large oblong hall, about twenty feet in + height, fifty in length, and sixteen, or thereabouts, in breadth; + the walls were coloured in a rudely decorative manner with brown + and white wash, and sunk here and there into small triangular + recesses, destined to the reception of books, though of these + Ghafil at least had no over-abundance, lamps, and other such like + objects. The roof of timber, and flat; the floor was strewed with + fine clean sand, and garnished all round alongside of the walls + with long strips of carpet, upon which cushions, covered with faded + silk, were disposed at suitable intervals. In poorer houses felt + rugs usually take the place of carpets. + + In one corner, namely, that furthest removed from the door, stood a + small fireplace, or, to speak more exactly, furnace, formed of a + large square block of granite, or some other hard stone, about + twenty inches each way; this is hollowed inwardly into a deep + funnel, open above, and communicating below with a small horizontal + tube or pipe-hole, through which the air passes, bellows-driven, to + the lighted charcoal piled up on a grating about half-way inside + the cone. In this manner the fuel is soon brought to a white heat, + and the water in the coffee-pot placed upon the funnel's mouth is + readily brought to boil. The system of coffee furnaces is universal + in Djowf and Djebel Shomer, but in Nejed itself, and indeed in + whatever other yet more distant regions of Arabia I visited to the + south and east, the furnace is replaced by an open fireplace + hollowed in the ground floor, with a raised stone border, and + dog-irons for the fuel, and so forth, like what may be yet seen in + Spain. This diversity of arrangement, so far as Arabia is + concerned, is due to the greater abundance of firewood in the + south, whereby the inhabitants are enabled to light up on a larger + scale; whereas throughout the Djowf and Djebel Shomer wood is very + scarce, and the only fuel at hand is bad charcoal, often brought + from a considerable distance, and carefully husbanded. + + [Illustration: BREWING THE GUEST'S COFFEE IN A MOHAMMEDAN HOME] + + This corner of the K'hawah is also the place of distinction + whence honour and coffee radiate by progressive degrees round the + apartment, and hereabouts accordingly sits the master of the house + himself, or the guests whom he more especially delighteth to + honour. + + On the broad edge of the furnace or fireplace, as the case may be, + stands an ostentatious range of copper coffee-pots, varying in size + and form. Here in the Djowf their make resembles that in vogue at + Damascus; but in Nejed and the eastern districts they are of a + different and much more ornamental fashioning, very tall and + slender, with several ornamental circles and mouldings in elegant + relief, besides boasting long beak-shaped spouts and high steeples + for covers. The number of these utensils is often extravagantly + great. I have seen a dozen at a time in a row by one fireside, + though coffee-making requires, in fact, only three at most. Here in + the Djowf five or six are considered to be the thing; for the south + this number must be doubled; all this to indicate the riches and + munificence of their owner, by implying the frequency of his guests + and the large amount of coffee that he is in consequence obliged to + have made for them. + + Behind this stove sits, at least in wealthy houses, a black slave, + whose name is generally a diminutive in token of familiarity or + affection; in the present case it was Soweylim, the diminutive of + Salim. His occupation is to make and pour out the coffee; where + there is no slave in the family, the master of the premises + himself, or perhaps one of his sons, performs that hospitable duty; + rather a tedious one, as we shall soon see. + + We enter. On passing the threshold it is proper to say, + "_Bismillah_, _i.e._, in the name of God;" not to do so would be + looked on as a bad augury alike for him who enters and for those + within. The visitor next advances in silence, till on coming about + half-way across the room, he gives to all present, but looking + specially at the master of the house, the customary + "_Es-salamu'aleykum_," or "Peace be with you," literally, "on you." + All this while every one else in the room has kept his place, + motionless, and without saying a word. But on receiving the salaam + of etiquette, the master of the house rises, and if a strict + Wahhabee, or at any rate desirous of seeming such, replies with + the full-length traditionary formula. "_W' 'aleykumu-s-salamu, + w'rahmat' Ullahi w'barakátuh_," which is, as every one knows, "And + with (or, on) you be peace, and the mercy of God, and his + blessings." But should he happen to be of anti-Wahhabee + tendencies the odds are that he will say "_Marhaba_," or "_Ahlan w' + sahlan_," _i.e._, "welcome" or "worthy, and pleasurable," or the + like; for of such phrases there is an infinite, but elegant + variety. + + All present follow the example thus given, by rising and saluting. + The guest then goes up to the master of the house, who has also + made a step or two forwards, and places his open hand in the palm + of his host's, but without grasping or shaking, which would hardly + pass for decorous, and at the same time each repeats once more his + greeting, followed by the set phrases of polite enquiry, "How are + you?" "How goes the world with you?" and so forth, all in a tone of + great interest, and to be gone over three or four times, till one + or other has the discretion to say "_El hamdu l'illah_," "Praise + be to God", or, in equivalent value, "all right," and this is a + signal for a seasonable diversion to the ceremonious interrogatory. + + The guest then, after a little contest of courtesy, takes his seat + in the honoured post by the fireplace, after an apologetical + salutation to the black slave on the one side, and to his nearest + neighbour on the other. The best cushions and newest looking + carpets have been of course prepared for his honoured weight. Shoes + or sandals, for in truth the latter alone are used in Arabia, are + slipped off on the sand just before reaching the carpet, and there + they remain on the floor close by. But the riding stick or wand, + the inseparable companion of every true Arab, whether Bedouin or + townsman, rich or poor, gentle or simple, is to be retained in the + hand, and will serve for playing with during the pauses of + conversation, like the fan of our great-grandmothers in their days + of conquest. + + Without delay Soweylim begins his preparations for coffee. These + open by about five minutes of blowing with the bellows and + arranging the charcoal till a sufficient heat has been produced. + Next he places the largest of the coffee-pots, a huge machine, and + about two-thirds full of clear water, close by the edge of the + glowing coal-pit, that its contents may become gradually warm while + other operations are in progress. He then takes a dirty knotted rag + out of a niche in the wall close by, and having untied it, empties + out of it three or four handfuls of unroasted coffee, the which he + places on a little trencher of platted grass, and picks carefully + out any blackened grains, or other non-homologous substances, + commonly to be found intermixed with the berries when purchased in + gross; then, after much cleansing and shaking, he pours the grain + so cleansed into a large open iron ladle, and places it over the + mouth of the funnel, at the same time blowing the bellows and + stirring the grains gently round and round till they crackle, + redden, and smoke a little, but carefully withdrawing them from the + heat long before they turn black or charred, after the erroneous + fashion of Turkey and Europe; after which he puts them to cool a + moment on the grass platter. + + He then sets the warm water in the large coffee-pot over the fire + aperture, that it may be ready boiling at the right moment, and + draws in close between his own trouserless legs a large stone + mortar, with a narrow pit in the middle, just enough to admit the + large stone pestle of a foot long and an inch and a half thick, + which he now takes in hand. Next, pouring the half-roasted berries + into the mortar, he proceeds to pound them, striking right into the + narrow hollow with wonderful dexterity, nor ever missing his blow + till the beans are smashed, but not reduced into powder. He then + scoops them out, now reduced to a sort of coarse reddish grit, very + unlike the fine charcoal dust which passes in some countries for + coffee, and out of which every particle of real aroma has long + since been burnt or ground. + + After all these operations, each performed with as intense a + seriousness and deliberate nicety as if the welfare of the entire + Djowf depended on it, he takes a smaller coffee-pot in hand, fills + it more than half with hot water from the larger vessel, and then + shaking the pounded coffee into it, sets it on the fire to boil, + occasionally stirring it with a small stick as the water rises to + check the ebullition and prevent overflowing. Nor is the boiling + stage to be long or vehement: on the contrary, it is and should be + as light as possible. In the interim he takes out of another + rag-knot a few aromatic seeds called heyl, an Indian product, but + of whose scientific name I regret to be wholly ignorant, or a + little saffron, and after slightly pounding these ingredients, + throws them into the simmering coffee to improve its flavour, for + such an additional spicing is held indispensable in Arabia though + often omitted elsewhere in the East. Sugar would be a totally + unheard of profanation. Last of all, he strains off the liquor + through some fibres of the inner palm-bark placed for that purpose + in the jug-spout, and gets ready the tray of delicate + parti-coloured grass, and the small coffee cups ready for pouring + out. All these preliminaries have taken up a good half-hour. + + Meantime we have become engaged in active conversation with our + host and his friends. But our Sherarat guide, Suleyman, like a true + Bedouin, feels too awkward when among townsfolk to venture on the + upper places, though repeatedly invited, and accordingly has + squatted down on the sand near the entrance. Many of Ghafil's + relations are present; their silver-decorated swords proclaim the + importance of the family. Others, too, have come to receive us, for + our arrival, announced beforehand by those we had met at the + entrance pass, is a sort of event in the town; the dress of some + betokens poverty, others are better clad, but all have a very + polite and decorous manner. Many a question is asked about our + native land and town, that is to say, Syria and Damascus, + conformably to the disguise already adopted, and which it was + highly important to keep well up; then follow enquiries regarding + our journey, our business, what we have brought with us, about our + medicines, our goods and wares, etc., etc. From the very first it + is easy for us to perceive that patients and purchasers are likely + to abound. Very few travelling merchants, if any, visit the Djowf + at this time of year, for one must be mad, or next door to it, to + rush into the vast desert around during the heats of June and July; + I for one have certainly no intention of doing it again. Hence we + had small danger of competitors, and found the market almost at our + absolute disposal. + + But before a quarter of an hour has passed, and while blacky is + still roasting or pounding his coffee, a tall thin lad, Ghafil's + eldest son, appears, charged with a large circular dish, + grass-platted like the rest, and throws it with a graceful jerk on + the sandy floor close before us. He then produces a large wooden + bowl full of dates, bearing in the midst of the heap a cup full of + melted butter; all this he places on the circular mat, and says, + "_Semmoo_," literally, "pronounce the Name", of God, understood; + this means "set to work at it." Hereon the master of the house + quits his place by the fireside and seats himself on the sand + opposite to us; we draw nearer to the dish, and four or five + others, after some respectful coyness, join the circle. Every one + then picks out a date or two from the juicy half-amalgamated mass, + dips them into the butter, and thus goes on eating till he has had + enough, when he rises and washes his hands. + + By this time the coffee is ready, and Soweylim begins his round, + the coffee-pot in one hand; the tray and cups on the other. The + first pouring out he must in etiquette drink himself, by way of a + practical assurance that there is no "death in the pot;" the guests + are next served, beginning with those next the honourable fireside; + the master of the house receives his cup last of all. To refuse + would be a positive and unpardonable insult; but one has not much + to swallow at a time, for the coffee-cups, or finjans, are about + the size of a large egg-shell at most, and are never more than + half-filled. This is considered essential to good breeding, and a + brimmer would here imply exactly the reverse of what it does in + Europe; why it should be so I hardly know, unless perhaps the + rareness of cup-stands or "zarfs" (see Lane's "Modern Egyptians") + in Arabia, though these implements are universal in Egypt and + Syria, might render an over-full cup inconveniently hot for the + fingers that must grasp it without medium. Be that as it may, "fill + the cup for your enemy" is an adage common to all, Bedouins or + townsmen, throughout the Peninsula. The beverage itself is + singularly aromatic and refreshing, a real tonic, and very + different from the black mud sucked by the Levantine, or the watery + roast-bean preparations of France. When the slave or freeman, + according to circumstances, presents you with a cup, he never fails + to accompany it with a "_Semm'_," "say the name of God," nor must + you take it without answering "_Bismillah_." + + When all have been thus served, a second round is poured out, but + in inverse order, for the host this time drinks first, and the + guests last. On special occasions, a first reception, for instance, + the ruddy liquor is a third time handed round; nay, a fourth cup is + sometimes added. But all these put together do not come up to + one-fourth of what a European imbibes in a single draught at + breakfast. + +[Illustration: NATIVE CAFÉ, HARAR, ABYSSINIA] + +[Illustration: EARLY MANNER OF SERVING COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE + +From a drawing in Dufour's _Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du The +et du Chocolat_] + +For a more recent pen picture of coffee manners and customs in Arabia, +we turn to Charles M. Daughty's "_Travels in Arabia Deserta_"[367]: + + Hirfa ever demanded of her husband towards which part should "the + house" be built. "Dress the face". Zeyd would answer, "to this + part", showing her with his hands the south, for if his booth's + face be all day turned to the hot sun there will come in fewer + young loitering and parasitical fellows that would be his + coffee-drinkers. Since the _sheukh_, or heads, alone receive their + tribes' _surra_, it is not much that they should be to the arms [of + his] coffee-hosts. I have seen Zeyd avoid [them] as he saw them + approach, or even rise ungraciously upon such men's presenting + themselves (the half of every booth, namely the men's side, is at + all times open, and any enter there that will, in the free + desert), and they murmuring he tells them, _wellah_, his affairs do + call him forth, adieu; he must away to the _mejlis_; go they and + seek the coffee elsewhere. But were there any _sheykh_ with them, a + coffee lord, Zeyd could not honestly choose but abide and serve + them with coffee; and if he be absent himself, yet any _sheykhly_ + man coming to a _sheykh's_ tent, coffee must be made for him, + except he gently protest "_billah_, he would not drink." Hirfa, a + _sheykh's_ daughter and his nigh kinswoman, was a faithful mate to + Zeyd in all his sparing policy. + + Our _menzil_ now standing, the men step over to Zeyd's coffee-fire, + if the _sheykh_ be not gone forth to the _mejlis_ to drink his + mid-day cup there. A few gathered sticks are flung down beside the + hearth; with flint and steel one stoops and strikes fire in tinder, + he blows and cherishes those seeds of the cheerful flame in some + dry camel-dung, sets the burning shred under dry straws, and + powders over more dry camel-dung. As the fire kindles, the _sheykh_ + reaches for his _dellàl_, coffee pots, which are carried in the + _fatya_, coffee-gear basket; this people of a nomad life bestow + each thing of theirs in a proper _beyt_; it would otherwise be lost + in their daily removings. One rises to go to fill up the pots at + the water-skins, or a bowl of water is handed over the curtain from + the woman's side; the pot at the fire, Hirfa reaches over her + little palm-ful of green coffee berries.... These are roasted and + brayed; as all is boiling he sets out his little cups, _fenjeyl_ + (for fenjeyn). When, with a pleasant gravity, he has unbuckled his + _gutia_ or cup-box, we see the nomad has not above three or four + fenjeyns, wrapt in a rusty clout, with which he scours them busily, + as if this should make his cups clean. The roasted beans are + pounded amongst Arabs with a magnanimous rattle--and (as all their + labor) rhythmical--in brass of the town, or an old wooden mortar, + gaily studded with nails, the work of some nomad smith. The water + bubbling in the small _dellàl_, he casts in his fine coffee powder, + _el-bunn_, and withdraws the pot to simmer a moment. From a knot in + his kerchief he takes then a head of cloves, a piece of cinnamon or + other spice, _bahar_, and braying these he casts their dust in + after. Soon he pours out some hot drops to essay his coffee; if the + taste be to his liking, making dexterously a nest of all the cups + in his hand, with pleasant clattering, he is ready to pour out for + all the company, and begins upon his right hand; and first, if such + be present, to any considerable _sheykh_ and principal persons. The + _fenjeyn kahwah_ is but four sips; to fill it up to a guest, as in + the northern towns, were among Bedouins an injury, and of such + bitter meaning, "This drink thou and depart." + + [Illustration: NUBIAN SLAVE GIRL WITH COFFEE SERVICE, PERSIA] + + Then is often seen a contention in courtesy amongst them, + especially in any greater assemblies, who shall drink first. Some + man that receives the _fenjeyn_ in his turn will not drink yet--he + proffers it to one sitting in order under him, as to the more + honourable; but the other putting off with his hand will answer + _ebbeden_, "Nay, it shall never be, by Ullah! but do thou drink." + Thus licensed, the humble man is despatched in three sips, and + hands up his empty _fenjeyn_. But if he have much insisted, by this + he opens his willingness to be reconciled with one not his friend. + That neighbor, seeing the company of coffee-drinkers watching him, + may with an honest grace receive the cup, and let it seem not + willingly; but an hard man will sometimes rebut the other's gentle + proffer. + + Some may have taken lower seats than becoming their _sheykhly_ + blood, of which the nomads are jealous; entering untimely, they sat + down out of order, sooner than trouble all the company. A _sheykh_, + coming late and any business going forward, will often sit far out + in the assembly; and show himself a popular person in this kind of + honourable humility. The more inward in the booth is the higher + place; where also is, with the _sheykhs_, the seat of a stranger. + To sit in the loose circuit without and before the tent, is for the + common sort. A tribesman arriving presents himself at that part or + a little lower, where in the eyes of all men his pretension will be + well allowed; and in such observances of good nurture, is a nomad + man's honour among his tribesmen. And this is nigh all that serves + the nomad for a conscience, namely, that which men will hold of + him. A poor person, approaching from behind, stands obscurely, + wrapped in his tattered mantle, with grave ceremonial, until those + sitting indolently before him in the sand shall vouchsafe to take + notice of him; then they rise unwillingly, and giving back enlarge + the coffee-circle to receive him. But if there arrive a _sheykh_, a + coffee-host, a richard amongst them of a few cattle, all the + coxcomb companions within will hail him with their pleasant + adulation _taad henneyi_, "Step thou up hither." + + The astute Fukara _sheukh_ surpass all men in their coffee-drinking + courtesy, and Zeyd himself was more than any large of this + gentlemen-like imposture: he was full of swaggering complacence and + compliments to an humbler person. With what suavity could he + encourage, and gently too compel a man, and rising himself yield + him parcel of another man's room! In such fashions Zeyd showed + himself a bountiful great man, who indeed was the greatest niggard. + The cups are drunk twice about, each one sipping after other's lips + without misliking; to the great coffee _sheykhs_ the cup may be + filled more times, but this is an adulation of the coffee-server. + There are some of the Fukara _sheukh_ so delicate Sybarites that of + those three bitter sips, to draw out all their joyance, twisting, + turning, and tossing again the cup, they could make ten. The + coffee-service ended, the grounds are poured out from the small + into the great store-pot that is reserved full of warm water; with + the bitter lye the nomads will make their next bever, and think + they spare coffee. + +Here is an Arabian recipe[368] for making coffee as given by Kadhi +Hodhat, the best informed man of his time: + + Tadj-Eddin-Aid-Almaknab-ben-Yacoub-Mekki Molki, chief of all the + cantons of Hedjaz, (May God have mercy on him!) I learned it when + once in his company at the time of the Holy Feasts.... He informed + me that nothing is more beneficial than to drink cold water before + coffee, because it lessens the dryness of the coffee and thus taken + it does not cause insomnia to the same degree. The poet did not + forget to explain this manner of taking coffee: + +As with art 'tis prepared, one should drink it with art. +The mere commonplace drinks one absorbs with free heart; +But this--once with care from the bright flame removed, +And the lime set aside that its value has proved-- +Take it first in deep draughts, meditative and slow, +Quit it now, now resume, thus imbibe with gusto; +While charming the palate it burns yet enchants, +In the hour of its triumph the virtue it grants +Penetrates every tissue; its powers condense. +Circulate cheering warmths, bring new life to each sense. +From the cauldron profound spiced aromas unseen +Mount to tease and delight your olfactories keen, +The while you inhale with felicity fraught, +The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has brought. + + + +[Illustration: PERSIAN COFFEE SERVICE, 1737] + +Gone are the "luxurious and magnificent" coffee houses of Constantinople +(if they ever existed--at least as we understand luxury and +magnificence) which first brought the beverage world-wide fame; such +_caffinets_ as the one pictured by Thomas Allom and described by the +Rev. Robert Walsh, in _Constantinople, Illustrated_: + + The caffinet, or coffee-house, is something more splendid, and the + Turk expends all his notions of finery and elegance on this, his + favorite place of indulgence. The edifice is generally decorated in + a very gorgeous manner, supported on pillars, and open in front. It + is surrounded on the inside by a raised platform, covered with mats + or cushions, on which the Turks sit cross-legged. On one side are + musicians, generally Greeks, with mandolins and tambourines, + accompanying singers, whose melody consists in vociferation; and + the loud and obstreperous concert forms a strong contrast to the + stillness and taciturnity of Turkish meetings. On the opposite side + are men, generally of a respectable class, some of whom are found + here every day, and all day long, dozing under the double influence + of coffee and tobacco. The coffee is served in very small cups, not + larger than egg-cups, grounds and all, without cream or sugar, and + so black, thick, and bitter that it has been aptly compared to + "stewed soot". Besides the ordinary chibouk for tobacco, there is + another implement, called narghillai, used for smoking in a + caffinet, of a more elaborate construction. It consists of a glass + vase, filled with water, and often scented with distilled rose or + other flowers. This is surmounted with a silver or brazen head, + from which issues a long flexible tube; a pipe-bowl is placed on + the top, and so constructed that the smoke is drawn, and comes + bubbling up through the water, cool and fragrant to the mouth. A + peculiar kind of tobacco, grown at Shiraz in Persia, and resembling + small pieces of cut leather, is used with this instrument. + +[Illustration: IN A TURKISH COFFEE HOUSE] + +Certainly there never was any such thing as a coffee-house architecture. +It may be that up to the time of Abdul Hamid, when money was more +plentiful than it has been for the past fifty years, there were coffee +houses more comfortably appointed than now exist. + +The coffee house in a modernized form is, however, quite as numerous in +Turkey as in the days of Amurath III and the notorious Kuprili. + +H.G. Dwight[369] writing on the present day Turkish coffee house, says: + +[Illustration: ROASTING COFFEE BEFORE A CAFÉ, TURKEY] + + There are thoroughfares in any Turkish city that carry on almost no + other form of traffic. There is no quarter so miserable or so + remote as to be without one or two. They are the clubs of the + poorer classes. Men of a street, a trade, a province, or a + nationality--for a Turkish coffee-house may also be Albanian, + Armenian, Greek, Hebrew, Kurd, almost anything you please--meet + regularly when their work is done, at coffee-houses kept by their + own people. So much are the humbler coffee-houses frequented by a + fixed clientèle that a student of types or dialects may realize for + himself how truly they used to be called Schools of Knowledge. + + The arrangement of a Turkish coffee-house is of the simplest. The + essential is that the place should provide the beverage for which + it exists and room for enjoying the same. A sketch of a coffee-shop + may often be seen on the street, in a scrap of shade or sunshine + according to the season, where a stool or two invite the passer-by + to a moment of contemplation. Larger establishments, though they + are rarely very large, are most often installed in a room longer + than it is wide, having as many windows as possible at the street + end and what we would call the bar at the other. It is a bar that + always makes me regret I do not etch, with its pleasing curves, its + high lights of brass and porcelain striking out of deep shadow, and + its usually picturesque _kahvehji_. + + You do not stand at it. You sit on one of the benches running down + the sides of the room. They are more or less comfortably cushioned, + though sometimes higher and broader than a foreigner finds to his + taste. In that case you slip off your shoes, if you would do as the + Romans do, and tuck your feet up under you. A table stands in front + of you to hold your coffee--and often in summer an aromatic pot of + basil to keep the flies away. Chairs or stools are scattered about. + Decorative Arabic texts, sometimes wonderful prints, adorn the + walls. There may even be hanging rugs and china to entertain your + eyes. And there you are. + + The habit of the coffee-house is one that requires a certain + leisure. You must not bolt coffee as you bolt the fire-waters of + the West, without ceremony, in retreats withdrawn from the public + eye. Being a less violent and a less shameful passion, I suppose, + it is indulged in with more of the humanities. The etiquette of the + coffee-house, of those coffee-houses which have not been too much + infected by Europe, is one of their most characteristic features. + Something like it prevails in Italy, where you tip your hat on + entering and leaving a _caffè_. In Turkey, however, I have seen a + new-comer salute one after another each person in a crowded + coffee-room, once on entering the door and again after taking his + seat, and be so saluted in return--either by putting the right hand + to the heart and uttering the greeting _Merhabah_, or by making the + _temennah_, that triple sweep of the hand which is the most + graceful of salutes. I have also seen an entire company rise upon + the entrance of an old man, and yield him the corner of honor. + + Such courtesies take time. Then you must wait for your coffee to be + made. To this end coffee, roasted fresh as required by turning in + an iron cylinder over a fire of sticks and ground to the fineness + of powder in a brass mill, is put into a small uncovered brass pot + with a long handle. There it is boiled to a froth three times on a + charcoal brazier, with or without sugar as you prefer. But to + desecrate it by the admixture of milk is an unheard of sacrilege. + Some _kahvehjis_ replace the pot in the embers with a smart rap in + order to settle the grounds. You in the meanwhile smoke. That also + takes time, particularly if you "drink" a _narguileh_, as the Turks + say. This is familiar enough in the West to require no great + description. It is a big carafe with a metal top for holding + tobacco and a long coil of leather tube for inhaling the + water-cooled fumes thereof. The effect is wonderfully soothing and + innocent at first, though wonderfully deadly in the end to the + novice. The tobacco used is not the ordinary weed, but a much + coarser and stronger one called _tunbeki_, which comes from Persia. + The same sort of tobacco used to be smoked a great deal in shallow + red earthenware pipes with long mouthpieces. They are now chiefly + seen in antiquity shops. + + [Illustration: INTERIOR OF A TURKISH CAFFINET, EARLY NINETEENTH + CENTURY--AFTER ALLAN] + + When your coffee is ready it is poured into an after-dinner + coffee-cup or into a miniature bowl, and brought to you on a tray + with a glass of water. A foreigner can almost always be spotted by + the manner in which he finally partakes of these refreshments. A + Turk sips his water first, partly to prepare the way for the + coffee, but also because he is a connoisseur of the former liquid + as other men are of stronger ones. And he lifts his coffee-cup by + the saucer, whether it possess a handle or no, managing the two + together in a dexterous way of his own. The current price for all + this, not including the water-pipe, is ten paras--a trifle over a + cent--for which the _kahvehji_ will cry you "Blessing". More + pretentious establishments charge twenty paras, while a giddy few + rise to a piaster--not quite five cents--or a piaster and a half. + That, however, begins to look like extortion. And mark that you do + not tip the waiter. I have often been surprised to be charged no + more than the tariff, although I gave a larger piece to be changed + and it was perfectly evident that I was a foreigner. That is an + experience which rarely befalls a traveller among his own + coreligionaries. It has even happened to me, which is rarer still, + to be charged nothing at all, nay, to be steadfastly refused when I + persisted in attempting to pay, simply because I was a foreigner, + and therefore a guest. + + There is no reason, however, why you should go away when you have + had your coffee--or your glass of tea--and your smoke. On the + contrary, there are reasons why you should stay, particularly if + you happen into the coffee-house not too long after sunset. Then + coffee-houses of the most local color are at their best. Earlier in + the day their clients are likely to be at work. Later they will + have disappeared altogether. For Constantinople has not quite + forgotten the habits of the tent. Stamboul, except during the holy + month of Ramazan, is a deserted city at night. But just after dark + it is full of a life which an outsider is often content simply to + watch through the lighted windows of coffee-rooms. These are also + barber-shops, where men have shaved not only their chins, but + different parts of their heads according to their "countries". In + them likewise checkers, the Persian backgammon, and various games + of long narrow cards are played. They say that Bridge came from + Constantinople. Indeed, I believe a club of Pera claims the honor + of having communicated that passion to the Western World. But I + must confess that I have yet to see an open hand in a coffee-house + of the people. + + [Illustration: COFFEE MAKING IN TURKEY] + + One of the pleasantest forms of amusement to be obtained in + coffee-houses is unfortunately getting to be one of the rarest. It + is that afforded by itinerant story-tellers, who still carry on in + the East the tradition of the troubadours. The stories they tell + are more or less on the order of the Arabian Nights, though perhaps + even less suitable for mixed companies--which for the rest are + never found in coffee-shops. These men are sometimes wonderfully + clever at character monologue or dialogue. They collect their pay + at a crucial moment of the action, refusing to continue until the + audience has testified to the sincerity of its interest by some + token more substantial. + + Music is much more common. There are those, to be sure, who find no + music in the sounds poured forth oftenest by a gramophone, often by + a pair of gypsies with a flaring pipe and two small gourd drums, + and sometimes by an orchestra so-called of the fine lute--a company + of musicians on a railed dais who sing long songs while they play + on stringed instruments of strange curves. For myself I know too + little of music to tell what relation the recurrent cadences of + those songs and their broken rhythms may bear to the antique modes. + But I can listen, as long as musicians will perform, to those + infinite repetitions, that insistent sounding of the minor key. It + pleases me to fancy there a music come from far away--from unknown + river gorges, from camp-fires glimmering on great plains. Does not + such darkness breathe through it, such melancholy, such haunting of + elusive airs? There are flashes too of light, of song, the playing + of shepherd's pipes, the swoop of horsemen and sudden outcries of + savagery. But the note to which it all comes back is the monotone + of a primitive life, like the day-long beat of camel bells. And + more than all, it is the mood of Asia, so rarely penetrated, which + is neither lightness or despair. + + [Illustration: STREET COFFEE VENDER IN THE LEVANT, 1714] + + There are seasons in the year when these various forms of + entertainment abound more than at others, as Ramazan and the two + Bairams. Throughout the month of Ramazan the purely Turkish + coffee-houses are closed in the daytime, since the pleasures which + they minister may not then be indulged in; but they are open all + night. It is during that one month of the year that Karaghieuz, the + Turkish shadow-show, may be seen in a few of the larger + coffee-shops. The Bairams are two festivals of three and four days + respectively, the former of which celebrates the close of Ramazan, + while the latter corresponds in certain respects to the Jewish + Passover. Dancing is a particular feature of the coffee-houses in + Bairam. The Kurds, who carry the burdens of Constantinople on their + backs, are above all other men given to this form of + exercise--though the Lazzes, the boatmen, vie with them. One of + these dark tribesmen plays a little violin like a pochelle, or two + of them perform on a pipe and a big drum, while the others dance + round them in a circle, sometimes till they drop from fatigue. The + weird music and the picturesque costumes and movements of the + dancers make the spectacle one to be remembered. + + Christian coffee-houses also have their own festal seasons. These + coincide in general with the festivals of the church. But every + quarter has its patron saint, the saint of the local church or of + the local holy well, whose feast is celebrated by a three-day + _panayiri_. The street is dressed with flags and strings of colored + paper, tables and chairs line the sidewalk, and libations are + poured forth in honor of the holy person commemorated. For this + reason, and because of the more volatile character of the Greek, + the general note of his merrymaking is louder than that of the + Turk. One may even see the scandalous spectacle of men and women + dancing together at a Greek _panayiri_. The instrument which sets + the key of these orgies is the _lanterna_, a species of hand-organ + peculiar to Constantinople. It is a hand-piano rather, of a loud + and cheerful voice, whose Eurasian harmonies are enlivened by a + frequent clash of bells. + + What first made coffee-houses suspicious to those in authority, + however, is their true resource--the advantages they offer for + meeting one's kind, for social converse and the contemplation of + life. Hence it must be that they have so happy a tact for locality. + They seek shade, pleasant corners, open squares, the prospect of + water or wide landscapes. In Constantinople they enjoy an infinite + choice of site, so huge is the extent of that city, so broken by + hill and sea, so varied in its spectacle of life. The commonest + type of city coffee-room looks out upon the passing world from + under a grape-vine or a climbing wistaria. + +[Illustration: A COFFEE HOUSE IN SYRIA--AFTER JARDIN] + +Coffee-houses of distinction are to be found also in the Place of the +Pines overlooking the Marble Sea, on Giant's Mountain, in the Landing +Place of the Man-slayer, and along the rivers that flow into the Golden +Horn. + +Originally the Turkish method of preparing coffee was the Arabian +method, and it is so described by Mr. Fellows in his _Excursions through +Asia Minor_: + + Each cup is made separately, the little saucepan or ladle in which + it is prepared being about an inch wide and two deep; this is more + than half filled with coffee, finely pounded with a pestle and + mortar, and then filled up with water; after being placed for a few + seconds on the fire, the contents are poured, or rather shaken, out + (being much thicker than chocolate) without the addition of cream + or sugar, into a china cup of the size and shape of half an + egg-shell, which is inclosed in one of ornamented metal for + convenience of holding in the hand. + +Later, the Turks sought to improve the method by adding sugar (a +concession to the European sweet tooth) during the boiling process. The +improved Turkish recipe is as follows: + + First boil the water. For two cups of the beverage add three lumps + of sugar and return the boiler to the fire. Add two teaspoonfuls of + powdered coffee, stirring well and let the pot boil up four times. + Between each boiling the pot is to be removed from the fire and the + bottom tapped gently until the froth on the top subsides. After the + last boiling pour the coffee first into one cup and then the other, + so as to evenly divide the froth. + +In Syria and Palestine the Turkish-Arabian methods are followed. The +brazen dippers, or _ibriks_, are used for boiling. + +[Illustration: CAFETAN + +Oriental coffee-house keeper's costume] + +In the Near East, coffee manners and customs are much the same today as +they were fifty or even one hundred years ago. Witness Damascus. The +following pen picture of the cafés in this ancient city was written in +1836 to accompany the drawing by Bartlett and Purser, which is +reproduced here; but it might have been written in 1922, so slight have +been the changes in the setting or the spirit of the original coffee +house that Shemsi first brought to Constantinople from Damascus in +1554.[370] + +[Illustration: STREET COFFEE SERVICE IN CONSTANTINOPLE] + + The Cafés of the kind represented in the plate are, perhaps, the + greatest luxury that a stranger finds in Damascus. Gardens, + kiosques, fountains, and groves are abundant around every Eastern + capital: but Cafés on the very bosom of a rapid river, and bathed + by its waves, are peculiar to this ancient city: they are formed so + as to exclude the rays of the sun, while they admit the breeze; the + light roof is supported by slender rows of pillars, and the + building is quite open on every side. + + A few of these houses are situated in the skirts of the town, on + one of the streams, where the eye rests on the luxuriant vegetation + of garden and wood: others are in the heart of the city: a flight + of steps conducts to them from the sultry street, and it is + delightful to pass in a few moments from the noisy, shadeless + thoroughfare, where you see only mean gateways and the gable-ends + of edifices, to a cool, grateful, calm place of rest and + refreshment, where you can muse and meditate in ease and luxury, + and feel at every moment the rich breeze from the river. In two or + three instances, a light wooden bridge leads to the platform, close + to which, and almost out of it, one or two large and noble trees + lift the canopy of their spreading branches and leaves, more + welcome at noonday than the roofs of fretted gold in the "Arabian + Nights." The high pavilion roof and the pillars are all constructed + of wood: the floor is of wood, and sometimes of earth, and is + regularly watered, and raised only a few inches above the level of + the stream, which rushes by at the feet of the customer, which it + almost bathes, as he sips his coffee or sherbet. Innumerable small + seats cover the floor, and you take one of these, and place it in + the position you like best. + + Perhaps you wish to sit apart from the crowd, just under the shadow + of the tree, or in some favourite corner where you can smoke, and + contemplate the motley guests, formed into calm and solemn groups, + who wish to hold no communion with the Giaour. There is ample food + here for the observer of character, costume and pretension: the + tradesman, the mechanic, the soldier, the gentleman, the dandy, the + grave old man, looking wise on the past and dimly on the future: + the hadge, in his green turban, vain of his journey to Mecca, and + drawing a long bow in his tales and adventures: the long straight + pipe, the hookah with its soft curling tube and glass vase, are in + request: but the poorer argille is most commonly used. + + From sunrise to set, these houses are never empty: we were + accustomed to visit one of them early every morning, before + breakfast, and very many persons were already there: yet this + "balmy hour of prime" was the most silent and solitary of the whole + day; it was the coolest also: the rising sun was glancing redly on + the waters: there was as yet no heat in the air, and the little + cup of Mocha coffee and the pipe were handed by an attendant as + soon as the stranger was seated. His favourite Café was the one + represented in the plate: the river is the Barrada, the ancient + Pharpar. Never was the sound of many waters so pleasant to the ear + as in Damascus: the air is filled with the sound, with which no + clash of tongues, rolling of wheels, march of footman or horsemen, + mingle: the numerous groups who love to resort here are silent half + the time; and when they do converse, their voice is often "low, + like that of a familiar spirit," or in short grave sentences that + pass quickly from the ear. + + [Illustration: A RIVERSIDE CAFÉ IN DAMASCUS, NINETEENTH CENTURY + + After Bartlett and Purser] + + Yet much, very much of the excitement of the life of the Turk in + this city, is absorbed in these coffee-houses: they are his opera, + his theatre, his conversazione: soon after his eyes are unclosed + from sleep, he thinks of his Café, and forthwith bends his way + there: during the day he looks forward to pass the evening on the + loved floor, to look on the waters, on the stars above, and on the + faces of his friends; and at the moonlight falling on all. Mahomet + committed a grievous error in the omission of coffee-houses, in a + future state: had he ever seen those of Damascus, he would surely + have given them a place on his rivers of Paradise, persuaded that + true believers must feel a melancholy void without them. + + There is no ornament or richness about these houses: no sofas, + mirrors, or drapery, save that afforded by a few evergreens and + creepers: the famous silks and damasks of Damascus have no place + here; all is plain and homely; yet no Parisian Café, with its + beautiful mirrors, gilding, and luxuriousness, is so welcome to the + imagination and senses of the traveller. After wandering many days + over dry, and stony, and desert places, where the lip thirsted for + the stream, is it not delicious to sit at the brink of a wild, + impetuous torrent, to gaze on its white foam and breaking waves, + till you can almost feel their gush in every nerve and fibre, and + can bathe your very soul in them. And while you slowly smoke your + pipe of purest tobacco, the sands of the desert, and their burning + sun, rise again before you, when you prayed for even the shadow of + a cloud on your way. The banks are in some parts covered with wood, + whose soft green verdure contrasts beautifully with the clear + torrent, and almost droops into its bosom. + + Near the coffee-houses are one or two cataracts several feet high, + and the perpetual sound of their fall, and the coolness they spread + around, are exquisite luxuries--in the heat of day, or in the + dimness of evening. There are two or three Cafés constructed + somewhat differently from those just described: a low gallery + divides the platform from the tide; fountains play on the floor, + which is furnished with very plain sofas and cushions; and music + and dancing always abound, of the most unrefined description. + + The only intellectual gratification in these places is afforded by + the Arab story-tellers, among whom are a few eminent and clever + men: soon after his entrance, a group begins to form around the + gifted man, who, after a suitable pause, to collect hearers or whet + their expectations, begins his story. It is a picturesque sight--of + the Arab with his wild and graceful gestures, and his auditory, + hushed into deep and child-like attention, seated at the edge of + the rushing tide, while the narrator moves from side to side, and + each accent of his distinct and musical voice is heard throughout + the Café. The building directly opposite is another house, of a + similar kind in every respect There are a few small Cafés, more + select as to company, where the Turkish gentlemen often go, form + dinner parties, and spend the day. + + Night is the propitious season to visit these places: the glare of + the sun, glancing on the waters, is passed away; the company is + then most numerous, for it is their favourite hour; the lamps, + suspended from the slender pillars, are lighted; the Turks, in the + various and brilliant colours of their costume, crowd the platform, + some standing moveless as the pillars beside them, their long pipe + in their hand--noble specimens of humanity, if intellect breathed + within: some reclining against the rails, others seated in groups, + or solitary as if buried in "lonely thoughts sublime"; while the + rush of the falling waters is sweeter music than that of the pipe + and the guitar, that faintly strive to be heard. The cataract in + the plate is a very fine one; on its foam the moonlight was lovely: + we passed many an hour here on such a night, the clear waters of + the Pharpar, as they rolled on, reflecting each pillar, each + Damascene slowly moving by in his waving garments. The glare of the + lamps mingled strangely with the moonlight, that rested with a soft + and vivid glory on the waters, and fell beneath pillar and roof on + the picturesque groups within. + +The slender brass coffee grinders sometimes serve as a combination +utensil in the equipment of the Turkish officer. Frequently they are +made of silver. They might be called collapsible, convertible coffee +kits, as they are made to serve as a combination coffee pot, mill, can, +and cup. The green or roasted beans are kept in the lower section. It +takes but a minute to unscrew the apparatus. To make a cup of coffee, +the beans are dumped out and three or four of them are put in the middle +section. The steel crank is fitted over the squared rod projecting from +the middle section, which revolves, setting in motion the grinding +apparatus inside. The ground coffee falls into the bottom section, and +water is added. The pot is placed on the fire, and the contents brought +to a boil. The coffee pot serves as a cup. The process requires but a +few minutes. The cup is rinsed out, the beans replaced, the utensils put +together, the whole thing is slipped into the officer's tunic, and he +goes on, refreshed. + +In Persia, where tea is mostly drunk, the Turkish-Arabian methods of +making coffee are followed. In Ceylon and India, the same applies to the +native population, but the whites follow the European practise. In +India, many people look upon coffee as just a _bonne bouche_--a +"chaser." A well known English tea firm has had some success in India +with a tinned "French coffee", which is a blend of Indian coffee and +chicory. + +European methods obtain in making coffee in China and Japan, and in the +French and Dutch colonies. When traveling in the Far East one of the +greatest hardships the coffee lover is called upon to endure is the +European bottled coffee extract, which so often supplies lazy chefs with +the makings of a most forbidding cup of coffee. + +In Java, a favorite method is to make a strong extract by the French +drip process and then to use a spoonful of the extract to a cup of hot +milk--a good drink when the extract is freshly made for each service. + + +_Coffee Making in Europe_ + +In Europe, the coffee drink was first sold by lemonade venders. In +Florence those who sold coffee, chocolate, and other beverages were not +called _caffetiéri_ (coffee sellers) but _limonáji_ (lemonade venders). +Pascal's first Paris coffee shop served other drinks as well as coffee; +and Procope's café began as a lemonade shop. It was only when coffee, +which was an afterthought, began to lead the other beverages, that he +gave the name café to his whole refreshment place. + +Today, nearly every country in Europe can supply the two extremes of +coffee making. In Paris and Vienna, one may find it brewed and served in +its highest perfection; but here too it is frequently found as badly +done as in England, and that is saying a good deal. The principal +difficulty seems to be in the chicory flavor, for which long years of +use has cultivated a taste, with most people. Now coffee-and-chicory is +not at all a bad drink; indeed the author confesses to have developed a +certain liking for it after a time in France--but it is not coffee. In +Europe, chicory is not regarded as an adulterant--it is an addition, or +modifier, if you please. And so many people have acquired a +coffee-and-chicory taste, that it is doubtful if they would appreciate a +real cup of coffee should they ever meet it. This, of course, is a +generalization; and like all generalizations, is dangerous, for it _is_ +possible to obtain good coffee, properly made, in any European country, +even England, in the homes of the people, but seldom in the hotels or +restaurants. + +[Illustration: COFFEE AL FRESCO IN JERUSALEM] + +AUSTRIA. Coffee is made in Austria after the French style, usually by +the drip method or in the pumping percolator device, commonly called the +Vienna coffee machine. The restaurants employ a large-size urn fitted +with a combination metal sieve and cloth sack. After the ground coffee +has infused for about six minutes, a screw device raises the metal +sieve, the pressure forcing the liquid through the cloth sack containing +the ground coffee. + +Vienna cafés are famous, but the World War has dimmed their glory. It +used to be said that their equal could not be found for general +excellence and moderate prices. From half-past eight to ten in the +morning, large numbers of people were wont to breakfast in them on a cup +of coffee or tea, with a roll and butter. _Mélangé_ is with milk; +"brown" coffee is darker, and a _schwarzer_ is without milk. In all the +cafés the visitor may obtain coffee, tea, liqueurs, ices, bottled beer, +ham, eggs, etc. The Café Schrangl in the Graben is typical. Then there +are the dairies, with coffee, a unique institution. In the _Prater_ +(public park) there are many interesting cafés. + +Charles J. Rosebault says in the _New York Times_: + + The café of Vienna has been imitated all over the world--but the + result has never failed to be an imitation. The nearest approach to + the genuine in my experience was the upstairs room of the old + Fleischman Café in New York. That was because the average New + Yorker knew it not and it remained sacred to the internationalists: + the musicians, artists, writers, and other Bohemians to whom had + been intrusted the secret of its existence. It is the spirit that + counts, and it was the spirit of its frequenters that made the + Vienna café. It was everyman's club, and everywoman's, too, where + one went to relax and forget all the worries of existence, to look + over papers and magazines from all parts of the world and printed + in every known language, to play chess or skat or taracq, to chat + with friends and to drink the inimitable Viennese coffee, the + fragrance of which can no more be described than the perfume of + last year's violets. + + The café was filled after the noon meal, when busy men took their + coffee and smoked; again around five o'clock, when all the world + and his wife paraded along the Graben and the Karntner Strasse, and + then dropped into a favorite café for coffee or chocolate and + cakes--horns and crescents of delicious dough filled with jam or, + possibly, the wonderful Kugelhupf, in comparison with which our + sponge is like unto lead; finally in the evening, when there were + family parties and those returning from theatres and concerts and + opera. + +[Illustration: Photograph by Burton Holmes + +THE CAFÉ SCHRANGL IN THE GRABEN, VIENNA, THE CITY THAT COFFEE MADE +FAMOUS] + +While the café life of Vienna has been nearly killed by the World War, +it is to be hoped that time will restore at least something of its +former glory. In spite of the stories of plundering bands of Bolshevists +that in the latter part of 1921 wrecked some of the better known places, +we read that Oscar Straus, composer of _The Chocolate Soldier_, is +living in comparative luxury in Vienna, and spends most of his time in +the cafés, where he is to be found usually from two until five in the +afternoon and from eleven o'clock at night until some early hour of the +morning "surrounded by musicians of lesser note and wealth, whom, to a +degree, he supports; also with him being many of the leading composers, +librettists, actors, actresses, and singers of Vienna." + +For Vienna coffee, the liquor is usually made in a pumping percolator or +by the drip process. In normal times it is served two parts coffee to +one of hot milk topped with whipped cream. During 1914-18 and the recent +post-war period, however, the sparkling crown of delicious whipped cream +gave way to condensed milk, and saccharine took the place of sugar. + +BELGIUM. In Belgium, the French drip method is most generally employed. +Chicory is freely used as a modifier. The greatest coffee drinker among +reigning monarchs is said to be the King of the Belgians. His majesty +takes a cup of coffee before breakfast, after breakfast, at his noonday +meal, in the afternoon, after dinner, and again in the evening. + +BRITISH ISLES. In the British Isles coffee is still being boiled; +although the infusion, true percolation (drip), and filtration methods +have many advocates. A favorite device is the earthenware jug with or +without the cotton sack that makes it a coffee biggin. When used without +the sack, the best practise is first to warm the jug. For each pint of +liquor, one ounce (three dessert-spoonfuls) of freshly ground coffee is +put in the pot. Upon it is poured freshly boiling water--three-fourths +of the amount required. After stirring with a wooden spoon, the +remainder of the water is poured in, and the pot is returned to the +"hob" to infuse, and to settle for from three to five minutes. Some stir +it a second time before the final settling. + +The best trade authorities stress home-grinding, and are opposed to +boiling the beverage. They advocate also its use as a breakfast +beverage, after lunch, and after the evening meal. + +From an American point of view, the principal defects in the English +method of making coffee lie in the roasting, handling, and brewing. It +has been charged that the beans are not properly cooked in the first +place, and that they are too often stale before being ground. The +English run to a light or cinnamon roast, whereas the best American +practise requires a medium, high, or city roast. A fairly high shade of +brown is favored on the South Downs with a light shade for Lancashire, +the West Riding of Yorkshire, and the south of Scotland. The trade +demands, for the most part, a ripe chestnut brown. Wholesale roasting is +done by gas and coke machines; while retail dealers use mostly a small +type of inner-heated gas machine. The large gas machines (with +capacities running from twenty-five to seven hundred pounds) have +external air-blast burners, direct and indirect burners, sliding +burners, etc. The best known are the Faulder and Moorewood machines. In +the Uno, a popular retail machine, roasting seven to fourteen pounds at +a time, the coffee beans are placed in the space between outer and inner +concentric cylinders, one made of perforated steel, and the other of +wire gauze, revolving together. A gas flame of the Bunsen type burns +inside the inner cylinder, its heat traversing the outer, or coffee +cylinder, while the fumes are driven off through the open ends. The +roasting coffee may be viewed through a mica or wire-gauze panel +inserted in the wall of the outer cylinder. The Faulder machine has an +external flame, a capacity of from seven to fourteen pounds; and there +are quick gas machines, with capacities ranging from three pounds to two +hundred and twenty-four pounds, for the retail trade. + +[Illustration: FAVORITE ENGLISH COFFEE-MAKING METHOD] + +[Illustration: A CAFÉ OF YE MECCA COMPANY, LONDON] + +In recent years there has been a marked improvement in English coffee +roasting, due to the intelligent study brought to bear upon the subject +by leaders of the trade's thought, and by the retail distributer, who, +in the person of the retail grocer, is, generally speaking, better +educated to his business than the retail grocer in any other country. +Years ago, it was the practise to use butter or lard to improve the +appearance of the bean in roasting; but this is not so common as +formerly. + +The British consumer, however, will need much instruction before the +national character of the beverage shows a uniform improvement. While +the coffee may be more carefully roasted, better "cooked" than it was +formerly, it is still remaining too long unsold after roasting, or else +it is being ground too long a time before making. These abuses are, +however, being corrected; and the consumer is everywhere being urged to +buy his coffee freshly roasted and to have it freshly ground. Another +factor has undoubtedly contributed to give England a bad name among +lovers of good coffee, and that is certain tinned "coffees," composed of +ground coffee and chicory, mixtures that attained some vogue for a time +as "French" coffee. They found favor, perhaps, because they were easily +handled. Package coffees have not been developed in England as in +America; but there is a more or less limited field for them, and there +are several good brands of absolutely pure coffee on the market. + +The demi-tasse is a popular drink after luncheon, after dinner, and +even during the day, especially in the cities. In London, there are +cafés that make a specialty of it; places like Peel's, Groom's, and the +Café Nero in the city; also the shops of the London Café Co., and Ye +Mecca Co. + +While, in the home, it is customary to steep the coffee; in hotels and +restaurants some form of percolating apparatus, extractor, or steam +machine is employed. There are the Criterion (employing a drip tray for +making coffee in the Etzenberger style); Fountain; Platow; Syphon +(Napier); and Verithing extractors, put out by Sumerling & Co. of +London; and the well-known J. & S. rapid coffee-making machine, having +an infuser, and producing coffee by steam pressure, manufactured by W.M. +Still & Sons, Ltd., London. + +American visitors complain that coffee in England is too thick and +syrupy for their liking. Coffee in restaurants is served "white" (with +milk), or black, in earthen, stoneware, or silver pots. In chain +restaurants, like Lyons' or the A.B.C., there is to be found on the +tariff, "hot milk with a dash of coffee." + +[Illustration: GROOM'S COFFEE HOUSE, FLEET STREET, LONDON] + +[Illustration: CAFÉ MONICO, PICCADILLY CIRCUS, LONDON] + +As to the boiling method, this is already generally discredited in the +countries of western Europe. The steeping method so much favored in +England may be responsible for some of the unkind things said about +English coffee; because it undoubtedly leads to the abuse of +over-infusion, so that the net result is as bad as boiling. + +The vast majority of the English people are, however, confirmed tea +drinkers, and it is extremely doubtful if this national habit, ingrained +through centuries of use of "the cup that cheers" at breakfast and at +tea time in the afternoon can ever be changed. + +As already mentioned in this work, the London coffee houses of the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries gave way to a type of coffee house +whose mainstay was its food rather than its drink. In time, these too +began to yield to the changing influences of a civilization that +demanded modern hotels, luxurious tea lounges, smart restaurants, chain +shops, tea rooms, and cafés with and without coffee. A certain type of +"coffee shop," with rough boarded stalls, sanded floors and "private +rooms," frequented by lower class workingmen, were to be found in +England for a time; but because of their doubtful character, they were +closed up by the police. + +Among other places in London where coffee may be had in English or +continental style, mention should be made of the Café Monico, a good +place to drop in for a coffee and liqueur, and one of the pioneers of +the modern restaurant; Gatti's, where _café filtré_, or coffee produced +by the filtration method, is a specialty; the cosmopolitan Savoy with +its popular tea lounge (teas, sixty cents); the Piccadilly Hotel, with +its Louis XIV restaurant catering to refined and luxurious tastes; the +Waldorf Hotel, with its American clientèle and its palm court (teas, +thirty-six cents); the Cecil, with its palm court and tea balcony, also +having a special attraction for Americans; Lyons' Popular Café (iced +coffee, twelve cents); the Trocadero with its special Indian curries +prepared by native cooks once each week; the Temple Bar restaurant, an +attractive refectory owned by the semi-philanthropic Trust-Houses, Ltd., +which runs some two hundred similar establishments throughout the +country, serving alcoholic drinks but stressing non-intoxicating +beverages, among them special Mocha at six and eight cents a cup; +Slater's, Ltd., catering mostly to business folk in the city, there +being about a score of restaurants and tea rooms under this name with +retail shops attached; the British Tea Table Association, like Slater's, +a grown-up sister of the olden bun shop of Queen Victoria's day; and the +Kardomah chain of cafés, where one is reasonably sure to get a +satisfying cup of coffee and a cake. + +[Illustration: GATTI'S, IN THE STRAND, LONDON] + +[Illustration: TEA LOUNGE OF HOTEL SAVOY, LONDON] + +Supplementing the above, Charles Cooper, some time editor of the +_Epicure_ and _The Table_, has prepared for this work some notes on the +evolution of the old-time London coffee houses into the present-day tea +rooms, tea lounges, cafés, and restaurants for all comers. Mr. Cooper +says of the transformation: + + The old-fashioned London coffee-house that flourished forty to + fifty years ago has within the past thirty years been completely + extinguished by the modern tea rooms. These old-fashioned + establishments were mainly situated in and about the Strand and + Fleet Street, the neighborhood of the Inns of Court, etc. They did + not sacrifice much to outside show and decoration. They were + divided into boxes or pews, and were generally speaking clean and + well ordered; the prices were moderate, and the fare simple but + superlatively good. There is nothing to equal it now. Chops were + cooked in the grill. The tea and coffee were of the best; the hams + were York hams and the bacon the best Wiltshire; they were the last + places where real buttered toast was made. The art is now lost. + They catered exclusively to men; and their clientèle consisted of + journalists, artists, actors, men from the Inns of Court, students, + _et al._ A man living in chambers could breakfast comfortably at + one of these places, and read all the morning papers at his ease. + The most westerly perhaps of the old houses was Stone's in Panton + Street, Haymarket, which has recently been sold. Groom's in Fleet + Street, where a good cup of coffee may still be had, is principally + frequented by barristers about the luncheon hour. They are usually + men who lunch lightly. + + The tea rooms, as I have said, have killed the coffee houses. At + the time the latter flourished, there were no facilities in London + for a woman, unattended by a man, to obtain refreshment beyond a + weak cup of tea at a few confectioners'. It mattered the less in + the days when the girl clerk had not come into being. When the + field of women's employment widened, fresh requirements were + created which the coffee shops did not meet. + +[Illustration: LYONS' "POPULAR CAFÉ," PICCADILLY--ONE OF MANY OPERATED +UNDER THAT NAME] + +[Illustration: PALM COURT IN THE WALDORF HOTEL--A POPULAR RESORT FOR +AMERICAN TRAVELERS] + +[Illustration: TWO POPULAR PLACES FOR COFFEE IN LONDON] + + The tea room pioneers in London were the Aërated Bread Company, + familiarly known as the A.B.C. I think that coffee palaces in + provincial industrial centers had been started; but as part of a + temperance propaganda, to counteract the attractions of the public + house. The Aërated Bread Company was founded about the middle of + the past century for the manufacture and sale of bread made under + the patent aërated process of Dr. Daugleish. The shops were opened + for the sale of bread to the public for home consumption; but to + give people an opportunity of testing it, facilities were provided + for obtaining a cup of tea, and bread and butter, on the premises. + This subsidiary object became in a short time the most important + part of the company's business. It multiplied its shops, enlarged + its bill of fare to include cooked foods; and while, nowadays, the + A.B.C. and its rivals cater to many thousands daily, I doubt if + anybody ever buys a loaf to take home. + + The A.B.C. has many competitors, similar shops having been started + by Lyons, Lipton, Slaters. Express Dairy Company, Cabin, Pioneer + Cafés, and others. _Ex uno disce omnes._ + + [Illustration: TEMPLE BAR RESTAURANT, LONDON] + + The fare in all these places is much alike, as are the general + equipment, prices, and class of customers. They cater for a cheap + class of business. In the busy centers they are frequented mostly + by young men and girl clerks and shop assistants, by women in town, + shopping, and such-like custom. Young employees can get a modest + mid-day meal at a price to suit a shallow pocket. Before the war, + the ruling price for a cup of tea, and a roll and butter, was + fourpence, and the general tariff in proportion. Nowadays, the war + has run up prices at least fifty percent. During the worst times of + food control the fare was very scanty and very unappetizing. As a + rule, it is plain and wholesome, with no pretense of being + _recherché_. Tea is almost always very good; coffee not on the same + level. Their tea rooms are all places designed for small, quick + meals; and are in no sense lounges. + + [Illustration: TEA BALCONY IN THE HOTEL CECIL, LONDON] + + Lyons have refreshment-houses of different grades. The Popular Café + is a cut above the tea rooms, and so are the Corner Houses. Two + years ago, the A.B.C. amalgamated with Buzard's, an old established + confectioner's in Oxford Street--a famous cake-house. + + The Monico and Gatti's appeal to a quite different class from that + catered to by the tea shops, although perhaps not to what Mrs. + Boffin would call "the highfliers of fashion" who frequent the + lounges of the fashionable hotels. Gatti's original café was under + the arches of Charing Cross station. + + [Illustration: SLATER'S, A BETTER-CLASS CHAIN SHOP, LONDON] + + I may add about the Savoy that it was an outcome of the successful + Gilbert and Sullivan operas of the seventies, D'Oyly Carte having + expended some of his profits on building the hotel on a piece of + waste ground by the Savoy Theatre. He brought over M. Ritz from + Monte Carlo to manage the hotel and restaurant, and Escoffier, the + greatest chef of the day, to preside over the cuisine. They made + the Savoy famous for its dinners, and it has always maintained a + high reputation, although Escoffier, who has now retired, ruled + later at the Carlton; and Ritz, at the hotel in Piccadilly which + bears his name. + +BULGARIA. In Bulgaria, Arabian-Turkish methods of making coffee prevail. +The accompanying illustration shows a group in a caravan of the faithful +on the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. The venerable Moslem, who is +ambitious of becoming a hadji, is attended by his guards, distinguished +by their fantastic dress; their glittering golden-hafted _hanjars_, +stuck in their shawl girdles; and their silver-mounted pistols; the +grave turban replaced by a many-tasseled cap. Their accommodation is the +stable of a khan, or serai, shared with their camel. Their refreshment +is coffee, thick, black and bitter, served by the khanji in tiny +egg-shaped cups. + +[Illustration: ST. JAMES'S RESTAURANT, PICCADILLY, LONDON] + +In DENMARK and FINLAND coffee is made and served after the French and +German fashion. + +FRANCE. Were it not for the almost inevitable high roast and frequently +the disconcerting chicory addition, coffee in France might be an +unalloyed delight--at least this is how it appears to American eyes. One +seldom, if ever, finds coffee improperly brewed in France--it is never +boiled. + +Second only to the United States, France consumes about two million bags +of coffee annually. The varieties include coffee from the East Indies; +Mocha; Haitian (a great favorite); Central American; Colombian; and +Brazils. + +[Illustration: AN A.B.C. SHOP, LONDON] + +[Illustration: HALT OF CARAVANERS AT A SERAI, BULGARIA] + +Although there are many wholesale and retail coffee roasters in France, +home roasting persists, particularly in the country districts. The +little sheet-iron cylinder roasters, that are hand-turned over an iron +box holding the charcoal fire, find a ready sale even in the modern +department stores of the big cities. In any village or city in France it +is a common sight on a pleasant day to find the householder turning his +roaster on the curb in front of his home. Emmet G. Beeson, in _The Tea +and Coffee Trade Journal_ gives us this vignette of rural coffee +roasting in the south of France: + + In a certain town in the south of France I saw an old man with an + outfit a little larger than the home variety, a machine with a + capacity of about ten pounds. Instead of a cylinder in which to + roast his coffee, he had perched on a sheet-iron frame a hollow + round ball made of sheet iron. In the top of this ball there was a + little slide which was opened by the means of a metal tool. In the + sheet-iron frame he had kindled his charcoal fire. Directly in + front of his roaster was a home-made cooling pan, the sides of + which were of wood, the bottom covered with a fine grade of wire + screening. + + On this particular afternoon, the old man had taken up his place on + the curb; and a big black cat had taken advantage of the warmth + offered by the charcoal fire and was curled up, sleeping peacefully + in the pan nearest the fire. The old man paid no attention to the + cat, but went on rotating his ball of coffee and puffing away + pensively on his cigarette. When his coffee had become blackened + and burned, and blackened and burned it was, he stopped rotating + the ball, opened the slide in the top, turned it over, and the hot, + burned coffee rolled out, and much to his delight, on the sleeping + cat, which leaped out of the pan and scampered up the street and + into a hole under an old building. + + I afterward learned that this old fellow made a business of going + about the town gathering up coffee from the houses along the way + and roasting it at a few sous per kilo, much the same fashion as a + scissors grinder plies his trade in an American town. + +[Illustration: CAFÉ DE LA PAIX, WHERE PARIS DRINKS ITS COFFEE OUTDOORS] + +Quite a few grocers roast their own coffee in crude devices much like +those described above; but the large coffee roasters are gradually +eliminating this sort of procedure. There are at Havre several roasters, +but only two of importance; one does a business of about two hundred and +fifty bags a day, and the next largest has a capacity of about one +hundred and sixty bags a day. In Paris, there are many coffee roasters, +some quite large, comparatively speaking, one having a capacity of about +seven hundred and fifty bags a day. Shop-keepers in Paris and other +large cities roast their coffee fresh daily. The machines used are of +the ball or cylinder type, employing gas fuel and turned by electric +power. Invariably they stand where they may be seen from the street. + +Sample-roasters, or testing tables, in France are conspicuous by their +absence. Inquiry regarding this subject discloses that coffee is sold on +description; and when the French trader is asked, "How do you know your +delivery is up to description so far as cup quality is concerned?" he +answers that this is arrived at from the general appearance and the +smell of the coffee in the green. Perhaps one reason for the laxity in +buying cup quality may be explained by the fact that coffee is roasted +very high, in fact it is burned almost to a charred state; and unless +the coffee is unusually bad in character, the burned taste eliminates +any foreign flavor it may have. + +[Illustration: SIDEWALK ANNEX, CAFÉ DE LA PAIX, PARIS, WITH OPERA HOUSE +IN BACKGROUND--SUMMER OF 1918] + +The fact that coffee was, and still is, quite generally sold to the +consumer green, accounts for Central American coffees taking first +place. Style takes preference over everything else when it comes to +selling to a Frenchman. + +To the American coffee merchant it seems that the French are carrying +their artistic tastes to an unreasonable extreme when they apply them to +coffee; for coffee is grown to drink and not to look at. + +Since the coming of the large coffee roaster, who delivers roasted +coffee right down the line to the consumer, Santos has come in for its +share of the business. The roasters are getting good results out of +Santos blends, up to fifty percent and sixty percent with West Indian +and Central American coffees. Rio is as much in disfavor in France as it +is in the United States, perhaps more so. + +In Brittany the demand is for peaberry coffee, no matter of what +variety. This comes about from the fact that the people of this section +of the country still do a great deal of their roasting at home, and have +become accustomed to the use of peaberry coffee because they do not have +the improved hand roasters, and still do a great deal of their roasting +in pans in the ovens of their stoves. The peaberry coffee rolls about so +nicely in the pan that they get a much more uniform roast. + +Nearly all the coffee is ground at home, which is not a bad practise for +the consumer; but perhaps works hardship on the dealer, who can mix some +grade grinders into his blends without doing them any material harm. +Where coffee mills are used in the stores, they are of the Strong-Arm +family and of an ancient heritage. To get a growl out of the grocer in +France, buy a kilo of coffee and ask him to grind it. + +Package coffee and proprietary brands have not come into their own to +the extent that they have in the United States, although there are at +present two firms in Paris which have started in this business and are +advertising extensively on billboards, in street cars, and in the +subways. However, most coffee is still sold in bulk. The butter, egg, +and cheese stores of France do a very large business in coffee. Prior to +the war and high prices, there were some very large firms doing a +premium business in coffee, tea, spices, etc. They still exist, and +have a very fine trade; but since the high prices of coffees and +premiums, the business has gone down very materially. They operate by +the wagon-route and solicitor method, just as some of our American +companies do. One very large firm in Paris has been in this business for +more than thirty years, operating branches and wagons in every town, +village, and hamlet in France. + +[Illustration: CAFÉ DE LA RÉGENCE, PARIS, SHOWING THE TYPICAL +CONTINENTAL ARRANGEMENT OF SEATS] + +The consumption of coffee is increasing very materially in France; some +say, on account of the high price of wine, others hold that coffee is +simply growing in favor with the people. Among the masses, French +breakfast consists of a bowl or cup of _café au lait_, or half a cup or +bowl of strong black coffee and chicory, and half a cup of hot milk, and +a yard of bread. The workingman turns his bread on end and inserts it +into his bowl of coffee, allowing it to soak up as much of the liquid as +possible. Then he proceeds to suck this concoction into his system. His +approval is demonstrated by the amount of noise he makes in the +operation. + +Among the better classes, the breakfast is the same, _café au lait_, +with rolls and butter, and sometimes fruit. The brew is prepared by the +drip, or true percolator, method or by filtration. Boiling milk is +poured into the cup from a pot held in one hand together with the brewed +coffee from a pot held in the other, providing a simultaneous mixture. +The proportions vary from half-and-half to one part coffee and three +parts milk. Sometimes, the service is by pouring into the cup a little +coffee then the same quantity of milk and alternating in this way until +the cup is filled. + +Coffee is never drunk with any meal but breakfast, but is invariably +served _en demi-tasse_ after the noon and the evening meals. In the +home, the usual thing after luncheon or dinner is to go into the _salon_ +and have your demi-tasse and liqueur and cigarettes before a cosy grate +fire. A Frenchman's idea of after-dinner coffee is a brew that is +unusually thick and black, and he invariably takes with it his liqueur, +no matter if he has had a cocktail for an appetizer, a bottle of red +wine with his meat course, and a bottle of white wine with the salad and +dessert course. When the demi-tasse comes along, with it must be served +his cordial in the shape of cognac, benedictine, or crème de menthe. He +can not conceive of a man not taking a little alcohol with his +after-dinner coffee, as an aid, he says, to digestion. + +In Normandy, there prevails a custom in connection with coffee drinking +that is unique. They produce in this province great quantities of what +is known as _cidre_, made from a particular variety of apple grown +there--in other words, just plain hard cider. However, they distil this +hard cider, and from the distillation they get a drink called +_calvados_. + +[Illustration: CAFÉ DE LA RÉGENCE IN 1922] + +The man from Normandy takes half a cup of coffee, and fills the cup with +_calvados_, sweetened with sugar, and drinks it with seeming relish. +Ice-cold coffee will almost sizzle when _calvados_ is poured into it. It +tastes like a corkscrew, and one drink has the same effect as a crack on +the head with a hammer. From the toddling age up, the Norman takes his +_calvados_ and coffee. + +In the south of France they make a concoction from the residue of +grapes. They boil the residue down in water, and get a drink called +_marc_; and it is used in much the same way as the Norman in the north +uses _calvados_. Then there is also the very popular summertime drink +known as _mazagran_, which in that region means seltzer water and cold +coffee, or what Americans might call a coffee highball. + +Making coffee in France has been, and always will be, by the drip and +the filtration methods. The large hotels and cafés follow these methods +almost entirely, and so does the housewife. When company comes, and +something unusual in coffee is to be served, Mr. Beeson says he has +known the cook to drip the coffee, using a spoonful of hot water at a +time, pouring it over tightly packed, finely ground coffee, allowing the +water to percolate through to extract every particle of oil. They use +more ground coffee in bulk than they get liquid in the cup, and +sometimes spend an hour producing four or five demi-tasses. It is +needless to say that it is more like molasses than coffee when ready for +drinking. + +It is not unusual in some parts of France to save the coffee grounds for +a second or even a third infusion, but this is not considered good +practise. + +Von Liebig's idea of correct coffee making has been adapted to French +practise in some instances after this fashion: put used coffee grounds +in the bottom chamber of a drip coffee pot. Put freshly ground coffee in +the upper chamber. Pour on boiling water. The theory is that the old +coffee furnishes body and strength, and the fresh coffee the aroma. + +The cafés that line the boulevards of Paris and the larger cities of +France all serve coffee, either plain or with milk, and almost always +with liqueur. The coffee house in France may be said to be the wine +house; or the wine house may be said to be the coffee house. They are +inseparable. In the smallest or the largest of these establishments +coffee can be had at any time of day or night. The proprietor of a very +large café in Paris says his coffee sales during the day almost equal +his wine sales. + +The French, young or old, take a great deal of pleasure in sitting out +on the sidewalk in front of a café, sipping coffee or liqueur. Here they +love to idle away the time just watching the passing show. + +In Paris, there are hundreds of these cafés lining the boulevards, where +one may sit for hours before the small tables reading the newspapers, +writing letters, or merely idling. In the morning, from eight to eleven, +employees, men-about-town, tourists, and provincials throng the cafés +for _café au lait_. The waiters are coldly polite. They bring the +papers, and brush the table--twice for _café créme_ (milk), and three +times for _café complet_ (with bread and butter). + +In the afternoon, _café_ means a small cup or glass of _café noir_, or +_café nature_. It is double the usual amount of coffee dripped by +percolator or filtration device, the process consuming eight to ten +minutes. Some understand _café noir_ to mean equal parts of coffee and +brandy with sugar and vanilla to taste. When _café noir_ is mixed with +an equal quantity of cognac alone it becomes _café gloria_. _Café +mazagran_ is also much in demand in the summertime. The coffee base is +made as for _café noir_, and it is served in a tall glass with water to +dilute it to one's taste. + +Few of the cafés that made Paris famous in the eighteenth century +survive. Among those that are notable for their coffee service are the +Café de la Paix; the Café de la Régence, founded in 1718; and the Café +Prévost, noted also for chocolate after the theater. + +[Illustration: ONE OF THE BIARD CAFÉS + +There are about 200 of these coffee and wine shops in Paris. They are +frequented mostly by laborers, clerks, and midinettes] + +[Illustration: RESTAURANT PROCOPE, 1922 + +Successor to the famous "Cave" of 1689] + +GERMANY. Germany originated the afternoon coffee function known as the +kaffee-klatsch. Even today, the German family's reunion takes place +around the coffee table on Sunday afternoons. In summer, when weather +permits, the family will take a walk into the suburbs, and stop at a +garden where coffee is sold in pots. The proprietor furnishes the +coffee, the cups, the spoons and, in normal times, the sugar, two pieces +to each cup; and the patrons bring their own cake. They put one piece of +sugar into each cup and take the other pieces home to the "canary bird," +meaning the sugar bowl in the pantry. + +Cheaper coffee is served in some gardens, which conspicuously display +large signs at the entrance, saying: "Families may cook their own coffee +in this place." In such a garden, the patron merely buys the hot water +from the proprietor, furnishing the ground coffee and cake himself. + +While waiting for the coffee to brew, he may listen to the band and +watch the children play under the trees. French or Vienna drip pots are +used for brewing. + +Every city in Germany has its cafés, spacious places where patrons sit +around small tables, drinking coffee, "with or without" turned or +unturned, steaming or iced, sweetened or unsweetened, depending on the +sugar supply; nibble, at the same time, a piece of cake or pastry, +selected from a glass pyramid; talk, flirt, malign, yawn, read, and +smoke. Cafés are, in fact, public reading rooms. Some places keep +hundreds of daily and weekly newspapers and magazines on file for the +use of patrons. If the customer buys only one cup of coffee, he may keep +his seat for hours, and read one newspaper after another. + +Three of the four corners of Berlin's most important street crossing are +occupied by cafés. This is where Unter den Linden and Friedrichstrasse +meet. On the southwest corner there is Kranzler's staid old café, a very +respectable place, where the lower hall is even reserved for +non-smokers. On the southeast corner is Café Bauer, known the world +over. However, it has seen better days. It has been outdistanced by +competitors. On the northeast corner is the Victoria, a new-style place, +very bright, and less staid. There no room is reserved for non-smokers, +for most of the ladies, if they do not themselves smoke, will light the +cigars for their escorts. + +Around the Potsdamer Platz there is a number of cafés. Josty's is +perhaps the most frequented in Berlin. It is the best liked on account +of the trees and terraces in front. Farther to the west, on +Kuerfuerstendamm, there are dozens of large cafés. + +[Illustration: MORNING COFFEE IN FRONT OF A BOULEVARD CAFÉ, PARIS, WITH +A BRITISH BACKGROUND] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR, CAFÉ BAUER, BERLIN] + +Some of the cafés are meeting-places for certain professions and trades. +The Admiral's café, in Friedrichstrasse, for instance, is the +"artistes'" exchange. All the stage folk and stars of the tanbark meet +there every day. Chorus girls, tumblers, ladies of the flying trapeze, +contortionists, and bareback riders are to be found there, discussing +their grievances, denouncing their managers, swapping their diamonds, +and recounting former triumphs. Cinema-makers come also to pick out a +cast for a new film play. There one can pick out a full cast every +minute. + +Then there is the Café des Westens in Kuerfuerstendamm, the old one, +where dreamers and poets congregate. It is called also Café +Groessenwahn, which means that persons suffering from an exaggerated ego +are conspicuous by their presence and their long hair. + +At almost every table one may find a poet who has written a play that is +bound to enrich its author and any man of means who will put up the +money to build a new theater in which to produce it. + +Saxony and Thuringia are proverbial hotbeds of coffee lovers. It is said +that in Saxony there are more coffee drinkers to the square inch and +more cups to the single coffee bean than anywhere else upon earth. The +Saxons like their coffee, but seem to be afraid it may be too strong for +them. So, when over their cups, they always make certain they can see +bottom before raising the steaming bowl to the lip. + +Von Liebig's method of making coffee, whereby three-fourths of the +quantity to be used is first boiled for ten or fifteen minutes, and the +remainder added for a six-minute steeping or infusion, is religiously +followed by some housekeepers. Von Liebig advocated coating the bean +with sugar. In some families, fats, eggs, and egg-shells are used to +settle and to clarify the beverage. + +[Illustration: CAFÉ BAUER, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN] + +Coffee in Germany is better cooked (roasted) and more scientifically +prepared than in many other European countries. In recent years, during +the World War and since, however, there has been an amazing increase in +the use of coffee substitutes, so that the German cup of coffee is not +the pure delight it was once. + +GREECE. Coffee is the most popular and most extensively used +non-alcoholic beverage in Greece, as it is throughout the Near East. Its +annual per capita consumption there is about two pounds, two-thirds of +the supply coming _via_ Austria and France, Brazil furnishing direct the +bulk of the remaining third. + +Coffee is given a high or city roast, and is used almost entirely in +powdered form. It is prepared for consumption principally in the Turkish +demi-tasse way. Finely ground coffee is used even in making ordinary +table, or breakfast, coffee. In private houses the cylindrical brass +hand-grinders, manufactured in Constantinople, are mostly used. In many +of the coffee houses in the villages and country towns throughout Greece +and the Levant, a heavy iron pestle, wielded by a strong man, is +employed to pulverize the grains in a heavy stone or marble mortar; +while the poorer homes use a small brass pestle and mortar, also +manufactured in Turkey. + +In his _The Greeks of the Present Day_[371], Edmond François Valentin +About says: + + The coffee which is drunk in all the Greek houses rather astonishes + the travellers who have neither seen Turkey nor Algeria. One is + surprised at finding food in a cup in which one expected drink. Yet + you get accustomed to this coffee-broth and end by finding it more + savoury, lighter, more perfumed, and especially more wholesome, + than the extract of coffee you drink in France. + +Then About gives the recipe of his servant Petros, who is "the first man +in Athens for coffee": + + The grain is roasted without burning it; it is reduced to an + impalpable powder, either in a mortar or in a very close-grained + mill. Water is set on the fire till it boils up; it is taken off to + throw in a spoonful of coffee, and a spoonful of pounded sugar for + each cup it is intended to make; it is carefully mixed; the coffee + pot is replaced on the fire until the contents seem ready to boil + over; it is taken off, and set on again; lastly it is quickly + poured into the cups. Some coffee drinkers have this preparation + boiled as many as five times. Petros makes a rule of not putting + his coffee more than three times on the fire. He takes care in + filling the cups to divide impartially the coloured froth which + rises above the coffee pot; it is the _kaimaki_ of the coffee. A + cup without _kaimaki_ is disgraced. + + When the coffee is poured out you are at liberty to drink it + boiling and muddy, or cold and clear. Real amateurs drink it + without waiting. Those who allow the sediment to settle down, do + not do so from contempt, for they afterwards collect it with the + little finger and eat it carefully. + + Thus prepared, coffee may be taken without inconvenience ten times + a day: five cups of French coffee could not be drunk with impunity + every day. It is because the coffee of the Turks and the Greeks is + a diluted tonic, and ours is a concentrated tonic. + + I have met at Paris many people who took their coffee without + sugar, to imitate the Orientals. I think I ought to give them + notice, between ourselves, that in the great coffee-houses of + Athens, sugar is always presented with the coffee; in the khans and + second-rate coffee-houses, it is served already sugared; and that + at Smyrna and Constantinople, it has everywhere been brought to me + sugared. + +[Illustration: KRANZLER'S, UNTER DEN LINDEN, BERLIN] + +ITALY. In Italy coffee is roasted in a wholesale and retail way as well +as in the home. French, German, Dutch, and Italian machines are used. +The full city, or Italian, roast is favored. There are cafés as in +France and other continental countries, and the drink is prepared in the +French fashion. For restaurants and hotels, rapid filtering machines, +first developed by the French and Italians, are used. In the homes, +percolators and filtration devices are employed. + +The De Mattia Brothers have a process designed to conserve the aroma in +roasting. The Italians pay particular attention to the temperature in +roasting and in the cooling operation. There is considerable glazing, +and many coffee additions are used. + +Like the French, the Italians make much of _café au lait_ for breakfast. +At dinner, the _café noir_ is served. + +Cafés of the French school are to be found along the Corso in Rome, the +Toledo in Naples, in the Galleria Vittorio Emanuel and the Piazza del +Duomo in Milan, and in the arcades surrounding the Piazza de San Marco +in Venice, where Florian's still flourishes. + +NETHERLANDS. In the Netherlands, too, the French café is a delightful +feature of the life of the larger cities. The Dutch roast coffee +properly, and make it well. The service is in individual pots, or in +demi-tasses on a silver, nickle, or brass tray, and accompanied by a +miniature pitcher containing just enough cream (usually whipped), a +small dish about the size of an individual butter plate holding three +squares of sugar, and a slender glass of water. This service is +universal; the glass of water always goes with the coffee. It is the one +sure way for Americans to get a drink of water. It is the custom in +Holland to repair to some open-air café or indoor coffee house for the +after-dinner cup of coffee. One seldom takes his coffee in the place +where he has his dinner. These cafés are many, and some are elaborately +designed and furnished. One of the most interesting is the St. Joris at +the Hague, furnished in the old Dutch style. The approved way of making +coffee in Holland is the French drip method. + +NORWAY AND SWEDEN. French and German influences mark the roasting, +grinding, preparing, and serving of coffee in Norway and Sweden. +Generally speaking, not so much chicory is used, and a great deal of +whipped cream is employed. In Norway, the boiling method has many +followers. A big (open) copper kettle is used. This is filled with +water, and the coffee is dumped in and boiled. In the poorer-class +country homes, the copper kettle is brought to the table and set upon a +wooden plate. The coffee is served directly from the kettle in cups. In +better-class homes, the coffee is poured from the kettle into silver +coffee pots in the kitchen, and the silver coffee pots are brought to +the table. The only thing approaching coffee houses are the "coffee +rooms" which are to be found in Christiania. These are small one-room +affairs in which the plainer sorts of foods, such as porridge, may be +purchased with the coffee. They are cheap, and are largely frequented by +the poorer class of students, who use them as places in which to study +while they drink their coffee. + +In RUSSIA and SWITZERLAND, French and German methods obtain. Russia, +however, drinks more tea than coffee, which by the masses is prepared in +Turkish fashion, when obtainable. Usually, the coffee is only a cheap +"substitute." The so-called _café à la Russe_ of the aristocracy, is +strong black coffee flavored with lemon. Another Russian recipe calls +for the coffee to be placed in a large punch bowl, and covered with a +layer of finely chopped apples and pears; then cognac is poured over the +mass, and a match applied. + +ROUMANIA and SERVIA drink coffee prepared after either the Turkish or +the French style, depending on the class of the drinker and where it is +served. Substitutes are numerous. + +In SPAIN and PORTUGAL the French type of café flourishes as in Italy. In +Madrid, some delightful cafés are to be found around the Puerto del Sol, +where coffee and chocolate are the favorite drinks. The coffee is made +by the drip process, and is served in French fashion. + + +_Coffee Manners and Customs in North America_ + +The introduction of coffee and tea into North America effected a great +change in the meal-time beverages of the people. Malt beverages had been +succeeded by alcoholic spirits and by cider. These in turn were +supplanted by tea and coffee. + +CANADA. In Canada, we find both French and English influences at work in +the preparation and serving of the beverage; "Yankee" ideas also have +entered from across the border. Some years back (about 1910) A. McGill, +chief chemist of the Canadian Inland Revenue Department, suggested an +improvement upon Baron von Liebig's method, whereby Canadians might +obtain an ideal cup of coffee. It was to combine two well-known methods. +One was to boil a quantity of ground coffee to get a maximum of body or +soluble matter. The other was to percolate a similar quantity to get the +needed caffeol. By combining the decoction and the infusion, a finished +beverage rich in body and aroma might be had. Most Canadians continue to +drink tea, however, although coffee consumption is increasing. + +MEXICO. In Mexico, the natives have a custom peculiarly their own. The +roasted beans are pounded to a powder in a cloth bag which is then +immersed in a pot of boiling water and milk. The _vaquero_, however, +pours boiling water on the powdered coffee in his drinking cup, and +sweetens it with a brown sugar stick. + +Among the upper classes in Mexico the following interesting method +obtains for making coffee: + + Roast one pound until the beans are brown inside. Mix with the + roasted coffee one teaspoonful of butter, one of sugar, and a + little brandy. Cover with a thick cloth. Cool for one hour; then + grind. Boil one quart of water. When boiling, put in the coffee and + remove from fire immediately. Let it stand a few hours, and strain + through a flannel bag, and keep in a stone jar until required for + use; then heat quantity required. + +[Illustration: SIDEWALK CAFÉ, LISBON] + +UNITED STATES. In no country has there been so marked an improvement in +coffee making as in the United States. Although in many parts, the +national beverage is still indifferently prepared, the progress made in +recent years has been so great that the friends of coffee are hopeful +that before long it may be said truly that coffee making in America is a +national honor and no longer the national disgrace that it was in the +past. + +[Illustration: THESE COFFEE POTS ARE WIDELY USED IN SWEDEN FOR BOILING +COFFEE + +Left, copper pot with wooden handle and iron legs designed to stand in +the coals--Center, glass-globe pot, for stove use, enclosed in +felt-lined brass cosey--Right, hand-made hammered-brass kettle for stove +use] + +Already, in the more progressive homes, and in the best hotels and +restaurants, the coffee is uniformly good, and the service all that it +should be. The American breakfast cup is a food-beverage because of the +additions of milk or cream and sugar; and unlike Europe, this same +generous cup serves again as a necessary part of the noonday and evening +meals for most people. + +[Illustration: THE COFFEE ROOM OF THE HOTEL ADOLPHUS, DALLAS, TEXAS] + +[Illustration: DAY-AND-NIGHT COFFEE ROOM, RICE HOTEL, HOUSTON, TEXAS] + +[Illustration: HOTEL BARS REPLACED BY COFFEE ROOMS IN THE UNITED STATES + +One effect of prohibition has been to lead many hotels to feature their +coffee service, bringing back the modern type of coffee room illustrated +above] + +The important and indispensable part that sugar plays in the make-up of +the American cup of coffee was ably set forth by Fred Mason,[372] +vice-president of the American Sugar Refining Co., when he said: + + The coffee cup and the sugar bowl are inseparable table companions. + Most of us did not realize this until the war came, with its + attendant restrictions on everything we did, and we found that the + sugar bowl had disappeared from all public eating places. No longer + could we make an unlimited number of trips to the sugar bowl to + sweeten our coffee; but we had to be content with what was doled + out to us with scrupulous care--a quantity so small at times that + it gave only a hint of sweetness to our national beverage. + + Then it was that we really appreciated how indispensable the proper + amount of sugar was to a good, savory cup of coffee, and we missed + it as much as we would seasoning from certain cooked foods. + Secretly we consoled ourselves with the promise that if the day + ever came when sugar bowls made their appearance once more, filled + temptingly with the sweet granules that were "gone but not + forgotten," we should put an extra lump or an additional spoonful + of sugar into our coffee to help us forget the joyless war days. + + Since sugar is so necessary to our enjoyment of this popular + beverage, it is obvious that a considerable part of all the sugar + we consume must find its way into the national coffee cup. The + stupendous amount of 40,000,000,000 cups of coffee is consumed in + this country each year. Taking two teaspoonfuls or two lumps as a + fair average per cup, we find that about 800,000,000 pounds of + sugar, almost one-tenth of our total annual consumption, are + required to sweeten Uncle Sam's coffee cup. This is specially + significant when one considers that, with the single exception of + Australia, the United States consumes more sugar per capita than + any country on earth. + + Sugar adds high food value to the stimulative virtues of coffee. + The beverage itself stimulates the mental and physical powers, + while the sugar it contains is fuel for the body and furnishes it + with energy. Sugar is such a concentrated food that the amount used + by the average person in two cups of coffee is enough to furnish + the system with more energy than could be derived from 40 oysters + on the half-shell. + +Since prohibition, the average citizen is drinking one hundred more cups +of coffee a year than he did in the old days; and a good part of the +increase is attributed to newly formed habits of drinking coffee between +meals, at soda fountains, in tea and coffee shops, at hotels, and even +in the homes. In other words, the increase is due to coffee drinking +that directly takes the place of malt and spirituous liquors. There have +come into being the hotel coffee room; the custom of afternoon coffee +drinking; and free coffee-service in many factories, stores, and +offices. + +In colonial days, must or ale first gave way to tea, and then to coffee +as a breakfast beverage. The Boston "tea party" clinched the case for +coffee; but in the meantime, coffee was more or less of an after-dinner +function, or a between-meals drink, as in Europe. In Washington's time, +dinner was usually served at three o'clock in the afternoon, and at +informal dinner parties the company "sat till sunset--then coffee." + +In the early part of the nineteenth century, coffee became firmly +intrenched as the one great American breakfast beverage; and its +security in this position would seem to be unassailable for all time. + +Today, all classes in the United States begin and end the day with +coffee. In the home, it is prepared by boiling, infusion or steeping, +percolation, and filtration; in the hotels and restaurants, by infusion, +percolation, and filtration. The best practise favors true percolation +(French drip), or filtration. + +Steeping coffee in American homes (an English heirloom) is usually +performed in a china or earthenware jug. The ground coffee has boiling +water poured upon it until the jug is half full. The infusion is stirred +briskly. Next, the jug is filled by pouring in the remainder of the +boiling water, the infusion is again stirred, then permitted to settle, +and finally is poured through a strainer or filter cloth before serving. + +When a pumping percolator or a double glass filtration device is used, +the water may be cold or boiling at the beginning as the maker prefers. +Some wet the coffee with cold water before starting the brewing process. + +For genuine percolator, or drip coffee, French and Austrian china drip +pots are mostly employed. The latest filtration devices are described in +chapter XXXIV. + +The Creole, or French market, coffee for which New Orleans has long been +famous is made from a concentrated coffee extract prepared in a drip +pot. First, the ground coffee has poured over it sufficient boiling +water thoroughly to dampen it, after which further additions of boiling +water, a tablespoonful at a time, are poured upon it at five minute +intervals. The resulting extract is kept in a tightly corked bottle for +making _café au lait_ or _café noir_ as required. A variant of the +Creole method is to brown three tablespoonfuls of sugar in a pan, to add +a cup of water, and to allow it to simmer until the sugar is dissolved; +to pour this liquid over ground coffee in a drip pot, to add boiling +water as required, and to serve black or with cream or hot milk, as +desired. + +In New Orleans, coffee is often served at the bedside upon waking, as a +kind of early breakfast function. + +The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 served to introduce the +Vienna café to America. Fleischmann's Vienna Café and Bakery was a +feature of our first international exposition. Afterward, it was +transferred to Broadway, New York, where for many years it continued to +serve excellent coffee in Vienna style next door to Grace Church. + +The opportunity is still waiting for the courageous soul who will bring +back to our larger cities this Vienna café or some Americanized form of +the continental or sidewalk café, making a specialty of tea, coffee, and +chocolate. + +The old Astor House was famous for its coffee for many years, as was +also Dorlon's from 1840 to 1922. + +Members of the family of the late Colonel Roosevelt began to promote a +Brazil coffee-house enterprise in New York in 1919. It was first called +Café Paulista, but it is now known as the Double R coffee house, or Club +of South America, with a Brazil branch in the 40's and an Argentine +branch on Lexington Avenue. Coffee is made and served in Brazilian +style; that is, full city roast, pulverized grind, filtration made; +service, black or with hot milk. Sandwiches, cakes, and crullers are +also to be had. + +One of New York's newest clubs is known as the Coffee House. It is in +West Forty-fifth Street, and has been in existence since December, 1915, +when it was opened with an informal dinner, at which the late Joseph H. +Choate, one of the original members, outlined the purpose and policies +of the club. + +The founders of the Coffee House were convinced--as the result of the +high dues and constantly increasing formality and discipline in the +social clubs in New York--that there was need here for a moderate-priced +eating and meeting place, which should be run in the simplest possible +way and with the least possible expense. + +At the beginning of its career, the club framed, adopted, and has since +lived up to, a most informal constitution: "No officers, no liveries, no +tips, no set speeches, no charge accounts, no RULES." + +The membership is made up, for the most part, of painters, writers, +sculptors, architects, actors, and members of other professions. Members +are expected to pay cash for all orders. There are no proposals of +candidates for membership. The club invites to join it those whom it +believes to be in sympathy with the ideals of its founders. + +The method of preparing coffee for individual service in the +Waldorf-Astoria, New York, which has been adopted by many first-class +hotels and restaurants that do not serve urn-made coffee exclusively, is +the French drip plus careful attention to all the contributing factors +for making coffee in perfection, and is thus described by the hotel's +steward: + +[Illustration: BRITANNIA COFFEE POT FROM WHICH ABRAHAM LINCOLN WAS OFTEN +SERVED IN NEW SALEM + +Its story is told on page 614] + + A French china drip coffee pot is used. It is kept in a warm + heater; and when the coffee is ordered, this pot is scalded with + hot water. A level tablespoonful of coffee, ground to about the + consistency of granulated sugar, is put into the upper and + percolator part of the coffee pot. Fresh boiling water is then + poured through the coffee and allowed to percolate into the lower + part of the pot. The secret of success, according to our + experience, lies in having the coffee freshly ground, and the water + as near the boiling point as possible, all during the process. For + this reason, the coffee pot should be placed on a gas stove or + range. The quantity of coffee can be varied to suit individual + taste. We use about ten percent more ground coffee for after dinner + cups than we do for breakfast. Our coffee is a mixture of Old + Government Java and Bogota. + +[Illustration: COFFEE SERVICE, HOTEL ASTOR, NEW YORK] + +C. Scotty, chef at the Hotel Ambassador, New York, thus describes the +method of making coffee in that hostelry: + + In the first place, it is essential that the coffee be of the + finest quality obtainable; secondly, better results are obtained by + using the French filterer, or coffee bag. + + Twelve ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for breakfast. + + Sixteen ounces of coffee to one gallon of water for dinner. + + Boiling water should be poured over the coffee, sifoned, and put + back several times. We do not allow the coffee grounds to remain in + the urn for more than fifteen to twenty minutes at any time. + +The coffee service at the best hotels is usually in silver pots and +pitchers, and includes the freshly made coffee, hot milk or cream +(sometimes both), and domino sugar. + +Within the last year (1921) many of the leading hotels, and some of the +big railway systems, have adopted the custom of serving free a +demi-tasse of coffee as soon as the guest-traveler seats himself at the +breakfast table or in the dining car. "Small blacks," the waiters call +them, or "coffee cocktails," according to their fancy. + +At the Pequot coffee house, 91 Water Street, New York, a noonday +restaurant in the heart of the coffee trade, an attempt has been made to +introduce something of the old-time coffee house atmosphere. + +The Childs chain of restaurants recently began printing on its menus, in +brackets before each item, the number of calories as computed by an +expert in nutrition. Coffee with a mixture of milk and cream is credited +with eighty-five calories, a well known coffee substitute with seventy +calories, and tea with eighteen calories. The Childs chain of 92 +restaurants serves 40,000,000 cups of coffee a year, made from 375 tons +of ground coffee, and figuring an average of 53 cups to the pound. + +The Thompson chain of one hundred restaurants serves 160,000 cups of +coffee per day, or more than 58,000,000 cups per year. + + +_Coffee Customs in South America_ + +ARGENTINE. Coffee is very popular as a beverage in Argentina. _Café con +léche_--coffee with milk, in which the proportion of coffee may vary +from one-fourth to two-thirds--is the usual Argentine breakfast +beverage. A small cup of coffee is generally taken after meals, and it +is also consumed to a considerable extent in cafés. + +BRAZIL. In Brazil every one drinks coffee and at all hours. Cafés making +a specialty of the beverage, and modeled after continental originals, +are to be found a-plenty in Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and other large +cities. The custom prevails of roasting the beans high, almost to +carbonization, grinding them fine, and then boiling after the Turkish +fashion, percolating in French drip pots, steeping in cold water for +several hours, straining and heating the liquid for use as needed, or +filtering by means of conical linen sacks suspended from wire rings. + +The Brazilian loves to frequent the cafés and to sip his coffee at his +ease. He is very continental in this respect. The wide-open doors, and +the round-topped marble tables, with their small cups and saucers set +around a sugar basin, make inviting pictures. The customer pulls toward +him one of the cups and immediately a waiter comes and fills it with +coffee, the charge for which is about three cents. It is a common thing +for a Brazilian to consume one dozen to two dozen cups of black coffee a +day. If one pays a social visit, calls upon the president of the +Republic, or any lesser official, or on a business acquaintance, it is a +signal for an attendant to serve coffee. _Café au lait_ is popular in +the morning; but except for this service, milk or cream is never used. +In Brazil, as in the Orient, coffee is a symbol of hospitality. + +In CHILE, PARAGUAY and URUGUAY, very much the same customs prevail of +making and serving the beverage. + + +_Coffee Drinking in Other Countries_ + +In AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALAND, English methods for roasting, grinding, +and making coffee are standard. The beverage usually contains thirty to +forty percent chicory. In the bush, the water is boiled in a billy can. +Then the powdered coffee is added; and when the liquid comes again to a +boil, the coffee is done. In the cities, practically the same method is +followed. The general rule in the antipodes seems to be to "let it come +to a boil", and then to remove it from the fire. + +In CUBA the custom is to grind the coffee fine, to put it in a flannel +sack suspended over a receiving vessel, and to pour cold water on it. +This is repeated many times, until the coffee mass is well saturated. +The first drippings are repoured over the bag. The final result is a +highly concentrated extract, which serves for making _café au lait_, or +_café noir_, as desired. + +In MARTINIQUE, coffee is made after the French fashion. In PANAMA, +French and American methods obtain; as also in the PHILIPPINES. + +[Illustration] + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +PREPARATION OF THE UNIVERSAL BEVERAGE + + _The evolution of grinding and brewing methods--Coffee was first a + food, then a wine, a medicine, a devotional refreshment, a + confection, and finally a beverage--Brewing by boiling, infusion, + percolation, and filtration--Coffee making in Europe in the + nineteenth century--Early coffee making in the United + States--Latest developments in better coffee making--Various + aspects of scientific coffee brewing--Advice to coffee lovers on + how to buy coffee, and how to make it in perfection_ + + +The coffee drink has had a curious evolution. It began, not as a drink, +but as a food ration. Its first use as a drink was as a kind of wine. +Civilization knew it first as a medicine. At one stage of its +development, before it became generally accepted as a liquid +refreshment, the berries found favor as a confection. As a beverage, its +use probably dates back about six hundred years. + +The protein and fat content, that is, the food value, of coffee, so far +as civilized man is concerned, is an absolute waste. The only +constituents that are of value are those that are water soluble, and can +be extracted readily with hot water. When coffee is properly made, as by +the drip method, either by percolation or filtration, the ground coffee +comes in contact with the hot water for only a few minutes; so the major +portion of the protein, which is not only practically insoluble, but +coagulates on heating, remains in the unused part of the coffee, the +grounds. The coffee bean contains a large percent of protein--fourteen +percent. By comparing this figure with twenty-one percent of protein in +peas, twenty-three percent in lentils, twenty-six percent in beans, +twenty-four percent in peanuts, about eleven percent in wheat flour, and +less than nine percent in white bread, we learn how much of this +valuable food stuff is lost with the coffee grounds[373]. + +Though civilized man (excepting the inhabitants of the Isle de Groix off +the coast of Brittany) does not use this protein content of coffee, in +certain parts of Africa it has been put to use in a very ingenious and +effective manner "from time immemorial" down to the present day. James +Bruce, the Scottish explorer, in his travels to discover the source of +the Nile in 1768-73, found that this curious use of the coffee bean had +been known for centuries. He brought back accounts and specimens of its +use as a food in the shape of balls made of grease mixed with roasted +coffee finely ground between stones. + +Other writers have told how the Galla, a wandering tribe of Africa--and +like most wandering tribes, a warlike one--find it necessary to carry +concentrated food on their long marches. Before starting on their +marauding excursions, each warrior equips himself with a number of food +balls. These prototypes of the modern food tablet are about the size of +a billiard ball, and consist of pulverized coffee held in shape with +fat. One ball constitutes a day's ration; and although civilized man +might find it unpalatable, from the purely physiological standpoint it +is not only a concentrated and efficient food, but it also has the +additional advantage of containing a valuable stimulant in the caffein +content which spurs the warrior on to maximum effort. And so the savage +in the African jungle has apparently solved two problems; the +utilization of coffee's protein, and the production of a concentrated +food. + +Further research shows that perhaps as early as 800 A.D. this practise +started by crushing the whole ripe berries, beans and hulls, in mortars, +mixing them with fats, and rounding them into food balls. Later, the +dried berries were so used. The inhabitants of Groix, also, thrive on a +diet that includes roasted coffee beans. + +About 900, a kind of aromatic wine was made in Africa from the fermented +juice of the hulls and pulp of the ripe berries[374]. + +Payen says that the first coffee drinkers did not think of roasting but, +impressed by the aroma of the dried beans, they put them in cold water +and drank the liquor saturated with their aromatic principles. Crushing +the raw beans and hulls, and steeping them in water, was a later +improvement. + +It appears that boiled coffee (the name is anathema today) was invented +about the year 1000 A.D. Even then, the beans were not roasted. We read +of their use in medicine in the form of a decoction. The dried fruit, +beans and hulls, were boiled in stone or clay cauldrons. The custom of +using the sun-dried hulls, without roasting, still exists in Africa, +Arabia, and parts of southern Asia. The natives of Sumatra neglect the +fruit of the coffee tree and use the leaves to make a tea-like infusion. +Jardin relates that in Guiana an agreeable tea is made by drying the +young buds of the coffee tree, and rolling them on a copper plate +slightly heated. In Uganda, the natives eat the raw berries; from +bananas and coffee they make also a sweet, savory drink which is called +_menghai_. + +About 1200, the practise was common of making a decoction from the dried +hulls alone. There followed the discovery that roasting improved the +flavor. Even today, this drink known as Sultan or Sultana coffee, _café +à la sultane_, or _kisher_, continues in favor in Arabia. Credit for the +invention of this beverage has been wrongfully given by various French +writers to Doctor Andry, director of the Faculty of Medicine in Paris. +Dr. Andry had his own recipe for making _café à la sultane_, which was +to boil the coffee hulls for half an hour. This gave a lemon-colored +liquid which was drunk with a little sugar. + +[Illustration: EARLY COFFEE MAKING IN PERSIA + +Showing leather bag for green beans, roasting plate, grinder, boiler, +and serving cups] + +The Oriental procedure was to toast the hulls in an earthenware pot over +a charcoal fire, mixing in with them a small quantity of the silver +skins, and turning them over until they were slightly parched. The hulls +and silver skins, in proportions of four to one, were then thrown into +boiling water and well boiled again for at least a half-hour. The color +of the drink had some resemblance to the best English beer, La Roque +assures us, and it required no sweetening, "there being no bitterness to +correct." This was still the coffee drink of the court of Yemen, and of +people of distinction in the Levant, when La Roque and his +fellow-travelers made their celebrated voyage to Arabia the Happy in +1711-13. + +Some time in the thirteenth century, the practise began of roasting the +dried beans, after the hulling process. This was done first in crude +stone and earthenware trays, and later on metal plates, as described in +chapter XXXIV. A liquor was made from boiling the whole roasted beans. +The next step was to pound the roasted beans to a powder with a mortar +and pestle; and the decoction was then made by throwing the powder into +boiling water, the drink being swallowed in its entirety, grounds and +all. It was a decoction for the next four centuries. + +When the long-handled Arabian metal boiler made its appearance in the +early part of the sixteenth century, the method of preparation and +service had much improved. The Arabs and the Turks had made it a social +adjunct, and its use was no longer confined to the physicians and the +churchmen. It had become a stimulating refreshment for all the people; +and at the same time, the Arabians and the Turks had developed a coffee +ceremony for the higher classes which was quite as wonderful as the tea +ceremony of Japan. + +The common early method of preparation throughout the Levant was to +steep the powder in water for a day, to boil the liquor half away, to +strain it, and to keep it in earthen pots for use as wanted. In the +sixteenth century, the small coffee boiler, or _ibrik_, caused the +practise to be more of an instantaneous affair. The coffee was ground, +and the powder was dropped into the boiling water, to be withdrawn from +the fire several times as it boiled up to the rim. While still boiling, +cinnamon and cloves were sometimes added before pouring the liquid off +into the findjans, or little china cups, to be served with the addition +of a drop of essence of amber. Later, the Turks added sugar during the +boiling process. + +From the first simple uncovered _ibrik_ there was developed, about the +middle of the seventeenth century, a larger-size covered coffee boiler, +the forerunner of the modern combination brewing and serving pot. This +was a copper-plated kettle patterned after the oriental ewer with a +broad base, bulbous body, and narrow neck. After having poured into it +one and a half times as much water as the dish (cup) in which the drink +was to be served would hold, the pot was placed on a lively fire. When +the water boiled, the powdered coffee was tossed into the pot; and, as +the liquid boiled up, it was taken from the fire and returned, probably +a dozen times. Then the pot was placed in hot ashes to permit the +grounds to settle. This done, the drink was served. Dufour, describing +this process as practised in Turkey and Arabia, says: + + One ought not to drink coffee, but suck it in as hot as one can. In + order not to be burned, it is not necessary to place the tongue in + the cup but hold the edge against the tongue with the lips above + and below it, forcing it so little that the edges do not bear down, + and then suck in; that is to say, swallow it sip by sip. If one is + so delicate he can not stand the bitterness, he can temper it with + sugar. It is a mistake to stir the coffee in the pot, the grounds + being worth nothing. In the Levant it is only the scum of the + people who swallow the grounds. + +La Roque says: + + The Arabians, when they take their coffee off the fire, immediately + wrap the vessel in a wet cloth which fines the liquor instantly, + makes it cream at the top and occasion a more pungent steam, which + they take great pleasure in snuffing up as the coffee is pouring + into the cups. They, like all other nations of the East, drink + their coffee without sugar. + +Some of the Orientals afterward modified the early coffee-making +procedure by pouring the boiling water on the powdered coffee in the +serving cups. They thus obtained "a foaming and perfumed beverage," says +Jardin, "to which we (the French) could not accustom ourselves because +of the powder which remains in suspension. Nevertheless, clarified +coffee may be obtained in the Orient. In Mecca, in order to filter it, +they strain it through stopples of dried herbs, put into the opening of +a jar." + +Sugar seems to have been introduced into coffee in Cairo about 1625. +Veslingius records that the coffee drinkers in Cairo's three thousand +coffee houses "did begin to put sugar in their coffee to correct the +bitterness of it", and that "others made sugar plums of the coffee +berries". This coffee confection later appeared in Paris, and about the +same time (1700) at Montpellier was introduced a coffee water, "a sort +of rosa-folis of an agreeable scent that has somewhat of the smell of +coffee roasted." These novelties, however, were designed to please only +"the most nice lovers of coffee"; for _ennui_ and boredom demanded new +sensations then as now. + +Boiling continued the favorite method of preparing the beverage until +well into the eighteenth century. Meanwhile, we learn from English +references that it was the custom to buy the beans of apothecaries, to +dry them in an oven, or to roast them in an old pudding dish or frying +pan before pounding them to a powder with mortar and pestle, to force +the powder through a lawn sieve, and then to boil it with spring water +for a quarter of an hour. The following recipe from a rare book +published in London, 1662, details the manner of making coffee in the +seventeenth century: + + +COFFEE MAKING IN 1662 + + To make the drink that is now much used called coffee. + + The coffee-berries are to be bought at any Druggist, about three + shillings the pound; take what quantity you please, and over a + charcoal fire, in an old pudding-pan or frying-pan, keep them + always stirring until they be quite black, and when you crack one + with your teeth that it is black within as it is without; yet if + you exceed, then do you waste the Oyl, which only makes the drink; + and if less, then will it not deliver its Oyl, which must make the + drink; and if you should continue fire till it be white, it will + then make no coffee, but only give you its salt. The Berry prepared + as above, beaten and forced through a Lawn Sive, is then fit for + use. + + Take clean water, and boil one-third of it away what quantity + soever it be, and it is fit for use. Take one quart of this + prepared Water, put in it one ounce of your prepared coffee, and + boil it gently one-quarter of an hour, and it is fit for your use; + drink one-quarter of a pint as hot as you can sip it. + +In England, about this time, the coffee drink was not infrequently mixed +with sugar candy, and even with mustard. In the coffee houses, however, +it was usually served black, without sugar or milk. + +About 1660, Nieuhoff, the Dutch ambassador to China, was the first to +make a trial of coffee with milk in imitation of tea with milk. In 1685, +Sieur Monin, a celebrated doctor of Grenoble, France, first recommended +_café au lait_ as a medicine. He prepared it thus: Place on the fire a +bowl of milk. When it begins to rise, throw in to it a bowl of powdered +coffee, a bowl of moist sugar, and let it boil for some time. + +We read that in 1669 "coffee in France was a hot black decoction of +muddy grounds thickened with syrup." + +Angelo Rambaldi in his _Ambrosia Arabica_ thus describes coffee making +in Italy and other European countries in 1691: + + +DESCRIPTION OF THE VASE FOR MAKING THE +DECOCTION, DOSE OF POWDER AND OF THE +WATER NECESSARY AND TIME OF +BOILING IT. + + Two such vessels having a large paunch to reach the fire, two + others with long necks and narrow, with a cover to restrain their + spirituous and volatile particles which when thrown off by the heat + are easily lost. These vessels are called Ibriq in Arabia. They are + made of copper--coated with white outside and inside. We, who do + not possess the art of making them should select an earth vitriate, + sulphate of copper, or any other material adapted for kitchen ware: + it might even be of silver. + + The quantity of water and powder has no certain rule, by reason of + the difference of our nature and tastes, and each one after some + experience will use his own judgment to adjust it to his desire and + liking. + + Maronita infused two ounces of powder in three litres of water. + Cotovico in his voyage to Jerusalem affirms that he has observed + six ounces of the former to 20 litres of the latter, boiled until + it was reduced to half the quantity. Thévenot asserts that the + Turks in three cups of water are contented with a good spoonful of + powder. I have observed however that in Africa, France and England, + into about six ounces of water (which with them is one cup) a dram + of the powder is infused and this agrees with my taste--but I have + wished at times to change the dose. + + Others put the water into the vase and when it begins to boil add + the powder, but because it is full of spirit at the first contact + with the heat it rises and boils over the edge of the vase. Take it + away from the fire till the boiling ceases, then put it on the fire + again and let it stay a short time boiling with the cover on: Stand + it on warm ashes until it settles, after which slowly pour a little + of the decoction into an earthen vessel, or one of porcelain or any + other kind, as hot as can be borne, and drink a sip; if it pleases + your taste, add a portion of cardamom, cloves, nutmeg or cinnamon, + and dissolve a little sugar in the water; yet because these + substances will alter the taste of this simple, they are not prized + by many experts. + + Modern Arabia, Bassa, Turkey, the Great Orient, those who are + travelling or in the army, infuse the powder in cold water, and + then boiling it as directed above, bear witness to its efficacy. + All times are opportune to take this salutary drink (beverage). + Among the Turks are those who take it even by night, nor is there a + business meeting or conversation, where coffee is not taken. Among + the Great it would be accounted an incivility, if with smoke, + coffee were not offered: and no one in the day is ashamed to + frequent the bazaars where it is sold. When I was in London, that + city of three million people, there were taverns for its special + use. It is a great stimulant. The sober take it to invigorate the + stomach. The scrofulous hated it because they thought it stirred up + the bile on an empty stomach--but experience proving the contrary + enjoy it as much as others. + +In 1702, coffee in the American colonies was being used as a refreshment +between meals, "like spirituous liquors." + +It was in 1711 that the infusion idea in coffee making appeared in +France. It came in the form of a fustian (cloth) bag which contained the +ground coffee in the coffee maker, and the boiling water was poured over +it. This was a decided French novelty, but it made slow headway in +England and America, where some people were still boiling the whole +roasted beans and drinking the liquor. + +In England, as early as 1722, there arose a conscientious objector to +boiled coffee in the person of Humphrey Broadbent, a coffee merchant who +wrote a treatise on _the True Way of Preparing and Making Coffee_[375], +in which he condemned the "silly" practise of making coffee by "boiling +an ounce of the powder in a quart of water," then common in the London +coffee houses, and urging the infusion method. He favored the following +procedure: + + Put the quantity of powder you intend, into your pot (which should + be either of stone, or silver, being much better than tin or + copper, which takes from it much of its flavour and goodness) then + pour boiling-hot water upon the aforesaid powder, and let it stand + to infuse five minutes before the fire. This is an excellent way, + and far exceeds the common one of boiling, but whether you prepare + it by boiling or this way, it will sometimes remain thick and + troubled, after it is made, except you pour in a spoonful or two of + cold water, which immediately precipitates the more heavy parts at + the bottom, and makes it clear enough for drinking. + + Some, make coffee with spring water, but it is not so good as + river, or _Thames_-water, because the former makes it hard, and + distasteful, and the other makes it smooth and pleasant, lying soft + on the stomach. If you have a desire to make good coffee in your + families, I cannot conceive how you can put less than two ounces of + powder to a quart, or one ounce to a pint of water; some put two + ounces and a quarter. + +By 1760, the decoction, or boiling, method in France had been generally +replaced by the infusion, or steeping, method. + +In 1763, Donmartin, a tinsmith of St. Bendit, France, invented a coffee +pot, the inside of which was "filled by a fine sack put in its +entirety," and which had a tap to draw the coffee. Many inventions to +make coffee _sans ebullition_ (without boiling) appeared in France about +this time; but it was not until 1800 that De Belloy's pot, employing the +original French drip method, appeared, signaling another step forward in +coffee making--percolation. + + +_De Belloy and Count Rumford_ + +De Belloy's pot was probably made of iron or tin, afterward of +porcelain; and it has served as a model for all the percolation devices +that followed it for the next hundred years. It does not seem to have +been patented, and not much is known of the inventor. About this period, +it was the common practise in England to boil coffee in the good +old-fashioned way, and to "fine" (clarify) it with isinglass. This moved +Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), an American-British scientist, then +living in Paris, to make a study of scientific coffee-making, and to +produce an improved drip device known as Rumford's percolator. He has +been generally credited with the invention of the percolator; but, as +pointed out in a previous chapter, this honor seems to be De Belloy's +and not Rumford's. + +Count Rumford embodied his observations and conclusions in a verbose +essay entitled _Of the excellent qualities of coffee and the art of +making it in the highest perfection_, published in London in 1812. In +this treatise he describes and illustrates the Rumford percolator. + +Brillat-Savarin, the famous French gastronomist, who also wrote on +coffee in his _VIme Meditation_, said of the De Belloy pot: + + I have tried, in the course of time, all methods and of all those + which have been suggested to me up to today (1825) and with a full + knowledge of the matter in hand. I prefer the De Belloy method, + which consists of pouring the boiling water upon the coffee which + has been placed in the vessel of porcelain or silver, pierced with + very small holes. I have attempted to make coffee in a boiler at + high pressure, but I have had as a result a coffee full of extracts + and bitterness which would scrape the throat of a Cossack. + +Brillat-Savarin had something also to say on the subject of grinding +coffee, his conclusion being that it was "better to pound the coffee +than to grind it." + +He refers to M. Du Belloy, archbishop of Paris, "who loved good things +and was quite an epicure," and says that Napoleon showed him deference +and respect. This may have been Jean Baptiste De Belloy, who, according +to Didot, was born in 1709 and died in 1808, and, it is thought likely, +was the inventor of the De Belloy pot. + +Count Rumford was born in Woburn, Mass., in 1753. He was apprenticed to +a storekeeper in Salem in 1766. He became an object of distrust among +the friends of the cause of American freedom: and, on the evacuation of +Boston by the Royal troops in 1776, he was selected by Governor +Wentworth of New Hampshire to carry dispatches to England. He left +England in 1802, and resided in France from 1804 until his death in +1814. In 1772, he had married, or rather, as he put it, he was married +by, a wealthy widow, the daughter of a highly respectable minister and +one of the first settlers at Rumford, now called Concord, New Hampshire. +It was from this town that he took his title of Rumford when he was +created a Count of the Holy Roman Empire in 1791. His first wife having +died, he married in Paris, the wealthy widow of the celebrated chemist, +Lavoisier; and with her he lived an extremely uncomfortable life until +they agreed to separate. + +In his essay on coffee and coffee making, Count Rumford gives us a good +pen picture of the preparation of the beverage in England at the +beginning of the nineteenth century. He says: + + Coffee is first roasted in an iron pan, or in a hollow cylinder, + made of sheet iron, over a brisk fire; and when, from the colour of + the grain, and the peculiar fragrance which it acquires in this + process, it is judged to be sufficiently roasted, it is taken from + the fire, and suffered to cool. When cold it is pounded in a + mortar; or ground in a hand-mill to a coarse powder, and preserved + for use. + + Formerly, the ground Coffee being put into a coffee-pot, with a + sufficient quantity of water, the coffee-pot was put over the fire, + and after the water had been made to boil a certain time, the + coffee-pot was removed from the fire, and the grounds having had + time to settle, or having been fined down with isinglass, the clear + liquor was poured off, and immediately served up in cups. + +Count Rumford thought it a mistake to agitate the coffee powder in the +brewing process, and in this he agreed with De Belloy. His improvement +on the latter's pot is described in chapter XXXIV. He was a coffee +connoisseur; and as such was one of the first to advocate the use of +cream as well as sugar for making an ideal cup of the beverage. He +refers, though not by name, to De Belloy's percolation method and says, +"Its usefulness is now universally acknowledged." + + +_A Few Definitions_ + +Just here, in order to assure a better understanding of the subject, it +may be well to clear up sundry misconceptions regarding the words +percolation, filtration, decoction, infusion, etc., by the simple +expedient of definition. + +A decoction is a liquid produced by boiling a substance until its +soluble properties are extracted. Thus the coffee drink was first a +decoction; and a decoction is what one gets today when coffee is boiled +in the good old-fashioned way--as "mother used to make it." + +Infusion is the process of steeping--extraction without boiling. It is +extraction accomplished at any temperature below boiling, and is a +general classification of procedure capable of sub-division. As +generally and correctly applied, it is the operation wherein hot water +is merely poured upon ground coffee loose in a pot, or in a container +resting on the bottom of the pot. In the strictest sense of the term, an +infusion is also produced by percolation and filtration, when the water +is not boiled in contact with the coffee. + +Percolation means dripping through fine apertures in china or metal as +in De Belloy's French drip pot. + +Filtration means dripping through a porous substance, usually cloth or +paper. + +Percolation and filtration are practically synonymous, although a shade +of distinction in their meaning has arisen so that often the latter is +considered as a step logically succeeding the former. Accomplishing +extraction of a material by permitting a liquid to pass slowly through +it is in fact percolation, whereas filtration of the resultant extract +is effected by interposing in its path some medium which will remove +solid or semi-solid material from it. Coffee-making practise has in +itself so applied these terms that each is considered a complete +process. Percolation is thus applied when the infusion is removed from +the grounds immediately by dripping through fine perforations in the +china or metal of which the device is constructed. + +True percolation is not produced in the pumping "percolators" in which +the heated water is elevated and sprayed over the ground coffee held in +a metal basket in the upper part of the pot, the liquor being +recirculated until a satisfactory degree of extraction has been reached. +Rather, the process is midway between decoction and infusion, for the +weak liquor is boiled during the operation in order to furnish +sufficient steam to cause the pumping action. + +Filtration is accomplished when the ground coffee is retained by cloth +or paper, generally supported by some portion of the brewing device, and +extraction effected by pouring water on the top of the mass, permitting +the liquid to percolate through, the filtering medium retaining the +grounds. + + +_Patents and Devices_ + +From the beginning, the French devoted more attention than any other +people to coffee brewing. The first French patent on a coffee maker was +granted in 1802 to Denobe, Henrion, and Rauch for "a +pharmacological-chemical coffee making device by infusion." + +In 1802, Charles Wyatt obtained a patent in London on an apparatus for +distilling coffee. + +The first French patent on an improved French drip pot for making coffee +"by filtration without boiling" was granted to Hadrot in 1806. Strictly +speaking, this was not a filtering device, as it was fitted with a tin +composition strainer, or grid. It was very like Count Rumford's +percolator announced six years later, as will be seen by comparing the +two in chapter XXXIV. + +In 1815, Sené invented in France his _Cafetière Sené_, another device to +make coffee "without boiling." + +About the year 1817, the coffee biggin appeared in England. It was +simply a squat earthenware pot with an upper, movable, strainer part +made of tin, after the French drip pot pattern. Later models employed a +cloth bag suspended from the rim of the pot. It was said to have been +invented by a Mr. Biggin; and Dr. Murray, of dictionary fame, seems to +have become convinced of this gentleman's existence, although others +have doubted it and thought the name was of Dutch origin, the article +having been first made for Holland. It has been suggested that, in all +probability, the name came from the Dutch word _beggelin_, to trickle, +or run down. One thing is certain, coffee biggins came originally from +France; so that if there was a Mr. Biggin, he merely introduced them +into England. The coffee biggin with which Americans are most familiar +is a pot containing a flannel bag or a cylindrical wire strainer to hold +the ground coffee through which the boiling water is poured. The Marion +Harland pot was an improved metal coffee biggin. The Triumph coffee +filter was a cloth-bag device which made any coffee pot a biggin. + +In 1819, Morize, a Paris tinsmith, invented a double drip, reversible +coffee pot. The device had two movable "filters" and was placed bottom +up on the fire until the water boiled, when it was inverted to let the +coffee "filter" or drip through. + +In 1819, Laurens was granted a French patent on the original +pumping-percolator device, in which the water was raised by steam +pressure and dripped over the ground coffee. + +In 1820, Gaudet, another Paris tinsmith, invented a filtration device +that employed a cloth strainer. + +In 1822, Louis Bernard Rabaut was granted an English patent on a +coffee-making device in which the usual French drip process was reversed +by the use of steam pressure to force the boiling water upward through +the coffee mass. Caseneuve, of Paris, was granted a patent on a similar +device in France in 1824. + +In 1825, the first coffee-pot patent in the United States was granted to +Lewis Martelley on a machine "to condense the steam and essential oils +and return them to the infusion." + +In 1827, the first really practicable pumping percolator, as we +understand the meaning today, was invented by Jacques-Augustin Gandais, +a manufacturer of plated jewelry in Paris. The boiling water was raised +through a tube in the handle and sprayed over the ground coffee +suspended in a filter basket, but could not be returned for a further +spraying. + +In 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, a manufacturer of Chalons-sur-Marne, was +granted a French patent on a "percolator" employing, for the first time, +an inner tube to raise the boiling water for spraying over the ground +coffee. + +In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow were granted an English patent on +a kind of urn "percolator", or filter, employing the vacuum process of +coffee making, the upper vessel being made of glass. + +By this time, the pumping percolator, working by steam pressure and by +partial vacuum, was in general use in France, England, and Germany. And +then began the movement toward the next stage in coffee +making--filtration. + +About this time (1840), Robert Napier (1791-1876) the Scottish marine +engineer, of the celebrated Clyde shipbuilding firm of Robert Napier & +Sons, invented a vacuum coffee machine to make coffee by distillation +and filtration. The device was never patented; but thirty years later, +it was being made in the works of Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Co., +Ltd., successors) under the direction of Mr. Napier, the aged inventor. +The device consists of a silver globe, brewer syphon, and strainer, as +illustrated. It operates as follows: a half-cupful of water is put into +the globe, and the gas flame is lighted. The dry coffee is put into the +receiver, which is then filled up with boiling water. This will at once +become agitated, and will continue so for a few minutes. When it becomes +still, the gas flame is turned down, and clear coffee is syphoned over +into the globe through the syphon tube, on the end of which, as it rests +in the coffee liquid, there is a metal strainer covered with a filter +cloth. + +[Illustration: NAPIER VACUUM COFFEE MAKER] + +[Illustration: NAPIER-LIST STEAM COFFEE MACHINE] + +The Napierian coffee machine has enjoyed great popularity in England. +The principle has in later years been incorporated in the Napier-List +steam coffee machine for use in hotels, ships, restaurants, etc. Steam +is used as a source of heat, but does not mix with the coffee. List's +patent is for an improvement on the Napierian system and was granted in +1891. + +It is related that shortly before he died, old Mr. Napier, at the +termination of a dispute in Smith & Co.'s factory at Glasgow, where the +device was being made under his instruction, said to old Mr. Smith: + +"You may be a guid silversmith, but I am a better engineer." + +[Illustration: FINLEY ACKER'S FILTER-PAPER COFFEE POT + +SHOWING METHOD OF OPERATION] + +In 1841, William Ward Andrews was granted an English patent on an +improved pot employing a pump to force the boiling water through the +ground coffee while contained in a perforated cylinder screwed to the +bottom of the pot. + +In 1842, the first French patent on a glass coffee-making device was +granted to Madame Vassieux of Lyons. + +Following this, there were numerous patents issued in France and England +on double glass-globe coffee-making devices. They were first known as +double glass balloons, and most of them employed metal strainers. + +After this, there were many "percolator" patents in France, England, and +the United States, some of which were for improved forms of the original +drip method of the De Belloy device. Others were for the type of machine +which came to be known as "percolators" because they employed the +principle of raising the heated water and spraying it over the ground +coffee in continuous fashion. The story is told in chronological order +in the chapter on the evolution of coffee apparatus; so it is not +necessary to repeat it here. Numerous filtration devices also were +produced abroad and in the United States. + +[Illustration: THE KIN-HEE POT IN OPERATION] + +Among the percolators, those of Manning, Bowman & Co., and of Landers, +Frary & Clark, became well known here. In the filtration field, the +following attained considerable distinction: Harvey Ricker's Half-Minute +pot, employing a cotton sack with re-inforced bottom, introduced about +1881; the Kin-Hee pot of 1900; Cauchois' Private Estate coffee maker, +using Japanese filter paper, introduced in 1905; Finley Acker's +percolator, introduced the same year, which also employed a filter paper +between two cylinders having side perforations; the Tricolator, 1908; +King's percolator, using filter paper, in 1912; and the "Make-Right", +1911, with its adaptation as presented in the Tru-Bru pot of 1920. + +[Illustration: THE TRICOLATOR IN OPERATION] + +The Make-Right was the invention of Edward Aborn, New York, and +comprised two telescoping open wire frames, or baskets, with a flat +piece of muslin between them. In the Tru-Bru pot, the same idea was +employed, except that the wire frames were so constructed as to furnish +four drip points to afford better distribution on the ground coffee and +to lessen the time of filtration. There was also a porcelain top, to +house and to raise the filtration device, above the brew with an opening +through which the boiling water could be poured without exposing the +ground coffee. + +[Illustration: KING PERCOLATOR, AS APPLIED TO A HOTEL OR RESTAURANT URN] + +Among later developments of the genuine percolator principle that have +attracted attention in this country, mention should be made of the +Phylax coffee maker, and the Galt pot. + +In 1914-16, there was a revival of interest in the United States in the +double glass-globe method of making coffee, introduced into France as +"double glass balloons" in the first half of the nineteenth century. +American ingenuity produced several clever adaptations, and several +notable filter improvements. Advertising developed a great demand for +glass percolators, as they were first called; but although five attained +considerable prominence, only two survived and, at this writing, are +still being manufactured. Both are double glass-globe filters employing +a spirit lamp, gas, or electricity as heating agents. + +[Illustration: THREE TYPES OF AMERICAN COFFEE MAKERS IN OPERATION + +Left, Blanke's Cloth Filter--Center, Phylax--Right, Galt Vacuum device] + +Within the last few years, it has become the fashion to obtain patents +in the United States on "the art of brewing coffee", or the "art of +making coffee". Instances are the patents issued to Messrs. Calkin and +Muller. In the Calkin patent (the Phylax device illustrated at the top +of this page) the "art" consists in controlling the flow of the boiling +water by means of the number and spacing of the holes in the +water-spreader, so as to restrict the volume and the speed, to effect a +quick initial extraction; and then, by means of a new spacing of holes +in the infuser, retarding the drip "to attain a prolonged extraction of +the tannin and other elements of slow extraction and combining the +liquids obtained during the initial and subsequent stages of the brew +for attaining a balanced liquid extract." + +[Illustration: HOW THE TRU-BRU POT OPERATES] + +Muller's "art" (the apparatus is described in chapter XXXIV) consisted +in so supplying and supporting the ground coffee in an urn that it is +never again subjected to the "decoction" after having been exposed to +the air and steam following the first application of the water. + +In 1920, William G. Goldsworthy, San Francisco, was granted a United +States patent on a process for preparing the beans for making the +beverage. The process consisted of grinding the raw dried beans; then +packing the ground product in non-combustible and non-soluble porous +containers, which are securely closed to keep them unimpaired while the +contained coffee is being roasted; and, after cooling, sealing them with +gelatine. To brew, container and contents are dropped into a cup of hot +water. + +[Illustration: COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES USED IN THE UNITED STATES + +1--Marlon Harland Pot; 2--Universal Percolator; 3--Galt Vacuum Process +Coffee Maker; 4--Universal Electric Urn; 5--English Coffee Biggin +(Langley Ware); 6--Universal Cafenoira (Glass Filter); 7--Vienna +(Bohemian or Carlsbad) Coffee Machine; 8--Tru-Bru Pot; 9--Tricolator; +10--Manning-Bowman Percolator; 11--Blanke's Sanitary Coffee Pot; +12--Phylax Coffee Maker; 13--Private-Estate Coffee Maker; 14--American +French Drip Pot; 15--Kin-Hee Pot; 16--Silex Opalescent Glass Filter; +17--French Drip Pot (Langley Ware).] + +This brief review of the evolution of coffee brews shows that coffee +making started with boiling, and next became an infusion. After that, +the best practise became divided between simple percolation and +filtration, which have continued to the present time. Boiling has also +continued to find advocates in every country, even in the United States, +where it seems to die hard, no matter how much is done to discredit it. +Percolation devices are subdivided into the simple drip pots and the +continuous percolation machines, as represented by numerous complicated +and high-priced contrivances on the market. Gradually, however, true +coffee lovers are realizing that the best results are to be obtained +through simple percolation or simple filtration. There are good +arguments for both methods. + + +_Coffee Making in Europe in the Nineteenth Century_ + +ENGLAND. We have noted Count Rumford's efforts to reform coffee making +in England in the early part of the nineteenth century. Many other +scientific men joined the movement. Among them was Professor Donovan, +who in the _Dublin Philosophical Journal_ for May, 1826, told of his +experiments "to ascertain the best methods for extracting all the +virtues inherent in the berry." The _Penny Magazine_ for June 14, 1834, +after deploring "the straw-colored fluid commonly introduced under the +misnomer of coffee in England", thus digests Professor Donovan's +findings: + + Mr. Donovan found, that what we shall call the medicinal quality of + coffee resides in it independent of its aromatic flavor,--that it + is possible to obtain the exhilarating effect of the beverage + without gratifying the palate,--and, on the other hand, that all + the aromatic quality may be enjoyed without its producing any + effect upon the animal economy. His object was to combine the two. + + The roasting of coffee is requisite for the production of both + these qualities; but, to secure them in their full degree, it is + necessary to conduct the process with some skill. The first thing + to be done is to expose the raw coffee to the heat of a gentle + fire, in an open vessel, stirring it continually until it assumes a + yellowish colour. It should then be roughly broken,--a thing very + easily done,--so that each berry is divided into about four or five + pieces, when it must be put into the roasting apparatus. This, as + most commonly used, is made of sheet-iron, and is of a cylindrical + shape: it no doubt answers the purpose well, and is by no means a + costly machine, but coffee may be very well roasted in a common + iron or earthenware pot, the main circumstances to be observed + being the degree to which the process is carried, and the + prevention of partial burning, by constant stirring. One of the + requisites for having good coffee is that it shall have been + recently roasted. + + Coffee should be ground very fine for use, and only at the moment + when it is wanted, or the aromatic flavour will in some measure be + lost. To extract all its good qualities, the powder requires two + separate and somewhat opposite modes of treatment, but which do not + offer any difficulty when explained. On the one hand, the fine + flavour would be lost by boiling, while, on the other, it is + necessary to subject the coffee to that degree of heat in order to + extract its medicinal quality. The mode of proceeding, which, after + many experiments, Mr. Donovan found to be the most simple and + efficacious for attaining both these ends, was the following:-- + + The whole water to be used must be divided into two equal parts. + One half must be put first to the coffee "cold", and this must be + placed over the fire until it "just comes to a boil", when it must + be immediately removed. Allowing it then to subside for a few + moments the liquid must be poured off as clear as it will run. The + remaining half of the water, which during this time should have + been on the fire, must then be added "at a boiling heat" to the + grounds, and placed on the fire, where it must be kept "boiling" + for about three minutes. This will extract the medicinal virtue, + and if then the liquid be allowed again to subside, and the clear + fluid be added to the first portion, the preparation will be found + to combine all the good properties of the berry in as great + perfection as they can be obtained. If any fining ingredient is + used it should be mixed with the powder at the beginning of the + process. + + Several kinds of apparatus, some of them very ingenious in their + construction, have been proposed for preparing coffee, but they are + all made upon the principle of extracting only the aromatic + flavour, while Professor Donovan's suggestions not only enable us + to accomplish that desirable object, but superadd the less obvious + but equally essential matter of extracting and making our own all + the medicinal virtues. + +When Webster and Parkes published their _Encyclopedia of Domestic +Economy_, London, 1844, they gave the following as "the most usual +method of making coffee in England": + + Put fresh ground coffee into a coffee-pot, with a sufficient + quantity of water, and set this on the fire till it boils for a + minute or two; then remove it from the fire, pour out a cupful, + which is to be returned into the coffee-pot to throw down the + grounds that may be floating; repeat this, and let the coffee-pot + stand near the fire, but not on too hot a place, until the grounds + have subsided to the bottom; in a few minutes the coffee will be + clear without any other preparation, and may be poured into cups; + in this manner, with good materials in sufficient quantity, and + proper care, excellent coffee may be made. The most valuable part + of the coffee is soon extracted, and it is certain that long + boiling dissipates the fine aroma and flavour. Some make it a rule + not to suffer the coffee to boil, but only to bring it just to the + boiling point; but it is said by Mr. Donovan that it requires + boiling for a little time to extract the whole of the bitter, in + which he conceives much of the exhilarating qualities of the coffee + reside. + +This work had also the following to say on the clearing of coffee, which +was then a much-mooted question: + + The clearing of coffee is a circumstance demanding particular + attention. After the heaviest parts of the grounds have settled, + there are still fine particles suspended for some time, and if the + coffee be poured off before these have subsided, the liquor is + deficient in that transparency which is one test of its perfection; + for coffee not well cleared has always an unpleasant bitter taste. + In general, the coffee becomes clear by simply remaining quiet for + a few minutes, as we have stated; but those who are anxious to have + it as clear as possible employ some artificial means of assisting + the clearing. The addition of a little isinglass, hartshorn + shavings, skins of eels or soles, white of eggs, egg shells, etc., + has been recommended for clearing; but it is evident that these + substances, to produce their effect, which is upon the same + principle as the fining of beer or wine, should be dissolved + previously, for if put in without, it would require so much time to + dissolve, that the flavour of the coffee would vanish. + +Coffee-making devices of this period in England, in addition to the +Rumford type of percolator and the popular coffee biggin, included +Evans' machine provided with a tin air-float to which was attached a +filter bag containing the coffee; Jones' apparatus, a pumping +percolator; Parker's steam-fountain coffee maker, which forced the hot +water upward through the ground coffee; Platow's patent filter, +previously mentioned, a single vacuum glass percolator in combination +with an urn; Brain's vacuum or pneumatic filter employing a "muslin, +linen or shamoy leather filter" and an exhausting pump, designed for +kitchen use; and Palmer's and Beart's pneumatic filtering machines of +similar construction. + +Cold infusions were common, the practise being to let them stand +overnight, to be filtered in the morning, and only heated, not boiled. + +Coffee grinding for these various types of coffee makers was performed +by iron mills; the portable box mill being most favored for family use. +"It consisted of a square box either of mahogany or iron japanned, +containing in the interior a hollow cone of steel with sharp grooves on +the inside; into this fits a conical piece of hardened iron or steel +having spiral grooves cut upon its surface and capable of being turned +round by a handle." There was a drawer to receive the finely ground +coffee. Larger wall-mills employed the same grinding mechanism. + +In 1855, Dr. John Doran wrote in his "Table Traits": + + With regard to the making of coffee, there is no doubt that the + Turkish method of pounding the coffee in a mortar is infinitely + superior to grinding it in a mill, as with us. But after either + method the process recommended by M. Soyer may be advantageously + adopted; namely, "Put two ounces of ground coffee into a stew-pan, + which set upon the fire, stirring the coffee round with a spoon + until quite hot, then pour over a pint of boiling water; cover over + closely for five minutes, pass it through a cloth, warm again, and + serve." + +From observations by G.W. Poore, M.D., London, 1883, we are given a +glimpse of coffee making in England in the latter part of the nineteenth +century. He said: + + Those who wish to enjoy really good coffee must have it fresh + roasted. On the Continent, in every well-regulated household, the + daily supply of coffee is roasted every morning. In England this is + rarely done. + + If roasted coffee has to be kept, it must be kept in an air-tight + vessel. In France, coffee used to be kept in a wrapper of waxed + leather, which was always closely tied over the contained coffee. + In this way the coffee was kept from contact with any air. + + The Viennese say that coffee should be kept in a glass bottle + closed with a bung, and that coffee should on no account be kept in + a tin canister. + + The coffee having been roasted, it has to be reduced to a coarse + powder before the infusion is made. The grinding and powdering of + coffee should be done just before it is wanted, for if the whole + coffee seeds quickly lose their aroma, how much more quickly will + the aroma be dissipated from coffee which has been reduced to a + fine powder? Nothing need be said in the matter of coffee mills. + They are common enough, varied enough, and cheap enough to suit all + tastes. + + To insure a really good cup of coffee attention must be given to + the following points: + + 1. Be sure that the coffee is good in quality, freshly roasted, and + fresh ground. + + 2. Use sufficient coffee. I have made some experiments on this + point, and I have come to the conclusions that one ounce of coffee + to a pint of water makes poor coffee, 1-1/2 ounces of coffee to a + pint of water makes fairly good coffee, two ounces of coffee to a + pint of water makes excellent coffee. + + 3. As to the form of coffee pot I have nothing to say. The + varieties of coffee machines are very numerous and many of them are + useless incumbrances. At the best, they can not be regarded as + absolutely necessary. The Brazilians insist that coffee pots should + on no account be made of metal, but that porcelain or earthenware + is alone permissible. I have been in the habit of late of having my + coffee made in a common jug provided with a strainer, and I believe + there is nothing better. + +[Illustration: COFFEE-MAKING MACHINES POPULAR IN ENGLISH HOTELS AND +RESTAURANTS] + + 4. Warm the jug, put the coffee into it, boil the water, and pour + the boiling water on the coffee, and the thing is done. + + 5. Coffee must not be boiled, or at most it must be allowed just to + "come to a boil", as cook says. If violent ebullition takes place, + the aroma of the coffee is dissipated, and the beverage is spoiled. + + The most economical way of making coffee is to put the coffee into + a jug and pour cold water upon it. This should be done some hours + before the coffee is wanted--over night, for instance, if the + coffee be required for breakfast. The light particles of coffee + will imbibe the water and fall to the bottom of the jug in course + of time. When the coffee is to be used stand the jug in a saucepan + of water or a bainmarie and place the outer vessel over the fire + till the water contained in it boils. The coffee in this way is + gently brought to the boiling point without violent ebullition, and + we get the maximum extract without any loss of aroma. + + Always make your coffee strong. _Café au lait_ is much better if + made with one-fourth strong coffee and three-fourths milk than if + made half-and-half with a weaker coffee; this is evident. + + It is a mistake to suppose that coffee can not be made without a + great deal of costly and cumbersome apparatus. + +THE CONTINENT. Rossignon has given us a general view of coffee making on +the continent of Europe in the middle of the nineteenth century. He +says: + + Formerly small bags of baize were used to percolate coffee. The + water was poured on the coffee, and when they were new the coffee + percolated through them was pretty good, but when they had been + used a few times they became greasy and it was very difficult to + clean them by any means. The greasy baize altered the quality of + the coffee, and in spite of all efforts to keep it clean the coffee + had a tarnished appearance very disagreeable to the view. Very few + persons use them at present. The apparatus most in use for the + percolation of coffee is a tin coffee-pot composed of two parts. + The upper one has a filter or sieve on which the coffee powder is + placed and through which the filtered coffee must pass. Boiling + water is poured on the coffee. The liquor which percolates falls in + the second part. Then the upper part is removed and the coffee is + ready as a beverage. There are very many systems of coffee pots. + One of the best is the Russian one, which consists of a receptacle + composed of two parts resembling two halves of an egg screwed + together. One part contains the hot water and the other the ground + coffee. In the center there is a filter. Turning the pot upside + down the percolation takes place very slowly and no aroma is lost. + + The tin plate which is generally used to make the coffee pot has + many drawbacks. One of them is the dissolution of iron which takes + place after it has been used for a short time. + + The quality of coffee, as a beverage, depends principally on the + degree of heat of the water. Experience has shown that a medium + class of coffee prepared at a moderate heat gives a very good + liquor, while excellent coffee on which boiling water has been + poured did not give a very good liquor. Therefore, instead of + pouring boiling water at 100°C. in a porcelain or silver + coffee-pot, those who desire to make a perfect coffee must use + water heated from 60° to 75°C. + +[Illustration: The Duparquet Still's machine The Kellum + +THREE WELL KNOWN MAKES OF LARGE COFFEE URNS] + +FRANCE. Also about the middle of the nineteenth century the French +naturalist, Du Tour, thus describes one manner of making coffee in +France: + + Let the powder be poured into the coffee-pot filled with boiling + water, in the proportion of two ounces and a half to two pounds, or + two English pints of water. Let the mixture be stirred with a + spoon, and the coffee-pot be soon taken off the fire, but suffered + to remain closely shut, for about at least two hours, on the warm + ashes of a wood fire. During the infusion the liquor should be + several times agitated by a chocolate frother, or something of the + same kind, and be finally left for about a quarter of an hour to + settle. + +_Café au lait_ was not made by boiling coffee and milk together, as milk +was not proper to extract the coffee; the coffee was first made as _café +noir_, only stronger; as much of this coffee was poured in the cup as +was required, and the cup was then filled up with _boiled_ milk. _Café a +la crème_, was made by adding boiled cream to strong clear coffee and +heating them together. + +In France, during the latter part of the nineteenth century, coffee was +roasted over charcoal fires in earthenware dishes or saucepans, stirred +with a spatula or wooden spoon, or in small cylinder or globular +roasters of iron. Gas roasting was also practised. When roasted in large +batches, the beans were cooled in wicker baskets, tossed into the air. +The grinding was preferably done in mortars or in box mills of pyramid +shape with receiving drawers, and was not too fine. + +The usual method of making coffee in France among the better classes at +this time was by means of improved De Belloy drip devices, double glass +vacuum filters, pumping percolators (double circulation devices), the +Russian egg-shaped pots, and the Viennese machines. The last-named were +metal pumping percolators with glass tops, usually swung between the +uprights of a carry arrangement, the base of which held a spirit lamp. + +Among the numerous French machines which became well known were: +Reparlier's glass "filter"; Egrot's steam cloth-filter machine and +Malen's percolator apparatus, both designed for barracks and ships, +where previously the coffee had been brewed in soup kettles; Bouillon +Muller's steam percolator; Laurent's whistling coffee pot, a steam +percolator which announced when the coffee was ready; Ed. Loysel's rapid +filter, a hydrostatic percolator; and those pots to which Morize, +Lemare, Grandin, Crepaux, and Gandais gave their names. + +In 1892, the French minister of war directed that, in the army roasting +and grinding operations, the coffee chaff should no longer be thrown +away, as it had been found that it was rich in caffein and aroma +constituents. + +[Illustration: POPULAR GERMAN DRIP POT] + +Coffee _à la minute_, which appeared in France in the nineteenth +century, was made by decoction or infusion through a funnel pierced with +holes and covered inside with blotting paper, or a woolen strainer +cloth. This system, says Jardin, suggested the economical coffee pot. + +A popular German drip coffee maker of the late nineteenth century +employs a plug in the spout which provides air pressure to hold back the +infusion until the plug is removed. + +Pierre Joseph Buc'hoz, physician to the king of Poland, in 1787, made a +business of supplying roasted coffee in small packets, each sufficient +for one cup. He built up quite a trade until one day he was caught +substituting roasted rye for coffee. This was the Buc'hoz method of +making coffee, much practised by the lower classes because he was looked +upon as an authority: + + Boil the water in a coffee pot. When it boils, draw it from the + fire long enough to add an ounce of coffee powder to a pound of + water. Stir with a spoon. Return it to the fire and when it boils + move it back somewhat from the heat and let it simmer for eight + minutes. Clarify with sugar or deer horn powder. + + +_Early Coffee Making in the United States_ + +The coffee drink reached the colonies, first as a beverage for the +well-to-do, about 1668. When introduced to the general public through +the coffee houses about 1700, it was first sipped from small dishes as +in England; and no one inquired too closely as to how it was made. When, +half a century later, it had displaced beer and tea for breakfast, its +correct making became a matter of polite inquiry. It was not until well +into the nineteenth century that there was any suggestion of scientific +interest, and not until within the last decade was any real chemical +analysis of brewed coffee undertaken with a view to producing a +scientific cup of the beverage. + +At first, owing to the great distances, and difficulties surrounding +communications, between the colonies, news of improvements in coffee +makers and coffee making traveled slowly, and coffee customs brought +from Europe by the early settlers became habits that were not easily +changed. Some of the worst have clung on, ignoring the march of +improvement, and seem as firmly entrenched in suburban and rural +communities today as they were two hundred years ago. + +Indeed, despite the fact that the United States have been the largest +consumer of coffee among the nations for nearly half a century, it is +only within the last ten years that coffee properly prepared could be +obtained outside the principal cities. Even today, the average consumer +is sadly in need of education in correct coffee brewing. It would be an +excellent idea if all the coffee propaganda funds could be concentrated +on a study of this one phase of the coffee question for several years, +and the recommendations published in such fashion as firmly to fix in +the minds of the rising generation a knowledge of correct coffee +brewing. The facts of the case are that, generally speaking, coffee is +still prepared in slovenly fashion in the average American home. +However, with the good work done in recent years by organized trade +effort to correct this abuse of our national beverage, signs are +plentiful that the time is not far distant when a lasting reformation in +coffee making will have been accomplished. + +In colonial times the coffee drink was mostly a decoction. Esther +Singleton tells us that in New Amsterdam coffee was boiled in a copper +pot lined with tin and drunk as hot as possible With sugar or honey and +spices. "Sometimes a pint of fresh milk was brought to the boiling point +and then as much drawn tincture of coffee was added, or the coffee was +put in cold water with the milk and both were boiled together and drunk. +Rich people mixed cloves, cinnamon or sugar with ambergris in the +coffee.[376]" + +Ground cardamom seeds were also used to flavor the decoction. + +In the early days of New England, the whole beans were frequently boiled +for hours with not wholly pleasing results in forming either food or +drink[377]. + +In New Orleans, the ground coffee was put into a tin or pewter coffee +dripper, and the infusion was made by slowly pouring the boiling water +over it after the French fashion. The coffee was not considered good +unless it actually stained the cup. This method still obtains among the +old Creole families. + +Boiling coarsely pounded coffee for fifteen minutes to half an hour was +common practise in the colonies before 1800. + +In the early part of the nineteenth century, the best practise was to +roast the coffee in an iron cylinder that stood before the hearth fire. +It was either turned by a handle or wound up like a jack to go by +itself. The grinding was done in a lap or wall mill; and among the best +known makes were Kenrick's, Wilson's, Wolf's, John Luther's, George W.M. +Vandegrift's, and Charles Parker's Best Quality. + +To make coffee "without boiling" the cookery books of the period advised +the housewife to obtain "a biggin, the best of which is what in France +is called a Grecque." + +In 1844, the _Kitchen Directory and American Housewife's_ advice on the +subject of coffee making was the following: + + Coffee should be put in an iron pot and dried near a moderate fire + for several hours before roasting (in pot over hot coals and + stirring constantly). It is sufficiently roasted when biting one of + the lightest colored kernels--if brittle the whole is done. A + coffee roaster is better than an open pot. Use a tablespoonful + ground to a pint of boiling water. Boil in tin pot twenty to + twenty-five minutes. If boiled longer it will not taste fresh and + lively. Let stand four or five minutes to settle, pour off grounds + into a coffee pot or urn. Put fish skin or isinglass size of a nine + pence in pot when put on to boil or else the white and shell of + half an egg to a couple of quarts of coffee. French coffee is made + in a German filter, the water is turned on boiling hot and + one-third more coffee is needed than when boiled in the common way. + +In 1856 the _Ladies' Home Magazine_ (now the _Ladies' Home Journal_) +printed the following, which fairly sums up the coffee making customs of +that period: + + Coffee, if you would have its best flavor, should be roasted at + home; but _not in an open pan_, for this permits a large amount of + aroma to escape. The roaster should be a closed sphere or + cylinder. The aroma, upon which the good taste of the coffee + depends, is only developed in the berry by the roasting process, + which also is necessary to diminish its toughness, and fit it for + grinding. While roasting, coffee loses from fifteen to twenty-five + percent of its weight, and gains from thirty to fifty percent in + bulk. More depends upon the proper roasting than upon the quality + of the coffee itself. One or two scorched or burned berries will + materially injure the flavor of several cupfuls. Even a slight + overheating diminishes the good taste. + + The best mode of roasting, where it is done at home, is to dry the + coffee first, in an open vessel, until its color is slightly + changed. This allows the moisture to escape. Then cover it closely + and scorch it, keeping up a constant agitation, so that no portion + of a kernel may be unequally heated. Too low and too slow a heat + dries it up without producing the full aromatic flavor; while too + great heat dissipates the oily matter and leaves only bitter + charred kernels. It should be heated so as to acquire a uniform + deep cinnamon color, and an oily appearance, but never a deep, dark + brown color. It then should be taken from the fire and kept closely + covered until cold, and further until used. While unroasted coffee + improves by age, the roasted berries will very generally lose their + aroma if not covered very closely. The ground stuff kept on sale in + barrels, or boxes, or in papers, is not worthy the name of coffee. + + Coffee should not be ground until just before using. If ground over + night, it should be covered: or, what is quite as well, put into + the boiler and covered with water. The water not only retains the + valuable oil and other aromatic elements, but also prepares it by + soaking for immediate boiling in the morning. + + If the coffee pot (the "_Old Dominion_", of course, for in a common + boiler this process would ruin the coffee by wasting the aroma) be + set on the range or stove, or near the fire, so as to be kept hot + all night preparatory to boiling in the morning, the beverage will + be found in the morning, rich, mellow, and of a most delicious + flavor. + + Coffee used at supper time should be placed on or near the fire + immediately after dinner and kept hot or simmering--not + boiling--all the afternoon. + + Try this method if you wish coffee in perfection. + + Wood's improved coffee roaster is acknowledged to be the best + article of the kind now in use. + + This patent coffee roaster has been improved by the introduction of + a triangular flange inside of each of the hemispheres, as seen in + the cut. These flanges, as the roaster is turned, catch the coffee + and throw it from the inner surface, thus insuring a perfect + uniformity in the burning. + +The Woods roaster (1849) and the Old Dominion Coffee Pot (1856) have +been referred to in chapter XXXIV. + +From the _Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_, we learn some more about +the customs prevailing "among the first cooks in the country" in +roasting and making coffee in the United States about the middle of the +nineteenth century. For example: + + +ROASTING COFFEE BEANS + + Put the beans in the roaster, set this before a moderate fire, and + turn slowly until the Coffee takes a good brown colour; for this it + should require about twenty-five minutes. Open the cover to see + when it is done. If browned, transfer it to an earthen jar, cover + it tightly, and use when needed. + + Or a more simple plan, and even more effectual, is to take a tin + baking-dish, butter well the bottom, put the Coffee in it, and set + it in a moderate oven until the beans take a strong golden colour, + twenty minutes sufficing for this. Toss them frequently with a + wooden spoon as they are cooking. + + Another plan is to put in a small frying-pan 1 1b. of raw + Coffee-beans and set the pan on the fire, stirring and shaking + occasionally till the beans are yellow: then cover the frying-pan + and shake the Coffee about till it is a dark brown. Move the pan + off the fire, keep the cover on, and when the beans are a little + cool, break an egg over them and stir them until they are all well + coated with the egg. Then store the Coffee in tins or jars with + tight-fitting lids, and grind it as wanted for use. + + Coffee should always be bought in the bean and ground as required, + otherwise it is liable to extensive adulteration with chicory (or + succory); some persons like the addition, but the epicure who is + really fond of Coffee would not admit of its introduction. + +MAKING BREAKFAST COFFEE. + + Allow 1 tablespoonful of Coffee to each person. The Coffee when + ground should be measured, put into the Coffee-pot, and boiling + water poured over it in the proportion of 3/4 pint to each + tablespoonful of Coffee, and the pot put on the fire; the instant + it boils, take the pot off, uncover it, and let it stand a minute + or two; then cover it again, put it back on the fire, and let it + boil up again. Take it from the fire and let it stand for five + minutes to settle. It is then ready to pour out. + +This work recommended as among the latest and best devices for coffee +making, all those manufactured or sold in this country by Adams & Son; +the English coffee biggin; General Hutchinson's coffee pot and urn, +combining De Belloy's and Rumford's ideas; Le Brun's Cafetiére for +making coffee by distillation and by steam pressure, passing it directly +into the cup; a Vienna coffee-making machine, and a Russian coffee +reversible pot called the Potsdam. + +Among two score of coffee recipes for making various kinds of extracts, +ices, candies, cakes, etc., flavored with coffee, there is a curious one +for coffee beer, the invention of Frenchman named Pluehart. "The +ingredients and quantities in a thousand parts are--Strong coffee 300; +rum 300; syrup thickened with gum senegal 65; alcoholic extract of +orange peel 10; and water 325." + +"It does not appear to have reached any important degree of popularity", +adds the editor. + +In 1861, Godey's _Lady's Book and Magazine_ noted with approval the +growing custom of hotel and restaurant guests to order coffee instead of +wines or spirits with their dinners. On the subject of "How to make a +cup of coffee" it had this to say: + + Which is the best way of making coffee? In this particular notions + differ. For example, the Turks do not trouble themselves to take + off the bitterness by sugar, nor do they seek to disguise the + flavor by milk, as is our custom. But they add to each dish a drop + of the essence of amber, or put a couple of cloves in it, during + the process of preparation. Such flavoring would not, we opine, + agree with western tastes. If a cup of the very best coffee, + prepared in the highest perfection and boiling hot, be placed on a + table in the middle of a room and suffered to cool, it will, in + cooling, fill the room with its fragrance: but becoming cold, it + will lose much of its flavor. Being again heated, its taste and + flavor will be still further impaired, and heated a third time, it + will be found vapid and nauseous. The aroma diffused through the + room proved that the coffee has been deprived of its most volatile + parts, and hence of its agreeableness and virtue. By pouring + boiling water on the coffee, and surrounding the containing vessel + with boiling water, the finer qualities of the coffee will be + preserved. + + Boiling coffee in a coffee-pot is neither economical or judicious, + so much of the aroma being wasted by this method. Count Rumford (no + mean authority) states that one pound of good Mocha, when roasted + and ground, will make fifty-six cups of the very best coffee, but + it must be ground finely, or the surfaces of the particles only + will be acted upon by the hot water, and much of the essence will + be left in the grounds. + + In the East, coffee is said to arouse, exhilarate, and keep awake, + allaying hunger, and giving to the weary renewed strength and + vigor, while it imparts a feeling of comfort and repose. The + Arabians, when they take their coffee off the fire, wrap the vessel + in a wet cloth, which fines the liquor instantly, and makes it + cream at the top. There is one great essential to be observed, + namely, that coffee should not be ground before it is required for + use, as in a powdered state its finer qualities evaporate. + + We pass over the usual modes of making coffee, as being familiar to + every lady who presides over every household; and content ourselves + with the most modern and approved Parisian methods, though we may + add that a common recipe for good coffee is--two ounces of coffee + and one quart of water. Filter or boil ten minutes, and leave to + clear ten minutes. + + The French make an extremely strong coffee. For breakfast, they + drink one-third of the infusion, and two-thirds of hot milk. The + _café noir_ used after dinner, is the very essence of the berry. + Only a small cup is taken, sweetened with white sugar or + sugar-candy, and sometimes a little _eau de vie_ is poured over the + sugar in a spoon held above the surface, and set on fire; or after + it, a very small glass of _liqueur_, called a _chasse-café_, is + immediately drunk. But the best method, prevalent in France, for + making coffee (and the infusion may be strong or otherwise as taste + may direct) is to take a large coffee-pot with an upper receptacle + made to fit close into it, the bottom of which is perforated with + small holes, containing in its interior two movable metal + strainers, over the second of which the powder is to be placed, and + immediately under the third. Upon this upper strainer pour boiling + water, and continue to do so gently; until it bubbles up through + the strainer: then shut the cover of the machine close down, place + it near the fire, and so soon as the water has drained through the + coffee, repeat the operation until the whole intended quantity be + passed. No finings are required. Thus all the fragrance of its + perfume will be retained with all the balsamic and stimulating + powers of its essence. This is a true Parisian mode, and _voila!_ a + cup of excellent coffee. + +This article is most interesting in that it shows the revolt against +boiling coffee had started in the United States; also that the +importance of fine grinding was being recognized and emphasized by the +leaders of the best thought of the nation. + +Probably the first scientific inquiry into the subject of coffee +roasting and brewing in the United States was that detailed by August T. +Dawson and Charles M. Wetherill, Ph.D., M.D., in the _Journal of the +Franklin Institute_ for July and August, 1855. The following is a +digest: + + There are two classes of beverages: 1, alcoholic, and 2, + nitrogenized. Nitrogenized foods are effective to replace the + substance of the different organs of the body wasted away by the + process of vitality. Coffee is one of these. + + Besides the tannin, the coffee berry contains two substances, one + the nitrogenized quality, caffeine, which is about one percent and + is not altered in roasting, and the other a volatile oil which is + developed in roasting and which gives the coffee its flavor. Dr. + Julius Lehmann (Liebig's Annales LXXXVII. 205) says that coffee + retards the waste tissues of the body and diminishes the amount of + food necessary to preserve life. This effect is due to the oil. + Much of the nutritive portion of coffee is lost by European methods + of making. + + Good coffee is very rare. These experiments were made to ascertain + whether a potable coffee could not be offered to the public at as + low a price as the raw or roasted now is. In order to be successful + we needed to extract a larger portion of the nutritive substance + than is extracted in the household. The experiments have proved + vain. + + As a result of our experiments with different ways of roasting and + brewing coffee, we have found the following plan to be the most + convenient and the best: the coffee will taste the same every time + and it will taste good. If a good berry be properly roasted and the + infusion be of the proper strength, good coffee must result. A + Mocha berry should be selected and roasted seven or eight pounds at + a time in a cylindrical drum. After roasting it should be placed in + a stone jar with a mouth three inches in diameter. The jar should + be closed air-tight. This will furnish two cups of coffee daily for + six months. A quart should be taken from the jar at a time and + ground. The ground coffee should be kept in covered glass jars. + + The best coffee pot was found to be the common biggin having an + upper compartment with a perforated bottom upon which to place the + coffee. To make one cup of this infusion, place half an ounce of + ground coffee in the upper compartment and six fluid ounces of + water into the bottom. Put the biggin over a gas lamp. After three + minutes the water will boil. When steam appears, take the biggin + from the fire and pour the water into a cup and thence immediately + into the top of the biggin where it will extract the berry by + replacement. (Here follows an experiment.) + + This experiment shows that loss of weight is no criterion that + coffee is properly roasted, neither is the color (by itself) nor + the temperature, nor the time. + + Next we experimented to ascertain whether the aroma developed by + roasting coffee and which is lost might not be collected and added + to the coffee at pleasure. An attempt was made to drive the + volatile oils from roasted coffee by steam and make a dried extract + of the residual coffee to which the oils were to be later added. + Two attempts were made and both failed. It appears that but a small + quantity of the aroma is lost in roasting and that is mixed with + bad smelling vapors from which it is impossible to free it. + + Then we tried to make a potable coffee by making an aqueous extract + of raw coffee, evaporating to dryness and roasting the residue. + (Here follows the experiment.) + + This also was unsuccessful. The great trouble here is a dark shiny + residue, which, while tasteless, is very disagreeable to look at. + In the preparation of coffee by boiling, two and a half times as + much matter is extracted as by biggin. + + The proper method of roasting coffee is as follows: It should be + placed in a cylinder and turned constantly over a bright fire. When + white smoke begins to appear, the contents should be closely + watched. Keep testing the grains. As soon as a grain breaks easily + at a slight blow, at which time the color will be a light chestnut + brown, the coffee is done. Cool it by lifting some up and dropping + it back with a tin cup. If it be left to cool in a heap there is + great danger of over-roasting. Keep the coffee only in air-tight + vessels. _Measure_ the infusions, a half ounce of coffee to six + ounces of water per cup. + + All "extracts of coffee" are worthless. Most of them are composed + of burned sugar, chicory, carrots, etc. + +In 1883, an authority of that day, Francis B. Thurber, in his book, +_Coffee; from Plantation to Cup_, which he dedicated to the railroad +restaurant man at Poughkeepsie, because he served an "ideal cup of +coffee", came out strongly for the good old boiling method with eggs, +shells included. This was the Thurber recipe: + + Grind moderately fine a large cup or small bowl of coffee; break + into it one egg with shell; mix well, adding enough cold water to + thoroughly wet the grounds; upon this pour one pint of boiling + water: let it boil slowly for ten to fifteen minutes, according to + the variety of coffee used and the fineness to which it is ground. + Let it stand three minutes to settle, then pour through a fine + wire-sieve into a warm coffee pot; this will make enough for four + persons. At table, first put the sugar into the cup, then fill + half-full of boiling milk, add your coffee, and you have a + delicious beverage that will be a revelation to many poor mortals + who have an indistinct remembrance of, and an intense longing for, + an ideal cup of coffee. If cream can be procured so much the + better, and in that case boiling water can be added either in the + pot or cup to make up for the space occupied by the milk as above; + or condensed milk will be found a good substitute for cream. + +In 1886, however, Jabez Burns, who knew something about the practical +making of the beverage as well as the roasting and grinding operations, +said: + + Have boiling water handy. Take a clean dry pot and put in the + ground coffee. Place on fire to warm pot and coffee. Pour on + sufficient boiling water, not more than two-thirds full. As soon as + the water boils add a little cold water and remove from fire. To + extract the greatest virtue of coffee grind it fine and pour + scalding water over it. + +John Cotton Dana, of the Newark Public Library, says he remembers how in +his old home in Woodstock, Vt., they had always, in the attic, a big +stone jar of green coffee. This was sacred to the great feast days, +Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Just before those anniversaries, the jar +was brought forward and the proper amount of coffee was taken out and +roasted in a flat sheet-iron pan on the top of the stove, being stirred +constantly and watched with great care. "As my memory seems to say that +this was not constantly done," says Mr. Dana, "it would seem that, even +then, my father, who kept the general store in the village, bought +roasted coffee in Boston or New York." + +At the close of the century, there were still many advocates of boiling +coffee; but although the coffee trade was not quite ready to declare its +absolute independence in this direction, there were many leaders who +boldly proclaimed their freedom from the old prejudice. Arthur Gray, in +his _Over the Black Coffee_, as late as 1902, quoted "the largest coffee +importing house in the United States" as advocating the use of eggs and +egg-shells and boiling the mixture for ten minutes. + + +_Latest Developments in Better Coffee Making_ + +Better coffee making by co-operative trade effort got its initial +stimulus at the 1912 convention of the National Coffee Roasters +Association. As a result of discussions at that meeting and thereafter, +a Better Coffee Making Committee was created for investigation and +research. + +The coffee trade's declaration of independence in the matter of boiled +coffee was made at the 1913 convention of the National Coffee Roasters +Association, when, after hearing the report of the Better Coffee Making +Committee, presented by Edward Aborn of New York, it adopted a +resolution saying that the recommendations met with its approval and +ordering that they be printed and circulated. + +The work done by the committee included "the first chemical analysis of +brewed coffee on record", a study of grindings, and a comparison of the +results of four brewing methods. Its conclusions and recommendations +were embodied in a booklet published by the National Coffee Roasters +Association, entitled _From Tree to Cup with Coffee_, and were as +follows: + + +ROASTING + + The Roaster or "Coffee Chef" is the only cook necessary to a good + cup of coffee. He sends it to the consumer a completely cooked + product. + + In the roasting process the berries swell up by the liberation of + gases within their substance. The aromatic oils contained in the + cells are sufficiently developed or "cooked", and made ready for + instantaneous solution with boiling water, when the cells are + thoroughly opened by grinding. + + The roasting principles of different green coffees vary. Trained + study and a nice science in timing the roast and manipulating the + fire is necessary to a perfect development of aroma and flavor. + + The drinking quality is largely dependent upon the experienced + knowledge of the coffee roaster and his scientific methods and + modern machinery, by which the coffee is not only roasted, but + cleaned, milled and completely manufactured to a high point of + perfection. + + In their National Association work, the wholesale roasters are + giving the public new facts and valuable information, from + scientific researches, investigations, etc. + + GRINDING. The roasted berry is constructed of fibrous tissues + formed into tiny cells visible only under the microscope, which are + the "packages" wherein are stored the whole value of coffee, the + aromatic oils. Like cutting open an orange, the grinding of coffee + is the opening of surrounding tissue and pulp, and the finer it is + cut the more easily are the "juices" released. + + The fibrous tissue itself is waste material, yielding, by boiling + or too long percolations, a coffee colored liquid which is fibrous + and twangy in taste, has no aromatic character, and contains + undesirable elements. + + The true strength and flavor of roasted coffee is ground out, not + boiled out. The finer coffee is ground, the more thoroughly are the + cells opened, the surfaces multiplied, and the aromatic oils made + ready for separation from their husks. Hence it follows that: + + Coarse ground coffee is unopened coffee--coffee thrown away. + + The finer the grind, the better and greater the yield. With + pulverized coffee (fine as corn meal) the fully released aromatic + oils are instantaneously soluble with boiling water. + + In ground coffee the oils are standing in "open packages," escaping + into the air and absorbing moisture, etc., necessitating quick use + or confinement in air proof and moisture proof protection. + + BREWING. From scientific researches by the National Coffee + Roasters' Association, including the first chemical analysis on + record of brewed coffee, produced by various brewing methods, the + fundamental principles of coffee making have been clearly + established. These principles are simple, and when once understood + equip any person to intelligently judge the merits and defects of + the various coffee making devices on the market. They constitute + the law of coffee brewing, and may be stated as follows: + + Correct brewing is not "cooking." It is a process of extraction of + the already cooked aromatic oils from the surrounding fibrous + tissue, which has no drinkable value. Boiling or stewing cooks in + the fibre, which should be wholly discarded as dregs, and damages + the flavor and purity of the liquid. Boiling coffee and water + together is ruin and waste. + + The aromatic oils, constituting the whole true flavor, are + extracted instantly by boiling water when the cells are thoroughly + opened by fine grinding. The undesirable elements, being less + quickly soluble, are left in the grounds in a quick contact of + water and coffee. The coarser the grind the less accessible are the + oils to the water, thus the inability to get out the strength from + coffee not finely enough ground. + + Too long contact of water and coffee causes twang and bitterness, + and the finer the grind the less the contact should be. The + infusion, when brewed, is injured by being boiled or overheated. It + is also damaged by being chilled, which breaks the fusion of oils + and water. It should be served immediately, or kept hot, as in a + double boiler. + + Tests show that water under the boiling point, 212°, is + inefficient for coffee brewing, and does not extract the aromatic + oils[378]. Used under this temperature, it is a sure cause of weak + and insipid flavor. The effort to make up this deficiency by longer + contact of coffee and water, or repeated pouring through, results + in no extraction of the oils, but draws out undesirable elements, + such as coffee-tannin, which is soluble in water at any temperature + and is governed by the time of contact. + + Coffee-tannin, which is not the commercial tannic acid, is + eliminated to practically nothing in the quick brewing methods. + + The chemical analysis of brewed coffee shows the following: + + Coffee Tannin Comparative + per Cup Proportions + +Percolator method,[379] fine gran. 2.90 grains -------- + 5 minutes' steeping + +Boiling Method, medium " 2.35 " ------ + +Steeping Method, " " 2.31 " ----- + +Filtration (or Drip) Method } 0.29 " - + Pulverized } + + Brewing is the final manufacturing process of coffee. All previous + perfection is dependent upon it. Like food products which lose + nutritive value by bad cooking, coffee loses its best values by + wrong brewing. Brewed by the very simple correct methods, it is an + unfailingly clear, fragrant, taste-charming beverage, universally + loved and scientifically approved. + +The committee made a further report in 1914, and some of the findings +were subsequently published in an association booklet called _The Coffee +Book_, used in connection with the second National Coffee Week campaign +in 1915. In it were these: + +GRINDING DEFINITIONS + + _Powdered_ _Pulverized_ + Like--flour. Like--not coarser than + fine corn meal. + + _Very Fine and Fine_ _Medium_ +Like--from corn meal to Like--coarse granulated + fine granulated sugar. sugar. + +Also, the committee emphasized its previous findings, particularly this +one: "Filter bags should be kept in cold water when not in use. Drying +causes decomposition. Keeps sweet if kept wet. Use muslin for filter bag +and pulverized granulation." + +The association brought out this same year, on recommendation of the +committee, its Home coffee mill, an "ideal and standard coffee mill for +home use." It was a wall mill equipped with a glass-front metal hopper +and employing a ratchet spring-lock nut and double-action grinders. The +mill was later improved with an all-glass hopper and a tumbler bracket. +More than 20,000 of these mills have been sold. + +At the suggestion of the author, the efficiency of nine different +coffee-making devices (including boiling and drip pots, pumping +percolators, cloth and paper filters) was investigated in the +laboratories of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research of the +University of Pittsburgh in 1915; and Dr. Raymond F. Bacon submitted a +report that showed that the boiling method produced the highest +percentage of caffetannic acid and caffein; the French drip process the +lowest. The investigation disclosed also a more palatable brew at 195° +to 200° F. than at the boiling point. + +Another notable contribution to the science of coffee brewing was made +by the Home Economics Laboratories of the University of Kansas in 1916. +The experiments extended over one year. They showed that strength and +color in coffee brews are independent of blend and price and are most +fully obtained by pulverized granulation, which was found to be the most +efficient; that the consumer pays for flavor and that filtration yielded +the best brew. The French drip, or true percolator, did not figure in +these experiments. + +At the 1915 convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, Mr. +Aborn reported that 4,000 copies of the committee's findings on grinding +and brewing had been given away: and the facts were further circulated +in 2,000,000 booklets issued during two years. He told of tests which +showed that while there might be reasons of commercial expediency for +packing ground coffee, it could not be defended as a quality principle; +also that plate-grinders produced a more efficient drawing granulation +than roller grinders, and that the idea that the steel-cut process +eliminates dirt was an absurdity, as "the finest ground coffee is not +dirt but coffee in its most efficient drawing condition." He added, "I +have paid no attention to chaff removal in these tests as the +uselessness of such removal has been repeatedly shown up." The reference +here was to his 1914 and 1913 reports, in which it was stated that +"removing the chaff in the steel-cut process does not remove any of the +tannin, and for this purpose the steel-cut process is wholely futile, +and a wasteful and unnecessary tax upon cost", and that "the removal of +the chaff appreciably affects the flavor and depreciates the cup value." + +This report repeated previous findings against the pumping percolator as +producing an inefficient brew and being a very faulty utensil. Mr. +Aborn concluded his report by saying: + + The old time boiling method has fewer and fewer defenders and holds + its own only as a superstition. I therefore pass it over as a + discarded issue.... It is but repetition of former reports for me + to say that pulverized granulation is the most efficient + granulation; that it assures the highest quality of brew and the + lowest proportion of coffee to a given strength; that it is the + most saving and most satisfying grinding for all to use; that it + (the coffee) must be fresh ground; that the filtration method is + the most correct in fundamental principles and that used with a + muslin bag it assures the consumer coffee of the purest, finest + flavored quality, highest health value and sure economy. + +The campaign of education was continued during 1916, producing +encouraging results among schools, colleges, the medical fraternity, +newspapers, with the trade and the consumer. It marked the first big +constructive work combining the practical and scientific phases of +grinding and brewing methods. In his report at the 1916 convention of +the National Coffee Roasters Association, Mr. Aborn reviewed the four +years work, and pointed out what had been accomplished. He told of a new +booklet, to be called the _True Book on Coffee Grinding and Brewing_, +and an educational exhibit box for schools about to be issued. Due to +opposition which developed from trade interests that were putting out +steel-cut and other grinds of coffee not favored by the committee, and +also because many members thought the association should not exploit any +particular method of grinding or brewing, it was decided to make no +further publication of the coffee grinding and brewing conclusions of +the committee until they had been confirmed by laboratory research. + +Boiling and filtration tests in the mountains of the Yellowstone Park by +W.H. Aborn in 1916 showed that the limit of coffee brewing was reached +at an altitude of nine thousand feet. + +At the 1916 meeting, Dr. Floyd W. Robison of the Detroit Testing +Laboratories, read a notable paper entitled "What do we know about +coffee?," which hailed coffee as a food product, warned the roasters to +beware of half-facts, and urged the importance of a research laboratory. +It was published and given distribution by the association. + +The educational exhibit box showing samples of coffee from plantation to +cup, including five different grinds, was issued in 1917, and sold for +one dollar. + +The Better Coffee Making Committee also published in this year a booklet +entitled _Coffee Grinding and Brewing_ in which it summarized its work +to date, and presented its special plea for cotton-cloth filters as the +ideal coffee-making device. + +This booklet aroused considerable discussion, particularly between those +who favored the paper filter and those who, with Mr. Aborn, believed +cotton cloth, such as muslin, to be the most efficient strainer. +"Cotton", argued Mr. Aborn, "is an ideal sanitary strainer because it +contains no chemical or questionable manufacturing element." + +It was pointed out by Dr. Floyd W. Robison that while cotton cloth, such +as muslin, does give a fairly clear coffee, it is not so clear as by the +methods where a filter paper is used. He said: + + Both methods have serious objectionable features. The muslin bag, + particularly, is decidedly unsanitary, especially when used in + restaurants and hotels. It is rarely kept clean, and one who has + frequented restaurants and many hotel kitchens knows that it lends + itself to very unclean and unsightly methods of handling. The food + inspector has to check this up perhaps as often as any one feature + about a restaurant. + + The objection to the filter paper is not at all on the ground of + sanitation. It is ideal in this respect. The claim is made, and at + least, in part, substantiated, that it does hold back valuable + features of the brew. + + There are many points about the filter that have not been + considered at all. Mr. Calkin believes that the very best type of + filter is a bed of coffee itself, and I must say this has the + sanction of good laboratory experience. + +I.D. Richheimer[380], attacking the cotton cloth filter, said: + + It is a known fact that the fats in coffee are very dense and + represent twelve to fifteen percent of the coffee weight. These + fats--due to the simplest chemical action of contact with air, + moisture and continued heat--begin a fermentation in the completed + beverage. In the cloth-filtering process--due to the rapid passage + of water through grounds almost as quickly as poured--the largest + percentage of fats is carried into the beverage. Fat being lighter + than water rises to the top of water if given a certain amount of + time during the brewing process. Were there no fats (which ferment) + in coffee there would be no need for placing cloth-filtering + material under water, as suggested, to keep them from becoming + sour. + +In the booklet referred to, Mr. Aborn expressed himself as follows on +the filtration method: + + The filtration method is not new, but well tried, thoroughly proven + and long used, though often incorrectly. It is the method followed, + more or less correctly, by all of the first-class hotels in the + world. It is controlled by no patent or proprietary device, and + requires a most inexpensive equipment. For a perfect result it but + demands an accurate adherence to simple but vital principles. + Deviations from these fundamentals, though apparently slight, cause + failure. When they, and the necessary _exact_ following of them, + are clearly understood, any person, even a small child, can brew + coffee with unvarying success. + + The first point to consider in filtration is the dimensions of the + filter bag, or container of the ground coffee, in relation to the + quantity of coffee used and the granulation of same. If the filter + be a muslin bag, free on all sides, the filtering surface is + considerable and permits the necessary quick passage of water + through the grounds, provided the bag is of a wide enough diameter + as to prevent too great a depth of grounds through which the water + cannot quickly penetrate. The error of too narrow a filter is a + common one. It causes a delayed filtration, which means undesirably + long contact of water and coffee and also the cooling of the liquid + which in a correct, undelayed filtration is smoking hot at + completion. The bag should also not be too long or be allowed to + hang or soak in the liquid. A filter bag set tightly into a pot + against its sides, thus surrounded with impenetrable walls, is + greatly reduced in filtering surface, and the filtration is thereby + slackened. + + The filter material should not be too coarse in texture, like + cheese cloth, or too heavy and impenetrable, like very heavy + muslin. A moderate weight muslin, not too light, is efficient. + + The degree of granulation also, of course, affects the rate of + flow. The coarser the grind the faster the flow, which permits a + larger quantity of coffee to a given diameter of filter bag. + + A most frequent fault in the use of the filtration method is the + failure to understand the fine degree of grinding necessary to the + best results. When the grind is not sufficiently fine the + extraction is, of course, weak. A fine grind (like fine cornmeal) + is essential. It does not retard the flow if the filter is of right + dimensions. A powdered grind (like flour) is so fine that it is apt + to "mat" itself into a resisting floor. + + Many users of the filtration method pour the liquid through more + than once. This gains some added color, but adds undesirable + element, depreciates flavor and is especially inadvisable when the + grind is sufficiently fine. _One pouring_ only is recommended for + the best results. + + The chinaware, or glazed earthenware pot, sometimes called the + French drip pot, with a chinaware or earthenware sieve container + for the grounds at the top through which the water is poured, being + free of all metal, is inviting in purity and in hygienic merit. + Together with the filter bag, it is subject to the above remarks on + dimensions. A chinaware sieve cannot be made as fine as a metal + sieve and cannot of course hold very fine granulation as can cotton + cloth. More coffee for a given strength is, therefore, required. + The upper container should be wide enough, for a given quantity of + coffee, as to allow an unretarded flow, and the more openings the + strainer contains the better. + + In any drip, filtration or percolating method the stirring of the + grounds causes an over-contact of water and coffee and results in + an overdrawn liquor of injured flavor. If the water does not pass + through the grounds readily, the fault is as above indicated and + cannot be corrected by stirring or agitation. Many complaints of + bitter taste are traced to this error in the use of the filtration + method. + + It is not necessary to pour on the water in driblets. The water may + be poured slowly, but the grounds should be kept well covered. The + weight of the water helps the flow downward through the grounds. + Care should be taken to keep up the temperature of the water. Set + the kettle back on the stove when not pouring. If the water is + measured, use a small heated vessel, which fill and empty quickly + without allowing the water to cool. + +In 1917, _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_ made a comparative +coffee-brewing test with a regulation coffee pot for boiling, a pumping +percolator, a double glass filtration device, a cloth-filter device, and +a paper filter device. The cup tests were made by E.M. Frankel, Ph.D.; +and William B. Harris, coffee expert, United States Department of +Agriculture. The brews were judged for color, flavor (palatability, +smoothness), body (richness), and aroma. The test showed that the paper +filtration device produced the most superior brew. The cloth-filter, +glass-filter, percolator, and boiling pot followed in the order named. + +At the 1917 convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, John +E. King, of Detroit, announced that laboratory research which he had had +conducted for him showed that the finer the grind, the greater the loss +of aroma, and so he had selected a grind containing ninety percent of +very fine coffee and ten percent of a coarser nature, which seemed to +retain the aroma. He subsequently secured a United States patent for +this grind. Mr. King announced also at this meeting that his +investigations showed there was more than a strong likelihood that the +much-discussed caffetannic acid did not exist in coffee--that it most +probably was a mixture of chlorogenic and and coffalic acids. + +The World War operated to interfere with the coffee roasters' plans for +a research bureau; and in the meantime the Brazil planters, in 1919, +started their million-dollar advertising campaign in the United States, +co-operating with a joint committee representing the green and roasted +coffee interests. In the following year (June, 1920), this committee +arranged with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to start +scientific research work on coffee, the literature of the roasters' +Better Coffee Making Committee being turned over to it; and the +Institute began to "test the results of the committee's work by purely +analytical methods." + +The first report on the research work at the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology was made by Professor S.C. Prescott to the Joint Coffee Trade +Publicity Committee in April, 1921. The committee gave out a statement +saying that Prof. Prescott's report stated that "caffein, the most +characteristic principle of coffee, is, in the moderate quantities +consumed by the average coffee drinker, a safe stimulant without harmful +after-effects." + +There was no publication of experimental results; but the announced +findings were, in the main, a confirmation of the results of previous +workers, particularly of Hollingworth, with whose statement, that +"caffein, when taken with food in moderate amount is not in the least +deleterious," the report was quoted as being in entire agreement. + +At the annual convention of the National Coffee Roasters Association, +November 2, 1921, Professor Prescott made a further report, in which he +stated that investigations on coffee brewing had disclosed that coffee +made with water between 185° and 200° was to be preferred to coffee made +with the water at actual boiling temperature (212°), that the chemical +action was far less vigorous, and that the resulting infusion retained +all the fine flavors and was freer from certain bitter or astringent +flavors than that made at the higher temperature. Professor Prescott +announced also that the best materials for coffee-making utensils were +glass (including agate-ware, vitrified ware, porcelain, etc.), aluminum, +nickel or silver plate, copper, and tin plate, in the order named[381]. + +The Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee's booklet on _Coffee and +Coffee Making_, issued in 1921, was very guarded in its observations on +grinding and brewing. It avoided all controversial points, but it did go +so far as to say on the general subject of brewing: + + Chemists have analyzed the coffee bean and told us that the only + part of it which should go into our coffee cups for drinking is an + aromatic oil. This aromatic element is extracted most efficiently + only by fresh boiling water. The practice of soaking the grounds in + cold water, therefore, is to be condemned. It is a mistake also to + let the water and the grounds boil together after the real coffee + flavor is once extracted. This extraction takes place very quickly, + especially when the coffee is ground fine. The coarser the + granulation the longer it is necessary to let the grounds remain in + contact with the boiling water. Remember that flavor, the only + flavor worth having, is extracted by the _short_ contact of boiling + water and coffee grounds and that after this flavor is extracted, + the coffee grounds become valueless dregs. + +The report contained also the following helpful generalities on coffee +service and the various methods of brewing in more or less common use in +the United States in 1921: + + Although the above rules are absolutely fundamental to good Coffee + Making, their importance is so little appreciated that in some + households the lifeless grounds from the breakfast Coffee are left + in the pot and resteeped for the next meal, with the addition of a + small quantity of fresh coffee. Used coffee grounds are of no more + value in coffee making than ashes are in kindling a fire. + + After the coffee is brewed the true coffee flavor, now extracted + from the bean, should be guarded carefully. When the brewed liquid + is left on the fire or overheated this flavor is cooked away and + the whole character of the beverage is changed. It is just as fatal + to let the brew grow cold. If possible, coffee should be served as + soon as it is made. If service is delayed, it should be kept hot + but not overheated. For this purpose careful cooks prefer a double + boiler over a slow flre. The cups should be warmed beforehand, and + the same is true of a serving pot, if one is used. Brewed coffee, + once injured by cooling, cannot be restored by reheating. + + Unsatisfactory results in coffee brewing frequently can be traced + to a lack of care in keeping utensils clean. The fact that the + coffee pot is used only for coffee making is no excuse for setting + it away with a hasty rinse. Coffee making utensils should be + cleansed after each using with scrupulous care. If a percolator is + used pay special attention to the small tube through which the hot + water rises to spray over the grounds. This should be scrubbed with + the wire-handled brush that comes for the purpose. + + In cleansing drip or filter bags use cool water. Hot water "cooks + in" the coffee stains. After the bag is rinsed keep it submerged in + cool water until time to use it again. Never let it dry. This + treatment protects the cloth from the germs in the air which cause + souring. New filter bags should be washed before using to remove + the starch or sizing. + + DRIP (OR FILTER) COFFEE. The principle behind this method is the + quick contact of water at full boiling point with coffee ground as + fine as it is practical to use it. The filtering medium may be of + cloth or paper, or perforated chinaware or metal. The fineness of + the grind should be regulated by the nature of the filtering + medium, the grains being large enough not to slip through the + perforations. + + The amount of ground coffee to use may vary from a heaping + teaspoonful to a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee + desired, depending upon the granulation, the kind of apparatus used + and individual taste. A general rule is the finer the grind the + smaller the amount of dry coffee required. + + The most satisfactory grind for a cloth drip bag has the + consistency of powdered sugar and shows a slight grit when rubbed + between thumb and finger. Unbleached muslin makes the best bag for + this granulation. For dripping coffee reduced to a powder, as fine + as flour or confectioner's sugar, use a bag of canton flannel with + the fuzzy side in. Powdered coffee, however, requires careful + manipulation and cannot be recommended for everyday household use. + + Put the ground coffee in the bag or sieve. Bring fresh water to a + full boil and pour it through the coffee at a steady, gradual rate + of flow. If a cloth drip bag is used, with a very finely ground + coffee, one pouring should be enough. No special pot or device is + necessary. The liquid coffee may be dripped into any handy vessel + or directly into the cups. Dripping into the coffee cups, however, + is not to be recommended unless the dripper is moved from cup to + cup so that no one cup will get more than its share of the first + flow, which is the strongest and best. + + The brew is complete when it drips from the grounds, and further + cooking or "heating up" injures the quality. Therefore, since it is + not necessary to put the brew over the fire, it is possible to make + use of the hygienic advantages of a glassware, porcelain or + earthenware serving pot. + + BOILED (OR STEEPED) COFFEE. For boiling (or steeping) use a medium + grind. The recipe is a rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee + desired or--as some cooks prefer to remember it--a tablespoonful + for each cup and "one for the pot." Put the dry coffee in the pot + and pour over it fresh water _briskly boiling_. Steep for five + minutes or longer, according to taste, over a low fire. Settle with + a dash of cold water or strain through muslin or cheesecloth and + serve at once. + + PERCOLATED COFFEE. Use a rounded tablespoonful of medium fine + ground coffee to each cupful of water. The water may be poured into + the percolator cold or at the boiling point. In the latter case, + percolation begins at once. Let the water percolate over the + grounds for five or ten minutes depending upon the intensity of the + heat and the flavor desired. + +In response to a request by the author, Charles W. Trigg has contributed +the following discussion of coffee making: + + +VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC COFFEE BREWING + + Before converting it into the beverage form, coffee must be + carefully selected and blended, and skillfully roasted, in order + thus far to assure obtaining a maximum efficiency of results. No + matter how accurately all this be done, improper brewing of the + roasted bean will nullify the previous efforts and spoil the drink; + for roasted coffee is a delicate material, very susceptible to + deterioration and of doubtful worth as the source of a beverage + unless properly handled. + + There probably never was produced a drink which so fits into the + exacting desires of the human appetite as does coffee. Properly + prepared, it is a delightful beverage: but incorrectly made, it + becomes an imposition upon the palates of mankind. Sensitive though + coffee is to improper manipulation, the best procedure for brewing + it is also the easiest. Cheap coffee well made excels good coffee + poorly made. + + CONSTITUENT CONCEPTS. The roasting of green coffee causes an + alteration in the constitution of its constituents, with the result + that some of the compounds present therein which were originally + water-soluble are rendered insoluble, and some which were insoluble + are converted into soluble ones. A portion of the original caffein + content is lost by sublimation. The aromatic conglomerate, caffeol, + is formed, and a considerable quantity of gas is produced, a + portion of which, developing pressure in the cells of the beans, + pops, or swells, them so as to increase the size of each individual + bean. The constituents which are water-soluble after the + torrefaction may be generally classified as heavy extractives and + light aromatic materials. The percentages and nature of these + materials in the roasted coffee will vary with the type of coffee + and with the roast which it is given. In general, and in particular + for purposes of comparison of methods of brewing, they may be + considered to be the same and to occur in about the same + proportions in all coffees. + + The heavy extractives are caffein, mineral matter, proteins, + caramel and sugars, "caffetannic acid", and various organic + materials of uncertain composition. Some fat will also be found in + the average coffee brew, being present not by virtue of being water + soluble, but because it has been melted from the bean by the hot + water and carried along with the solution. + + The caffein furnishes the stimulation for which coffee is generally + consumed. It has only a slightly bitter taste, and because of the + relatively small percentage in which it is present in a cup of + coffee, does not contribute to the cup value. The mineral matter, + together with certain decomposition and hydrolysis products of + crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, contribute toward the astringency + or bitterness of the cup. The proteins are present in such small + quantity that their only rôle is to raise somewhat the almost + negligible food value of a coffee infusion. The body, or what might + be called the licorice-like character of coffee, is due to the + presence of bodies of a glucosidic nature and to caramel. + + As has been previously pointed out[382], the term "caffetannic + acid" is a misnomer; for the substances which are called by this + name are in all probability mainly coffalic and chlorogenic acids. + Neither is a true tannin, and they evince but few of the + characteristic reactions of tannic acid. Some neutral coffees will + show as high a "caffetannic acid" content as other acid-charactered + ones. Careful work by Warnier[383] showed the actual acidities of + some East Indian coffees to vary from 0.013 to 0.033 percent. These + figures may be taken as reliable examples of the true acid content + of coffee, and though they seem very low, it is not at all + incomprehensible that the acids which they indicate produce the + acidity in a cup of coffee. They probably are mainly volatile + organic acids together with other acidic-natured products of + roasting. + + [Illustration: SECTION OF ROASTED BEAN MAGNIFIED 1,000 TIMES] + + We know that very small quantities of acid are readily detected in + fruit juices and beer, and that variation in their percentages is + quickly noticed, while the neutralization of this small amount of + acidity leaves an insipid drink. Hence it seems quite likely that + this small acid content gives to the coffee brew its essential + acidity. A few minor experiments on neutralization have proven the + production of a very insipid beverage by thus treating a coffee + infusion. So that the acidity of certain coffees most apparently + should be attributed to such compounds, rather than to the misnamed + "caffetannic acid." + + The light aromatic materials, and the other substances which are + steam-distillable, i.e. which are driven off when coffee is + concentrated by boiling, are the main determining factors in the + individuality of coffees. These compounds, which are collectively + called "caffeol", vary greatly in the percentages present in + different coffees, and thus are largely responsible for our ability + to distinguish coffees in the cup. It is these compounds which + supply the pleasingly aromatic and appetizing odor to coffee. + + All of these compounds, with the possible exception of the + proteins, are easily soluble in both hot and cold water. The fact + that a clear coffee extract made with hot water does not show any + precipitate immediately upon cooling, proves that cold water will + give as complete an extraction as hot water. However, speed of + extraction is materially increased with rise in temperature, due to + the fact that the rate and degree of solubility of the substances + in water, and the diffusion of the water through the cell walls of + the coffee, are accelerated. Also, the resistance which the fat + content of the bean offers to the wetting of the coffee, and the + persistency of the "enfleurage" action of the fat in retaining the + caffeol, are less with hot than with cold water. Accordingly, the + speed of extraction is increased by using hot water, and the + efficiency of extraction procured per unit time of subjection to + water is higher. + + Prolonged contact of coffee with water results in the hydrolysis of + some of the insoluble materials and subsequent extraction of the + substances thus formed. The rate of hydrolysis also increases with + temperature: and as these compounds are of an astringent or bitter + nature, the solution obtained upon boiling coffee is naturally + possessed of a flavor unpleasant to the palate of the connoisseur. + Boiling of the coffee infusion after it has been removed from the + grounds also has a deleterious effect, as the local overheating of + the solution at the point of application of the heat results in a + decomposition, particularly if the solution be converted into steam + at this point, leaving a thin film of solids temporarily exposed to + the destructive action of the heat. Some of the more delicate + constituents are unfavorably affected by such treatment, and + undergo hydrolysis and oxidation. The products thus formed are + thrown into relief in the flavor by the loss of the aromatic + properties through steam distillation which is incidental to + boiling. + + It is a well known fact that re-warming a coffee brew has a + unfavorable effect upon it. This is probably due in part to a + precipitation of some of the water-soluble proteins upon standing, + and their subsequent decomposition when heat is applied directly to + them in reheating the solution. The absorption of air by the + solution upon cooling, with attendant oxidation, which is + accentuated by the application of heat in re-warming, must also be + considered, as well as the other effects of boiling as set forth, + and the action of the materials of which the coffee pot is + constructed upon the solution. + + PHYSICAL CONCEPTION. The coffee bean is composed of a large number + of cells which function as natural containers and retainers of + coffee fat and of the aromatic flavoring substances. In order to + render the soluble solids fully accessible, the resistance which + these cells offer to the extracting water must be overcome by + grinding so as to break open all of them. In this manner a grind is + obtained which will give a maximum removal of the heavy + extractives. But when all of the cells are broken, great + opportunity is offered for the escape of the caffeol, which is + further enhanced by the slight heating which usually accompanies + such fine grinding. So much caffeol escapes that even our most + expert cup-testers would experience difficulty in identifying + powdered coffees in a blind test. What cup-testers, in fact, use + powdered coffees for making their cup selections? + + Consider powdered coffee, compared with freshly ground coffee of a + coarser grind. Neither the former nor its brew possesses the amount + of characteristic flavor or aroma, attributable to caffeol, + evidenced by the latter. The explanation of this is that the finer + the grind, the more readily accessible are the soluble constituents + of the coffee to the extracting water. Caffeol, however, in + addition to being water-soluble, is extremely fugacious, so that + when the grinding is carried to such a fineness that every cell is + broken, the greater part of the caffeol volatilizes before the + water comes into contact with it. It is therefore highly desirable + that a grind be used wherein all of the cells are not broken, but a + grind that is sufficiently fine to permit efficient extraction. In + the light of this knowledge, the grind advocated by King[384] seems + to be logical, for with it--though neither a maximum of the + non-volatile extractives nor a maximum of caffeol is obtained--an + all-round maximum of cup quality is procured. + + The escape, upon grinding, of these volatile aromatic and flavoring + constituents which lend individuality to coffees, makes it + essential that the roasted beans be ground immediately prior to + extraction. + + DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXTRACTION. The methods employed for preparing + the coffee drink may be classified under the general headings of + boiling, steeping, percolation, and filtration. True percolation is + the simple process known by the trade as filtration; but in this + classification, the term indicates the style of extraction + exemplified by the pumping percolator. + + Boiled coffee is usually cloudy, due to the suspension of fine + particles resulting from the disintegration of the grounds by the + violence of boiling. The usual procedure in clarifying the + decoction is to add the white of an egg or some egg-shells, the + albumen of which is coagulated upon the fine particles by the heat + of the solution, and the particles thus weighted sink to the + bottom. Even this procedure, requiring much attention, does not + give as clear a solution as some of the other extraction procedures + employed. The conditions to which coffee is subjected during + boiling are the worst possible, as both grounds and solution + undergo hydrolysis, oxidation, and local-overheating, while the + caffeol is steam-distilled from the brew. Many persons, who have + long been accustomed to drinking the relatively bitter beverage + thus produced, are not satisfied by coffee made in any other way; + but this is purely a perversion of taste, for none of the + properties are present which make coffee so prized by the epicure. + + [Illustration: CROSS-SECTION OF ROASTED COFFEE BEAN MAGNIFIED 600 + TIMES] + + [Illustration: COARSE GRIND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] + + Steeping, in which cold water is added to the coffee, and the + mixture brought up to a boil, does not subject the coffee to so + strenuous conditions. Local overheating and hydrolysis occur, but + not to so great an extent as in boiling; and most of the effects of + oxidation and volatization of caffeol are absent. However, + extraction is rather incomplete, due to lack of thorough admixture + of the water and coffee. + + When coffee is to be made under the best conditions, the + temperature of the water used and of the extract after it is made + should not fluctuate. In the pumping percolator, as in the steeping + method, the temperature varies greatly from the time the extraction + is started to the completion of the operation. This is deleterious. + Also, local overheating of the infusion occurs at the point of + application of the heat; and because of the manner in which the + water is brought into contact with the coffee, the degree of + extraction shows inefficiency. Spraying of the water over the + coffee never permits the grounds to be completely covered with + water at any one time, and the opportunity offered for channeling + is excessive. The principle of thorough extraction demands that, as + the substance being extracted becomes progressively more exhausted, + fresh solvent should be brought into contact with it. In the + pumping percolator the solution pumped over the grounds becomes + more concentrated as the grounds become exhausted; so that the time + taken to reach the degree of extraction desired is longer, and an + appreciable amount of relatively concentrated liquor is retained by + the grounds. + + [Illustration: MEDIUM GRIND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] + + The simplest procedure to follow is that in which boiling water is + poured over ground coffee suspended on a filtering medium in such a + manner that the extracting water will slowly pass through the + coffee and be received in a containing vessel, which obviates + further contact of the beverage with the grounds. The water as it + comes into contact with the ground coffee extracts the soluble + material, and the solution is removed by gravity. Fresh water takes + its place; so that, if the filter medium be of the proper fineness, + the water flows through at the correct rate of speed, and complete + extraction is effected with the production of a clear solution. + Thus a maximum extraction of desirable materials is obtained in a + short time with a minimum of hydrolysis, oxidation, and loss of + caffeol; and if the infusion be consumed at once, or kept warm in a + contrivance embodying the double-boiler principle, the effects of + local overheating are avoided. Also, with the use of an appropriate + filter, a finer grind of coffee can be used than in the other + devices, without obtaining a turbid brew. All this works toward the + production of a desirable drink. + + There are several devices on the market, some using paper, and some + cloth, as a filter, which operate on this principle and give very + good coffee. The use of paper presents the advantage of using a new + and clean filter for each brew, whereas the cloth must be carefully + kept immersed in water between brews to prevent its fouling. + + Contrivances operating on the filtration principle have been + designed for use on a large scale in conjunction with coffee urns, + and have proven quite successful in causing all of the water to go + slowly through the coffee without channeling, thus accomplishing + practically complete extraction. The majority of urns are still + operated with bags, of which the ones with sides of heavier + material than the bottom obtain the most satisfactory results, as + the majority of the water must pass through the coffee instead of + out through the sides of the bag. Greatest efficiency, when bags + are used, is obtained by repouring until all of the liquid has + passed twice through the coffee; further repouring extracts too + much of the astringent hydrolysis products. The bags, when not in + use, should not be allowed to dry but should be kept in a jar of + cold water. The urns provided with water jackets keep the brew at + almost a constant temperature and avoid the deterioration incident + to temperature fluctuation. + + COMPOSITION OF BREWS. The real tests of the comparative values of + different methods of brewing are the flavor and palatibility of the + drink, in conjunction with the number of cups of a given strength + which are produced, or the relative strengths of brews of the same + number of cups volume. Chemical analysis has not yet been developed + to a stage where the results obtained with it are valuably + indicative. Caffeol is present in quantities so small that no + comparative results can be obtained. "Caffetannic acid" + determinations are practically meaningless. This compound is of so + doubtful a composition and physiological action, and the methods + employed for its determination are so indefinite as to + interpretation, as to render valueless any attempts at comparison + of relative percentages. The only accurate analysis which can be + made is that for caffein. + + Much advertising emphasis has been placed on the small amount of + caffein extracted by some devices. What is one of the main reasons + for the consumption of coffee? The caffein contained therein, of + course. So that if one device extracts less caffein than another, + that fact alone is nothing in favor of the former. If the consumer + does not want caffein in his drink there are caffein-free coffees + on the market. + + [Illustration: FINE-MEAL GRIND UNDER THE MICROSCOPE] + + The coffee liquor acts on metals in such a manner as to lower the + quality of the drink, so that metals of any sort, and by all + means, irons, should be avoided as far as possible. Instead, + earthenware or glass, preferably a good grade of the former, should + be employed as far as possible in the construction of coffee-making + devices. + + Of the various metals, silver, aluminum, monel metal, and tin (in + the order named) are least attacked by coffee infusions; and + besides these, nickel, copper, and well enameled iron (absolutely + free from pin holes) may be used without much danger of + contamination. Rings for coffee-urn bags should be made of tinned + copper, monel metal, or aluminum. Even if coffee be made in metal + contrivances, the receptacles in which it stands should be made of + earthenware or of glass. + + Painstaking care should be given to the preservation of the + coffee-makers in a state of cleanliness, as upon this depends the + value of the brew. Dirt, fine grounds, and fat (which will turn + rancid quickly) should not be allowed to collect on the sides, + bottom, or in angles of the device difficult of access. Nor should + any source of metallic or exterior contamination be allowed to go + uneliminated. + + +_The Perfect Cup of Coffee_ + +Lovers of coffee in the United States are in a better position to obtain +an ideal cup of the beverage than those in any other country. While +imports of green coffee are not so carefully guarded as tea imports, +there is a large measure of government inspection designed to protect +the consumer against impurities, and the Department of Agriculture is +zealous in applying the pure food laws to insure against misbranding and +substitution. The department has defined coffee as "a beverage resulting +from a water infusion of roasted coffee and nothing else." + +Today no reputable merchant would think of selling even loose coffee for +other than what it is. And the consumer can feel that, in the case of +package coffee, the label tells the truth about the contents. + +With a hundred different kinds of coffee coming to this market from +nineteen countries, so many combinations are possible, that there is +sure to be a straight coffee or a blend to suit any taste. And those who +may have been frightened into the belief that coffee is not for them +should do a little experimenting before exposing themselves to the +dangers of the coffee-substitute habit. + +Once upon a time it was thought that Java and Mocha were the only +worthwhile blend, but now we know that a Bogota coffee from Colombia, +and a Bourbon Santos from Brazil, make a most satisfying drink. And if +the individual seeker should happen to be a caffein-sensitive, there are +coffees so low in caffein content, like some Porto Ricans, as to +overcome this objection; while there are other coffees from which the +caffein has been removed by a special treatment. There is no reason why +any person who is fond of coffee should forego its use. Paraphrasing +Makaroff, Be modest, be kind, eat less, and think more, live to serve, +work and play and laugh and love--it is enough! Do this and you may +drink coffee without danger to your immortal soul. + +If you are accustomed to buying loose coffee, have your dealer do a +little experimental blending for you until you find a coffee to suit +your palate. Some expert blends are to be found among the leading +package brands. But you really can not do better than to trust your case +to a first-class grocer of known reputation. He will guide you right if +he knows his business; and if he doesn't, then he doesn't know his +business--try elsewhere. Test him out along this line: + +Let us reason together, Mr. Grocer. Let us consider these facts about +coffee: green coffee improves with age? Granted. As soon as it is +roasted, it begins to lose in flavor and aroma? Certainly. Grinding +hastens the deterioration? Of course. Therefore, it is better to buy a +small quantity of freshly roasted coffee in the bean and grind it at the +time of purchase or at home just before using? Absolutely! + +If your grocer reacts in this fashion, he need only supply you with a +quality coffee at fair price and you need only to make it properly to +obtain the utmost of coffee satisfaction. + +Some connoisseurs still cling to the good old two-thirds Java and +one-third Mocha blend, but the author has for years found great pleasure +in a blend composed of half Medellin Bogota, one-quarter Mandheling +"Java", and one-quarter Mocha. However, this blend might not appeal to +another's taste, and the component parts are not always easy to get. The +retail cost (1922) is about fifty cents. + +Another pleasing blend is composed of Bogota, washed Maracaibo, and +Santos, equal parts. This should retail from thirty to thirty-five +cents. Good drinking coffees are to be had for prices ranging from +twenty-five to thirty cents. In the stores of one of the large chain +systems an excellent blend composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos, +and forty percent Bogota is to be had (1922) for 29 cents. All these +figures apply, of course, to normal times. + +If you are epicurean, you will want to read up on, and to try, the fancy +Mexicans, Cobáns, Sumatra growths, Meridas, and some from the "Kona +side" of Hawaii. + +In preparing the perfect cup of coffee, then, the coffee must be of good +grade, and freshly roasted. It should, if possible, be ground just +before using. The author has found a fine grind, about the consistency +of fine granulated sugar, the most satisfactory. For general home use, a +device that employs filter paper or filter cloth is best; for the +epicure an improved porcelain French percolator (drip pot) or an +improved cloth filter will yield the utmost of coffee's delights. Drink +it black, sweetened or unsweetened, with or without cream or hot milk, +as your fancy dictates. + +It should be remembered that to make good coffee no special pot or +device is necessary. Good coffee can be made with any china vessel and a +piece of muslin. But to make it in perfection pains must be taken with +every step in the process from roaster to cup. + +Hollingworth[385] points out that through taste alone it is impossible +to distinguish between quinine and coffee, or between apple and onion. +There is something more to coffee than its caffein stimulus, its action +on the taste-buds of the tongue and mouth. The sense of smell and the +sense of sight play important rôles. To get all the joy there is in a +cup of coffee, it must look good and smell good, before one can +pronounce its taste good. It must woo us through the nostrils with the +wonderful aroma that constitutes much of the lure of coffee. + +And that is why, in the preparation of the beverage, the greatest +possible care should be observed to preserve the aroma until the moment +of its psychological release. This can only be done by having it appear +at the same instant that the delicate flavor is extracted--roasting and +grinding the bean much in advance of the actual making of the beverage +will defeat this object. Boiling the extraction will perfume the house; +but the lost fragrance will never return to the dead liquid called +coffee, when served from the pot whence it was permitted to escape. + +To recapitulate, with an added word on service, the correct way to make +coffee is as follows: + +1. Buy a good grade of freshly roasted coffee from a responsible dealer. + +2. Grind it very fine, and at home, just before using. + +3. Allow a rounded tablespoonful for each beverage cup. + +4. Make it in a French drip pot or in some filtration device where +freshly boiling water is poured through the grind but once. A piece of +muslin and any china receptacle make an economical filter. + +5. Avoid pumping percolators, or any device for heating water and +forcing it repeatedly through the grounds. Never boil coffee. + +6. Keep the beverage hot and serve it "black" with sugar and hot milk, +or cream, or both. + + +_Some Coffee Recipes_ + +When Mrs. Ida C. Bailey Allen prepared a booklet of recipes for the +Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, she introduced them with the +following remarks on the use of coffee as a flavoring agent: + + Although coffee is our national beverage, comparatively few cooks + realize its possibilities as a flavoring agent. Coffee combines + deliciously with a great variety of food dishes and is especially + adapted to desserts, sauces and sweets. Thus used it appeals + particularly to men and to all who like a full-bodied pronounced + flavor. + + For flavoring purposes coffee should be prepared just as carefully + as when it is intended for a beverage. The best results are + obtained by using freshly made coffee, but when, for reasons of + economy, it is desirable to utilize a surplus remaining from the + meal-time brew, care should be taken not to let it stand on the + grounds and become bitter. + + When introducing made coffee into a recipe calling for other + liquid, decrease this liquid in proportion to the amount of coffee + that has been added. When using it in a cake or in cookies, instead + of milk, a tablespoonful less to the cup should be allowed, as + coffee does not have the same thickening properties. + + In some cases, better results are gained if the coffee is + introduced into the dish by scalding or cooking the right + proportion of ground coffee with the liquid which is to form the + base. By this means the full coffee flavor is obtained, yet the + richness of the finished product is not impaired by the + introduction of water, as would be the case were the infused coffee + used. This method is advisable especially for various desserts + which have milk as a foundation, as those of the custard variety + and certain types of Bavarian Creams, Ice Cream, and the like. The + right proportion of ground coffee, which is generally a + tablespoonful to the cup, should be combined with the cold milk or + cream in the double-boiler top and should then be scalded over hot + water, when the mixture should be put through a very fine strainer + or cheese cloth, to remove all grounds. + +Coffee can be used as a flavoring in almost any dessert or confection +where a flavoring agent is employed. + +On iced coffee and the use of coffee in summer beverages in general, +Mrs. Allen writes as follows: + + ICED COFFEE. This is not only a delicious summer drink, but it also + furnishes a mild stimulation that is particularly grateful on a + wilting hot day. It may be combined with fruit juices and other + ingredients in a variety of cooling beverages which are less sugary + and cloying than the average warm weather drink and for that reason + it is generally popular with men. + + Coffee that is to be served cold should be made somewhat stronger + than usual. Brew it according to your favorite method and chill + before adding sugar and cream. If cracked ice is added make sure + the coffee is strong enough to compensate for the resulting + dilution. Mixing the ingredients in a shaker produces a smoother + beverage topped with an appetizing foam. + + It is a convenience, however, to have on hand a concentrated syrup + from which any kind of coffee-flavored drink may be concocted on + short notice and without the necessity of lighting the stove. + Coffee left over from meals may be used for the same purpose, but + it should be kept in a covered glass or china dish and not allowed + to stand too long. A coffee syrup made after the following recipe + will keep indefinitely and may be used as a basis for many + delicious iced drinks: + + COFFEE SYRUP. Two quarts of very strong coffee; 3-1/2 pounds sugar. + The coffee should be very strong, as the syrup will be largely + diluted. The proportion of a pound of coffee to one and + three-fourths quarts of water will be found satisfactory. This may + be made by any favorite method, cleared and strained, then combined + with the sugar, brought to boiling point, and boiled for two or + three minutes. It should be canned while boiling, in sterilized + bottles. Fill them to overflowing and seal as for grape juice or + for any other canned beverage. + +[Illustration] + + + + +A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY + + _Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, + literature, cultivation, plantation treatment, trading, and in the + preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the + present_ + + 900[L]--Rhazes, famous Arabian physician, is first writer to + mention coffee under the name _bunca_ or _bunchum_.[M] + + 1000[L]--Avicenna, Mahommedan physician and philosopher, is the + first writer to explain the medicinal properties of the coffee + bean, which he also calls _bunchum_.[M] + + 1258[L]--Sheik Omar, disciple of Sheik Schadheli, patron saint and + legendary founder of Mocha, by chance discovers coffee as a + beverage at Ousab in Arabia.[M] + + 1300[L]--The coffee drink is a decoction made from roasted berries, + crushed in a mortar and pestle, the powder being placed in boiling + water, and the drink taken down, grounds and all. + + 1350[L]--Persian, Egyptian, and Turkish ewers made of pottery are + first used for serving coffee. + + 1400-1500--Earthenware or metal coffee-roasting plates with small + holes, rounded and shaped like a skimmer, come into use in Turkey + and Persia over braziers. Also about this time appears the familiar + Turkish cylinder coffee mill, and the original Turkish coffee + boiler of metal. + + 1428-48--Spice grinder to stand on four legs first invented; + subsequently used to grind coffee. + + 1454[L]--Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, having discovered the + virtues of the berry on a journey to Abyssinia, sanctions the use + of coffee in Arabia Felix. + + 1470-1500--The use of coffee spreads to Mecca and Medina. + + 1500-1600--Shallow iron dippers with long handles and small + foot-rests come into use in Bagdad and in Mesopotamia for roasting + coffee. + + 1505[L]--The Arabs introduce the coffee plant into Ceylon. + + 1510--The coffee drink is introduced into Cairo. + + 1511--Kair Bey, governor of Mecca, after consultation with a + council of lawyers, physicians, and leading citizens, issues a + condemnation of coffee, and prohibits the use of the drink. + Prohibition subsequently ordered revoked by the sultan of Cairo. + + 1517--Sultan Selim I, after conquering Egypt, brings coffee to + Constantinople. + + 1524--The kadi of Mecca closes the public coffee houses because of + disorders, but permits coffee drinking at home and in private. His + successor allows them to re-open under license. + + 1530[L]--Coffee drinking introduced into Damascus. + + 1532[L]--Coffee drinking introduced into Aleppo. + + 1534--A religious fanatic denounces coffee in Cairo and leads a mob + against the coffee houses, many of which are wrecked. The city is + divided into two parties, for and against coffee; but the chief + judge, after consultation with the doctors, causes coffee to be + served to the meeting, drinks some himself, and thus settles the + controversy. + + 1542--Soliman II, at the solicitation of a favorite court lady, + forbids the use of coffee, but to no purpose. + + 1554--The first coffee houses are opened in Constantinople by + Shemsi of Damascus and Hekem of Aleppo. + + 1570[L]-80[L]--Religious zealots in Constantinople, jealous of the + increasing popularity of the coffee houses, claim roasted coffee to + be a kind of charcoal, and the mufti decides that it is forbidden + by the law. Amurath III subsequently orders the closing of all + coffee houses, on religious grounds, classing coffee with wine, + forbidden by the _Koran_. The order is not strictly observed, and + coffee drinking continues behind closed shop-doors and in private + houses. + + 1573--Rauwolf, German physician and botanist, first European to + mention coffee, makes a journey to the Levant. + + 1580--Prospero Alpini (Alpinus), Italian physician and botanist, + journeys to Egypt and brings back news of coffee. + + 1582-83--The first printed reference to coffee appears as _chaube_ + in Rauwolf's _Travels_, published in German at Frankfort and + Lauingen. + + 1585--Gianfraneesco Morosini, city magistrate in Constantinople, + reports to the Venetian senate the use by the Turks "of a black + water, being the infusion of a bean called _cavee_." + + 1587--The first authentic account of the origin of coffee is + written by the Sheik Abd-al-Kâdir, in an Arabian manuscript + preserved in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. + + 1592--The first printed description of the coffee plant (called + _bon_) and drink (called _caova_) appears in Prospero Alpini's work + _The Plants of Egypt_, written in Latin, and published in Venice. + + 1596[L]--Belli sends to the botanist de l'Écluse "seeds used by the + Egyptians to make a liquid they call _cave_." + + 1598--The first printed reference to coffee in English appears as + _chaoua_ in a note of Paludanus in _Linschoten's Travels_, + translated from the Dutch, and published in London. + + 1599--Sir Antony Sherley, first Englishman to refer to coffee + drinking in the Orient, sails from Venice for Aleppo. + + 1600[L]--Pewter serving-pots appear. + + 1600--Iron spiders on legs, designed to sit in open fires, are used + for roasting coffee. + + 1600[L]--Coffee cultivation introduced into southern India at + Chickmaglur, Mysore, by a Moslem pilgrim, Baba Budan.[M] + + 1600-32--Mortars and pestles of wood, and of metal (iron, bronze, + and brass) come into common use in Europe for making coffee powder. + + 1601--The first printed reference to coffee in English, employing + the more modern form of the word, appears in W. Parry's book, + _Sherley's Travels_, as "a certain liquor which they call coffe." + + 1603--Captain John Smith, English adventurer, and founder of the + colony of Virginia, in his book of travels published this year, + refers to the Turks' drink, "coffa." + + 1610--Sir George Sandys, the poet, visits Turkey, Egypt, and + Palestine, and records that the Turks "sip a drink called _coffa_ + (of the berry that it is made of) in little china dishes, as hot as + they can suffer it." + + 1614--Dutch traders visit Aden to examine into the possibilities of + coffee cultivation and coffee trading. + + 1615--Pietro Della Valle writes a letter from Constantinople to his + friend Mario Schipano at Venice that when he returns he will bring + with him some coffee, which he believes "is a thing unknown in his + native country." + + 1615--Coffee is introduced into Venice. + + 1616--The first coffee is brought from Mocha to Holland by Pieter + Van dan Broecke. + + 1620--Peregrine White's wooden mortar and pestle (used for + "braying" coffee) is brought to America on the Mayflower by White's + parents. + + 1623-27--Francis Bacon, in his _Historia Vitae et Mortis_ (1623), + speaks of the Turks' "caphe"; and in his _Sylva Sylvarum_ (1627) + writes: "They have in Turkey a drink called _coffa_ made of a berry + of the same name, as black as soot, and of a strong scent ... this + drink comforteth the brain and heart, and helpeth digestion." + + 1625--Sugar is first used to sweeten coffee in Cairo. + + 1632--Burton in his _Anatomy of Melancholy_ says: "The Turks have a + drink called _coffa_, so named from a berry black as soot and as + bitter." + + 1634--Sir Henry Blount makes a voyage to the Levant, and is invited + to drink "cauphe" in Turkey. + + 1637--Adam Olearius, German traveler and Persian scholar, visits + Persia (1633-39); and on his return tells how in this year he + observed that the Persians drink _chawa_ in their coffee houses. + + 1637--Coffee drinking is introduced into England by Nathaniel + Conopios, a Cretan student at Balliol College, Oxford. + + 1640--Parkinson, in his _Theatrum Botanicum_, publishes the first + botanical description of the coffee plant in English--referred to + as "_Arbor Bon cum sua Buna_. The Turkes Berry Drinke." + + 1640--The Dutch merchant, Wurffbain, offers for sale in Amsterdam + the first commercial shipment of coffee from Mocha. + + 1644--Coffee is introduced into France at Marseilles by P. de la + Roque, who brought back also from Constantinople the instruments + and vessels for making it. + + 1645--Coffee comes into general use in Italy. + + 1645--The first coffee house is opened in Venice. + + 1647--Adam Olearius publishes in German his _Persian Voyage + Description_, containing an account of coffee manners and customs + in Persia in 1633-39. + + 1650[L]--Varnar, Dutch minister resident at the Ottoman Porte, + publishes a treatise on coffee. + + 1650[L]--The individual hand-turned metal (tin-plate or tinned + copper) roaster appears; shaped like the Turkish coffee grinder, + for use over open fires. + + 1650--The first coffee house in England is opened at Oxford by + Jacobs, a Jew. + + 1650--Coffee is introduced into Vienna. + + 1652--The first London coffee house is opened by Pasqua Rosée in + St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill. + + 1652--The first printed advertisement for coffee in English appears + in the form of a handbill issued by Pasqua Rosée, acclaiming "The + Vertue of the Coffee Drink." + + 1656--Grand Vizier Kuprili, during the war with Candia, and for + political reasons, suppresses the coffee houses and prohibits + coffee. For the first violation the punishment is cudgeling; for a + second, the offender is sewn up in a leather bag and thrown into + the Bosporus. + + 1657--The first newspaper advertisement for coffee appears in _The + Publick Adviser_ of London. + + 1657--Coffee is introduced privately into Paris by Jean de + Thévenot. + + 1658--The Dutch begin the cultivation of coffee in Ceylon. + + 1660[L]--The first French commercial importation of coffee arrives + in bales at Marseilles from Egypt. + + 1660--Coffee is first mentioned in the English statute books when a + duty of four pence is laid upon every gallon made and sold "to be + paid by the maker." + + 1660[L]--Nieuhoff, Dutch ambassador to China, is the first to make + a trial of coffee with milk, in imitation of tea with milk. + + 1660--Elford's "white iron" machine for roasting coffee is much + used in England, being "turned on a spit by a jack." + + 1662--Coffee is roasted in Europe over charcoal fires without + flame, in ovens, and on stoves; being "browned in uncovered + earthenware tart dishes, old pudding pans, fry pans." + + 1663--All English coffee houses are required to be licensed. + + 1663--Regular imports of Mocha coffee begin at Amsterdam. + + 1665--The improved Turkish long brass combination coffee grinder + with folding handle and cup receptacle for green beans, for boiling + and serving, is first made in Damascus. About this period the + Turkish coffee set, including long-handled boiler and porcelain + cups in brass holders, comes into vogue. + + 1668--Coffee is introduced into North America. + + 1669--Coffee is introduced publicly into Paris by Soliman Aga, the + Turkish ambassador. + + 1670--Coffee is roasted in larger quantities in small closed + sheet-iron cylinders having long iron handles designed to turn them + in open fireplaces. First used in Holland. Later, in France, + England, and the United States. + + 1670--The first attempt to grow coffee in Europe at Dijon, France, + results in failure. + + 1670--Coffee is introduced into Germany. + + 1670--Coffee is first sold in Boston. + + 1671--The first coffee house in France is opened in Marseilles in + the neighborhood of the Exchange. + + 1671--The first authoritative printed treatise devoted solely to + coffee, written in Latin by Faustus Nairon, professor of Oriental + languages, Rome, is published in that city. + + 1671--The first printed treatise in French, largely devoted to + coffee, _Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea and Chocolate_, by + Philippe Sylvestre Dufour, purporting to be a translation from the + Latin, is published at Lyons. + + 1672--Pascal, an Armenian, first sells coffee publicly at St. + Germain's fair, Paris, and opens the first Parisian coffee house. + + 1672--Great silver coffee pots (with all the utensils belonging to + them of the same metal) are used at St.-Germain's fair, Paris. + + 1674--_The Women's Petition Against Coffee_ is published in London. + + 1674--Coffee is introduced into Sweden. + + 1675--Charles II issues a proclamation to close all London coffee + houses as places of sedition. Order revoked on petition of the + traders in 1676. + + 1679--An attempt by the physicians of Marseilles to discredit + coffee on purely dietetic grounds fails of effect; and consumption + increases at such a rate that traders in Lyons and Marseilles begin + to import the green bean by the ship-load from the Levant. + + 1679[L]--The first coffee house in Germany is opened by an English + merchant at Hamburg. + + 1683--Coffee is sold publicly in New York. + + 1683--Kolschitzky opens the first coffee house in Vienna. + + 1684--Dufour publishes at Lyons, France, the first work on _The + Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and Chocolate_. + + 1685--_Café au lait_ is first recommended for use as a medicine by + Sieur Monin, a celebrated physician of Grenoble, France. + + 1686--John Ray, one of the first English botanists to extol the + virtues of coffee in a scientific treatise, publishes his + _Universal Botany of Plants_ in London. + + 1686--The first coffee house is opened in Regensburg, Germany. + + 1689--Café de Procope, the first real French café, is opened in + Paris by François Procope, a Sicilian, coming from Florence. + + 1689--The first coffee house is opened in Boston. + + 1691--Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the pocket find favor + in France. + + 1692--The "lantern" straight-line coffee pot with true cone lid, + thumb-piece, and handle fixed at right angle to the spout, is + introduced into England, succeeding the curved Oriental serving + pot. + + 1694--The first coffee house is opened in Leipzig, Germany. + + 1696--The first coffee house (The King's Arms) is opened in New + York. + + 1696--The first coffee seedlings are brought from Kananur, on the + Malabar coast, and introduced into Java at Kedawoeng, near Batavia, + but not long afterward are destroyed by flood. + + 1699--The second shipment of coffee plants from Malabar to Java by + Henricus Zwaardecroon becomes the progenitors of all the _arabica_ + coffee trees in the Dutch East Indies. + + 1699--Galland's translation of the earliest Arabian manuscript on + coffee appears in Paris under the title, _Concerning the First Use + of Coffee and the Progress It Afterward Made_. + + 1700--Ye coffee house, the first in Philadelphia, is built by + Samuel Carpenter. + + 1700-1800--Small portable coke or charcoal stoves made of + sheet-iron, and fitted with horizontal revolving cylinders turned + by hand, come into use for family roasting. + + 1701--Coffee pots appear in England with perfect domes and bodies + less tapering. + + 1702--The first "London" coffee house is established in + Philadelphia. + + 1704--Bull's machine for roasting coffee, probably the first to use + coal for commercial roasting, is patented in England. + + 1706--The first samples of Java coffee, and a coffee plant grown in + Java, are received at the Amsterdam botanical gardens. + + 1707--The first coffee periodical, _The New and Curious Coffee + House_, is issued at Leipzig by Theophilo Georgi, as a kind of + organ of the first kaffee-klatsch. + + 1711--Java coffee is first sold at public auction in Amsterdam. + + 1711--A novelty in coffee-making is introduced into France by + infusing the ground beans in a fustian (linen) bag. + + 1712--The first coffee house is opened in Stuttgart, Germany. + + 1713--The first coffee house is opened in Augsburg, Germany. + + 1714--The thumb-piece on English coffee pots disappears, and the + handle is no longer set at a right angle to the spout. + + 1714--A coffee plant, raised from seed of the plant received at the + Amsterdam botanical gardens in 1706, is presented to Louis XIV of + France, and is nurtured in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. + + 1715--Jean La Roque publishes in Paris his _Voyage de l'Arabie + Heureuse_ (voyage to Arabia the Happy) containing much valuable + information on coffee in Arabia and its introduction into France. + + 1715--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Haiti and Santo + Domingo. + + 1715-17--Coffee cultivation is introduced into the Isle of Bourbon + (now Réunion) by a sea captain of St. Malo, who brings the plants + from Mocha by direction of the French Company of the Indies. + + 1718--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Surinam by the Dutch. + + 1718--Abbé Massieu's _Carmen Caffaeum_, the first and most notable + poem on coffee written in Latin, is composed, and is read before + the Academy of Inscriptions. + + 1720--Caffè Florian is opened in Venice by Floriono Francesconi. + + 1721--The first coffee house is opened in Berlin, Germany. + + 1721--Meisner publishes a treatise on coffee, tea, and chocolate. + + 1722--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cayenne, from Surinam. + + 1723--The first coffee plantation started in the Portuguese colony + of Pará, Brazil, with plants brought from Cayenne (French Guiana) + results in failure. + + 1723--Gabriel de Clieu, Norman captain of infantry, sails from + France, accompanied by one of the seedlings of the Java tree + presented to Louis XIV, and with it shares his drinking water on a + protracted voyage to Martinique. + + 1730--The English bring the cultivation of coffee to Jamaica. + + 1732--The British Parliament seeks to encourage the cultivation of + coffee in British possessions in America by reducing the inland + duty. + + 1732--Bach's celebrated _Coffee Cantata_ is published in Leipzig. + + 1737--The Merchants' coffee house is established in New York; by + some called the true cradle of American liberty and the birthplace + of the Union. + + 1740--Coffee culture is introduced into the Philippines from Java + by Spanish missionaries. + + 1748--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Cuba by Don José + Antonio Gelabert. + + 1750--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Celebes from Java. + + 1750--The straight-line coffee pot in England begins to give way to + the reactionary movement in art favoring bulbous bodies and + serpentine spouts; the sides are nearly parallel, while the dome of + the lid is flattened to a slight elevation above the rim. + + 1752--Intensive coffee cultivation is resumed in the Portuguese + colonies in Pará and Amazonas, Brazil. + + 1754--A white-silver coffee roaster, eight inches high by four + inches in diameter, is mentioned as being among the deliveries made + to the army of Louis XV at Versailles. + + 1755--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Porto Rico from + Martinique. + + 1760--Decoction, or boiling, of coffee in France is generally + replaced by the infusion method. + + 1760--João Alberto Castello Branco plants in Rio de Janeiro the + first coffee tree brought to Brazil from Goa, Portuguese India. + + 1761--Brazil exempts coffee from export duty. + + 1763--Donmartin, a tinsmith of St. Benoit, France, invents a novel + coffee pot, the inside of which is "filled by a fine flannel sack + put in its entirety." It has a tap to draw the coffee. + + 1764--Count Pietro Verri publishes in Milan, Italy, a philosophic + and literary periodical, entitled _Il Caffè_ (the coffee house). + + 1765--Mme. de Pompadour's golden coffee mill is mentioned in her + inventory. + + 1770--Complete revolution in style of English serving pots; return + to the flowing lines of the Turkish ewer. + + 1770--Chicory is first used with coffee in Holland. + + 1770-73--Coffee cultivation begins in Rio, Minãs, and São Paulo. + + 1771--John Dring is granted a patent in England for a compound + coffee. + + 1774--Molke, a Belgian monk, introduces the coffee plant from + Surinam into the garden of the Capuchin monastery at Rio de + Janeiro. + + 1774--A letter is sent by the Committee of Correspondence from the + Merchants' coffee house, New York, to Boston, proposing the + American Union. + + 1777--King Frederick the Great of Prussia issues his celebrated + coffee and beer manifesto, recommending the use of the latter in + place of the former among the lower classes. + + 1779--Richard Dearman is granted an English patent for a new method + of making mills for grinding coffee. + + 1779--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Costa Rica from Cuba by + the Spanish voyager, Navarro. + + 1781--King Frederick the Great of Prussia establishes state + coffee-roasting plants in Germany, declares the coffee business a + government monopoly, and forbids the common people to roast their + own coffee. "Coffee-smellers" make life miserable for violators of + the law. + + 1784--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Venezuela by seed from + Martinique. + + 1784--A prohibition against the use of coffee, except by the rich, + is issued by Maximilian Frederick, elector of Cologne. + + 1785--Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts introduces chicory to the + United States. + + 1789--The first import duty on coffee, two and a half cents a + pound, is levied by the United States. + + 1789--George Washington is officially greeted, April 23, as + president-elect of the U.S. at the Merchants coffee house in New + York. + + 1790--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Mexico from the West + Indies. + + 1790--The first wholesale coffee-roasting plant in the United + States begins operation at 4 Great Dock Street, New York. + + 1790--The first United States advertisement for coffee appears in + the _New York Daily Advertiser._ + + 1790--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased + to four cents a pound. + + 1790--The first crude package coffee is sold in "narrow mouthed + stoneware pots and jars," by a New York merchant. + + 1792--The Tontine coffee house is established in New York. + + 1794--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased + to five cents a pound. + + 1798--The first United States patent for an improved + coffee-grinding mill is granted to Thomas Bruff, Sr. + + 1800[L]--Chicory comes into use in Holland as a substitute for + coffee. + + 1800[L]--De Belloy's coffee pot, made of tin, later of porcelain, + appears--the original French drip coffee pot. + + 1800[L]-1900[L]--There is a return in England to the style of + coffee-serving pot having the handle at right angle to the spout. + + 1802--The first French patent on a coffee maker is granted to + Denobe, Henrion, and Rouch for "a pharmacological-chemical coffee + making device by infusion." + + 1802--Charles Wyatt is granted a patent in London on an apparatus + for distilling coffee. + + 1804[L]--The first cargo of coffee--and other East Indian + produce--from Mocha, to be shipped in an American bottom, reaches + Salem, Mass. + + 1806--James Henckel is granted a patent in England on a coffee + dryer, "an invention communicated to him by a certain foreigner." + + 1806--The first French patent on an improved French drip coffee pot + for making coffee by filtration, without boiling, is granted to + Hadrot. + + 1806--The coffee percolator (really an improved French drip coffee + pot) is invented by Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson), an + expatriated American scientist, in Paris. + + 1809--The first importation of Brazil coffee by the United States + arrives at Salem, Mass. + + 1809--Coffee becomes an article of commerce in Brazil. + + 1811--Walter Rochfort, a London grocer and tea dealer, obtains a + patent in London on a compressed coffee tablet. + + 1812--Coffee in England is roasted in an iron pan or hollow + cylinder made of sheet iron; and then is pounded in a mortar, or + ground in a hand-mill. + + 1812--Anthony Schick is granted an English patent on a method, or + process, for roasting coffee, for which specifications were never + enrolled. + + 1812--Coffee is roasted in Italy in a glass flask with a loose + cork, held over a clear fire of burning coals and continually + agitated. + + 1812--The import duty, on coffee in the United States is increased + to ten cents a pound as a war-revenue measure. + + 1813--A United States patent is granted Alexander Duncan Moore, New + Haven, Conn., on a mill for grinding and pounding coffee. + + 1814--A war-time fever of speculation in tea and coffee causes the + citizens of Philadelphia to form a non-consumption association, + each member pledging himself not to pay more than twenty-five cents + a pound for coffee, and not to use tea unless it is already in the + country. + + 1816--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to + five cents a pound. + + 1817[L]--The coffee biggin (said to have been invented by a man + named Biggin) comes into common use in England. + + 1818--The Havre coffee market for spot coffee and to arrive is + established. + + 1819--Morize, a Paris tinsmith, invents a double drip reversible + coffee pot. + + 1819--Laurens is granted a French patent on the original + pumping-percolator device in which the boiling water was raised by + steam pressure and sprayed over the ground coffee. + + 1820--Peregrine Williamson, Baltimore, is granted the first United + States patent for an improvement on a coffee roaster. + + 1820--Another early form of the French percolator is patented by + Gaudet, a Paris tinsmith. + + 1822--Nathan Reed, Belfast, Me., is granted a United States patent + on a coffee huller. + + 1824--Richard Evans is granted a patent in England for a commercial + method of roasting coffee, comprising a cylinder sheet-iron roaster + fitted with improved flanges for mixing, a hollow tube and trier + for sampling the coffee while roasting, and a means for turning the + roaster completely over to empty it. + + 1825--The pumping percolator, working by steam pressure and by + partial vacuum, comes into vogue in France, Germany, Austria, and + elsewhere. + + 1825--The first coffee-pot patent in the United States is issued to + Lewis Martelley, New York. + + 1825--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Hawaii from Rio de + Janeiro. + + 1827--The first patent for a really practicable French coffee + percolator is granted to Jacques Augustin Gandais, a manufacturer + of plated jewelry in Paris. + + 1828--Charles Parker, Meriden, Conn., begins work on the original + Charles Parker coffee mill. + + 1829--The first French patent on a coffee mill is granted Colaux et + Cie, Molsheim, France. + + 1829--Établissements Lauzaune begin the manufacture of hand-turned + cylinder coffee roasting machines in Paris. + + 1830--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to + two cents a pound. + + 1831--David Selden is granted a patent in England for a + coffee-grinding mill having cones of cast-iron. + + 1831--John Whitmee & Co., England, begin the manufacture of + coffee-plantation machinery. + + 1831--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to + one cent a pound. + + 1832--A United States patent is granted to Edmund Parker and Herman + M. White, Meriden, Conn., on a new household coffee and spice mill. + (Chas. Parker Co. business founded same year.) + + 1832--Government coffee cultivation by forced labor is introduced + into Java. + + 1832--Coffee is placed on the free list in the United States. + + 1832-33--United States patents are granted to Ammi Clark, Berlin, + Conn., on improved coffee and spice mills for household use. + + 1833--Amos Ransom, Hartford, Conn., is granted a United States + patent on a coffee roaster. + + 1833-34--A complete English coffee-roasting-and-grinding plant is + installed in New York by James Wild. + + 1834--John Chester Lyman is granted a patent in England on a coffee + huller employing circular wooden disks with wire teeth. + + 1835--Thomas Ditson, Boston, is granted a United States patent on a + coffee huller. Ten others follow. + + 1835--The first private coffee estates are started in Java and + Sumatra. + + 1836--The first French coffee-roaster patent is issued to François + Réné Lacoux, Paris, on a combination coffee roaster and grinder + made of porcelain. + + 1837--The first French coffee substitute is patented by François + Burlet, Lyons. + + 1839--James Vardy and Moritz Platow are granted an English patent + on a form of urn percolator employing the vacuum process of coffee + making, the upper vessel being made of glass. + + 1840--Central America begins shipping coffee to the United States. + + 1840[L]--Robert Napier, of the Clyde engineering firm of Robert + Napier & Sons, invents the Napierian vacuum coffee machine to make + coffee by distillation and filtration, but the idea is never + patented. (See 1870.) + + 1840--Abel Stillman, Poland, N.Y., is granted a United States + patent on a family coffee roaster having a mica window to enable + the operator to observe the coffee while roasting. + + 1840--The English begin to cultivate coffee in India. + + 1840--Wm. McKinnon & Co.. Aberdeen, Scotland, begin the manufacture + of plantation machinery. (Established 1798.) + + 1842--The first French patent on a glass coffee-making device is + granted to Mme. Vassieux of Lyons. + + 1843--Ed. Loysel de Santais, Paris, is granted a patent on an + improved coffee-making device, the principle of which is later + incorporated in a hydrostatic percolator making 2,000 cups an hour. + + 1846--James W. Carter, Boston, is granted a United States patent on + the Carter "pull-out" coffee roaster. + + 1847--J.R. Remington, Baltimore, is granted a United States patent + on a coffee roaster employing a wheel of buckets to move the green + coffee beans singly through a charcoal-heated trough in which they + are roasted while passing over the rotating wheel. + + 1847-48--William Dakin and Elizabeth Dakin are granted patents in + England for a roasting cylinder lined with gold, silver, platinum, + or alloy, and traversing carriage on a railway to move the roaster + in and out of the heating chamber. + + 1848--Thomas John Knowlys is granted a patent in England on a + perforated roasting cylinder coated with enamel. + + 1848--Luke Herbert is granted the first English patent on a + coffee-grinding machine. + + 1849--Apoleoni Preterre, Havre, is granted a patent in England on a + coffee roaster mounted on a weighing apparatus to indicate loss of + weight in roasting, and automatically to stop the roasting process. + + 1849--Thomas R. Wood of Cincinnati is granted a United States + patent on Wood's improved spherical coffee roaster for use on + kitchen stoves. + + 1850--John Gordon & Co. begin the manufacture of coffee-plantation + machinery in London. + + 1850[L]--The cultivation of coffee is introduced into Guatemala. + + 1850[L]--John Walker introduces his cylinder pulper for coffee + plantations. + + 1852--Edward Gee secures a patent in England for an improved + combination of apparatus for roasting coffee; having a perforated + cylinder fitted with inclined flanges for turning the beans while + roasting. + + 1852--Robert Bowman Tennent is granted a patent in England on a + two-cylinder machine for pulping coffee. Others follow. + + 1852--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Salvador from Cuba. + + 1852--Tavernier is granted a French patent on a coffee tablet. + + 1853--Lacassagne and Latchoud are granted a French patent on liquid + and solid extracts of coffee. + + 1855--C.W. Van Vliet, Fishkill Landing, N.Y., is granted a patent + on a household coffee mill employing upper breaking, and lower + grinding, cones. Assigned to Charles Parker, Meriden, Conn. + + 1856--Waite and Sener's Old Dominion pot is patented in the United + States. + + 1857--The Newell patents on coffee-cleaning machinery are issued in + America. Sixteen patents follow. + + 1857--George L. Squier, Buffalo, N.Y., begins the manufacture of + coffee-plantation machinery. + + 1859--John Gordon, London, is granted an English patent on a coffee + pulper. + + 1860[L]--Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java coffee, the pioneer + ground-coffee package, is put on the New York market by Lewis A. + Osborn. + + 1860--Marcus Mason, an American mechanical engineer in San José, + Costa Rica, invents the Mason pulper and cleaner. + + 1860--John Walker is granted a patent in England on a disk pulper + for pulping Arabian coffee. + + 1860--Alexius Van Gulpen begins the manufacture of a + green-coffee-grading machine at Emmerich, Germany. + + 1861--An import duty of four cents a pound on coffee is imposed by + the United States as a war-revenue measure. + + 1862--The import duty on coffee in the United States is increased + to five cents a pound. + + 1862--The first paper-bag factory in the United States, making bags + for loose coffee, begins operation in Brooklyn. + + 1862--E.J. Hyde, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent + on a combined coffee roaster and stove, fitted with a crane on + which the roasting cylinder is revolved and swung out horizontally + from the stove. + + 1864--Jabez Burns, New York, is granted a United States patent on + the Burns coffee roaster, the first machine that did not have to be + moved away from the fire for discharging the roasted + coffee--marking a distinct advance in the manufacture of + coffee-roasting apparatus. + + 1864--James Henry Thompson. Hoboken, and John Lidgerwood, + Morristown, N.J., are granted an English patent on a coffee-hulling + machine. + + 1865--John Arbuckle introduces to the trade at Pittsburgh roasted + coffee in individual packages, the forerunner of the Ariosa + package. + + 1866--William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, American chargé d'affaires, Rio + de Janeiro, is granted an English patent on a + coffee-hulling-and-cleaning machine. + + 1867--Jabez Burns is granted United States patents on a coffee + cooler, a coffee mixer, and a grinding mill, or granulator. + + 1868--Thomas Page, New York, begins the manufacture of a pull-out + coffee roaster similar to the Carter machine. + + 1868--Alexius Van Gulpen, in partnership with J.H. Lensing and + Theodore von Gimborn, begins the manufacture of coffee-roasting + machines at Emmerich, Germany. + + 1868--E.B. Manning, Middletown, Conn., patents his tea-and-coffee + pot in the United States. + + 1868--John Arbuckle is granted a United States patent for a + roasted-coffee coating consisting of Irish moss, isinglass, + gelatin, sugar, and eggs. + + 1869--Élie Moneuse and L. Duparquet, New York, are granted three + United States patents on a coffee pot, or urn, formed of sheet + copper and lined with pure sheet block tin. + + 1869--B.G. Arnold, New York, engineers the first large green-coffee + speculation; his success as an operator winning for him the title + of King of the Coffee Trade. + + 1869--Henry E. Smyser, assignor to the Weikel & Smith Spice Co., + Philadelphia, is granted his first United States patent on a spice + box used also for coffee. + + 1869--Licenses to sell coffee in London are abolished. + + 1869--The coffee-leaf disease is first noticed in Ceylon. + + 1870--John Gulick Baker, Philadelphia, one of the founders of the + Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania, is granted a patent + on a coffee grinder introduced to the trade by the Enterprise + Manufacturing Co. as its Champion No. 1 mill. + + 1870--Delephine, Sr., Marourme, is granted a French patent on a + tubular coffee roaster that turns over the flame. + + 1870--Alexius Van Gulpen, Emmerich, Germany, brings out a globular + coffee roaster having perforations and an exhauster. + + 1870--Thos. Smith & Son, Glasgow, Scotland, (Elkington & Co., + successors), begin the manufacture of the Napierian vacuum + coffee-making machines for brewing coffee by distillation. + + 1870--First United States trade-mark for essence of coffee is + registered by Butler, Earhart & Co., Columbus, Ohio. + + 1870--The first coffee-valorization enterprise in Brazil results in + failure. + + 1871--J.W. Gillies, New York, is granted two patents in the United + States for roasting and treating coffee by subjecting it to an + intervening cooling operation. + + 1871--First United States trade-mark for coffee is issued to + Butler, Earhart & Co., Columbus, Ohio, for Buckeye, first used + 1870. + + 1871--G.W. Hungerford is granted United States patents on + coffee-cleaning-and-polishing machines. + + 1871--The import duty on coffee in the United States is reduced to + three cents a pound. + + 1872--Jabez Burns, New York, is granted a United States patent on + an improved coffee-granulating mill. Another in 1874. + + 1872--J. Guardiola, Chocola, Guatemala, is granted his first United + States patents on a coffee pulper and a coffee drier. + + 1872--The import duty on coffee in the United States is repealed. + + 1872--Robert Hewitt, Jr., New York, publishes the first American + work on coffee, _Coffee: Its History, Cultivation, and Uses_. + + 1873--J.G. Baker, Philadelphia, assignor of the Enterprise + Manufacturing Co. of Pennsylvania, is granted a United States + patent on a grinding mill later known to the trade as Enterprise + Champion Globe No. 0. + + 1873--Marcus Mason begins the manufacture of coffee-plantation + machinery in the United States. + + 1873--Ariosa, first successful national brand of package coffee is + put on the United States market by John Arbuckle of Pittsburgh. + (Registered 1900.) + + 1873--H.C. Lockwood, Baltimore, is granted a United States patent + on a coffee package made of paper and lined with tin-foil, with + false bottom and top. + + 1873--The first international syndicate to control coffee is + organized in Frankfort, Germany, by the German Trading Company, and + operates successfully for eight years. + + 1873--The Jay Cooke stock-market panic causes the price of Rios in + the New York market to drop from twenty-four cents to fifteen cents + in one day. + + 1873--E. Dugdale, Griffin, Ga., is granted two United States + patents on coffee substitutes. + + 1873--The first "coffee palace," the Edinburgh Castle, designed to + replace public-houses for workingmen, is opened in London. + + 1874--John Arbuckle is granted a United States patent on a + coffee-cleaner-and-grader. + + 1875--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Guatemala. + + 1875-76-78--Turner Strowbridge, of New Brighton, Pa., is granted + three United States patents on a box coffee mill first made by + Logan & Strowbridge. + + 1876--John Manning brings out his valve-type percolator in the + United States. + + 1876-78--Henry B. Stevens, Buffalo, assignor to George L. Squier, + Buffalo, is granted important United States patents on + coffee-cleaning-and-grading machines. + + 1877--The first German patent on a commercial coffee roaster is + issued in Berlin to G. Tuberman's Son. + + 1877--A French patent is granted Marchand and Hignette, Paris, on a + sphere or ball coffee roaster. + + 1877--The first French patent on a gas coffee roaster is issued to + Roure of Marseilles. + + 1878--Coffee cultivation is introduced into British Central Africa. + + 1878--_The Spice Mill_, the first paper in America devoted to the + coffee and spice trades, is founded by Jabez Burns of New York. + + 1878--A United States patent is issued to Rudolphus L. Webb, + assignor to Landers, Frary & Clark of New Britain, Conn., on an + improved box coffee grinder for home use. + + 1878--Chase & Sanborn, the Boston coffee roasters, are the first to + pack and ship roasted coffee in sealed containers. + + 1878--John C. Dell, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent + on a coffee mill for store use. + + 1879--H. Faulder, Stockport, Lancaster, Eng., is granted an English + patent on the first English gas coffee roaster, now made by the + Grocers Engineering & Whitmee, Ltd. + + 1879--A new gas coffee roaster is invented in England by Fleury & + Barker. + + 1879--C.F. Hargreaves, Rio de Janeiro, is granted an English patent + on machinery for hulling, polishing, and separating coffee. + + 1879--Charles Halstead, New York, is the first to bring out a metal + coffee pot with a china interior. + + 1879-80--Orson W. Stowe, of the Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co., + Southington, Conn., is granted United States patents on an improved + coffee and spice mill. + + 1880--Great failures in the American coffee trade as a result of + syndicate planting and buying of coffees in Brazil, Mexico, and + Central America. + + 1880--Coffee pots with tops, having muslin bottoms for clarifying + and straining, are first made by Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co. in + the United States. + + 1880--Peter Pearson, Manchester, Eng., is granted a patent in + England on a coffee roaster wherein gas is substituted for coke as + fuel. + + 1880--Henry E. Smyser, Philadelphia, is granted a United States + patent on a package-making-and-filling machine, forerunner of the + weighing-and-packing machine, the control of which by John Arbuckle + led to the coffee-sugar war with the Havemeyers. + + 1880--Fancy paper bags for coffee are first used in Germany. + + 1880-81--G.W. and G.S. Hungerford are granted United States patents + on machines for cleaning, scouring, and polishing coffee. + + 1880-81--The first big coffee-trade combination in North America, + known as the "trinity" (O.G. Kimball, B.G. Arnold and Bowie Dash, + all of New York), has a sensational collapse, its failure being the + result of syndicate planting and buying of coffees in Brazil, + Mexico, and Central America. + + 1881--Steele & Price, Chicago, are the first to introduce all-paper + cans (made of strawboard) for coffee. + + 1881--C.S. Phillips, Brooklyn, is granted three patents in the + United States for aging and maturing coffee. + + 1881--The Emmericher Machinenfabrik und Eisengiesserei at Emmerich, + Germany, begins the manufacture of a closed globular roaster with a + gas-heater attachment. + + 1881--Jabez Burns is granted a United States patent on an improved + construction of his roaster, comprising a turn-over front head, + serving for both feeding and discharging. + + 1881--The Morgan brothers, Edgar H. and Charles, begin the + manufacture of household coffee mills, subsequently acquired (1885) + by the Arcade Manufacturing Co., Freeport, Ill. + + 1881--Francis B. Thurber, New York, publishes the second important + American work on coffee, _Coffee from Plantation to Cup_. + + 1881--Harvey Ricker, Brooklyn, introduces to the trade a "minute" + coffee pot and urn, known as the Boss, name subsequently changed to + Minute, and later improved and patented (1901) as the Half Minute + coffee pot--a filtration device employing a cotton sack with a + thick bottom. + + 1881--New York Coffee Exchange is incorporated. + + 1882--Chris. Abele, New York, is granted a atent in the United + States on an improvement on a coffee roaster, similar to the + original Burns machine (on which the 1864 patent had expired) known + as the Knickerbocker. + + 1882--The Hungerfords, father and son, bring out a coffee roaster, + similar to the first Burns machine, in competition with Chris. + Abele. + + 1882--A German patent is granted to Emil Newstadt, Berlin, on one + of the earliest coffee-extract-making machines. + + 1882--The first French coffee exchange, or terminal market, is + opened at Havre. + + 1882--New York Coffee Exchange begins business. + + 1883--The Burns Improved Sample Coffee Roaster is patented in the + United States by Jabez Burns. + + 1884--The Star coffee pot, later known as the Marion Harland, is + introduced to the trade. + + 1884--The Chicago Liquid Sack Co. introduces the first combination + paper and tin-end can for coffee in the United States. + + 1885--F.A. Cauchois introduces into the United States market an + improved porcelain-lined coffee urn. + + 1885--Property of New York Coffee Exchange is transferred to the + Coffee Exchange, City of New York, incorporated by special charter. + + 1880--Walker, Sons & Co., Ltd., begin experiments in Ceylon with a + Liberian disk coffee pulper; fully perfected in 1898. + + 1886-88--The "great coffee boom" forces the price of Rio 7's from + seven and a half to twenty-two and a quarter cents, the subsequent + panic reducing the price to nine cents. Total sales on the New York + Coffee Exchange. + + 1887-88, amount to 47,868,750 bags; and prices advance 1,485 + points during 1886-87. + + 1887--Beeston Tupholme, London, is granted a patent in England on a + direct-flame gas coffee roaster. + + 1887--Coffee cultivation is introduced into Tonkin, Indo-China. + + 1887--Coffee exchanges are opened in Amsterdam and Hamburg. + + 1888--Evaristo Conrado Engelberg, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, is + granted a United States patent on a coffee-hulling machine + (invented in 1885); and the same year, the Engelberg Huller Co., + Syracuse, N.Y., is organized for the purpose of manufacturing and + selling Engelberg machines. + + 1888--Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted a + patent in Spain on a direct-flame gas coffee roaster. + + 1888--A French patent is granted to Postulart on a gas roaster. + + 1889--David Fraser, who came to the United States in 1886 from + Glasgow, Scotland, establishes the Hungerford Co., succeeding to + the business of the Hungerfords. + + 1889--The Arcade Manufacturing Co., Freeport, Ill., brings out the + first "pound" coffee mill. + + 1889--Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted patents + in Belgium, France, and England, on his direct-flame gas coffee + roaster. + + 1889--C.A. Otto is granted a German patent on a spiral-coil gas + coffee machine to roast coffee in three and a half minutes. + + 1890--A. Mottant, Bar-le-Duc, France, begins the manufacture of + coffee-roasting machines. + + 1890[L]--Coffee exchanges are opened in Antwerp, London, and + Rotterdam. + + 1890--Sigmund Kraut begins the manufacture of fancy grease-proof + paper-lined coffee bags in Berlin. + + 1891--The New England Automatic Weighing Machine Co., Boston, + begins the manufacture of machines to weigh coffee into cartons and + other packages. + + 1891--R.F.E. O'Krassa; Antigua, Guatemala, is granted an important + English patent on a machine for pulping coffee. + + 1891--John List, Black Heath, Kent, Eng., is granted an English + patent on a steam coffee urn described as an improvement on the + Napierian system. + + 1892--T. von Gimborn, Emmerich, Germany, is granted an English + patent on a coffee roaster employing a naked gas flame in a rotary + cylinder. + + 1892--The Fried. Krupp A.G. Grusonwerk, Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, + begins the manufacture of coffee-plantation machinery. + + 1893--Cirilo Mingo, New Orleans, is granted a United States patent + on a process for maturing, or aging, green coffee beans by + moistening the bags. + + 1893--The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster in America + (Tupholme's English machine) is installed by F.T. Holmes at the + plant of the Potter-Parlin Co., New York, which places similar + machines on daily rental basis throughout the United States, + limiting leases to one firm in a city, obtaining exclusive American + rights from the Waygood, Tupholme Co., now the Grocers Engineering + & Whitmee, Ltd., London. + + 1893--Karel F. Hennemann, the Hague, Netherlands, is granted a + United States patent on his direct-flame gas coffee roaster. + + 1894--The first automatic weighing machine to weigh goods in + cartons is installed in the plant of Chase & Sanborn, Boston. + + 1894--Joseph M. Walsh, Philadelphia, publishes his _Coffee; Its + History, Classification and Description_. + + 1895--Gerritt C. Otten and Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, + Netherlands, are granted a United States patent on a coffee + roaster. + + 1895--Adolph Kraut introduces German-made double (grease-proof + lined) paper bags for coffee in America. + + 1895--Marcus Mason, assignor to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, is + granted United States patents on machines for pulping and polishing + coffee. + + 1895--Thomas M. Royal, Philadelphia, is the first to manufacture in + the United States a fancy duplex-lined paper bag. + + 1895--Édelestan Jardin publishes in Paris a work on coffee, + entitled _Le Caféier et le Café_. + + 1895--The Electric Scale Co., Quincy, Mass., begins the manufacture + of pneumatic weighing machines; business continued by the Pneumatic + Scale Corp., Ltd., Norfolk Downs, Mass. + + 1896--Natural gas is first used in the United States as fuel for + roasting, being introduced under coal roasting cylinders in + Pennsylvania and Indiana by improvised gas-burners. + + 1896-1897--Beeston Tupholme is granted United States patents on his + direct-flame gas coffee roaster. + + 1897--Joseph Lambert of Vermont begins the manufacture and sale in + Battle Creek, Mich., of the Lambert self-contained coffee roaster + without the brick setting then required for coffee roasting + machines. + + 1897--A special gas burner (made the basis of application for + patent) is first attached to a regular Burns roaster. + + 1897--The Enterprise Manufacturing Co., Pennsylvania, is the first + regularly to employ electric motors for driving commercial coffee + mills by means of belt-and-pulley attachments. + + 1897--Carl H. Duehring, Hoboken, N.J., assignor to D.B. Fraser, New + York, is granted a United States patent on a coffee roaster. + + 1898--The Hobart Manufacturing Co., Troy, Ohio, puts on the market + one of the first coffee grinders connected with an electric motor + and driven by a belt-and-pulley attachment. + + 1898--Millard F. Hamsley, Brooklyn, is granted a United States + patent on an improved direct-flame gas coffee roaster. + + 1898--Edwin Norton of New York is granted a United States patent on + a vacuum process of canning foods, later applied to coffee. Others + follow. + + 1898--J.D. Olavarria, a distinguished Venezuelan, first advocates a + plan for restriction of coffee production, and for regulation of + coffee exports from countries suffering from overproduction. + + 1898--A bear campaign forces Rio 7's down to four and a half cents + on the New York Coffee Exchange. + + 1899--The bubonic-plague boom temporarily halts the downward trend + of coffee prices. + + 1899--The Canister Co., Phillipsburg, N.J., begins the manufacture + of square and oblong fiber-bodied tin-end cans for coffee. + + 1899--Soluble coffee is invented in Chicago by Dr. Sartori Kato, a + chemist of Tokio. + + 1899--David B. Fraser, New York, is granted two patents in the + United States, one for a coffee roaster and one for a coffee + cooler. + + 1899--Ellis M. Potter, New York, is granted a United States patent + on a direct-flame gas coffee roasting machine embodying certain + improvements on the Tupholme machine, whereby the gas flame is + spread over a large area, so avoiding scorching and securing a more + thorough and uniform roast. + + 1900--The Burns direct-flame gas coffee roaster with a patented + swing-gate head for feeding and discharging at the center, is first + introduced to the trade. + + 1900--First gear-driven electric coffee grinder is introduced into + the United States market by the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of + Pennsylvania. + + 1900--The Burns swing-gate sample-coffee roasting outfit is + patented in the United States. + + 1900--Hills Bros., San Francisco, are the first to pack coffee in a + vacuum under the Norton patents. + + 1900--Charles Morgan, Freeport, Ill., is granted a United States + patent on a glass-jar coffee mill, with removable glass measuring + cup. + + 1900--R.F.E. O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted an English + and a United States patents on machines for shelling and drying + coffee. + + 1900--Chemically purified and neutralized rosin as a glaze + (_harz-glasur_) for roasted coffee, designed to keep it fresh and + palatable, is first discovered and applied in Germany. + + 1900--Charles Lewis is granted a United States patent on his Kin + Hee filter coffee pot. + + 1900-1901--A new era in coffee is inaugurated when Santos + permanently displaces Rio as the world's largest source of supply. + + 1901--Kato's soluble coffee is put on the United States market by + the Kato Coffee Company at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. + + 1901--American Can Co. begins the manufacture and sale of tin + coffee cans in the United States. + + 1901--Improved all-paper cans for coffee (made of strawboard or + chip-board, plain or manila-lined) are introduced into the United + States market by J.H. Kuechenmeister of St. Louis. + + 1901--The first issue of _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, + devoted to the interests of the tea and coffee trades, appears in + New York. + + 1901--Coffee cultivation is introduced into British East Africa + from Réunion Island. + + 1901--Robert Burns of New York is granted two United States patents + on a coffee roaster and cooler. + + 1901--Joseph Lambert of Marshall, Mich., introduces to the trade in + the United States a gas coffee roaster, one of the earliest + machines employing gas as fuel for indirect roasting. + + 1901--T.C. Morewood, Brentford, Middlesex, Eng., is granted an + English patent on a gas coffee roaster with a removable sampling + tube. + + 1901--F.T. Holmes joins the Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver + Creek, N.Y., which then begins to build the Monitor coffee roaster + for the trade. + + 1901--Landers, Frary & Clark's Universal percolator is patented in + the United States. + + 1902--The Coles Manufacturing Co. (Braun Co., successors) and Henry + Troemner, Philadelphia, begin the manufacture and sale of + gear-driven electric coffee grinders. + + 1902--The Pan-American Congress, meeting in Mexico City, proposes + an international congress for the study of coffee, to meet in New + York, October, 1902. + + 1902--An international coffee congress is held in New York, October + 1 to October 30. + + 1902--_Robusta_ coffee is introduced into Java from the Jardin + Botanique at Brussels. + + 1902--The first fancy duplex paper bag made by machinery from a + roll of paper is produced by the Union Bag & Paper Corp. + + 1902--The Jagenberg Machine Co. begins the introduction into the + United States of a line of German-made automatic + packaging-and-labeling machines for coffee. + + 1902--T.K. Baker, Minneapolis, is granted two United States patents + on a cloth-filter coffee maker. + + 1903--A United States patent on a coffee concentrate and process of + making the same (soluble coffee) is granted to Sartori Kato of + Chicago, assignor to the Kato Coffee Company of Chicago. + + 1903--F.A. Cauchois introduces Coffey's soluble coffee to the + United States coffee trade, the product being ground roasted coffee + mixed with sugar and reduced to a powder. + + 1903--Overproduction in Brazil causes Santos 4's to drop to 3.55 + cents on the New York Exchange, the lowest price ever recorded for + coffee. + + 1903--John Arbuckle, New York, is granted a United States patent on + a coffee-roasting apparatus, employing a fan to force the "hot fire + gases" into the roasting cylinder. + + 1903--George C. Lester, New York, is granted a United States patent + on an electric coffee roaster. + + 1904--Dr. E. Denekamp is granted a United States patent on a rosin + glaze for roasted coffee, designed to preserve its flavor and + aroma. + + 1904--The so-called "cotton crowd," under the leadership of D.J. + Sully, forces green-coffee prices up to 11.85 cents, all records + for business on the New York Coffee Exchange being smashed by the + sale of over a million bags on February 5. + + 1904--Sigmund Sternau, J.P. Steppe, and L. Strassberger, assignors + to S. Sternau & Co., New York, are granted a United States patent + on a coffee percolator. + + 1904-05--Douglas Gordon, assignor to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, + is granted United States patents on a coffee pulper and a coffee + drier. + + 1905--The A.J. Deer Co., Buffalo (now at Hornell, N.Y.), begins + the sale of its Royal electric coffee mills direct to dealers, on + the instalment plan, revolutionizing the former practise of selling + coffee mills through the hardware jobbers. + + 1905--The Henneman direct-flame gas coffee roaster, a Dutch + machine, is introduced into the United States market by C.A. Cross, + Fitchburg, Mass. + + 1905--H.L. Johnston is granted a United States patent on a coffee + mill which he assigns to the Hobart Manufacturing Co., Troy, Ohio. + + 1905--Frederick A. Cauchois introduces his Private Estate coffee + maker, a filtration device employing Japanese filter paper. + + 1905--Finley Acker, Philadelphia, is granted a United States patent + on a coffee percolator, employing "porous or bibulous paper" as a + filtering medium and having side perforations. + + 1905--A coffee exchange is opened in Trieste, Austria-Hungary. + + 1905--The Kaffee-Handels Aktiengesellschaft, Bremen, is granted a + German patent on a process for freeing coffee from caffein. + + 1906--H.D. Kelly, Kansas City, Mo., is granted a United States + patent on the Kellum Thermo Automatic coffee urn, employing a + coffee extractor in which the ground coffee is continually agitated + before percolation by a vacuum process. Sixteen patents follow. + + 1906--G. Washington, an American chemist (born in Belgium of + English parents), living temporarily in Guatemala City, invents a + refined (soluble) coffee. + + 1906--Frank T. Holmes, Brooklyn (assignor to the Huntley + Manufacturing Co.), is granted a patent for an improvement on a + coffee-roasting machine. + + 1906--Captain Moegling's electric-fuel coffee roaster, invented in + 1900, is given a practical demonstration in Germany. + + 1906--Ludwig Schmidt, assignor to the Essmueller Mill Furnishing + Co., St. Louis, is granted a United States patent on a coffee + roaster. + + 1906-07--Brazil produces a record-breaking crop of 20,190,000 bags, + and the State of São Paulo inaugurates a plan to valorize coffee. + + 1907--The Pure Food and Drugs Act comes into force in the United + States, making it obligatory to label all coffees correctly. + + 1907--Desiderio Pavoni, Milan, is granted a patent in Italy for an + improvement on the Bezzara system of preparing and serving coffee + as a rapid infusion of a single cup. + + 1907--P.E. Edtbauer (Mrs. E. Edtbauer), Chicago, is granted a + United States patent on a duplex automatic weighing machine, the + first simple, fast, accurate, and moderate-priced machine for + weighing coffee. + + 1908--Dr. John Friederick Meyer, Jr., Ludwig Roselius, and Karl + Heinrich Wimmer, are granted a United States patent on a process + for freeing coffee of caffein. + + 1908--Brazil begins a propaganda for coffee in England by + subsidizing an English company organized for that purpose. + + 1908--Porto Rico coffee planters present a memorial to the Congress + of the United States asking for a protective tariff of six cents a + pound on all foreign coffee. + + 1908--The revivification of the valorization coffee enterprise is + accomplished by a combination of bankers and the Brazil Government, + with a loan of $75,000,000 placed through Hermann Sielcken with + banking houses in England, Germany, France, Belgium, and the United + States. + + 1908--J.C. Prims, of Battle Creek. Mich., patents a + corrugated-cylinder improvement for a gas-and-coal coffee roaster + of small capacity (50 to 130 pounds) designed for retail stores. + + 1908--An improved type of Burns roaster, comprising an open + perforated cylinder with flexible back head and balanced front + bearing, is granted a patent in the United States. + + 1908--I.D. Richheimer, Chicago, introduces his Tricolator, an + improved device employing Japanese filter paper. + + 1908-11--R.F.E. O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted several + English patents on machines for hulling, washing, drying, and + separating coffee. + + 1909--The G. Washington refined (prepared) soluble coffee is put on + the United States market. + + 1909--The A.J. Deer Co. acquires the Prims coffee roaster and + re-introduces it to the trade as the Royal coffee roaster. + + 1909--The Burns tilting sample-coffee roaster is patented in the + United States for gas or electric heating units. + + 1909--Frederick A. Cauchois of New York is granted a United States + patent on a coffee urn fitted with a centrifugal pump for + repouring. + + 1909--C.F. Blanke, St. Louis, is granted two United States patents + on a china coffee pot with a dripper bag. + + 1910--The German caffein-free coffee is first introduced to the + trade of the United States by Merck & Co., New York, under the + brand name Dekafa, later changed to Dekofa. + + 1910--B. Belli publishes in Milan, Italy, a work on coffee entitled + _Il Caffè_. + + 1910--Frank Bartz, assignor to the A.J. Deer Co., Hornell, N.Y., is + granted two United States patents on flat and concave + coffee-grinding disks provided with concentric rows of inclined + teeth, used in electric coffee mills. + + 1911--All-fiber parchment-lined Damptite cans for coffee are + introduced by the American Can Company. + + 1911--The coffee roasters of the United States organize into a + national association. + + 1911--Robert H. Talbutt, Baltimore (assignor to J.E. Baines, + trustee, Washington) is granted a United States patent on an + electric coffee roaster. + + 1911--Edward Aborn, New York, introduces his Make-Right coffee + filter, and is granted a United States patent on it. + + 1912--Robert O'Krassa, Antigua, Guatemala, is granted four United + States patents on machines for washing, drying, separating, + hulling, and polishing coffee. + + 1912--The C.F. Blanke Tea & Coffee Co., St. Louis, brings out Magic + Cup, later known as Faust Soluble, coffee. + + 1912--The United States government brings suit to force the sale + of coffee stocks held in the United States under the valorization + agreement. + + 1912--John E. King, Detroit, is granted a United States patent on + an improved coffee percolator employing a filter-paper attachment. + + 1913--F.F. Wear, Los Angeles, Cal., perfects a coffee-making device + in which a metal perforated clamp is employed to apply a filter + paper to the under side of an English earthenware adaptation of the + French drip pot. + + 1913--F. Lehnhoff Wyld, Guatemala City, and E.T. Cabarrus organize + the "Société du Café Soluble Belna," Brussels, Belgium, to put on + the European market a refined soluble coffee under the brand name + Belna. + + 1913--Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Hobart Electric + Manufacturing Co., Troy, Ohio, is granted a United States patent on + a machine for refining coffee. + + 1914--The Association Nationale du Commerce des Cafés is + established at 5 Place Jules Ferry, Havre, to protect the interests + of the coffee trade of all France. + + 1914--The Kaffee Hag Corporation, capital $1,000,000, is organized + in New York to continue marketing in the United States the German + caffein-free coffee under its original German brand name. + + 1914--Robert Burns of New York, assignor to Jabez Burns & Sons, is + granted a United States patent on a coffee-granulating mill. + + 1914--The Phylax coffee maker, employing an improved French-drip + principle, is introduced to the trade by the Phylax Coffee Maker + Co., Detroit (succeeded in 1922 by the Phylax Company of + Pennsylvania). + + 1914--The first national coffee week is promoted in the United + States by the National Coffee Roasters Association. + + 1914-15--Herbert Galt, Chicago, is granted three United States + patents on the Galt coffee pot, all aluminum, having two parts, a + removable cylinder employing the French-drip principle, and the + containing pot. + + 1915--The Burns Jubilee (inner-heated) gas coffee roaster is + patented in the United States and put on the market. + + 1915--The National Coffee Roasters Association Home coffee mill, + employing a set screw operating on a cog-and-ratchet principle, is + introduced to the trade. + + 1915--The second national coffee week is held in the United States + under the auspices of the National Coffee Roasters Association. + + 1916--The Federal Tin Co. begins the manufacture of tin coffee + containers for use in connection with automatic packing machines. + + 1916--The National Paper Can Co., Milwaukee, introduces to the + United States trade a new hermetically sealed all-paper can for + coffee. + + 1916--A United States patent is granted to I.D. Richheimer, + Chicago, for an improvement on his Tricolator. + + 1916--The Coffee Trade Association, London, is formed to include + brokers, merchants, and wholesale dealers. + + 1916--The Coffee Exchange, City of New York, changes its name to + the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, admitting sugar trading. + + 1916--Saul Blickman, assignor to S. Blickman, New York, is granted + a United States patent on an apparatus for making and dispensing + coffee. + + 1916--Orville W. Chamberlain, New Orleans, is granted a United + States patent on an automatic drip coffee pot. + + 1916--Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind., is granted two United States + patents on cutting-rolls to cut, and not to grind or crush, coffee, + later marketed by the B.F. Gump Co., Chicago, as the Ideal + steel-cut coffee mill. + + 1916-17--The first hermetically-sealed all-paper cans for coffee + are introduced to the United States trade, patented in 1919 by the + National Paper Can Co., Milwaukee. + + 1917--The Baker Importing Co., Minneapolis and New York, puts on + the United States market Barrington Hall soluble coffee. + + 1917--Richard A. Greene and William G. Burns, New York, assignors + to Jabez Burns & Sons, are granted patents in the United States on + the Burns flexible-arm cooler (for roasted batches), providing full + fan-suction connection to a cooler box at all points in its track + travel. + + 1918--John E. King, Detroit, Mich., is granted a United States + patent on an irregular-grind of coffee, consisting of coarsely + grinding ten percent of the product and finely grinding ninety + percent. + + 1918--The Charles G. Hires Co., Philadelphia, brings out Hires + soluble coffee. + + 1918--I.D. Richheimer, promoter of the original soluble coffee of + Kato, and the Kato patent, organizes the Soluble Coffee Company of + America to supply soluble coffee to the American army overseas; + after the armistice, licensing other merchants under the Kato + patents, or offering to process the merchants' own coffee for them, + if desired. + + 1918--The United States government places coffee importers, + brokers, jobbers, roasters, and wholesalers under a war-time + licensing system to control imports and prices. + + 1918-19--The United States government coffee control results in the + accumulation at Brazil ports of more than 9,000,000 bags; in spite + of which, Brazil speculators force Brazil grades up 75 to 100 + percent., costing United States traders millions of dollars. + + 1919--The Kaffee Hag Corporation becomes Americanized by the sale + of 5,000 shares of its stock sold by the alien property custodian + and by the purchase of the remaining 5,000 shares by George Gund, + Cleveland, Ohio. + + 1919--William A. Hamor and Charles W. Trigg, Pittsburgh, Pa., + assignors to John E. King, Detroit, Mich., are granted a United + States patent on a process for making a new soluble coffee. The + process consists in bringing the volatilized caffeol in contact + with a petrolatum absorbing medium, where it is held until needed + for combination with the evaporated coffee extract. + + 1919--Floyd W. Robison, Detroit, is granted a United States patent + on a process for aging green coffee by treating it with + micro-organisms to improve its flavor and to increase its + extractive value. The product is put on the market as Cultured + coffee. + + 1919--William Fullard, Philadelphia, is granted a United States + patent on a "heated fresh air system" for roasting coffee. + + 1919--A million-dollar propaganda for coffee is begun in the United + States by Brazil planters in co-operation with a joint coffee-trade + publicity committee. + + 1920--The third national coffee week is observed in the United + States, this time under the auspices of the Joint Coffee Trade + Publicity Committee. + + 1920--Edward Aborn, New York, is granted a United States patent on + a Tru-Bru coffee pot, a device embodying striking improvements on + the French filter principle. + + 1920--Alfredo M. Salazar, New York, is granted a United States + patent on a coffee urn in which the coffee is made at the time of + serving by using steam pressure to force the boiling water through + the ground coffee held in a cloth sack attached to the faucet. + + 1920--William H. Pisani, assignor to M.J. Brandenstein & Co., San + Francisco, is granted a United States patent on a vacuum process + for packing roasted coffee. + + 1921--The Comité Français du Café is founded in France to increase + the consumption of coffee. + + 1922--The São Paulo legislature at the solicitation of the + Sociedade Promotora da Defeza do Café passes a bill increasing the + export tax on coffee from Santos to 200 reis per bag to continue + the propaganda for coffee in the United States for three years. + +[L] Approximate Date. + +[M] Legendary. + +[Illustration] + + + + +A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY + + _A list of references gathered from the principal general and + scientific libraries--Arranged in alphabetic order of topics_ + +TOPICS AND SUBDIVISIONS + +ADULTERATION +BOARD OF HEALTH REGULATIONS +BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION +CHEMISTRY + ANALYSIS, GENERAL + CAFFEIN + CAFFEIN-FREE COFFEE + CAFFEOL + GREEN COFFEE + ROASTED COFFEE +CHICORY + CHICORY IN COFFEE +COFFEE HOUSES +CULTURE AND PREPARATION + GENERAL + REGIONAL + SOILS +DISEASES AND ENEMIES +GENERAL WORKS +LITERATURE, POETRY, ROMANCE +MANUFACTURING PROCESSES + BREWING + GLAZING + MISCELLANEOUS + MODIFICATIONS + POLISHING AND COLORING + ROASTING AND GRINDING +MEDICINAL QUALITIES AND USES + ANTISEPTIC AND DISINFECTANT + GENERAL +PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS + GENERAL USE AND MISUSE + OF CAFFEIN-FREE COFFEE + OF CHEWING COFFEE + OF DIFFERENT CONSTITUENTS + OF GREEN COFFEE + OF LEAVES OF COFFEE TREE + OF ROASTED COFFEE + OF SMOKING COFFEE + ON CHILDREN + ON DIFFERENT ORGANS AND SYSTEMS +SUBSTITUTES + GENERAL + MALT COFFEE +TAXATION, JURISPRUDENCE, ETC. +TRADE AND STATISTICS + EXCHANGE TABLES + GENERAL + REGIONAL +VALORIZATION + + + ADULTERATION + + ADULTERATION of coffee. Report of the proceedings of a public + meeting held at the London Tavern, March 10, 1851. _London_, 1851. + + DAFERT, FRANZ W. Las sustancias minerales del cafeto. _San José_, + 1896. 33 pp. _Also_, Anales del Instituto médico nacional, 1897, + III: 25, 41, 62, 78. + + GRAHAM, T. and others. Chemical report on the mode of detecting + vegetable substances mixed with coffee for purposes of + adulteration. _London_, 1852. 22 pp. (Board of Inland Revenue). + + LES FRAUDES du café dévoilées per un amateur. _Paris._ + + SIMMONDS, P.L. Coffee as it is and as it ought to be. _London_, + 1850. + + _Periodicals_ + + BERTARELLI, E. Su una sofisticazione del caffè torrefatto mediante + aggiunta di acqua e borace. Giornale di Farmacia, 1900, 338-343. + _Also_, Rivista d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1900, XI: 467-472. + + CABALLERO, F.G. Inconvenientes del uso del café puro y del que se + toma con léche; sofisticacion de los componentes de esta bebida, + etc. Boletin de Medicina y Cirugia, 1851, 2 ser. I: 177-185. + + CASAÑA, J. Acerca del producto llamado legumina y sofisticaciones + del café. Anales de la real Academia de Medicina, 1905, XXX: + 359-364. + + CHIAPPELLA, A.R. Il caffè macinato che si consuma in + Firenze--Alcune sofisticazioni non ancora descritte. Annali + d'Igiene sperimentale, 1904, n. s. XIV: 427-448. + + ---- Le sofisticazioni del caffè che si consuma in Firenze. Società + toscana d'Igiene, 1905, n. s. V: 110-116. + + CHEVALLIER, J.B. Café indigène. Annales d'Hygiène, 1853, XLIX: + 408-412. + + COFFEE and its adulterations. Lancet, 1851, I: 21, 465; 1853, I: + 390, 477; 1857, I: 195. _Also_, Pharmaceutical Journal, 10: + 394-396. + + COLLIN, E. Del caffè e sue falsificazioni. Giornale di Farmacia, di + Chimica e di Scienze affini, 1879, XXVIII: 529-535; 1880, XXIX: + 20-22. + + CORIEL, F. Analyse d'un café artificiel torréfié. Journal de + Pharmacie et de Chimie, 1897, 6. ser. VI: 106-108. + + CRIBB, C.H. Note on (1) samples of coffee containing added starch; + (2) a sample of artificial coffee berries. Analyst, 1902, XXVII: + 114-116. + + CROMBIE, S. Examination of ground coffee as found in shops. + Physician and Surgeon, _Ann Arbor_, 1882, IV: 401. + + DOOLITTLE, R.E. Coffee sophistications. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912, XXIII: Supplement to no. 6, 62-65. + + DRAPER, J.C. Coffee and its adulterations. New York Academy of + Medicine. Bulletin, 1869, III: 210-218. + + DUBRISAY. Falsifications des cafés, procédés employés à cet effet; + moyens de reconnaître et de reprimer la fraude. Recueil des travaux + du Comité consultatif d'Hygiène publique de France, 1888, XVIII: + 19-33. + + DUCROS, H.A. De quelques falsifications du café Moka. Institute + égypt. Bulletin, 1901, 4. ser. pp. 293-306. + + EDSON, C. Report on colored imitation Java coffee. Sanitary + Engineer, 1883-4, IX: 614. + + ESTUDIO del cafeto. Anales del Instituto médico nacional, 1897, + III: 139-144. + + FALSIFICATION du café. Annales d'Hygiène, 1864, 2. ser. XXII: + 437-443. + + FRICKE, E. Neuere Kaffeeverfälschung. Zeitschrift für + Medizinalbeamte, 1889, II: 178. + + GIRARDIN, J. Rapports sur un café avarié par l'eau de mer et sur + poudre destinée à remplacer le café. Annales d'Hygiène, 1834, XI: + 87-103. + + GRIEBEL, C. and BERGMANN, E. Ueber eine neue Kaffeeverfälschung. + Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, + XXI: 481-484. + + HARNACK, E. Ueber die besonderen Eigenarten des Kaffeegetränkes und + das Thurmsche Verfahren zur Kaffeereinigung und verbesserung. + Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1911, LVIII: 1868-1872. + + HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Green and roast coffees, the adulteration and + misbranding thereof. American Grocer, 1913, Nov. 19, pp. 19-20. + + HESSE, P. Ueber eine Kaffeefarbe. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der + Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911 XXI: 220. + + JAMMES, L. Le café torréfié, en grains, factice. Revue d'Hygiène, + 1890, XII: 1044-1050. + + MOCHA coffee. Scientific American, 1903, LXXXIX: 81. + + MUNITA, V. Apuntes acerca de las adulteraciones del café y medios + para reconocerlas. La Gaceta de Sanidad militar, 1883, IX: 286, + 394. + + NOTTBOHM, F.E. and KOCH, E. Arsenhaltige Kaffeeglasierungsmittel. + Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, + XXI: 288-290. + + OTTOLENGHI, D. Sopra una frequente sofistcazione del caffé in + polyere. Atti della reale Accademia dei Fisiocritici di Siena, + 1903, 4. ser. XV: 381-389. + + PARECER do commissão encarregada pela Sociedade pharmaceutica + lusitana de investigar se uma determinada èspecie de café é + prejudicial á saude 185. _Also_, Correio medica de Lisboa, 1874, + III: 136, 147. + + RAUMER, E. VON. Beobachtungen über Kaffeeglasuren seit dem + Inkrafttreten der Kaffeesteuer. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der + Nahrungs-und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 102-109. + + REISS, F. Ueber eine mechanische Verfälschung der Kaffeesahne. + Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906, + XI: 391-393. + + SOCCIANTI, L. Caffè adulteraro con sostanze nocive. Rivista + d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1895, VI: 497-499. + + SORMANI. Di un nuova falsificazione del caffè. Giornale della reale + Società italiana d'Igiene, 1882, IV: 401. + + SPENCER, G.L. and EWELL, E.E. Tea, coffee, and cocoa preparations. + U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Division of Chemistry. Bulletin, XIII, + pt. 7. + + VARIOUS "coffees." Lancet, 1915, II: 1006. + + VOGEL VON FERHEIM, A. Zur Frage der Zulässigkeit der Verwendung der + sagenannten tauben oder Strohfeigen bei der Feigen + Kaffeefabrikation. Oesterreichische Sanitätswesen, 1903, XV: + 101-102. + + WIECHMANN, F. Coffee and its adulterations. School of Mines + Quarterly, 1897-8, I: 8-15. + + + BOARD OF HEALTH REGULATIONS + + SCHNEIDER. Der Kaffee, als Gegenstand der medicinischen Polizei. + Zeitschrift für die Staatsarzneikunde, 1829, IV: 303-327. + + SCHÜTZE. Kaffee, Thee und Chocolade, als Nahrungsmittel und in + sanitäts-polizeilicher Hinsicht. Viertel jahrsschrift für + gerichtliche Medizin und öffentliches Sanitätswesen, 1860, XVII: + 168-228. + + WEITENWEBER, W.R. Medicinisch-poliseiliche Bemerkungen über den + Caffee. Medicinische Jahrbücher des kaiserl. königl. + österreichischen Staates, 1848, LXVI: 42, 151. + + + BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION + + COFFEA _stenophylla_. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. + Information, 1898:27. + + COOK, ORATOR FULLER. Dimorphic branches in tropical crop plants: + cotton, coffee, cacao, the Central American rubber tree, and the + banana. _Washington_, 1911. 64 pp. (U.S. Plant Industry Bureau. + Bulletin, 198.) + + DAFERT, FRANZ W. Mittheilung aus dem Landwirthschaftsinstitut des + Staates São Paulo, Brasilien. Der Nahrstoff des Kaffeebaumes. + Landw. Jahrb. 1894, XXIII:27-45. + + DOUGLAS, JAMES. Lilium sarniense: or, a description of the + Guernsay-lilly. To which is added the botanical dissection of the + coffee berry. _London_, 1725. 59 pp. + + LAROQUE, JEAN. Voyage de l'arabie heureuse, par l'Ocean Oriental, & + le détroit de la Mer Rouge. Fait par les François dans les années + 1708, 1709 and 1710. Avec la relation d'un voyage fait du port de + Moka à la cour du roy d'Yemen dans la 2. Expedition des années + 1711, 1712 and 1713. Un mémoire concernant l'arbre et le fruit du + café. _Paris_, 1716. 403 pp. Also in English, _London_, 1726. + + LA ROQUE. Gruendliche und sichere Nachricht vom Cafee- und + Cafee-Baum. _Leipzig_, 1717. + + LIBERIAN coffee. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. + Information, 1895:296-299. + + MCCLELLAND, T.B. The botany of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912, XXII:28-35. + + MARIANA, J. Les caféiers; structure anatomique de la feuille. + _Paris_, 1908. + + NATURAL caffein-free coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, + XXIII:230-233. + + NATURAL history of coffee, thee, chocolate, tobacco with a tract of + elder and juniper berries. _London_, 1682. + + A NEW hybrid Ceylon coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, + XXX; 232-233. + + SLOANE, Sir HANS. On the Bird the Cuntur of Peru and on the Coffee + Shrub. _London_, 1694. + + WILDEMAN, É. DE. Notes sur quelques espèces du genre Coffea L. + Cong, internat. d. botanique. Actes, 1900, I:221-238. + + + CHEMISTRY + + ANALYSIS, GENERAL + + ALLEN, A.H. Commercial organic analysis. _London_, 1892, (v. 3 pt. + 2 contains a chapter on vegetable alkaloids, including coffee.) + + ANDALORI, ANDRÉ. Il café descritto ed esaminato. _Messine_, 1702. + + BOUSSINGAULT, J.B.J.D. Sur les matières sucrées contenues dans le + fruit du caféier. Ann. Inst. Nat. Agron., 1878-79, IV: 1-4. + + CAFFÈ DI GIRASOLE: analisi chemiche, consigli agronomici, etc. + _Padova_, 1881. + + COFFEE and chicory. Science readers and diagrams. Ser. 6, no. 3. + + GALEANO, JOSEPH. Il caffè, con piu diligenza esaminato. _Palerme_, + 1674. + + GRIEBEL, C. Ueber den Kaffeegerbstoff. _München_, 1903. + + KÖNIG, J. Chemie der menschlichen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. 4th + ed. _Berlin_, 1904. See v. 2, index for Kaffee, Koffeïn. + + LOCKE, EDWIN A. Food values. _New York_, 1911. Coffee analysed p. + 54. + + LYTHGOE, HERMANN CHARLES. Report on tea and coffee. _Washington_, + 1905. + + MARCHAND, N.L. Recherches organographiques et organogéniques sur le + Coffea arabica L. _Paris_, 1864. + + SESTINI, J. Il caffé; lettura fatta nell' institutio tecnico di + Fochi. _Firenze_, 1868. + + STANDARDS of purity for food products. Tea, coffee and cocoa + products. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Office of the Secretary. Circ. + 19, p. 16. + + THORPE, EDWARD. Dictionary of applied chemistry. _London and New + York_, 1912. See pp. 97-103. + + WANKLYN, JAMES ALFRED. Tea, coffee, and cocoa: a practical treatise + on the analysis of tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, maté (Paraguay + tea). _London_, 1874. 59 pp. + + WARNIER, W.L.A. Bijerage tot de kennis der koffie, mededeeling uit + het laboratorium van het Kolonial museum te Haarlem. _Amsterdam_, + 1899. 23 pp. + + WEYRICH, R. Ein Beitrag zur Chemie des Thees und Kaffees. _Dorpat_, + 1872. + + WILEY, H.W. Coffee and tea. In his, 1001 Tests of food, beverages + and toilet accessories, pp. 10-18. + + WINTON, ANDREW L. The microscopy of coffee. In his, Microscopy of + vegetable foods, _New York_, 1916. 2 ed. pp. 427-438. Reprinted, + Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, XXI: 22-28. + + _Periodicals_ + + ALLEN, A.H. Note on the examination of coffee. Analyst, 1880, V: + 1-4. + + BAU, A. The determination of oxalic acid in tea, coffee, marmalade, + vegetables and bread. Z. Nahr. Genussm, 1920, 40: 50-66. + + BERTRAND, GABRIEL. Sur la composition chimique du café de la Grande + Comore. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1901, CXXXII: + 162-164. + + BINZ, C. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Kaffeebestandtheile. Archiv für + experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1878, IX: 31-51. + + BÖTSCH, K. Zur Kenntniss der Saligeninderivate. Monatshefte für + Chemie (Sitzungs berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der + Wissenschaften) 1880, I: 621-623. + + CANADA (DOMINION). INLAND REVENUE DEPARTMENT LABORATORY. Coffee: + results of analysis. _Ottawa_, 1888. Bulletin, 3. 8 pp.; 1891, + Bulletin, 29. 19 pp.; 1892, Bulletin 31. 13 pp. + + ---- Ground coffee: results of analysis. _Ottawa_, 1904, Bulletin, + 100. 7 pp.; 1909, Bulletin, 172. 37 pp.; 1910, Bulletin, 216. 22 + pp. + + CAZENEUVE, P. and HADDON. Sur l'acide cafétannique. Comptes rendus + de l'Académie des Sciences, 1897, CXXIV: 1458-1460. + + CHARAUX, CHARLES. Sur l'acide chlorogénique. Fréquence et recherché + de cet acide dans les végétaux. Extraction de l'acide caféique et + rendement en l'acide caféique de quelques plantes. Journal de + Pharmacie et de Chemie, 1900, 7. ser, II: 292-298. + + THE CHEMISTRY of a cup of coffee. Lancet, 1913, II, no. 2: + 1563-1565. Reviewed in, Journal of Economics, 1914, VI: 466-467; + Literary Digest, 1914, XLVIII: 376-377. + + DOOLITTLE, R.E. and WRIGHT, B.B. Some effects of storage on coffee. + American Journal of Pharmacy, 1915, LXXXVII: 524-526. + + EHRLICH, J. Coffee in the laboratory. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1916, XXX: 569-570. + + ERNI, H. The chemico-physiological relations of tea, coffee and + alcohol. Nashville Monthly Record of Medical and Physical Science, + 1858-9, I: 641-656. + + FRANKEL, E.M. Coffee by-products. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1917, XXXIII: 43-44. + + ---- Coffee identification. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, + XXXI: 158 159. + + FRANKEL, F. HULTON. Calories in a cup of coffee. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 446-447. + + GEISER, M. Welche Bestandteile des Kaffees sind die Träger der + erregenden Wirkung? Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und + Pharmakologie, 1905, LIII: 112-136. + + GORTER, K. Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Kaffees. Annalen der Chemie, + 1907, CCCLVIII: 327-348; 1908, CCCLIX: 217-244; 1910, CCCLXXII: + 237-246. Also, East Indies, Dutch. Dept. van Landbouw. Bulletins, + 14, 33. + + GRAF, L. Ueber Bestandtheile der Kaffeesauen. Zeitschrift für + angewandte Chemie, 1901, pp. 1077-1082. + + ---- Ueber den Zusammenhang von Coffeïngehalt und Qualität bei + chinesischem Thee. Forschungs-Berichte über Lebensmittel, 1897, IV: + 88. + + GUIGUES, P. Note sur l'origine du café. Bulletin des Sciences + pharmacologiques, 1903, VII: 350-357. + + HANAUSEK, T.F. Bemerkung zu dem Aufsatz von F. Netolitzky: Ueber + das Vorkommen von Krystallsandzellen im Kaffee. Zeitschrift für + Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 295. + + ---- Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Frucht und des Samens von + Coffea arabica L. Zietschrift für Nahrungsmittel Untersuchung und + Hygiene, 1890, IV: 237-257. + + HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Scientific study of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1915, XXIX: 557-558. + + HEHNER, O. An analysis of coffee leaves. Analyst, 1879, IV: 84. + + HOWARD, C.D. Report on tea and coffee. U.S. Chemistry Bureau. + Bulletin, 1907, CV: 41-45. + + HUSSON, C. Étude sur le café, le thé, et les chicorées. Annales de + Chimie et de Physique, 1879, 5. ser. XVI: 419-427. + + JAFFA, M.E. Report on tea and coffee, 1910, with list of + references. U.S. Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1911, CXXXVII: + 105-108. + + LANCET special analytical sanitary commission on the composition + and value of coffee extracts, The Lancet, 1894, II: 43-45. + + LEPPER, H.A. Report on coffee. Journal of the Association of + Official Agricultural chemists, 1920, 4: 211-216. + + LEVESIE, O. Beiträge zur Chemie des Kaffees. Archiv der Pharmacie, + 1876, 3 ser. VIII: 294-298. + + LIEBIG, J. von. Chemistry of a cup of coffee. Every Saturday, I: + 135. + + LOOMIS, H.M. Report on tea and coffee. Journal of the Association + of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1920, 3: 498-503. + + MASON, G. and SAVINI E. Experiments with coffee. Staz. sper, + agrar. ital., 1918, 51: 413-4. + + MAZZA, C. Sull' esame batteriologico della polvere che si trova + negli spacci di caffè, con spéciale riguardo al bacillo della + tubercolosi. Rivista d'Igiene e Sanità pubblica, 1897, VIII: 8-20. + + PALADINO, PIETRO. Sopra un nuovo alcaloide contenuto nel caffè. + Gazette Chimica Italiana, XXV: 104-110. Summarized in, Beilstein's + Organische Chemie, 1897, III: 888. + + PARET, S.A. Quelques résultats obtenus par l'emploi du valerianate + de caféine (thèse). _Paris_, 1874. + + PAYEN, ÉDOUARD. Mémoire sur le café. Comptes vendus de l'Académie + des Sciences, 1846, XXII: 724-732; XXIII: 8-15, 144-251. + + PRATT, DAVID S. The microscopy of tea and coffee. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 419-421. + + PRESCOTT, A. Chemistry of tea and coffee. Popular Science Monthly, + XX: 359. + + ROBIQUET, VON, and BOUTRON. Ueber den Kaffee. Annalen der Chemie, + 1837, XXIII: 93-95. + + ROBISON, FLOYD W. What do we know about coffee? Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 556-562. + + SAYRE, L.E. A pharmacologist on coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXII: 521-527. + + ---- Coffee, its standardization and application to pharmacy. + Merck's Report, 1907, XVI: 61-63. + + SOME new facts about coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1918, XXXV: 436-437. + + STREET, JOHN PHILLIPS. About hygienic coffees. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1916, XXXI: 52-54. + + ---- Hygienic coffee analyses. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, + XXXIII: 42-43. + + ---- Recent coffee analyses. Modern Hospital, 1916: 330-332. + Reprinted in Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. XXX: 570-572. + + TATLOCK, R.R. and THOMSON, R.T. The analysis and composition of + coffee, chicory, and coffee and chicory "essences." Journal of the + Society of Chemical Industries, 1910, XXIX: 138-140. + + TRIGG, CHARLES W. Caffetannic acid a bugaboo. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 437-439. + + ---- Coffee oil and fats. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, + XXXV: 230-231. + + ---- Coffee carbohydrates. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, + XXXVI: 246-247. + + TUSINI, F. Sul riconoscimento delle varie specie di grani di caffè, + mediante la misurazione delle cellule del reticolo albuminoideo e + dello spermoderma. Archivio di Farmacologia sperimentale e Science + affini, 1903, II: 215-217. + + VAUTIER, E. The wastes of coffee. Mitt. Lebensm. Hyg., 1921, 12: + 35-37. + + VAN DER WOLK, P.C. New researches into some statistics of Coffea. + Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre, 1914, + XI: 355-359. + + VLAANDEREN, C.L. and MULDER, G.J. Säuren des Kaffee's. + Jahresbericht der Chemie, 1858: 261-264. + + WARNIER, W.L.A. Contributions à la connaissance du café. Recueil de + Travaux chimiques du Pays-Bas de la Belgique, 1899, 2. ser. III: + 351-357. + + WILLCOX, O.W. Coffee aroma secret out. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1913, XXV: 343-344. + + ---- Tannin in coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: + 485. + + WILLCOX, O.W. and RENTSCHLER, M.J. Scientific analysis of coffee. + Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. 1910. XIX: 440-443; 1911, XX: 30-34, + 109-111, 194-195, 355-356. + + WOODMAN, A.G. Report on tea, coffee, and cocoa products, 1909. U.S. + Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1910, CXXXII: 134-136. + + CAFFEIN + + CLAUTRIAU, G. Nature et significatíon des alcaloides végétaux. + _Paris_, 190?: 113. + + DRAGENDORFF, GEORG. Caffein und Theobromin. In his, Die + gerichtlich-chemische Ermittelung von Giften, pp. 202-206. + + FENDLER, G. and STÜBER, W. Coffeïnbestimmungen im Kaffee. + Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1914, + XXVIII: 9-20. + + FISCHER, EMIL. Ueber das Caffeïn. Berichte der deutschen chemischen + Gesellschaft, 1882, XV, no. 5: 29-87. + + FRANKEL, E.M. Caffeine and theine. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1916, XXXI: 260. + + FRENCH, J.M. Caffein, its sources and uses. Merck's Archives, 1907, + IX: 208. + + JOBST, CARL. Thein identisch mit Caffein. Annalen der Chemie, 1838, + XXV: 63-66. + + LANGLOIS, P. Kola et caféine. La Science Illustrée, July, 1890. + + LENDRICH, K. and NOTTBOHM, E. Verfahren zur Bestimmung des Coffeïns + im Kaffee. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und + Genussmittel, 1909, XVI: 241-265. + + PAUL, B.H. and COWNLEY, A.J. The amount of caffeine in various + kinds of coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1887, 3 ser. XVII: 565. + + PFAFF, C.H. Ueber die Darstellung des Coffeïns, über dessen + charakteristische Eigenschaften und dessen Mischung, über zwei + Säuren im Kaffee, so wie über das sogenannte Kaffee-Grün. Neues + Jahrbüch der Chemie und Physik, 1831, I: 487-503; II: 31-45. + + POLSTORFF, KARL. Ueber das Vorkommen von Betainen und von Cholin in + Kaffein und Theobromin enthaltenden Drogen. Chemisches + Zentralblatt, 1909, 5 ser. XIII: 2014-2015. + + STEHLE, R.L. Caffeine, the alkaloid. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1917, XXXII: 46-47. + + SULLIVAN, A.L. Determination of caffein in coffee, a comparison of + the Hilger and Fricke method with a modification of the Gomberg + method. Science, 1909, XXX: 255. + + WILLCOX, O.W. Coffee and caffein. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1913, XXIV: 460-461. + + CAFFEIN-FREE COFFEE + + RABENHORST, W. and VARGES, J. Koffeïnfreier Kaffee; enthalt der + kaffeinfreie Kaffee fremde chemische Bestandteile, insbesondere + Ammoniak, Benzol, Salzsäure, Schwefelsäure? Medizinische Klinik, + 1908, IV: 1612. + + SALANT, WILLIAM, and RIEGER, J.B. Elimination of caffein: an + experimental study of herbivora and carnivora. U.S. Dept. of + Agriculture. Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, CLVII. + + TRIGG, CHARLES W. About caffein-free coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 233. + + WILLCOX, O.W. "Caffein-free" coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1911, XX: 116. + + CAFFEOL + + BERNHEIMER, OSCAR. Zur Kenntniss der Röstproducte des Caffees. + Monatshefte für Chemie (Sitzungs-berichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie + der Wissenschaften) 1880, I: 456-457. + + BERTRAND, G. and WEISWEILLER, G. Sur la composition de l'essence de + café; présence de la pyridine. Comptes rendus de l'Académie des + Sciences, 1913, CLVII: 212-213. _Also_, Bulletin des Sciences + pharmacologiques, 1905, XII: 152. + + ERDMANN, ERNST. Ueber das Kaffeöl und die Physiologische Wirkung + des darin enthaltenen Furfuralkohols. Archiv für experimentelle + Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1902, XLVIII: 233-261. _Also_, + Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1902, XXXV: 1846. + + ---- Beitrag zur kenntniss der kaffeeöles und des darin enthaltenen + furfuralkohols. _Halle_, 1902: 46. + + GRAFE, V. Untersuchung über die Herkunft des Kaffeöls. Anzeiger der + Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1912, XLIX: 267-268. + + JAEKLE, H. Studien über die Produkte der Kaffeeröstung ein Beiträge + zur Kenntniss des sogenannte Kaffeearomas (Caffeol.) Zeitschrift + für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1898, 457-472. + + ORLOWSKI, A. Kilka slor o kawie palonéj. (Extract of Coffee). + Gazeta Lekarska, _Warsaw_, 1870, IX: 385-387. + + THE CAFFEOL in roasted coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, + XXIV: 241. + + TRIGG, CHARLES W. The aroma of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1918, XXXV: 37-39. + + GREEN COFFEE + + BITTÓ, BELA VON. Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der inneren + Fruchtschale der Kaffeefrucht. Jour. Landw. III: 93-95. + + HERFELDT, E. and STUTZER, A. Untersuchungen über den Gehalt der + Kaffeebohnen an Fett, Zucker und Kaffeegerbsäure. Zeitschrift für + angewandte Chemie, 1895, 469-471. + + MEYER, H. and ECKERT, A. Ueber das fette Ol und das Wachs der + Kaffeebohnen. Summarized in, Anzeiger der Kaiserlichen Akademie der + Wissenschaften, 1910, XLVII: 320. + + ROCHLEDER, F. Notiz über die Kaffeebohnen. Annalen der Chemie, + 1844, L: 244-284; 1846, LIX: 300-310; 1852, LXXXII: 194. + + TRIGG, CHARLES W. Aging green coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1920, XXXIX: 440. + + ZWENGER, C. and SIEBERT, S. Ueber das Vorkommen der Chinasäure in + den Kaffeebohnen. Annalen der Chemie, 1861, 1 sup. pp. 77-85. + + ROASTED COFFEE + + BURMANNN, J. Recherches chimiques et physiologiques sur les + principes nocifs du café torréfié. Bulletin général de + Thérapeutique, 1913, CLXVI: 379-400. + + EHRLICH, J. In a cup of coffee. A consideration of the constituents + of the roasted bean and of the sugar, milk or cream that goes with + it. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX: 547-549. + + GOBLET, L. Analyses comparées d'un café torréfié par des procédés + différents. Association Belge des Chimistes. Bulletin, 1899, XIII: + 172-173. + + GOULD, R.A. The gases evolved from roasted coffee, their + composition and origin. Eighth International Congress of Applied + Chemistry. Report, 1912, XXVI: 389. + + LENDRICH, K. and NOTTBOHM, E. Ueber den Coffeïngehalt des Kaffees + und den Coffeïnverlust beim Rösten des Kaffees. Zeitschrift für + Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1909, XVIII: 299-308. + + LYTHGOE, H. Chemical analyses of a few varieties of roasted coffee. + Technology Quarterly, 1905, XVII: 236-239. + + MONARI, A. and SCOCCIANTI, L. La pyridine dans les produits de la + torréfaction du café. Congrès international d'Hygiène et de + Démographie. Comptes rendus, 1894, VIII: pt. 4, 211. _Also_, + Archives italiennes de Biologie, 1895, XXIII: 68-70; Chemisches + Zentralblatt, 1895, I: 750. + + TRIGG, CHARLES W. Coffee roasting. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1919, XXXVII: 170-172. + + ---- Gases from roasted coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1920, + XXXIX: 318. + + + CHICORY + + BACKER, P. La culture du witloof. _Thielt_, 1912: 22. + + ---- De teelt van witloof. _Thielt_, 1911: 23. + + BORUTTAU, H. Die physiologische Wirkung des Absudes der gebrannten + Zichorie. Medizinische Klinik, 1907, III: 644-647. + + FRIES, M. Praktische Anleitung zum Kaffee Cichorienbau. + _Stuttgart_, 1886. + + KAINS, M.G. Chicory growing. _Washington_, 1900: 12. + + ---- Chicory growing as an addition to the resources of the + American farmer. _Washington_, 1898: 52. + + SCHMIEDEBERG, OSWALD. Historische und experimentelle Untersuchungen + über die Zichorie und den Zichorienkaffee in diätetischer und + gesundheitlicher Beziehung. Archiv für Hygiene, 1912, LXXVI: + 210-244. + + WEISMANN, R. Ueber den schädlichen Einfluss von Zichorienaufguss. + Aerztliche Rundschau, 1908, XVIII: 183. + + ZELLNER, H. Zichorie. Centralblatt für allgemeine + Gesundheitspflege, 1908, XXVII: 32-39. + + CHICORY IN COFFEE + + CAUVET. Sur l'examen et l'analyse des échantillons de café-chicorée + et de café moulu saisis chez divers marchands de Constantine. + Annales d'Hygiène, 1873, XI: 302-317. + + CHEVALLIER, A. Notice historique et chronologique sur les + substances qui ont été proposées comme succédanées du café et sur + le café-chicorée en particulier. Moniteur d'Hôpitaux, 1853, I: + 1129, 1161, 1171, 1185, 1193, 1217. + + CLOÜET, J. Du café-chicorée; empoisonnement de quatre personnes par + l'usage de cette denrée. Mouvement médicale, 1875, XIII: 505. + + FORSEY, C.B. The new coffee and chicory regulations. Analyst, 1882, + VII: 159. + + GUILLOT, CAMILLE. La chicorée et divers produits de substitution du + café. _Lons-le-Saunier_, 1911. 352 pp. + + Lawall, C.H.</sc> and FORMAN L. The detection of chicory in decoctions + of chicory and coffee. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical + Association, 1914, 111: 1669. + + LEEBODY, J.R. Estimation of chicory in coffee. Chemical News, 1874, + XXX: 243. + + MORIN. Quelques réflexions sur un des moyens employés pour + déterminer la présence du café chicorée dans le café normal. + _Rouen_, 1863. 5 pp. (Extrait des Mémoires de l'Académie de Caen.) + + ON the adulteration of chicory and coffee. Lancet, 1861, 11: 18. + + + COFFEE HOUSES + + BREWSTER, H. POMEROY. The coffee houses and tea gardens of old + London. _Rochester_, 1888. + + CAFÉS de Paris par un flaneur patenté. 1849. + + COFFEE public house, The. How to establish and manage it. _London_, + 1878. 34 pp. + + COFFEE stalls and taverns: hints on coffee stall management. + _London_, 1886. 40 pp. + + COLMAN, GEORGE, and THORNTON, B. Survey of the town.... Garraway's, + Batson's St. Paul's, and the Chapter coffee houses. In their, the + Connoisseur. _Oxford._ 1757, I:1-10. + + DAFERT, F.W. Erfahrungen über rationellen Kaffeebau. _Berlin_, + 1896. 36 pp. 2nd ed., 1899. 60 pp. + + DELVAU. Histoire anecdotique des cafés et cabaréts de Paris. 1861. + + HAWES, C.W. Handbook to coffee taverns. _Uxbridge_, 1888. 17 pp. + + MACAULAY, T.B. (Coffee houses in the 17th and 18th centuries.) In + his, History of England. I: 334-336. + + MICHEL, FRANCISQUE, et FOURNIER, ÉDOUARD. Histoire des hôtelleries, + cabaréts et cafés. 1854. + + REID, THOMAS WILSON, ed. Traits and stories of Ye Olde Cheshire + Cheese. _London_, 1886. 133 pp. + + ROBINSON, EDWARD FORBES. Early history of coffee houses in England. + _London_, 1893. 240 pp. + + SHELLEY, CHARLES HENRY. Inns and taverns of old London. _Boston_, + 1909. 366 pp. + + ---- Old Paris. _Boston_, 1912. + + TIMBS, J. Clubs and club life in London, with anecdotes of its + famous coffee houses, hostelries and taverns. _London_, 1866. 2v. + 2nd ed., 1872. 1v. 544 pp. + + _Periodicals_ + + ANDREWS, A. Coffee houses and their clubs in the 18th century. + Colburn's New Monthly Magazine, CVI: 107. + + BETHEL CHRISTIAN MISSION, Providence. Annual report ... + constitution, bylaws, etc. + + BUSS, GEORGE. Kaffee und Kaffeehäuser. Westerman's Monatshefte, + Sept. 1908: 805-821. + + COFFEE house movement. Chambers' Journal, LVI: 143. + + COFFEE house news. London Magazine, XX: 563. + + COFFEE houses of old London. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1918, XXXV: 116-125. + + COFFEE Houses of old New York. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1920, XXXVIII: 160-174. + + COFFEE Houses of old Philadelphia. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1920, XXXVIII: 308-312. + + COFFEE houses of the Restoration. Tait, n. s. XXII: 104; + Ecclesiastical Magazine, XXIV: 500. + + COFFEE palaces. All-the-Year, LII: 520. + + EARLY Parisian coffee houses. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1918, XXXV: 526-534. + + FOX, S. Coffee club movement in California. Arena, XXXII:519. + + GRAHAM, R. Coffee houses as a counter action to the saloon. + Charities Review, I: 215. + + HALL, E.H. Coffee taverns. Leisure Hour, XXVIII: 301. + + HILL, E. Coffee and coffee houses. Gentleman's Magazine, n. s. + LXXI: 47. + + HOLLAND and the café Krasnapolsky at Amsterdam. Idler, 1899, XVI: + 31-39. + + HOPE, LADY. Coffee rooms for the people. Good Words, XXI: 749, 844. + + HOWERTH, I.W. Coffee house as a rival of the saloon. American + Magazine of Civics, VI: 589. + + HUMPHREYS, J. Coffee houses. St. James Magazine, XLIII: 598. + + JARVIS, A.W. Old London coffee houses. English Illustrated + Magazine, 1900, XXIII: 107-114. + + PAGE, H.A. Coffee palaces. Good Words, XVIII: 678. + + RODENBERG, J. Die kaffeehæuser und clubs von London. Unsere + Zeitung, 1866, II: 177-265. + + SCHMITT, E. Volkskuechen und speiseanstalten fuer arbeiter; + Volkskaffeehæuser. Handbook der Architek, 4 theil, IV: 116. + + SIKES, W. English coffee palaces. Lippincott's Magazine, XXIV: 728. + + SOME old London coffee houses. Cornhill Magazine, LVI: 527. + + STEVENS, J.A. Coffee houses of old New York. Harper's Magazine, + LXIV: 481. + + SWEETSER, ARTHUR LAWRENCE. The coffee house plan. Gunton's + Magazine, 1901, XXI: 239-245. + + THOMAS, C. EDGAR. Some London coffee houses. Home Counties + Magazine, 1911, XIII: 1-9, 91-100. + + WAGNER, H. Shankstætten und speisewirtschaften; Kaffeehæuser und + restaurants. Handbook der Architek, 4 theil, IV: 116 pp. + + + CULTURE AND PREPARATION + + GENERAL + + AMERICAN COFFEE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. Coffee growing by proxy. _New + York_, 1895. 30 pp. + + ARNOLD, EDWIN LESTER LINDEN. Coffee: its cultivation and profit. + _London_, 1886. 270 pp. + + BOËRY, PASCAL. Les plantes oléagineuses et leurs produits; cacao, + café.... _Paris_, 1888. + + BOURGOIN D'ORLI, P.H.F. Guide pratique de la culture du caféier et + du cacaoyer suivi de la fabrication du chocolat. _Paris_, 1876. + + BROUGIER, A. Der Kaffee, dessen Kultur und Handel. 1897. + + BROWN, ALEXANDER. The coffee planter's manual, with which is added + a variety of information useful to planters, including the manuring + of coffee estates. _Colombo_, 1880. 246 pp. + + BROWNE, D.J. On the cultivation of coffee. _Washington_, 1859. 12 + pp. + + BURLAMAQUI, FREDERICO LEOPOLDO CÉSAR. Monographia do caféeiro e do + café. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1860. 62 pp. + + CAMOUILLY. La plantation du café, en Nouvelle Calédonia. _Paris_, + 1899. + + CIVINNI, G.D. Delle storiæ naturae del caffè. _Firenze_, 1731. + + COOK, ORATOR FULLER. Shade in coffee culture. _Washington_, 1901. + 79 pp. + + CUEVAS, HILARIO. Estudio práctico sobre el cultivo del café. + _México_, 1895. 50 pp. + + CUNHO, AGOSTINO RODRIGUEZ. De l'art de la culture du café et de sa + propagation. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1844. + + D'ORLI, P.H.F. BOURGOIN. Culture du café, etc. _Paris_, 1874. + + FAUCHÈRE, A. Culture pratique du caféier et preparation du café. + _Paris_, 1908. 198 pp. + + FERGUSON, JOHN. The coffee planter's manual for both the Arabian + and Liberian species. _Colombo_, 1898. 312 pp. + + FUCHS, M. Die geographische Verbreitung des Kaffeebäume. _Leipzig_, + 1886. 72 pp. + + GARVENS, WILHELM. Kaffee: Kultur, Handel und Bereitung im + Produktionslande. 2 ed. _Hannover_, 1913. 45 pp. + + GREAT BRITAIN. Parliament, House of Commons. First report from the + Select committee on sugar and coffee planting, _London_, 1848: 8v. + + ---- Supplement to the report. _London_, 1848. 198 pp. + + HANSON, R. Culture and commerce of coffee. _London_, 1877. + + HERRERA, RAFAEL. Estudio sobre la producción del café. _México_, + 1893. 141 pp. + + HUNTINGTON, L.M. Origin of oily coffee beans. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 228. + + INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS, _Washington, D.C._ + Coffee in America. Methods of production and facilities for + successful cultivation in Mexico, the Central American states, + Brazil and other South American countries, and the West Indies. + 1893. 36 pp. + + JACOTOT, A. La culture du café, son avenir dans les colonies + françaises. _Paris_, 1910. 191 pp. + + JIMÉNEZ NUNEZ, ENRIQUE. Medios práctios para evitar que las mieles + de café infecten las aguas de los rios. _Guadalupe_, 1902. + + JOTAPEN, JOSÉ. Cultivation and preparation of coffee for the + market. _Aberdeen_, 1915. 102 pp. + + JUMELLE, HENRI. Plantes à sucre, café, cacao, thé, maté. In his, + Les cultures coloniales. _Paris_, 1913. v. 3. + + KRAMERS, J.G. Verslag omtrent de proeftuinen en andere + mededeelingen over koffie. _Batavia_, 1899-1904. 4v. + + LAERNE, C.F. VAN DELDEN. Brazil and Java. Report on coffee culture + in America, Asia and Africa, to H.E. the minister of the colonies. + _London_, 1885. 637 pp. Also in Dutch and French. + + LASCELLES, ARTHUR ROWLEY WILLIAM. A treatise on the nature and + cultivation of coffee; with some remarks on the management and + purchase of coffee estates. _London_, 1865. 71 pp. + + LE COMTE, C.E.A. Culture et production du café dans les colonies. + _Paris_, 1865. + + LECOMTE, HENRI. Le café: culture, manipulation, production. + _Paris_, 1899. 342 pp. + + LIEVANO, INDALECIO. Instruccion popular sobre meteorolojia + agricola, i especialmente sobre el añil i el café. _Bogota_, 1868. + 18 pp. + + MCCLELLAND, T.B. Effect of different methods of transplanting + coffee. _Washington_, 1917. 11 pp. + + ---- Some profitable and unprofitable coffee lands. _Washington_, + 1917. 13 pp. + + MCCULLOCH, R. WILLIAM. Coffee-growing and its preparation for + market. _Brisbane, Australia_, 1893. + + MADRIZ, F.J. Cultivo del café seu manual theoricopratico sobre + beneficio de este frute con mayores ventajas para al agricultor. + _Paris_, 1869. + + MEITZKY, JO.-HENRY. De vario coffeæ potum parandi modo. + _Wittebergiæ_, 1788. + + MIDDLETON, W.H. Manual of coffee planting. _Durban_, 1866. + + MILHON. Dissertation sur le caffeyer. _Montpellier_, 1746. + + MONNEREAU, ÉLIE. Le parfait indigotier; ou Description de l'indigo + ... ensemble un traité sur la culture de café. _Amsterdam_ and + _Marseilles_, 1765. 238 pp. + + MORREN, F.W. Die arbeiter auf einer Kaffee-plantage. 1900. + + ---- Werkzaamheden op eene koffieonderneming. Handleiding voor + opzichters bij de koffie-cultuur. _Amsterdam_, 1896. 266 pp. + + NICOL, R. A treatise on coffee, its properties and the best mode of + keeping and preparing it. 4th ed. _London_, 1832. + + OWEN, T.C. First year's work on a coffee plantation. _Colombo_, + 1877. 55 pp. + + PIERROT, ÉDOUARD. Culture pratique et rationelle du caféier et + préparation du grain pour la vente. _Paris_, 1906. 95 pp. + + ROSSIGNEN, JULIO. Manual del cultivo del café, etc., in la America + Española. _Paris_, 1859. + + SIMMONDS, P.L. Coffee and chicory, their culture, chemical + composition, preparation, etc. _London_, 1864. 102 pp. + + ---- Tropical agriculture. _London_, 1887. (p. 27-79 deal with + coffee.) + + TYTLER, R.B. Prospects of coffee production. _Aberdeen_, 1878. + + UGARTE, JOSÉ P. The cultivation and preparation of coffee for the + market. _London_, 1916. 124 pp. + + WILDEMAN, EM. DE. Les caféiers. _Bruxelles_, 1901. + + ---- Les plantes tropicales de grande culture--café, cacao, coca, + vanilla, etc. _Bruxelles_, 1902. 304 pp. + + ZIMMERMANN, ALBRECHT. Over het enten van koffie volgens de methode + van den Heer D. Butin Schaap. _Batavia_, 1904. 54 pp. + + _Periodicals_ + + AUBRY-LE-COMTE. Culture et production du café dans les colonies. + Revue Mar. et Col., Oct., 1865. + + BEUGLESS, J.D. Coffee in its home. Overland Monthly, II: 319. + + CASWELL, G.W. Coffee in our new islands. Overland Monthly, n. s. + XXXII: 459. + + COFFEE cultivation in the New World. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, + Bull. of Misc. Information, 1893: 321-325. + + CULTIVATION and preparation of coffee. Great Britain. Imperial + Institute, Bulletin, 1915, XIII: 260-296. + + DE VERE, M.S. Culture and use of coffee. Harper's Magazine, XLIV: + 237. + + FESCA, MAX. Über Kaffeekultur. Jour. Landw. 1897, XLV:13-41. + + HAGEN, J. De Koffiecultuur. Onze Kol. Landbouw No. 7. 1914. + + HAYWARD, C.B. Coffee and coffee culture. Scientific American, 1904, + XCI: 189, 194-195. + + LINNEAN SOCIETY. Proceedings, 1875-1880, contain articles on coffee + culture. + + LOEW, OSCAR. Fermation of cacao and of coffee. Porto Rico + Agricultural Experiment Station. Report, 1907. pp. 41-55. + + MARCANO, V. Essais d'agronomie tropicale. Ann. sci. agron. 1891, + II: 119-152. + + PEATFIELD, J.J. Culture of coffee. Overland Monthly, XIII: 323. + + ROST, EUGEN C. Coffee growing. Scientific American Supplement, + 1902, LIV: 22189-22190. + + TORRENS, J.H. Hydro-electric installation on a coffee plantation. + General Electric Review, 1915. XVIII: 219-222. + + ---- Electricity on a coffee finca. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1916, XXXI: 418-421. + + REGIONAL + + ABYSSINIA + + SOUTHARD, ADDISON E. The story of Abyssinia's coffees. Tea and + Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 212-215: 324-329. + + AFRICA, NORTHERN + + RIVIÈRE, CHARLES. Le caféier dans l'Afrique du nord. _Paris_, 1903. + + ANGOLA + + COFFEE cultivation in Angola. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. + of Misc. Information, 1894: 161-163. + + ARGENTINE + + ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Departamento nacional de tierras, colonias y + agricultura. El café. (Coffea arabica) _Buenos Aires_, 1896. 22 pp. + + AUSTRALIA + + JACKSON, HENRY VAUGHAN. The cultivation of coffee. _Sydney_, 1908. + 8 pp. Reprinted from Agricultural Gazette, June, 1908. + + NEWPORT, H. Coffee cultivation in Queensland. Philippine + Agricultural Review, 1910, III: 514-524. _Also_, Queensland + Agricultural Journal, 1910, XXIV, pt. 6; XXV, pt. 1. + + BRAZIL + + BERTHOULE. La culture di caféier au Brésil, communication faite a + la Société nationale d'acclimation de France. March 28, 1890. + + BRAZIL and coffee. Souvenir of the Louisiana purchase exposition. + 1904. 28 pp. + + CAFFÈ, IL: la coltivazione, la produzione, le imitazione, le + falsificazioni, il valore economico, il fisiologico, appendice. + _Rio Janeiro_, 1910. 98 pp. + + CRUWELL, G.A. and others. Brazil as a coffee-growing country. + _Colombo_, 1878. 150 pp. + + DA COSTA SANTOS, H. Consideracoes sobre o nosso café. _Rio + Janeiro_, 1881. 19 pp. + + DAFERT, F.W. De bemesting en het drogen van kaffie in Brazilia. + _Amsterdam_, 1898. 250 pp. + + ---- Über die gegenwärtige Lage des Kaffeebaus in Brazilien. + _Amsterdam_, 1898. Also in English, 1900; French, Paris, 1900. + + DAHNE, EUGENIO. The story of São Paulo coffee from plantation to + cup. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXVIII: 127. + + DE OLTVEIRA, LUIZ TORQUATO, Marques. Novo methodo da plantação + fecundidade, durabilidade estrumação e conservação do café e + extincção das formigas, exposto em beneficio da agricultura do + Brasil e lugares cafeeiros, offerecido aos agricultores. _Rio de + Janeiro_, 1863. 30 pp. + + EMPIRE of Brazil at the World's industrial and cotton centennial + exposition of New Orleans, The. _New York_, 1885. 71 pp. + + KOEBEL, ROTHERY and TWENEY, editors. Enciclopedia de la America del + sur. Agriculture, Brazil, v. I; São Paulo, v. IV. _London_ and + _Buenos Aires_, 1913. + + LALIÈRE, AMOUR. Le café dans l'état de Saint Paul (Brésil). + _Paris_, 1909. 417 pp. + + MISSON, LUIS, and TÉLLEZ O. Cultivo y beneficio del café en el + Brazil: cómo se hacen en el estado de São Paulo. _México_, 1907. 30 + pp. + + O FAZENDEIRO; revista mensal de agricultura, industria e commercio, + dedicada, especialmente, aos interesses da lavoura caféeiro. Anno + 1, _São Paulo_, 1908. + + PACHECO E SILVA, PERSIO. Do café no o éste de S. Paulo. _São + Paulo_, 1910. 64 pp. + + PECKHOLT, THEODORO. Monographia do café. In his, Historia das + plantas alimentares e de gozo do Brazil, v. 5. 1871-84. + + SÃO PAULO, _Brazil_. Secretaria da agricultura, commercio e obras + publicas. Il caffè. Brevi notizie per Eugenio Lefévre. 1904. 68 pp. + + SCHUURMAN, G.A.E. De koffie-cultuur in Brazilië. _Amsterdam_, 1901. + 67 pp. + + SMITH, H.H. Brazil: Amazona and the coast. (Special chapters on + coffee) _London_, 1880. + + ---- Culture of coffee in Brazil. Scribner's Magazine, XIX: 225. + Penny Magazine, IX: 484. + + STORY of São Paulo coffee from plantation to cup. Pan American + Union. Bulletin, 1915, XLI: 370-378. + + TEIXEIRA, C. O café do Brazil. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1883. 24 pp. + + WARD. R.D. Visit to the Brazilian coffee country. National + Geographic Magazine, 1911, XXII: 908-931. + + CENTRAL AMERICA + + CATER, R.W. Coffee in Central America. Chambers' Journal, LXXVI: + 570. + + CHOUSSY, FELIX. Cultivo racional del café en centro América. _San + Salvador_, 1917. 92 pp. + + FOX, ALVIN. Coffee growing in Central America. Simmons' Spice Mill, + 1918, XLI: 420-421. + + CEYLON + + ABBAY, R. Culture of coffee in Ceylon. Households Words, III: 109. + _Also_, Nature, XIV: 375. + + CRUWELL, G.A. Liberian coffee in Ceylon. _Colombo_, 1878. + + HULL, E.C.P. Coffee planting in southern India and Ceylon. + _London_, 1877. 324 pp. + + KEEN, W. Coffee cultivation in Ceylon. _London_, 1871. + + LEWIS, G.C. Coffee planting in Ceylon. _Colombo_, 1855. + + SABONADIÈRE, WILLIAM. The coffee-planter of Ceylon. _London_, 1870. + 216 pp. + + ---- O fazendeiro de café em Ceylão. _Rio de Janerio_, 1875, 196 + pp. + + VAN SPALL, P.W.A. Verslag over de koffij en kaneelkultuur op het + eiland Ceijlon. _Batavia_, 1863. + + COLOMBIA + + SAENZ, NICOLAS. Memoria sobre el cultivo del cafeto. _Bogota_, + 1892. 65 pp. Also in French, _Bruxelles_, 1894. 121 pp. + + COSTA RICA + + CALVO, J.B. Coffee, its origin and propagation, its introduction + and cultivation in Costa Rica. American Republics Bureau. Monthly + Bulletin. 1904, XVIII: 1-6; 111-115. + + ---- Report on coffee with special reference to the Costa Rican + product. Bureau of American Republics. Publications. _Washington_, + 1901, 15 pp. + + COSTA RICA. Government. Estudio é informe sobre el café de Costa + Rica. _San José_, 1900. 48 pp. + + FIELD, WALTER J. Coffee culture and preparation in Costa Rica. The + Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1908, XV: 13. + + SCHROEDER, JOHN. Coffee culture in Costa Rica. _San José_, 1890. 4 + pp. + + CUBA + + BORRERO Y ECHEVEBRÍA, ESTÉBAN. El Café. Apuntes para una + monografia. _Habana_, 1890. 46 pp. + + COFFEE grounds of Cuba. All-the-Year, XXIV: 61. + + FERNÁNDEZ Y JIMÉNEZ, JOSÉ MARÍA. Agricultura cubana. 3 ed. + _Habana_, 1868. 69 pp. + + FOX, ALVIN. Coffee culture in Cuba and Porto Rico. Simmons' Spice + Mill, 1918, XLI: 1356-1359. + + HILLMAN, JOSEPH. Coffee planting. _New York_, 1902. 16 pp. + + OLD Cuban coffee plantations. Harper's Weekly, 1908, LII: 31. + + EAST INDIES + + ARNTZENIUS, G. Cultuur en volk. Beschouwingen over de + gouvernementskoffie-cultuur op Java. _'s Gravenhage_, 1891. 158 pp. + + CAMPBELL, DONALD MACLAINE. The industries of Java: Coffee. In his, + Java: past and present. _London_, 1915. pp. 931-944. + + CHALOT, C. and THILLARD, R. Le café à Java. 1914. + + COFFEE enterprise in the East Indies. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, + Bull. of Misc. Information, 1893: 123-124. + + CRAMER, P.J.S. Gegevens over de variabiliteit van de in + Nederlandsch-Indië verbouwde koffie-soorten. _Batavia_, 1913. 696 + pp. + + DUMONT, A. Consideraciones sobre el cultivo del café en esta isla. + _Havana_, 1823. + + KOFFIECULTUUR. Tijdsch. voor Nederlandsch-Indië, 1901, ser. 2, V: + 168-175. + + NEDERLANDSCH-INDISCHE maatschappij van nijwerheid en landbouw. + Handleiding voor de gouvernements-koffiekultuur. _Batavia_, 1873. + 56 pp. + + PARKHURST, E.T.Y. Coffees of the Dutch East Indies. The Tea and + Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 316-322; 416-420; 1919, XXXVI: + 22-27; 118-122. + + RAEDT VAN OLDENBARNEVELT, A.C. De koffie-cultuur op Java. _'s + Gravenhage_, 1898. 48 pp. + + SMID, J.H. Handbook voor de kultuur der koffie in Oost en West + Indië. _Middleburg_, 1884. 112 pp. + + VAN ERMEL, W.K.L.K. Some facts about coffee in Palembang. + _Singapore_, 1879. 16 pp. + + VAN GORKOM, K.W. Groote cultuur in Nederlandsch Oostindie koffie. + _Haarlem_, 1882. + + FEDERATED MALAY STATES + + GALLAGHER, WILLIAM JOHN. Coffee robusta. _Kuala Lumpur, Federated + Malay States_, 1910. 7 pp. + + LIBERIAN coffee at the Straits Settlements (C. Liberica bull.) + Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. information, 1888: + 261-263; 1890: 107-108, 245-253. + + LIBERIAN coffee in the Malay native states. Royal Botanic Gardens, + _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1892: 277-282. + + FRENCH INDO-CHINA + + BRIGGS, LAWRENCE P. The coffee of French Indo-China. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 118-123. + + CRAMER, P.J.S. Coffee plantations of Tonkin, Philippine + Agricultural Review, 1910, III: 94-100. + + PARIS. Président du syndicat des productions et explorateurs de + Tourane. Le café d'Annam; étude pratique sur sa culture. _Tourane, + Annam_, 1895. 95 pp. + + GOLD COAST + + COFFEE cultivation at the Gold Coast. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, + Bull. of Misc. Information, 1895: 21-23; 1897: 325-328. + + GUADELOUPE + + COFFEE in Guadeloupe. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, + XXIII: 445. + + GUATEMALA + + DIESELDORFF, E.P. Der Kaffeebaum. Praktische Erfahrungen über seine + Behandlung im nördlichen Guatemala. _Berlin_, 1908. 36 pp. + + MORREN, F.W. Koffiecultuur in Guatemale, met aanteekeningen + betreffende de overige cultures de mijnen en den economischen + toestand van deze republiek. _Amsterdam_, 1899. 142 pp. + + PARKHURST, E.T.Y. Coffee in Guatemala. Californian Magazine, II: + 742. + + GUIANA + + AUBLET, FUSÉE. Histoire des plantes de la Guyane française. + Observations sur la culture du café. _Paris_, 1775. + + GUIANA (British) Permanent exhibitions committee. Cacao and coffee + industries. Leaflet 6. 1911. 12 pp. + + HAWAII + + GREAT BRITAIN. FOREIGN OFFICE. Report on coffee culture in the + Hawaiian Islands. _London_, 1897. 18 pp. (Diplomatic and Consular + Reports. Miscellaneous Series, no. 425.) + + HAWAII. BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. Culture + of coffee. Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist, 1911, VIII, no. 10. + + ---- Blight-resistant coffees. Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist, + 1912, IX, no. 3. + + HAYWOOD, WM. Coffee culture in the Hawaiian Islands. _Washington_, + 1898. 164 pp. + + MCCHESNEY, J.M. The great coffee corner. Hawaiian Forester and + Agriculturist, 1911, VIII: 206-211. + + MCCLELLAND, J.L. Coffee culture in Hawaii. Overland Monthly, 1903, + n.s. XLI: 170-178. + + UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Division of Vegetable + Physiology and Pathology. Circular No. 16. Danger of introducing a + Central American coffee in Hawaii. _Washington_, 1898. + + WHITNEY, HENRY MARTYN. The Hawaiian coffee planter's manual. + _Honolulu_, 1894. 48 pp. + + HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC + + INGINAC, G.B. Industrie agricole. Culture du caféier et préparation + de la fève pour être livrée au commerce. _Port-au-Prince_, 1840. 22 + pp. + + LABORIE, P.J. The coffee planter of Saint Domingo. _Colombo_, 1845. + 204 pp. + + ---- An abridgment of the coffee planter of Saint Domingo. + _Madras_, 1863. 83 pp. + + PRESTOE, H. Report on coffee cultivation in Dominica. _Trinidad_, + 1875. + + HONDURAS, BRITISH + + COFFEE cultivation in British Honduras. Royal Botanic Gardens, + _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1892: 253-259. + + INDIA + + ANSTEAD, R.D. Coffee, its cultivation and manuring in South India. + _Bangalore_, 1915. 3 pp. + + ANDERSON, G. Coffee culture in Mysore. _Bangalore_, 1879. + + ARNOLD, E.L. On the Indian hills, or coffee planting in Southern + India. _London_, 1895. 350 pp. + + CULTIVATION of coffee in India. Scientific American Supplement, + 1900, L: 20620. + + CULTURE of coffee in South Travancore. Fraser's Magazine, XC: 64. + + ELLIOTT, R.H. Planter in Mysore. _London_, 1871. + + ELLIOT, ROBERT H. Gold, sport, and coffee planting in Mysore. + _Westminster_, 1894. 480 pp. + + EXPERIENCES of a coffee planter in Southern India. Frasers' + Magazine, XVIX: 703. + + COFFEE planting in Southern India. Spectator, LV: 664. + + HYBRID coffee in Mysore. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. of + Misc. Information, 1898: 30 and 207. + + INDIA. STATISTICAL DEPARTMENT. The coffee crop in Coorg. _Simla_, + 1885. + + ---- The cultivation of coffee in India. _Simla_, 1898, 6 pp. + + SHORTT, JOHN. A hand-book to coffee planting in southern India. + _Madras_, 1864. 182 pp. + + WATSON, J.D. Liberian coffee cultivation in Tavoy. _Tavoy, Burma_, + 1893. 5 pp. + + JAVA (_see_ EAST INDIES) + + KAFFA + + BIEBER, FREDERICK J. Die Kaffee- und Baumwolle-Kultur in Kaffa. + Zeitschrift für Kolonialpolitik, Kolonialrecht und + Kolonial-wirtschaft, 1908, X: 774-781. + + KONGO FREE STATE + + MANUEL pratique de la culture du caféier et du cacaoyer au Congo + Belge. Ministère des colonies, _Bruxelles_, 1908. 96 pp. + + LAGOS + + COFFEE planting in Lagos. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull, of + Misc. Information, 1896: 77-79. + + LIBERIA + + BOUTILLY, V. Le caféier de Libéria, sa culture et sa manipulation. + _Paris_, 1900. 137 pp. + + FELLE, W. Veeljarige waarnemingen en ondervindingen van een + Liberia-koffieplanter. 1894. + + MORREN, F.W. Cultuur bereiding en handel van Liberia koffie. + _Amsterdam_, 1894. 36 pp. + + MORRIS, Sir DANIEL. Notes on Liberian coffee, its history and + cultivation. _Jamaica_, 1881. 14 pp. + + MADAGASCAR + + BUIS, J. L'Hémileia et L'avenir du caféier à Madagascar, et à la + Réunion. 1907. + + RIGAUD, A. Traité pratique de la culture du café dans la région + centrale de Madagascar. _Paris_, 1896. 102 pp. + + MEXICO + + COOK, J.D. American coffee culture in Mexico. World Today, 1907, + XII: 413-418. + + FOX, ALVIN. Coffee culture in southern Mexico. Simmons' Spice Mill, + 1918, XLI: 1080-1081. + + GÓMEZ, GABRIEL. Cultivo y beneficio del café. _México_, 1894. 136 + pp. Also in English. + + LUDEWIG, H. JAUN. Veinte años trabajos de colonización y el cultivo + del cafeto en Soconusco. _México_, 1909. 53 pp. + + MONCÀDA, M. Notas sobre el cultivo y beneficio del café. Memorias y + revista de la Sociedad científica "Antonio Alzate," 1905-6, XXIII: + 281-287. + + ROMERO, MATÍAS. Cultivo del café en la costa meridional de Chiapas. + 3 ed. _México_, 1875. 240 pp. + + ---- El cultivo del café en la república mexicana. 2 ed. _México_, + 1893. 127 pp. Also in English, _New York_, 1901. 74 pp. + + ---- El estado de Oaxaca. _Barcelona_, 1886. 212 pp. + + TERRY, E.G.C. Near view of coffee in Mexico. Pan American Union. + Bulletin. 1914, XXXIX: 903-906. + + TERRY, L.M. Coffee culture in Mexico. Overland Monthly, 1901, n. s. + XXXVII: 702-709. + + TORRES, J.T. Ensayo experimental sobre el café _México_, 1876. + + YORBA, J. Mexican coffee culture. 2 ed. _México_, 1895. 64 pp. + + NATAL + + NATAL. Commission appointed to inquire into and report upon matters + relating to coffee cultivation in the colony. Report. _Maritzburg_, + 1881. 6 pp. + + STAINBANK, H.E. Coffee in Natal; its culture and preparation. + _London_, 1874. 78 pp. + + NICARAGUA + + SHEDD, W.J. The story of Matagalpa coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 118-122. + + PARAGUAY + + COFFEE growing in Paraguay. Scientific American Supplement, 1914, + LXXVIII: 340. + + PORTO RICO + + LINCK, J.H. Arbor caffé Lipsiae florens. Extrait factice des Ephem. + Acad. naturae curiosorum. 1725. 7 pp. + + MCCLELLAND, THOMAS B. Suggestions on coffee planting for Porto + Rico. Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. Circular, no. 15. + Also in Spanish. + + MCCLELLAND, T.B. Restoring Porto Rico coffee. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 420-421. + + NATIONAL COFFEE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. Some facts about Porto Rico + coffee. 1913. + + VAN LEENHOFF, JOHANNES W. Coffee planting in Porto Rico. + _Mayaguez_, 1904. 14 pp. + + PORTUGUESE COLONIES + + SOCIEDADE DE GEOORAPHIADE LISBOA. Exposição colonial de algodão, + borracha, cacau e café. 1906. 104 pp. + + SIERRA LEONE + + HIGHLAND coffee of Sierra Leone (Coffea stenophylla, C. Don). Royal + Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1896: 189-191. + + SOUTH AMERICA + + FOX, ALVIN. Liberian coffee in South America. Simmons' Spice Mill, + 1918, XLI: 549-550. + + TRINIDAD + + TRINIDAD coffee. Royal Botanic Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. + Information, 1888: 129-133. + + UGANDA + + BROWN, E. and HUNTER, H.H. Planting in Uganda; coffee, Pará rubber, + cocoa. _London_, 1913. 176 pp. + + COFFEE and tea from Uganda. Imperial Institute. Bulletin. _London_, + 1918, XVI. + + SMALL, W. Coffee cultivation in Uganda. Imperial Institute. + Bulletin. 1914, XII: 242-250. + + UNITED STATES + + JONES, A.C. Thea viridis, or Chinese tea plant, and the + practicability of its culture and manufacture in the United States. + Also some remarks on the cultivation of the coffee plant. + _Washington_, 1877. 26 pp. + + KAINS, M.G. Chicory growing as an addition to the resources of the + American farmer. U.S. Depart. of Agriculture. Div. of Botany. + Bulletin, no. 19. _Washington_, 1898. + + VENEZUELA + + ERNST, A. El café de Liberia én Vénézuela. _Caracas_, 1878. + + HUNTINGTON, L.M. The story of Tachira coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 318-325. + + JUNTA de aclimatacion cuestionario sobre el cultivo del café. + _Caracas_, 1895. 42 pp. + + PELACIOS, G. DELGADO. Contribución al estudio del café en + Venezuela. _Caracas_, 1895. 93 pp. + + WEST INDIES + + LOWNDES, JOHN. The coffee-planter; or, An essay on the cultivation + and manufacturing of that article of West-India produce. _London_, + 1807. 76 pp. + + NICHOLLS, H.A.A. 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VON. Eenige beschouwingen omtrent de oorzaken van den + achterintgang von de koffie-cultuur der Sumatra's Westkust, etc. + _'s Gravenhage_, 1895. + + CAMERON, JOHN. Prevention of leaf disease in coffee; report of a + visit to Coorg. 1899. 23 pp. + + COOKE, M.C. Two coffee diseases. Popular Science Review, XV:161. + + DELACROIX, GEORGES. Les maladies et les ennemis des caféiers. + _Paris_, 1900. 212 pp. + + ERNST, ADOLF. Estudios sobre las deformaciones, enfermedades y + enemigos del arbol de café en Venezuela. _Caracas_, 1878. 21 pp. + + GOELDI, EMIL AUGUST. Memoria sobre una enfermedad del cafeto en la + provincia Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. _México_, 1894. 118 pp. + + GREEN, E.E. Observations on the green scale bug in connection with + the cultivation of coffee. _Colombo_, 1886. 4 pp. + + HARMAN, F.E. Report on coffee leaf miner disease. Mysore + Government. _Bangalore_, 1880. 41 pp. + + INDIA. MYSORE. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Short report of a tour + made in Coorg during February and March, 1914. (Green bug on + coffee.) 1914. 3 pp. + + KONINGSBERGER, J.C. De dierlijke vijanden der koffie-cultuur op + Java. _Batavia_, 1897-1901. 2 pts. + + KUYPER, J. Een fusicladium-ziekte op hevea. De zilver-draad-ziekte + der koffie in Suriname. De gevolgen van keukenzout-houdend water + voor begieting en bespuiting. 1913. + + LEMARIÉ, CHARLES. Une maladie du caféier. _Hanoi_, 1899. 6 pp. + + MASSEE, G.E. Coffee diseases of the New World, Royal Botanic + Gardens, _Kew_, Bull. of Misc. Information, 1909: 337-341. + + MÉXICO. MINISTERIO DE FOMENTO, COLONIZACIÓN É INDUSTRIA. La + fumagina y el pulgón de los cafetos en la República Mexicana. 1897. + 11 pp. + + MISSON, LUIS, and TÉLLEZ, O. Cultivo y beneficio del café en el + Brasil: cómo se hacen en el estado de São Paulo, por Luis Misson; y + Plagas del cafeto en México, por O. Téllez. _México_, 1907. 30 pp. + (Mexico, 1867-republic. Comisión de Parasitologia Agricola. + Circular 70.) + + NEITNER, J. The coffee tree and its enemies in Ceylon. _Colombo_, + 1880. 32 pp. + + PEELEN, H.J.E. Eenige opmerkingen omtrent de koffie bladziekte. + 1888. + + PRINS, H.J. De oeret-plaag in de koffietuinen op Java. 1884. + + SADEBECK, R. Beobachtungen und Bemerkungen über die durch Hemileia + vastatrix verursachte Blattfleckenkrankheiten der Kaffeebäume. + _München_, 1895. 9 pp. + + SMITH, JARED G. Two plant diseases in Hawaii. _Honolulu_, 1904. 6 + pp. + + THIERRY, A.J. Notes sur le greffage du caféier, du cacaoyer et du + muscadier et la maladie vermiculaire du caféier. 1899. 77 pp. + Reprinted from Bulletin agricole de la Martinique. + + TINS, H.J. De veret-plaag in de koffietuinen op Java. _Enschede_, + 1885. 86 pp. + + TONDUZ, ADOLFO. Informe sobre la enfermedad del cafeto. _San José_ + (Costa Rica), 1893. 28 pp. + + VAN ROMUNDE, R. Koffiebladziekte en koffie kultuur. _'s + Gravenhage_, 1892. 92 pp. + + ZACHER, FRIEDRICH. 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Porto + Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 17. + + GIARD, A. Sur deux cochenilles nouvelles Ortheziola fodiens nov. + spec, et Rhizoecus Eloti nov. spec., parasites des racines du + caféier a la Guadeloupe. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, + 1897. + + GÖLDI, E.A. Relatorio sobre a molestia do caféeiro na provincia do + Rio de Janeiro. Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, 1892, + VIII: 7-121. + + MANN, B.P. Coffee leaf miner. American Naturalist, VI: 332-596. + + MARCHAL, PAUL. Sur un nouvel ennemi du caféier; le "Xyleborus + coffeæ." Journal d'Agriculture tropicale, 1909, IX:227-228. + + MORRIS, D. Coffee-leaf disease of Ceylon. Nature, XX: 557. + + MORSTATT, HERMANN ALBERT. Die Schädlinge und Krankheiten des + Kaffeebaumes in Ostafrika. Zeitschrift für Land- und + Forstwirtschaft in Deutsch-Ostafrika, 1912, VIII, Juli. + + TEA and coffee diseases. Royal gardens, _Kew_, Bulletin, 1899, + CLI-CLII: 89-133. + + TUCKER, ELBERT STEPHEN. Some miscellaneous results of the work of + the Bureau of Entomology--IX. New breeding records of the + coffee-bean weevil. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of + Entomology. Bulletin, 1909, LXIV: 61-64. + + VAN DER WEELE, H.W. Ein neuer javanischer kaffeeschälding. + Xyleborus coffeivorus nov. spec. East Indies, Dutch. Department van + Landbouw. Bulletin, 1910, XXXV. Zoologie 5. pp. 1-6. + + ZIMMERMANN, ALBRECHT. De kanker (Rostellaziekte) van Coffea + arabica. Buitenzorg, Java. Jardin botanique. Mededeelingen uit 's + Lands plantentuin, 1900, XXXVII: 24-62. + + + GENERAL WORKS + + DESCRIPTIVE, HISTORICAL, ETC. + + ABBAL, L. Étude sur le café. _Montpellier_, 1885. + + ABENDROTH, G.F. De coffea. _Lipsiae_, 1825. + + ALCOTT, WILLIAM ALEXANDER. Tea and coffee. _Boston_, 1839. 174 pp. + + ALVES DE LIMA, J.C. Some revelations about the cultivation, the + commerce and the use of coffee. _Syracuse, N.Y._, 1901, 16 pp. + + BLOUNT (BLUNT), SIR HENRY. An epistle in praise of tobacco and + coffee, prefixed to a little treatise entitled Organum Salutis. + _London_, 1657. + + BONTEKOS, C. Tractaat van het excellente kruyd thee. I. Van de + coffi. _'s Gravenhage_, 1679. + + BRILL, MARBUGER. Dissertation sur le café. 1862. + + BUC'HOZ, P.J. Dissertation sur le café _Paris_, 1787. + + CHEVALLIER, ALPHONSE. Du café, son historique, son usage, son + utilité, ses altérations, ses succédanés et ses falsifications, + etc. _Paris_, 1862. 68 pp. + + CORNAILLAC, G. El café, la vainilla, el cacao y el té, cultivo, + preparación, exportación, clasificación comercial, gastos, + rendimiento. _Barcelona_, 1903. 480 pp. + + COUBARD D'AULNAY, G.E. Monographie du café, ou manuel de l'amateur + du café, ouvrage contenant la description et la culture du caféier, + l'histoire du café, ses caractères commierciaux, sa préparation et + ses propriétés. _Paris_, 1832. + + CRIPET, DR. Histoire et physiologie du café. _Paris_, 1846. + + DELRUE-SCHREVENS, L. 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De coffea. _Pestini_, 1836. Hungarian text. + + THOMPSON, BENJAMIN. (See RUMFORD, Count.) + + THOMPSON, WILLIAM GILMAN. Coffee. Composition; method of + preparation; physiological action; adulteration; substitutes. In + his, Practical dietetics, 1909. pp. 252-257. + + THURBER, FRANCIS BEATTY. Coffee: from plantation to cup. _New + York_, 1881. 416 pp. + + TOGNI, M. Raccolta delle singolari qualitá del caffè. _Venetia_, + 1675. + + VAN DEN BERG, NORBERT PIETER. Historical-statistical notes on the + production and consumption of coffee. _Batavia_, 1880. 92 pp. + + VILARDEBO, J. El tabaco y el café. _Barcelona_, 1888. 142 pp. + + WALSH, JOSEPH M. Coffee: its history, classification and + description. _Philadelphia_, 1894. 309 pp. + + WELTER, H. Essai sur l'histoire du café. _Paris_, 1868. + + _Periodicals_ + + AHLENIUS, KARL. Kaffe, te och rörsocker, deras ursprungliga hem och + viktigaste produktionsområden. Ymer, 1903, XXIII: 242-268. + + BANNISTER, RICHARD. Sugar, coffee, tea and cocoa, their origin, + preparation, and uses. Journal of the Society of Arts, XXXVIII: + 1000-1014. + + BRANSON, W.P. Coffee. Journal of the Society of Arts, 1874, XXII: + 456-461. + + COFFEE. Leisure Hour, 1882, XXXI: 45-48. + + COFFEE King. Chambers' Journal, LXXXII: 23. + + COFFEE infusion. Medical Standard, 1913, XXXVI: 52-56. + + DE JUSSIEU. Histoire du café. Histoire de l'Académie Royal des + Sciences, 1713; Mémoires, 1716: 291. + + DEWEY, STODDARD. How coffee came to Paris. English Illustrated + Magazine, 1898, XX: 312-315. + + FERRIS, W.M. Coffee. Nation, XXXIV: 192; Leisure Hour, XXXI: 45. + + GUÉRIN, P. Le café. Revue Scientifique, 1908, ser. 5. X: 486-494. + + HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Some coffees of today. Good Housekeeping, 1913, + LVII: 264-268. + + HERAUD, AUG. FRED. Le café. Science et Nature, Feb. 28, 1885, p. + 209. + + HISTORY and cultivation of coffee. Godey's Lady's Book, LIV: 51. + + HOFFMAN, PAUL. Aus dem ersten Jahrhundert des Kaffees. Zeitschrift + für Kulturgeschichte, 1901, VIII: 405-441, IX: 90-104. + + JACKSON, J.R. Coffee. Nature, 11: 126; Blackwells' Magazine, LXXV: + 86; Household Words, V: 562; Penny Magazine, 1: 49. + + LESSON, RENÉ-PRIMEVÈRE. Précis historique, botanique, médical et + agronomique sur le café. Annual Mar. et Col., 1820: 842. + + MARSHALL, W.B. Coffee, its history and commerce; an outline. + American Journal of Pharmacy, 1902, LXXIV: 361-374. + + OM Kaffe, dess historica och användning. Helsovännen, 1887, II: + 157-163. + + PICTORIAL History of coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1918, XXXIV: 26-28; 124-127; XXXV: 116-125; 526-534; 1919, XXXVI: + 322-324; 515-516; XXXVII: 140-145. + + TUCKERMANN, C.K. Coffee drinking in eastern Europe. North American + Review, 1889, CXLVIII: 643-645. + + UKERS, WILLIAM H. Better teas and coffees. Good Housekeeping, 1911, + LIII: 495-498. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XXI: + 274-276. + + ---- A talk on coffee. Good Housekeeping, 1908, XLVI: 532-536. + + ---- Tea and coffee economies. Joe Chapple's News Letter, 1913, I: + 9. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 476-477. + + WORLD'S drink. Review of Reviews, 1909, XXXIX: 109-110. + + + LITERATURE, POETRY, ROMANCE + + ABD-AL-KÂDIR, ANSÂRI DJEZERI HANBALI. Des preuves les plus fortes + en faveur de la légitimité de l'usage du café, in chréstomathie + arabe, par Sylvestre de Sacy. _Paris_, 1806. + + BAROTTI, L. Il caffé (poem). Esprit des Journaux, 1681, 110-120. + + BLONDEAU. Étrennes littéraires aux grands hommes ou l'empire du + café, poême en 10 chants. _Paris_, date unknown. + + ---- L'empire du café et le rapport de son influence sur l'esprit + les moeurs et l'économie animale, poême en 4 chants. _Paris_, 1824. + + BOUQUET blanc et le bouquet noir, Le, poisie en 4 chants. 60 pp. + + BRADY. CYRUS TOWNSEND. A corner in coffee. _New York_, 1904. + + CAFFEE die schonste Panacee, in einem Lobgedicht über die wunder + baie Heikraft des nectarischen Caffeetranks. 1775. 23 pp. + + CHARACTER of a coffee house, with the symptoms of a town-wit. + _London_, 1673; in Harleian Miscellany, VI: 429. + + CHARACTER of coffee and coffee houses. Hazlitt's Handbook to + Popular Literature, 1661. + + COFFEE and crumpets; a poem. Frasers' Magazine, XV: 316. + + COFFEE houses vindicated: in answer to the late published character + of a coffee house. _London_, 1675; also in Harleian Miscellany, VI: + 433. + + COFFEE scuffle; occasioned by a contest between a learned knight + and a pitifull pedagogue, with the character of a coffee house. + Printed and are to be sold at the Salmon coffee house, neer the + stocks market, (London), 1662. Verses by Woolnoth or Sir J. Langham + and Evans, a school-master. + + DE GOURCUFF, O. Le café, épître attribué a Senecé. _Nantes_, 1888. + 19 pp. + + DE MERY, C. Le café, poême: accompagné de documents historiques sur + le café, sur son origine, sur son commerce et sur les peuples + d'Orient qui font specialement usage du café. _Rennes_, 1837. 204 + pp. + + D'ISRAELI, ISAAC. Curiosities of literature. _London_, 1824. + Contains article on, Introduction of tea, coffee and chocolate, in + which the following items are mentioned: (1) An Arabic and English + pamphlet on The nature of the drink, kouhi or coffee, pub. at + _Oxford_, 1569; (2) A cup of coffee, or coffee in its colours, a + satirical poem (quoted), 1663; (3) A broadside against coffee or + the marriage of the Turk (quoted), 1672; (4) The women's petition + against coffee, 1674. + + DRUMONT, E. Les cafés et les restaurants d'autrefois. Magasin + Littéraire, X: 264. + + EXCELLENT virtue of that sober drink coffee, The. Popular ballad of + the 17th century. Broadsheet. + + GEYER, E.E. An potus café dicti vestigia in Hebræos sacræ scripturæ + codice reperiantur? Dissertation. _Wittebergiæ_, 1740. + + GOLDONI, CARLO. La bottega di caffè. _Venice_, 1750. + + LAGUERRE, J.N. Essai sur le café. _Paris_, 1818. + + LE PAGE, AUG. Les cafés politiques et littéraires de Paris. 1874. + + MASSIEU, G. Carmen caffaeum. _Paris_, 1740. + + MELAYE, S. Éloge du café. (A song.) _Paris_, 1852. 4 pp. + + MILLER, JAMES. The coffee-house. A dramatick piece. _London_, 1737. + 38 pp. + + POEM in Latin, A, on coffee; is found in the Abbé Olivier's, + Collection of modern Latin poets; and in, Étrennes à tous les + amateurs du café, _Paris_, 1790, in which a French translation is + printed facing the Latin text; _also_ Il caffè, in Poemetti + Italiana, vol. 3, 1797. + + REBELLIOUS antidote: or a dialogue between coffee and tea: _verse_, + 1685. + + ROSSEAU, J.B. Le caffé, comédie. 1695. 56 pp. + + SCHOTEL, G.D.J. Letterkundige bijdragen tot de geschiedenis van den + tabak, de koffij en de thee. _'s Gravenhage_, 1848. 215 pp. + + ST. SERFE, THOMAS. Taruga's wiles, or the coffee house; a comedy. + _London_, 1668. + + SMYTH, PHILIP. The coffee house; a characteristic poem. _London_, + 1795. + + STEELE, SIR RICHARD. On characters in coffee houses. Spectator, No. + 49. + + VOLTAIRE, F.M.A. DE. The coffee-house; or, Fair fugitive. A comedy. + _London_, 1760. + + WARD, EDWARD. The humours of a coffee house. _London_, 1714. + + + MANUFACTURING PROCESSES + + BREWING + + ABORN, EDWARD. Better coffee making. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1912, Supplement to No. 6, XXIII: 49-52; 1913, XXV: 568-574; 1919, + XXIX: 553-556. + + ---- Better coffee for the army. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1918, XXXV: 622-624. + + ---- On boiling coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, + XXXVI: 48-49. + + ---- Coffee-making developments. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1914, XXVII: 550-556. + + ---- On coffee grinding and brewing. Yesterday, today and tomorrow + in better coffee making. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: + 570-576. + + BACON, RAYMOND F. Efficiency of coffee-making devices. Tea and + Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 427-429. + + BEST method of making coffee. Journal of Home Economics, 1914, VI: + 480-481. + + BONNETTE. Préparation du café en campagne, filtré "en rognon" + adapté à une marmite de campement. Revue d'Hygiène, 1911, XXXIII: + 459-462. _Also_, in Spanish, Revista de Sanidad militar, 1911, ser. + 3, I: 427-429. + + BOYES, E. How to obtain an ideal cup of coffee; its cost and value. + _London_, 1898. 16 pp. + + BROADBENT, HUMPHREY. The domestick coffee man, shewing the true way + of preparing and making chocolate, coffee and tea. _London_, 1722. + + COFFEE making questionnaire. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1917, XXXII: 31-34. + + DUFOUR, PHILIPPE SYLVESTRE. Translation by John Chamberlayne. The + manner of making coffee, tea, and chocolate. As it is used in most + parts of Europe, Asia, Africa and Spanish America. Newly done out + of French and Spanish. _London_, 1685. 116 pp. + + ELLIS, H.D. Notes on the earliest form of coffee-pot. Preceedings + of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 1899, ser. 2, XVII: + 390-394. + + FOREST, L. L'art de faire le café du cuit a l'ancienne. _Paris._ + + FRANKEL, E.M. Coffee making comparisons. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXII: 336-337. + + FRANKEL, F. HULTON. Value of coffee brews. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 238. + + GENTIL, A.A.P. Dissertation sur le café et sur les moyens propres à + prevenir les effets qui resultant de sa préparation, communément + vicieuse, et en rendre la boisson plus agréable et plus salubre. + _Paris_, 1797. + + GIRAUD, A. Cafés de Paris, procédés uniques pour la préparation du + café, glorias, grogs a l'americaine. _Paris_, 1853. 75 pp. + + HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Coffee making comparisons. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXII: 336-337. + + How to make a cup of coffee. Godey's Lady's Book, LXIII: 107. + _Also_, Sharpe's London Magazine, XLIV: 259. + + MASSON, Abbé. Le café, ses propriétés, manière nouvelles de la + préparer. _Epernay_, 1885. 24 pp. + + MASSON, P. Le parfait limonadier, ou la manière de préparer le thé, + lecaffé, le chocolat. _Paris_, 1705. + + MEITZKY, J.H. De vario coffeæ potum parandi modo. _Wittebergiæ_, + 1782. + + T., C. DE. Café français: recette économique. _Paris_, 1824. + + WILHELM, R.C. "Drip" method the best. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1916, XXXI: 338-339. + + WILLCOX, O.W. About coffee-making methods. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1913, XXV: 618-620. + + WOODRUFF, SYBIL. Standard strength in coffee brews. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 133-137. + + WORLD'S largest coffee brewery. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1919, XXXVI: 230-233. + + GLAZING + + DANNEMILLER, A.J. Coffee coating upheld. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1914, XXVII: 556-557. + + HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Green and roast coffees, the adulteration and + misbranding thereof. American Grocer, Nov. 19, 1913: 19-20. + + KRZIZAN, R. Ueber Eiweiss-Kaffeeglasur. Zeitschrift für Nahrungs- + und Genussmittel, 1906, XII: 213-216. + + SCHAER, E. Notizen über die Firnisierung von Kaffeebohnen. + Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906, + XII: 60. + + WILLCOX, O.W. Concerning glazed coffees. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1914, XXVI: 340-341. + + MISCELLANEOUS + + CULTURED coffee activities. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1921, + XLI: 456-458. + + GIRAUD, A. Le café perfectionné. _Paris_, 1846. + + HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Making coffee for the consumer. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1914, XXVI: 335-338. + + HOW soluble coffee is made. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1921, + XLI: 162-166. + + PREPARATION of coffee for use. Penny Magazine, III: 228. + + WALKER, J. Handbook of coffee pulpers and pulping. _Kandy, Ceylon_, + 1894: 36 pp. + + MODIFICATIONS, CAFFEIN-FREE, ETC. + + DANIELS, CLINTON K. Daniels' golden coffee. 1882, 3 pp. + + DETOXICATION of coffee. Scientific American, Mar. 27, 1915, CXII: + 292. + + NON-TOXIC coffee and tea. Scientific American, Nov. 13, 1909, CI: + 346. + + WIMMER, K. Caffeinless coffee. Scientific American, Apr. 11, 1908, + XCVIII: 258. + + POLISHING AND COLORING + + HALLEUX, EDMOND. Le commerce des cafés avariés colorés ou enrobés. + Annales des Falsifications, 1909, II, No. 7: 201-206. + + MORPURGO, G. Notizie sulla colorazione artificiale del caffè e sui + mezzi scoprirla. _Orosi_, 1897, XX: 397-403. + + RAUMER, E. VON. Ueber den Nachweis künstlicher Färbungen bei + Rohkaffee. Forschungs-Berichte über Lebensmittel, 1896, III: + 333-338. + + SAUVAGE, ÉDOUARD. Note sur les cafés verts lustrés-colorés. Leur + rôle commercial. Annales des Falsifications, 1910, III: 113-117. + + ROASTING AND GRINDING + + ACH, F.J. Roasting costs and accounting. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912, XXIII: 133. + + BRAND, CARL W. Increased packing costs. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1916, XXXI: 567-570. + + BURNS, A. LINCOLN. Factory efficiency. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912, XXIII: 30-33. + + DAUSSE. Manuel de l'amateur du café, ou l'art de torréfier les + cafés convenablement, basé sur l'analyse chèmique. _Paris_, 1846. + + ELECTRIC coffee roasting in Germany. Electrical World, 1906, + XLVIII: 117-178. + + EVOLUTION of the coffee roaster. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1910, XVIII: 390-392. + + GILLIES, EDWIN J. Getting a roasting profit. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII: 65-68. + + HOLSTAD, S.H. Keeping tab on costs. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912, XXIII: 68-70. + + KING, JOHN E. Grinding and packing coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 552-555. + + KNOWLTON, H.S. Power installation of a coffee-roasting and + spice-grinding plant. Electrical World, 1905, XLV: 678-681. + + MCGARTY, M.J. Scientific coffee roasting. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1916, XXXI: 336-337. + + TURCQ DES ROSIERS, LE. Le café: une révolution dans ses procédés de + torréfaction. _Paris_, 1890. + + WILHELM, R.C. The color of the roast. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1916, XXXI: 428-429. + + WRIGHT, GEORGE S. Automatic weighing tests. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 568-570. + + ZINSMEISTER, LEE G. Roasting economies. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1914, XXVII: 558-561; 1915, XXIX: 545-550. + + + MEDICINAL QUALITIES AND USES + + AS ANTISEPTIC AND DISINFECTANT + + BARBIER. Le café comme désinfectant. Journal de Médecine et + Pharmacie de l'Algérie, 1881, VI: 315-318. + + CRANE, W.H. and FRIEDLANDER, A. The antiseptic qualities of coffee. + American Medicine, 1903, VI: 403-407. + + HEIM, L. Ueber den antiseptischen Werth des gerösteten Kaffees. + Münchener medicinische Wochenschrift, 1886, XXXIV: 293-312. + + OPPLER. Der Kaffee als Antisepticum. Deutsche militärärztliche + Zeitschrift, 1885, XIV: 567-577. + + GENERAL + + AIGNANT OU AIGNAN. Le preste médecin, avec un traité du thé, du + café, en France. _Paris_, 1606. + + B., W. Coffee, its origin, properties and virtues. _London_, 1908. + + BLEGNY, N. DE. Le bon usage du thé, café et du chocolat pour la + prevention et la guerison des maladies. _Paris_, 1687. + + BOUTEKOË, CORNEILLE. Le thé, le café, et le chocolat. 1699. + + BRADLEY, RICHARD. The virtue and use of coffee, with regard to the + plague, and other infectious distempers. _London_, 1721. 34 pp. + + BRILLIÉ, L., and DUPRÉ, E. Étude sur les cafés. Communication a la + Société française d'hygiène. _Paris_, 1889. + + CHICOU, T. Du café en hygiène et en thérapeutique. _Paris_, 1859. + + DAUPLEY, C.E. Étude sur le café; ses applications à la médecine. + _Paris_, 1867. + + ELOY, NICHOLAS F.J. Question médico-politique, si l'usage de café + est avantageux à la santé, et s'il peut se conciler avec le bien de + l'état dans les provinces belgique. 1781. + + FONTAINE. Hernie traité par l'infusion de café. _Paris_, 1865. + + LANDARRHILCO, OSMIN. Nouvelles propriétès thérapeutiques du café + vert dans les affections du foie, les coliques hépatiques et le + diabètè. _Montpellier_, 1888. + + LECONTE, A.H. Emploi du café thérapeutique. _Strasbourg_, 1859. + + MAGRI, D. Virtu del Kafe, bevanda introdotta nuovamente nell' + Italia. 2 ed. _Roma_, 1671, 16 pp. + + MARVAUD, ANGEL. Les boissons aromatiques. Le café. In his, Les + aliments d'épargne, _Paris_, 1874. 2 pt., pp. 292-320. + + MUNDAY (MUNDY), HENRY. Opera omnia--Physica de aere vitali, + esculentis, et potutentis, cum appendice de pasergris in victu et + chocolatu, thea, coffea, tobaco. _Leyden_, 1685. + + PETIT, H. De la prolongation de la vie humaine par le café. 2 éd. + _Paris_, 1862. + + RICHET, CH. Les poisons de l'intelligence, l'alcool, le + chloroforme, le haschich, l'opium, le café. _Paris_, 1877. + + TRIFET, A. Du café, de ses effets sur l'homme. _Paris_, 1847. + + VILLEMUS, A. Du café et de ses principales applications + thérapeutiques. _Paris_, 1875. + + VIREY, J.J. Nouvelles considérations sur l'histoire et les effets + hygiéniques du cafés et sur le genre coffea. _Paris_, 1816. + + WEISS, C.C. Coffee arabica nach seiner zerstörenden Wirkung auf + animalische Dünste als Schutzmittel gegen Contagion vorschlagen. + _Friberg_, 1832. + + _Periodicals_ + + ALLEGED medicinal properties of the husk of the coffee bean, The + Lancet, 1902, II: 944. + + BALZAC. Traité des excitants modernes. Alcool, sucre, thé, café, + tabac. Extrait fact. de la Revue de Paris. 1852. + + BENEFICIAL effects of coffee as a drink. Review of Reviews, 1906, + XXXIII: 245-246. + + BOLTENSTERN, VON. Zur Bewerkung des Kaffees als Volksgenussmittel. + Deutsche Arzte-Zeitung, 1905, 457-461. + + CARON, D.A. Coffee and milk as a diet. Journal of Franklin + Institute, LXIV: 349. + + DALSON, A.T., and WETHERILL, C.M. Coffee as a beverage. Journal of + Franklin Inst. LX: 60-111. + + DOMBROVSKI, I.F. Kofe i yevo liechebniya svoista. (Coffee and its + medical properties.) Vrachebnaya Gazeta, 1901, VIII: 733-736. + + DUJARDIN-BEAUMETZ. On new cardiac medicaments. Therapeutic Gazette, + 1884, n. s. V: 444-449. + + DUSART, O. Étude critique sur l'action physiologique et + thérapeutique des médicaments dits antidéperditeurs: café, coca, + etc. Tribune médicale, 1874, VII: 197-200. + + ENGLISH, W. Reply to objections against the use of tea and coffee. + Lancet, 1833-4, II: 75. + + GOLINER. Ueber unschädlichen Kaffeegenuss. Frauenarzt, 1906, XXI: + 205. + + GRISWOLD, E.H. Coffee, its uses and medical qualities. Southern + Practitioner, 1882, IV: 269. + + HAMILTON, W. On the medical properties of the coffee arabica. + Pharmaceutical Journal, 1851, X: 450-454. + + HOLLAND, J.W. Coffee as a preventive for malarial diseases. + Louisville Medical News, 1876, I: 63-65. + + HORNEMANN, E. Kaffe-Sporgsmaalet. (Hygienic value of coffee.) + Hygieniske Meddelelser, _Kjbenhavn_, 1864. IV: pt. 3, 286-310. + + MEDICINAL properties of the husk of the coffee bean. Scientific + American Supplement, Mar. 7, 1903, LV: 22-123. + + ON the medical properties of coffea arabica. Pharmaceutical + Journal, X: 450-454. + + PAUL, J. On coffee, its medical, disinfecting, and dietetic + properties. New Jersey Medical Reporter, 1851-2, V: 265, 297. + + ROQUES, J. Note sur les propriétés médicales du café. Bulletin + général de Thérapeutique, 1835, VIII: 289-294. + + "S. CULAPIUS." The healthfulness of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1913, XXV: 27-28, 129-130, 239-240, 345-346, 449-450; + 1914, XXVI: 137-138. + + SQUIBB. Tea and coffee as therapeutic substitutes for coca and + guarana. Ephemeris of Materia Medica, 1884, II: 637-647. + + STUTZER, A. Neues über die Wirkung der daraus hergestellten + Getränke in gesundheitlicher Beziehung. Centralblatt für allgemeine + Gesundheitspflege, 1892, XI: 145-151. + + WEITENWEBER, W.R. Diätetischmedicinische Würdigung des Caffees. + Oesterreichische medicinische Wochenschrift, 1845, pp. 1551, 1583. + + ---- Therapeutische Abhandlung über den Caffee. Medicinische + Jahrbücher des kaiserl. königl. österreichischen Staates. 1846. + LVIII: 1, 139. + + + PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS + + GENERAL USE AND MISUSE, COFFEE-HABIT, ETC. + + ALCOTT, WILLIAM ALEXANDER. Tea and coffee: their physical, + intellectual, and moral effects on the human system, rev. ed. + _Manchester_, 1877. 31 pp. Also in German, _Berlin_, 1869. + + BOEHMER, G.R. Pr.... inessentiæ coffeæ in novellis publicis nuper + commendatæ virtutem inquirit. _Wittebergae_, 1782. + + BOMBY, R. Le caféisme. _Paris_, 1905. + + BONA, G. DALLA. Dell' uso e dell' abuso del caffè, dissertazione + storico-fisico-medica. _Verona_, 1751. + + BOUCARD, E. Du caféisme; contribution à une étude synthetique. + _Paris_, 1899. + + BRAEUNINGER, J.M. De potus caffè usu et abusu. _Erfordiae_, 1725. + + BRUCHMAN, FRANCIS ERNEST. A treatise on coffee and a condemnation + of its use. _Brunswick_, 1727. + + BUC'HOZ, P.J. Dissertation sur l'utilité et les bons et mauvaises + effets du tabac, du café, du cacao et du thé. _Paris_, 1775. + + CALKINS, A. Opium and opium appetite, with notices of alcoholic + beverages, Cannabis indica, tobacco and coca, and tea and coffee, + in their hygienic aspects and pathologic relations. _New York_, + 1871. + + CALVERT, ESPRIT. An potus café quotidianus valetudini tuendæ vitæ + que producendæ noxius? _Avenione_, 1762. + + CAMERARIUS, E. Dissertationes tres, exhibentes ... III. Usum et + abusum potum, "Thée," et "Caffè" in his regionibus. _Tubingæ_, + 1694. + + CATHOMAS, J.B. Ist der Kaffee und Teegenuss gesundheitsschädlich? + _St. Gallen_, 1910. + + CROTHERS, T.D. (Effects of the coffee habit.) 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Der Kaffee; gemeinfassliche + Darstellung der Gewinnung, Verwertung und Beurteilung des Kaffees + und seiner Ersatzstoffe. _Berlin_, 1903. 174 pp. + + GLEDITSCH, J.G. De potus cofè abusu catalogum morborum augente. + _Lipsiae_, 1744. + + GRIMMANN, J.N. De coffee potus usu noxio. 1730. + + GÜNTHER, LEO. Der Caffee als Hausgetrank. Eine Warnung. _Leipzig_, + 1907. + + HAHNEMANN, S. A treatise on the effects of coffee. _Louisville_, + 1875. + + HANDBOOK of the medical sciences. Article on coffee, v. III: p. + 190. + + HILSCHERUS, S.P. Pr ... de abusu potus caffee in sexu sequiori. + _Jena_, 1727. + + HUSS, M. Om kaffe, dess bruk och missbruk; en folkskrift. + _Stockholm_, 1865. + + HUSSON, C. Le café, la bière et le tabac. Étude physiologique et + chèmique. _Paris_, 1879. 206 pp. + + KLAMANN, CARL, publisher. Der Kaffee in seiner heutigen Bedeutung + als Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. _Hamburg_, 1882. 48 pp. + + KNOLL, J.C.G. 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Berichte der deutschen + chemischen Gesellschaft, 1899, XXXII; no. 360, 2280-2282. + + ---- Ueber das Verhalten des Coffeïns und des Theobromins im + Organismus. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, + 1895, XXXV: 449-466. + + ALBERS, J.F.H. Ueber die eigenthümliche Wirkung des Theinum und + Coffeinum citricum auf den thierischen Körper. Deutsche Klinik, + 1852, IV: 577-579. + + AUBERT, H. Ueber den Coffeïngehalt des Kaffeegetränkes und über die + Wirkungen des Coffeïns. Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie des + Menschen und der Thiere, 1872, V: 589-628. + + BINZ, C. Beitrag zur Toxikologie des Coffeïns. Archiv für + experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1891, XXVIII: 197-200. + + BONDZYNSKI, ST. and GOTTLIEB, R. Ueber Methylxanthin, ein + Stoffwechselprodukt des Theobromin und Coffeïn. 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Monatshefte für Chemie (Sitzungs-berichte der + Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften), 1883, IV: 369-387. + + MATTHEWS, W. Observations on the use of coffee as a cause of + disease. Northwest Medical and Surgical Journal, 1850-1, VII: + 46-50. + + PARDI. Ricerche intormo alla funzione spermato-genetica negli + animali avvelenati con caffé. Lo Sperimentale, LXV: 17-34. + + PESET CERVERA, V. Del envenenamiento por el café. Génio + médico-quirúrgico, 1877, XXIII: 670-673. + + PÉTRESCO, Z. Sur l'action hypercinétique de la caféine à hautes + doses ou doses thérapeutiques. Verhandlungen des X, internationalen + medicinischen Congresses, _Berlin_, 1890, II, pt. 4, 5-10. + + PILCHER, J.D. Alcohol and caffeine: a study of antagonism and + synergism. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, + 1911, III: 267-298. + + REICHERT, E.T. The action of caffein on tissue metamorphosis and + heat phenomena. New York Medical Journal, 1890, LI: 456-459. + + ---- The empyreumatic oil of coffee, or caffeone. Medical News, + 1890, LVI: 476-478. + + RIBAUT, H. Influence de la caféine sur la production de chaleur + chez l'animal. Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1901, LIII + (2. ser., III): 295-296. + + RIEGEL, F. Ueber die therapeutische Verwendung der + Caffein-präparate. Wiener medizinische Blätter, 1884, VII: 615-619. + _Also_, Berlin klinische Wochenschrift, 1884, XXI: 289. + + RUGH, J.T. Profound toxic effects from the drinking of large + amounts of strong coffee. Proceedings of the Philadelphia County + Medical Society, 1896, XVII: 195. _Also_, Medical and Surgical + Reporter, 1896, LXXV: 549; Quarterly Journal of Inebriety, 1897, + XIX: 62-64. + + SALANT, WILLIAM, and RIEGER, J.B. Elimination and toxicity of + caffein in nephrectomized rabbits. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. + Bureau of Chemistry. Bulletin, 1913, CLXVI. + + ---- Toxicity of caffein: an experimental study on different + species of animals. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Chemistry. + Bulletin, 1912, CXLVIII. + + SCHMID, JULIUS. Der Abbau methylierter Xanthine. Zeitschrift für + physiologische Chemie, 1910, LXVII: 155-160. + + SCHMIEDEBERG, OSWALD. Ueber die Verschiedenheit der Coffeïn-wirkung + an Rana temporaria L. und Rana esculenta L. Archiv für + experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1874, II: 62-69. + + STUHLMANN, J. and FALCK, C.P. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Wirkungen + des Kaffeïns. Virchow's Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und + Physiologie, 1857, XI: 324-383. + + STENSTRÖM, THOR. Über die Coffeinhyperglykämie. Biochemische + Zeitschrift, 1913, XLIX: 225-231. + + STERRETT, R.M. Coffee; a drug. Chicago Medical Times, Jan. 1910, + XLIII. + + THE TRUE "poison in the coffee cup." Medical Record, 1885, XXVII: + 191. + + UNTERSUCHUNG einer vermutheten Vergiftung durch Kaffee. Blätter für + gerichtliche Anthropologie, 1862, XIII: 137-141. + + WAENTIG, PERCY. Über den Gehalt des Kaffeegetränkes an Koffeïn und + die Verfahren zu seiner Ermittelung. Arbeiten a. d. kaiserl. + Gesundheitsamte, 1906, XXIII: 315-332. + + WEDEMEYER, T. Habituation of the psychic functions to caffein. + Arch., exp. Path. Phar., 1920, 85: 339-58. + + WEISMANN. Ein Fall von schweren Vergiftungs erscheinungen durch + einmaligen unmässigen Genuss von Kaffee. Zeitschrift für Bahn- und + Bahnkassenärzte, 1906, I: 806. + + ZENETZ. Dangers of caffeine. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1900, 4th + ser., X: 333. + + OF GREEN COFFEE + + LANDARRAHILCO, O. Du café vert envisagé au point de vue de ses + applications thérapeutiques dans le traitement de la goutte, de la + gravelle, des coliques néphrétiques et de la migraine. + _Montpellier_, 1866. + + PERRET, E. Sur l'extrait physiologique de café vert. Bulletin + général de Thérapeutique, 1910, CLX: 214-222. + + SQUIBB. Fluid extract of green coffee. Ephemeris of materia medica, + 1884, II: 616-619. + + OF LEAVES OF COFFEE TREE + + ON the dried coffee leaf of Sumatra. Pharmaceutical Journal, XIII: + 207-209, 382-384. + + OF ROASTED COFFEE + + BURMANN, J. Recherches chimiques et physiologiques sur les + principes nocifs du café torréfié. Bulletin général de + Thérapeutique, 1913, CLXVI: 379-400. + + GRINDEL. Fortgesetzte Erfahrungen über den rohen Caffee. Journal + der practischen Arzneykunde und Wundarzneykunst, 1809, XXIX, pt. + 12, 11-30. + + OFFRET. Observations sur l'action physiologique du café, selon ses + diverses torréfactions. _Nantes_, 1862. + + OF SMOKING COFFEE + + SCHMIDT. Ueber Caffee-Räucherung. Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der + Medicin Chirurgie und Pharmacie, 1832, I: 217-220. + + TRAVER, L. Insanity from smoking coffee. Medical and Surgical + Reporter, 1864-5, XII: 406. + + ON CHILDREN + + JACKSON, S. On the influence upon health of the introduction of tea + and coffee in large proportion into the dietary of children and the + labouring classes. American Medical Association. Transactions, + 1848, II: 635-644. _Also_, American Journal of Medical Science, + 1849, n.s. XVIII: 79-86. + + TAYLOR, C.K. Effects of coffee drinking on children. Psychological + Clinic, 1912-13, VI: 56-58. + + WILLIAMS, T.A. A case of psychasthenia in a child aged two years, + due to coffee drinking. Archives of Pediatrics, 1910, XXVII: + 778-782. _Also_, Pacific Medical Journal, 1911, LIV: 221-225. + + ON DIFFERENT ORGANS AND SYSTEMS + + BLADDER + + BECHER, CARL. Coffeïn als Herztonicum und Diureticum. Wiener + Medizinische Blätter, 1884. VII, columns, 639-644. + + BESSER. Die harnsäurevermehrende Wirkung des Kaffees und der + Methylxanthin beim Normalen und Gichtkranken. Therapie der + Gegenwart, 1909, n.s. XI: 321-327. + + BONDZYNSKI, ST., and GOTTLIEB, R. Über die Constitution des nach + Coffeïn und Theobromin im Harne auftretenden Methylxanthins. Archiv + für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1896, XXXVII: + 385-388. + + DUMONT, A. Expériences relative à l'influence du café sur + l'excrétion de l'urée urinaire. Revue médicale, 1888, VII: 257-260. + + FAUVEL. Action du chocolat et du café sur l'excrétion urique. + Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1908, LXIV: 854-856. + + ---- Influence du chocolat et du café sur l'acide urique. Comptes + rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1906, CXLII: 1428-1430; 1909, + CXLVIII: 1541-1544. + + FUBINI, S., and OTTOLENGHI. Influenza della caffeina e dell' infuso + caffè sulla quantità giornaliera di urea emessa dall' uomo colle + urine. Giornale della reale Accademia di Medicina di l'Orino, 1882, + ser. 3, XXX: 570-574. + + LOEWI, O. Ueber den Mechanismus der Coffeïndiurese. Archiv für + experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1905, LIII: 15-32. + + MENDEL, L.B. Caffein and uric acid. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1917, XXXIII: 142-145. + + ROST, E.C. Ueber die Ausscheidung des Coffeïn und Theobromin im + Harn. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1895, + XXXVI: 56-71. + + ROUX, E. Des variations dans la quantité d'urée excrétée avec une + alimentation normale et sous l'influence du thé et du café. Comptes + rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1873, LXXVII: 365-367. + + S., M. De l'emploi du café comme diurétique. Bulletin général de + Thérapeutique, 1839, XVI: 144-148. + + SCHITTENHELM, ALFRED. Zur Frage der harnsäurevermehrenden Wirkung + von Kaffee und Tee und ihrer Bedeutung in der Gichttherapie. + Therapeutische Monatshefte, 1910, XXIV: 113-116. + + SCHROEDER, W. VON. Ueber die diuretische Wirkung des Coffeïns und + der zu derselben Gruppe gehörenden Substanzen. Archiv für + experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1887, XXIV: 85-108. + + ---- Ueber die Wirkung des Coffeïns als Diureticum. Archiv für + experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1887, XXII: 39-61. + + WARDELL, EMMA L. Caffein and uric acid. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 142-145. + + CIRCULATION, HEART, ETC. + + ARCHANGELSKY, C.T. Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und von + Thee auf Athmung und Herz. Archives internationales de + Pharmacodynamie, 1900, VII: 405-424. + + AUBERT, H., and DEHN, A. Ueber die Wirkungen des Kaffees, des + Fleischextractes und der Kalisalze auf Hersthätigkeit und + Blutdruck. Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie, 1874, IX: 115-155. + + BECHER, CARL. Coffeïn als Herztonicum und Diureticum. Wiener + Medizinische Blätter, 1884, VII, columns, 639-644. + + BECO, LUCIEN, and PLUMIER, LÉON. Action cardiovasculaire de + quelques dérivés xanthiques. Journal de Physiologie et Pathologie + générale, 1906, VIII: 10-21. + + BINZ, C. Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und Thee auf Athmung + und Herz. Centralblatt für innere Medicin, 1900, XXI: 1169-1176. + + BOCK, JOHANNES. Ueber die Wirkung des Coffeïns und des Theobromins + auf das Herz. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und + Pharmakologie, 1900, XLIII: 367-399. + + COUTY, GUIMARAES, and NIOBEY. De l'action du café sur la + composition du sang et les échanges nutritifs. Comptes rendus de + l'Académie des Sciences, 1884, XCIX: 85-87. + + CUSHNY, A.R., and VAN NATEN, B.K. On the action of caffeine on the + mammalian heart. Archives internationales de Pharmacodynamie, 1901, + IX: 169-180. + + DUMAS, ADOLPHE. Bons effets de la caféine dans un cas de paralysie + du coeur. _Paris_, 1886. + + FREDERICQ, HENRI. L'excitabilité du vague cardiaque et ses + modifications sous l'influence de la caféine. Archives + internationales de Physiologie, 1913, XIII: 107-125. + + FRENKEL, SOPHIE. Klinische Untersuchungen über die Wirkung von + Coffeïn, Morphium, Atropin, Secale cormetum und Digitalis auf den + arteriellen Blutdruck. Deutsches Archiv für klinische Medizin, + 1890, XLVI: 542-582. + + FÜRST. Die Gefahren des Kaffees bei Herz- und Arterien-leiden. + Deutsche medicinische Presse, 1905, IX: 91. + + HEDBOM, KARL. Ueber die Einwirkung verschiedener Stoffe auf das + isolirte Säugethierherz. Skandinavisches Archiv für Physiologie, + 1899, IX: 1-72. + + HUCHARD, HENRI. De la caféine dans les affections du coeur. + Bulletin général de Thérapeutique, 1882, CIII: 145-154. + + LANDERGREN, E., and TIGERSTEDT, R. Studien über die Blutvertheilung + im Körper. Skandinavisches Archiv für Physiologie, 1892-3, IV: + 241-280. + + LOEB, OSWALD. Ueber die Beeinflüssung des Koronarkreislaufs durch + einige Gifte. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und + Pharmakologie, 1904, LI: 64-83. + + MIRANO, G.C. L'azione della caffeina sulla pressione del pulso. La + Riforma medica, 1906, XXI: No. 38. Reviewed in, Biochemisches + Centralblatt, 1906-7, V: 205. + + PACHON, V., and PERROT, E. Sur l'action cardiovasculaire du café + vert, comparée à celle des doses correspondantes de caféine. + Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1910, CL: 1703-1705. + + PHILLIPS, C.D.F., and BRADFORD, J.R. On the action of certain drugs + on the circulation and secretion of the kidney. Journal of + Physiology, 1887, VIII: 117-132. + + PILCHER, J.D. The action of caffeine on the mammalian heart. + Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 1912, III: + 609-624. + + RABE. The action of coronary vessels to drugs. Zeitschrift für + experimentelle Pathologie, 1912, XI: 175. + + REICHERT, E.T. Action de la caféine sur la circulation. Bulletin + général de Thérapeutique, CXIX: 86. _Also_ in English, Therapeutic + Gazette, 1890, n.s. VI: 294. + + SANTESSON, C.G. Einige Versuche über die Wirkung des Coffeïns auf + das Herz des Kaninchens. Skandinavisches Archiv für Physiologie, + 1901-2, XII: 259-296. + + SOLLMANN, T., and PILCHER, J.D. The actions of caffeine on the + mammalian circulation. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental + Therapeutics, 1911, III: 19-92. + + TRZECIESKI, A. Ueber die Wirkung der Antipyretica auf das Herz. II. + Ueber die Wirkung des Kaffeïns und Theobromins auf das Herz. + Jahresbericht der Thierchemie, 1909, XXXIX: 1268. + + VAN LEEUWEN, W.S. Quantitative pharmakologische Untersuchungen über + die Reflexfunktionen des Ruckenmarkes an Warmblütern. Archiv für + die gesammte physiologie, 1913, CLIV: 307-342. + + VINCI, G. Azione della caffeina sulla pressione sanguigna. Archivo + di Farmacologia e Terapeutica, 1895, 8. Reviewed, Revue des + Sciences médicales, 1896, XLVII: 80. + + DIGESTIVE ORGANS + + BIKFALVI, KARL. Ueber die Einwirkung von Alcohol, Bier, Wein, + Wasser von Borssik, schwarzem Kaffee, Tabak, Kochsalz und Alaun auf + die Verdauung. Jahresbericht der Thierchemie, 1885, XV: 273. + + BURIAN, RICHARD, and SCHUR, HEINRICH. Ueber die Stellung der + Purinkörper im menschlichen Stoffwechsel. Archiv für die gesammte + Physiologie, 1900, LXXX: 241-343. + + CRÄMER. Ueber den Einfluss des Nikotins, des Kaffees und des Thees + auf die Verdauung. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1907, LIV, + pt. 1, 929-931, 988-991. + + EDER, MAX. Studien über den Wert und die Wirkung des Kaffees auf + die Tätigkeit der Wiederkäuermägen. Inaugural Dissertation, + _Giessen_, 1912. 88 pp. Summarized, Zentralblatt für Biochemie und + Biophysik, 1912, XIII: 504. + + FARR, C.B., and WELKER, W.H. The effect of caffeine on nitrogenous + excretion and partition. American Journal of the Medical Sciences, + 1912, CXLIII: 411-415. + + FILEHNE, WILHELM. Ueber einige Wirkungen des Xanthins, des Caffeïns + und mehrerer mit ihnen verwandter Körper. Archiv für Anatomie und + Physiologie, 1886, 72-91. + + GOTTLIEB, R., and MAGNUS, R. Ueber die Besiehungen der + Nierencirculation zur Diurese. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie + und Pharmakologie, 1901, XLV: 223-247. + + GUIMARAES, E.A.R. De l'action du café sur la consommation + d'aliments azotés et hydrocarbonés. Comptes rendus de la Société de + Biologie, 1883, ser. 7, V: 590-592. + + GUIMARAES, E.A.R., and NIOBEY. De l'action du café sur la nutrition + et sur la composition du sang. Comptes rendus de la Société de + Biologie, 1883, ser. 7, IV: 546-550. _Also_, Comptes rendus de + l'Académie de Sciences, 1884, XCIV: 85-87. + + HALE, WORTH. Influence of certain drugs upon the toxicity of + acetanilide and antipyrine. Public Health and Marine-Hospital + Service of the U.S. Hygienic Laboratory. Bulletin, No. 53, p. 43, + Experiments with caffeine citrate. + + HEERLEIN, W. Das Coffeïn und das Kaffeedestillat in ihrer Beziehung + zum Stoffwechsel. Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie, 1892, LII: + 165-185. + + KOTAKE, Y. Ueber den Abbau des Coffeïns durch den Auszug aus der + Rinderleber. Zeitschrift für physologische Chemie, 1908, LVII: + 378-381. + + LIWSCHITZ, O. Ueber den Einfluss des Kaffees auf den + Eiweis-stoffwechsel beim Menschen. _Basel_, 1914. + + MARCHAND, EUGENE. Le café du lait est une soupe au cuir. Revue de + Thérapeutique médico-chirurgicale, 1873, 261. + + NAGEL. Die Wirkung des Café's auf eingeklemmte Darmparthien. + Allgemelner Wiener medizinische Zeitung, 1872, XVII: 391. + + NAGASAKI, S., and MATSWUOKA, Z. Ueber den Abbau des Kaffeïns und + Theobromins durch den Rinderpankreas und Stierhodenauszug. Kyoto + Igaku-zashi, 1912, IX; H. 3. Summarized, Zentralblatt für Biochemie + und Biochemie und Biophysik, 1912-13, XIV: 743. + + OGÁTA, MASANORI. Ueber den Einfluss der Genussmittel und + Magenverdauung. Archiv für Hygiene, 1885, III: 204-214. + + PAWLOWSKY, I. Ueber den Einfluss von Tee, Kaffee und einigen + alkoholischen Getränken auf die quantitative Pepsinwirkung. + Jahresbericht der Thierchemie, 1903, XXXIII: 543. + + PINCUSSOHN, LUDWIG. Die Wirkung des Kaffees und des Kakaos auf die + Magansaftsekretion. Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1906, + LIII, pt. I, 1248-1249. + + ---- Ueber das sekretionsfordernde Prinzip des Kaffees. Zeitschrift + für physikalische und diätetische Therapie, 1907, XI: 261-263. + + RABUTEAU. Recherches sur l'action des caféiques sur la nutrition. + Gazette médicale de Paris, 1870, XXV: 593. _Also_, Comptes rendus + de la Société de Biologie, 1872, ser. 5, II: 77-81. + + RIBAUT, H. Influence de la caféine sur l'excrétion azotée. Comptes + rendus de la Société de Biologie, 1901, LIII, (ser. 2, III): + 393-395. + + SASAKI, TAKAOKI. Experimentelle Untersuchungen über den Einfluss + des Tees auf die Magensaftsekretion. Berliner klinische + Wochenschrift, 1905, XLII: 1526-1528. + + SCHMIEDEBERG, OSWALD. Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die + pharmakologischen Wirkungen einiger Purinderivate. Berichte der + deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1901, XXXIV, No. 395, 2550-2559. + + SCHULTZ-SCHULTZENSTEIN, C. Versuche über den Einfluss van + Caffee- und Thee-Abkochungen auf künstliche Verdauung. Zeitschrift + für physiologische Chemie, 1893-4, XVIII: 131. + + STORY, W. Coffee as an absorbent. Lancet, 1873, II: 617. + + TOGAMI, K. Ueber den Einfluss einiger Genussmittel auf die + Wirksamkeit der Verdauungsenzyme. Biochemisches Zeitschrift, 1908, + IX: 458-462. + + TYRODE, M.V. Caffeine on the gastro-intestinal tract. Boston + Medical and Surgical Journal, 1911, CLXIV: 686. + + EYES AND EARS + + BULSON, A.E. Coffee amblyopia. American Journal of Ophthalmology, + 1905, XXII: 55-64. + + CROTHERS, T.D. Effects of coffee upon the eyes and ears. In his, + Disease of inebriety from alcohol, opium and other narcotic drugs, + _New York_, 1893. p. 309. + + FRENCH, H.C. Coffee drinking and blindness. North American Review, + 1888, CXLVII: 584-585. + + HOLADAY, J.M. Coffee-drinking and blindness. North American Review, + CXLVII: 302. + + WING, P.B. Report of a case of toxic amblyopia from coffee. Annals + of Ophthalmology, 1903, XII: 232-234. + + LACTATION + + FRANKL, J. Ueber die Anwendung von Kaffee bei den Krankheiten der + Säuglinge. Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1872, XXII: 384. + + OBIDENNIKOFF, E. O vlijanii kofe na kolichestvo i kolichestven + sostave moloka. (Influence of coffee on lactation). _St. + Petersburg_, 1871. + + MUSCULAR SYSTEM + + BENEDICENTI, A. Ergographische Untersuchungen über Kaffee, Thee, + Maté, Guarana und Coca. Moleschott's Untersuchungen zur Naturlehre, + 1899, XVI: 170-186. + + BUCHHEIM and EISENMENGER. Ueber den Einfluss einiger Gifte auf die + Zuckungscurve des Froschmuskels. III. Caffeïn. Beiträge zur + Anatomie und Physiologie, 1870, V: 113-118. + + DESTRÉE, E. Effets immédiats et tardifs de la caféine sur le + travail. Journal médical de Bruxelles, 1897, II: 231, 577. + + DRESER, H. Ueber die Messung der durch pharmakologische Agentien + Bedingten Veränderungen der Arbeitsgrösse und der + Elasticitatszustände des Skeletsmuskels. Archiv für experimentelle + Pathologie und Physiologie, 1904, XVI: 139-221. + + KOBERT, E.R. Ueber den Einfluss verschiedener pharmakologischer + Agentien auf die Muskelsubstanz. Archiv für experimentelle + Pathologie und Pharmakologie, 1882, XV: 22-79. + + LUSINI, V. Biologische und toxische Wirkung der methylirten + Xanthine insbesondere ihr Einfluss auf die Muskelermüdung. L'Orosi, + XXI: 257-263. + + MOSSO, UGOLINO. Action des principes actifs de la noix de kola sur + la contraction musculaire. Archives italiennes de Biologie, 1893, + XIX: 241-256. + + OSERETZKOWSKY, A., and KRAEPELIN, E. Ueber die Beeinflüssung der + Muskelleistung durch verschiedene Arbeitsbedingungen. V. Der + Einfluss von Alkohol un Coffeïn. Psychologische Arbeiten, 1901, + III: 617-643. + + PASCHKES, H., and PAL, J. Ueber die Muskelwirkung des Coffeïns, + Theobromins und Xanthins. Wiener medizinische Jahrbücher, 1886, + 611-617. + + RANSOM, F. The action of caffeine on muscle. Journal of Physiology, + 1911, XLII: 144-155. + + RIVERS, W.H.R., and WEBBER, H.N. The action of caffein on the + capacity for muscular work. Journal of Physiology, 1907-8, XXXVI: + 33-47. + + ROSSI, CESARE. Ricerche sperimentali sulla fatica dei muscoli + umani. Caffeina. Rivista sperimentale di Freniatria, 1894, XX: + 458-462. + + SACKUR. Ueber die todliche Nachwirkung der durch Kaffein erzengten + Muskelstarre. Virchow's Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und + Physiologie, 1895, CXLI: 479-484. + + SCHUMBERG. Ueber die Bedeutung von Kola, Kaffee, Thee, Maté und + Alkohol für die Leistung der Muskeln. Archiv für Anatomie und + Physiologie, 1899, 289-313. + + SOBIERANSKI, W. Ueber den Einfluss der pharmakologischen Mittel auf + die Muskelkraft der Menschen. Gazeta lekarska, 1896. Summarized, + Centralblatt für Physiologie, 1896, X: 126. + + WOOD, H.C. The effects of caffeine on the circulatory and muscular + systems. Therapeutic Gazette, 1912, XXXVI, (ser. 3, XXVIII): 6-13. + + NERVOUS SYSTEM, BRAIN, ETC. + + ACH, NARZISS. Ueber die Beeinflüssung der Auffossungsfähigkeit. + Psychologische Arbeiten, 1901, III: 203-289. + + DEHIO, HEINRICH. Untersuchungen über den Einfluss des Coffeïns und + Thees auf die Dauer einfacher psychischer Vorgänge. Inaugural + dissertation, _Dorpat_,1887. 55 pp. + + DIETH, M.J., and VINTSCHGAU, M. VON. Das Verhakten der + physiologischen Reactionzeit unter dem Einfluss von Morphium, + Caffee und Wein. Archiv für gesammte Physiologie, 1878, XVI: + 316-406. + + DIXON, W.E. The paralysis of nerve cells and nerve endings with + special reference to the alkaloid apocodeine. Journal of + Physiology, 1904, XXX: 97-131. + + HOCH, AUGUST, and KRAEPELIN, E. Ueber die Wirkung der + Theebestandtheile auf körperliche und geistige Arbeit. + Psychologische Arbeiten, 1896, I: 378-488. + + HOLLINGWORTH, H.L. Influence of caffein on mental and motor + efficiency. Archives of Psychology, 1912, XXII: 166. _Also_, + Therapeutic Gazette, 1912, XXXVI: 1. + + HOPPE, I. Des effets de la cofféine sur le système nerveux des + animaux. L'Écho médical, 1858, II: 449-460. + + KIONKA, H. (Caffein and coffee as nerve poisons.) Grundriss der + Toxicologie, 1901: 331-336. + + LE GRAND, DE SAULLE. De l'insalubrité de l'atmosphère des cafés et + de son influence sur le développement des maladies cérébrales. + Gazette des Hôpitaux, 1861; _also_ Academie des Sciences, 1861. + + LESZYNSKY, W.M. Coffee as a beverage and its frequent deleterious + effects upon the nervous system; acute and chronic coffee + poisoning. Medical Record, 1901, LIX: 41-44. + + MCMAKIN, A.L. Influence of coffee on brain workers. Good + Housekeeping, 1912, LIV: 381-382. + + PALDANUS. Ein Paar Worte über Kaffee als Fiebermittel und + Medikament überhaupt. Neues Archiv für medizinische Erfahrung, + 1809, XI: 318-322. + + PETIT, H. De l'emploi préventif et curatif du café, notamment dans + les congestions cérébrales. Gazette des Hôpitaux, 1862, XXXV: 446. + + DE SARLO, F., and BERNARDINI, C. Ricerche sulla circolazione + cérébrale. I. Ischemizzanti. Caffeici. Rivista sperimentale di + Freniatria, 1892, XVIII: 8-14. + + SWIRSKI, G. Ueber dieBeeinflüssung des Vaguscentrums durch das + Coffeïn. Archiv für gesammte Physiologie, 1904, CIV: 260-292. + + WILLIAMS, T.A. Coffee and the nervous system. Medical Summary, + 1912. + + RESPIRATION + + ARCHANGELSKY, C.T. Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und von + Thee auf Athmung und Herz. Archives internationales de + Pharmacodynamie, 1900, VII: 405-424. + + BINZ, C. Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee und Thee auf Athmung + und Herz. Centralblatt für innere Medicin, 1900, XXI: 1169-1176. + + CUSHNY, A.R. The action of drugs on the respiration. Proceedings of + the Royal Society of Medicine, 1912-3, VI, pt. 3: 130. + + EDSALL, D.L., and MEANS, J.H. The effect of strychnine, caffeine, + atropin and camphor on the respiratory metabolism in normal human + subjects. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1914, XIV: 897-910. + + LEHMANN, K.B., and ROHRER, G. Besitzen die flüchtigen Bestandteile + von Thee und Kaffee eine Wirkung auf die Respiration des Menschen? + Archiv für Hygiene, 1902, XLIV: 203. + + SÉE, G., and LAPICQUE. Action de la caféine sur les fonctions + motrices et respiratoires, à l'état normal et à l'état d'inanition. + La Médicine moderne, 1890, I: 228-234. + + + SUBSTITUTES + + GENERAL + + BIBRA, BARON VON. Der kaffee und seine surrogate. _Munich_, 1858. + + CHRIST, J.L. Der neueste und beste deutsche Stellvertretter des + indischen Caffè oder der Coffee von Erdmandeln; zu Ersparung vieler + Millionen Geldes für Deutschland und längeren Gesundheit Tausender + von Menschen. 2 ed. _Frankfurtam Mayn_, 1801. + + FRANKE, ERWIN. Kaffee, Kaffeekonserven und Kaffeesurrogate. _Wien_, + 1907. 221 pp. + + FREEMAN, W.G. and CHANDLER, S.E. Coffee and coffee substitutes. In + their, the world's commercial products. _London_, 1907. pp. + 174-198. + + GERSTER, C. Kaffee und Kaffee-Surrogate. In ihrer, Bedeutung für + den praktischen Arzt. _Berlin_, 1894. + + GUNDRIZER, R.F. O surrogatie kofe, prigotovly-ayemom iz + siemyan sinyavo lyupina (Lupinus angustifolius L.) (On a + substitute for coffee, from the seeds of....) _St. Petersburg_, + 1892. + + LEHMANN, K. Die Fabrikation des Surrogat kaffees und des + Tafelsenses. _Wien_, 1877. 128 pp. + + LOCHNER, N.F. De novis et exoticis Thée et Café succeédanéis. + _Norimbergae_, 1717. + + MENIER, E.J. Café: succédanés du café, cacao et chocolat, coca et + thé maté. _Paris_, 1867. 24 pp. (Jury report, Exposition + Universelle de 1867, à Paris.) + + TRILLICH, HEINRICH. Die kaffee surrogate. _München_, 1889. + + WEICHARDT, T.T. Succedaneorum coffeæ inveniendorum regulas + proponit. _Lipsiae_, 1774. + + _Periodicals_ + + ACORN coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1876, p. 772. + + BASCH, ALBERT. Rapport sur le café de figue. Société de Géographie + d'Alger et de l'Afrique du Nord. Bulletin, 1901, VI: 604-607. + + BOULLIER, G. De la préparation de la soupe destinée à remplacer le + café au réveil. Archives de médecine et de Pharmacie militaires, + 1903, XLI: 465-473. + + BRILL, HARVEY C. Ipel, a coffee substitute. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 628-630. + + DERIDDER, H. Sur un succédané du café. Archives médicales belges, + 1896, 4 ser. VIII: 237-241. + + DUCHACEK, F. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der chemischen Zusammensetzung + des Kaffees und der Kaffee-Ersatztoffe. Zeitschrift für + Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1904, VIII: 139-146. + + FABER, E.E. Om kaffee, kaffesurrogater og koffeïnfri kaffe. + Ugeskrift for Laeger, 1909, LXXI: 841-847. + + GRÄF, H. Ein neues Kaffee-Ersatzmittel. Deutsche medicinische + Presse, 1907, XI: 65-67. + + GUILLOT, C. Étude comparative sommaire des principaux produits de + substitution du café. Gazette médicale de Paris, 1912, LXXXIII: + 125. + + HANAUSEK, T.F. Einige Bermerkungen zu den Kapiteln Kaffee und + Kaffee-Ersatzstoffe in den Vereinbarungen. Apotheker-Zeitung, 1902, + XVII: 657. + + HANBURY, DANIEL. On the use of coffee leaves in Sumatra. + Pharmaceutical Journal, 1853, XIII: 207-209. + + KORNAUTH, C. Beiträge zur chemischen und mikroskopischen + Untersuchung des Kaffee und der Kaffeesurrogate. Mittheilungen aus + dem pharmaceutischen Institute und Laboratorium für angewandte + Chemie der Universität Erlangen, 1890, III: 1-56. + + KOTSIN, M.B. Kofe i yevo surrogatî (Coffee and its substitutes.) + Vestnik obshestvennoi higieny, sudebnoi i prakticheskoi meditsiny, + etc., 1894, XXIII: pt. 2. 36, 156, 226. + + NICOLAI, H.F. Der Kaffee und seine Ersatzmittel. Deutsche + Vierteljahrsschrift für öffentliche Gesundheitspflege, 1901, + XXXIII: 294-346, 502-538. + + NOTTBOHM, F.E. Verwendung von Steinnuss zur Herstellung von + Kaffeersatzmitteln. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und + Genussmittel, 1913, XXV: pt. 3. + + OELLER and GERLACH, VON. Ueber die Einwirkung von Gerstenkaffee und + Malzkaffee auf das Sehorgen. Therapeutische Monatshefte, 1912, + XXVI: 429-431. + + RAMPOLD. Ueber Kaffeesurrogate. Journal der practischen Heilkunde, + 1838, LXXXVII: pt. 4, 94-109. + + RUEDY, J. Thee und Kaffee, deren Surrogate und Fälschungen. Blätter + für Gesundheitspflege, 1876, V: 183, 195, 203; 1877, VI: 19, 32, + 42, 53. + + SALE of dandelion coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1860, II: + 346-348, 357-358, 396. + + STENHOUSE, J. On the dried coffee leaf of Sumatra, which is + employed in that and some of the adjacent islands as a substitute + for tea or for the coffee bean. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1854, XIII: + 382-384. + + TRILLICH, H. and GOCKEL, H. Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Kaffees und + der Kaffeesurrogate. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und + Genussmittel, 1898, V: 101-106. _Also_, Forschungs-Berichte über + Lebensmittel, 1897, IV: 78; 1898, V: 101. + + WEISSMAN. Ueber Kornkaffee. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, + 1903, XXIX: 20. + + WOODS, C.D. and MERRILL, L.H. Coffee substitutes. Maine + Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin, LXV: 101-116. + + MALT COFFEE + + DOEPMANN, F. Ueber Malzkaffee. Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der + Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1914, XXVII: 453-466. + + JONGHAHN, A. Beiträge sur Chemie und Technologie des Malzkaffees. + Verhandlung der Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte, + 1906, II, pt. 2, 382-386. + + THELLICH, H. Welche Mindestforderungen sind an Malz für Malzkaffee + zu stellen? Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und + Genussmittel, 1905, X: 118-121. + + + TAXATION, JURISPRUDENCE, ETC. + + BORDEAUX. CHAMBRE DE COMMERCE. Rapport fait à la Chambre par la + Commission spéciale chargée d'étudier la question de la réduction + des droits sur les sucres et les cafés. _Bordeaux_, 1858. 27 pp. + + ---- Second rapport fait à la Chambre par la Commission spéciale + chargée d'étudier la question de la réduction des droits sur les + sucres et les cafés. _Bordeaux_, 1859. 16 pp. + + CORRIE, EDGAR. Letters on the subject of the duties on coffee. + _London_, 1808. 61 pp. + + GREAT BRITAIN. STATUTES. Anno regni Georgii III. Regis Quadragesimo + nono. Cap. lxi. An act for making sugar and coffee of Martinique + and Mariegalante liable to duty on importation as sugar and coffee + not of the British plantations. _London_, 1809: pp. 437-438. + + ---- Anno regni Georgii II Regis vicesimo quinto. An act for + encouraging the growth of coffee in His Majesty's plantations in + America. _London_, 1752: pp. 723-734. + + ---- Anno regni Georgii II Regis quinto. An act for encouraging the + growth of coffee in His Majesty's plantations in America. _London_, + 1732: pp. 411-415. + + LARRINAGA, TULIO. Brief of Honorable Tulio Larrinaga, resident + commissioner from Porto Rico to the United States of America before + the Committee on ways and means. _Washington_, 1908. 9 pp. + + MADRAS. STATUTES. The Madras coffee-stealing prevention act, 1878. + _Madras_, 1908. 9 pp. + + NELSON, KNUTE. Export duty on coffee and tea. List of countries + levying an export duty on coffee and tea, with statistics from the + annual report on commerce and navigation for 1908. _Washington_, + 1909. 6 pp. U.S. 61st Congress, 1st session. Senate Document, 120. + + ORDONNANTIE, waar naar in de stad Utrecht en Amersfoort, en in de + vryheden van dien, by taxatie zal worden geheven de impost op de + koffy, cicers en thee. _Utrecht_, 1767. 6 pp. + + PRODUCE CLEARING HOUSE. Regulations for coffee future delivery. + _London_, 1888. 12 pp. + + VAN OOSTERWIJK BRUYN, PIETER ADOLF. Beschouwingen over eene + belasting op koffij. _Utrecht_, 1863. 78 pp. + + + TRADE AND STATISTICS + + EXCHANGE TABLES + + MÜLLER, VICTOR R. Comparative tables showing the parity of prices + of Havre good average and New York coffee exchange standard no. 7. + _New York_, 1887. 15 pp. + + SELIGSBERG, LOUIS. Parity tables for quotations of coffee and sugar + on the various exchanges of Europe, converted into American + currency. _New York_, 1891. 23 pp. + + ZOBEL, PAUL. Paritäts-Tabellen zum Kaffee-Termin-Markt nebst + Schnellrechunungs Tabellen, 1907. _Triest._ + + GENERAL + + BELLI, B. Il caffè, il suo paese e la sua importanza. _Milano_, + 1910. 395 pp. + + BISIO, G. Il caffè. Le ioni date dal Prof. G. Bizio alla Reale + Scuola superiore di commercio, _Venezia_, 1870. + + BROUGIER, A. Der Kaffee, dessen Kultur und Handel, 1897. + + BURNS, JABEZ. The "Spice mill" companion: a collection of valuable + information, original and selected, suited to the requirements of + the present condition of the coffee and spice mill business. _New + York_, 1879. 102 pp. + + DOWLER, J.S.O. & Co. Coffee calculator. _Saint Louis_, 1907. 31 pp. + + FERGUSON, J. Production of tea and coffee in British dependencies. + _London_, 1896. 1 p. + + FÜRST, MAX. Die Börse, ihre Enstehung und Entwicklung, ihre + Einrichtung und ihre Geschäfte. Die Welthandelsgüter Getreide, + Kaffee, Zucker. _Leipzig_, 1913. + + INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Coffee. Extensive + information and statistics. _Washington_, 1901. 108 pp. _Also_, in + Spanish. + + ---- Coffee. Reprint of an article from the Monthly Bulletin of the + International Bureau of American Republics, Nov. 1908. + _Washington_, 1909. 11 pp. + + INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF STATISTICS. + Stocks visibles de froment et farine de froment, de sucre, de café, + de coton et de soie; 1903-12. _Rome_, 1914. 79 pp. + + SCHMEDDING, J.H.F. and ZONEN. Coffee. Statistics running from + 1884-1905. _Amsterdam_, 1901. 18 pp. + + SCHÖFFER, C.H. The coffee trade. _New York_, 1869. 58 pp. + + UNITED STATES. BUREAU OF FOREIGN COMMERCE. Verslagen betreffende de + cultuur en de bereiding van koffie en het keplante en nog + beschikbare terrein voor dit product in Mexico, Centraal-& + Zuid-America en West-Indië. _Amsterdam_, 1889. 135 pp. In English, + except introduction. Reprinted from Reports from the consuls of the + United States, 1888, XXVIII, No. 98. + + UNITED STATES. STATISTICS BUREAU. The world's production and + consumption of coffee, tea and cacao in 1905. _Washington_, 1905. + 206 pp. Reprinted from Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance, + July, 1905. + + VAN DELDEN LAERNE, C.F. Brazil and Java. Report on coffee-culture + in America, Asia and Africa, to H.E. the Minister of the Colonies. + _London_, 1885. 637 pp. + + _Periodicals_ + + BACHE, L.S. How the exchange works. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1921, XLI: 678-682. + + BRAND, CARL W. Co-operative competition. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1914, XXVII: 534-540. + + CALVO, J.B., and DELFINO, A.E. Commission for the study of the + production, distribution and consumption of coffee. International + Bureau of American Republics Monthly Bulletin, 1902, XIII: + 1317-1321. + + COFFEE. Statist, 1915, LXXXIII: 377-378. + + COFFEE and coffee trade. Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, XXVII: 39; + XLI: 165. + + COFFEE trade. Leisure Hour, XXIX: 357. + + COTTON-COFFEE quotation record. Monthly. _N.Y._ + + CRAWFORD, J. History of coffee. Journal of the Statistical + Society, XV: 50. + + DUKE, J.S. Coffee trade. De Bow's Commercial Review, II: 303. + Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, 1850, XXIII: 59, 172, 451. + + EL CAFETAL, revista oficial mensuel dedicada exclusivamente a la + industria cafetera en todos su ramos. _New York_, 1903. + + FEDERAL REPORTER, for planters, grocers, confectioners, canners and + dealers in coffee, tea and spice. _New York._ Current monthly. + + GARDNER, J. Coffee trade. Western Journal and Civilian, VII: 301. + _Also_, Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, XIII: 273; J. Gardner Hunt's + Merchant's Magazine, XXV: 690; Living Age, XXVII: 254. + + ---- Production and consumption of coffee. Hunt's Merchant's + Magazine XXIV: 194. + + GILL, W.K. Meeting coffee competition. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1916, XXXI: 238-239. + + GRAHAM, HARRY CRUSEN. Coffee. Production, trade, and consumption by + countries. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Statistics. + Bulletin, 1912, LXXIX. 134 pp. + + GREAT BRITAIN. COMMERCIAL, LABOUR AND STATISTICAL DEPT. Tea and + coffee. Statement "showing the imports of tea and coffee into the + principal countries of Europe and into the United States: together + with statistical tables relating thereto for recent years as far as + the particulars can be stated." 1884-1900. House of Commons, paper + 351, 1900. 27 pp. House of Commons paper 363, 1902. 42 pp. + + HANGWITZ, JULIAN. The world's coffee trade in 1898. Consular + Reports, 1899, LX: 258-261. + + HARRIS, WILLIAM B. Coffee and the law. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912, XXIII; Supplement to No. 6: 41-44. + + HEILPRIN, M. History of coffee. Nation, VI: 275. + + HUEBNER, G.G. Coffee market. Annals of the American Academy, 1911, + XXXVIII: 610-620. + + INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Bulletin. + Washington, 1893--date. Contains from time to time articles on + coffee production in the various Latin-American countries. + + KAFFEE verbrauch in den haupt sächlichsten Ländern der Welt. + Deutsche Handels-Archiv, 1901, 206-207. + + LECOMTE, H. La culture du café dans le monde. La Géographie, 1901, + III: 471-488. _Also_, in Finnish, Geografiska Föreningens Tidskr., + 1901, XIII: 252-272. + + LEECH, C.J., & Co. Table of coffee statistics. Annual. _London._ + + LEHY, GEOFFREY B. Coffee distribution. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1913, XXV: 564-566. + + LEWIS, E. ST. ELMO. Promoting coffee sales. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 539-544. + + MAHIN, JOHN LEE. Advertising coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912, XXIII: 56-58. + + MATHEWS, FREDERICK C. Coffee advertising efficiency. The Tea and + Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII: 38-40. + + MCCREERY, R.W. The penny-change system. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1911, XXI: 462-464. + + MACFARLANE, JOHN J. Coffee and tea statistics. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 329-333. + + MERRITT, E.A. The world's coffee. U.S. Consul's report on commerce, + 1883, No. 31, 125-147. + + NEW YORK. COFFEE EXCHANGE. Report. Annual. _New York._ + + OUR coffee industry. Scientific American Supplement, 1902, LIII: + 21994. + + PRICE, import, and consumption of coffee. De Bow's Commercial + Review, XX: 253. + + SIMMONS' SPICE MILL; devoted to the interests of the coffee, tea + and spice trades. Monthly. _New York._ + + TEA and coffee consumption. Current Literature, 1901, XXX: 298. + + TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL, THE. For the tea, coffee, spice and + fine grocery trades. Monthly. New York. + + UKERS, WILLIAM H. Advertising Brazil coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1917, XXXII: 34-36. + + ---- The right coffee propaganda. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1912, XXIII. Supplement to No. 6: 21-28. + + UKERS, WILLIAM H., editor. Tea and coffee buyer's guide. Annual. + _New York._ + + UNITED STATES. STATE DEPARTMENT. Production and consumption of + coffee, etc. Message from the president of the United States, + transmitting a report from the secretary of state, with + accompanying papers, relative to the proceedings of the + International Congress for the Study of the Production and + Consumption of Coffee, etc. Dee. 10, 1902. U.S. 57th Congress, 2nd + session. Senate document 35. 312 pp. + + VASCO, G. Le café. Revue française de l'étranger et des colonies et + exploration, 1900, XXV: 598-603. + + WEIR, ROSS W. Coffee hints for grocers. The Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1913, XXV: 566-568. + + WESTERFELD, SOL. Retailers' coffee problems. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 559-560. + + WORLD'S coffee trade. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, + XXXVI: 129-130. + + REGIONAL + + BRAZIL + + ALVES DE LIMA, J.C. Solugões sobre o commercio de café. _São + Paulo_, 1902. 88 pp. + + BOLLE, KARL. São Paulo das bedeutendste Kaffeegebeit der Welt. + Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie, XXVIII: 66-77. + + BRAZIL. MINISTERIO DE FAZENDA. Direitos de ex-portação e sua + cobranca. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1895. 11 pp. + + BRAZIL. SERVIÇO DE ESTATISTICA COMMERCIAL. Statistics of imports + and exports. The movement of shipping, exchange and coffee in the + republic of the United States of Brazil. (Yearly.) _Rio de + Janeiro._ + + BRAZIL and coffee; souvenir of the Louisiana purchase exposition. + 1904. 28 pp. + + BRAZIL coffee in England. Bulletin of the Pan American Union, 1915, + XL: 514-515. + + BRAZILIAN coffee propaganda, The. Commercial and Financial + Chronicle, 1909, LXXXVIII: 1223-1224. + + BRAZILIAN REVIEW, The: a weekly record of trade and finance. _Rio + de Janeiro_, 1907-1914. + + COFFEE crop of Brazil, The. Economist, 1909, LXVIII: 1030-1031. + + COFFEE exports from Brazil, 1898-1900. Monthly Summary of Commerce + and Finance, 1900-1901: 2592-2593. + + D'ANTHOUARD DE WASSERVAS, A. Le café au Brésil. Journal des + Économistes, 1910, ser. 6, XXVII: 16-37. + + DA SILVA TELLES, A.E. O café e o estado de S. Paulo. _São Paulo_, + 1900. 60 pp. + + EMPIRE of Brazil at the World's industrial and cotton centennial + exposition of New Orleans, The. _New York_, 1885. 71 pp. + + GREAT BRITAIN. FOREIGN OFFICE. BRAZIL. Résumé of a report published + in the "Journal do Commercio" of Rio de Janeiro on the production + of coffee in Brazil, with statistics respecting its consumption in + the United States. _London_, 1899. 7 pp. Diplomatic and Consular + Reports, Miscellaneous series, No. 512. + + GROSSI, VINCENZO. La crisi del caffè e i progetti per la fissazione + del cambio al Brasile. Nuova Antologia, CCVIII; (ser. 5, CXXIV): + 484-494. + + KAFFEEFRAGE in Brasilien, Die. Grenzboten, LXVI: 335-339. + + LEROY-BEAUILIEU, PAUL. Les droits sur le café. Le Brésil, la France + et nos colonies. L'Économiste français, XXVIII; no. 1: 101-103. + + MOREIRA, NICOLAU JOAQUIM. Brazilian coffee. _New York_, 1876. 11 + pp. + + N. Lettres du Brésil. La question du café. L'Économiste français, + XXVIII, No. 1: 374-377. + + PATTERSON, W. MORRISON. Brazil's coffee trade of today. The Tea and + Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 323-324. + + PINTO, ADOLPHO AUGUSTO. The state of São Paulo. _Chicago_, 1893. 14 + pp. + + SÃO PAULO (_state_) BRAZIL. SECRETARIA DE COMMERCIO SE ORRAS + PUBLICAS. Estatistica especial da lavoura de café nos municipios de + Aracariguama, Atibaia, Bananal, Pilar, Sertãozinho e Redempcão. + _São Paulo_, 1900. 33 pp. Supplemento do Boletin da Agricultura, + 1900, ser. I: VI. + + ---- Estatistica especial da lavoura de café nos municipios de + Apiahy, Batates. Caconde, Campos Novos do Paranapanema, Dourado, + Fartura, Faxina, Itarare, Jaboticabal, Mocóca, Monte-Mór, + Natividade, Nazareth, Pirassununga, Porto-Feliz. Remedios da Ponte + do Tieté, São Pedro do Turvo. Sarapuhy, Serra Negra e Yporanga. + _São Paulo_, 1901. 177 pp. Supplemento do Boletin da Agricultura, + 1901, ser. 2: IV. + + SEEGER, EUGENE. Coffee crop of Brazil. U.S. Consular Reports, 1898, + LVII, No. 218: 334-336. + + TRANSPORTING Brazil coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, + XXXII: 214-224. + + WARD, ROBERT DE C. A visit to the Brazilian coffee country. + National Geographic Magazine, 1911, XXII: 908-931. + + WILLIAMS, J.H. The Brazil coffee situation. The Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 221-222. + + WINDELS, J.H. A coffee buyer's life in Brazil. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1916, XXX: 538-545. + + COLOMBIA + + DICKSON, SPENCER S. Colombia. Report on the coffee trade of + Colombia. _London_, 1903. 8 pp. Great Britain. Foreign Office. + Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Miscellaneous series, No. 598. + + COSTA RICA + + COSTA RICA. CONTABILIDAD NACIONAL. Exportacion de la cosecha de + café. + + COSTA RICA. DEPARTMENTO NACIONAL DE ESTADISTICA. Diagrams de los + promedios obtenidos en la venta del café de Costa Rica en Londres + en los años de 1890 a 1899. _San José_, 1900. + + ---- Exportaciones de café de la República de Costa Rica. _San + José_, 1900. 14 pp. Alcance á La Gaceta, 1900, No. 99. + + ----Fluctuaciones de los precios del café en Hamburgo, 1880-1899. + _San José_, 1900. + + COSTA RICA. SECRETARIA DE RELACIONES EXTERIORES. Estudio é informe + sobre el café de Costa Rica. 1900. 48 pp. + + EAST INDIES + + DEKKER, EDUARD DOUWES. Max Havelaar; or The coffee auctions of the + Dutch Trading Company; by Multaluli, (pseud.); trans. from the + original ms. by Baron Alphonse Nahuijs. _Edinburgh_, 1868. + + VERWANGING van de gedwongen koffieteelt door eene vrije + volkskoffie-cultuur. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië new ser. + 2, V: 252-261. + + FINLAND + + GRANROTH, ELIAS G. Om café och de inhemska wäxter, som pläga brukas + i dess ställe. _Abo_, 1755. 18 pp. + + FRANCE + + ARREST DU CONSEIL D'ESTAT DU ROY, qui permet aux directeurs + interessez en l'armement du vaisseaux la Paix, de vendre les balles + de caffé dont il est chargé. _Paris_, 1720. 4 pp. + + ---- Qui accorde à la Compagnie des Indes le privilege exclusif de + la vente du caffé. _Paris_, 1723. 4 pp. + + ---- Pour la prise de possession par la Compagnie des Indes du + privilege de la vente exclusive du caffé, sous le nom de Pierre le + Sueur. _Paris_, 1723. 7 pp. + + ---- Qui ordonne que les commis et employez de la Compagnie des + Indes pour l'exploitation des privileges du tabac et du café, + procederont aux visites et executions au sujet des toiles et + etoffes des Indes et du Levant. _Paris_, 1723. 7 pp. + + ---- Que declare commune en faveur des habitants de Cayenne et de + St. Domingue, la declaration du 27. Septembre 1735. _Paris_, 1735. + 3 pp. + + ---- Portant reglement sur les caffez provenant des plantations et + cultures des Isles Françoises de l'Amérique. _Paris_, 1736. 4 pp. + + DAROLLES, E. Le café sur le marché française. _Paris_, 1885. + + DÉCLARATION DU ROY, Qui regle la manière dont la Compagnie des + Indes fera l'exploitation de la vente exclusive du caffé. Donneé à + Versailles le 10. Octobre 1723. _Paris_, 1723. 15 pp. + + ---- Concernant les cafez provenant des plantations et culture, de + la Martinique et autres Isles Françoises de l'Amérique. Donnée a + Fontainebleau le 27. Septembre 1732. _Paris_, 1732. 9 pp. + + GERMANY + + SCHÖNFELD, KARL. Der Kaffee-Engrosshandel Hamburgs. _Heidelberg_, + 1903. 135 pp. + + GREAT BRITAIN + + GREAT BRITAIN. BOARD OF TRADE. Tea and coffee, 1888, 1893, + 1899-1900, 1903, 1908, 1910. Statistical tables showing the + consumption of tea and coffee in the principal countries of Europe, + in the United States and in the principal British self-government + dominions, and also showing the principal sources of supply. + Parliament, House of Commons. Reports and papers, 1889, No. 12; + 1894, No. 329; 1900, No. 351; 1901, No. 363; 1903, No. 304 + (reprinted, London, 1905, 47 pp.); 1908, No. 378 (reprinted, + London, 1911, 58 pp.); 1911, No. 275 (reprinted, London, 1911, 19 + pp.). + + GREAT BRITAIN. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. Copy of diagrams showing the + consumption from 1856 to 1888 of tea, coffee, cocoa, and chicory, + of alcoholic beverages, and of tobacco, compared with the increase + of population. _London_, 1889. House of Commons, paper 121. + + LIFEBELT COFFEE COMPANY, LTD. The statutory meeting of the company. + _London_, 1909. 2 pp. + + OBERPARLEITER, K. Der Londener Kaffeemarkt. 1912. + + GUIANA, DUTCH + + ROEF-PRAATJE, tusschen verscheiden persoonen, over de + tegenswoordige staat van Surinamen en de laage prys der producten; + waarin klaar aangetoond word de verkeerde gewoontens, wegens het + verkoopen der coffy by inschryving, tot merkelyk nadeel der houders + en geïntresseerdens der Surinaamsche obligaties. _Amsterdam_, 1774. + 175 pp. + + HAWAII + + HAWAII (Republic) LABOR COMMISSION. Report on the coffee industry. + _Honolulu_, 1895. 33 pp. + + HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS. The Hawaiian + Islands, their resources, agricultural, commercial and financial. + Coffee, the coming staple product. _Honolulu_, 1896. 95 pp. Also, + _Washington_, 1897. 32 pp. + + INDIA + + CLIFFORD, FREDERICK. Indian coffee: its present production and + future prospects. Journal of the Society of Arts, 1887, XXXV: + 519-534. + + INDIA. COMMERCIAL INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT. Note on the production + of coffee in India. + + INDIA. STATISTICAL DEPARTMENT. Production of coffee in India. 19--. + + MEMMINGER, LUCIEN. The Indian coffee trade crisis. The Tea and + Coffee Trade Journal, 1917. XXXII: 506-510. + + SCHUURMAN, G.E. Eenige beschouwingen over verkoop van gouvernements + koffie in India. _Rotterdam_, 1877. 13 pp. + + JAVA + + KAMERWIJSHEID (Relating to forced native labor in the island of + Java) 1879. 31 pp. Reprint from Algemeen Dagblad van Nederlandsche + Indië, Sept. 16, 18, 22, 24, 25, 1879. + + DE KOFFIECULTUUR op Java. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsche Indië, new + ser. 2, No. 5: 660-667. + + KUNEMAN, J. De gouvernements koffie-cultuur op Java. _'s + Gravenhage_, 1890. 201 pp. + + ROSE, G.F.C. Eenge opmerkingen naar aanleiding van de conclusive + van de neerderheid der commissie nit de Tweede Kamer der + Staten-Generaal over de nitkomsten van het onderzoek betreffende de + koffij kultuur op Java. 1874. 39 pp. + + SUERMONDT, G., and LONDON, H.H. Correspondentie. De + West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij verdedigd tegen den schrijver + van de koloniale kronijk in de Economist. 1868. 15 pp. + + ---- West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij verdedigd tegen de + aanvallen van Volksblad en Arnhemsche Courant. _Amsterdam_, 1865. + 44 pp. + + ---- West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Toegelicht. Supplement + van den eersten druk met voorrede. _Amsterdam_, 1865. 19 pp. + + VAN DEN BERG, NORBERT PIETER. Koffieproductie en koffieuitvoer. + _Batavia_, 1884. 8 pp. + + VAN VLIET, L. VAN W. De koffij-enquête in verband met de ontworpen + West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. _Amsterdam_, 1871. 35 pp. + + LIBERIA + + ELLIS, GEORGE W. Coffee industry in Liberia. U.S. Monthly Consular + and Trade Reports, 1904, No. 291: 21-22. + + MORREN, F.W. Cultuur bereiding en handel van Liberia Koffie. + _Amsterdam_, 1894. 36 pp. + + MEXICO + + HINOJOSA, G. Cultivo del café. _México_, 1883. 8 pp. (Mexico. + Ministro de Fomento.) + + ROMERO, M. Coffee and india rubber culture in Mexico; preceded by + geographical and statistical notes on Mexico. _New York_, 1898. 416 + pp. + + TERRY, L.M. Coffee culture in Mexico. Overland Monthly, 1901, new + ser. XXXVII: 702-709. + + NETHERLANDS + + AMSTERDAM. VEREENIGING VOOR DEN KOFFIEHANDEL. Statistiek van koffie + in Nederland. _Amsterdam_, 1914. + + GROENEVELD, J. Tremijnzaken in koffie te Rotterdam. _Rotterdam_, + 1893. 15 pp. + + JACOBSON, J. "Ernstig bedreigd" "Opgeroepen," een woord naar + aanleiding van "Ernstig bedreigd" door den heer J. Jacobson en de + daarop gevolgde geschriften van de heeren G.H. Mees en A. Plate, + door en Nederlandes. _Amsterdam_, 1879. 12 pp. + + JETS over de koffij-veilingen der Nederlandsche + Handel-Maatschappij. _Rotterdam_, 1847. 24 pp. + + NETHERLANDS (KINGDOM) Laws, statutes, etc. Wij Willem, bij de + gratie Gods, konig der Nederlanden ... enz., enz., enz. Allen den + genen, die deze zullen zien ... salut! doen te weten: Alzoo wij, + tot stijving der inkomsten van den staat, noodzakelijk geoordeeld + hebben, dat de koffij binnen ons rijk gebruikt ... aan eene + belasting op de consumptie worde onderworpen. _'s Gravenhage_, + 18--. 8 pp. + + SUERMONDT, G., and LONDON, H.H. + West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Het advys der Kamer van + Koophandel te Batavia, de Ond Koopman, enz. wederlegd. _Amsterdam_, + 1866. 127 pp. + + WAANDERS, F.G. van B. De koffiemarkt. _The Hague_, 1882. 27 pp. + + PORTO RICO + + PORTO RICAN coffee. Outlook, Mar. 24, 1906, LXXXII: 632; May 5, + 1906, LXXXIII: 46-47. + + UNITED STATES. PRESIDENT, 1901-1909 (ROOSEVELT) Message from the + President of the United States relative to his visit to the island + of Porto Rico. _Washington_, 1906. 200 pp. 59th Congress, 2d + Session, Senate document 135. Message, dated Dec. 11, 1906, + accompanied by petitions in relation to the coffee trade, etc., and + losses by the hurricane of 1899; and the sixth annual report of the + governor, Beekman Winthrop, dated July 1, 1906. + + VAN LEENHOFF, JOHANNES W. The condition of the coffee industry in + Porto Rico. _Mayaguez_, 1904. 2 pp. Porto Rico Agricultural + Experiment Station. Circular No. 2. + + WEYL, W.E. Labor conditions in Porto Rico. U.S. Bureau of Labor. + Bulletin, 1905, XI: 749-753. + + SPAIN + + SPANIEN. Bestimmungen über die Einfuhr von Kaffee und Kakao aus + Fernando Po. Deutsche Handels-Archiv. 1901. 141. + + TONKIN + + ROTTACH, EDMOND. L'organisation économique de l'Indochine et le + café au Tonkin. Société de Géographic commerciale de Paris. + Bulletin, 1913, XXXV: 643-660. + + UNITED STATES + + AMERICAN tea and coffee trade from 1847 to 1916. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 28. + + COFFEE EXCHANGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. Annual Report. + + COFFEE trade of the United States. Chamber of Commerce, _New York_. + Annual Report 1908-1909, pt. 1: 23-29. + + COFFEE Trade of the United States for the past six years. Tea and + Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 326-329. + + COFFEE TRADE of the United States since 1821. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 336-338. + + CUNNINGHAM, E.S. Export of Mocha coffee to the United States. U.S. + Consular Reports, 1899, LXI: 625-628. + + OUR fastest growing coffee port, including handling green coffee at + San Francisco. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: + 524-528. + + RENAISSANCE of tea and coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, + 1919, XXXVI: 218-229. + + SLOSS, R. New York coffee party. Everybody's Magazine. 1913, + XXVIII: 772-783. + + TEA, coffee, wines, etc.; consumption of tea, coffee, wines, + distilled spirits, and malt liquors in the U.S. since 1870, per + capita of population. _Washington_, 1896-1899. U.S. Agriculture + Dept. Yearbook, 1895: 552; 1896: 595; 1897: 754; 1898: 723. + + UNITED STATES. BUREAU OF STATISTICS. Imports of coffee and tea. + 1790-1896. _Washington_, 1896. _Also_, Monthly Summary of Finance + and Commerce, 1896, new ser. IV: 670-690. + + WAKEMAN, ABRAM. History and reminiscences of lower Wall St. and + vicinity. _New York_, 1914. 216 pp. + + + VALORIZATION + + ALTSCHUD, F. Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahrbüch für Gesetzgebubg, + 1910, 2. + + ATTACKING Brazil's coffee trust. Literary Digest, 1912, XLIV: + 1242-1244. + + BRAZIL'S failure to control the price. American Geographic Society. + Bulletin, 1909, XLI: 220-222. + + CAMPISTA, DAVID. Valorisação do café e Caixa de conversão. _Rio de + Janeiro_, 1906: 53. + + CHANTLAND, WILLIAM T. Valorization of coffee. A detailed report of + the transactions and facts relating to the valorization of coffee. + _Washington_, 1913. 15 pp. U.S. 63rd Congress, 1st session. Senate + Document, 36. + + COFFEE combine at bay. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXII: + 497-513. + + COFFEE valorization and the Sherman law. Journal of Political + Economy, 1918, XXI: 162-163. + + COFFEE valorization scheme and the coming harvest, The. Economist, + 1909, LXVIII: 910-911. + + DE CARVALHO, J.C. O café do Brazil, estudos a favor da propaganda + para a augmento do consumo e valorisação do café do Brazil no + estrangeiro. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1901. 41 pp. + + ---- O café, sua historia, des valorisação e propaganda pada o + augmento do consumo na Europa o algodão, a industria da tecelagem + do algodão, sua origem, appareicimento e desenvolvimento na America + do Sul. Conferencias publicas realissadas na séde la Sociedade + nacional de agricultura. _Rio de Janeiro_, 1900. 53 pp. + + DENIS, PIERRE. La crise du café au Brésil et la valorisation. Revue + politique et parlementaire, 1908, LVI: 494-520. + + FERREIRA RANGEL, SYLVIO. Valorisação de café. _Rio de Janeiro_, + 1906. 18 pp. _Also_, A Lavoura, IX: 81-90. + + FERRIN, A.W. Brazilian plan of limiting shipments. Moody's + Magazine, 1912, XIII: 409-414. + + HOW the coffee trust has held its grip. Current Literature, 1912, + LIII: 52-54. + + HUEBNER, G.G. Making green coffee prices. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1912. XXI: 442-449. + + HUTCHINSON, LINCOLN. Coffee valorization in Brazil. Quarterly + Journal of Economics, 1909, XXIII: 528-535. + + KURTH, HERMANN. Die Lage des Kaffeemarktes und die + Kaffeevalorisation. Inaugural dissertation, _Jena_, 1907. 34 pp. + + LALIÈRE, A. La valorisation du café. Revue économique + internationale, Feb. 15-20, 1910, VII, pt. 1: 316-350. + + LÉVY, MAURICE. La valorisation du café au Brésil. Annales des + Sciences politiques, 1908, XXIII: 586-603. + + MACFARLANE, JOHN J. Coffee valorization analysed. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1910, XIX: 103-110. + + MCKENNA, W.E. Cause of advance in price. Public, 1912, XV: 508. + + OLAVARRIA, I.A. Liga de los paises cafeteros. _Caracas_, 1898. 20 + pp. + + PAYEN, ÉDOUARD. Au Brésil: la valorisation du café. Questions + diplomatique et coloniales, XXIV: 728-740. + + RAISING prices by destruction. Nation, 1909. LXXXVIII: 520-521. + + RAMOS, F. FERREIRA. La valorisation du café au Brésil. 1907. + + RATZKA-ERNST, CLARA. Welthandelsartikel und ihre Preise. Eine + Studie zur Preisbewegung und Preisbildung. Der Zucker, der Kaffee + und die Baumwolle. _München_, 1912. 244 pp. + + SCHMIDT, FRITZ. Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahrbücher für + Nationalökonomie und Statistik, 1909, ser. 3, XXXVIII: 662-670. + + SIELCKEN, HERMANN. Coffee valorization explained. Tea and Coffee + Trade Journal, 1911, XXI: 471-481. + + ---- A defense of valorization. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, + XXIII, Supplement to no. 6: 17-21. + + SLOSS, R. Why coffee costs twice as much. World's Work, 1912, + XXIV: 194-205. + + SUIT against the coffee trust. Nation, 1912, XCIV: 508-509. + + SYNDICAT général de défense du café et des produits coloniaux. + Bulletin, _Paris_, 1911, II: No. 6. + + THEISS, LEWIS EDWIN. Why the price of coffee increases. Showing how + a few rich men, who want to be richer, are pushing up the price of + coffee. Pearson's Magazine, 1911, XXVI: 456-463. + + TURMANN, MAX. Un état qui fait du commerce. Le Brésil et la + valorisation du café. La Revue hebdomadaire, 1909, VIII: 450-470. + + UKERS, WILLIAM H. The great coffee corner. Saturday Evening Post, + 1909, CLXXXI: 5-7. + + VALORIZING coffee. Review of Reviews, 1912, XLVI: 21-22. + + VALUE of coffee. Current Literature, 1903, XXXV: 746-747. + + WESSELS, L. De opheffing van het monopolie en de vervanging van de + gedwongen koffie-cultuur op Java door een staatscultuur in vrijen + arbeid. _'s Gravenhage_, 1890. 72 pp. + + WILEMAN, J.P. Unparalleled valorization. Tea and Coffee Trade + Journal, 1911, XX: 444-445. + + ZUR Frage der Kaffee-Valorisation. Deutsche Wirtschafts-Zeitung, + 1913, IX: 237-243. + +[Illustration] + + + + +INDEX + +NOTE. As this is a book about coffee, the entries in the Index +refer--unless otherwise specified--to that general subject, and more +particularly to _Coffea arabica_; other varieties are distinguished by +their scientific or trade names. Thus, "Adulteration" refers to the +adulteration of coffee; and "Adulterants," to the substances used for +that purpose. + +_Abbreviations Used_ + +_bev._ signifies beverage +_biog._ " biography +C. or c. " coffee +_C._ " _Coffea_ +_chk._ " coffee-house keeper +_d._ " died +_hyb._ " hybrid +_ill._ " illustration +_inv._ " invention +_newsp._ " newspaper +_pamph._ " pamphlet +_pat._ " patent, patentee +_per._ " periodical +_pseud._ " pseudonym +_q._ " quoted +_v._ " vessel, ship + +Italicized words are either scientific terms or titles of publications. +Titles of books are followed by the name of the author, if known; other +publications are distinguished as broadsides, newspapers, pamphlets, or +periodicals. + +Geographical names are distributed under various topics, such as +"Acreage," "Coffee houses," "Consumption," "Cultivation," "Exports," +"Imports," "Production," and the like. + +_A Mon Café_, Ducis, 548 + +Abbas, wife of, 21 + +Abbey, Charlotte, _q._, 177 + +Abbey, Roswell, _pat._, 245 + +Abbey, Freeman & Co., 482 + +Abd-al-Kâdir, 14, 431 + +Abd-al-Kâdir ms., 31, 431, 542, 543 + Description, 541 + +Abele, Chris, _pat._, 630, 638, 644, 645; + _d._ (1910), 641 + +_Abeokutæ, C._, 142 + Java, 216 + +_Abeokutæ_ × _liberica_, _hyb._, 146 + +Abigail, 13 + +Aborn, A.C., _q._, + Cost card for roasters, 392 + +Aborn, Edward, 439, 514, 651, 701, 713, 714, 716, _q._, 715 + +Aborn, W.H., 715 + +About, Edmund F.V., _q._, 685 + +Abraham, 18 + +Abyssinian c., 353, 376, 377 + +_Account of his Journeys, An_, Olearius, _q._, 22 + +Ach (chemist), 186 + +Ach, F.J., 488, 509, 511, 513, _q._, 408 + +Acidity, percentages in c., 719 + +Acid c.'s, 397 + +Acids, 159, 168 + +Acker, Finley, _pat._, 472, 645, 649, 701 + +Acker, Merrall & Condit Co., 478, 494, 498 + +Ackland, James, _chk._, 118 + +Acreage + Africa, British East, 230, 285 + Argentina, 236 + Australia, 238, 284 + Brazil (sq. miles), 277 + Ceylon, 236, 283 + Ecuador, 236, 278 + Federated Malay States, 238, 284 + Guadeloupe, 233 + Guatemala, 219 + Guiana, British, 279 + Haiti, 220, 281 + Hawaii, 241 + India, 226, 227, 282 + Jamaica, 232, 281 + Java, 215 + Leeward Islands, 282 + Mauritius, 285 + Nyasaland, 230, 285 + Philippines, 284 + Porto Rico, 223 + Salvador, 219, 280 + Uganda, 230, 285 + Venezuela, 212 + Yemen, 230 + +Adams, _chk._, 559 + +Adams, Abigail, _q._, 467, 468 + +Adams, Isaac, _pat._, 245 + +Adams, John, 110, 113, 593 + +Adams, Pygan, 609 + +Adams & Son, 710 + +Addison, Joseph, 75, 80, 84, 557, 558, 560, 572, 575, 576, 577, 578, 593 + +_Addison, Life of_, Johnson, _q._, 561 + +Adjudication (N.Y. Exch.), 334 + +Adulterant Act, British, 404 + +Adulterants, 153, 169, 170, 404 + +Adulteration, 404 + Italy, 686 + Reasons for, 170 + U.S. law affecting, 410 + rulings against, 337 + +Advertisements + Arbuckle's (1861), 496 + Boston (1748), 467 + Cauchois's Private Estate, 498 + Coffee-house + Boston, 112 + New York (1781), 119, 120 + Coffee mills (1665), 617 + Divination by coffee grounds, 558 + First (Abd-al-Kâdir's, 1587), 431 + First American-newspaper, 468 + First newspaper (1657), 56, 432 + Of coffee only, _ill._, 434 + First printed (1652), _q._, 54, 432, 459, 461 + London coffee-house, _q._, 582 + Newspaper and periodical, 432-434 + Piazza coffee room, _q._, 581 + Song by Zecchini, 549 + Turks Head coffee house, 582 + +Advertising, 431-465 + Booklets (J.C.T.P.C.), 455 + Brands, 455, 462-465 + Early history, 431-434 + Evolution of, 434, 435 + France, 680 + Government propaganda, 444-459 + Injudicious, 435, 537, 438, 461 + Joint coffee trade, 439, 445-459, 514, 515 + Lantern slides, 443 + Motion pictures, 443, 445 + Package-coffee, 440-443 + Retail, 443, 444 + Trade, 442 + Trade journalists as experts, 431 + United States, 434-465 + +Advertising charts, 440, 441 + +_Advice against the plague_, Harvey, 58 + +Advisory Board, C. (_see_ Gov't control) + +_Affinis, C._, _hyb._, 146 + +Aga, Soliman, 33, 92 + +Aging + Artificial, 157, 158, 471, 474 + Natural, 156, 157, 167, 342, 345, 353 + +Agriculture, U.S. Dept., 722 + +_Aigentliche Beschreibung der Raisis, etc._, Rauwolf, _q._, 12 + +Aiken, G., 612 + +Akers, Frederick, 498, 499 + +Alameda (brand), 441 + +Albanese, 185 + +Albertenghi, 558 + +Alcoholic beverages + Coffee replaces in Am. colonies, 696 + Sold in London c. houses, 61, 78, 81 + +Alcholism, effect of c. on, 182 + +Aldhabani (_see_ Gemaleddin) + +_Ale wives' complaint against c. houses_ (_pamph._), 72 + +Alexander, S.R., 485 + +Alexander & Baldwin, 488 + +Alhadrami, Muhammed, 16 + +_Al-Haiwi_ (_The Continent_), Rhazes, 11 + +Alison, Archibald, 102 + +Alkaloids in c., 159, 160, 161 + +All Souls' college, Oxford, 41 + +Allain, F.V., 487 + +Allanston, _q._, 179 + +Allen, _q._, 159 + +Allen, Ida C. Bailey, _q._, 723 + +Allen, James Lane, _q._, 564 + +Allom, Thomas, 663 + +Alpini (Alpinus), Prospero 43, 431, 541, 543; + _q._, 2, 12, 26, 41 + +_Alt und neu Wien_, Bermann, _q._, 51 + +Altenberg, Peter, _q._, 549 + +Altitudes + Best, 198, 200 + Bolivia, 236 + Brazil, 205 + Colombia, 208 + Costa Rica, 225 + Guatemala, 219 + Hawaii, 239 + Honduras, 234 + Indo-China, French, 237 + Jamaica, 233 + Java, 216 + Mexico, 222 + Nicaragua, 227 + Peru, 236 + Salvador, 217 + Venezuela, 212, 263 + Yemen, 231 + +_Alumini Etonenses_, Harwood, _q._, 581 + +_Amarella, C._, _hyb._, 140 + +Amber (essence of) in c., 695 + +Ambergris in c., 709 + +_Ambrosia Arabica, Caffè Discorso_, Rambaldi, 558, _q._, 696 + +American Can Co., 472, 473 + +_Am. Chem. Journal_, _q._, 165 + +American Coffee Co., 521 + +_American Grocer_, _per._, 526 + +_American Hist'l Register_, _q._, 126 + +_Am. Journ. Ophthalmology_, _q._, 182 + +American Legion, _v._, 316 + +American Mills, 502 + +American Sugar Refining Co., 689 + +Ames, Allan P., 448 + +Amman & Co., C., 477 + +Amsinck, Gustave, 479 + +Amsinck & Co., G., 479, 484, 485, 534 + +Amurath III, 20, 664 + +Amurath IV, 20, 38 + +_Analyst_, _per_, _q._, 165 + +_Anatomy of Melancholy, The_, Burton, _q._, 543, 38 + +Ancilloto, Marco, 27 + +_"----" and Other Poets_, Untermeyer, _q._, 553 + +Anderson, _pat._, 247 + +Anderson, Adam, _q._, 72, 73, 74 + +Anderson, E.D., 472 + +Anderson, Mrs. _chk._, 86 + +Andreas, A.T., _q._, 106 + +Andrews, William Ward, _pat._, 627, 700 + +Andrews & Co., C.E., 506 + +Andry, Doctor, 694 + +Anecdotes, 565-585 + Addison, Joseph, 576 + Bacon, Sir Nicholas, 570 + Bismarck, 565, 570 + Bonaparte, Napoleon, 94, 593 + Brillat-Savarin, 565 + Champmeslé, 91 + Cibber, Colley, 579 + Compton, Bishop of London, 570 + de Sévigné, Mme., 91, 565 + Dryden, John, 574, 575 + Fontenelle, 565 + Foote, Samuel, 580, 581 + Garrick, David 569, 579, 580 + Goldsmith, Oliver, 573, 574 + Grévy, Jules, 566 + Hannes, Dr., 572 + Hogarth, William, 580 + Inchbald, Mrs., 576 + Jeffreys, Judge, 570 + Johnson, Samuel, 567, 568, 569 + Kant, Immanuel, 562 + Kemble, John, 581 + London coffee-house, 567-585 + Louis XIV and DuBarry, 566 + Lowther, Sir James, 584 + Macklin, Charles, 580, 581 + Milton, John, 584 + Napier, Robert, 700 + Page, Judge, 570 + Phipps, Sir William, 111 + Pope, Alexander, 575, 576, 577, 578 + Racine, 91 + Radcliff, Dr., 572 + Roach, Tiger, 579, 580 + Roubiliac, 583 + Saint-Foix, 566, 567 + Savage, Richard, 570 + Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 581 + Sloane, Sir Hans, 582 + Steele, Sir Richard, 570 + Swift, Jonathan, 570, 578, 579 + Talleyrand, Prince, 565 + Thurlow, Lord, 572 + Voltaire, 178, 565 + Ware (Brit. architect), 584 + +Anezi c., 351, 368 + +Angel & Co., A., 340 + +_Angustifolia, C._ _hyb._, 140 + +Ankola c., 355, 371 + +_Annales_, Liebig, _q._, 711 + +_Annales Politiques et Littéraires_, _per._, _q._, 175 + +_Annals_ (of Phila.), _q._, 120 + +_Annals on Applied Biology_, _q._, 155 + +Anne, Queen, 82 + +_Année Littéraire_, _q._, 6 + +Anstead, R.D., _q._, 155 + +Anthony, Frank M., 479 + +_Antiquarian Rambles in the Streets of London_, Smith, _q._, 569, 570 + +Antiseptic, C. as an, 180, 182 + +Apel, Paul E, 506 + +Apparatus (_see_ Machinery) + +Appenzeller, John C., 503 + +Applegate, John, 492 + +Apples in c. (Russia), 686 + +Apreece, 581 + +Araba (driver), 658 + +_Arabia, Description of_, Niebuhr, _q._, 22 + +_Arabian Chrestomathy_, de Sacy _q._, 2 + +Arabian c. (_see_ Mocha) + +_Arabian Nights, The_, 31 + +_Arabica, C._ (see note, p. 769) + +Arbitration (N.Y. Exch.), 333 + +_Arbor yemensis fructum cofè ferens, etc., The_, Douglas, 42, 543 + +Arbuckle advertising, 462-465 + +Arbuckle, Charles, 521, 522 + +Arbuckle, Christina, 524 + +Arbuckle, John, 440, 469, 470, 496, 523, 524; + _biog._, 517, 521; + _d._, (1912) 524; + _pat._, 647 + +Arbuckle, John (Mrs.), 523 + +Arbuckle Brothers, 443, 470, 480, 482, 499, 502, 522, 523 + Coating coffee, 396 + Plant, 524-526 + Business, 521-526 + +Arbuckle Farm, 524 + +Arbuckles, The, 519 + +Arbuckles & Co., 507, 522, 524, 635 + +Arbuthnot, Dr., 81, 84, 578, 579 + +Arcade Manufacturing Co., 645, 653 + +_Archives of Psychology_, _q._, 186 + +Arcularius, James L., 499 + +Arding, Dr. Charles, 118 + +Arduino, Pier Teresio, _pat._, 651 + +Arias, 220 + +Ariosa (brand), 440, 441, 469, 470, 524 + Origin of name, 522 + +Ariza & Lombard, 488 + +Arkell, Bartlett, 538 + +Arkell, W.J., 538 + +Arlington, Earl of, 582 + +Arliss, George, 130; + _q._, 556 + +Armstrong, Dr., 578, 580 479, 491, 518, 527; + _biog._ 517 + +Arnold, Francis B., 477, 479, 491, 518 + +Arnold & Co., B.G., 479, 480 491, 528 + +Arnold, Dorr & Co., 479, 482, 518 + +Arnold, Hines & Co., 482 + +Arnold, Mackey & Co., 477, 479 + +Arnold, Sturgess & Co., 479 + +_Arnoldiana, C._, 142 + Java, 216 + +Aroma + Advertising value, retail, 423 + Best grinds to preserve, 719, 720 + Cause of, 163, 165 + Chaff rich in, 708 + Cup-testing for, 356 + Preservation of, 170, 712, 717 + +Aroma Coffee & Spice Co., 502 + +Aron & Co., J., 340 + +_Arroba_ (weight), 268 + +Art collections + Berlin museums, 46 + Boston Mus. of Fine Arts, 612 + Bostonian Society, 613 + London + Beaufoy (Guildhall Mus.), 62, 582, 602 + British Museum, 604 + Guildhall Museum, 602, 603 + +Armstrong & Barnewall, 476 + +Arne, Dr., 579 + +Arnold, _q._, 136 + +Arnold, Benjamin Green, 469, + London + Victoria and Albert Museum, 601, 603 + New York + Clearwater (Met. Mus.), 609 + Halsey (Met. Mus.), 609 + Metropolitan Museum + Pictures, 591 + Service, artistic and historical, 599, 600, 607, 608, 612 + Paris: Clunny Museum, 600 + Portland: Maine Hist. Soc. 614 + Potsdam museums, 46 + Salem (Mass.): Essex Inst., 614 + Sam Ireland's, 593 + Vienna: Austrian Art Soc., 590 + Washington + Peter (U.S. Nat'l Mus.), 599 + +Arthur, _chk._, 588 + +_Arthur's_, Lyons, _q._, 563 + +_Aruwimensis, C._, 144 + Java, 216 + +Ashcroft, John, _pat._, 157 + Trade mark, 470 + +Ashland, James, 477 + +Ashley, James, _chk._, 582 + +Astbury, 604, 612 + +Astor Library, 124 + +Atha, F.P., 509; + _q._, 422 + +_Athenae Oxiensis à Wood_, _q._, 41 + +Atlas Mills, 498 + +Attal (Arabian bale), 266 + +Atwood & Co., 509 + +Atwood & Holstad, 509 + +Aubrey, John, 557; + _q._, 40, 53, 56, 59, 60 + +Auctions + Amsterdam, 44 + First (1711), 213 + London, 327 + Netherlands E. Indies, 312 + +Augagneuri, C., 147 + +Auger & Co., B.E., 487 + +Austin, Nichols & Co., 494, 499 + +Australian c., 355, 376 + +_Autobiography_, Haydon, _q._, 583 + +Autocrat (brand), 441 + +Automatic Weighing Machine Co., 470 + +Avicenna (Ibn Sina), 11, 17, 431; + _q._, 12 + +à Wood, Anthony, _q._, 41 + +Ayduis, 14 + +Ayer Bangies c., 355, 371 + +Ayer & Son, N.W., 448 + +Aymar & Co., 476 + + +Babillard, _q._, 559 + +Bach, Johann Sebastian. 46; + _q._, 595-599 + +Bache, Theophylact, 475 + +Bacon, Francis, 543, 557; + _q._, 38 + +Bacon, Sir Nicholas, 570 + +Bacon, Raymond F., _q._, 714 + +Bacon, Williamson, 480 + +Bacon & Co., Williamson, 480 + +Bacon, Stickney & Co., 508 + +Bacteria, Effect of c. on, 180, 181 + +"Bad" coffee, 22 + +Bagnell, 579 + +Bags, paper (_see_ Containers) + +Bahias (c.), 341, 343, 367 + +Baillon, 558 + +Baiz, Jacob, 485 + +Baiz & Wakeman, 478 + +Baker (chemist), _q._, 165 + +Baker, John Gulick, _pat._, 469, 639 + +Baker, Roger, 117 + +Baker, T.K., _pat._, 647 + +Baker, William E., _pat._, 649 + +Baker & Co., 649 + +Baker & Sons, Joseph, 640 + +Baker & Young, 485 + +Baker Importing Co., 539 + +Baker _vs._ Duncombe (_pat._ suit), 649 + +Baldi, _q._, 184 + +Baldwin, Captain, 538 + +Baldy & Co., J.B., 506 + +Bales, Arabian, 266, 268 + +Balis (c.), 355, 374 + +Balliol college, Oxford, 40, 41 + +Ballot-box, origin of, 60 + +Ballou & Cosgrove, 488 + +Baltagi, 22 + +Balzac, Honoré de, 102, 556; + _q._, 557 + +_Balzac_, Lawton, _q._, 557 + +Ban, 26, 35 + +Bananas and c. (_bev._), 694 + +Banesius (_see_ Nairon) + +Bangs, John Kendrick, _q._, 564 + +Bank of New York, 120 + +Bank of Pennsylvania, _ill._, 129 + +Banks, H.W., 479 + +Banks & Co., H.W., 478, 479, 485 + +Baptized by Clement VIII, 26 + +Barbados c., 351, 362 + +Barbaro, Angelo Maria, 28 + +Barbor, _inv._, 637 + +Barclay, Florence L., _q._, 563 + +Barclay & Hasson, 508 + +Barker, _pat._, 640 + +Barmaids, 75 + +Barnardini, _q._, 186 + +Barnes, Dr., _q._, 176 + +Barnes, Sir Edward, 237 + +Barnicle, Michael, 482 + +Baro, José, 651 + +Barotti, L., 548 + +Barquisimento, _v._, 349 + +Barr, Thomas T., 482 + +Barr & Co., T.M., 529 + +Barr & Co., T.T., 477, 482 + +Barr, Lally & Co., 482 + +Barrington Hall (brand), 441 + +Barrington Hall Soluble (brand), 539 + +Barrowby, Dr., _q._, 580 + +Barth, G.W., 639 + +Barthez, 566 + +Bartlett (artist), 668 + +Bartow, H., 497 + +Baruch & Co., 488 + +Batavia c., 355, 373 + +Baudelaire, 565 + +_Baukobensis, C._, 216 + +Bay, Gottfried, 644 + +Bayne, Daniel K., 478 + +Bayne, L.P., 478 + +Bayne, Jr., William, 448, 473, 478, 535 + +Bayne, Sr., William, 478 + +Bayne & Co., William, 485 + +Beach & Co., J.D., 508, 509 + +Beaham-Moffatt Mfg. Co., 508 + +Bean broth, Javanese, 11 + +Beans as friendly tokens, 655 + +Beard, Eli, 496 + +Beard, Samuel S., 496 + +Beard & Co., Samuel S., 482, 496 + +Beard & Cummings, 482, 494, 496, 507 + +Beard & Howell, 496 + +Beard, Sons & Co., S.M., 499 + +Beards & Cottrell, 482, 496 + +Beaufoy Catalogue, Burn, _q._, 583 + +Beaumarchais, 94 + +Beauvarlet, J., 587 + +Beccaria, Cesare, 30, 558 + +Becker, Joseph, 482 + +Beckley, S.W., 507 + +Beckmann, Alfred H., _q._, 418 + +Bedford, Duke of, 576, 593 + +Beecher, C. McCulloch, 491 + +Beede, N.B., 508 + +Beekmans, The, 475 + +Beer, _q._, 182 + +Beer, Coffee, 710, 711 + +Beeson, Emmet G., _q._, 679 + +Bégon, 6 + +Behrens & Co., A., 482 + +Belcher, Jonathan, _chk._, 112 + +Belgians, King of, 672 + +Bell & Co., J.H., 502 + +Bell, Conrad & Co., 485 + +Bell, Conrad & Webster, 502 + +Belli, 549, 557 + +Bello (Bellus), Onorio, 31 + +Belna (brand), 539 + +Bencini, Antoni, _pat._, 625 + +Benedicenti, _q._, 186 + +Benedict & Co., 485 + +Benedict & Gaffney, 494, 498, 499 + +Benedict & Thomas, 494, 501 + +_Bengalensis, C._, 146 + +Bengiazlah, 17; + _q._, 17 + +Bennet, Henry, 582 + +Bennett, J. Hughes, _q._, 181 + +Bennett, James, 482 + +Bennett, William, 482 + +Bennett & Becker, 482, 499 + +Bennett & Son, William Hosmer, 478, 482 + +Bennett, Schenck & Earle, 499 + +Bennett, Sloan & Co., 498, 499 + +Bentley, Benton & Co., 482 + +Berchoux, 548 + +Berg, Thomson & Davis, 502 + +Berhard, Charles, 505 + +Berkeley, Bishop, 550 + +Bermann, M., _q._, 51 + +Bernard, Claude M.V., _pat._, 629 + +Bernard (Dean of Derry), 573, 574 + +Bernhardt, Sarah, 565 + +Bernheimer, _q._, 163 + +Bernier, 31, 543, 594; + _q._, 616 + +Berry (_see_ Fruit) + +Berry, Benjamin, 508 + +Berry & Sons, N., 501 + +Berthier, 102 + +Berytus (Beirut), Bishop of, _q._, 42 + +Besant, Sir Walter, _q._, 75, 78 + +Bethmont, 566 + +Betrand, _q._, 163 + +Better C.-making Com., 439 + Recommendations, 713, 715 + +Better coffee-making publicity + Favored by N.C.R.A., 513 + +Beurre, Café avec, 683 + +Beverage + Buds as basis, 694 + Chemical analysis, 714 + Consumption in U.S., 689 + Definition, U.S. Dep't of Agr., 722 + Discovery (13th century), 655 + Evolution of, 693 + Fruit and bananas, 694 + History, early, 11-23 + Hull and pulp as basis, 15 + Husks as basis, 26 + Origin + First reliable date (1454), 16 + Legendary, 11, 13, 16 + +_Beverages Past and Present_, Emerson, _q._, 566 + +Bey, Kair, 71 + +_Bible_, 12, 13 + +Bibliothéque Nationale, 16 + +Bichivili, _q._, 22 + +Bichivili manuscript, 542 + +Bickford, Clarence E., 487, 488 + +Bickford & Co., C.E., 488 + +Biddulph, William, _q._, 36, 543 + +Biggin, Coffee, 624 + Origin of name, 699 + (_See also_ Infusion devices) + +Bill & Co., Alexander H., 501 + +Binz, _q._, 182, 183 + +_Biographic Universelle_, Michauds, _q._, 8 + +Bishop, J. Leander, _q._, 105, 115 + +Bishop, Nathaniel, _chk._, 109 + +Bisland & Brown, 497 + +Bismarck, Prince, 565, 566 + +Bitter (_see_ Flavors) + +Bitter c.'s, 397 + +Bjorstjerne Bjornson, _v._, 316 + +Blackall, Alfred H., 501, 502 + +Blair, Henry, 496, 526 + +Blair, Henry B., 494 + +Blair, Sidney O., 502 + +Blake, Charles F., 482 + +Blake, Walter F., 535 + +Blake & Bullard, 482 + +Blakeman, C.R., 479 + +Blanc, Louis, 103 + +Blanchard & Bro., 501 + +Black bean, 329 + Scale, 330 + +Black broth, Lacedemonian, 13, 36, 38, 40, 58 + +Blanco, Guzman, 529 + +Blaney, Henry R., _q._, 110 + +Blanke, C.F., _pat._, 651 + +Blanke Tea & Coffee Co., C.F., 502, 539 + +Blending, 396-400 + Retail, 418-421 + +Blending machinery, 383, 385 + +Blends, 722, 723 + French preferences, 680 + Package coffees, 408 + Restaurants, 399 + +Blickman, Saul, _pat._, 652 + +Bliss, Dallett & Co., 482 + +Blodgett, Albro, 507 + +Blodgett, Henry P., 507 + +Blodgett-Beckley Co., 507 + +Blohm & Co., 340 + +Blook & Varwig, 503 + +Bloom, Daniel, _chk._, 118 + +Bloom Bros., 488 + +Blossoms, + Bridal flowers in Antilles, 565 + Chemistry of, 155 + +Blotting-paper filters, 708 + +Blount, Sir Henry, 40, 54, 543; + _q._, 13, 38, 56 + +Blue Mountain c., 350, 362 + +Blunt, Anne, _chk._, 56 + +Board of Experts favored, 513 + +Boardman, George, 508 + +Boardman, Howard F., 508 + +Boardman, Thomas J., 508 + +Boardman, William, 508 + +Boardman, William F.J., 508 + +Boardman & Sons, Wm., 508 + +Boardman & Sons Co., Wm., 508 + +Boaz, 13 + +Boconos c., 349, 350, 365 + +Bodanzky, Arthur, 597 + +Bodleian library, 53 + +Boekit Gompong c., 355, 372 + +Boengie c., 355, 374 + +Boerhaave, Prof., 543 + +Bogotas (c.), 348, 349, 363 + +Bohier & Weikel, 501 + +Boiling, + Discussed (Trigg), 720 + N.C.R.A. recommendations, 721 + +Boindin, Abbie Alary, 554 + +Boinest, Walter B., 498 + +Bolivian c., 350, 367 + +Bon, 12, 26, 35, 41 + +Bonaparte, Napoleon, 94, 96, 100, 485; + _q._, 566 + +Bondzynski, 185 + +Bonifeur, Café (Guadeloupe), 257 + +Bonnard, 98 + +_Bonnieri, C._, 147 + Caffein content, 161 + +Bontius, Jac., _q._, 2 + +Book, Nicholas, _inv._, 617 + +Booker, 69 + +Booklets, advertising, 455 + +Booms, + Ceylon (1845), 237 + U.S. (1814), 468 + +Booms and Panics, 527-530 + +Booth, A.F., 508 + +Booth, Otis W., 480 + +Booth & Linsley, 477, 480 + +Boquette c., 348, 361 + +Borino & Bro., 486 + +Boscul (brand), 441 + +Bossi, Vernetti & Bartolini, 651 + +Boston coffee party, 467, 468 + +_Boston News Letter_, _newsp._, 433 + +Boston tea party, 106, 110, 689 + +Boswell, James, 81, 89; + _q._, 567, 568, 583 + +Botanical description, 12, 26, 41, 131-138, 248, 249 + Classification, 132 + Species, number of, 132 + Microscopic, 149-152 + +Botanical gardens (_see_ Gardens) + +Botanists disagree, 132 + +Botany of coffee, 131-148 + +_Bottega di caffé_ (comedy), Goldoni, 28 + +Bouche, Charles J., 505 + +Boucher, François, 588 + +Boulton & Co., H.L., 340 + +Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, 482 + +Bounties, + Guadeloupe, 234 + Australia (proposed), 239 + +Bour, J.M., 507 + +Bour Co., 443, 506, 507 + +Bourai c., 351, 368 + +Bourbon c., 353, 378 + +Bourbon, Grand, c., 352, 353 + +Bourbon Le Roy c., 352, 353 + +Bourbon rond, 352, 353 + +Bourbon-Santos c., 260, 341, 342, 366 + +Bourdon, Isid, _q._, 565 + +Bourne, H.R. Fox, _q._, 54 + +Bovee & Co., Wm. H., 506 + +Bowdoin, Gov. (_see_ Chicory), 468 + +Bowers, B.O., 480 + +Bowman, _chk._, 53, 54 + +Bowman, John, _pat._, 637 + +Bown, W.J.H., 510 + +Bown & Bro., W.T., 507 + +Bowring & Co., 488 + +Boyd & Co., G., 501 + +Braas, Joseph, 507 + +Brancho, João Alberto C., 9 + +Bradford, Cornelius, _chk._, 119, 120 + +Bradford, John R. (Mrs.), 614 + +Bradford, Phebe C., 614 + +Bradford, William, _chk._, 127, 128, 129 + +Bradley, Prof. R., 42 + +Bradley, Richard, _q._, 58 + +Brady, Cyrus Townsend, 563 + +Brady, Dr., _q._, 177 + +Bramhall Deane Co., 634 + +Brand advertising, 455, 462-465 + +Brand, Carl W., 448, 507, 514 + +Brandenburg, Elector of, 45 + +Brandenstein, Edward, 506 + +Brandenstein, M.J., 506 + +Brandenstein, Manfred, 506 + +Brandenstein & Co., M.J., 471, 488, 506 + +Brands, 434, 435, 440, 441, 462, 465, 469, 470, 474, 496, 522-524, 538, 539 + +Brasher, Abraham, 609 + +Brasher, Ephraim, 609 + +Brass, Italico, 556 + +Braun Co., 472, 646 + +Brayley (topographer), 582 + +Brazil Coffee Co., 478 + +Brazil coffee delegation, 514 + +Brazil-grading, 331 + +Brazil Trading Co., 485 + +Brazils (c.), 341-345, 366 + +Breakfast (brand), 524 + +Bregolini, Ubaldo, 27 + +Brett, Colonel, 576 + +Breur, Moller & Co., 340 + +Brewing, + Altitude limit 9,000 feet, 715 + Art of + Calkin's patent, 702 + Muller's patent, 702 + Below boiling point, 515, 707, 714, 717 + Care in, 723 + Chemistry of, 168, 718-720 + Clarifying, 704, 705 + Comparison of methods, 720, 721 + Evolution of, 702, 704 + Filtration _vs._ percolation, 515 + Incorrect methods injurious, 179 + N.C.R.A. recommendations, 717 + Research, Un. of Kansas, 714 + Scientific, 718-722 + Thurber's method, 712 + +Brewing devices (1760-1855), 620-629 + Acker's (1884), 645 + American colonial, 709 + Andrews' reversed Fr. drip (1841), 627 + Best materials, 717, 721, 722 + Blickman's (1916), 652 + Care of, 722 + Casseneuve's reversed Fr. drip, 623 + Cauchois's porcelain-lined urn, 645 + Cauchois's centrifugal pump, 651 + Chapman's tea or coffee pot, 649 + Chronology (1879-1921), 643-654 + Combined making and serving pot, 616 + Comparative test (1915), 714 + (1917), 716 + Criterion, 674 + Earthenware, painted (Abyssinia), 655 + First (boiler), 615, 616 + First French patent (1802), 621, 699 + First U.S. patent (1825), 469, 624, 625, 699 + Fountain, 674 + German patents (1877-85), 638 + Levant (1691), 696 + Le Brun's Cafetiére, 710 + Manning's combined, 637 + Martelley's patent (1825), 699 + Moneuse's urn (1869), 639 + Muller's Art of Making Coffee, 653 + Napier-List machine, 700 + Parker's steam-fountain, 705 + Platow, 674 + Rabaut's reversed Fr. drip (1822), 623 + Savage's tea or coffee pot (1904), 649 + Sené's, "without boiling" (1815), 623 + Still's steam coffee-maker (1902), 647 + Syphon (Napier), 674 + Verithing (Summerling's), 674 + White's urn (1908), 651 + Wyatt's distillation apparatus, 699 + +Brewing methods, + Abyssinia, 655 + American colonies, 708, 709 + Arabia, 658-663, 695 + Australia, 692 + Austria, 671, 672 + Belgium, 672 + Brazil, 691 + Bulgaria, 678 + Canada, 686, 687 + Ceylon, 670 + China, 670 + Cuba, 692 + Denmark, 678 + England (1662), 696; + (1722), 697; + (19th cent.), 704-707 + Europe, 670-686 + (19th century), 704-708 + Finland, 678 + France, 678-683 + (1669), 696; + (1711-1812), 696-698; + (19th cent.), 707, 708 + Buc'hoz's recipe, 708 + Germany, 684, 685 + Great Britain, 672-678 + Greece, 685 + India, 670 + Italy, 686, 696 + Japan, 670 + Java, 670 + Levant (1691), 696 + Martinique, 692 + Mexico, 687 + Netherlands, 686 + New Orleans, 689, 690 + New York, 690 + Hotel Ambassador, 691 + Waldorf-Astoria, 690, 691 + New Zealand, 692 + Oriental, early, 31, 694, 695 + Paris, 670 + Panama, 692 + Persia, 670 + Philippines, 692 + Portugal, 686 + Scandinavia, 686 + Roumania, 686 + Russia, 686 + Servia, 686 + Spain, 686 + Switzerland, 686 + Turkey, 31, 665, 667, 668 + U.S., 687, 691, 709-723 + Jabez Burns' method, 712 + Vienna, 670, 671, 672 + +Brewing process + Goldsworthy's (1920), 702 + +Brews, Composition of, 721 + +_Brief and merry history of England_, _q._, 77 + +_Brief description, etc., A_, _pamph._, _ill._, 70, 71 + +Briggs, James H., 477 + +Briggs & Meehan, 477 + +Brillat-Savarin, 565; + _q._, 557, 697 + +Brisbane, _v._, 316 + +British E. India Co., 75, 82, 106, 601 + +_British Pharmaceut. Codex_, _q._, 183 + +Broadbent, Humphrey, _q._, 293, 618, 697 + +Broadhurst, (tenor), 582 + +_Broad-side Against C., A; or, the Marriage of the Turk_, _q., ill._, + 69, 70 + +Broad-sides and pamphlets, 58, 60, 61, 64, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 432, + 433, 434 + +Brock, J., 503 + +Brokers + Abyssinia, 308, 310 + Arabia, 310, 312 + New York, 336, 337 + (_see also_ Dealers, wholesale) + +Bronson, Jr., A.E., _pat._, 647 + +Bronson, Zenos, _pat._, 245 + +Bronson-Walton Co., 647 + +Brougier, _pat._, 167 + +Brown, Agnes, 526 + +Brown, Arthur W., 482 + +Brown, James, 497 + +Brown, Tom, _q._, 75, 572, 574 + +Brown & Jones, 497 + +Brown & Scott, 497, 499 + +Brownejohn, William, _chk._, 118 + +Browning, Charles H., _q._, 126 + +Bruce, James, _q._, 693 + +Bruckman & Co., L., 496 + +"Bruderherz" (Kolschitzky), 51 + +Bruff, Sr., Thomas, _pat._, 468, 621 + +Brûleau, Café, 106 + +Bruning, William H., _pat._, 653 + +Bruno, Bishop Joachim, 9 + +Bubonic-plague boom (1899-1901), 529 + +Bucararamangas (c.), 348, 364 + +Buck, John H., _q._, 607 + +Buckeye (brand), 470 + +Buc'hoz, Pierre Joseph, _q._, 708 + +Budan, Baba, 5, 225 + +Budenbach, T.O., 497 + +Budgell, 576, 578 + +Buds, beverage from, 694 + +Buffon, 98 + +Buitzenzorg c., 355, 373 + +_Bukabensis, C._, 146 + +Bulfinch, Charles, 113 + +Bullard & Co., C.G., 485 + +_Bullata, C._, _hyb._, 140 + +Bulson, A.E.J., _q._, 182 + +Bun, 1, 3, 12 + +Bun safi (cleaned beans), 266 + +Buna, 41 + +Bunca, 12, 25 + +Buncha, 12 + +Bunchum, 11, 12, 25 + +Bunchy, 38 + +Bunge, Edouard, 532, 534 + +Bunn, 3, 12, 17, 35 + +Bunn, El, 662 + +Bunnu, 25, 38 + +Burbank, Luther, 161 + +Bureaus + Bus. research (_see_ Harvard) + Chemistry, U.S., 144 + +Burke, Edmund, 81, 574 + +Burke, Richard, 573, 574 + +Burman, _q._, 183 + +Burmester, H.W., 488 + +Burn, J.H., _q._, 62 + +Burns, A. Lincoln, 526, 527; + _q._, 391, 394 + +Burns, George, _chk._, 121 + +Burns, Henry, 508 + +Burns, Jabez., 494, 496, 630; + _biog._, 517, 526; + _d._ (1888), 526, 637; + _pat._, 469, 634, 644, 645; + _q._, 634, 635, 636, 637, 712 + Starts _Spice Mill_, _per._, 470 + +Burns, Jabez (Mrs.), 526 + +Burns Jr., Jabez, 526, 527 + +Burns, Robert, 526, 527; + _pat._, 647, 652 + +Burns, William G., 526, 527; + _pat._, 652, 653 + +Burns & Brown, 495 + +Burns & Sons, Inc., Jabez, 526 + +Burr, Aaron, 123 + +Burstone mills, 637 + +Burton, Robert, 543, 557; + _q._, 13, 38 + +Bush Terminal Stores, _ill._, 322 + +Bute, Lord, 572 + +Butler, Dr., _q._, 179 + +Butler, Earhart & Co., 469, 508 + +Butler, Crawford & Co., 508 + +Button, _chk._, 575, 578 + +Buying + Abyssinia, 308, 310 + Arabia, 310, 312 + Brazil, 303-308 + Netherlands E. Indies, 312 + +Buying and selling green c., 303-312 + +Byerly, Thomas, 585 + +Byerley, Sir John, 585 + + +Cabarets à caffè, 33 + (_See also_ Coffee houses) + +Cabarrus, E.T., 538 + +Cable-break panic (1884), 528 + +Cadwallader, _pseud._, 581 + +Café + à la crème, 708 + à la minute, 708 + au lait, 691, 696 + avec beurre, 683 + bonifleur (Guadeloupe), 257 + brûleau, 106 + complet, 683 + con léche, 691 + de luxe (Guadeloupe), 257 + en parché (Guadeloupe), 257 + en pergamino (grade), 261 + filtré, 675 + gloria, 683 + mazagran, 92, 655, 682 + melangé, 671 + nature, 683 + sultan, 658 + sultane, 694 + +_Café, The_, _per._, 34 + +_Café, literary, artistic, and commercial, The_, _per._ (French), 34 + +_Caféier et le Café, Le_, Jardin, _ill._, _q._, 2, 6, 14, 31 32, 33, 629 + +Cafés + Berlin + Admiral's, 684 + Bauer, _ill._, 684 + Des Westens, 684 + "Groessenwahn", 684 + Josty's, 684 + Kranzler's, _ill._, 684 + Victoria, 684 + Hague, The + St. Joris, 686 + London + Gatti's, _ill._, 675, 677 + Kardomah (chain), 675 + London Café Co., 674 + Monico, _ill._, 675, 677 + Nero, 674 + Pioneer, 677 + Popular, 675, 677 + Ritz, 678 + Trocadero, 657 + Naples + Toledo, 686 + New York + Fleischmann's, 690 + Paris + Paix, de la, 683 + Prévost, 683 + Régence, de la, 683 + Venice + Florian's, 686 + (_See also_ Coffee houses; Hotels; Restaurants; Taverns) + +Cafés chantants (_see_ Coffee houses) + +Caffè, 3 + +_Caffè, Il_, Belli, 549 + +_Caffè, Il_ (almanac, 1829), 558 + +_Caffè, Il_, _per._, (1764-66), 30, 558 + +_Caffè, Il_, _per._, (1850-52), 558 + +_Caffè, Il_, _per._, (1884-89), 558 + +_Caffè Pedrocchi, Il_, _per._, (1885), 558 + +Caffearine, 159 + +Caffein, 159, 161, 162, 166, 167, 175, 176, 179, 182, 437, 711, 718, 721 + Analyses for, 172 + Chaff contains, 708 + Harmless in moderation, 717 + Hollingworth's experiments, 187, 188 + Loss in roasting, 167 + Physiological action, 183-188 + _Robusta, C._, 145 + Solubility, 160 + +Caffein content (_C. arabica_), 161 + +Caffein-free c., _ill._, 142, 404 + Artificial, 161, 162, 163, 721 + Natural, 161, 162, 721 + Varieties, 147 + +Caffetannic acid, 158, 159, 166, 174, 721 + Analysis for, 173 + Lead number, 514 + Misnomer, 716, 718, 719 + Physiological action, 182 + +Caffinets (_see_ Coffee houses) + +Caffeol, 163, 164, 719, 720 + Physiological action, 183 + +Caffeone, 163 + +Cage, R.H., 505 + +Cage & Drew, 505 + +Cage, Drew & Co., Ltd., 505 + +Cahoa, 1, 2 + +Cahouah, 15 + +Cahove, 91 + +Cahua, 1, 38 + +Cahue, 1, 2 + +Cahve, 31 + +Cahwa, 45 + +Caleb, Negus, 5 + +Calkin, Benjamin H., _pat._, 652, 702 + +Calorific value of c., 180 + +Calvados, 682 + +_Campaigning with Grant_, Porter, _q._, 563 + +Campbell (chemist), _q._, 163 + +Campbell, _chk._, 576 + +Campbell, Charles, 482 + +Campbell's _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, _q._, 570 + +Campen, Christopher, _q._, 12 + +Canadian Bank of Commerce, 488 + +Canby, Edward, 509 + +Canby, Frank L., 509 + +Canby, Ach & Canby, 508, 509 + +Candle, Sales by, 571 + +_Canephora, C._ + Botanical description, 145 + Caffein content, 161 + Ceylon, 236 + Java, 216 + Varieties, 146 + +Cannon & Co., F., 485 + +Canova, 28, 29 + +Cans (_see_ Containers) + +Cantatas + Bach's, _q._, _ill._, 595-599 + Fuzelier's, music by Bernier, _q._, 594 + +Cantino, Cesare, 549 + +Caouhe, 2 + +Caova, 2, 26, 41 + +Caphe, 1, 38 + +Capodimonte c.-pot, 607 + +Capitazias, 306 + (_See_ Porthandling charges) + +Capuchin, Café, 683 + +Caracanda Frères, 338 + +Caracas c., 348, 364 + +Caracol (grade), 261 + +Caracollilo (grade), 264 + +Caramel in c., 718 + +Carazo, Padre, 225 + +Carbohydrates, 165 + +Cardamom in c., 657, 696, 709 + +Caret, _q._, 555 + +Carey, 80, 576 + +Carey & Co., 480 + +Cargoes + Damaged, 321, 322 + Record (Brazil to U.S.), 315, 316 + +Carhart & Bro., 482 + +Carit & Co., S.A., 487 + +Carjat, 103 + +_Carmen Caffaeum_, Massieu, _q._, 543-547 + +Carne, John, _q._, 668-670 + +Carnegie, Andrew, 521 + +Carpenter, Samuel, 126 + +Carr, Chase & Raymond, 501 + +Carret & Co., J.E., 340 + +Carruthers, 549 + +Carson & Co., W.K., 485 + +Carte, D'Oyly, 678 + +Carter, James, _pat._, 469 + +Carter, James W., 494; + _pat._, _q._, 629 + +Carter Bros. & Co., 507 + +Carter, Macy & Co., 480 + +Carter, Mann & Co., 501 + +Cartons (_see_ Containers) + +Casanas, Ben. C., 503, 513, 535; + _q._, 415 + +Case, Howard E., 496 + +Caseneuve, _pat._, 623, 699 + +Casilla (grade), 261 + +Castel, _q._, 548 + +Castle Bros., 488 + +Caswell, George W., 505, 506 + +Caswell Co., George W., 506 + +_Catalog, Hudson-Fulton Celebration_, _q._, 607, 609 + +_Catalogue of the Rarities to be seen at Adam's_, 559 + +_Catalogue of Traders' Tokens_, Burn, _q._, 62 + +Catch crops, 203 + +Cauchois, Frederick A., 498, 701; + _pat._, 472, 645, 649, 651 + +Cauphe, 38 + +Cavanaugh, Rearuck & Co., 502 + +Cave, 31 + +Caveah, 2 + +Cavee, 26 + +Cavekane, 32 + +Cazeneuve, _q._, 159 + +Celebes c., 355, 374 + +Centlivre, Susannah, _q._, 554 + +Central American coffee + San Francisco's fight for trade, 489-491 + +Central Americans (c.), 347, 359-361 + +Certified Java and Mocha (brand), 524 + +Ceylons (c.), 351, 352, 370 + +Chaa (tea), 35 + +Chabert, Josephine, 518 + +Chabraeus, 543 + +Chaff + Removal deprecated, 714 + Rich in caffein and aroma, 708 + +Chain-stores, 415, 417, 418 + +Chamber of Commerce (New York), 119, 120 + +Chamberlain, George A., _q._, 563 + +Chamberlain, Orville W., _pat._, 652 + +Chamberlaine, John, _q._, 432 + +Champmeslé, 91 + +Champney, Elizabeth W., _q._, 563 + +Chaouah, 1, 2, 35 + +Chaova, 41 + +Chapin, Harold, 556, 563 + +Chapman, D.J., 501 + +Chapman, J.W., _pat._, 649 + +_Character of a coffee house, The_ (broadside) _q._, 66-68 + +Characteristics + Complete reference table, 358-378 + Governing influences, 156 + Green and roasted, 341-378 + Leading growths (chart), 191 + +Charcoal, C. classed as, 20 + +Charles II, 20, 41, 59, 71, 72, 74, 82, 109, 554 + Proclamation against c. houses, 73 + +Charlet, 593 + +Chase, Caleb, 501 + +Chase & Co., Geo. C., 499 + +Chase & Sanborn, 435, 470, 471, 485, 498, 501 + +Chase, Raymond & Ayer, 501 + +Chatfield-Taylor, H.C., _q._, 556 + +Chatterton, Thomas, 80, 85, 88 + +Chattopádhyáya Virendranath, _q._, 1, 2 + +Chaube, 2, 25, 41 + +Checking the roast, 387, 391 + +Cheek, Joel O., 509, 513, 515 + +Cheek-Neal Coffee Co., 443, 509 + +Cheek, Norton & Neal, 509 + +Cheetham, Jr., William H., 501 + +Chelsea bunhouse (London), 560 + +Chemical analysis + Bean, 171-173 + Beverage, 714 + +Chemistry, 155-173 + U.S. Bureau of, 338, 391, 396 + +Cheribon c., 355, 373 + +Chess in c. houses, 96, 98, 104 + +Chesterfield, Lord, 576 + +Chesterton, Gilbert K., 553 + +Chestnut, _q._, 155 + +Chevalier, Aug., 142 + +Cheyne, George, _q._, 59 + +Chiapas c., 345, 358 + +Chibouk, 663 + +Chicago Liquid Sack Co., 471 + +Chicago Theatre Society, 555 + +Chicory + Botanical description, 170 + Chemical analysis, 170 + Extracts of c., use in, 109 + First use (Holland, 1750), 170 + Introduced into U.S. (1785), 468 + Microscopic exam., 152, 153 + Substitute for c., 46 + +Chicory in coffee, 404 + France, 678 + Great Britain, 673 + Paris and Vienna, 670, 671 + Scandinavia, 686 + +Children, effect on, 177, 178 + +Childs (grocer, St. Louis), 631 + +China & Java Export Co., 488 + +Chlorogenic acid. 718, 719 + +Choate, Joseph H., 690 + +Chocolate + Discovery of, 12 + Introduction into North Am., 106 + Prices, London (1662), 59 + Sold in London (1657), 56 + Sold in London c. houses, 41, 61, 78, 80 + +Chocolate Cream (brand), 441 + +Chocolate houses (_see_ Coffee houses) + +Chocolate pots, 609 + +Cholera, effect on, 181 + +Chops + Brazil, 306 + New York, 321 + +_Chréstomathie Arabe_, de Sacy _q._, 2, 17, 663 + +Christian beverage, 26 + +Chronology, A coffee, 725-737 + +Chubuck & Saunders, 508 + +Churchill, 579, 580 + +Churchill & Co., Frederick A., 502 + +Cibber, Colley, 579; + _q._, 575, 577 + +Cinnamon in c., 105, 696, 709 + +Cinnamon roast, 388 + +Cincinnati, Society of the, 120 + +Cincinnati Spice Mills, 503 + +Cipriani, 84, 583 + +_City, The_, _q._, 86 + +City Coffee Works, 492 + +_City Directory, New York_ (1848, 1854), _q._, 494 + (1861) _q._, 496 + +City Dock Co. (Santos, Brazil), 303 + +City roast, 388 + +Clarification, 704, 705 + +Clark, Ammi, _pat._, 625 + +Clark, Charles A., 506, 514 + +Clark & Host Co., 506 + +Clarke Bros. & Co., 508 + +Clay bowls, 616 + +Cleaning machinery, 246, 248, 257, 383, 385 + Hungerford's patents, 644 + +Clearing Ass'n, N.Y. Exch., 331, 335 + +Clearwater, Judge, 609 + +Clement VIII, Pope, 26 + +Climate, Best for c., 198 + +Closset, Emile, 507 + +Closset, Joseph, 507 + +Closset & Devers, 507 + +Closset Bros., 507 + +Cloves in c., 696, 709 + +Clubs + Boston + First, 111 + Merchants, 111 + London + Court de Bone Compagnie, 60 + Evolution of, 75 + Hanover, 577 + Literary, 583 + London coffee-house + Bread Street, 60 + Devil Tavern, 60 + Friday Street, 60 + Mermaid Tavern, 60 + Rota, 59, 60, 583 + Turk's Head, 81 + Turk's Head Society, 583 + White's, 87 + New York + Coffee House, 690 + South America, 690 + Phila., supersede c. houses, 130 + +_Clubs and Club Life in London_, Timbs, _q._, 570-585 + +Coal roasting, 385, 386 + +Coarse (_see_ Grinds) + +Coated c. Rulings (U.S.) against, 337 + +Coatepec c., 345, 358 + +Coating, 166, 396 + Condemned by N.C.R.A., 513 + Reasons for, 170 + +Coatzacoalcos c., 345, 358 + +Coava, 36 + +Cobáns (c.), 347, 359 + +Cobbett, William, _q._, 561, 562 + +Cochrane, _q._, 185 + +Cocoa, first used in Europe, 25 + +Coffa, 2, 36, 38 + +Coffalic acid, 719 + +Coffao, 2 + +Coffe, 2 + +_Coffee_, Keable, _q._, 181, 182 + +_Coffee, A short historical account of_, Bradley, 42 + +_Coffee and Repartee_, Bangs, _q._, 564, 565 + +_Coffee Book, The_, _q._, 714 + +_Coffee cantata_, Bach, 46 + +Coffee Club (U.S.), 453 + +_Coffee Club, The_, _per._, _q._, 177 + +_Coffee from Plantation to Cup_, Thurber, _q._, 182, 712 + +_Coffee Grinding and Brewing_, N.C.R.A., 715 + +Coffee house, most beautiful, 599 + +_Coffee house, The_ (comedy) Rosseau, 88 + +_Coffee house, The new and curious_, _per_, 45 + +_Coffee house or newsmongers' hall_, (broadside), 68, 69 + +Coffee-house keepers, London + Proposed newspaper monopoly, 74 + Tokens, _ill._, 56, 62, 74, 89, 582, 602, 603 + +Coffee houses, 293 + Advantages, 72 + Algeria, 656 + Arabia, 658 + Augsburg, first (1713), 45 + Berlin + Arnoldi, 45 + City of Rome, 45 + English, 45 + Falck's (Jewish), 45 + First (1721), 45 + Miercke, 45 + Royal, 45 + Schmidt, 45 + Widow Doebbert's, 45 + Boston, 108-113 + American, 108, 111 + Auctions held in, 112 + British, 108 + Crown, _ill._, 108 + Exchange, 112, 113 + First, 108 + Green Dragon, _ill._, 109, 110, 111 + Gutteridge, 108 + London, 108, 116, 467 + North-End, 112 + Royal Exchange, 112 + Stage coaches start from, 110, 112 + Washington, 110 + Brazil, 691 + Cairo, number (17th century), 26 + Chicago + Exchange, 106 + Lake Street, 106 + Washington, 106 + Constantinople, 663-667 + Prices (1554), 19 + Damascus, 668-670 + First, 19 + Gate of Salvation, 19 + Roses, 19 + Egypt, 656, 657 + England + First (1650), 41, 53 + Decline, 75 + Ordered suppressed, 72, 73 + Proclamation by Charles II, 73 + Proclamation rescinded, 73 + Europe, first, 27 + Exeter (Devon) + Mol's, 42 + France, 33, 682, 684 + Germany, 683, 684 + First (1675), 45 + Hamburg, first (1675), 45 + Italy, 27, 28 + First, 27, 686 + Leipzig, first (1694), 45 + London, 53-89 + Adam's (and museum), 559, 560 + Baker's, 87 + Baltic, 87 + Batson's, 78 + Bedford, 80, 84, 88, 576, 579, 580 + Blue Hall, 575 + Bowman's, 83 + British, _ill._, 79, 86 + Button's, _ill._, 80, 81, 83, 84, 570, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 593 + Caledonien, _ill._, 84, 593 + Chapter, 78, 80, 88, 582 + Child's, 78, 88, 560, 582 + Cocoa-Tree, 78, 79, 87, 560 + Decline of, 61, 62, 81, 82, 674, 675 + Dick's, _ill._, 87, 88, 555, 572 + Dish of Coffee Boy, _ill._, 603 + Don Saltero's, _ill._, 80, 86, 88, 558 + Museum, 559 + Edinburgh Castle, 75 + Farr's, 54 + Fire of 1666, 61, 62 + First (1652), 42, 53, 54, 293 + Folly (house-boat), 89 + Garraway's (or Garway's) _ill._, 56, 77, 80, 83, 561, 570, 571, 572 + Gaunt's, 588 + George's, 584, 585 + Giles's, 560 + Grecian, _ill._, 61, 77, 80, 85, 560, 584 + Groom's, 572 + Hamlin's, 78 + Jacob's, 42 + Jamaica, 83 + Jenny Man's, 560 + Jerusalem, 88 + Joe's, 571 + Jonathan's, 88, 554, 560, 572 + Little Man's, 79, 88 + Lloyd's, _ill._, 75, 80, 85, 572 + London 88, 582 + Man's, 61, 88 + Miles's, 583 + Nando's, 80, 88, 572, 585 + New England and North and South American, 88 + New Lloyd's, 86 + New Man's, 88 + New Slaughter's, 84 + News centers, use as, 77 + North's, 78 + Number (1715), 74 + Old Man's, 77, 79, 88 + Old Slaughter's, 84 + "On the Pavement", 583 + Rosée's, 42 + Peele's, 80, 88, 585 + "Penny universities", 3 + Percy, 89, 585 + Piazza, 80, 89, 581 + Piazza coffee room, 580, 581 + Rainbow, 62, 77, 89, 572 + Read's, 74 + Red Cow, 83, 574 + Robins's, 63 + Robinson's, 570 + Rochford's, Mrs., 79 + Rose, 84, 574 + Royal Swan (and museum), 559 + Second, 54 + Shakespeare, 84 + Slaughter's, _ill._, 80, 84, 85, 580, 583, 584, 593 + Smyrna, 79, 80, 89, 573 + Squire's, 86 + St. James's, 75, 78, 79, 80, 88, 558, 560, 562, 573, 574, 588 + Stone's, 675 + Thomas's, 84 + Tiltyard, 78 + Tom King's, 89, 581 + Tom's, _ill._, 80, 85, 575, 576, 579, 580, 593 + Turk's Head, 56, 59, 80, 81, 89, 582, 583 + Turk's Head, Canada and Bath, 583 + Virginia, 83 + Welch (Daniels), 78 + White's, _ill._, 79, 87, 558, 587, 588 + Burned (1733), 587 + Widow Hambledon's, 575 + Williams's, 78 + Will's, 77, 79, 80, 83, 558, 560, 574, 575, 588 + Young Man's, 78, 79, 88 + Marseilles, first (1671), 32 + Mecca + Opposition, 17 + Relicensed, 18 + Milan + Demetrio, 30 + Netherlands, 44, 686 + New England, 107-113 + New Orleans, 106 + New York, 115-124 + Auctions held at, 118 + Bank, 121, 124 + Burns, _ill._, 117, 121 + City, 119 + Civic forums, use as, 115, 117, 118, 120 + Directory, use as, 120 + Double R., 690 + Exchange, 118, 119 + Exchange coffee room, 120 + Exchanges, use as, 117, 118, 119, 120, 123 + First (1696), 116 + Decline, 123 + Gentlemen's Exchange, 118 + Keen and Lightfoot's, 120 + King's Arms, _ill._, 116, 117, 118, 121, 467 + Merchants, _ill._, 115, 118, 119, 122, 123, 593 + Birthplace of Union (1774), 474 + Congress of Deputies Suggested, 120 + Memorial tablet (1914), 473, 474 + Organizations meeting therein, 120 + New, 117,118 + New England and Quebec, 121 + New York, 120 + Pequot, 611 + Social centers, use as, 115 + Tontine, _ill._, 120, 121, 123, 593 + Whitehall, 121 + Nuremburg, first (1696), 45 + Oxford + Jacob's, 41, 53 + Jobson's, 41 + Tillyard's, 41 + Padua: Pedroechi, _ill._, 29, 30, 599 + Paris, 91-104 + Alcazar d'Hiver, 98 + Anglais, 103 + Bonnard's, 98 + Beauvilliers', 102 + Chartres, 102 + Chat Noir, 104 + Concert du XIX Siécle, 98 + Concert Européen, 98 + Des Mille Collonnes, _ill._, 99 + Development of. 94, 96 + Durand, 104 + Dutch, 103 + Eldorado, 98 + English, 103 + Février's, 102 + First (1672), 291, 670 + Folles Bobino, 98 + Foy, _ill._, 97, 100 + Gaieté, 98 + Grand Commun, 102 + Gregory's, 93 + Guerbois, 104 + Laurent, 103, 554 + Lefévre's, 96 + Le Gantois's, 93 + Littéraire, 103 + Madrid, 103 + Magny's, 94, 96, 102 + Maire's, 103 + Maison Dorée, 103 + Makara's, 93 + Maliban's, 93 + Mapinot, 102 + Massé's, 102 + Méot's, 102 + Momus, 100 + Number of, 93 + (1843), 94 + Paix, de la, 103 + Pascal's (Fair of St. Germain), 33, 92 + Paris, _ill._, 101, 103 + Procope, _ill._, 94, 95, 98, 566 + Rambuteau, 98 + Régence, 96, 98 + Riche, 103, 104 + Rocher de Cancale, 104 + Rotonde, 100, 102 + Royal Drummer, _ill._, 94 + Stephen's, 93 + Terre's, 103 + Tortoni, 103 + Tour d'Argent, 94 + Trois Frères Provençaux, 102 + Vachette, 102 + Venua's, 102 + Véry, 102 + Voisin, 103 + Persia, 21 + Philadelphia, 125-130 + Decline of, 130 + Exchange (proposed), 130 + Scene from _Hamilton_, _ill._, 556 + Exchanges, use as, 128 + First (1700), 126 + James, 127 + London, _ill._, 125, 126 + Slave auctions, _ill._, 128 + Sunday closing, 129 + Swearing, gaming, etc., prohibited, 128 + London (2nd), _ill._, 127 + Merchants, 125, 129, 130 + Roberts', 127 + Social centers, use as, 125, 130 + Ye coffee house, 125, 126, 467 + Post-office, use as, 126 + Portugal, 686 + Regensburg: first (1689), 45 + Santo Domingo, first (1738), 34 + Spain, 686 + St. Louis: Leonhard's, 105 + Stuttgart: first (1712), 45 + Turkey, 32, 663-670 + Closed, 20 + Reopened, 21 + United States (1700), 708 + Venice, + Abbondanza, 28 + Angelo Custode, 28 + Arabo-Piastrelle, 28 + Arco Celeste, 28 + Aurora Plante d'oro, 28 + Buon genio-Doge, 28 + Coraggio-Speranza, 28 + Dame Venete, 28 + Ducca di Toscana, 28 + Florian, _ill._, 27, 28, 29, 555 + Fontane di Diana, 28 + Imperatore Imperatrice della Russia, 28 + Menegazzo, 28 + Orfeo, 28 + Pace, 28 + Pitt. l'eroe, 28 + Ponte dell' Angelo, 27 + Quadri, 28 + Redentore, 28 + Re di Francia, 28 + Regina d'Ungheria, 28 + Spaderia, 27 + Tamerlano, 28 + Venezia trionfante, 28 + Vienna, 671, 672 + Blue Bottle, 50, 590 + First, 51, 590 + Kolschitzky's, 50 + Mosee's, Franz, 51 + Number of (1839), 52 + Sacher, 50 + Schrangl, 671 + +_Coffee houses vindicated_, _pamph._, _q._, 71, 72 + +_Coffee, Its History, Cultivation and Uses_, Hewitt, 480 + +Coffee kings + First (Germany), 47 + (U.S.), 517 + Last (U.S.), 518 + +Coffee-makers' guild of Vienna, 51 + +_Coffee man's granado, The_ (Broad-side), 66 + +Coffee palaces (_see_ Coffee-houses) + +Coffee Pep (brand), 539 + +Coffee pots (_see_ Service) + +Coffee Roaster & Mill Mfg. Co., 497 + +Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Association, 473 + +Coffee rooms (Norway), 686 + +_Coffee scuffle, The_ (broadside), _q._, 64 + +Coffee shops (houses), London, 674 + +Coffee-smellers (Germany), 47 + +_Coffee, tea, and chocolate, Concerning the use of_, Dufour, 34 + +_Coffee, tea, and chocolate, The manner of making_, Dufour, 34 + +Coffee tree, Kentucky, 564 + +Coffee water (rosa-folis), 695 + +Coffey, 41 + +Coffi, 2 + +Cognac in c., 106, 686 + +Cogollo & Co., 34 + +Coho, 1, 2, 38 + +Cohoo, 2 + +Cohove, 91 + +Cohu, 2 + +Coit & Son, Henry, 476 + +Coke roasting, 385, 386 + +Colaux & Cie, _pat._, 625 + +Cole & Son, Stephen, 476 + +Coles Manufacturing Co., 472, 646 + +Colet M.H., _q._, 594 + +Colgate, Charles C., 492 + +Colgate, Samuel, 492 + +_Collection of Voyages and Travels, A_, _q._ 23 + +Collins, William, 580 + +Coloring substances, 170 + +Colombians (c.), 348-350, 363, 364 + +Colpani, 558 + +Columbia University, 186 + +_Columbian Centinel_, _newsp._, _q._, 434 + +_Columnaris, C._, _hyb._, 140 + +Comité Français du Café, 445 + +Commaille, _q._, 165 + +Commercial Ass'n, Santos, 314 + +Commercial coffee chart, 191 + +Commercial Coffee Co., 478 + +_Commercial Organic Analysis_, _q._, 159 + +Commissario, 303, 304, 305, 306, 312, 491 + +Commissions + New York, 334, 336 + Santos, 304 + +Committee of Correspondence, 120, 474 + +Committee of One Hundred (1774), 120 + +Commonwealth and c., 54, 59 + +Competition, retail, 426 + +Complet, Café, 683 + +Compton (Bishop of London), 570 + +Condorcet, 94 + +Confectionery, C., 695 + +_Confessions_, Rousseau, 102 + +_Congensis, C._, 147 + +_Congensis var. Chalotii_, 147 + +_Congensis_ × _Ugandæ_, _hyb._, 146 + +Congo, Belgian, c., 353, 377 + +Congo coffee, caffein content, 161 + +Congress of Deputies, 120 + +Conkling & Lloyd, 476 + +Con léche, Café, 691 + +_Connoisseur_ (London), _per._, _q._, 579 + +Conopios, Nathaniel, 40, 41, 43 + +_Conquest of Granada_, Dryden's (censured by Rota), 60 + +Conrad & Co., J.H., 502 + +Consolidated Coffee Co., 508 + +Consortium of 1868, 476 + +Constantine, George, _chk._, 61, 84, 584 + (_See_ Jennings, George) + +_Constantinople, Illustrated_, Walsh, _q._, 663, 664 + +_Constantinople in 1657, Relation of a Journey to_, Rolamb, _q._, 23 + +_Constantinople, Old and New_, Dwight, _q._, 664-667 + +Constituents of c., Valuable, 693 + +_Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens_, Gilbert, _q._, 40 + +Consumo (grade), 261 + +Consumption, 285-302 + Argentina, 279, 286, 287, 291 + Australia, 286, 287, 291 + Balkan States, 290 + Belgium, 285, 287 + Canada, 286, 287 + Chile, 286, 287, 291 + Colombia, 278 + Cuba, 286, 287, 291 + Denmark, 287, 290 + Europe (19th Century), 295, 296 + Federated Malay States, 284 + France, 285, 287, 290 + Average annual, 678 + Germany, 285, 287, 290 + Great Britain, 285, 287 + Guiana, French, 279 + Italy, 285, 287, 290 + Mexico, 280 + Netherlands, 285, 287, 290 + New Zealand, 285, 287, 291 + Norway, 287, 290 + Peru, 278 + Portugal (1919), 290 + Russia, 285, 287, 291 + Salvador, 280 + San Francisco, 487 + Scandinavia, 285, 290 + Spain, 285, 287, 290 + Sweden, 287, 290 + Switzerland, 285, 287, 290, 291 + Table of World, 287 + Tea and c. comparisons, 288, 289 + Union of South Africa, 286, 287, 291 + United States, 106, 285, 287, 288, 293, 294 + Popularity explained, 106 + Prohibition; effect on, 689 + World-war; effect on, 297 + Venezuela, 278 + +Consumption per capita + Foreign countries, 288-290 + Groix, Island of, 176 + Tables, 288 + United States, 298, 299, 476 + Methods of computing, 302 + +Containers, 402-404, 408-412, 470, 471 + First paper and tin-end, 471 + First strawboard (1881), 471 + Leather bags, greased (1710), 620 + Pots of various sizes (1790), 491, 492 + Standardizing, 410 + Vacuum, 471 + +Conti, Prince de, 590 + +Contracts, 329, 331 + Cost-and-freight, 513, 515 + In-store, 331 + N.Y. Exchange, 333-335 + To arrive, 335 + +Controversies + England, 64-74 + Commercial, U.S., 438 + Medical, Eng., 58, 59 + Political, Eng. (1666-72), 72, 73, 76 + (_See also_ Opposition; Coffee houses) + +Conway, Charles, 499 + +Cooling, 381, 636, 641 + +Cooling machinery, 394, 395 + +Cooling machines + Burns's flexible-arm, 652, 653 + Emmerich automatic (1897), 639 + German patents (1877-85), 638 + Grohens's rotary, 646 + +Cook, O.F., _q._, 202, 223 + +Cooper, Charles, _q._, 675 + +Cooper, Cornelius, 492 + +Cooper, L.S., 495 + +Cooper & Co., Nathaniel, 476 + +Coorg c., 351, 379 + +Copha, 1, 2, 38 + +Cophie, 56, 58 + +Cophy, 56 + +Coppée, François, 565 + +Cordoba c., 347, 358 + +Corinchies c., 355, 371 + +_Corner in Coffee, The_, Brady, 563 + +Corners + Arnold's (1869-1881), 517, 518 + Blanco's (1895), 529 + Kaltenbach's (1891-92), 476, 529 + United States (1901), 530 + +Corn-poppers for roasting, 635 + +Correa & Sons, F.A., 338 + +Corbett, Barney, 503 + +Corbett & Heekin, 503 + +Corbin, May & Co., 485 + +Corinna (Mrs. E. Thomas), 575 + +Cornell & Smith, 508 + +Cost card for roasters, 392 + +Cost analysis, 407, 408 + Retail, 418 + +Cost and freight brokers, 336, 337 + +Cost and profits, retail, 426, 427 + Chart 428 + +Costa Ricas (c.), 348, 361 + +Coste, Felix, 448, 457, 514 + +Cotovicus, 32, 696; + _q._, 20 + +Cottraux, E.P., 505 + +Cottrell, 496 + +Couha, 2 + +Couguet, Dr. A., _q._, 26 + +Coventry, Sir William, _q._, 72 + +Cowha, 2 + +Cowha, 2 + +Cowper, William, 88, 557; + _q._, 550, 572 + +Cradle of Am. liberty, 293 + +Cramer. P.J.S., _q._, 133, 138, 140, 142, 144, 146, 147, 345 + +Crampton, G.E., 501 + +Crawford, Thomas A., 505 + +Crawley, Edwin, _pat._, 642 + +Cream in c., 399, 698 + +Crébilon, 94 + +Credit policy, retail, 428, 429 + +Creighton, Clarence, 477 + +Creighton & Ashland, 477 + +Creighton, Morrison & Meehan, 477 + +Creme, Café à la, 708 + +Crepaux, 708 + +Cripps, _q._, 602 + +Crispe, Sir Nicholas, 54 + +Crocker, Nathaniel, 508 + +Cromwell, Henry, 575 + +Cromwell, Oliver, 72 + +Crooks & Co., Robert, 485 + +Crooks & Co., Samuel, 501 + +Cross & Co., C.A., 642 + +Crossman, George W., 482, 518, 519 + +Crossman, W.H., 482, 518, 519 + +Crossmnn & Bro., W.H., 482, 484, 518, 530 + +Crossman & Sielcken, 482, 519, 521 + +Crossman-Sielcken contract, 519 + +Crouse & Co., Jacob, 508 + +Cruger, Henry, 475 + +Cruger, John, 475 + +Crusade (brand), 435 + +Cubans (c.), 351, 361 + +Cucuras (c.), 348, 349, 364 + +Cuchaletto (chocolate), 107 + Sold in Boston (1670), 107 + +Culapius, S., _pseud._, _q._, 181 + +Culbreth, _q._, 181 + +Cultivation, 197-243 + Crop maturity, 138 + Early, 197 + Spread of, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 + (_see also_ Propagation) + +Cultivation (geographical) + Abyssinia, 1 + Africa, British Central, 9 + Africa, British East, 9 + Amazonas (began 1752), 9 + Angola, 229 + Arabia, 2, 5, 230, 231 + Began (A.D. 575), 5, 230 + Argentina, 236 + Australia, 9, 238, 239 + Bolivia, 236 + Bourbon (Réunion), 9 + Brazil, 9, 74, 75, 204-208, 275 + Profits (1900), 205 + California, Southern, 9 + Celebes (began 1750), 9, 217, 283 + Ceylon, 236, 237 + Begun by Arabs (before 1505), 6, 43 + Begun by Dutch (1658), 6, 43 + Systematic (1690), 282 + Colombia, 208-212 + Costa Rica, 9, 135, 225, 280 + Cuba, 9, 231, 232 + Dominican Republic, 232 + Ecuador, 230 + Federated Malay States, 238 + Fiji Islands, 243 + France, 6 + Guadeloupe, 233, 234 + Guam, 242, 243 + Guatemala, 9, 135, 219, 220 + Guiana, British, 235, 236, 279 + Guiana, Dutch, 235, 236, 279 + Guiana, French, 235, 236 + Haiti, 9, 220 + Hawaii, 9, 239, 241 + Honduras, 234 + Honduras, British, 234, 235 + Indo-China, French, 9, 237 + India, 5, 9, 225-227, 282 + Jamaica, 9, 74, 233 + Java, 9, 43, 74, 213, 293 + Liberia, 230 + Martinique, 6, 7, 8, 9, 233 + Mexico, 9, 220, 221, 222, 280 + U.S. interest, 221 + Netherlands, 5, 6 + Netherlands E. Indies, 6, 213-217, 283 + New Caledonia, 243 + Nicaragua, 227 + Panama, 235 + Pará, 9 + Paraguay, 236 + Peru, 236 + Philippines, 9, 241, 242 + Porto Rico, 9, 222, 223, 225 + Queensland, 9 + Rio de Janeiro, 9 + Salvador, 217, 219, 279 + Santo Domingo, 9 + São Paulo, 205-208 + South America (first), 279 + Straits Settlements, 238 + Sumatra, 216, 217, 283 + Tahiti, 243 + Tobago, 234 + Tonkin, 9 + Trinidad, 234 + Uganda, 230 + United States, 9 + Venezuela, 9, 212, 213, 277 + West Indies, 9 + Western Hemisphere (first), 294 + +Cultured (brand), 474 + +Culver & Geiger, 509 + +Cumberland, _q._, 573, 574 + +Cummings, W.A., 496 + +Cunningham, 583 + +_Cup of c., or c. in its colours, A_ (broadside), _q._, 64 + +Cup-testing, 356, 357 + San Francisco, 487, 488 + +Curaçoa c., 351, 363 + +Cure-all, 58 + +Cure for drunkenness, 58, 61 + +_Curiosities of Literature_, D'Israeli, _q._, 41 + +Curtis & Burnham, 508 + +Curtis Publishing Co., 441 + +Cushing, _q._, 179 + +_Customs and Fashions in Old New England_, Earle, _q._, 709 + +Custom-house procedure, New York, 319 + +Cutler, Benjamin, 492 + +Cuyler, Philip, 475 + +C.W. (brand), 441 + +Cyrill, Patriarch, 40, 41 + + +da Ponte, Lorenzo, 28 + +Dagoty, 589, 590 + +Dahlman, Henry, 506 + +Dahlman, John, 506 + +_Daily Post_ (Lond.), _newsp._, _q._, 588 + +Dakin, Elizabeth, _pat._, 633 + +Dakin, William, _pat._, 633 + +Dakin & Co., 633 + +Dakotan, _v._, 316 + +D'Alembert, _q._, 3 + +Dally, Gifford, 128 + +Dana, John Cotton, _q._, 712 + +Dancourt, _q._, 554 + +Daney, Sidney, _q._, 8 + +Daniel, _chk._, 78 + +Dannemiller, A.J., _q._, 409 + Coffee-selling chart, 409 + +Dannemillers & Co., 484 + +Danton, George Jaques, 94, 98 + +_Danvers' Letters_, _q._, 2 + +d'Argenson, De Voyer, 594 + +Dark roast, 356, 387 + +Darouf (Arabian bale), 266 + +d'Arvieux, Chevalier, _q._, 2 + +Dash, Bowie, 479, 497, 527 + +Dash, J. Bowie, 497 + +Dash & Co., Bowie, 469, 477, 528 + +Dater, Henry, 482 + +Dater, Philip, 482 + +Dater & Co., Philip, 482 + +Dauchet, 554 + +Daudet, Alphonse, 103 + +Daughty, Charles, M., _q._, 661-663 + +Daugleish, Dr., 677 + +Dauphine of France, 600 + +Davenant, Sir William, 80, 576 + +Davenport & Morris, 485 + +David, 13 + +Davies, Tom, 567, 568 + +Davies & Co., John L., 502 + +Davies & Co., Ltd., Theo. H., 488 + +Davis, S.L., 499 + +Davis & Co., Noah, 501 + +Dawson, August T., _q._, 711, 712 + +Dayton & Co., 480 + +Dayton Spice Mills, 443 + +Dayton Spice Mills Co., 508 + +De Belloy, Jean Baptiste, _inv._, 94, 621, 622, 697, 698 + +de Boze, _q._, 543 + +de Bussy, Th. Roland, _q._, 656 + +de Chirac, 6 + +de Clieu, Mathieu Gabriel, 6, 7, 8, 233, 550 + Memorial to, 9 + Verses about, 8 + Voyage to Martinique, 6, 7 + +_De Constantinople à Bombay, Lettres_, Della Valle, _q._, 12 + +de Coverley, Sir Roger, 86 + +De Fremery & Co., 488 + +de Goncourt, Jules, 102, 103 + +de Gourcuff, O., 557 + +de Jour, Rouillé, 8 + +de Jussieu, Antoine, 6 + +_De la Café_, de Gourcuff, 557 + +de la Motte, Houdard, 554 + +De Lancey house, New York, 121 + +de Lannay, Count, 47 + +de Laval, Pyrard, _q._, 2 + +de l'Écluse, Charles, 31 + +De Lessert & Co., J.S., 476 + +De Lima, D.A., 482 + +De Lima, D.A. & J., 482 + +De Lima & Co., D.A., 482 + +De Luxe, Café (Guadeloupe), 257 + +de Mattei, Natale, _pat._, 653 + +De Mattia, _pat._, 166 + +De Mattia Bros., 686 + +de Maupassant, Guy, 565 + +de Mere, Mlle., 91 + +de Monteith, Fulbert, _q._, 22 + +de Musset, Alfred, 98, 102, 565; + _q._, 103 + +de Noailles, Duke, 567 + +de Nointel, 542 + +De Quincey, Thomas, _q._, 562 + +de Pompadour, _ill._, 588, 600 + +de Rabutin-Chantal, Marie, 91 + +de Sacy, Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre, 17; + _q._, 2, 663 + +_De Saluberrimá Cahue seu Café_, etc., Nairon, 16 + +de Santais, Edward Loysel, _pat._, 629 + +De Sarlo, _q._, 186 + +de Saxe, Marie-Josephe, 600 + +de Sévigné, Madame, 91, 565 + +de Thévenot, Jean, 31, 91 + +de Tournemine, 591 + +de Wildman, M.E., _q._, 132 + +Dealers, Wholesale + New Orleans, 486, 487 + New York, 475-482 + +Dearman, Richard, _pat._, 621 + +Decaffeinated (_see_ Caffein-free) + +Declaration of Independence, 111 + +Decoction defined, 698 + +Decreuse, 589 + +Deep Sea Hotel (Arbuckle's), 524 + +Deer Co., A.J., 443, 472, 473, 643, 646 + +Defendorf, George, 492 + +Deffes, 594 + +Defoe, Daniel, 80; + _q._, 78, 79 + +Dehio, 186 + +del Castillo & Co., Rafael, 340 + +Delafield, Henry, 476 + +Delafield, William, 476 + +Delille, Jacques, _q._, 547 + +Dell, John C., _pat._, 644 + +Della Valle, Pierre (Pietro), 543; + _q._, 2, 12, 27 + +Delphine, Sr., _pat._, 639 + +Demidoff, Prince, 103 + +Democracy, Coffee and, 20, 21, 54, 72, 75, 293 + Am. colonies, 107 + Boston, 111 + England, 59 + France, 100 + Italy, 28 + +Demonstrations, etc., Store, 425 + +Dennis, 575 + +Denobe, _pat._, 621 + +Deodorant, 58, 180 + +Department stores, 415 + +Des Arts & Henser, 476 + +_Des Dames du Temps Jadis_, Villon, _q._, 135 + +Descamps, 591 + +Desmoulins, Camille, 94, 100 + +Desserts, recipes, 723, 724 + +Destrée, _q._, 186 + +Desvignes, _pat._, 157 + +Detroit Testing Laboratories, 715 + +Developing point, 389 + +Deverall, R.R. & A. 501 + +Devers, A.H., 507 + +_Dewevrei, C._, 142 + Java, 214 + +Diarrhea, effect of c. on, 181 + +_Diary_, Jourdain, _q._, 1 + +_Diary and Correspondence_, Evelyn, _q._, 40 + +Dickinson, Gilchrist, 476 + +_Dictionary_, d'Alembert, _q._, 3 + +_Dictionary_, d'Arvieux, _q._, 2 + +_Dictionary of Applied Chemistry_, _q._, 164 + +_Dictionary, New English_, Murray, _q._, 1 + +_Dictionary, Universal_, _q._, 176 + +Diderot, Denis, 94; + _q._, 96, 98 + +Dieckmann & Co., 488 + +Diefenthaler, Charles E., 497 + +Diefenthaler, T.F., 497 + +Dietl, 186 + +Dietz, F.C., 508 + +Digestion, effect of c. on, 175, 177, 178-180 + +Diligence (infusion device), 620 + +Dilworth & Co., J.S., 507 + +Dilworth Bros., 435, 507 + +Dimond & Gardes, 482 + +Dimond & Lally, 480, 482 + +Direct-flame roasting, 386, 641 + +Discovery of c. (_see_ Origin) + +Diseases and pests, 147, 148, 152, 203, 204 + C.-berry beetle, 203 + C.-leaf miner, 147, 203 + Eel-worm disease, 204 + Fungoid, 147, 148, 203 + _Hemileia vastatrix_, 148, 152, 203 + Insects, 203 + Leaf blight + Ceylon 203, 236, 237, 282, 283 + Dominican Rep., 281 + Hawaii (1855), 241 + India, 226 + Philippines (1889), 242 + _Pellicularia tokeroga_, 148 + Root disease, 148, 204 + _Sphaerostilbe flavida_, 204 + Spot of leaf and fruit, 148 + +D'Israeli, I., 557: _q._, 41, 53, 72, 91 + +Distillation devices + Napier-List (1891), 639 + Napierian (1870), 639 + Napier's vacuum (1840), 637 + Wyatt's patent (1802), 621 + +Ditson, Thomas, _pat._, 245 + +Dittman, Charles, 486 + +Dittman, Jr., Charles, 487 + +Dittman Co., Chas., 486, 487 + +Divination by coffee grounds, 558 + +Divorce, C. and, 22 + +Doane & Co., J.W., 482, 484, 485 + +Dolton & Co., Wm., 508 + +_Domestick Coffee Man_, Broadbent, _q._, 293, 697 + +Dominguez, Andres, 221 + +Donaldson, 578 + +Donovan, Prof., _q._, 704 + +Donmartin, _inv._, 620, 697 + +Donns, _q._, 8 + +Doolittle, _q._, 167 + +Doran, John, _q._, 705 + +Dorn, R.H., 505 + +Dorr, S.H., 535 + +Dorsay, Benjamin, 468 + +Dorset, Earl of, 584 + +Double roasting, 387 + +Douglas, James (Bishop of Salisbury), 42, 543, 574 + +Downer, Samuel A., 502 + +Downer & Co., 501, 502 + +Downtown Association, New York, 517 + +Drake, Samuel Gardner, _q._, 108, 116 + +Drake & Co., W.D., 507 + +Dramatic Literature, C. in, 554-556 + +Draper & Co., John H., 482 + +Dressing machinery, 245 + +Drew, J.C., 505 + +Drink (_see_ Beverage) + +Drinksum (brand), 524 + +Droste, H.R., 503 + +Drouais, François Hubert, 589, 599 + +Drug stores, C. sold in, 415 + +Drums (_see_ Containers) + +Drupes (_see also_ Botany; Fruit), 136 + +Dry method, 136, 249, 251 + +Dry roast, 389, 391 + +Dryden, John, 60, 77, 78, 80, 84, 574, 575, 583, 584 + +Drying, 251 + +Drying grounds, 251, 254 + +Drying machinery, 254, 255 + +Du Barry, Madame, _ill._, 92, 563, 566, 588 + +Du Belloy, Archbishop, 697 + +Du Mont, 543 + +Du Tour, _q._, 707, 708 + +Dubard, Prof., _q._, 147 + +_Dublin Philosophical Journal_, _per._, _q._, 704 + +Ducis, 548 + +Duehring, Carl H., _pat._, 642 + +Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre, 34, 432, 543, 557; + _q._ 2, 11, 13, 74, 98 + +Dugdale, E., 470 + +Dumant, Pierre Étienne Louis, _q._, 13 + +Duncan, James, _q._, 59 + +Duncombe Mfg. Co., F.A., 649 + +Dunham, Charles A., 508 + +Dunks, John, 118 + +Duparquet, L., _pat._, 469, 639 + +Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co., 639, 644 + +Durand, Calvin, 502 + +Durand, H.C., 502 + +Durand, H.C. & C., 502 + +Durand & Co., 502 + +Durand & Kasper, 502 + +Durand & Kasper Co., 485 + +Durant, Nicholas Felix, _pat._, 625, 634, 699 + +Durieux, Elizabeth, 178 + +Duryee, P.S., _q._, 420 + +Dutch (_see_ Netherlands) + +_Dutch New York_, Singleton, _q._, 105, 115, 125, 709 + +Duties, Export + Angola, 268 + São Paulo, 315 + +Duties, Import + Abyssinia, 310 + Belgium, removed (1904), 296 + England (1692, 1732), 74 + United States, 296, 468 + Porto Rico requests, 472 + (_See also_ Chronology) + +Dwight, H.G., _q._, 664-667 + +Dwinell, James F., 501 + +Dwinell & Co., 501 + +Dwinell, Hayward & Co., 501 + +Dwinell, Wright & Co., 485, 501 + +Dwinell-Wright Co., 501, 629 + +_Dybowski, C._, 144 + Java, 216 + +_Dybowski_ × _excelsa_, _hyb._, 146 + +Dyer & Co., 501 + +Dykes & Wilson, 480 + +Dymond & Gardes, 486 + + +Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills, 503 + +Eagle Spice Co., 507 + +Eagle Spice Mills, 503 + +Eames, Wilberforce, 474 + +Earle, Alice Morse, _q._, 709 + +_Early History of Coffee Houses in England, The_, Robinson, _q._, 11 + +East Indies (c.), 350, 370-374 + +Eating coffee, 180, 615, 655, 693, 694 + +Eccles, William, 475 + +Eckert, _q._, 164 + +Eckhardt, _pat._, 167 + +Ecuadors (c.), 350, 367 + +Eddy & Co., L.B., 508 + +Eder, _q._, 179 + +Edmond, 102 + +Edtbauer, P.E. (Mrs. E.), _pat._, 472 + +Educational exhibits, 715 + +Edwards, Daniel, 53, 54, 459 + +Edwards, Hugh, 482 + +Edwards, J.M., 479 + +Edwards & Co., J.M., 479 + +Edwards & Maddux, 479 + +Edwards & Raworth, 482 + +Edwards, Townsend & Co., 507 + +Ekelund Charles, 509 + +Electric motors, 471, 646 + +Electric roasting, 386 + +Electric Scale Co., 471 + +Electric signs, 443 + +Elephant (grade), 258 + +Elers, 604, 612 + +Elford, _chk._, 83 + +Elford, _inv._, 616, 617 + +Elford the younger, _q._, 61 + +"Elixir of life", 174 + +Elkington & Co. Ltd., 637, 639, 699 + +Elliott, _chk._, 573 + +Ellis, Douglas, 557 + +Ellis, H.D., _q._, 602, 603, 604 + +Ellis Bros., 485 + +Elmenhorst & Co., 482 + +Ely & Co., D.J., 480 + +Ely & Co., D.J. & Z.S., 480 + +Emerson, E., 501 + +Emerson, Edward R., _q._, 566 + +Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron Foundry, _pat._, 638, 639 + +Emo, Angelo, 27 + +En pergamino (grade), 261 + +_Encyclopedia_, Diderot, 98 + +_Encyclopedia Britannica_, _q._, 11, 200, 657 + +_Encyclopedia der Therapie_, _q._, 185 + +_Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy_, _q._, 704 + +_Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_, _q._, 710 + +Engelberg, Evaristo C., _pat._, 247 + +Engelberg, Huller Co., 247, 471 + +Engelhard, Albert, 505 + +Engelhard, Jr., Albert, 505 + +Engelhard, George, 505 + +Engelhard, R.W., 505 + +Engelhard, Victor H., 505 + +Engelhard, Jr., Victor H., 505 + +Engelhard & Sons, Inc., A., 505 + +English, Dr., _q._, 180 + +English c.-pots (1714-70), 620, 621 + +_English Factories in India_, Foster, _q._, 2 + +Ennis, Frank, 515 + +Ensaccador, 304 + +Enterprise Coffee Co., 485, 508 + +Enterprise Mfg. Co. of Pa., 469, 471, 639, 646 + +Eoff, Garrett, 612 + +_Epicure_, _per._, 675 + +Eppens, Frederick P., 482 + +Eppens, William H., 482 + +Eppens, Smith & Co., 482 + +Eppens, Smith & Wiemann, 482 + +Eppens Smith & Wiemann Co., 485, 496, 499 + +Eppens Smith Co., 494, 496, 499 + +Eppens-Smith Co., 496, 499 + +Erdmann, _q._, 163, 183 + +_Erecta, C._, _hyb._, 140 + +Esau, 13 + +Escoffier (chef), 678 + +Escott, _q._, 87 + +Esménard, 548; + _q._, 8 + +Esperanza Coffee Co., 497 + +Essential oil, 163, 164 + +Essmueller Mill Furnish'g Co., 649 + +Estienne, Jacques, 548 + +Estrado & Co., Pedro, 340 + +Établissements Lauzaune (_see_ Lauzaune) + +Etherege, Sir George, 569, 570 + +Ethridge, Tuller & Co., 508 + +Etiquette + Arabia, 658-663 + Paris (17th century), 91 + Turkey, 664-670 + (_See also_ Manners and Customs) + +Etruscan Coffee Pot Co., 645 + +Etymology, 1, 2, 3, 27 + +"European fiasco" (1888), 529 + +Evans, _pat._, 158 + +Evans, David G., 503 + +Evans, Gwynne, 503 + +Evans, Richard, _pat._, 624 + +Evans & Co., David G., 502, 503 + +Evans & Walker, 508, 635 + +Evelyn, John, _q._, 2, 40 + +_Evening World_, New York, _q._, 553, 554 + +Ewé, 160 + +Ewell, _q._, 165 + +Ex-sailing ships, 316 + +_Excellent Qualities of Coffee and the Art of Making It, + The_, Rumford, 621, 622 + +_Excelsa, C._, 142 + French Indo-China, 237 + Java, 217 + +_Excelsa_ × _liberica_, _hyb._, 146 + +Excelsior Mills, 501, 502 + +Excelso (grade), 261 + +Excessive use, effect of, 179 + +Exchange, Foreign, 336 + +Exchanges, Coffee, 329-337 + Amsterdam, 296, 491 + Antwerp, 296, 491 + Baltimore, 491 + Hamburg, 296, 329, 491 + Havre, 296, 329, 491 + London, 296, 491 + New York, 329-337, 471, 491 + Change of name, 474 + Clearing Ass'n, 331, 335 + Contract, 321 + Functions, 331-338 + Incorporated (1881), 471 + Initiation fee, 332 + Membership, 333 + Organized (1881), 528 + Reincorporated (1885), 471 + Rio gradings, 343 + Robusta dealings prohibited, 341 + Seats, Sales of, 332, 333 + War-time suspension, 534-537 + New Orleans, 491 + Rotterdam, 296, 491 + Royal (New York, 1752), 120 + San Francisco, 491 + Santos, 306, 308, 491 + Trieste, 296, 491 + +_Excursions through Asia-Minor_, Fellows, _q._, 667, 668 + +Experimental gardens (_see_ Gardens) + +Exports, 276, 277 + Abyssinia, 228, 229, 276, 284, 285 + Aden (1921), 276 + Africa, British East, 276, 285 + Arabia, 282 + Borneo, Brit. North, 276, 284 + Brazil, 190, 275-277, 295 + First (1770), 204 + Largest (1906-07), 275 + Central America, first to U.S., 469 + Ceylon (1741-1900), 283 + First (1721), 236 + Largest (1873), 237 + Colombia, 192, 276, 278 + Costa Rica, 193, 276, 280 + Cuba, 233, 282 + Dominican Republic, 194, 233, 276, 281 + Ecuador, 276, 278 + Federated Malay States, 284 + France (1921), 290 + Germany (1920), 290 + Gold Coast (1916-17), 276 + Grenada (1916), 282 + Guadeloupe, 234, 276, 282 + Guatemala, 192, 276, 280 + Guiana, 276, 279 + Haiti, 194, 276, 281 + Hawaii, 194, 241, 276, 284 + Honduras, 276, 280 + India, 276, 282 + Indo-China, French, 237 + Jamaica, 193, 276, 281 + Java, 283, 294 + Leeward Islands, 282 + Mauritius, 285 + Mexico, 193, 220, 276, 280, 281 + Netherlands, 290 + Netherlands E. Indies, 195, 276, 283, 295 + New Caledonia, 243 + Nicaragua, 276, 280 + Nigeria, 276, 285 + Nyasaland, 276, 285 + Peru, 276, 278, 279 + Philippines, 242, 284 + Porto Rico, 194, 222, 276, 281 + Portugal, 290 + Producing countries (table), 276 + Réunion, 276, 285 + Salvador, 193, 276, 279, 280 + Santos (1900-01), 472 + Sarawak, 284 + Sierra Leone, 285 + Somali Coast (French), 276, 285 + Somaliland, 276, 285 + Straits Settlements, 238, 284 + St. Vincent (1917), 282 + Sumatra, 283 + Tobago, 282 + Trinidad, 282 + United States, 301, 302 + Venezuela. 190, 276-278 + +Extra (grade), 261 + +Extracts, Coffee, 169, 670, 712 + First U.S. trade-mark, 469 + +Eyre, Henry, 482 + + +_Faba Arabica, Carmen_, Fellon, 543 + +Fair-price list (Phila., 1776), 467 + +Fairy Cup (brand), 539 + +Fakr-Eddln-Aboubeckr ben Abid Iesi, 543 + +Fancies (Sumatra), 355 + +Faneuil Hall, Boston, 612 + +Faneuil, Peter, 612 + +Fantasia (grade), 261 + +Fantastic claims for c., 58, 433 + Advertising, 439 + +Faris, Charles, 612 + +Farquhar, _q._, 587 + +Farr, James, _chk._, 53, 54, 62 + +Farrell, C.P., 508 + +Farrington, Campbell & Co., 508 + +Fat content in c., 164, 693, 715, 718, 719 + Loss in roasting, 167 + +"Father of English C. houses," (Blount), 56 + +Fatigue, effect of c. on, 186 + +Fauldier, H., _pat._, 640 + +Faunce process, _pat._, 160 + +Faust (brand), 441, 539 + +Fauvel, _q._, 176 + +Fazenda (brand), 445 + +Fazendas (_see_ Plantations) + +Fazendeiros, 258, 303, 304 + +Federal Sugar Refining Co., 123, 473 + +Fell & Bro., C.J., 501 + +Fellon, 543 + +Fellows, _q._, 667 + +Fendler-Stüber method, 172 + +Fenjeyl (_see_ Findjan) + +Fenjyn (_see_ Findjan) + +Feré, _q._, 186 + +Fermentation, 254 + +Fermented (_see_ Flavors) + +Ferrari, Mary, _chk._, 118, 119 + +Ferris, P.J., 508 + +Fertilizers + Ashes, 201 + Chemical determination, 155, 156 + Coffee pulp, 156 + +Fertilizing, 202 + Salvador, 219 + +Fiber, crude, 718 + +Fidelity Trust Co., 112 + +Fielding, Henry, 80, 89, 554, 579, 580 + +Fielding, John, 579 + +Figueroa, 543 + +Filter bags, care of, 707, 714, 715, 717 + +Filter paper, 715 + +Filtration + Definition, 698 + Methods, 715, 716, 721 + N.C.R.A. recommendations, 718 + +Filtration devices + Acker's "percolator" (1905), 701 + Baker's cloth (1902), 647 + Beurt's pneumatic, 705 + Blanke's cloth (1909), 651 + Boss (1881), 645 + Brain's vacuum, 705 + Caseneuve's paper (1824), 623 + Reversed Fr. drip (1824), 699 + Double glass, 637, 701, 702 + Egrot's steam cloth, 708 + Evans's tin air-float, 705 + Gaudet's cloth, 623, 699 + Half-Minute, 645 + King's, for restaurants, 651 + "Percolator", 701 + Kin-Hee, 646, 647 + Make-Right, 651, 701 + Minute, 645 + Napier's vacuum, _ill._, 637, 699, 700 + Parker's pneumatic, 705 + Platow's vacuum glass, 705 + Private Estate, 649, 701 + Raparlier's pocket, 637 + Rapid (_see_ Rapid) + Salazar's steam-pressure urn, 653 + Tricolator, 445, 651, 652, 701 + Tricolette, _ill._, 654 + Tru-Bru, 651, 701 + Vanderweyde's "continuous", 637 + Wear's patent, 651 + +Filtré, Café, 675 + +Finch, William, _q._, 36 + +Findjans, 31, 36, 616, 661, 662 + +Findlay, Paul, _q._, 421 + +Fine; Very fine (_see_ Grinds) + +Fine Arts, C. in relation to, 587-614 + +Fines (England), 59 + +Fin-ion (_see_ Findjans) + +Finishing machinery, 396 + +Finjans (_see_ Findjans) + +Fink & Nasse Co., 502 + +Finney, Samuel, 126 + +First + Authoritative treatise, 27 + Comprenenslve treatise in German, Meisner's (1721), 46 + Description in print, 26 + Mention by European, 5, 541 + Printed mention, 25, 45 + America, 105 + England, 35 + As "Coffe", 36 + Europe, 12 + France, 31 + Printed treatise, 543 + Written mention in Mass. (1670), 107 + +Fischer, B., 497 + +Fischer, Benedickt, 634; + _biog._, 497 + +Fischer, Emil, 160 + +Fischer, William H., 497 + +Fischer & Co., B., 443, 485, 497, 499 + +Fischer & Lansing, 499 + +Fischer & Lehmann, 499 + +Fischer & Thurber, 499 + +Fischer, Kirby & Brown, 497, 499 + +Fishback, F.C., 509 + +Fishback, Frank S., 509 + +Fishback, John S., 509 + +Fishback Co., 509 + +Fisher, George, 497 + +Fitch & Howland, 484 + +Fitzgerald, 584 + +Fitzpatrick, Austin C., 496 + +Fitzpatrick & Case, 499 + +Fitzpatrick & Co., A.C., 496, 499 + +Flanders, Geo. W., 482, 491 + +Flanders & Co., Geo. W., 482 + +Flannel sack used for infusion, 620 + +_Flasks and Flagons_, Saltus, _q._, 552 + +Flat (_see_ Flavors) + +Flat-bean Santos c., 260, 341, 342, 366 + +Flats, 1st, 2d, 3d (grades), 258 + +Flaubert, Gustave, 565 + +Flavoring, Use in, 723, 724 + +Flavors, 397 + +Fleury, _pat._, 640 + +Fleury & Barker, _pat._, 638 + +Flint, Austin B., _q._, 176 + +Flint, J.G., 485, 506 + +Flint, W.K., 506 + +Flint, Wyman, 506 + +Flint, W. & J.G., 506, 635 + +Flint Bros. & Co., 501 + +Flint Co., J.G., 506 + +Flint, Evans & Co., 502, 503, 635 + +Floor brokers, 336, 337 + +_Flora de las Antillas_, Tussac, _q._, 8 + +Florian, _chk._, 27, 28 + (_See_ Francesconi) + +Flower, Henry, 126 + +Flugel & Popp, 502, 503 + +Foley, John T., 478 + +Folger, J.A., 514 + +Folger & Co., J.A., 488, 505, 506, 509 + +Folger, Schilling & Co., 506, 507 + +Folkes, Martin, 578 + +Folkingham, 603 + +Fontenelle, 94, 98, 543, 554; + _q._, 565 + +Food Administration, U.S. + (_See_ Government Control) + +_Food and Dietetics_, Hutchinson, _q._, 179 + +Food and Drugs Act, U.S., 404 + +Food and drugs inspection, 338 + +Food conservation show, 386 + +Food use, 136, 615, 655, 693 + +Food value, 174, 180, 711, 712 + U.S. Army, 539 + +_Food Values_, Locke, _q._, 180 + +Foote, Samuel, 85, 89, 579, 580, 581, 584 + +Foote & Knevals, 485 + +Forbes, A.E., 503; + _q._, 629, 631 + +Forbes, James H., 502, 503, 629, 635 + +Forbes, Robert M., 503, 510, 514 + +Force & Co., W.H., 482 + +Force & Co., W.S., 482 + +Force & Co., William H., 484 + +Formaleoni, Vincenzo, 27 + +Forrester, George R., 508 + +Forster, _q._, 159 + +Forster's _Life of Goldsmith_, _q._, 573 + +Forster, E.S., 508 + +Forsythe & Co., James, 502 + +Fossi & Co., 340 + +Foster, _q._, 2 + +Foster, A.C., 479 + +Fowler, John A., _q._, 269 + +Fox, 583 + +Francesconi, Floriono, 27 + +Francis, Norman, 492 + +Franco-American (brand), 441 + +François, Damame, 34 + +Frankel, E.M., 716 + +Frankel, F. Hulton, _q._, 180, 693 + +Franklin, Alfred, _q._, 7, 557 + +Franklin, Benjamin, 94, 98, 126, 467 + +Franklin, Samuel, 475 + +Franklin, Walter, 475 + +Franklin Tea Warehouse, 503 + +Fraser, _q._, 179 + +Fraser, David B., _pat._, 642, 644 + +Fraser Manufacturing Co., 644 + +Frederick the Great, 45; + _q._ 46 + +Frederick William I, 45 + +Fredericq, _q._, 184 + +Freeman, W.G., _q._, 133 + +Freight forwarding bureau, 323 + +Freight rates + Brazil to U.S. (1917-18), 535, 536 + War-time, 338 + +_French Color Prints of the XVIII Century_, Salaman, _q._, 589 + +French Company of the Indies, 9 + +French Revolution, 100, 102, 293 + +French roast, 356, 388 + +Freund, 158 + +Fricke, E., _q._, 161 + +Frisbie & Stephens, 507 + +Frisi, 558 + +_From Tree to Cup with Coffee_, N.C.B.A., _q._, 713, 714 + +Fromm & Co., 482 + +Fruit + Beverages from, 15, 694 + Food use, 15, 693, 694 + +Fry & Co., Henry A., 501 + +Fryer, _q._, 2 + +Fuels, 385, 386 + Coal, 620 + Electricity, 647, 648 + Gas, 640, 643 + Natural, 642 + +Full city roast, 388 + +Full difference, 331 + +Fullard, William, _pat._, 643 + +Fulton Mills, 498 + +Funk, C., _q._, 180 + +Fustian bag used for infusion, 620 + +Future of coffee, 585 + +Futures market (New York), 329 + +Fuzelier, _q._, 594 + + +G.G. (hall mark; _see_ Garthorne, G.) + +Gaa Paa, _v._, 316 + +Gabriel, Angel, 15, 23 + Legend, 38 + +Gaffney, Hugh, 497, 498 + +Gage, H.N., 505 + +Gainsborough, Thomas, 84, 583 + +Galen, 11 + +Galla (_see_ Eating coffee) + +Galland, Antoine, 31, 543, 548, 557; + _q._, 2, 12, 16, 20, 22 + +_Gallienii, C._, 147 + Caffein content, 161 + +Galt, Herbert, _pat._, 652 + +Galuppi, 556 + +Gambetta, 96 + +Gandais, J.A., _pat._, 625, 699, 708 + +Ganse, John H., 507 + +Garair (Arabian bale), 266 + +Gardell, Theodore, 85, 584 + +Gardens + Botanical + Amsterdam, 6, 44 + Arabia, royal, 34 + Paris (Jardin des plantes), 6 + Martinique (Jardin Desclieux), 9 + Experimental + Bangelan (Java), 138, 146, 345 + Camayenne (Fr. Guinea), 146 + Indo-China, French, 237 + Java, 43, 215 + Pleasure (New York), 121, 123, 124 + Cherry, 124 + Contoit's, 124 + New York, 124 + Niblo's, _ill._, 121, 124 + Ranelagh, 124 + Sans Souci, 124 + Vauxhall, _ill._, 123, 124 + Tea (London), 80, 82, 83 + Adam and Eve, 83 + Bagnigge Wells, 83 + Bayswater, 83 + Canonbury House, 83 + Copenhagen House, 83 + Cuper's, 82 + Dog and Duck, 83 + Highbury, 83 + Hornsey, 83 + Jews' Harp, 83 + Marylebone, 82 + New Spring Gardens, 82 + Ranelagh, _ill._, 81, 82, 83 + Spring Gardens, 82 + Vauxhall, _ill._, 81, 82 + White Conduit House, 83 + +Garrick, David, 80, 81, 85, 88, 569, 574, 579, 580, 583; + _q._, 573 + +Garrick, David (Mrs.), 579 + +Garrick, Westphal & Co., S.B., 476 + +Garrison, C.H., 508 + +Garrondona, J.L., 340 + +Garth, Sir Samuel, 576, 578 + +Garthorne, Francis, 601 + +Garthorne, George, 601, 602 + +Garway (_see_ Garraway) + +Gas roasting, 385, 386 + +Gaskell, Mrs., 582 + +Gasser, M.H., 510, 511, 513, 514 + +_Gastronomy as a Fine Art_, Brillat-Savarin, _q._, 557 + +Gates, H., 505 + +Gates, John W., 519 + +Gates & Co., A.B., 508 + +Gaudet, _pat._, 623, 699 + +Gaudron, 543 + +Gautier, Théophile, 98, 102, 565 + +_Gazette_, London, _newsp._, 585 + +_Gazette de France_, _per._, _q._, 8 + +Gay, John, _q._, 575, 577 + +Gee, Edward, _pat._, 634 + +Geiger, Frank J., 509 + +Geiger-Fishback Co., 509 + +Geiger-Tinney Co., 508, 509 + +Gelabert, José Antonio, 9 + +Gemaleddin, Sheik, 16, 541 + +Genius fostered by c., 557 + +Geographical distribution, 189-195 + +George III, 106, 117, 583 + +George V, 601 + +George & Co., P.T., 485 + +Georgi, Theophilo, 45, 433 + +Gephart, _q._, 180 + +Gerard, (French minister), 130 + +German Trading Co., 527 + +Germicidal properties, 180 + +Germination, 5, 138 + +Gérôme, Jean Léon, 591, 656 + +Ghiradelli & Co., D., 505 + +Giacomini, Luigi, _pat._, 648 + +Gibbon, Edward, 81, 583 + +Gilbert, Colgate, 494 + +Gilbert & Co. Colgate, 498 + +Gillet, Frère, 144 + +Gillett, A.B., 508 + +Gilles, E.J., _q._, 408 + +Gillies, James W., 495; + _biog._, 494 + +Gillies, Wright, 497; + _biog._, 494 + +Gillies & Bro., Wright, 494, 495, 499 + +Gillies & Co. Inc., E.J., 495, 499, 501 + +Gillies Coffee Co., 494, 495, 499 + +Gilman, George F., 479, 485 + +Gimborn, Theo. von, 638; + _pat._, 639 + +Glazes and coatings, 170 + +Glazing + Arbuckle's patent, 522 + Effects, 167 + Italy, 686 + Machinery, 396 + +Glines, J.T. & N., 501 + +Globe Mills, 496, 497, 499, 526 + +Gloria, Café, 683 + +Glover, Force & Co., 482 + +Glyceral as sweetening, 165 + +Glynn, Martin J., 482 + +Glynn & Co., Martin J., 482 + +_Godey's Lady's Book_, _per._, _q._, 711 + +Goed Vrouw, _v._, 317 + +Goetzinger, M.E., _q._, 521 + +Gold and Silversmiths' Soc., 609 + +Golden Gate (brand), 441 + +Golden Sun (brand), 441 + +Golden Wedding (brand), 441 + +Golden West (brand), 441 + +Goldoni Carlo, 28, 555, 588; + _q._, 556 + +Goldsmith, Oliver, 80, 81, 85, 88, 568, 574, 579, 582, 584 + "Retaliation", 573 + +Goldtree, Liebes & Co., 488 + +Goldsworthy, William G., _pat._ 702 + +_Goodhousekeeping_, _per._, _q._, 175, 176, 182 + +Gomez, Juan Antonio, 9, 221 + +Gordon, Douglas, _pat._, 248 + +Gordon, Fred P., 478 + +Gordon, G.O., 485, 486 + +Gordon, John, _pat._, 246 + +Gordon & Co., Fred P., 478 + +Gordon & Co., Geo. O., 486 + +Gordon & Co., John, 246 + +Gorter, _q._, 156, 159, 160 + +Gothot, Ferd., 639 + +Gottlieb, 185 + +Gould (chemist), _q._, 167, 168 + +Gould, George J., 519 + +Gouverneur, Isaac, 475 + +Gouverneur, Nicholas, 475 + +Gourewitsch, _q._, 176 + +Gout, strange remedy for, 182 + +Government (brand), 434 + +Government control, War-time, 338, 474, 534-538 + +Government Monopoly + Java, 213, 214 + Netherlands E. Ind., 44, 283, 312 + +Grace & Co., W.R., 442, 482, 488, 489 + +Grade, Basic (N.Y. Exch.), 329, 335 + +Graders (N.Y. Exch.), 333 + +Grades, 258 + Colombia, 260 + Mocha, 351 + New York, 329 + Porto Rico, 264 + São Paulo, 260 + U.S. (prohibited), 337 + +Grading + Brazil, 304, 306 + Hand, 258 + Machinery, 246-248, 258, 383 + Machine (Van Gulpen's), 638 + New York Exchange, 333 + Santos, 304 + +Grafe, _q._, 164 + +Grafting (_see_ Propagation) + +Gragé (_see_ Peaberry) + +Graham, _q._, 153 + +Gram, _pat._, 158 + +_Grand concern of England explained_, _pamph._, 72 + +Grandin, 708 + +Granger & Co., 508 + +Granger & Hodge, 508 + +Grant, U.S., 563 + +Grassy (_see_ Flavors) + +Gray, Arthur, _q._, 552, 553, 713 + +Gray, Louis R., 446 + +Gray, Thomas, 80 + +Great American Tea Co., 479, 499 + +Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co., 417, 479, 485, 499 + Premiums, 429 + +Great Boom (_see_ Booms), 528, 529 + +Great London Tea Co., 435 + +_Greeks of the Present Day_, About, _q._, 685 + +Green, William, 492 + +Green coffee marks, _ill._, 338, 340 + +Green Dragon c. urn, 613, 614 + +Greene, Richard A., _pat._, 652, 653 + +Greenwood, Paul, 71 + +Gregory, _chk._, 93 + +Grenier, Dufougeret, 9 + +Grever & Bro., 501 + +Grévy, François Paul Jules, 566 + +Griebel, _q._, 159 + +Griffiths & Co., J., 508 + +Grigor & Co., T.S., 508 + +Grinding + Arabia, 658-662 + Australia, 692 + Greece, 685 + Household + England, 695, 696, 704, 705 + Greece, 685 + United States, 711 + Steel cut, 714 + New Zealand, 692 + +Grinding and packing, 167, 168 + +Grinding machinery, 400-402, 615-654 + Chronology, 643-654 + Commercial + Burstone Mills, 637 + France, 680 + Greece, 685 + Household, 615-620 + First French patent, 625 + +Grinding machines + Household + Book's (1665), 617 + Bronson's patent (1903), 647 + Bruff's patent (1798), 621 + Clark's hand-mill (1832), 625 + Colaux's patent (1829), 625 + Dearman's patent (1779), 621 + Electric (first, 1897), 471 + First English patent, 634 + First U.S. patent, 468, 621 + Herbert's patent (1848), 634 + Kenrich's mill (1815), 624 + Lacoux' combined roaster and grinder, 625, 627 + Moore's mill (1813), 623 + Morgan's glass-Jar mill, 645 + Hand mills, 644, 645 + N.C.R.A. Home Mill (1915), _ill._, 652, 714 + Parker's hand mill (1832), 625 + Rittenhouse's hand-mill, 627 + Selden's hand-mill (1831), 625 + Stillman's "mica window", 627 + Stowe's hand mill, 644 + Strowbridge's box mill, 644 + Turkish combination, 670 + Van Vliet's hand mill, 634 + Webb's box mill (1878), 644 + Wilson's steel mill (1818), 623 + Retail + Dell's store mill, 644 + Morgan's patent (1919), 653 + Wholesale + Barbor mill, 637 + Burns's granulator, 637, 652 + Ideal steel-cut mill (1916), 652 + Knickerbocker (1882), 645 + +Grinds, 401, 402 + Coarse and fine compared, 167 + Comparative test (1917), 716 + Definitions, 714 + Greek preferences, 685 + Irregular (King's patent), 167, 402, 474, 716 + +Griswold, H.F., 502 + +Grocer helps, 412 + +Grocers Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd., 640, 641, 642 + +Grocers, Retail, no. in U.S., 415 + +Grocery stores, 422, 423 + Model c. departments, 415, 418 + +Groff & Co., Charles R., 508 + +Grohens, A.P., 646, 649 + +Gros, 589 + +Gross, March & Co., 479 + +Grossman, George A., 506 + +Grossman, William, 506 + +Grossman & Co., William, 506 + +Grossman Co., Wm., 506 + +Groundy (_see_ Flavors) + +Growths, French preferences, 680 + +Gruner, Siegfried, 478 + +Gruner & Co., 530 + +Gruner & Co., S., 478 + +Gruppe, Charles P., 593 + +Guadeloupes (c.), 350, 363 + +Guam c., 355, 375 + +_Guardian_ (Lond.), _per._, 80; + _q._, 576 + +Guardiola, José, _pat._, 247 + +Guatemalas (c.), 347, 359, 360 + +Guildhall museum, 62, 602 + +Guillasse, Dr., _q._, 181 + +Guineas (c.), 353, 378 + +Gump Company, B.F., 474, 652 + +Gutteridge, Mary, _chk._, 108 + +Gutteridge, Robert _chk._, 108 + +Guy, Francis, 593 + +G. Washington's Prepared (brand), 538 + +Gwynn (architect), 584 + + +Haas, Kalman, 482 + +Haas Bros, 482, 488 + +Haase, Heinrich, 484 + +Habit-forming: c. is not, 176, 186 + +Habitat, 133, 291 + +_Hacendado Mex. El_, _q._, 156 + +Haciendas (_see_ Plantations) + +Hackfeld & Co., Ltd., H., 488 + +Haddon, _q._, 159 + +Hadrot, _pat._, 621, 622, 699 + +Haebler & Co., 485 + +Haehnlen Bros., 508 + +Haeussler, August, 480 + +Hagar, 18 + +Hahnemann, Samuel, _q._, 175 + +Haimi-Harazi c., 351, 368 + +Haitis (c.), 350, 362 + +Hakimani, 17 + +Hakluyt Society, 1, 2 + +Half difference, 321 + +Halifax, Lord, 577 + +Hall, G.M., 502 + +Hall, I.W., _q._, 184 + +Hall, Robert (Rev.), 556 + +Hall & Co., Martin L., 501 + +Halla, Wm., 488 + +Halley, Dr., 582 + +Halligan, T.F., 513 + +Hallmarks, 601, 602, 607 + +Hals, Frans, 587 + +Halsey, R.T. Haines, 607, 609 + +Halstead, Charles, _pat._, 470, 644 + +Hamakua c., 356, 375 + +Hamberger-Polhemus Co., 488 + +Hamill, David B., 509 + +Hamill, Smith, 509 + +Hamill & Co., S., 508, 509 + +Hamilton Alexander, 130; + duel, 123 + +Hamilton, Duke of, 572 + +Hamlin, Mary P., 130; + _q._, 556 + +Hamor, W.A., _pat._, 406, 539 + +Hamsley, M.F., _pat._, 642 + +Hanauer, Herman, 482 + +Hanauer, Moses G., 482 + +Hanausek, _q._, 147, 159 + +Handbills, 432-435 + First (Rosée's, 1652), 54 + +_Handbook of Medical Science_, _q._, 182 + +_Handbuch der Physiologie_, _q._, 177 + +Hanley, John, 480 + +Hanley & Co., Geo. F., 508 + +Hanley & Kinsella, 480 + +Hanley & Kinsella Coffee and Spice Co., 485, 502 + +Hannes, Edward, 572 + +Harari c., 353, 376 + +Harari longberry c., 353 + +Hard, Anson Wales, 480 + +Hard & Rand, 477, 480, 484 + Pacific Mail strs. chartered, 486 + +Harding, Warren G. (Mrs.), 567 + +Hare, _q._, 183 + +Hargreaves, C.F., _pat._, 247 + +Harkness, _q._, 176 + +Harley, 573 + +Harnack, 158 + +_Harper's Weekly_, _q._, 16 + +Harriman, E.H., 519 + +Harrington, Elizabeth, 614 + +Harrington, James, 60 + +Harris (actor), 574 + +Harris, Benj., 108 + +Harris, Samuel L., 492 + +Harris, Wm. B., 390, 492, 716 + +Harrison, D.Y., 503, 629 + +Harrison, W.H., 503 + +Harrison & Co., W.H., 503 + +Harrison & Wilson, 503 + +Harsh Santos c., 341 + +Hartford Steam Coffee & Spice Mills, 508 + +Hartwich, _q._, 147 + +Hart & Howell, 477 + +Harvard University + Bureau of Business Research 418, 428 + +Harvest time, 249, 250 + +Harvey, Eliab, 40 + +Harvey, Gideon, _q._, 58 + +Harvey, William, 40 + +Harwood, 581 + +Hassey, Cornelius, 492 + +Hatch & Jenks, 508 + +Hatches, Major, _chk._, 112 + +Hatfield c. pots, 607 + +Hatton, Edward, _q._, 54 + +Haulenbeek, Jr., John W., 497 + +Haulenbeek, Sr., John W., 497 + +Haulenbeek, Peter 494, 497, 499 + +Haulenbeek & Co., John W., 497 + +Haulenbeek & Mitchell, 499 + +Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling Co., 499 + +Havemeyer, Henry O., 506, 521, 523 + +Havemeyers, The, 470 + +Hawaiian c., 355, 375 + +Hawk, Philip B., _q._, 177, 182 + +Hawkins, Sir John, _q._, 579 + +Hawkins, Thomas, 505 + +Hawkins & Thornton, 505 + +Haworth & Dewhurst, 507 + +Haydon, 84, 583 + +Haye, de la, 31 + +Hayes, John (and Mrs.), 505 + +Hayman, 583 + +Hayward, George W., 508 + +Hayward, Martin, 501 + +Hayward & Co., 501 + +Hazlitt, Carew W., _q._, 28 + +Hazlitt, William, 557 + +Heading, 389 + +Health, Effect on, 174-188 + Favorable 23, 38, 42, 72, 557, 558, 562 + Unfavorable, 38, 46 + +_Health and longevity through Rational Diet_, Lorand, _q._, 182 + +Heart, Effect on, 181 + +Hébert, 94 + +Hedging, 329, 335 + +Heekin, Albert E., 503 + +Heekin, James, 503 + +Heekin, James J., 503 + +Heekin, Robert E., 503 + +Heekin & Co., James, 503 + +Heekin Co., 503 + +Heekin Co., James, 503, 651 + +Heekin Co., James J., 503 + +Heekin Spice Co., 503 + +Hekem, _chk._, 19 + +Hekteon, _q._, 178 + +Helen (of Troy), 12 + +Hellmann Bros. & Co., 487, 488 + +Hellsten, _q._, 186 + +_Hemileia vastatrix_ (_see_ Diseases) + +Henckel, James, _pat._, 245 + +Hendershot, Peter, 508 + +Henneman, Karel F., _pat._, 639, 640 + +Henrici, F.H., 511 + +Henrion, _pat._, 621 + +Henry IV, 60 + +Hentz & Co., Henry, 482 + +_Herald_, New York, _newsp._, _q._, 185 + +_Herald of Health_, _per._, _q._, 181 + +Herbert, Luke, _pat._, 634 + +Herbert, Sir Thomas, 1, 2, 543; + _q._, 38 + +Herklotz, Corn & Co., 482 + +Hertford, Countess of, 570 + +Hess, H.P., 508 + +Hewitt, Jr., Robert, 557 + +Hewitt, Jr., Robert C., 480 + +Hewitt, H.H., 507 + +Hewitt & Phyfe, 480 + +Hickey, 574 + +Hidey (_see_ Flavors) + +High roast, 388 + +Higgins & Co., Geo. W., 501 + +Hignette, _pat._, 640 + +Hildreth, A.G., 480 + +Hill, John (Dr.), 576, 580 + +Hill Bros., 471 + +Hill, Dwinell & Co., 501 + +Hill & Thornley, 501 + +Hillis Plantation Co., 501 + +Hinchman & Howard, 508 + +Hind, Rolph & Co., 488 + +Hinkle, Henry, 501 + +Hinz, F.W., 503 + +Hippocrates, 11, 12 + +Hire Co., Charles G., 539 + +Hires' Soluble (brand), 539 + +Hirsch, _q._, 186 + +_Historia Vitae et Mortis_, Bacon, _q._, 38, 543 + +_History and Antiquities of the City of Boston_, Drake, _q._, 108 + +_History and Reminiscences of Lower Wall Street_, Wakeman, 478 + +_Historical and chronological deduction of the origin of commerce_, + Anderson, 72 + +_History of Am. Manufactures_, Bishop, _q._, 105, 115, 125 + +_History of Literature_, Routh, _q._, 561 + +_History_ (of Phila.), Scharf & Westcott, _q._, 126 + +Hlasiwetz, _q._, 159, 165 + +Hobart Electric Mfg. Co., 646, 652 + +Hobart Mfg. Co., 646 + +Hobson-Jobson, _q._, 1, 2 + +Hoch, _q._, 186 + +Hodges, Alderman, 53, 54 + +Hodges, Dr., 58 + +Hodhat, Kadhi, _q._, 663 + +Hoepner, 472 + +Hoffman, Daniel H., 505 + +Hoffman, Lee & Co., 485 + +Hogarth, William, 80, 84, 576, 578, 579, 581, 583, 587, 593 + +Holbrook, E.F., 539 + +Holland (_see_ Netherlands) + +Holland, Charles H., 501 + +Holland Coffee Co., 497, 501 + +Hollingworth, H.L., _q._, 176, 185, 186 + Caffein investigations 187, 188 + +Holman & Co., 509 + +Holmes, F.T., 471, 472, 641, 642; + _pat._, 643 + +Holstad, S., 509 + +Holstad, S.H., 514 + +Holstad & Co., S., 509 + +Holstad & Co., S.H., 443 + +_Home_, Chamberlain, _q._, 563 + +Home Economics Laboratories, Un. of Kansas, 714 + +_Home, Life of_, Mackenzie, _q._, 86 + +Homer, 12 + +Homeyer, H.L., 510 + +Honduras c., 347, 360 + +Honey in c., 105 + +Hookah, 668 + +Hoole, 575 + +Hoopes, B.F., 508 + +Hoover, Herbert, 536, 537 + +Hope, G.W., _pat._, 649 + +Horace, 543 + +Horn, William L., 509 + +Horner & Co., Henry, 502 + +Horter, John, 506 + +Hotel Astor (brand), 441, 465 + +Hotels + London + Cecil, _ill._, 675 + Piccadilly, 675 + Richardson's, 576 + Sabloniere, 583 + Savoy, _ill._, 675, 677 + Tavistock, 580 + Waldorf, _ill._, 675 + New York + Ambassador, 691 + Astor House, 690 + City, 121 + Waldorf-Astoria, 690, 691 + Philadelphia + Mansion House, 130 + +Houghton, _q._, 40 + +_Houghton's collection_ (1698), _q._, 54 + +House-boat coffee house, 89 + +Howard, _q._, 159 + +Howell, James, 40; + _q._, 58 + +Howell, Son & Co., B.H., 479 + +Howells, William Dean, _q._, 548, 549, 567 + +Howland & Aspinwall, 476 + +Hoyt & Co., W.M., 485, 502 + +Huatusco c., 345, 358 + +Huber & Stendel, 508 + +Hubner, _pat._, 162 + +Hudson, D.D., 507 + +Hudson, Thomas, 84, 584 + +Hudson & Co., H.C., 507 + +Hudson-Fulton celebration, 607 + +Hudson Mills, 497 + +Huestis & Hamilton, 508 + +Hughes, Charles E., 332 + +Hugo, Victor, 98, 565 + +Hull, John, 607 + +Hulling machinery, 245, 246, 247, 248, 255, 256 + Bucket and beam crusher, 260 + Costa Rica, 264 + First U.S. patent, 245, 469 + Smout's, 257 + +Hulls, beverage from, 655, 658, 694 + (_See_ Husks) + +Hulls and pulp, beverage from, 15 + +Hulman, H., 508 + +_Humboltiana, C._, 147 + Caffein content, 161 + +Hume (_pseud._ of Voltaire), 556 + +Humphrey, _chk._, 121 + +Humphreys, H.M., 482 + +Humphry (appr. to Bowman), 54 + +Hungerford, G.S., _pat._, 644 + +Hungerford, G.W., _pat._, 644 + +Hungerford Co., 644 + +Hunt, Leigh, 550, 557; + _q._, 562, 578 + +Hunt, Mathew, 503, 631 + +Huntington, L.M., _q._, 155 + +Huntley Mfg. Co., 248, 472, 642, 643 + +Huntoon & Towner, 501 + +Hurd, Jacob, 612 + +Husks, beverage from, 26, 156, 231 + (_see_ Hulls) + +Husted, Ferguson & Titus, 482 + +Hutchins, John, _chk._, 116, 117 + +Hutchinson, _chk._, 109 + +Hutchinson, Edward, 112 + +Hutchinson, Gov., 109 + +Hutchinson, Jonathan, _q._, 175, 177, 179 + +Hutchinson, Woods, _q._, 176, 177, 180 + +Hybrids, 138, 140, 146, 236 + +Hyde, _chk._, 122 + +Hyde, E.J., _pat._, 634 + +Hydrolysis, 719 + + +Ibrik, (boiler), 31, 615, 656, 658, 668, 695, 696 + +Ibriq (_see_ Ibrik) + +Iced c., 724 + +Ichtoglan, 22 + +Ideals, Coffee, 585 + +_Illustrated History of English Plate_, Jackson, _q._, 601, 602, 603 + +Imbusch, J.F.W., 506 + +Importers + Baltimore (Brazil c., 1894), 485 + New Orleans (no., 1900-20), 491 + New York, 475-482 + Brazil c. (1894), 484 + Number (1900-20), 491 + Phila. (number 1900-20), 491 + U.S., Brazil branches, 304 + San Francisco, 487, 488 + Number (1900-20), 491 + (_See_ Dealers, Wholesale) + +Importing ports + Amsterdam, 327 + Antwerp, 327 + Baltimore, 482, 484 + Hamburg, 327 + Havre, 327 + New Orleans, 296, 482, 484 + New York, 296, 476, 482, 484 + Rotterdam, 327 + San Francisco, 296, 482, 484 + +Imports + Aden (for re-export), 282 + Argentine (1919), 291 + Australia, 239, 291 + Austria-Hungary (1913-17,) 290 + Ceylon, 282 + Chile (1920), 291 + Cuba, 281, 282, 291 + Denmark (1921), 290 + Fed. Malay States (1920), 284 + Finland (1921), 290 + France, 32, 33, 290, 291 + Germany (1920), 290 + Italy, 290 + Martinique, 282 + Netherlands, 290, 294 + Early, 43, 44, 291 + New Orleans, 482, 484-487 + New York (1881), 528 + (1900-20), 480, 484 + New Zealand (1920), 291 + Norway (1921), 290 + Panama, 280 + Portugal (1919), 290 + San Francisco, 325, 482, 484, 488, 489 + Spain (1920), 290 + Straits Settlements (1920), 284 + Sweden (1921), 290 + Union of So. Africa (1920), 291 + United States, 296, 299-302 + Brazil c., 296, 468, 475 + Early, 468, 475 + First in Am. vessels, 468 + Value (1919-21), 299-302 + Venice, early, 27 + +Impotence, C. and, 23, 46, 71 + +Inchbald, Mrs., 578 + +Indiana Coffee Co., 485 + +Indias (c.), 351, 369 + +_Indigena, C._ (Maragogipe), 345 + +Indirect flame, 642, 646 + +Indo-China c., 352, 370, 371 + +Industrial exhibition (1921), 654 + +_Influence des cafés sur les moeurs politiques_, Salvandy, _q._, 100 + +_Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue_, Rivers, _q._, 186 + +Infusion, defined, 698 + +Infusion devices + Bencini's condenser (1838), 625 + Biggin (1817), 624, 699, 710, 712 + Dakin's cloth-bag, 633, 645 + Denobe's pharmacological-chemical (1802), 621, 699 + Donmartin's flannel sack (1763), 620, 697 + Duparquet's muslin strainer, 644 + Etruscan (1887-88), 645 + First French (1711), 696, 697 + Halstead's china-lined metal, 644 + L'Aine's Diligence (1763), 620 + Martelley's condenser, 624, 625 + Rapid (_see_ Rapid) + Old Dominion (1856), 625, 710 + Rowland's condenser (1844), 625 + Triumph, 699 + +Ingram, Margaret A., 593 + +Inner-heated roasting machines, 386 + +Insomnia caused by c., 176 + +_Inspector_, London, _per._, 579 + +Inspectors at ports of entry + Favored by N.C.R.A., 513 + +In-store contract, 331 + +Intellectual drink, The, 566 + +_Intelligence_, _per._, _q._, 59 + +International Coffee Congress (1902), 472 + +Internationalized by French, C., 585 + +Introduction, beverage + Aleppo (1532), 19 + American colonies (1668), 708 + Arabia, 11, 12 + Austria (1693), 49 + Cairo (1510), 16 + Constantinople (1517), 19, 291 + Damascus (1530), 19 + England (1637), 35-42 + Europe (1615), 25-30 + France (1644), 31-34 + Germany (1670), 45-47 + Italy (1615), 25, 26 + London, 58 + Marseilles (1644), 31, 291 + Mecca (1470-1500), 16 + Medina (1470-1500), 16 + Netherlands (1616), 43-44 + New York (1668), 115-124 + North America (1660-70), 105-113 + Oxford (1637), 40 + Paris (1657), 31, 91 + Persia, 21 + Philadelphia (1682), 125-130 + Venice (1615), 25, 291 + Vienna (1693), 49-52 + +Invisible supply (N.C.R.A.), 514 + +Ireland, Augustus, 479 + +Ireland, Sam, 81, 576, 578, 593 + +Irregular grind, King's patent, 167, 402, 716 + +Irrigation + Abyssinia, 197 + Arabia, 197, 231 + Mexico, 222 + +Irving, Washington, _q._, 317 + +Isenberg, Paul, 519 + +Ishmael, 18 + +Israel, Leon, 482, 532 + +Israel & Bros., Leon, 442, 482 + +Italian roast, 356, 388 + +Ittel, _pat._, 640 + + +Jackson, Charles James, _q._, 600, 601, 602 + +Jackson, S., 486 + +Jackson, W.F., 485 + +Jackson & Co., 499 + +Jacob, _chk._, 41, 42, 53 + +Jacquand, 591 + +Jaeckle, _q._, 163 + +Jagenberg Machine Co., Inc., 472 + +Jalapa c., 345, 358 + +Jamaica c., 350, 362 + +James, James, _chk._, 127 + +James, Mrs., _chk._, 127 + +Jamison, Catherine Arbuckle, 524 + +Jamison, Robert, 524 + +Jamison, Wm. Arbuckle, 523, 524 + +Janney, Jr. & Co., B.S., 501 + +_Jardin Desclieux, Inauguration de_, _q._, 9 + Fort de France, 9 + +Jardin des plantes, Paris, 6 + +Jardin, Edélestan, _q._, 2, 3, 6, 14, 16, 27, 32, 557, 565, 629, 695, 708 + +Jarvie, James N., 479, 523, 524 + +Java c., 353, 355, 373, 374 + +Jause, 50 + +Jay Cooke panic, 527 + +Jefferson, Thomas, 130 + +Jeffreys, Judge, 570 + +Jenkins & Bro., T.C., 507 + +Jennings, Constantine, _chk._, 61, 582 + (_See_ Constantine, George) + +Jewel Tea Co., 417 + +Jewett & Sherman, 506 + +Jewett, Sherman & Co., 506 + +Jobson, Cirques, _chk._, 41 + +Johns, Benjamin, _chk._, 112 + +Johnson, James D., 495 + +_Johnson, Life of_, Boswell, _q._, 567 + +Johnson, Samuel, 80, 81, 88, 89, 557, 567, 568, 569, 574, 577, 583, 585; + _q._, 561 + +Johnson & Co., Theo. F., 508, 635 + +Johnson Automatic Sealer Co., 472 + +Johnson-Locke Merc. Co., 488 + +Johnston, Herbert L., _pat._, 646, 652 + +Johnston, W.T., _pat._, 642 + +Johnston, William, 501 + +Johnston & Co., E., 445, 486 + +Johnston, Gordon & Co., 486 + +Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee, 489, 443, 445-459, 474 + Booklets, 455 + Brewing, 717, 718 + Coffee Club, 453, 455 + Information service, 453 + Membership, 448 + Organized (1919), 474, 514 + Program, 514 + Recipes, 723, 724 + Scientific research, 453, 457 + +Jones, Dorothy, 107, 108, 467 + +Jones, J.F., 507 + +Jones, W.T., 505, 511, 513 + +Jones, Webster, 515 + +Jones & Co., S.L., 488 + +Jones Bros., 501 + +Jonson, Ben, 60 + +Joseph, _chk._, 93 + +_Joseph Andrews_, Fielding, 80 + +Joteyko, _q._, 186 + +Joubert, 96 + +Jourdain, John, _q._, 1, 2 + +_Journal Am. Chem. Soc._, _q._, 155, 160 + +_Journal Am. Med. Ass'n_, _per._, _q._, 175, 185 + +_Journal d' Antoine Galland_, _q._, 2 + +_Journal of Assoc. Agric. Chem._, _per._, _q._, 169 + +_Journal of the Franklin Institute_, _q._, 711, 712 + +_Journal of the Gen. Assembly of the Colony of New York_ (1709), _q._, 117 + +_Journal of Pharmachol._, _per._, _q._, 184 + +_Journal_, Revett, _q._, 2 + +_Journey through England_, Mackay, 75 + +Julian, sec. to the Muses, 574 + +Julien (of Gobelins), 567 + +Jurgens, _pat._, 167 + + +Kadoe c., 355, 373 + +Kaffa, 3 + +Kaffa coffee, 228, 229 + +Kaffee Hag Corp., 473 + +Kaffee-klatsch (first), 45, 433, 683 + +Kaffee-sieder, 50, 51 + +Kahoueh, 3 + +Kahua, 3 + +Kahvedjibachi, 20, 22 + +Kahveji, 665 + +Kahwa, 3 + +Kahwah, 15 + +Kahwah (coffee-room), 657, 658, 662 + +Kahwe, 45 + +Kair Bey, 17 + +Kaldi, 14, 15 + +Kaltenbach, George, 476, 529 + +Kant, Immanuel, 562 + +Kaspar, Adam J., 502 + +Kato, Sartori, 471, 538 + +Kato Coffee Co., 538 + +Kavah, 2 + +Kaveh, 1 + +Kaveh kanes, 17 + (_See also_ Coffee houses) + +Kavveghi, 22 + +Kawih, 11 + +Keable, B.B., _q._, 181, 182 + +Keats, John, 549; + _q._, 550 + +Keen, William, _chk._, 120 + +Keen's Chop House, 498 + +Kelly, George, 501 + +Kelly, H.D., _pat._, 472, 649 + +Kemble, John, 581 + +Kendrick, F.G., 507 + +Kenny, C.D., 508 + +Kenrich, Archibald, _pat._, 624 + +Kentucky coffee tree, 564 + +_Kentucky Warbler, The_, Allen, _q._, 564 + +Kerr, Mary Alice, 523 + +Khawah (_see_ Kahwah) + +_Kickleburys on the Rhine_, Thackeray, _q._, 563 + +Kidde, Frank, 479 + +Kidneys, effect on, 175, 181 + +Kilgour & Taylor, 503 + +Kimball, O.G., 527, 528 + +King, Dr., _q._, 584 + +King, John E., 513, 539, 701, 720; + _pat._, 167, 474, 651; + _q._, 168, 402, 716 + (_See also_ Irregular grind) + +King, Moll, _chk._, 581, 587 + +King, Thomas, _chk._, 581 + +King, Tom, _chk._, 587 + +King Coffee Products Corp., 539 + +King of American breakfast table, 107 + +King of perfumes, 565 + +_Kingdom's Intelligencer_, London, _per._, _q._, 433, 582 + +Kipfel, 50 + +Kirby, James H., 480 + +Kirby & Halstead, 480 + +Kirby, Halstead & Chapin, 480 + +Kirby, Halstead & Chapin Co., 485 + +Kirkland, A., 480 + +Kirkland, W.J., 480 + +Kirkland & von Sacks, 480 + +Kirkland Bros., 478, 480 + +Kisher, 231, 266, 655, 658 + Method of preparing, 694 + +Kissing the cheeks, 387 + +Kitchen, James, _chk._, 130 + +_Kitchen Directory and American Housewife_, _q._, 709 + +Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 578 + +Knickerbocker & Cooke, 499 + +Knickerbocker Mills, 496 + +Knickerbocker Mills Co., 496 + +Knight, Eberman & Co., 507 + +Knowles, Cloyes & Co., 502 + +Knowlys, Thomas John, _pat._, 633 + +Knudsen & Co., P.J., 488 + +Koch, _q._, 186 + +Kock, Paul de, 565 + +Koenig & Co., J. Henry, 503 + +Kohwah, 12 + +Kolschitzky Franz George, _chk._, 49, 50, 51, 590 + Introduces c. to Vienna, 50 + Portrait, _ill._, 51 + Statue, _ill._, 50, 599 + Wife (Ursula), 51 + +Kolster & Co., 340 + +Kona c., 356, 375 + +Kooman, G.W., _pat._, 649 + +_Koran_, _q._, 15, 20 + +Kosmos Line, 489 + +Kraepelin, _q._, 186 + +Krag-Reynolds Co., 502 + +Kraut, Adolph, 471 + +Kreiser, Alexander W., 509 + +Kreissel, Fillip, 538 + +Kroberger, Charles, 501 + +Kroe c., 355, 371 + +Krout, J.M., 503 + +Krull, _pat._, 247 + +Krupp A.G. Grusonwerk, Fried, 247 + +Kuchelmeister, F., _pat._, 647 + +Kuhlemeir, Fred J., _pat._, 648 + +Kuhlke, George F., 482 + +Kunhardt, Henry, 482 + +Kunhardt & Co., 482 + +Kuprili, Grand Vizier, 20, 21 49, 71, 664 + + +Labaree & Co., J.H., 480, 482, 484 + +Labeling machinery, 403 + +Labels, law affecting, 410 + +Labor + Angola, 268 + Arabia, 266 + Arbuckle business, 524, 525, 526 + Brazil, 207, 260, 261, 293, 445, 530, 531 + Colombia, 260 + Guadeloupe, 233 + Guatemala, 219 + Guianas, 236 + Honduras, 234 + Java, 269, 271 + Mexico, 263, 264 + Nicaragua, 264 + Netherlands E.I., 283, 293, 294 + Salvador, 217 + Sumatra, 269 + Venezuela, 263 + West Indies, 293 + +Lacedæmonian (_see_ Black broth), 13 + +La Chaussée, 94 + +La Coux, François Réné, _pat._, 627 + +La Guaira c., 348 + +La Roque, Jean, 31, 32, 34, 543, 557; + _q._, 5, 15, 33, 197, 245, 542, 565, 616, 694, 695 + +La Seine c.-pot, 607 + +Lactation, Effect on, 177, 178 + +_Ladies Home Journal_, _per._, 177; + _q._, 709 + +_Ladies Home Magazine_, _per._, _q._, 709, 710 + +Lahey, B., 480 + +L'Ainé, _inv._, 620 + +Lait, Café au, 691, 696 + +Lally, Albert V., _q._, 570 + +Lamb, Charles, _q._, 550 + +Lamb (Folger, Schilling & Co.), 506 + +Lambert, Joseph, 642, 646, 471, 472 + +Lambert Food & Machinery Co., 646 + +Lambert Machine Co., 649 + +_Lamboray, C._, 144 + +_Lancet_, _per._, _q._, 179 + +Landanabileo, _q._, 181 + +Landers, Frary & Clark, 472, 644, 647, 648, 649, 653, 701 + +Langfeld, 186 + +Langius, 543 + +Lantern Slides, 443 + +Lantern-shaped c.-pot, 602, 603, 604, 619 + +Lapicque, _q._, 184 + +Larousse, _q._, 91 + +Lascelles & Co., A.S., 482 + +Last-bag notice, New York, 321 + +Lastreto & Co., 488 + +Lathrop & Co., C.D., 484, 485 + +Laud, Archbishop, 41 + +Laughlin & Co., J.W., 508 + +Laurens, _pat._, 623, 694 + +Laurent, Emil, 144 + +_Laurentii, C. (robusta)_, 142, 144 + +_Laurentii Gillet, C._, 142 + +_Laurina, C._, _hyb._, 138 + +Lauzaune, _pat._, 640 + +Lauzaune, Établissements, 625, 646 + +Lavado (grade), 261 + +Lawrence, George W., 535, 537 + +Lawrence & Van Zandt, 476 + +Lawton, Frederick, _q._, 557 + +Lawton, William, _inv._, 641, 651 + +Lazear, Jesse, 508 + +Lead number, 159, 513 + +Leaf-blight (_see_ Diseases) + +Leaves, beverage from, 133, 694 + +Le Candiot, _chk._, 93 + +Le Conte, _q._, 178 + +Le Gantois, _chk._, 93 + +Le Morgan Coffee Co., 508 + +Le Page, Jules, _pat._, 474, 652 + +Leclerc, 96 + +Lee, H.H., 508 + +Lee & Murbach, 502 + +Leech, John, 582 + +Lefévre, 96 + +Légal, 96 + +Legendary origin (_see_ Origin), 541 + +Leggett & Co., Francis H., 398, 480, 482, 494 + +Legislative com. on speculations, N.Y., 322 + +Lehmann, Julius, _q._, 70, 183 + +Lemare, 708 + +Lemierre, 94 + +Lemmon & Son, 507 + +Lemon in c. (Russia), 686 + +Lemonade venders, 670 + (_See also_ Pedling) + +Lensing, J.H., 638 + +Leo XIII, Pope, _q._, 549 + +Leone, 579 + +Leopold, Emperor, 49 + +Lepper, _q._, 145 + +L'Estrange, 59 + +Lester, George C., _pat._, 472, 647 + +_Lettre sur l'Origine et le Progres du Café_, Galland, _q._, 12 + +Leven, 185 + +Levering, William T., 484, 485 + +Levering & Co., E., 484, 485, 508 + +Levinthal, _q._, 185 + +Levy, Florence N., _q._, 607 + +Levy & Co., M.M., 485 + +Lewin-Meyer Co., 488 + +Lewis, Charles, 503; + _pat._, 646 + +Lewis, Teacle Wallace, 480 + +Lewis & Co., T.W., 480 + +Liberian c., 353, 378 + +_Liberica, C._ + Allied Species, 142, 144 + Botanical description, 140, 142 + Colombia, 211 + Dutch Guiana, 236 + Federated Malay States, 238 + French Indo-China, 237 + Guadeloupe, 234 + Java, 215, 216 + Liberia, 229 + Trees to acre, 230 + Netherlands E.I. (1920), 283 + United States imports, 341 + +Liberty Boys, 120 + +Licenses + Boston + Coffee-house, 108 + First, Dorothy Jones, 107 + England + Coffee-house, 59 + First royal warrant, 59 + France (first, 1692), 34 + Germany, 46, 293 + Mecca, coffee-house, 18 + Philadelphia, coffee-house, 18 + United States + First (1670), 467 + War-time (1917-18), 338, 534 + Württemberg, 47 + +Lichty, George E., 535 + +Lidgerwood, John, _pat._, 246 + +Lidgerwood, Wm. Van V., _pat._, 246, 247 + +Lidgerwood Mfg. Co., Ltd., 246 + +Liebig, Baron von, 682, 684, 685, 687; + _q._, 711 + +Liebreich, _q._, 185 + +Lievre, Frick & Co., 506 + +_Life of Addison_, Johnson, _q._, 561 + +_Life of Home_, Mackenzie, _q._, 86 + +_Life of Johnson_, Boswell, _q._, 567 + +Light roast, 356, 387, 388 + +Lightfoot, Alexander, _chk._, 120 + +Lilly (astrologer), 69 + +Limbird, John, 585 + +Limonáji, 670 + +Linn, A.R. & W.F., 508 + +Lins, Albuquerque, 531 + +_Linschoten's travels_, _ill._, 43; + _q._, 35, 37 + +Lion (brand), 523 + +Lion's head (Button's c. house), _ill._, 80, 576, 593 + +_Livre Commode_ (Paris, 1691), 433 + +Lippincott, Jesse H., 507 + +Lispenard, Anthony, 475 + +Lispenard, Leonard, 475 + +Literature of coffee, 541-585 + +Literature, Influence of c. on 552, 556 + England, 60, 81 + Paris, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 103 + +Littledo, L., _pseud._, _q._, 550, 551 + +_Lives of Eminent Men_, Aubrey, _q._, 40 + +_Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, Campbell, _q._, 570 + +_Lives of the Poets_, Johnson, 570 + +Livierato, B.A., 479 + +Livierato, Gregory B., 478 + +Livierato Frères (Bros.), 338, 478, 488 + +Livierato-Kidde Co., 479 + +Livingstons, The, 475 + +Lloyd, the law-student, 579; + _q._, 584 + +Lloyd, Edward, _chk._, 85, 86 + +Lloyd, John C., 480 + +Lloyd & Co., John C., 480 + +Lloyd's (London), 120 + Register of shipping, 85 + +Loading, Santos, 312, 314 + +Loaiza & Co., W., 488 + +Locke (chemist), _q._, 180 + +Locket, Mrs., _chk._, 570 + +Lockier, Dean, _q._, 574 + +Lockwood, Dr., _q._, 176 + +Lockyer, Captain, 120 + +Loeven & Co., E., 505 + +Loew, Oscar, _q._, 156 + +Logan & Strowbridge, 644 + +Logan & Strowbridge Iron Co., 644 + +London + Fire (1666), 61, 62, 74, 83 + (1748), _ill._, 76, 83 + +London, Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd., 488 + +_London Pleasure Gardens of the 18th Century, The_, Wroth, _q._, 82 + +Long, Mary, _chk._, 56 + +Long, William, _chk._, 56 + +Longe, W. Harry, 444 + +Longevity, Effect of c. on, 178 + +Longhi, Alessandro, 588 + +Longhi, Pietro, 556, 558 + +Lopez, Pedro, 220 + +Lopez & Co., P.A., 338 + +Lorand, _q._, 182 + +Lorimore Bros., 508 + +Lorraine, Prince of, 49 + +Lott & Low, 475 + +Loudon, Howard C., 495 + +Loudon, J. Carlyle, 495 + +Loudon & Johnson, 495, 499 + +Loudon & Son, 495 + +Loudon & Stellwag, 495 + +Louis XIII, 91 + +Louis XIV, 6, 33, 91, 92 + +Louis XV, 8, 92, 94, 563, 566 + +Love, N., _q._, 175 + +Low, Seth, 473 + +Low & Co., Adolphe, 487 + +Lowell, Ebenezer, 467 + +Lower Wall St. Bus. Men's Ass'n, 473 + +Lown Coffee Co., W.G., 508 + +Lowther, Sir James, 584 + +Loyal Association (London), 583 + +Lubricant to human machine, 585 + +Ludlow & Goold, 475 + +Ludolphus, _q._, 5 + +Lueder & Co., A., 485 + +Lure of coffee, 585 + +Lurman & Co., T.G., 484, 485 + +Lusk, _q._, 180 + +Luttrell, 579 + +Lyman, John Chester, _pat._, 245 + +Lyons, A. Neil, _q._, 563 + +Lytton, Lord, 102 + + +Macassars (c.), 355, 374 + +Macaulay, Thomas B., _q._, 75, 77 + +_Macedoine Poetique_ (1824), 548 + +Machinery + Evolution of, 615-654 + History of Manufacture, 468-474 + +Mackay, 75; + _q._, 79 + +Mackey, William D., 477, 491 + +Mackey & Co., 477 + +Mackey & Small, 477, 480 + +Mackintosh, Sir James, 556 + +Macklin, Charles, 89, 580, 581 + +Maclachlan, C.H., 527 + +Maclaine, Jemmy, 578 + +_Macrocarpa, C._, 146 + +MacVeagh & Co., Franklin, 485, 502 + +Madagascar c., 353, 378 + +_Madagascar, C._, 146 + +_Madagascariensis, C._, 146 + +Maddux, H. Clay, 479, 491 + +Magic Cup (brand), 539 + +Maguire, Charles, 479 + +Maguire, Joseph, 497, 498 + +Maguire & Gillespie, 508 + +Mahomet (_See also_ Mohammed), 38 + +Mahood, E.B., 507 + +Mahood, Samuel, 507 + +Mahood, W. James, 507 + +Maidi c., 351, 368 + +Mail-order houses, 415 + +Maine & Eckerenkotter, 505 + +Mairobert, _q._, 566 + +Maitland, Coppell & Co., 482 + +Maitland, Phelps & Co., 482 + +Makara, _chk._, 93 + +Makonnen, Ras, 310 + +Malabars (c.), 351, 369 + +Malang c., 355, 373 + +Malaria, Effect of c. on, 181 + +Maldonado & Co., 488 + +Maliban _chk._, 93 + +Mallet, J.W., _q._, 176 + +Malone, _q._, 61, 574 + +Man, Alexander, _chk._, 59, 88 + +Mandelsloh, Joh. A. von, _q._, 45 + +Mandheling c., 355, 371 + +Manet, Edouard, 103, 104 + +Manipulated Java, 338 + +Manizales c., 348, 364 + +_Manner of Making C., Tea and Chocolate_, Dufour, 543 + +Manners and Customs, 655-692 + Abyssinia, 655 + Africa, 655-657 + Africa, Portuguese E., 657 + Algeria, 655, 656 + Arabia, 657-663 + Argentina, 691 + Asia, 657-663 + Brazil, 691 + Chile, 691 + Constantinople, 19, 22, 23, 663-670 + Damascus (c.-house), 668-670 + England (c.-house), 60, 75-89 + Egypt, 655-657 + France, 33, 680-683 + Germany, 683-685 + Italy, 686 + London (c.-house), 73 + Mexico, 687 + Netherlands, 686 + New Orleans, 690 + North America, 686-691 + Norway, 686 + Oriental, Early, 17, 19, 22, 23 + Paraguay, 691 + Paris, 91, 96, 98, 100, 102, 103, 104, 554, 683 + Persia (c.-house), 22 + Philadelphia (c.-house), 128 + Saxony, 684 + Somaliland, 655 + Sweden, 686 + Thuringia, 684 + Turkey, 20, 27, 36, 38, 663-670 + Uganda, 655 + United States, 687-691 + Uruguay, 691 + Vienna (c.-house), 562, 671, 672 + (_See also_ Coffee-houses) + +Manning, E.B., _pat._, 637 + +Manning, Bowman & Co., 649, 701 + +Manthey-Zorn Laboratories, 653 + +Mantsaka c., _ill._, 142 + +_Manual of Pharmacology_, Sollman, _q._, 182 + +Manufacture, U.S., 298 + +Many, Daniel, 507 + +Marac, 682 + +Maracaibo c., 348, 349, 365 + +Maragogipe c., 345, 367 + +_Maragogipe, C._, _hyb._, 140 + India, 227 + +Marat, 94 + +Marchand, _pat._, 640 + +M'Ardell (mezzotinter), 84, 584 + +Marden & Folger, 506, 507 + +Marden & Myrick, 505 + +Margins, 329, 333, 335 + +Mariahalden, 519, 520 + +Marie Antoinette, 96 + +Marilhat, 591 + +Marion Harland c.-pot., 645, 699 + +Market names, 191 + (_See also_ Characteristics) + +Marlborough, Earl of, 109 + +Marmontel, 98 + +Marquis de Someruelas, _v._, 468 + +Marshall, _q._, 183 + +Martelley, Lewis, _pat._, 624, 699 + +Martin, _pat._, 485, 640 + +Martin & Co., N., 485 + +Martinique c., 350, 363 + +_Martinique, Histoire de la_, Daney, _q._, 8 + +_Martinique, La_, Pardon, _q._, 8 + +Marvell, 60 + +Mary, Queen, 601 + +Mason, Fred, 689 + +Mason, L.F., 479 + +Mason, Marcus, _pat._, 246, 248, 469 + +Mason & Co., Marcus, 248, 469 + +Mason & Thompson, 476 + +Mason machines, 264 + +Masons, Grand Lodge, 110 + +Masons, St. Andrew's Lodge, 111 + +Mass. Inst. of Technology + Scientific research, 453, 457, 515, 714, 717 + +Massieu, Abbé Gulllaume, _q._, 14, 544 + +Matagalpa c., 347, 360 + +_Materia Medica and Pharmacology_, Culbreth, _q._, 181 + +_Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Therapeutics_, Potter, _q._, 181 + +_Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacology_, Butler, _q._, 179 + +Matheson, S., 482 + +Matheson, Jr. & Co., S., 482 + +Mattari, c., 351, 368 + +Mattei, _q._, 180 + +Maumenet, _q._, 548 + +Mauran, C.S., 502 + +_Mauritiana, C._, 138, 146 + Caffein content, 147, 161 + +Maury, Joseph E., 515 + +Maximilian Frederick, Elector, _q._, 47 + +Maxwell, _q._, 165 + +Maxwell House (brand), 441 + +Mayer Bros. & Co., 482 + +Mayflower, _v._, 108, 616 + Mortar and pestle, _ill._, 105 + +Mayne, 585 + +Mayot, 96 + +Mazagran, Café, 92, 655, 682 + +Mazerolles, S., 591 + +McBride, R.P., 482, 499 + +McCann, Alfred W., 398, 399 + +McCarthy Bros., 488 + +McChesney & Sons, 488 + +McClean, Jemmy (_see_ Maclaine) + +McCord, Brady Co., 508 + +McCready, William, 479 + +McCreery, Henry F., 480 + +McCreery, R.W., 511; + _q._, 427 + +McDonald, Duncan, 521, 522 + +McDonald & Arbuckle, 521 + +McDonald & Arbuckles, 522 + +McDonald & Glynn, 482 + +McFadden, J.M., 513 + +McFadden & Bro., George H., 480 + +McFarland, A., 508 + +McGarty, M.J., 399 + +McGill. A., _q._, 687 + +McKinnon, William, 245 + +McKinnon & Co., Ltd., Wm., 245 + +McLaughlin, Frederick, 502 + +McLaughlin, George D., 502 + +McLaughlin, William F., 502 + +McLaughlin & Co., W.F., 443, 502 + +McLaughlin & Co., W.H., 484 + +McMaster, John Bach, _q._, 468 + +McMullin, John, 612 + +McNeil & Higgins, 502 + +McNeil & Higgins Co., 502 + +McNeil, Thomas, 494 + +McNulty, John R., 479, 491 + +McNulty & Co., J.R., 479 + +McReynolds, Attorney General, 533 + +Meacock, James, _pat._, 245 + +Mead, Dr., 582 + +Meal Market, New York, 119 + +Meat-packers in c. trade, 514 + +_Mechanic's Magazine_, London, 585 + +Medellins (c.), 348, 364 + +_Medical News_, _per._, _q._, 183 + +_Medical Record_, _per._, _q._, 185 + +_Medical Times_, _per._, _q._, 176 + +Medicinal properties of c., 12, 26, 27, 38, 45, 56, 58, 71, 72, 173-188 + Due to caffein content, 182 + +Medicine + C. first used as, 693 + Café au lait used as, 696 + +_Meditations_, Brillat-Savarin, _q._, 697 + +Medium (_see_ Grinds) + +Medium roast, 336, 388 + +Meehan, Charles L., 535 + +Meehan, P.C., 476, 477 + +Meehan & Co., P.C., 477 + +Meehan & Schramm, 477 + +Meidinger, _q._, 565 + +Meilhat, 594 + +Meisner, Leonhard Ferdinand, 46, 543 + +Meith, Hugo, 591 + +Mejia, E., 488 + +Melangé, Café, 671 + +Melaye, S., 548 + +Mellon Inst. of Industrial Research, 714 + +_Memoirs_, Diderot, 98 + +_Memoirs_, Sherman, _q._, 563 + +Menado c., 355, 374 + +Menda & Co., 340 + +Mendel, _q._, 185 + +Menezes, T. Langgaard de, _ill._, 446 + +Mengai, 694 + +Menico, 28 + +Menier, 566 + +_Menosperma, C._, _hyb._, 138 + +Menown, Hugh, 631 + +Menown, H. & J., 502 + +Menown & Gregory, 631 + +_Men's Answer to Women's Petition, The_, _pamph._, 71 + +_Menslichen Genussmittel_, _q._, 147 + +Mental and Motor Efficiency + Effect of caffein on, 186 + Effect of tea on, 186 + +Menzel, Adolph, 591 + +Merchants Coffee Co. of N.O., Ltd., 505 + +Merchants Exchange (New York), 123 + +Merck & Co., 473 + +_Mercure de France_, _q._, 8 + +Meridas (c.), 349, 365 + +Merrill & Co., S.C., 487 + +Merritt & Ronaldson, 499 + +Merwin & Co., Geo. A., 499 + +Mery, C.D., 548 + +Messenger & Co., Thomas H., 480 + +Metchnikoff, _q._, 178 + +Metropolitan Mills, 494, 495 + +Mexicans (c.), 345, 338, 359 + +Meyer (chemist), 164 + +Meyer, B., 535 + +Meyer, Fred W., 502 + +Meyer, Robert, 510, 511, 513 + +Meyerheim, Paul, 591 + +M'Ginley, Joseph, 492 + +M'Gregor, Coll., 476 + +Michaud, I.F. and L.G., _q._, 8 + +Michelet, _q._, 98 + +Microscopy of c., 149-153 + Analysis, value, 152 + +_Microscopy of Vegetable Foods_, Winton, _q._, 150 + +Midland Spice Co., 508 + +Milde, 591 + +Milds (market name), 341, 345 + (_See also_ Characteristics) + +Milk in coffee, 38, 58, 399, 665 + Effect of, 178 + First used by Nieuhoff (1660), 696 + +Millar & Co., E.B., 502 + +Millar Spice Co., E.B., 502 + +Miller, Chas. A., 480 + +Miller, Harry, 480 + +Miller, Rev. James, 555; + _q_., 554 + +Miller, R.O., 501, 514 + +Miller, Watts, 480 + +Miller, W.H., 488 + +Miller & Walbridge, 480 + +Miller, Smith & Co., 485 + +Milling (_see also_ Cleaning), 383 + +Milreis, 336 + +Milton, John, 60; + _q._, 549 + +Miner, W.H., 505 + +Minerva, _v._, 128 + +Minford, Thomas, 479 + +Minford & Co., L.W., 479, 485 + +Minford, Lueder & Co., 477, 479 + +Minford, Thompson & Co., 479 + +Mingo, Cirilo, _pat._, 471 + +Minkowski, 185 + +Minor, W.H., 485 + +Minott, Samuel, 609 + +Minute (brand), 539 + +Minute, Café à la, 708 + +_Mirror_, London, _per._, 585 + +Misbranding + Condemned by N.C.R.A., 513 + Rulings (U.S.), 337, 338 + +Mitchell, George, 478 + +Mitchell, William L., 478 + +Mitchell Bros., 478 + +Mixing (_see_ Blending) + +Mixtures, Strange c., 56, 57 + +_Moat With the Crimson Stains, The_, Champney, _q._, 563, 564 + +Mocengio, 27 + +Mocha c., 230, 351, 353, 368, 369 + +Mocha longberry c., 228 + +Mocha-seed Bourbon-Santos c., 341, 366 + +Mocha-seed Santos (grade), 260 + +_Modern Italian Poets_, Howells, _q._, 548, 549 + +Moegling, Carl, _inv._, 647 + +_Mogeneti, C._ (caffein content), 147, 161 + +Mohammed, 14, 15, 19, 20, 38, 54 + +Mohammed IV, 49, 50, 91 + +Mohedano, José Antonio, 9 + +Mohns-Frese Com. Co., 488 + +Moir, John R., 535 + +Mokaska Mfg. Co., 485, 508 + +_Mokkæ, C._, _hyb._, 138 + +Molded beans, 170 + +Molke, 9 + +Molmenti, Pompeo, _q._, 27, 28 + +Moncrieff (dramatist), 572 + +Moncrieff, Alexander, _chk._, 572 + +Moneuse, Élie, _pat._, 469, 639 + +Monin, Sieur, _q._, 696 + +Monitor machines, 248 + +Monk, General, 59, 69 + +Monkey coffee, 136 + +Monroe, James (Pres.), 113 + +Monstruo (grade), 261 + +Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 573 + +Montague, _q._, 551 + +Monte Carmelo c., 350, 365 + +Montealegre & Co., 487, 488 + +Montesquieu, 100 + +Montuori, _q._, 176 + +Moore, Alexander Duncan, _pat._, 623 + +Moore, C.T., 508 + +Moore, Dr., _q._, 179 + +Moore & Co., Geo. A., 488 + +Mopsy, 579 + +Moréas, Jean, _chk._, 102 + +Morewood, T.C., _pat._, 642 + +Morey Mercantile Co., C.S., 508 + +Morgan, Charles, 644; + _pat._, 645, 653 + +Morgan, Edward H., 644 + +Morgan Brothers, 644 + +Morize, _pat._, 623, 699, 708 + +Morley, W.T., 513 + +_Morning Advertiser_, Lond., _newsp._, 585 + +_Morning Chronicle_, London, _newsp._, 585 + +_Morning Herald_, Lond., _newsp._, 585 + +_Morning Post_, Lond., _newsp._, 585 + +Morosini, Gianfrancesco, 26 + +Morrison, S.B., 497 + +Morrison, Wm. J., 498 + +Morrison & Bolnest Co., 498 + +Morton, Robert, 69 + +Mosely, Dr. Benjamin, _q._, 2, 38 + +Moser (artist), 584 + +Mosso, Ugolino, _q._, 186 + +_Most excellent virtues of the mulberry called coffee_ (1671), 34 + +Mother (grade), 258 + +Mother of cafés (Vienna), 50 + +Motion pictures, 443, 455, 514 + +Mott & Williams, 494 + +Mottant, A., 641, 645 + +Muddiman, 59 + +Mudiford, 58 + +Muhlberg, R. _pat._, 638 + +Muller, Frederick H., _pat._, 653, 702 + +Munden, Admiral, 86, 559 + +Murdock, Charles A., 506 + +Murdock & Co., C.A., 508 + +Murdock Mfg. Co., C.A., 506 + +Murger, Henry, 98 + +Murphy, Arthur, 584; + _q._, 579 + +Murray, Sir James, 699; + _q._, 1 + +Murray, James H., 496 + +Murray, Robert, 475 + +_Murta, C._, _hyb._ 138 + +Musgrave, James, 612 + +Music, C. in, 593-599 + +Music in coffee houses, 656, 666, 667, 669 + +Mustapha, Kara, 49, 50 + +Mustard in c., 58, 696 + +Myer, _pat._, 162, 473 + +Myers, Myer, 612 + +Mylne (architect), 584 + +Mysore c., 351, 369 + +Myrtle c. (Mexico), 222 + + +Nabob (brand), 441 + +Nairon, Antoine Faustus, 16, 27, 543 + +Nakhel douin (palm), 266 + +Nalpasse, Valentin, _q._, 175, 176, 177, 179 + +Names for c. (English and foreign), 1, 2, 3 + +Names of places (_see_ Note, p. 769) + +Nancy (tea ship) _v._, 120 + +Naphew, Charles, 479 + +Napier, Robert, _inv._, 637, 699, 700 + +Napier & Co., 486 + +Napier & Sons, Robert, 699 + +Narcotism, Effect of c. on, 181 + +Narghil (palm), 266 + +Narghillai, 663, 664, 665, 668 + (_Also_ nargile, narguileh) + +Nash Grocery Co., George, 503 + +Nash, Smith & Co., 502 + +Nash-Smith Tea & Coffee Co., 503 + +Nashville Coffee & Mfg. Co., 509 + +Nason, James H., _pat._, 637 + +Nat'l Ass'n of Retail Grocers of the U.S., 428 + +Nat'l Chain Store Grocers' Ass'n., 417, 418 + +National coffee day, 513 + +Nat'l C. Roasters Ass'n., 323, 439, 448, 473, 474, 509-515 + Better c. making com., 713-717 + Brewing recommendations, 717 + Conventions, 512-515 + Dues, 514 + Freight forwarding bureau, 323 + Home mill, 652 + Industrial Expositions, 514, 515, 654 + Membership, 511-514 + +National C. Roasters Traffic and Pure Food Ass'n., 510, 511 + +National Coffee Week, 439, 455, 473, 474, 514 + +Nat'l Packaging Machinery Co., 443, 472 + +Nat'l Retail Tea and Coffee Merchants' Ass'n., 417 + +_National Review_, _per._, _q._, 74 + +Nature, Café, 683 + +_Nature of the Drink Kauhi, The_, Pocoke's trans. _q._, 12, 38 + +_Nature, quality and most excellent virtues of c., + The_ (broadside), _ill._, 69, 70 + +Navarro, Francisco Xavier, 9, 225 + +Nave & McCord Merc. Co., 485 + +Nave-McCord Mfg. Co., 508 + +Negro plot (New York, 1737), 118 + +Neidlinger & Schmidt, 499 + +Nelson, Charles, _pat._, 649 + +Nepenthe, 12 + +Nervous system, Effect of c. on, 174, 175 + +Netherlands E. India Co., 43, 44, 283, 291, 294 + +Netherlands West India Co., 105 + +Neutral (_see_ Flavors) + +Nevers, George J., 479 + +Nevill, 60 + +Nevison, J., 631 + +_New and curious coffee-house, etc., The_, _per._, 45, 433 + +New Caledonia c., 356, 374 + +New Guinea c., 355, 374 + +_New Discoveries, etc._, Paschius, _q._, 13 + +New England Automatic Weighing Machine Co., 471 + +Newbold, William, 479 + +Newell, _pat._, 246 + +Newhall, H.B., 501 + +Newmark, H., 509 + +Newmark, Maurice H., 509 + +Newmark & Co., H., 509 + +Newmark & Co., M.A., 509 + +New Orleans Coffee Co., 485, 505 + +New uses for c., 457 + +_New View of London_ (1708), Hatton, 54 + +New York + Coffee and Sugar Exchange (_See_ Exchanges) + _Daily Advertiser_, _q._, 434, 468 + Dock Co., 319, 532 + _Gazette_, _per._, _q._, 118 + Historical Soc., 474, 591 + Hospital, 124 + _Journal_, _per._ (1775) _q._, 115 + Stock and Exchange Board, 123 + +_News from the coffee house_ (broadside) _q._, _ill._, 68, 69 + +Newstadt, Emil, _pat._, 645 + +Niblo, William, _chk._, 121, 124 + (_See also_ Gardens) + +Nicaraguas (c.), 347, 360, 361 + +Nicholson, David, 502 + +Niemuhr, Karstens, 543; + _q._, 22 + +Nielsen, Thorlief S.B., 520 + +Niessen, von, _pat._, 158, 167 + +Nieuhoff, 543, 696 + +Niles, G.M., _q._, 175 + +Nonnenbruch, _q._, 185 + +Nordlinger, Henry, 482 + +Nordlinger & Co., Henry, 482 + +Norris, G.W., 532, 533 + +North, Roger, _q._, 72, 570 + +Norton, Edward, 471 + +Norton, Weyl & Beven, 482 + +Norton & Holyoke, 434 + +Nossack & Co., 340 + +_Notes and Queries_, _per._, _q._, 1 + +Nurseries, 200, 205 + +Nutmeg in c., 696 + +Nutrio Mfg. Co., 501 + +Nutt, Jr., F.T., 535 + + +Oaxaca c., 345, 358 + +Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson, _q._, 125 + +O'Brien, 579 + +O'Brien, E.H., 455, 488 + +O'Brien, Jonas P., 482 + +O'Brien, Joseph A., 482, 491 + +_Oceana_, Harrington, 60 + +O'Donohue, Charles A., 123 + +O'Donohue, John, 480, 498 + +O'Donohue, John B., 123, 498 + +O'Donohue, Joseph J., 480 + +O'Donohue, Peter, 480, 498 + +O'Donohue & Co., J.B., 485 + +O'Dononue & Sons, John, 480 + +O'Donohue & Sons, Joseph J., 477, 480 + +O'Donohue & Stewart, 498 + +O'Donohue Coffee Co., 498 + +O'Donohue's Sons, John, 338, 485, 498 + +Oelschlager (_see_ Olearius) + +_Of the Excellent Qualities_, etc., Rumford, _q._, 697, 698 + +Ogden & Co., George, 501 + +Ogilby, 571 + +Ohio Coffee & Spice Co., 508 + +Oils, Coffee, 164, 711, 712 + +O'Krassa, R.F.E., _pat._, 247, 248 + +Olavarria, J.D., 471 + +Old Dutch Mills, 482 + +Old Ground Coffee Works, 492 + +Old Judge (brand), 441 + +Old Homestead (brand), 441 + +Old Master (brand), 441 + +Old Reserve (brand), 441 + +Oldys, William, _q._, 53 + +Olearius, Adam, _q._, 22, 45, 543 + +Olendorf, Case & Gillespie, 478 + +Olivier, Abbé, 548 + +Omar, Sheik, 13, 14, 655 + +Opera: _Le Café du Roi_, Meilhat and Deffes, 594 + +Opposition + Commercial + England, 64, 74 + Medical + Cairo, 19 + Germany, 46 + Marseilles, 32, 33 + Mecca, 17 + Political + Constantinople, 293 + England (c. houses), 72, 293 + Proclamation, Charles II, 73 + Germany, 46, 47 + London, 293 + Religious + Cairo, 19 + Constantinople, 20, 21 + Mecca, 17, 18 + Venice, 29 + (_See also_ Controversies; Coffee-houses) + +Options, 329 + +Orange Juice, peel, in c., 106 + +Ordinaries (_see_ Taverns) + +O'Reilly, Count, _q._, 222 + +_Organon salutis_ (1657), Rumsey's, _q._, 56, 58 + +_Oriental Trip_, Mandelsloh, _q._, 45 + +Origin of c., 5, 11, 13-16, 541-542 + +Orizaba c., 345, 358 + +Orleans, Regent of, 96, 98 + +Osborn, Lewis A., 434, 469, 496, 522 + +Osborn's Celebrated Prepared Java (brand), 434, 469, 496, 522 + +Oseretzkowsky, _q._, 186 + +O'Shaughnessy, John W., 480 + +O'Shaughnessy & Co., John W., 480 + +O'Shaughnessy & Sorley, 480 + +Ostrander, Loomis & Co., 508 + +O'Sullivan, Eugene, 479 + +O'Sullivan, James, 479 + +O'Sullivan & Co., Eugene, 479 + +Otis, James, 110, 111 + +Otis, McAllister & Co., 488 + +Otter _v._, 127 + +Otto, Carl Alexander, _pat._, 640, 641 + +Outlandish drink, 59 + +_Over the Black Coffee_, Gray, _q._, 713 + +Overton, John B., 479 + +Ovington, _q._, 2 + +Oxford Coffee Club, 41 + +Oxford, Lord, 584 + + +Pacific Mail Co., 489, 490 + +Package coffees + Advantages, disadvantages, 408, 409 + Deterioration, 168 + Early (U.S.), 469, 470, 522 + First crude (1791), 491, 492 + France, 680 + Great Britain, 673 + +Packaging economics, 410, 412 + +Packaging machinery, 383, 402-404 + United States patents, 470 + +Packard & James, 494 + +Padang, _v._, 317 + +Padang Interior c., 355, 371 + +Page, Judge, _q._, 570 + +Page, Thomas, _pat._, 637 + +Painter, John (_see_ Paynter) + +Pal, _q._, 184 + +Palaces, C. (_see_ Coffee houses) + +Paladino, _q._, 159 + +Palais Royal (Paris), 96, 102 + +Palambang c., 355, 372 + +Palatability aid to digestion, 180 + +Palgrave, _q._, 658-661 + +Palmer, David, 480 + +Palmer, Harvey H., 480 + +Palmer & Co., H.H., 480 + +Palmer, Warner & Co., 508 + +Paludanus, Bernard Ten Broeke, _q._, 2, 35, 41 + +_Pamela_, Richardson, 80 + +Pamphlets (_see_ Broad-sides) + +Panamas (c.), 348, 361 + +Pan-American Congress, 472 + +Panics, U.S., 528-530 + (_See also_ Booms and panics) + +Panter, William, _pat._, 245 + +_Paradise Lost_, Milton, 584 + +Parché, Café, en (Guadeloupe), 257 + +Parchment, 136, 138, 149, 150 + +Pardon, _q._, 8 + +Parent & Co., J.A., 508 + +Parini, Guiseppe, _q._, 548, 549 + +Park, Fellowes & Co., 508 + +Park & Tilford, 484, 499 + +Parker, Charles, _inv._, 469, 625 + +Parker, Edmund, _pat._, 625, 636 + +Parker, Gilman L., 501 + +Parker, John, _pat._, 634 + +Parker & Dixon, 503 + +Parker & Harrison, 503, 635 + +Parker Co., Charles, 625 + +Parkes, _q._, 704 + +Parkinson, John, 534; + _q._, 41 + +Parlin, Charles Coolidge, 441 + +Parmentier, 8 + +Parr, 557 + +Parrott & Co., 487, 488 + +Parry (Welsh harper), 85, 584 + +Parry, 543; + _q._, 36 + +Parson, 557 + +Pascal, _chk._, 33, 92, 94, 554, 619, 670; + _q._, 432 + +Paschius, George, _q._, 13 + +Patents, U.S., 654 + +Patrick (lexicographer), 576 + +Patterson, Robert W., _q._, 106 + +Pavoni, Desiderio, _pat._, 649 + +Pawinski, _q._, 185 + +Payen, _q._, 694 + +Paynter, Jonathan, 53, 54 + +Peabody, B.F., 535 + +Peaberry, 136, 249 + Botanical description, 149 + +Peaberries, 1st and 2d (grades), 258 + +Pears in c. (Russia), 686 + +Pearson, George, 507 + +Pearson, Peter, _pat._, 638, 640 + +Pechey, 543 + +Peck, Edwin H., 477 + +Peck, Walter J., 477 + +Peck, E.H. & W.J., 477, 484 + +Peck & Co., Edwin H., 477, 479 + +Peck & Kellum, Benj., 508 + +Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co., 644 + +Pedling + Constantinople, 21 + Florence, 670 + Italy, 27, 29, 670 + Padua, 29 + Paris, 92, 93, 94, 96 + Vienna, 51 + +Pedrocchi, Antonio, _chk._, 29, 599 + +Peeling (_see_ Hulling) + +_Pellicularia tokeroga_ (_see_ Diseases) + +Pemberton, John, 128, 129 + +Penn, John, 127, 129 + +Penn, Letitia, 128 + +Penn, William, 105, 115, 125, 126, 467 + +_Pennsylvania Gazette_, _newsp._, _q._, 126, 127 + +_Pennsylvania Journal_, _newsp._, 127, 128 + +Penny-change plan, 427 + +_Penny Magazine_, _per._, _q._, 704 + +Penny universities, 73 + +Peonage (_see_ Labor) + +Pepion, John, 508 + +Pepys, Samuel, _q._, 59, 554, 561, 574, 582 + +_Percolator, The_, _per._, _q._, 521 + +Percolators + Acker's Mo-Kof-Fee, 645 + testing-table, 649 + two cylinder (1905), 645 + Andrews's pumping (1841), 700 + Bohemian, 654 + Bouillon Muller's steam, 708 + Bowman's valve-type (1876), 637 + Bruning's vacuum jacket (1920), 653 + Cafetière Sené (1815), 699 + Carlsbad, 654 + Chamberlain's automatic, 652 + De Belloy's (1800), 621, 622, 697, 708 + De Santais' hydrostatic, 629 + Durant's pumping, 625, 699 + First French patent (1806), 699 + Galt (1914), 652, 701 + Gandais' pumping, 625, 699 + German (plug in spout), 708 + Glass "balloons", 627 + Hadrot's "filter", 621, 699 + Half-minute (1881), 701 + Hutchinson's, 710 + Jones's pumping, 704 + Kellum (1906), 649 + Kin-Hee (1900), 701 + Laurens' pumping, 623, 699 + Laurent's steam "whistling," 708 + Malen's, 708 + Marion Harland, 645, 696 + Mo-Kof-Fee (Acker's), 645 + Morize's reversible, 623, 699 + Nason's fluid-joint (1865), 637 + Nelson's patents (1912-13), 649 + Phylax (1914), 652, 701, 702 + Potsdam, 710 + Preterre's vacuum (1849), 634 + Pumping discussed, 714, 715 + (first, 1819), 623 + Rabauts reversed (1822), 699 + Raparlier's glass "filter", 708 + Reversible double drip, 623 + Rumford's (1806-12), 621, 622, 623, 697, 698 + Rumford type, 705 + Russian egg-shaped, 708 + Savage's patent (1906), 649 + Smart's patent (1919), 653 + Star (1886), 645 + Sternau's patent (1904), 649 + Universal (1901), 647 + Vanderweyde's patent (1866), 637 + Vardy's vacuum urn, 627, 699 + Vassieux' glass (1842), 627, 700 + Vienna, 638, 639 + Viennese type, 708 + Warner's patent (1906), 649 + +Percolation + Defined, 621, 698 + Discussed (Trigg), 720, 721 + N.C.R.A. recommendations, 718 + +Percy, Reuben, _pseud._, 585 + +Percy, Sholto, _pseud._, 585 + +Perez & Sons, Juan Pablo, 340 + +Perfect cup of c., 721-723 + +Perfect Vacuum Canning Co., 471 + +Perfumed c., 59, 695 + +Pergamino, Café en (grade), 261 + +_Perieri, C._, 146 + +Persecution (_see_ Opposition) + +_Persian letters_, Montesquieu, _q._, 109 + +Perus (c.), 350, 367 + +Pests (_see_ Diseases) + +Peters, J., _q._, 467 + +Petit, _q._, 12 + +Petring, G.H., 510 + +Petty, Sir William, 60 + +_Pharmaceutical Journal_, _per._, _q._, 156 + +_Pharmaceutice Rationalis_, Willis, _q._, 58 + +Pharmacological-chemical brewing device, 699 + +_Pharmacology_, Cushing, _q._, 179 + +Pharmacology of c., 174-188 + +Phelps, Jr., Edward A., 495, 499 + +Philadelphia Commission of Inspection, 467 + +Philidor, 96, 98 + +Philipp, John, 591 + +Philippines (c.), 355, 375 + +Philios, Ambrose, 80, 576, 577, 578 + +Phillipi, Peter, 591 + +Phillips, Sir Richard, 578, 585 + +Phillips & Co., M., 488 + +Philology (_see_ Etymology) + +Phipps, Sir William, 111 + +Phipps & Co., J.L., 476, 482, 484, 486 + +Phoenix, John, 482 + +Phoenix & Co., J.W., 482 + +Phoenix Electrical Heating Co., 647 + +Phyfe, James W., 480 + +Phyfe & Co., Jas. W., 480 + +Phonetic difficulties, 1 + +_Physique Sacrée, on Histoire Naturelle de la Bible_, Scheuzer, _q._, + 13, 16 + +Piccander, _q._, 595 + +Picking c., 250 + Colombia, 260 + +Pickslay, Joseph D., 477, 535 + +Pictures + Afternoon in the court gardens, Munich, Walle's, 591 + Afternoon at the coffee table, Meith's, 591 + Button's coffee house, Shepherd's, _ill._, 593 + Café en Asia Mineure, De Ternamine's, 591 + Café sur un route de Syrie, Marilhat's, 591 + Café Turc, Descamp's, 591 + Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse, Ruffio's, _ill._, 591 + Coffee house at Cairo, Gérôme's, _ill._, 591, 656 + Decorative panel for Paris House, Mazerolles', 591 + Dutch coffee house of 1650, Van Ostade's, _ill._, 587 + First coffee house in Vienna, Schams', _ill._, 590 + Four times of the day, Hogarth's, _ill._, 587 + French coffee house, Rowlandson's, 593 + Goldoni in a Venetian café, Longhi's, _ill._, 588 + Kaffeebesuch Phillipi's, _ill._, 591 + Lion's head at Button's, Shepherd's, _ill._, 591 + Mad dog in a coffee house, Rowlandson's, _ill._, 593 + Manager Classen and his family, Milde's, 591 + Mme. de Pompadour, Van Loo's, _ill._, 588 + Mme. Du Barry at Versailles, Decreuse's, _ill._, 589, 590 + Napoleon and the curé, Charlet's, _ill._, 593 + Old woman with coffee cup, Philipp's, 591 + Oriental coffee house, Meyerhelm's, 591 + Parisian boulevard café, Menzel's, 591 + Pastor Rautenberg and his Family, Milde's, 591 + Petit déjeuner, Boucher's, _ill._, 588 + Rake's progress, Hogarth's, _ill._, 587 + Slaughter's coffee house, Shepherd's, _ill._, 593 + Sweets shop of Josty in Berlin, Schmidt's, 591 + Tom's coffee house, Shepherd's, _ill._, 593 + Tontine coffee house, Guy's, 593 + Washington's official welcome to New York, Gruppe's, _ill._, 593 + +Pictures, C. in, 587-593 + +Pierce, Jr., O.W., 509 + +Pierce, Sr., Oliver Webster, 509 + +Pierce & Co., O.W., 509 + +Piers, steel-roofed (N.O.), 325 + +Pilcher, _q._, 184 + +Pinzon & Co., 338 + +Pioneer Mills, 508 + +Pique, R., _q._, 156 + +Piron, 94 + +Pitt, William, 580 + +Pitt & Sons, C.F., 485 + +Place, E.B., 482 + +Place, J.K., 482 + +Places, names of (_see_ Note, p. 769) + +Plantation machinery, 245-248 + Brazil, 207 + Salvador, 217 + +Plantation machines + Guardiola drier, 255 + Planet Junior, 207 + +Plantation preparation, 201 + Arabia, 197 + +Plantation processes, 245-271 + Abyssinia, 268 + Angola, 268 + Arabia, 245, 264, 266, 268 + Brazil, 258-261 + Colombia, 260 + Guatemala, 263 + Haiti, 264 + Java, 268, 269, 271 + Mexico, 263 + Netherlands E. Indies, 268, 269, 271 + Nicaragua, 264 + Porto Rico, 264 + Salvador, 263 + Sumatra, 268, 269 + Venezuela, 261, 263 + +Plantations + Abyssinia, yield per acre, 228 + Angola + Cazengo, 230 + Australia, yield per acre, 239 + Brazil (fazendas) + Araqua, 208 + Azevedo, L. de O., 208 + Caféeria São Paulo, 208 + Capital invested, 207 + do Val, F.S., 208 + Dumont, _ill._, 205, 208, 258 + Ellis, Alfredo, 208 + Irmaos, Alves, 208 + Oliveira, 208 + Principal, 208 + Ribeirao Preto, _ill._, 208 + São Martinho, 208 + São Paulo Coffee Co., 208 + Schmidt, 208, 258 + Ceylon, first British, (1825) 237 + Colombia, 211, 212 + Namay, 212 + Cuba, number, 282 + Guadeloupe, yield per acre, 233 + Hawaii, yield per acre, 241 + India + Cannon's Baloor, 227 + Hoskahn, 227 + Mylemoney, 227 + Santaverre, 227 + Sumpigay Kahn, 227 + Yield per acre, 227 + Java + Jakatra, 44 + Kedawoeng estate, 6 + Typical, A., 269, 271 + Mexico + Orduna, 220 + Porto Rico + Capital invested, 223 + Yield per acre, 223, 225 + Salvador, first (1876), 217 + Sumatra + Gadoeng Batoe, _ill._, 217 + Venezuela (haciendas) + Altamira, _ill._, 212 + Carmen, _ill._, 213 + Yield per acre, 213 + +Planting (_see also_ Propagation), 200 + +_Plants of Egypt_, Alpini, 26 + +Plants, Roasting, _ill._, 379, 381, 383, 385 + +Platow, Moritz, _pat._, 627, 699 + +Platt, Jr., James, _q._, 1 + +Plays + _Autocrat of the Coffee Stall, The_, Chapin, 556, 563 + _Beaux' Stratagem_, Farquhar, _q._, 587, 588 + _Bold Stroke for a Wife, A_, Centlivre, _q._, 554 + Boston, first performed in, 111 + _Bottega di Caffè, La_, Goldoni, 555 + _Café; ou, l'Ecossaise, Le_, Voltaire, 556 + _Caffè, Le_, Rosseau, 554, 555 + _Caffè di Campagna, Il_, Galuppi, 556 + _Caffettiéra da Spirito, La_, 556 + _Coffee House, The_, Rosseau, 88 + _Coffee House; or, Fair Fugitive, The_, Voltaire, _q._, 556 + _Coffee-House Politician, The_, Fielding, _q._, 554, 555 + _Devin du Village_, Rousseau, 102 + "English comedy," _q._, 61 + _Foire St. Germain, La_, Dancourt (1696), _q._, 554 + _Hamilton_, Hamlin and Arliss, _q_., _ill._, 556 + _Persian Wife, The_, Goldoni, _q._, 556 + _Socrates_, Voltaire, 556 + _Tarugo's Wiles; or, the Coffee House_, St. Serf, _q._, 554 + +Pleasure gardens (_see_ Gardens) + +Pletzer, _q._, 185 + +Pluehart, _inv._, 710 + +Plunket (highwayman), 578 + +Pneumatic Scale Corp., 471, 472 + +Pneumatic Scale Corp., Ltd., 471 + +Pocoke, Edward, _q._, 12, 38 + +Pods, 329 + +_Poemata Didascalia_, d'Olivet, 543 + +Poems + "_As long as Mocha's happy tree_," Pope's, _q._, 549 + _Ballad of the South Sea Scheme_, Swift, _q._, 571 + _Bouquet Blanc et le Bouquet Noir, Le_, Mery, 548 + _Café, Le_ (anon.), 548 + _Café, Le_, Berchoux, 548 + _Caffè, Il_, Barotti, 548 + _Cap and Bells_, Keats, _q._, 550 + _Carmen Caffaeum_, Massieu, _q._, 14, 544-547 + _City Mouse and Country Mouse_, Prior and Montague, _q._, 551 + _Coffee_, Saltus, _q._, 552 + _Coffee--a Chanson_ (music by Colet), _ill._, 594, 595 + _Coffee and Crumpets_, "Littledo," _q._, 550, 551 + _C. Companion_ (from Arabic), _q._, 543 + _Coffee Slips, The_, Hood, _q._, 550 + _Comus_, Milton, _q._, 549 + _de Clieu_, Esménard, _q._, 8, 548 + _Flogé du Café_, L'Estienne, 548 + _Frugality_, Pope Leo XIII, _q._, 549 + _Gilbert K. Chesterton Rises to the Toast of C._, Untermeyer, _q._, 553 + _Giorno, Il_, Parini, _q._, 548, 549 + _Grandeur de Dieu dans les Merveilles de la Nature, La_, 548 + _In Praise of C._ (from Arabic), _q._, 542 + _Like His Mother Used to Make_, Riley, _q._, 552 + _Lines_ (appended to broadside) Morton, _ill._, 69 + _Lines on C._ (_from_ French), 548 + _Long Story, A_, Gray, _q._, 576 + _Ode to Coffee_, Price, _q._, 553 + _Over the Black Coffee_, Gray, _q._, 552, 553 + _Pity for Poor Africans_, Cowper, _q._, 550 + _Plantes, Les_, Castel, _q._, 548 + _Rape of the Lock_, Pope, _q._, 550 + _Recipe for Making C._, Hodhat, _q._, 663 + _Royal Drummer_ (Paris) _q._, 96 + _Rules and orders of the C. house_ (broadside) _q._, 60, 61 + _Song_ from _The Coffee House_, Fielding, _q._, _ill._, 555 + _Three Reigns of Nature_, Delille, _q._, 547 + _To the Mighty Monarch, King Kauhee_, Sephton, _q._, 552 + _To the Coffee House_, Altenberg, _q._, 549 + _To Pasqua Rosée_, _q._, 54 + (Unnamed), Belighi, 547 + (Unnamed), Lloyd, _q._, 584 + _Verses_, Maumenet, _q._, 548 + _Wealthy Shopkeeper; or, Charitable Christian_, _q._, 572 + _What Every Wife Knows_, Rowland, _q._, 553-554 + +Poetry, C. in, 542-554 + +Poffenberger, Jr., A.T., _q._, 723 + +Poison, C. a, 58, 174 + +Polished C., rulings (U.S.), 337, 338 + +Polishing machinery, 247, 248, 257 + +Political liberty; England's won in coffee houses, 74 + +Politics, C. and, 59, 62 + +Polli, Pietro, 558 + +Pollitzer, _q._, 176 + +Polstorff, K., 159, 160 + +Ponfold, Schuyler & Co., 482 + +Poore, G.W., _q._, 705, 707 + +Pop open, 389 + +Pope, Alexander, 78, 80, 81, 575, 576, 577, 578, 583; + _q._, 549, 550 + _Life of_, Carruthers, _q._, 549 + +Popularity of c. in U.S.; reasons for, 106 + +Portable c. making devices + French (1691-1754), 618 + Turkish, 615, 616, 617 + +Portable grinding machines, 685 + +Portal, Antoine, _q._, 58 + +Porthandling charges + Brazil, 306, 315 + New York, 323 + +Porthandling methods, U.S., 513 + +Porter, David (Capt.), 112 + +Porter, David D. (Admiral), 112 + +Porter, Horace, Gen., _q._, 563 + +Porter & Co., W.J., 480 + +Porto Rico Coffee Co., 488 + +Porto Rico Planters' Protective Ass'n, 444, 445 + +Porto Ricos (c.), 350, 362 + +Posadas, J.Z., 488 + +_Postman_, London, _per._, 560 + +Postulart, _pat._, 640 + +_Pot and Kettle, The_, Lally, _q._, 570 + +Potter, _pat._, 167 + +Potter, Dr., _q._, 181 + +Potter, Ellis M., 498; + _pat._, 642 + +Potter & Parlin, 503 + +Potter Coffee Co., 498 + +Potter-Parlin Co., 471, 641, 642 + +Potter-Parlin Spice Mills, 498 + +Potter, Sloan, O'Donohue Co., 498 + +Pounding c., 697, 705 + +Poursine & Co., P., 486 + +Poursini & Co., R., 505 + +Powdered (_see_ Grinds) + +Power, _q._, 155 + +Power-Chestnut method, 172 + +Prado, Paulo da Silva, 532, 534 + +_Praedium Rusticum_, Vaniére, 543 + +Pratt, A.H., 502 + +Pratt, David S., _pat._, 539 + +Preanger c., 355, 373 + +Pregnancy, Effect of c. on, 177 + +Premium for early shipping (Santos), 314 + +Premium distribution, retail, 429 + +Premiums, 412, 413 + Arbuckle, 522, 525 + +Prendergast Bros., 482 + +Prentiss & Page, 637 + +Prepared Coffee, 404 + +Prescott, Prof. S.C., 515, 714; + _q._, 717 + +Preterre, Apoleoni P., _pat._, 634 + +Price, William A., _q._, 553 + +Prices + Advance notice of change, 514 + Beverage + Constantinople, 665 + London, 675, 677 + (1662), 582 + (1677), 73 + Blends, retail, U.S. (1922), 722, 723 + Green + American colonies, 467, 475 + Amsterdam (1810-12), 468 + England (1719), 74 + New York (1670), 105 + (1683), 125 + (1898), 471 + (1903), 472 + (1919), 474 + Netherlands (early), 44 + Netherlands E. Indies, 312 + United States + Early, 475 + (1814), 468 + (1880-93), 527, 530 + (1911), 532 + (1913), 538 + (1921), 299, 330 + War-time, 536-538 + Guaranteeing, 514 + Roasted + New York (1791), 492 + Roasting (1885), 509 + +Prideaux, W.F., _q._, 1, 2 + +Priest, William, 612 + +Primera (grade), 261 + +Primero (grade), 264 + +Prims, J.C., _pat._, 473, 643 + +Prior 89; + _q._, 551, 575 + +Pritchard, George W., 480 + +Pritchard & Sons, Geo. W., 480 + +Private Estate (brand), 496 + +Private estates + Java, 214, 215 + Netherlands E. Indies, 283, 312 + +Probst & Co., F., 482 + +_Proceedings, Society of Antiquaries_ (1889), _q._, 602, 603 + +Procope, François, _chk._, 94 + +Proctor, Charles E., 538 + +Producing countries, leading, 191 + +Production + Abyssinia, 284 + Africa, British E., 229, 285 + German E. (1913), 229 + Angola (1913), 229 + Arabia, 282 + Argentina, 279 + Australia, 284 + Bolivia, 279 + Brazil, 273, 275, 277 + (1850), 205 + (1887-1902), 528-530 + (1903, 1906), 472 + (1906-07), 534 + Santos passes Rio (1900-01), 530 + Cape Verde Islands (1916), 229 + Celebes, 217, 283 + Ceylon, 236, 282, 283 + Chile, 279 + Colombia, 211, 278 + Congo, Belgian, 229 + Costa Rica, 225, 280 + Cuba, 282 + Dominican Republic, 281 + Ecuador, 278 + Eritrea (1918), 229 + Federated Malay States, 284 + Gold Coast, 285 + Guadeloupe, 281, 282 + Guam, 284 + Guatemala, 219, 225, 280 + Guiana, British and French, 279 + Dutch, 236, 279 + Haiti, 220, 281 + Hawaii, 239, 284 + Honduras, 234, 280 + British, 235, 280 + India, 282 + Jamaica, 281 + Java, 215, 283 + Liberia (1917), 229 + Madagascar (1918), 229 + Martinique, 282 + Mauritius, 285 + Mexico, 280, 281 + Netherlands E. Indies, 283 + Nicaragua, 280 + Nigeria, 285 + Nyasaland, 285 + Oaxaca (Mex.), 220 + Panama, 235, 280 + Paraguay, 236, 279 + Peru, 278 + Philippines, 284 + Porto Rico, 281 + Réunion (Bourbon), 285 + Salvador, 225, 279, 280 + Sierra Leone, 285 + Somali Coast (French), 285 + Somaliland (Fr. and It.), 229 + (British), 285 + St. Thomas and Princes I.'s, 229 + Sumatra, 217 + Uganda, 229, 285 + Uruguay, 279 + Venezuela, 212 + World (1883-1921), 273 + (1901-02), 531 + (Statistical Table), 274 + +Production and Consumption, 273-285 + +Prohibition, U.S. + Effect on consumption, 288, 689 + +_Prolongation of Life_, Metchnikoff, _q._, 178 + +Propagation + Cuttings, 138, 200 + Grafting, 200 + Seeds, 138, 200 + Arabia, 231 + +Proteins in c., 693, 718, 719 + Dearth in beverage, 180 + +Provang, 56 + +Pruning, 133, 202, 203 + Angola, 230 + +_Publick Adviser_, _per._, _q._, _ill._, 56, 432, 581 + +_Public Ledger_, London, _per._, 327 + +Publicity, National campaign, 513 + +Publishers' Information Bureau, 441 + +Puerto Cabello c., 348, 364 + +Puhl, John, 502 + +Puhl-Webb Co., 502 + +Pulp, uses, 136, 156 + +Pulping, 250, 251 + +Pulping machinery, 245, 246, 247, 248, 252, 254 + +Puna c., 356, 375 + +Pupke, John F., 482, 496 + +Pupke & Reid, 482, 496, 499, 635 + +Pupke, Reid & Phelps, 496 + +Purcell, Alexander H., 477 + +Purcell, Joseph, 477, 480, 535 + +Purcell & Co., Alex. H., 477 + +Purser (artist), 668 + +_Purchas his pilgrimes_, _q._, 36 + +Purchas, Samuel, 36 + +Purdy, L.J., 479 + +Pure Food and Drugs Act, 337, 338, 410, 472, 722 + +_Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs_, Hall, _q._, 184 + +Purity Dried Fruits Cleansing Co., 471 + +_Purpurescens, C._, _hyb._, 140 + +Pyriform c.-pot, 604 + +Pythagoras, 13 + + +Qahvah, 2 + +Qahwah, 1 + +Quadri, Giorgio, 28 + +Quakers (imperfections), 329 + +Quarry, Col., 126 + +Queen Anne, 82 + +Queen Mary, 601 + +Queensberry, Duchess of, 572 + +Quelle, Ralph J., _pat._, 648 + +Quick roast, 387, 388 + +_Quillou, C._, 146 + Java, 216 + +_Quillouensis, C._, 146 + +Quin, James, 580, 583 + +Quinby & Co., W.S., 501 + +Quincy, Dr., 543 + +Quotation relationship (table), 330 + +Quotations + Daily, how determined, 335 + Foreign, 336 + + +Rabaut, L.B., _pat._, 623, 627, 699 + +Racine, 91, 565 + +Radcliffe, John, 77, 572 + +Rainfall requirements, 198 + +Raleigh, Sir Walter, 42 + +Rambaldi, Angelo, 558; + _q._, 696 + +_Rameau's Nephew_, Diderot, _q._, 96 + +Ramos, Augusto, 531 + +Ramos, Francisco F., 534 + +Ramponaux, Jean, _chk._, 94, 96 + +Rand, George, 480 + +Randall, John, 479 + +Ranelagh (_see_ Gardens) + +Ransom, Amos, _pat._, 625 + +Raparlier, _pat._, 637 + +_Rape of the lock_, Pope, 80 + +Rapid-filtration devices + de Mattel's patent (1920), 653 + Express, 651 + Italiana Sovereign, L., 651 + J. & S. (Still's), 674 + Victoria Arduino, La, (1909-20), 651 + +Rapid-infusion devices + Bezzara system, 649, 651 + Ideale, _ill._, 651 + Malthey-Zorn centrif., 653, 654 + +Rapid-percolation device + Loysel's hydrostatic, 708 + +Rasch, Anthony, 612 + +Rasis ad Almans (_see_ Rhazes) + +Rauwolf, Leonhard, 43, 45, 431, 541, 543; + _q._, 2, 12, 25 + +Ray, John, 42, 543 + +Ray & Co., Winthrop G., 478, 479, 480 + +Razi, El (_see_ Rhazes) + +_Ready and easy way to establish a free commonwealth_, Milton, 60 + +Reamer, Sr., Abraham, 480 + +Reamer, Turner & Co., 480 + +Rebagging + New York, 322, 338 + Santos, 304, 306 + +Rebellious antidote (broadside), _q._, 58 + +Recipes, dessert's, etc., 723, 724 + +Reconditioning, 322 + +Recovery, _v._, 468 + +Red Can (brand), 441 + +Red D Line, 482 + +Red E (brand), 538 + +Red pottage, 13 + +Red Ribbon (brand), 441 + +Reed, Charles, 127 + +Reed, Charles B., _q._, 557 + +Reed, Nathan, _pat._, 245, 469 + +Reeve, Daniel, 482 + +Reeve & Van Riper, 482 + +Reeve, Case & Banks, 479 + +Re-exports + London, 327 + United States (1921), 299, 301, 302 + +Refining device + Johnston's patent (1913), 652 + +Reichert, E.T., _q._, 183 + +Reid, Thomas, 469, 482, 494, 496, 497, 522, 526 + +Reid & Co., Thomas, 499 + +Reid, Murdoch & Fischer, 480, 502 + +Reiger, _q._, 184, 185 + +Reimers & Meyer, 485 + +Religious associations + Christian, 26 + Mohammedan, 15, 16, 17, 22 + +Remi c., 351, 368 + +Remington, J.R., _pat._, 633 + +Remington, Mortimer, 445 + +Remmer, Oscar, 502 + +Renan, 102 + +Renovating, 158 + +Renshaw, William, _chk._, 130 + +Rentschler, _q._, 161 + +Repassing machine, 252 + +Research, Scientific + Brewing, comparative test, 714, 716 + Dawson and Wetherill (1855), 711, 712 + Grinds, comparative test, 716 + University of Kansas, 714 + Mass. Inst. of Technology, 515, 716-718 + Mellon Institute, 539 + N.C.R.A., 513-515, 539, 713-718 + Prescott, 515, 714, 716-718 + Robison, 715 + Trigg, 539 + +Restaurants + London + A, B, C (chain), _ill._, 674, 677 + Brit. Tea Table Ass'n., 675 + Buzard's cake house, 677 + Cabin, 677 + Carlton, 678 + Corner Houses (chain), 677 + Express Dairy Co., 677 + Groom's, _ill._, 674 + Lipton's, 677 + Lyons (chain), _ill._, 674, 675, 677 + Peel's, 674 + Slater's, 675, 677 + Temple Bar, _ill._, 675 + Trust-houses, Ltd., 675 + Ye Mecca Co., _ill._, 674 + New York + Childs (chain), 691 + Dorlon's, 690 + Thompson (chain), 691 + +Restrepo, Dr., _q._, 181 + +Retailing, 415-429 + Blending, 722 + Channels of distribution, 415 + +_Retaliation_, Goldsmith, 573, 574 + +Reuter-Jones Mfg. Co., 649 + +Revere, Paul, 110, 609, 611; + _biog._, 612, 613 + +Revett, William, _q._, 2 + +Revolution + American, 110, 125, 128 + French, 100, 102, 293 + +Revolution, C. and, 18, 20, 31 + (_See also_ Democracy: Politics) + +Rewards, 50, 51 + +Reynolds, J. B, 506 + +Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 81, 88, 574, 580, 585 + +Reynolds, Hatcher & Pierce, 509 + +Rhazes, _q._, 11, 12, 25, 431, 541 + +Rheumatism, remedy, 182 + +Rhodes, Benjamin, 477 + +Rice, W.S., 502 + +Richards, Charles, 508 + +Richardson, Charles, 80, 576; + _q._, 584 + +Richardson & Lane, 501 + +Richelieu, Duke of, 96, 98 + +Richheimer, I.D., 538, 539; + _pat._, 651, 652; + _q._, 715 + +Richter, _q._, 159 + +Ricker, Harvey, 701; + _pat._, 645 + +Ridenour, Baker Gro. Co., 485 + +Riechelmann, _q._, 159 + +Ries, Maurice, 338 + +Riggs, J. H, 508 + +Riley, James Whitcomb, _q._, 552 + +Rinehart & Stevens, 507 + +Rios (c.), 341, 343, 366 + +Ripley, D.C., 497 + +Risley, Christopher, 479 + +Risley, Leander S., 479 + +Risley & Co., C., 479, 480, 528 + +Rittenhouse, John, _pat._, 627 + +Ritz, 678 + +Rivarol, 98 + +Rivers, 186; + _q._, 187 + +Roach, Tiger, 579 + +Roasters + Baltimore, 507, 508 + Boston, 501 + Chicago, 501, 502 + Cleveland, 507 + Detroit, 508 + Louisville, 505 + Milwaukee, 506 + New Orleans, 505 + New York (1790-94), 475, 476 + (1805-1922), 492-501 + Philadelphia, 501 + Pittsburgh, 507 + San Francisco, 505, 506 + St. Louis, 502, 503 + Toledo, 506, 507 + Other cities, 508, 509 + United States, 492-509 + (_See also_ Dealers, wholesale) + +Roasting + Arabia, 658-662 + Australia, 692 + Great Britain, 673 + (18th century), 695, 696 + (19th century), 704, 705, 707 + France, 679 + Greece, 685 + Netherlands, 686 + New Zealand, 692 + United States, 709, 710, 712 + +Roasting, Chemistry of, 165-167, 388, 389 + +Roasting economies, 513 + +Roasting, Household + Decline of, 635 + Devices + Braziers, 615 + Clay dishes, 615 + Corn-poppers, 635 + Cylinder, 619 + Earthenware, 615, 620 + Extemporized, 617, 635, 695, 696 + Glass flasks (Italy), 623 + Iron dippers, spiders, 616 + Metal plates, 615 + Stirrers (spatula), 616 + +Roasting machinery, 381-386, 615-654 + Coal, 391, 392 + Development of, 629 + Direct-flame, 386 + French, 678-680 + Glass cylinder, 646 + Gas, 386, 640-643 + German (1860-1897), 638, 639 + Imports from Gt. Brit., 625 + Indirect-flame, 642, 646 + Inner-heated, 386 + Retail, 420, 421 + Sample (France), 679 + Wholesale, + Burns, J.; improvements, 634-637, 644 + French patents, 639, 640 + German patent, first, 683 + Fullard's heated fresh air, 643 + Steam-power, 631, 635 + +Roasting machines + Household + Bernard's cylinder (1841), 629 + Bull's coal (1704), 620 + Elford's white iron (1660), 616, 617 + Gee's (1852), 634 + Home (1908), 646 + Hyde's combined (1862), 634 + Ittel's glass sphere (1874), 640 + Kuhlemann's electric, 648 + Lacoux's combined, 625, 627 + Lauzaune's cylinder (1829), 625 + Lauzaune's "rocking" (1873), 640 + Lawton's perforated, gas (1912), 641 + Lawton's quick gas (1912), 651, 652 + Marchand's fan roaster (1866), 640 + Martin's cylinder (1860), 640 + Preterre's weighing (1849), 634 + Ransom's (1833), 625 + Remington's wheel of buckets, 633 + Savo (1917), 646 + Schick's method (1812), 623 + Williamson's (1820), 624 + Wood's spherical (1849), 634, 710 + Retail + Lambert's 50-pound, 646 + Lester's electric (1903), 647 + Moegling's electric (1906), 647 + Sales promotion value, 423 + Seymour's electric (1921), 648 + St. Louis, Jr., 649 + Talbutt's electric (1911), 647 + Uno electric (1909-20), 647, 648 + Warner's mill (1905), 648 + Sample roasting + Burns, 642 + Improved (1883), 645 + Swing-gate (1900), 647 + Tilting (1909), 651 + Wholesale, 646 + Arbuckle's first (1903), 647 + Aromatic (electric power), 646 + Burns Balanced-front (1908), 651 + Coal, 391, 392 + Direct-flame (1900), 642 + First patent (1864), 634 + Special gas (1897), 642 + Carter Pull-out (1846), 469, 629 + Combination (quick gas), 641 + Comet, 638 + Crawley patents, 642 + Dakin (1848), 633 + Delphine tubular (1870), 639 + Economic, 646 + Evans cylindrical (1824), 624 + Faulder, 640, 673 + First direct flame (U.S.), 471 + Fleury gas (1880-81), 638, 640 + Fraser gas (1897-98), 642 + Giacomini process (1903), 648 + Hamsley direct-flame (1898), 642 + Henneman direct-flame (1888), 640, 642, 643 + Holmes patent (1906), 643 + Hungerford patent (1882), 644 + Hyde combined (1862), 634 + Ideal-Rapid, 639 + Johnston patent (1905), 646 + Jubilee (1915-19), 643, 652 + Jumbo, 522, 524, 647 + Knickerbocker, 638, 644 + Knowlys's cylinder (1848), 633 + Kuchelmeister drum, 647 + Lambert indirect-flame (1901), 642, 646 + Self-contained, 646 + Lambert (French), 646 + Magic, 646 + Marchand ball (1877), 640 + Meteor, 638 + Moderne, 646 + Monitor direct-flame, 642 + Morewood sliding-burner (1901), 642, 673 + Muhlberg patents (1878), 638 + Otto spiral-tubular (1889), 640, 641 + Page Pull-out (1868), 637, 638 + Pearson patents, 638, 640 + Perfekt, 639 + Postulart gas (1888), 640 + Potter direct-flame (1899), 642 + Probat, 639 + Rekord (quick gas), 641 + Resson, 646 + Royal (1905), 643, 646 + Schmidt patent (1906), 649 + Schnuck gas (1919), 653 + Shortt electric (1919), 647 + Sirocco, 641, 646 + Thurmer quirk-gas (1891-93), 640, 641 + Tornado quick-gas, 641 + Tubermann (1877), 638 + Tupholme direct-flame (1887), 640, 641 + Typhoon, 638 + Uno, 673 + Van den Brouck cylinder, 646 + von Gumborn gas (1892), 639 + Van Gulpen (1870), 638 + +Roasting methods + Automatic control, 166 + Better C.-making com., 713, 714 + Burns, Jabez; views on, 636 + Butter; use in Gt. Brit., 673 + Early, 694, 695 + Electric, 386 + Goldsworthy's process, 702 + Lard; use in Gt. Brit., 673 + Natural gas, 642 + Quick _vs._ slow, 640, 641 + +Roasting plants + France, 679 + United States + Arbuckle, 524, 525 + First and second, 468 + New York + Number (1914-1919), 515, 516 + Early (1790-95), 491 + Number (1855-56), 496 + +Roasting trade + France, 678, 679 + Italy, 686 + United States, 379-406, 491-515 + Beginning of, 522 + Methods and prices (1845), 635 + Retail, 418 + St. Louis (1857), 629-633 + +Roasts, 356 + Brazilian preferences, 691 + British preferences, 673 + French preferences, 680 + Greek preferences, 685 + Italian preferences, 686 + +Roberts, Mrs., _chk._, 127 + +Robertson, Joseph C., 585 + +Robespierre, 94, 96, 102 + +_Robinson Crusoe_, Defoe, 80 + +Robinson, Dr., _q._, 176 + +Robinson, Edward Forbes, 557; + _q._, 11, 54, 56, 59, 62, 72, 73, 107 + +Robinson, Tanered, 584 + +Robinson & Co., N., 501 + +Robison, Floyd W., _pat._, 158, 474; + _q._, 715 + +_Robusta, C._ + Botanical description, 144 + Ceylon, 236 + Cup-tests, 145 + Guadeloupe, 234 + India, 227 + Indo-China, French, 237 + Java, 215, 216 + Netherlands E. Indies, 283 + New Caledonia, 243 + New York, Exchange excludes, 329, 338 + Sumatra, 217 + Trees; height (Java), 215 + yield (Java), 216 + Uganda, 353 + United States, imports, 341 + Varieties, 146 + +_Robusta-achtigen_ (robusta-like), 216 + +_Robusta_ hybrid (Ceylon), 236 + +_Robusta_ × _Maragogipe_, _hyb._, 146 + +Rochester, Earl of, 575 + +Rodney, William, 126 + +Roe, Sir T., _q._, 2 + +Roettier, John, 62, 582 + +Rogers, _chk._, 121 + +Rolamb, Nicholas, _q._ 23 + +Rollins, Thornton, 485 + +_Romance of Trade_, Bourne, _q._, 54 + +Romero, _q._, 198 + +Ronan, James, 508 + +_Roodbessige, C._ (Java), 216 + +Roome, Luke, _chk._, 118 + +Roome, William P., 478, 498 + +Roome & Co., William P., 478, 498 + +Rooney, John, 475 + +Roosevelt family, 690 + +Ropes, Joseph, 468 + +Ropes, Ripley, 482 + +Roque, P. de la, 31, 543 + +_Rosary, The_, Barclay, _q._, 563 + +Rosebault, Charles J., _q._, 671 + +Roseburg, William, 521, 522 + +Rosée, Pasqua, 42, 43, 53, 54, 58, 69, 462, 543; + _q._, 432 + Handbill, _ill._, 459, 461 + +Roselius, Ludwig, _pat._, 162, 473 + +Ross, C.J., _q._, 230 + +Rossbach & Bro., 485 + +Rosseau, Jean Baptiste, 88, 554 + +Rosseter, J.H., 490 + +Rossi, _q._, 186 + +Rossignon, _q._, 707 + +Rossini, 103 + +Rota (_see_ Clubs, C.-house) + +Roth, 510 + +Roth Grocery Co., Adam, 485 + +Rothschilds, 531 + +Roubiliac, 84, 583, 584 + +Rouch, _pat._, 621 + +Roure, _pat._, 640 + +Rousseau, Baron Antoine, _q._, 656 + +Rousseau, J.J., 94, 98, 102, 566 + +Routh, Harold, _q._, 561 + +Rowland, _pat._, 625 + +Rowland, Helen, _q._, 553, 554 + +Rowland & Humphreys, 482 + +Rowland, Humphreys & Co., 480 + +Rowland, Terry & Humphreys, 482 + +Rowlandson, Thomas, 75, 593 + +Rowley, Levi, 494, 499 + +Roxbury "hourlies", 10 + +Royal Exchange Lloyd's, 85 + +Royal Exchange (London), 86 + +Royal Exchange (New York, 1752), 120 + +Royal Scarlet (brand), 441 + +Royal Society, 41 + +Royal, Thomas M., 471 + +Rubia Mills, 434, 496 + +Ruffio, P.A., 591 + +Ruffner, W.R., 538 + +Rule & Bro., Robert J., 501 + +Ruliff, Clark & Co., 505 + +Rulings (U.S.), 337, 338 + +Rumford, Count, _inv._, 557, 621, 622, 699, 704; + _biog._, 697; + _q._, 698 + +Rumsey, Walter, _q._, 56 + +Runkle & Co., J.C., 479, 482 + +Rupert, Prince, 69 + +Russell, Edward C., 495 + +Russell, Frank C., 478, 499 + +Russell, Robert, 482 + +Russell, Robert S., 499 + +Russell & Co., 482, 494, 499 + +Russell & Fessenden, 501 + +Ruth, 13 + +Ruth, Sylvester, 507 + +Rutter & Co., Thomas, 480 + +Ryan & Co., James, 506 + + +Saccharin in c., 165 + +Saffron in c., 660 + +Saint-Foix, 566, 567 + +Saint-Victor, 102 + +Salaman, Malcolm C., _q._, 589 + +Salant, _q._, 184 + +Salazar, Alfredo M., _pat._, 653 + +Salazar c., 349, 365 + +Sales by candle, 571 + +Salesmanship, 407 + +Sales promotion + Retail, 423-426 + Wholesale, 412, 413 + +Saltero, Don, 559, 560 + +Saltus, Francis S., 541; + _q._, 552 + +Salvadors (c.), 347, 360 + +Salvandy, Narcisse-Achille, _q._, 100 + +Samoa c., 355, 375 + +Sample distribution, 412 + +Samplers (N.Y. Exch.), 333 + +Sampling + Brazil, 303, 304, 306 + New York, 319, 321 + San Francisco, 327 + Santos, 303, 304, 306, 312, 316 + +Sanani c., 351, 368 + +Sanborn, Chas. E., 501 + +Sanborn, James S., 501 + +Sandys, Sir George, 12, 38, 543; + _q._, 36 + +_Sandys's Travels_, _q._, 36 + +Sand, George, 565 + +Sanger, Abraham, 480 + +Sanger, Beers & Fisher, 480, 497 + +Sanger & Wells, 480 + +Santa Ana c., 350, 365 + +Santa Cecilia, _v._, 316 + +Santo Domingos (c.), 350, 362 + +Santos c., 341, 342, 366 + +Saportas Bros., 482 + +_Saturday Evening Post_, _per._, _q._, 177 + +Sauvage c., _ill._, 142 + +Savage, 578 + +Savage, George E., _pat._, 649 + +Savage, Richard, 570 + +Saxe, Marshall, 98 + +Saxon Coffee Co., 508 + +Sayre, _q._, 163, 164, 166, 183 + +Schadheli, Sheik, 13, 14 + +Schaefer, Henry, 478, 535 + +Schaefer, J.H., _q._, 428 + +Schams, Franz, 590 + +Schanne, Alexandre, _q._, 102 + +Scharf, _q._, 126 + +Schemsi, _chk._, 19, 668 + +Scheuzer, J.J., _q._, 13, 16 + +Schick, Anthony, _pat._, 623 + +Schierenberg, A., 535 + +Schilling, A., 506 + +Schilling & Co., A., 505, 506, 507 + +Schipano, Mario, 27 + +Schittenhelm, _q._, 182 + +Schmelzel, James H., 495 + +Schmidt, C., 591 + +Schmidt, Francisco, 208 + +Schmidt, Ludwig, _pat._, 649 + +Schmidt & Ziegler, 486 + +Schmiedeberg, Dr. Oswald, _q._, 185 + +Schnuck, Edward F., _pat._, 653 + +Schnull & Krag, 508 + +Schoepffwasser, Lorentz, _pseud._, 45 + +School of Oratory, Macklin's, 580 + +Schools, information for, 513 + +Schools of the wise, 19 + +Schotten, Christian, 503 + +Schotten, Hubertus, 503 + +Schotten, Jerome J., 503 + +Schotten, Julius J., 503, 510, 631 + +Schotten, William, 503, 629, 631, 633 + +Schotten & Bro., William, 503 + +Schotten & Co., Wm., 485, 502, 503 + +Schotten Coffee Co., Wm., 503 + +Schramm, Arnold, 477 + +Schramm, Inc., Arnold, 477 + +Schroeder, Bruno, 532, 534 + +Schroeder & Co., J. Henry, 532, 534 + +Schuler, John G., 508 + +Schulte, A., _q._, 156 + +Schultz & Ruckgaber, 482 + +Schultze, _q._, 165 + +_Schumaniana, C._, 146 + +Schumberg, _q._, 186 + +Schürhoff, _q._, 185 + +Schurtzkwer, 185 + +Schwartz, Joseph M., 521 + +Schwartz Bros., 488 + +Schweitzer & Co., M., 488 + +Scialdi, 14 + +Scolfield, Henry, _pat._, 247 + +Scott, Andrew, _q._, 85 + +Scott, Edwin, 499 + +Scott, Sir Walter, _q._, 573, 574, 579 + +Scott, William, 479 + +Scott & Dash, 479 + +Scott & Meiser, 479 + +Scott & Sons, William, 479 + +Scott, Dash & Co., 479 + +Scott, Meiser & Co., 479 + +Scott's Sons & Co., William, 479 + +Scotty, C. (chef), 691 + +Scriba, Schroppel & Starmen, 475 + +_Scribner's Magazine_, _q._, 664 + +Scudder, Gale Gro. Co., 485 + +Scull, William S., 509 + +Scull & Co., W.S., 508 + +Scull Co., William S., 509 + +Sculpture, C. in, 599 + +Seal (brand), 435, 441, 465 + +Secchi, 558 + +Seelye, Frank R., 511, 513 + +Segundo (grade), 261, 264 + +Seidell, _q._, 160 + +Seifert, _q._, 185 + +Selby, Thomas, _chk._, 112 + +Selden, David, _pat._, 625 + +Seligsberg, Louis, 478 + +Selim I, 18, 19, 49 + +Selling chart, 409 + +Semarang c., 355, 373 + +Sencial, _q._, 156 + +Sené, _pat._, 623, 625, 699 + +_Sense of Taste, The_, Hollingworth and Poffenberger, _q._, 723 + +Separating machinery, 383 + +Sephton, Geoffrey, _q._, 552 + +Service, C., 31 + Arabia, 658-663, 695 + Artistic and historic, 599-614, 619, 620, 621 + Britannia ware, etc., 619 + Clay bowls, first, 616 + English, c.-pots (1714-70), 620, 621 + Lantern c.-pots, 602, 619 + Sèvres c.-pots, 607 + Sheffield-plate c.-pots, 607 + Silver c.-pots (18th cent.), 619 + Sino-Lowestoft c.-pot, 607 + London cafés and restaurants, 674 + Oriental c.-pots, 619 + Netherlands, 686 + New York hotels, 691 + Paris (Pascal's, 1672), 619 + Turkish, 602, 617, 621, 695 + +_Seven Truths to Teach the Young in Regard to Life and Sex_, Abbey, _q._, + 177 + +Sèvres c.-pots, 607 + +Seymour, Mark T., _pat._, 648 + +Shade, C.-growing under, 133 + Arabia, 197 + Guam, 242 + Guatemala, 219 + Hawaii, 241 + Requirements, 201 + +Shadli, Shaomer (_see_ Schadheli), 2 + +Shami c., 351, 368 + +Shapleigh Coffee Co., 501 + +Sharki c., 351, 368 + +Shaw, Daniel A., 480 + +Shaw, John W., 492 + +Shaw, William, 612 + +Shaw's Louisiana Coffee and Spice Mills, 505 + +Sheaff, Henry, 475 + +Sheffield plate c.-pots, 607 + +Sheldon, Henry, 479 + +Sheldon & Co., Henry, 478, 479 + +Sheldon Banks & Co., 479 + +Shemsi, _chk._, 19, 668 + +Shenstone, _q._, 584 + +Shephard, Fleetwood, _q._, 584 + +Shepherd, T.H., 593 + +Sheppard, Alexander, 501 + +Sheppard & Sons, Inc., Alex., 501 + +Sherbet, 562 + London c. houses sell, 61 + +Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 80; + _q._, 581 + +Sherif-Eddin-Omar-ben-Faredh, _q._, 543 + +Sherley, Sir Anthony, 35, 543 + +Sherman, Fred, 506 + +Sherman, Fred T., 477, 482 + +Sherman, Henry B., 506 + +Sherman, Lewis, 506, 514 + +Sherman, Jr., Lewis, 506 + +Sherman, Milo P., 506 + +Sherman, S.S., 506 + +Sherman, William, 506 + +Sherman, William H., 506 + +Sherman, William M., 506 + +Sherman, William T. (Gen.), 563 + +Sherman & Taylor, 477 + +Sherman Bros. & Co., 485, 502, 506 + +Shewbert, John, _chk._, 126 + +Shewbert, Mrs., _chk._, 126 + +Shields & Boucher, 507 + +Shihâb-ad-Dîn manuscript, 542 + +Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co., 484, 485 + +Shipping Board, U.S., 338 + +Shipping c., 312-327 + Brazil, 306 + American vessels, 515 + Colombia, 314, 315 + Iron steamships (1868), 476 + Longest voyage, 316 + Santos, 312, 314 + Time-table, port to port, 316 + +Shipping ports, principal, 191 + +Shope, W.C., 502 + +Shortt, Everett T., _pat._, 647 + +Shrinkage, 389, 391 + Roasting, 388 + Table (green c.), 393 + +Shubert (_see_ Shewbert) + +Sias, Charles D., 501 + +Siddons, Mrs., 569 + +Siegfried, John C., 506 + +Siegfried & Brandenstein, 505, 506 + +Siegman, John G., 507 + +Sielcken, Hermann, 473, 482, 511, 518, 519, 520, 523, 531; + _biog._, 517, 521 + Valorization, 530-534 + Woolson Spice Co., 506 + +Sielcken, Hermann (Mrs.), 518 + +Sielcken-Crossman contract, 519 + +Sierra c., 345, 359 + +Signs, Coffee-house + London, 602, 603 + Bowman's, 54 + Morat (Amurath), 62 + Rosée's, 54 + Soliman, 62 + New York, 117, 124 + King's Arms, 124 + +Signs, Grocers' + Lowell, Ebenezer (New York), 467 + Richards, Smith (New York), 124 + +Silver c.-pots, 619 + +Silver skin, 136, 138 + +Silversmiths, American, 609, 612 + +Silversmiths Society, 612 + +Simmonds, W. Lee, 478 + +Simmonds & Bayne, 478 + +Simmonds & Co., H., 478 + +Simmonds & Co., W. Lee, 478 + +Simmonds & Newton, 478 + +Simon, Jr., M., _pat._, 167 + +Simonds H., 478 + +Sinclair, Evans & Elliot, 508 + +Singleton, Esther, _q._, 105, 115, 709 + +Sinnot, J.B., 505 + +Sino-Lowestoft c.-pot, 607 + +Sion & Co., 340 + +_Sir Antoine Shirlies Trauelles_, Parry, _q._, _ill._, 38 + +Sirups (_see_ Syrups) + +Sizing (_see_ Grading), 258 + +Skiddy, Francis, 479 + +Skiddy, Minford & Co., 479, 485, 530 + +Skinner, Cyriac, 60 + +"Skyscraper" coffee house, 112, 113 + +Slacks, 322 + +Slave auctions, Phila., _ill._, 128 + +Slemmons & Conkling, 508 + +Sloane, Sir Hans, 86, 543, 582 + +Sloss, Robert, _q._, 531 + +Slow roast, 387 + +Small, C.K., 477, 480 + +Small, John, 480 + +Small Bros. & Co., 477, 479, 480 + +Smalls & Bacon, 480 + +Smart, Joseph F., _pat._, 653 + +Smith, Adam, 81, 583 + +Smith, Clarence 480 + +Smith, Daniel, _chk._, 129 + +Smith, Frank, 499 + +Smith, George H., 501 + +Smith, John (Capt.), 105, 543,; + _q._, 36 + +Smith, John Thomas, 583; + _q._, 569 + +Smith, Michael E., 503 + +Smith, Mrs., _chk._, 119 + +Smith, Nathaniel, 584 + +Smith, Robert, 501 + +Smith, Robert A., 501 + +Smith, Sidney, _q._, 567 + +Smith, William T., 501 + +Smith, William V.R., 523, 524 + +Smith & Co., D., 476 + +Smith & Co., Thomas, 700 + +Smith & Curtis, 507 + +Smith & McKenna, 505 + +Smith & McNell, 494 + +Smith & Schipper, 485 + +Smith & Son, Robert, 501 + +Smith & Son, Thomas, 637, 639, 699 + +Smith & Sons, Robert, 501 + +Smith Bros. & Co., 505 + +Smith Bros., 486 + +Smith Bros. & Co. Ltd., 505 + +Smith's Sons, M.V.R., 480 + +Smith's Sons, Robert, 501 + +Smoke screens (Guatemala), 219 + +Smollett, 559 + +Smooth (_see_ Flavors) + +Smout, Jules, _pat._, 248 + +Smyser, Henry L., 523; + _pat._, 470 + +Sobieranski, _q._, 186 + +Sobieski, King John, 49 + +Sociedade Promotora da Defesa do Café, 446 + +Société de Café Soluble Belna, 539 + +Société Generale, 532, 534 + +Society of Antiquaries, 602 + +Society of the Friends of Music, 597 + +Soda fountains, 689 + +Soils + Australia, 238 + Best, 198, 201 + Brazil, 198, 205 + Costa Rica, 225 + Federated Malay States, 238 + Venezuela, 212 + +Soliman Aga, 91 + +Soliman the Great, 18, 19 + +Sollmann, _q._, 182, 183 + +Soluble coffee, 404, 406 + Brands, 470, 538, 539 + History of, 538, 539 + Kato's patent, 471 + Processes, 169 + U.S. Army war needs, 539 + Washington's patent, 471 + +Soluble Coffee Co., 539 + +Somers, A.L., 507 + +_Songs of Brittany_, 548 + +Sons of Liberty, 120 + +Sorenson, John S., 520 + +Sorenson & Nielson, 482, 520 + +Sorley, William, 480, 491 + +Sorting machinery, 245 + +Sorver, Damon & Co., 485 + +Soulie, 102 + +Soup, Coffee, 177 + +Sour (_see_ Flavors) + +South Sea bubble, 571, 572 + +Southern boom (1904), 530 + +Southern Coffee Mills, Inc., 505 + +Southern Coffee Polishing Mills, 505 + +Southern Cross, _v._, 316 + +Southern Pacific Co., 489 + +Souvestre, Emile, _q._, 565 + +Spatula (_see_ Roasting machinery), 616 + +Specialty stores, 415, 421 + +_Spectator_, _per._, 75, 80, 85, 88, 558, 573, 584; + _q._, 86, 87, 560, 561, 572, 575, 582 + +Spencer, G.L., _q._, 165 + +Sperry Flour Co., 488 + +_Spice Mill_, _per._, 470, 526, 527 + +_Spice-Mill Companion_, 427 + +Splitting nickels, 427 + +Spot brokers, 336, 337 + +Spot of leaf and fruit (_see_ Diseases) + +Spot Market, New York, 329, 330 + +Spot quotation committee (N.Y. Exch.), 334 + +Sprague, Albert A., 502 + +Sprague, Irvin A., 477 + +Sprague, O.S.A., 502 + +Sprague & Rhodes, 477 + +Sprague & Stetson, 502 + +Sprague & Warner, 502 + +Sprague, Warner & Co., 483, 502 + +Sprague, Warner & Griswold, 502 + +Spreckels & Bros. Co., J.D., 488 + +Spring Garden Iron Works, 245 + +Spruce, Richard, _q._, 200 + +Squier, George L., 246 + +Squier Mfg. Co., Geo. L., 246, 247, 469 + +St. Germain's Fair (_see_ Coffee houses, Paris) + +St. Serf, Thomas, _q._, 554 + +Stachan, John, _chk._, 119 + +Stacie, _chk._, 579, 580; + _q._, 581 + +Stadium (circus), New York, 124 + +Stage coaches, Boston, 110, 112 + +Stamp Act (1765), 120, 125, 128 + +Stamps, Trading, 429 + +Stanton, Sheldon & Co., 479 + +Star Coffee and Spice Mills, 506 + +_Star_, London, _newsp._, 585 + +Star Mills, 494, 499 + +Starhemberg, Rudiger von, 49, 50 + +State of São Paulo Pure C. Co. Ltd., 445 + +_Statistical Abstract, U.S._, _q._, 299 + +Statue of Kolschitzky, 599 + +Steam power for roasting, 631, 635 + +Steel-cut, 401, 714 + Baker-Duncombe suit, 649 + +Steele, Mrs., _chk._, 121 + +Steele, Sir Richard, 75, 80, 84, 557, 570, 572, 576, 577, 578, 579; + _q._, 558, 559 + +Steele & Co., E.L.G.S., 487 + +Steele & Emery, 508 + +Steele & Price, 470 + +Steele, Wedeles Co., 485 + +Steele-Wedeles Co., 502 + +Steeping, 720 + +Ste.-Foix, 94 + +Steinwender, Julius, 482 + +Steinwender, Stoffregen, 485 + +Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co., 338, 340, 482, 502 + +Steinwender, Stoffregen Co., 484 + +Stella (Esther Vanhomrigh), 562 + +Stenhouse, _q._, 163 + +_Stenophylla, C._, 216 + Botanical description, 140 + +_Stenophylla_ × _Abeokutæ_, _hyb._, 146 + +_Stenophylla Paris, C._, 146 + +Stephen, _chk._, 93 + +Stephens, Alvan, 507 + +Stephens, Henry A., 507 + +Stephens Samuel R., 507 + +Stephens & Co., A., 502 + +Stephens & Sons, A., 507 + +Stephens & Widlar, 507 + +Steppe, J.P., _pat._, 649 + +Sterility, C. and, 23, 46 + +Sternau, Sigmund, _pat._, 649 + +Sternau & Co., S., 649 + +Sterne, Richard, 601 + +Stetson, Z.B., 502 + +Stevens, Alfred, 103 + +Stevens, Henry B., _pat._, 247 + +Stevens, W. & S., 508 + +Stevens & Armstrong, 480 + +Stevens, Armstrong & Hartshorn, 480 + +Stevens Bros. & Co., 480 + +Stewart, C.H., _q._, 349 + +Stewart, James, 478 + +Stewart, Robert C., 477, 498 + +Stewart & Co., C.M., 485 + +Stewart & Co., R.C., 477 + +Stewart & Walker, 478 + +Stickney & Poor, 501 + +Still & Sons, W.M., 647, 674 + +Stillman, Abel, _pat._, 627 + +Stiner & Co., Joseph, 409 + +Stitt, William J., 494, 497 + +Stitt & Co., W.J., 497, 499 + +Stock Exchange, New York, 122 + +Stofffregen, Carl H., 448, 511, 535 + +Stokes, John, 129 + +Stoning machinery, 381, 394, 395 + +Storage + Havre, 327 + New York, 319, 321 + Santos, 303 + Venezuela, 315 + +_Storia di Venezia nella Vita Privata, La_, Molmenti, _q._, 27 + +Storm, Walter, 482 + +Storm, Smith & Co., 482 + +Story, Rufus G., 479, 496 + +Story & Co., R.G., 496 + +Story-tellers in c. houses, 666, 669 + +Stoufs, Joseph, 590 + +Stowe, Orson W., _pat._, 644 + +Strassberger, L., _pat._, 649 + +Straus, Oscar, 672 + +Strauss & Sons, L., 518 + +Street brokers, 337 + +Stringer, Mary, _chk._, 56 + +Strong, Joseph, 508 + +Strowbridge, Turner, _pat._, 644 + +Stuart, Alexander, 503 + +Stump, Aug., 482, 484 + +Stumpp & Co., August, 482 + +_Suakurensis, C._ (Java), 216 + +Substitute, C., advertising, 437, 438 + Charts, 440, 441 + +Substitute-fakers, 435 + +Substitutes, 170 + Barley, 13, 46 + Betony, 74 + Bocket, 74 + Cereal (harmful to diabetics), 165 + Chicory, 46 + Corn, 46 + Figs, dried, 46 + Russia, 686 + Saloop (sassafras and sugar), 73, 74 + United States (1st patent), 470 + Wheat, 46 + +Succory (_see_ Chicory) + +Succop & Lips, 503 + +Sucrose, 165 + +Suess-Oppenheimer, Joseph, 47 + +Sugar in c., 26, 58, 91, 98, 106, 667 + Cairo (first use, 1625), 657, 695 + Consumption (U.S.), 689 + Great Britain (17th cent.), 696 + Greece, 685 + North America, 105 + +Sugar of c., 165 + +Sugar Trust fight, 521-523 + +Sullivan, Luke, 85, 584 + +Sully, D.J., 530, 572 + +Sultan, Café, 658 + +Sultane, Café, 694 + +Sumatras (c.), 355, 370-372 + +Sumerling & Co., 674 + +Sun, London, _newsp._, 578 + +_Sun_, New York, _newsp._, _q._, 175 + +_Sunshine_, _per._, 524 + +Sutton & Vansant, 485 + +Swain, Earle & Co., 501 + +Swaythling, Lord, 604 + +Swazey, S.L., 479 + +Sweated c., 316, 317 + Artificial (U.S. rulings), 337 + Sailing vessels, 353 + +Sweeney, John, 492 + +Sweet (_see_ Flavors) + +Sweet c.'s, 397 + +Sweet-bitter c.'s, 397 + +Swett, E.H., 501 + +Swift, Jonathan, 80, 84, 88, 89, 557, 562, 570, 573, 577, 578, 579, 587; + _q._, 571, 575 + +Swift & Co., H.H., 482 + +Swift, Billings & Co., 485 + +_Sylva Sylvarum_, Bacon, _q._, 38, 543 + +Syndicates + Arnold-Dash-Kimball, 527, 528 + German Trading Co., 528 + +_Syria, The Holy Land_, Carne, _q._, 668-670 + +Syrups, Coffee; recipe for, 724 + +Szekacs, _q._, 185 + +Szyszka, _q._, 185 + + +Tabasco c., 345, 358 + +Taber & Place, 434, 496 + +_Table, The_, _per._, 675 + +_Table Traits_, Doran, _q._, 705 + +Tachiras (c.), 349, 365 + +Tackaberry, William, 509 + +Tackaberry Co., Wm., 509 + +Taine, 102 + +Talbot, Winslow & Co., 507 + +Talbutt, Robert H., _pat._, 647 + +Talleyrand, Prince, 103; + _q._, 565 + +Tampico c., 345, 359 + +Tannin, 160, 182, 711 + +Tapachula c., 345, 358 + +Tapperi, David, _q._, 11 + +Tapping hands (Arabia), 312 + +_Tatler_, _per._, 75, 80, 85, 86, 561, 572; + _q._, 558, 559, 571, 573, 575, 584 + +Tatlock, _q._, 159 + +Tavernier, 31, 543; + _q._, 2 + +Taverns + Boston + Blue Anchor (inn), 109 + Bunch of Grapes, 111 + Cole's (Inn), 109 + First, 108 + Green Dragon, 613 + Indian Queen, 109, 110 + King's Head, 109 + Ship, 109 + Sun, 109, 110 + Red Lyon (inn), 109 + London + Barn, 584 + Golden, 583 + Locket's Ordinary, 569 + Mermaid, 60 + Rose, 56 + Shakespeare's Head, 576 + New York + Atlantic Garden House, 117, 121 + Black Horse, 118 + Fighting Cocks, 118 + Fraunces', 121 + Jamaica Pilot Boat, 118 + King's Head, 117 + Queen's Head, 119 + White Lion, 117 + Philadelphia, 125 + Blue Anchor (first), 126 + City, 125, 128, 129, 130 + Globe (inn), 126 + New, 129 + Smith's, 129 + +Taxation + Arabia, 231 + England (1714), 59 + Germany, 47 + Royal monopoly (1781), 46 + Porto Rico (exemptions), 222 + São Paulo (valorization), 534 + Turkey, 20 + (_See also_ Duties; Fines; Licenses; Pure food, etc.) + +Taylor, C.K., _q._, 177 + +Taylor, James H., 477 + +Taylor, John, 578 + +Taylor, William, 475 + +Taylor & Co., James H., 477, 479, 485 + +Taylor & Co., Moses, 476 + +Taylor & Levering, 484, 485 + +Tea, 35 + Action in stomach, 178 + American colonies + Introduction, 105, 106 + Stamp act (1765) increases consumption, 106 + Smuggled from Netherlands, 106 + Antiquity, 15 + Canada, 687 + Discovery, 12 + Great Britain + Consumption compared with c., 288, 289 + First sold in London (1657), 56 + Imports (1700-57), 75 + Introduced at Court, 582 + National beverage, 75 + Preferred to c., 674 + Prices (1662, 1714), 582 + Sold in c. houses, 61, 78, 80 + Taxation, 59 + Eulogized by Mosely, 38 + Johnson, Sam'l, 568 + Europe (first used, 1610), 23 + Literary stimulus, 357, 358 + Mental efficiency, Effect on, 186 + Philadelphia (introduction), 125 + Russia, 686 + United States + Consumption per capita (1783), 468 + Consump. comp. with c., 288, 289 + Imports (1783), 468 + Laws affecting, 337 + +Tea and coffee pots, 609 + +_Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, _per._, 138, 402; + _q._, 34, 147, 155, 160, 161, 168, 175, 176, 177, 178, + 179, 180, 181, 186, 387, 388, 399, 410, 418, 421, 422, + 427, 439, 527, 558, 679, 689, 693, 715, 717, 720 + Begins publication (1901), 472 + Ukers assumes editorship (1904), 527 + Urges nat'l organization of roasters, 511 + +Tea gardens (_see_ Gardens) + +Tea party (_see_ Boston; New York) + +Tea-rooms (London), 675, 677 + +Teeth, Effects of c. on, 175 + +Tegals (_c._), 355, 373 + +T'eh (tea), 35 + +Teixelra, Pedro, _q._, 2 + +Telephone in retail stores, 424 + +Tellicherry c., 351, 369 + +Temperance, C. and, 61 + +Tennent, Robert Bowman, _pat._, 246 + +Terminology, 168 + +Terms and credits, 403, 513-515 + +Terms and discounts (Brazil), 306 + +Terry, Edward, _q._, 36 + +Testing (France), 679, 680 + +_Text Book of Physiology_, Flint, _q._, 176 + +Teyssonnier, 146 + +Thackeray, W.M., 103; + _q._, 563 + +Thannhauser & Co., 488 + +Thayer, Byron T., 501 + +_Theatrum botanicum_, Parkinson, 543; + _q._, 41 + +Thebaud, Joseph, 476 + +Thein, 160 + +Theobromin, 160 + +_Therapeutic Gazette_, _per._, _q._, 176 + +Thery, _q._, 543 + +Thévenot, 543 + +Thomas, C., 501 + +Thomas, Elizabeth, 575 + +Thomas, Gov., 127 + +Thomas, R.G., 494 + +Thomas Co., R.G., 494 + +Thomas & Son, J.W., 508 + +Thomas & Turner, 494 + +Thompson, Benjamin, _inv._, 621; + _q._, 163 + (_See also_ Rumford) + +Thompson, Dr., _q._, 159, 181 + +Thompson, James, 492 + +Thompson, James Henry, _pat._, 246 + +Thompson, Patience, 492 + +Thompson, W.D., 479 + +Thompson & Bowers, 478, 480 + +Thompson & Davis, 479 + +Thompson Bros., 479 + +Thompson Co., J. Walter, 445 + +Thompson, Shortridge & Co., 478, 479 + +Thomsen & Co., 479 + +Thomson, A.M., 502 + +Thomson, James, 502 + +Thomson, James (poet), 574 + +Thomson, A.M. & James, 502 + +Thomson & Taylor, 502 + +Thomson & Taylor Co., 502 + +Thomson & Taylor Spice Co., 484, 502, 509 + +Thorn, A.B., 499 + +Thornley, Jesse, 501 + +Thornley & Bro., 501 + +Thornley & Ryan, 501 + +Thornton, Richard J., 505 + +Thornton, Richard J. (Mrs.), 505 + +Thornton & Co., R.J., 505 + +Thornton & Hawkins, 505 + +Thorpe, _q._, 159, 164 + +_Thousand and One Nights_ (_see Arabian Nights_) + +_Three Reigns of Nature_, Delille, _q._, 547 + +Thum, _pat._, 158, 164 + +Thumb-piece on English c. pots, 620 + +Thurber, A.D., 499 + +Thurber, Francis B., 557; + _q._, 182, 712 + +Thurber, H.K., 482 + +Thurber & Co., H.K., 499 + +Thurber & Co., H.K. & F.B., 482 + +Thurlow, Lord, 80, 88, 572 + +Thurmer, Max, 640, 641 + +Tibiriçá, Jorge, 531 + +_Times_, London, _newsp._ 585; + _q._, 175 + +_Times_, New York, _newsp._, 671, 672 + +Tilloch, Dr., 585 + +Tillyard, Arthur, 41 + +Timbs, John, 557; + _q._, 53, 69, 555, 570-585 + +Timby, _pat._, _q._, 157 + +Timor c., 355, 376 + +Tinned coffee (Great Britain), 673 + +Tinney, Henry C., 509 + +Tipping, origin of, 74 + +To arrive, 330 + San Francisco, 327 + +Tobacco + In c. houses, 42, 77, 78, 84, 98 + Intoxication, 182 + +Todd, Robert, 118 + +Togami, K., _q._, 179 + +Toledo & Co., Filipe S., 340 + +Tolimas (c.), 348, 364 + +Tolman Co., J.A., 485 + +Tomkyns, _chk._, 576 + +Toms, G.W., 513 + +Tone, Isaac E., 509 + +Tone, Jay E., 508, 509 + +Tone, Jekiel, 509 + +Tone, W.E., 509, 510, 511 + +Tone Bros., 509 + +Tonkin c., 352, 370 + +Tonti, Lorenzo, 122 + +Torner, Richard, _chk._, 572 + +Torro & Co., Louis M., 340 + +Totten & Bro., W.W., 508 + +Touches, Vicomte des, 532, 534 + +Tovars (c.), 349, 350, 365 + +_Town Eclogues_, Montagu, 573 + +Townsend, 496 + +Tractors, electric (Bush Co.), 322 + +Tracy & Avery Co., 485 + +Trade + New Orleans, 485-487 + Overproduction disturbs (1898), 471 + San Francisco, 487-491 + Shifting currents, 293, 294, 295, 296 + United States, 475-515 + (1921), 299-302 + Aden and, 301 + Brazil and, 300 + Tariff preferentials, 296 + Booms, 468, 469 + Central Am. and, 296, 300 + Chronological review, 467-474 + Colombia and, 300 + Development (1865-1922), 297-299 + Mexico and, 301 + Netherlands E. Ind. and, 301 + Panic (1880), 470 + Venezuela and, 300 + West Indies and, 301 + +Trade and Statistics Committee (N.Y. Exch.), 334 + +Trade Marks, U.S., 413, 469, 470 + +Trade names of c.'s (_see_ Characteristics) + +Trading, 291-302 + Amsterdam (1640), 105 + Brazil, 295 + Early, 293 + Europe, 327-340 + Germany (begins 1670), 293 + Havre, 327 + Netherlands, 293, 294 + First cargo sold (1640), 43 + New York (early), 115 + U.S. rulings, 337, 338 + San Francisco and Central Am., 325 + Sweden (begins 1674), 293 + +Trading stamps, 429 + +Traffic Assn. of St. Louis Coffee Importers (1910), 510 + +Trafton, C.K., _q._, 527 + +_Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, etc._, Dufour, _q._, 2, 11, 432, 433 + +Transhipping ports, Europe, 289 + +Transportation, Inland + Abyssinia, 228, 229, 308, 310 + Arabia, 266, 282, 293 + Bolivia, 279 + Brazil, 303 + Central America, 308 + Colombia, 308, 316 + Nicaragua, 280 + Venezuela, 308 + +Transportation, Seven stages of, 323 + +Travancore c., 351, 369 + +_Travels_, Herbert, _q._, 36 + +_Travels_, Rauwolf, _q._, 25 + +_Travels_, Teixeira, _q._, 2 + +_Travels and Adventure_, Smith, _q._, 36 + +_Travels in Arabia Deserts_, Daughty, _q._, 661 + +_Travels in India and Persia_, Della Valle, 27 + +_Travels of Certayne Englishmen, etc., The_, Biddulph, _q._, _ill._, 36 + +Travers & Son, Joseph, 445 + +_Treatise in Latin_, Meisner, 543 + +_Treatise on Modern Stimulants_, Balzac, _q._, 557 + +Tree, Coffee + Age, 203, 211, 213, 222 + Salvador, 219 + Chemistry of, 155 + Height, 133, 142, 202 + Arabia, 231 + Indigenous to Abyssinia, 1, 5 + Origin, 5 + Wood, uses for, 138 + Yield, 136, 203 + Bolivia, 236 + Brazil, 138 + Colombia, 211 + Mexico, 222 + Nicaragua, 227 + São Paulo, 208 + +Trees, Coffee + Number of + Brazil, 207, 208 + Ecuador, 236, 278 + Indo-China, French, 237 + Guatemala, 219 + Pernambuco, 205 + São Paulo, 205, 207, 208 + Venezuela, 212 + Number to acre, 201 + Colombia, 211 + Haiti, 220 + Porto Rico, 223 + Venezuela, 213 + +Tremont Coffee & Spice Mills, 501 + +Trentman & Bro., C.A., 508 + +Trentman & Son, B., 508 + +Triage (grade), 258 + +_Tribune_, New York, _newsp._, _q._, 553 + +Tricolator, 168, 445, 651, 652, 701 + +Tricolette, 654 + +Triers, 321, 389 + +Trigg, C.W., _pat._, 406, 539; + _q._, 155, 174, 718-722 + +Trillado (grade), 260, 263 + +Trillo (grade), 264 + +Trinidad c., 351, 362 + +_Triumph of C._, Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr, 543 + +Troemner, Henry, 646, 472 + +_True Way of Making and Preparing C._, Broadbent, _q._, 697 + +Trujillos (c.), 350, 365 + +Trusdell & Phelps, 495 + +"Truth in advertising" movement, 435 + +Truxtun, Scott, 444 + +Tubermann's Son, G., _pat._, 638 + +Tupholme, Beeston, _pat._, 640 + +Turguenieff, 102 + +Turkey gruel, 70 + +Turkish ewer, 602, 603, 621 + +Turkish pocket cylinder mill, 615, 616, 617 + +Turner, A., 508 + +Turner, Robert, _chk._, 109 + +Turner (or Torner) Richard, _chk._, 572 + +Turner, William F., 480 + +Tussac, 8 + +Twitchell, Champlin & Co., 508 + +Tyler, George C., 556 + +Tyler, Henry D., 480 + +Typhoid fever, Effects of c. on, 181 + +Typografia Pizzolato, 558 + + +Uganda c., 353, 377 + +_Ugandæ_, _C._, 146 + Ceylon, 236 + Java, 216 + +_Ungandae_ x _Congensis_, _hyb._, 146 + +Ukers, William H., 527 + +Ulman, Lewis & Co., 485 + +Umber, _q._, 182 + +Union Bag & Paper Corp., 472 + +Union Coffee Co., 477 + +Union Pacific Tea Co., 482, 501 + +_Universal history of plants_, Ray, 42, 543 + +University of Kansas, 714 + +University of Pittsburgh, 714 + +Unloading, 317-327 + New Orleans, 323-325 + New York, 317-323 + San Francisco, 325-327 + +Unloading machinery, 325, 327 + +Uno Co., Ltd., 647 + +Untermeyer, Louis, _q._, 553 + +Urioste & Co., 488 + +Urruella & Urioste, 487 + +Urwin, William, _chk._, 84, 574 + +_U.S. Dispensatory_, _q._, 164, 184 + +Uses for c., New, 457 + +Utter, J.W., 503 + +Utter, Adams & Ellen, 503 + + +Vacuum-packed c., 410 + (_see also_ Containers) + +Vacuum-packing, Effect of, 168 + +Valentijn, _q._, 2 + +Valorization (Brazil), 473, 530-534 + N.C.R.A., 511 + Norris, Senator, 532, 533 + São Paulo, 295, 472, 534 + Surtax, 315 + Sielcken, H., 521, 531-534 + U.S. gov't action, 534 + +Van Cortlandt museum, 122 + +Van Dam, Anthony, 475 + +Van dan Broeck, Pieter, 43 + +Van den Bosch, Gov., 214 + +Van Dessel, Rodo & Co., 340 + +Van Essen, 43 + +Van Etten, E., 538 + +Van Gulpen, Alexius, 246, 638 + +Van Gulpen & Co., 638 + +Van Gulpen, Lensing & von Gimborn, 638 + +Van Linschooten, Hans Hugo (John Huygen), _q._, _ill._, 35 + +Van Loan, Thomas, 497, 498 + +Van Loan & Co., 498 + +Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffney, 497, 498, 499 + +Van Loo, 588 + +Van Ommen, Adrian, 6, 43 + +Van Ostade, Adriaen, 44, 587 + +Van Outshoorn, 6 + +Van Vliet, C.W., _pat._, 634 + +Van Zandt & Co., M.N., 508 + +Vancouver, 239 + +Vanderhoef, George W., 479 + +Vanderhoef & Co., George W., 479 + +Vanderweyde, P.H., _pat._, 637 + +Vane, Gov., 109 + +Vanessa (_see_ Vanhomrigh) + +Vanhomrigh, Esther, 562 + +Vaniére, 543 + +Vankorn, Guggenheimer & Co., 501 + +Vardy, James, _pat._, 627, 699 + +_Variegata, C._, _hyb._, 140 + +Varnar, 43 + +Vassieux, Madame, _pat._, 627, 700 + +Vatel, Charles, _q._, 566 + +Vaughn, V.C., _q._, 176, 177 + +Vauxhall garden, _ill._, 81, 82, 83 + +Velloni, _chk._, 103 + +Venard, G., 505 + +_Venetian Republic, The_, Hazlitt, _q._, 28 + +Venezuelas (c.), 348, 364, 365 + +Verborg, Henry, 503 + +Verdier & Closset, 507 + +Verlaine, Paul, 94 + +Verri, Alexander, 558 + +Verri, Pietro, 30, 558 + +_Vertu and use of c._, Bradley, _q._, 293 + +Vesling (Veslingius), _q._, 12, 26 + +Vickers. T.L., 498 + +Victoria Arduino-Societa Anonima, 651 + +Victorias (c.), 341, 343, 367 + +_Vie privée d'autrefois, La_, Franklin, _q._, 6 + +Viehoever, A., 160; + _q._, 144, 145 + +Vienna + Besieged by Turks (1693), 49 + Coffee-makers' guild, 50 + +_Vienna, Relation of the siege of_, Vulcaren, _q._, 50 + +Villon, François, _q._, 135 + +Vilain, 594 + +Vincent c.-pot, 604 + +Vintschgau, 186 + +Virey, _q._, 20 + +Virgil, 543 + +Visconti, 558 + +Vitamins, 180 + +_Vitamines, The_, Funk, _q._, 180 + +Viviani, Count, _ill._, 578 + +Voit, Carl V., _q._, 177, 179 + +Volkman, George, 506 + +Voltaire, 94, 98, 178, 556, 557; + _q._, 554, 565 + +_Voyage de l' Arabie Heureuse_, La Roque, 543; + _q._ 15, 31, 32, 34, 197 + +_Voyage into the Levant, A_, Blount, _q._, 38 + +Vulcaren, John P.A., _q._, 50 + +Vyal, John, _chk._, 109 + +Wagama, _v._, 316 + +Wagner & Co., H.M., 485 + +Wagon-route distributers + United States, 415, 416, 417 + France, 681 + +Wagstaff, David, 476 + +Wahibis, 542 + +Waite, _pat._, 625 + +Waite, Creighton & Morrison, 477 + +Wakeful monastery, 14 + +Wakeman, Abram, 473, 478 + +Walbridge, Augustus, 480 + +Walbridge Inc., Augustus M., 480 + +Wales, Henry, 508 + +Walker, John, _pat._, 245, 246 + +Walker, Joshua, 478 + +Walker Sons & Co. Ltd., 246, 247 + +Wall, Dr., 579 + +Wallace, Alexander, 475 + +Wallace, Alfred Russel, _q._, 200 + +Wallace, C.L.H. (Mrs.), _q._, 181 + +Wallace, Hugh, 475 + +Wallace, John William, _q._, 126 + +Wallace, William, _q._, 657 + +Walle, Friedrich, 591 + +Wallen, Geo. S., 482 + +Wallen & Co., Geo S., 482 + +Walpole, Sir Edward, 583 + +Walpole, Horace, 578, 580, 584 + +Walsh, Rev. Robert, _q._, 557, 663-664 + +Walton, William, 475 + +_Wanni Rukula, C._, 144 + +Ward, Ned, _q._, 77, 84, 575 + +Wardell, _q._, 185 + +Ware (architect), 583, 584 + +Warfield, John D., 502 + +Warfield. W.S., 502 + +Warne, E., 508 + +Warner, Alonzo A., _pat._, 648, 649 + +Warner, C.M., 538 + +Warner, Ezra J., 502 + +Warnier, _q._, 164, 169, 719 + +Warren, 110 + +Warren & Bedwell, 506 + +Warren & Co., 482 + +Warton, Joseph, 573 + +Warwick, Lady, 575, 576 + +Wascana, _v._, 316 + +Wash-brew, 58 + +Washed _vs._ Unwashed, 250, 251 + +Washing machinery, 247 + +Washington, G., _pat._, 471, 538 + +Washington, George (Gen.), 120, 130, 468 + Official welcome, New York, _ill._, 593 + +Washington, Martha, 130 + +Washington Refining Co., George, 538 + +Washington and Jefferson college, 521 + +Washington's Prepared C., G., 538 + +Wastell, 603 + +Water extract, 168, 169 + +Water power, Nicaragua, 264 + +Waterbury & Force, 482 + +Water-supply requirements, 198 + +Watering, Excessive, 513 + +Watjen, Toel & Co., 482 + +Watson, _q._, 126 + +Waygood, Tupholme Co., 641 + +Wear F.F., _pat._, 651 + +Webb, James R., 501 + +Webb, Rudolphus L., _pat._, 644 + +Webb, Thomas J., 502, 511 + +Webb & Son, James R., 501 + +Webb, Cheek & Co., 509 + +Webb, Hughes & Co., 509 + +Webb-Puhl Co., 443 + +Webber, _q._, 186 + +Webster, _q._, 704 + +Webster, Daniel, 110 + +Webster, George, 124 + +Wedding Breakfast (brand), 441 + +Wedgwood, 607, 612 + +Wedmeyer, _q._, 187 + +Weighing machinery, 403, 471 + +Weighmasters (N.Y. Exch.), 333 + +Weikel & Smith, 501 + +Weikel & Smith Spice Co., 470, 501, 635 + +Weir, J.B., 499 + +Weir, Ross W., 466, 448, 499, 511, 513, 514; + _q._, 424 + +Weir & Co., Ross W., 495, 499 + +Weir, Inc., Ross W., 495, 499 + +Weissman, John, 488 + +Weisweiller, _q._, 163 + +Weitzmann, _pat._, 158 + +Welch, Amos S., 492 + +Welch & Co., 488 + +Wellman, C.P., _q._, 410 + +Wells, D. Henderson, 482 + +Wells, John, 482 + +Wells Bros., 482, 485 + +Welsh, Ebenezer, 495 + +Wendroth, Clara, 519 + +Wessels & Bros., C., 482 + +Wessels, Kulenkampff & Co., 482 + +West Indies (c.), 350, 351, 361, 362, 363 + +West & Melchers, 485 + +Westcott, _q._, 126 + +Westen T. & S. Co., Edw., 485 + +Westfal, J.R., 496 + +Westfeldt Bros., 485, 486 + +Weston & Gray, 482 + +Westphal, _pat._, 167 + +Wet method, 136, 249, 252, 254 + +Wet roast, 389, 391 + +Wetherill, Charles M., _q._, 711, 712 + +Weyl & Co., G., 482 + +Weyl & Norton, 482 + +Wheeler & Co., Ezra, 478, 479 + +Whieldon, 607, 612 + +White coffee, 674 + +White, A.E., _pat._, 651 + +White, Francis, _chk._, 87 + +White, Herman M., _pat._, 625 + +White, Peregrine, 616 + +White House (brand), 441, 465 + +White Rose (brand), 441 + +Whitefoord, Caleb, 573 + +Whiting & Taylor, 502 + +Whiting, Goeble & Co., 502 + +Whitmarsh, Theodore F., 535 + +Wholesale Grocers Corp., 502 + +Wholesaling roasted c., 407-413 + Capital invested, U.S., 415 + Sales, annual, U.S., 415 + +_Wholesome advice against the abuse of hot liquors_, Duncan, _q._, 59 + +Wickersham, Att'ney Gen., 593 + +Widlar, Francis, 507 + +Widlar & Co., F., 507 + +Widlar Co., 507 + +Wiji Kawih, 11 + +Wilcox, O.W., _q._, 147 + +Wild (_see_ Flavors) + +Wild c. (Abyssinia), 284 + +Wild, James, 469, 492 + +Wilde, Herbert W., 492 + +Wilde, John, 492 + +Wilde, Joseph, 492 + +Wilde, Samuel, 482; + _biog._, 492 + +Wilde, Jr., Samuel, 492 + +Wilde & Sons, Samuel, 492 + +Wilde's Sons, Samuel, 494, 499 + +Wilde's Sons Co., Samuel, 492 + +Wiley, Harvey W., _q._, 175, 176, 180, 182, 396 + +Wilhelm, R.C., _q._, 387, 393 + +Wilke, 579 + +Wilkie, 583 + +Willcox, O.W., _q._, 161, 388 + +Wille, Theodor, 532, 534 + +William III, 601 + +Williams, Frank, 477, 498 + +Williams & Co., R.C., 494 + +Williams & Potter, 494 + +Williams & Taft, 507 + +Williams, Chapin & Russell, 478 + +Williams, Dimmond & Co., 488 + +Williams, Russell & Co., 477, 478, 535 + +Williamson, C.G., _q._, 62 + +Williamson, Peregrine, _pat._, 468, 624 + +Williamson, S.H., 498 + +Willis, Thomas, _q._, 58 + +Wills & Co., Alexander, 508 + +Willson, Wm. B., 485 + +Wilson, Increase, _pat._, 623 + +Wilson, Woodrow, 534, 535 + +Wilson & Bowers, 480 + +Wilson & Co., J.W., 480 + +Wimmer, _pat._, 162, 473 + +Windbreaks, 201 + +Window-displays, 425 + +Window-trimming contest, 455 + +Wine + C. classed as, 1, 17, 20 + C. a substitute for, 15, 42 + Made from fruit, 15 + Made from hulls and pulp, 693 + +Wing Bros. & Hart, 498 + +Winter, H., _pat._, 158, 167 + +Winter & Smilie, 482 + +Winthrop, Gov., 109 + +Winton, Andrew L., _q._, 150 + +Wise, Capt., 128 + +Withington, Elijah, _biog._, 492 + +Withington & Pine, 492 + +Withington & Wilde, 492 + +Withington, Francis & Welch, 492 + +Withington, Wilde & Welch., 494 + +Witsen, Nicolaas, 6, 43 + +Wittenagemott, 582 + +Wogan, Sir Charles, 575 + +Wolf & Seligsberg, 478 + +Wolff. L., 485 + +Wolseley, Viscountess, 604 + +Women as coffee sellers, 56 + +_Women's petition against c., The_, _pamph._, _ill._, 70, 71 + +Wood, Jr., H.C., _q._, 176, 185 + +Wood, Jarvis A., _q._, 431 + +Woods, Rufus, 485 + +Wood, Thomas R., _pat._, 634 + +Wood & Co., Thomas, 501 + +Woodward (actor), 579, 580 + +Woolson, A.M., 506, 523 + +Woolson Spice Co., 503, 506, 521, 523 + +World War effects + Arabia, 268 + Consumption, 289 + Guatemala, 219 + Mexico, 222 + United States trade, 534-538 + Imports, 286 + San Francisco, 325 + World trade, 190-195, 294, 296 + +_World's Commercial Products, The_, Freeman, _q._, 133 + +_World's Work_, _per._, _q._, 531, 532 + +Worth, J.G., 499 + +Wright, _q._, 167 + +Wright, George C., 501 + +Wright, George S., 448, 501, 629 + +Wright, John S., 482, 491 + +Wright, John T., 488 + +Wright, Warren M., 501 + +Wright Hard & Co., 482 + +Wrightsville Hardware Co., 644 + +Wroth, Warwick, _q._, 82, 83 + +Wurffbain, 43 + +Württemberg, Duke of, 47 + +Wyatt, Charles, _pat._, 621, 699 + +Wycherly, 575 + +Wyld, F. Lehnhoff, 538 + + +XXXX (brand), 44 + + +Yaffey c., 351, 368 + +Yarrow, Mrs., _chk._, 555 + +Yates & Dudley, 508 + +Yellow fever, effect of c. on, 182 + +Yemeni c., 351, 368 + +Yorke, Duke of, 554 + +Young, Arthur, _q._, 100 + +Young, D.K., 482 + +Young, Samuel, 507 + +Young, Mahood & Co., 507 + +Young-Mahood Co., 507 + +Youngs & Amman, 477 + +Yuban (brand), 441, 462, 524 + +Yuban advertising, 462-465 + +Yuengling, D.G., 508 + +Yungas c., 350, 367 + + +Zamore, 590 + +Zamzam, 18 + +Zanzibar c., 353, 377 + +Zarf (cup-stand), 661 + +Zecchini, G.B., 549 + +Zenetz, _q._, 185 + +Ziegler Arctic expedition, 538 + +Zilmore & Co., A.G., 508 + +Zinmeister Sr., Frank, 505 + +Zinsmeister, Jacob, 505 + +Zinsmeister, L.G., _q._, 389 + +Zinmeister & Son, Frank, 505 + +Zinmeister & Sons, J., 505 + +Zola, Emile, 103, 565 + +Zoller & Little, 508 + +Zwaardecroon, Henrious, 6 + +Zwick, Charles, 505 + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] First written about tea; improperly claimed to have been written of +coffee. + +[2] First written about tea; improperly claimed to have been written of +coffee. + +[3] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café._ Paris, 1895 (p. 55). + +[4] Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. _Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du +Thé, et du Chocolat._ Lyons, 1684. + +[5] Coffee covered with the skin is called _boun_, and the coffee-tree, +_boun_-tree (_sejar et boun_). + +[6] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. + +[7] Notice must be taken of the similarity in the names of coffee in +Hindustan and Abyssinia, and of the name of the coffee-tree as given by +ancient authors. + +[8] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. + +[9] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. + +[10] These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan. + +[11] See note 3 above. + +[12] _Legal_ and _Houri_ mean tree. + +[13] _Legal_ and _Houri_ mean tree. + +[14] North-American Indian. + +[15] La Roque, Jean. _Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse._ Paris, 1716. + +[16] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café._ Paris, 1895. (p. 102). + +[17] _Année Littéraire._ Paris, 1774 (vol. vi: p. 217). + +[18] Franklin, Alfred. _La Vie Privée d'Autrefois._ Paris, 1893. + +[19] Michaud, I.F. and L.G. _Biographie Universelle._ Paris. + +[20] Daney, Sidney. _Histoire de la Martinique._ Fort Royal, 1846. + +[21] _Inauguration du Jardin Desclicux._ Fort de France, 1918. + +[22] Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. _Traités Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, +du Thé, et du Chocolat._ Lyons, 1684. (Title page has _Traitez_; +elsewhere, _Traités_.) + +[23] Robinson, Edward Forbes. _The Early History of Coffee Houses in +England._ London, 1893. + +[24] _Encyclopedia Britannica._ 1910. (vol. xv: p. 291.) + +[25] Galland, Antoine. _Lettre sur l'Origine et le Progres du Café._ +Paris, 1699. + +[26] The Abd-al-Kâdir manuscript is described and illustrated in chapter +XXXII. + +[27] Rauwolf, Leonhard. _Aigentliche beschreibung der Raisis so er vor +diser zeit gegen auffgang inn die morgenlaender volbracht._ Lauwingen, +1582-83. + +[28] Della Valle, Pierre (Pietro). _De Constantinople à Bombay, +Lettres._ 1615. (vol. i: p. 90.) + +[29] "She mingled with the wine the wondrous juice of a plant which +banishes sadness and wrath from the heart and brings with it +forgetfulness of every woe." + +[30] Scheuzer, J.J. _Physique Sacrée, ou Histoire Naturelle de la +Bible._ Amsterdam, 1732, 1737. + +[31] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café._ Paris, 1895. + +[32] La Roque, Jean. _Voyage dans l'Arabie Heureuse, de 1708 à 1713, et +Traité Historique du Café._ Paris, 1715. (pp. 247, 251.) + +[33] _Adjam_, by many writers wrongly rendered Persia. + +[34] Scheuzer, J.J. _Physique Sacrée, ou Histoire Naturelle de la +Bible._ Amsterdam, 1732, 1737. + +[35] _Harper's Weekly._ New York, 1911. (Jan. 21.) + +[36] Nairon, Antoine Faustus. _De Saluberrimá Cahue seu Café nuncupata +Discursus._ Rome, 1671. + +[37] de Sacy, Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre. _Chresto-nathie Arabe._ +Paris, 1806. (vol. ii: p. 224.) + +[38] Olearius, Adam. _An Account of His Journeys._ London, 1669. + +[39] Niebuhr, Karstens. _Description of Arabia._ Amsterdam, 1774. (Heron +trans., London, 1792: p. 266.) + +[40] _A Collection of Voyages and Travels._ London, 1745. (vol. iv: p. +690.) + +[41] Molmenti, Pompeo. _La Storia di Venezia nella Vita Privata._ +Bergamo, 1908. (pt. 3: p. 245.) + +[42] Goldoni, Carlo. _La Bottega di Caffè._ 1750. + +[43] Hazlitt, W. Carew. _The Venetian Republic._ London, 1905, (vol. 2: +pp. 1012-15.) + +[44] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et le Café._ Paris, 1895. (p. 16.) + +[45] "Drop by drop they take it in," said Cotovicus. + +[46] Misprinted thus in the original Dutch and here. Read _Chaoua_, +i.e., Arabic _qahwah_. + +[47] Laurel berry, of which the taste is bitter and disagreeable. From +Latin _bacca lauri_. + +[48] Arabic, _bunn_; coffee berries. + +[49] _Brandewijn_ in original Dutch. + +[50] Mead. + +[51] _Purchas His Pilgrimes._ London, 1625. + +[52] Sandys, Sir George. _Sandys' Travels._ London, 1673. (p. 66.) + +[53] Bacon, Francis. _Sylva Sylvarum._ London, 1627. (vol. v: p. 26.) + +[54] Burton, Robert. _The Anatomy of Melancholy._ Oxford, 1632. (pt. 2: +sec. 5: p. 397.) This reference does not appear in the earlier editions +of 1621, 24, 28. + +[55] Herbert, Sir T. _Travels._ London, ed. 1638. (p. 241.) + +[56] Blount, Sir Henry. _A Voyage Into the Levant._ London. 1671. (pp. +20, 21, 54, 55, 138, 139.) + +[57] Gilbert, Gustav. _The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and +Athens._ London, 1895. (p. 69.) + +[58] Aubrey, John. _Lives of Eminent Men._ London, 1813. (vol. ii: pt. +2: pp. 384-85.) + +[59] _Works._ (vol. iv: p. 389.) + +[60] à Wood, Anthony. _Athenae Oxonienses._ London, 1692. (vol. ii: col. +658.) + +[61] Parkinson, John. _Theatrum Botanicum._ London, 1640. (p. 1622.) + +[62] D'Israeli, I. _Curiosities of Literature._ London, 1798. (vol. i: +p. 345.) + +[63] A weight of from 133 to 140 pounds. + +[64] See chapter XXXII. + +[65] Vulcaren,. John Peter A. _Relation of the Siege of Vienna._ 1684. + +[66] Bermann, M. _Alt und Neu Wien._ Vienna, 1880. (p. 964.) + +[67] Manuscript in the Bodleian Library. + +[68] See also chapter XXVIII. + +[69] _The Romance of Trade._ London. (chap. ii; p. 31.) + +[70] Pasqua Rosée's sign. Kitt's (or Bowman's) sign was a coffee pot. + +[71] Hatton, Edward. _New View of London._ London, 1708. (vol. i: p. +30.) + +[72] The prosecution came under the heading, "Disorders and Annoys." + +[73] Rumsey (or Ramsey), W. _Organon Salutis._ London, 1657. + +[74] Also given as Sir James Muddiford, Murford, Mudford, Moundeford, +and Modyford. + +[75] The Dutch admiral who, in June, 1667, dashed into the Downs with a +fleet of eighty "sail", and many "fire-ships", blocked up the mouths of +the Medway and Thames, destroyed the fortifications at Sheerness, cut +away the paltry defenses of booms and chains drawn across the rivers, +and got to Chatham, on the one side, and nearly to Gravesend on the +other, the king having spent in debauchery the money voted by Parliament +for the proper support of the English navy. + +[76] General Monk and Prince Rupert were at this time commanders of the +English fleet. + +[77] Lillie (Lilly) was the celebrated astrologer of the Protectorate, +who earned great fame at that time by predicting, in June, 1645, "if now +we fight, a victory stealeth upon us;" a lucky guess, signally verified +in the King's defeat at Naseby. Lilly thenceforth always saw the stars +favourable to the Puritans. + +[78] This man was originally a fishing-tackle maker in Tower Street +during the reign of Charles I; but turning enthusiast, he went about +prognosticating "the downfall of the King and Popery;" and as he and his +predictions were all on the popular side, he became a great man with the +superstitious "godly brethren" of that day. + +[79] Turnball, or Turnbull-street, as it is still called, had been for a +century previous of infamous repute. In Beaumont and Fletcher's play, +the _Knight of the Burning Pestle_, one of the ladies who is undergoing +penance at the barber's, has her character sufficiently pointed out to +the audience, in her declaration, that she had been "stolen from her +friends in Turnball-street." + +[80] Anderson. Adam. _Historical and Chronological Deduction of the +Origin of Commerce._ London. 1787. + +[81] See chapter III. + +[82] More fully described in chapter XXXII. + +[83] See chapter XXXII. + +[84] Wroth, Warwick. _The London Pleasure Gardens of the 18th Century._ +London, 1896. + +[85] There were six places, all told, bearing the name "Man's". +Alexander Man was coffee maker to William III. + +[86] Salvandy, Narcisse-Achille. _Influence des Cafés sur les Moeurs +Politiques._ + +[87] Singleton, Esther. _Dutch New York._ New York, 1909. (p. 132.) + +[88] Bishop, J. Leander. _A History of American Manufactures, 1608 to +1860._ New York, 1864. (Vol. 1; p. 259.) + +[89] Patterson, Robert W. _Early Society in Southern Illinois._ Chicago, +1881. + +[90] Andreas, A.T. _History of Chicago._ Chicago, 1884. + +[91] Singleton, Esther. _Dutch New York._ 1909. (p. 133.) + +[92] Bishop, J. Leander. _A History of American Manufactures, 1608 to +1860._ New York. + +[93] Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. _Philadelphia: a history of the city and +its people._ Philadelphia, 1912. (vol. 1: p. 106.) + +[94] Freeman, W.G. _The World's Commercial Products._ Boston, (p. 176.) + +[95] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1918. (vol. xxxv: no. 4.) + +[96] Dr. Cramer considers _C. Maragogipe_ "the finest coffee known; it +has a highly developed, splendid flavor." + +[97] _Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists_, +Nov. 15, 1921. (vol. v: no. 2: pp. 274-288.) + +[98] _The Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1912. (vol. xxiii: no. 3.) + +[99] _Die Menschlichen Genussmittel_, 1911. (p. 300.) + +[100] See chapter XVI. + +[101] These and all other numbered drawings in this chapter are from +Andrew L. Winton's _The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods_, copyright 1916, +and reprinted by permission. + +[102] _Jour. Am. Chem. Soc._, 1919 (vol. xli: p. 1306). + +[103] Anstead, R.D. _Annals on Applied Biology_, 1915 (vol. i: pp. +299-302). + +[104] Huntington, L.M. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: +p. 228). + +[105] Gorter, _Ann._ (vol. ccclxxii: pp. 237-46). + +Schulte, A. _Z. Nahr. Genussm._ (vol. xxvii: pp. 200-25). + +Loew, Oscar. _Ann. Rep. P.R. Agr. Expt. Sta._, 1907 (pp. 41-55). + +[106] Sencial. _El Hacendado Mex._ (vol. ix: p. 191). + +[107] Pique, R. _Bull. Assoc. Chim. sucr. dist._ (vol. xxiv: pp. +1210-13). + +[108] _Pharm. Jour._, 1886 (vol. xvii: p. 656). + +[109] U.S. Pat., 113,832, April 18, 1871. + +[110] U.S. Pat., 660,602, Oct. 30, 1900. + +[111] French Pat., 379,036, Aug. 28, 1906. + +[112] French Pat., 359,451, Nov. 15, 1905. + +[113] British Pat., 26,905, Dec. 9, 1904. + +[114] U.S. Pat., 843,530, Feb. 5, 1907. + +[115] U.S. Pat., 1,313,209, Aug. 12, 1919. + +[116] U.S. Pat., 134,792, Jan. 14, 1873. + +[117] British Pat., 7,427, Mar. 24, 1910. + +[118] U.S. Pat., 997,431, July 11, 1911. + +[119] British Pat., 23,087, Oct. 9, 1912. + +French Pat., 449,343, Oct. 12, 1912. + +[120] British Pat., 21,397, Sept. 26, 1907. + +French Pat., 382,238, Sept. 26, 1907. + +U.S. Pat., 982,902, Jan. 31, 1911. + +[121] _Pharm. Zentralhalle_, 1915 (vol. lvi: pp. 343-48). + +[122] _Münch. Med. Wochschr._, (vol. lviii: pp. 1868-72). + +[123] _Commercial Organic Analysis._ + +[124] _Ann. Chem. Pharm._ 1867 (vol. cxlii: p. 230). + +[125] _Inaugural Diss._, Munich. 1903. + +[126] _Comptes Rendus_, 1897 (vol. cxxiv: p. 1458). + +[127] _Dict. App. Chem._, 1913 (vol. v: p. 393). + +[128] U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem. _Bull._ 105, 1907. (p. 42). + +[129] _Ann._ (vol. cccviii: pp. 327-348). + +_Ibid._ (vol. ccclxxii: pp. 237, 246). + +_Arch. Pharm._ (vol. ccxlvii: pp. 184-196). + +[130] _Jour. Soc. Chem., Ind._, 1910 (vol. xxix: p. 138). + +[131] _Z. Nahr. Genussm._ (vol. xxi: p. 295). + +[132] Paladino, _Gazetta_, 1895 (vol. xxv: no. 1: p. 104). + +Forster & Riechelmann, _Zeitsch. öffent. Chem._, 1897 (vol. iii: p. +129). + +Polstorff, K. _Wallach-Festschrift_, 1909 (pp. 569-83). + +[133] Private communication. + +[134] U.S. Pat., 716,878, Dec. 30, 1902. + +[135] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1920 (vol. xxxviii: pp. 321-22). + +[136] _Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1907 (vol. xxix: p. 1091). + +[137] _Ber._, 1895 (vol. xxviii: p. 3137); 1899 (vol. xxxii: p. 435); +1900 (vol. xxxiii: p. 3035). + +[138] Willcox & Rentschler. _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1910 (vol. xix: +p. 440). + +[139] Fricke, E. _Zeits. f. angew. Chemie._, 1889 (pp. 121-122). + +[140] Willcox & Rentschler. _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1911 (vol. xx: +p. 355). + +[141] U.S. Pat., 897,840, Sept. 1, 1908. + +[142] British Pat., 144,988, March 19, 1920. + +[143] French Pat., 412,550, Feb. 12, 1910. + +[144] U.S. Pat., 947,577, Jan. 25, 1910. + +[145] _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1857 (vol. ix: p. 34). + +[146] _Wien. Akad. Ber._ (_2 Abth._) (vol. lxxxi: pp. 1032-1043). + +_Monatsh, f. Chem._, 1880 (vol. i: p. 456). + +[147] _Zeits. f. Untersuch. d. Nahr. u. Genussm._, 1898 (vol. vii: pp. +457-472) + +[148] _Ber._, 1901 (vol. xxxv: pp. 1846-1854). + +[149] _Compt. rend._ (vol. clvii: pp. 212-13). + +[150] _Bull. Pharm._, 1916 (vol. xxx: pp. 276-78). + +[151] _Dict. App. Chem._, 1913 (vol. ii: p. 99). + +[152] _U.S. Dispensatory, 19th Ed._, 1907 (p. 145). + +[153] _Monatsh. f. Chem._ (vol. xxxiii: pp. 1389-1406). + +[154] _Bull. Pharm._, 1916 (vol. xxx: pp. 276-78). + +[155] _Apoth. Ztg._ (vol. xxii: pp. 919-20). + +_Pharm. Weekbl._, 1907 (vol. xxxvii). + +[156] _Monatsh. f. Chem._ (vol. xxxi: p. 1227). + +[157] _Jour. Landw._, 1904 (vol. lii: p. 93). + +[158] _Amer. Chem. Jour._, 1892 (vol. xiv: p. 473). + +[159] _Analyst_, 1902 (vol. xxvi: p. 116). + +[160] 58 _Mon. Sci._ (vol. iii: no. 6: p. 779). + +[161] _J.P.C._, 1867 (p. 307). + +[162] _Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci._, 1918 (vol. xxviii: pp. 136-141). + +[163] Feitler, S.: Eng. Pat., 19,845, Aug. 28, 1897. + +[164] U.S. Pat., 33,453, Oct. 8, 1861. + +U.S. Pat., 75,829, March 24, 1868. + +U.S. Pat., 701,750, June 3, 1902. + +[165] U.S. Pat., 943,238, Dec. 14, 1909. + +[166] U.S. Pat., 703,508, July 1, 1902. + +U.S. Pat., 865,203, Sept. 3, 1907. + +[167] Winter, H.: U.S. Pat., 997,431, Aug. 28, 1897. + +[168] Simon, M., Jr.: Ger. Pat., 253,419, Feb. 19, 1911. + +[169] Von Niessen: British Pat., 7,427, Mar. 24, 1910. + +[170] Eng. Pat., 5,776, Mar. 19, 1895. + +[171] U.S. Pat., 832,322. + +[172] Eng. Pat., 8,270, April 24, 1893. + +[173] U.S. Pat., 994,785, June 13, 1911. + +[174] _Am. J. Pharm._, 1915 (vol. lxxxvii: pp. 524-26). + +[175] _Orig. Com. 8th Intern. Cong. Appl. Chem. (Appen.)_ (vol. xxvi: p. +389) + +[176] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1920 (vol. xxxix: pp. 318-19). + +[177] King, J.E.: U.S. Pat. 1,263,434. + +[178] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: pp. 552-55). + +[179] _Loc. cit._ (see 175). + +[180] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1911 (vol. xx: p. 34). + +[181] _Pharm. Weekbl. voor Nederl._, 1899 (no. 13). + +_Apoth. Ztg._, 1899 (p. 14). + +[182] _Jour. Assoc. Off. Agri. Chem._, 1920 (vol. iii: p. 501). + +[183] Blyth, Wynter. _Foods_, 1909 (p. 359). + +[184] Petermann. _Bied. Zentr._, 1899 (vol. ii: p. 211). + +[185] Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Sept., 1920. + +[186] Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Sept., 1920. + +[187] U.S. Dept. Agri., Div. of Chem. _Bull. 13_ (pt. 7: p. 908). + +[188] Niles. G.M. _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1910 (vol. xix: no. 1: p. +27). + +[189] Through _The Sun_, New York, July 17, 1910. + +[190] _Annales Politiques et Littéraires_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade +Jour._, 1906 (vol. x: p. 303). + +[191] _Jour. Am. Med. Assoc._, 1891 (vol. xvi). + +[192] _The Times_, London, Oct. 1, 1904; through _Tea & Coffee Trade +Jour._, 1911 (vol. xxi: p. 36). + +[193] _Good Housekeeping_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1912 +(vol. xxiii: p. 237). + +[194] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1913 (vol. xxiv: p. 455). + +[195] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1912 (vol. xxiii: p. 356). + +[196] _Good Housekeeping_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1915 +(vol. xxviii: p. 533). + +[197] _Good Housekeeping_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1915 +(vol. xxviii: p. 533). + +[198] _Atti. accad. Lincei_, 1915 (vol. xxiv: no. 2: pp. 543-48). + +[199] Nalpasse, Dr. Valentin, _loc. cit._ (see 190). + +Flint, Dr. Austin B. _Text Book of Physiology_. + +Wood, H.C., Jr. _Therapeutic Gazette_, 1912 (vol. xxxvi: p. 13). + +[200] _Compt. rend._ (vol. cxlviii: p. 1541). + +[201] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1914 (vol. xxvi: p. 539). + +[202] _Arch. exp. Path. Pharm._, 1907 (vol. lvii: p. 214). + +[203] _Universal Dictionary_, 1897 (vol. i: p. 1097). + +[204] _Handbuch der Physiologie_, 1881 (vol. vi: p. 435). + +[205] _The Coffee Club_, 1921 (vol. i: p. 4). + +[206] _Saturday Evening Post_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1914 +(vol. xxvii: p. 586). + +[207] _Loc. cit._ (see 192). + +[208] _Seven Truths to Teach the Young in Regard to Life and Sex_, No. +2. + +[209] _Loc. cit._ (see 190). + +[210] _Ladies' Home Journal_, Dec., 1916 (p. 37). + +[211] _Loc. cit._ (see 194). + +[212] _Psych. Clin._ (vol. vi: pp. 56-58). + +[213] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, June, 1905 (p. 274). + +[214] _Ladies' Home Journal_, Dec., 1916 (p. 37). + +[215] _The Prolongation of Life._ + +[216] Hekteon and LeConte. + +[217] Through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1914 (vol. xxvi: pp. 29-32). + +[218] _Old Age Deferred_, 1910. + +[219] _Loc. cit._ (see 190). + +[220] _Practical Dietetics_, 1917 (p. 254). + +[221] _Zentr. Biochem Biophys._, 1912 (vol. xiii: p. 504). + +[222] _Jour. Anat. & Physi._, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1913 +(vol. xxv: p. 345). + +[223] _Lancet_, Dec. 2, 1911. + +[224] _Pharmacology_, 1913 (p. 258). + +[225] Butler, _Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacology_, 1906 (p. +256). + +[226] Togami, K. _Biochem. Zeit._, 1908 (vol. ix: p. 453). + +[227] _Münch. Med. Wochenschr._ (vol. lx: pp. 281-85, 357-61). + +_Naturwiss. Umschau. d. Chem., Ztg._ 1913 (p. 4). + +_Schweiz. Wochenschr._ (vol. li: pp. 490-92). + +[228] _Loc. cit._ (see 197). + +[229] Through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1916 (vol. xxx: p. 443). + +[230] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1909 (vol. xvi: p. 271). + +[231] Frankel, F.H. _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1910 (vol. xxxi: p. +446). + +[232] _Food Values_, 1914 (p. 54). + +[233] _Policlin._, 1920 (no. 27: p. 1011). + +[234] Funk, C. _The Vitamines_, 1922 (p. 270). + +[235] Potter. _Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Therapeutics_, 10th ed., +1906 (p. 187). + +Culbreth. _Materia Medica and Pharmacology_, 2nd ed. (p. 520). + +[236] Nineteenth ed. (p. 254). + +[237] _Loc. cit._ (see 220). + +[238] Keable, B.B. _Coffee_ (p. 97). + +[239] Wallace, Mrs. C.L.H. "Cholera: Its Cause and Cure." _The Herald of +Health_, through _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1908 (vol. xiv: p. 22). + +[240] "S. Culapius", _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1913 (vol. xxv: p. +239). + +[241] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1913 (vol. xxv: p. 458). + +[242] Thurber, F.B. _Coffee from Plantation to Cup_ (p. 182). + +[243] _Health and Longevity Through Rational Diet._ + +[244] Keable, B.B. _Coffee_ (p. 98). + +[245] Bulson, A.E.J. _Am. Jour. Opthal._, 1905 (vol. xxii: pp 55-64) + +_Handbook of Medical Science_ (vol. iii: p. 190). + +[246] Keable, B.B. _Coffee_ (p. 98). + +[247] _A Manual of Pharmacology_ (pp. 137, 215). + +[248] Hawk, Philip B. _Loc. cit._ (see 196). + +[249] _Good Housekeeping_, Oct., 1917 (p. 144). + +[250] _Med. News_, 1886 (p. 52). + +[251] _Med. News_, 1890 (p. 56). + +[252] _Centr. In. Med._, 1900 (p. 21). + +[253] _Loc. cit._ (see 220). + +[254] _Arch. Exper. Path. Pharm._, 1902 (bd. 48). + +[255] _Bull. gen. therap._ (vol. clxvi: p. 379). + +_Zentr. Biochem. Biophys._ (vol. xvi: p. 79). + +[256] _Bull. Pharm._, 1916 (vol. xxx: pp. 276-78). + +[257] 1907 (p. 176). + +[258] _U.S. Dispensatory_, 19th ed. (p. 253). + +[259] Hall. I.W. _The Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs_, 1904 (p. 98). + +[260] _Terapia moderna_, Dec., 1891. + +[261] _Arch. intern. physiol._ (vol. xiii: pp. 107-14). + +[262] _J. Pharmachol._ (vol. iii: p. 609). + +[263] _J. Pharmachol._ (vol. iii: p. 468). + +[264] _J. Pharmachol._ (vol. iii: p. 455). + +[265] _Wien. Deut. med. Wochenschr._ (vol. xxxviii: pp. 1774-76). + +[266] _Comp. rend. soc. biol._ (vol. lxxiv: p. 32). + +[267] _D.A. Apoth.-Ztg._, 1911-12 (vol. xxxii: p. 4). + +[268] _Med. Record, N.Y._, 1916 (vol. xxx: p. 68). + +[269] _Therap. Gazette._ 1912 (vol. xxxvi: pp. 6-13). + +[270] _Deut. Arch. Klin. Med._, 1920 (vol. cxxxiv: pp. 174-84). + +[271] _Z. physiol. Chem._ (vol. lxxvii: p. 259). + +[272] _Bull. Bur. of Chem._ (no. 157). + +[273] _Pharm. J._, Mar. 31, 1900, through _Brit. Med. J._, _Epit._, 1900 +(vol. i: p. 35). + +[274] _Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol._, 1895 (vol. xxxv: p. 449). + +[275] _Ibid._, 1895 (vol. xxxvi: p. 45). _Ibid._, 1896 (vol. xxxvii: p. +385). + +[276] _Arch. de physiol. norm. et path._, 1868 (vol. i: p. 179). + +[277] _Inaug. Diss._, Königsberg, 1882. + +[278] _Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol._, 1898 (vol. xli: p. 375). + +[279] _Jour. Am. Med. Assoc._, 1917 (vol. lxviii: pp. 1805-07). + +[280] _Berliner Klin. Wochenschrift_, 1889 (no. 40). + +[281] _Encyc. der Therapie_, 1896 (vol. i). + +[282] Pester, _Med.-Chir. Presse_, 1885 (no. 39). _Orvosi Hetilap_, 1885 +(nos. 32-33). + +[283] _Zeitschrift f. Klin. Med._, 1893 (vol. xxiii). + +[284] _Mitt. aus der Würzburger Med. Klinik_, 1885 (vol. 1). + +[285] _New York Herald_, Mar. 24. 1912. + +[286] _Tea & Coffee Trade Jour._, 1914 (vol. xxvi: pp. 537-41). + +[287] _The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue._ + +[288] "The Influence of Caffeine on Mental and Motor Efficiency." +_Archives of Psychology_, 1912 (no. 22). + +[289] _Revista sper. di. Freniatria_ (vol. xviii: p. 1). + +[290] _Archiv. ital. de Biol._, 1893 (vol. xix: p. 241). + +[291] _Inaug. Diss._, Marburg, 1894. + +[292] _Revista sper. di Freniatria_, 1894 (vol. xx: p. 458). + +[293] _Centralbl. f. Physiol._, 1896 (vol. x: p. 126). + +[294] _Psychol. Arbeit._, 1896 (vol. i: p. 378). + +[295] _Jour. Med. de Bruxelles_, 1897. + +[296] _Molcschott's Untersuchungen_, 1899 (vol. xvi: p. 170). + +[297] _Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. Abth.), Suppl. Bd._, 1899 +(p. 289). + +[298] _Skand. Arch. f. Physiol._, 1904 (vol. xvi: p. 197). + +[299] _Travaux du Lab. de Physiol. Inst. Solray_, 1904 (vol. vi: p. +361). + +[300] _Psychol. Arbeit._, 1901 (vol. iii: p. 617). + +[301] _C.R. de la Soc. de Biol. Paris_, 1901 (pp. 593-627). + +[302] _Op. Cit._ (p. 38). (See 285.) + +[303] _Pflügers Archiv._, 1877 (vol. xvi: p. 316). + +[304] _Diss._, Dorpat., 1887. + +[305] _Psychol. Arbeit._, 1896 (vol. i: p. 431). + +[306] _Psychol. Arbeit._, 1901 (pp. 203-289). + +[307] _Psychol. Rev._, 1911 (vol. xviii: p. 424). + +[308] _Op. Cit._ (see 285). + +[309] _Ueber die Beeinflüssung einfacher psychischer Vorgünge durch +einige Arzeneimittel_ (p. 224). + +[310] _Arch, exp. Path. Pharm._, 1920 (vol. lxxxv: pp. 339-58). + +[311] _Op. cit._ (p. 50). (See 287.) + +[312] _Loc. cit._ (see 285). + +[313] See chapter XXX. + +[314] La Roque, Jean, _Voyage de l'Arabic Heureuse_, Paris, 1715. (p. +280.) + +[315] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 11 ed., Cambridge, 1910. (vol. i: p. +118.) + +[316] La Roque, Jean. _Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse_, Paris, 1715 (p. +285). + +[317] The 1921 figures for all countries given are preliminary. + +[318] Broadbent, Humphrey. _The Domestick Coffee Man._ London, 1720. + +Bradley, Richard. _The vertu and use of coffee with regard to the plague +and other infectious distempers._ London, 1721. + +[319] Since changed. There is now a Clearing Association. + +[320] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1911 (vol. xx: no. 4: p. 284). + +[321] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, July, 1911 (vol. xxiii: no. 1; p. +28). + +[322] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, Nov., 1910 (vol. xix: no. 5: p. +380). + +[323] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, Nov., 1914 (vol. xxv; no. 5: p. +397). + +[324] Stewart, C.H. "The Coffee Status of Venezuela." _Tea and Coffee +Trade Jour._ Jan. 1922 (vol. xlii: no. 1: pp. 29-35.) + +[325] Wilhelm, R.C. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1916 (vol. xxxi: no. +5: p. 429). + +[326] Willcox. O.W. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1914 (vol. xxvi: no. +2: p. 38). + +[327] Zinsmeister, L.G. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1914 (vol. xxvii: +no. 6: pp. 558-562). + +[328] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1910 (vol. xviii: no. 2: p. 161; and +no. 4: p. 319). + +[329] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1910 (vol. xvii: no. 8: p. 242). + +[330] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1915 (vol. xxviii: pp. 415-416). + +[331] "Making Coffee for the Consumer", _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, +1914 (vol. xxvi: pp. 335-338). + +[332] "Coffee-Making Questionnaire", _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1917 +(vol. xxx: no. 1: pp. 31-34). + +[333] King, John E., _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: +no. 6: pp. 552-555). + +[334] Ach, F.J., _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1912, 1919 (vol. xxiii: +no. 4: pp. 133-135; vol. xxxvi: no. 4: pp. 344-345). + +[335] Gillies, E.J., _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1913 (vol. xxv: pp. +574-576). + +[336] Wellman, C.P., _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1918 (vol. xxxiv: no. +6: p. 560). + +[337] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1922 (vol. xlii: no. 1: pp. 75, 76). + +[338] Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University. + +[339] Duryee, P.S. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1911 (Vol. xxi: no. 2: +pp. 106-110). + +[340] Findlay, Paul. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1916 (vol. xxx: no. +1: pp. 72-74). + +[341] Atha, F.P. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1919 (vol. xxxvii: no. 1: +p. 50). + +[342] Weir, Ross W. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1913 (vol. xxv: pp. +566-568). + +[343] McCreery, R.W. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1913 (vol. xxv: no. +6: pp. 603-604). + +[344] Schaefer, J.H. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._,1917 (vol. xxxiii: no. +1: p. 72). + +[345] Chamberliane, John, translation, London, 1685, from Dufour's +_Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du Thé, et du Chocolat_. + +[346] The agreement with the São Paulo planters comprehended their +furnishing yearly the proceeds of a tax of 100 reis per bag. This +actually amounted to $20,000 per month up to January, 1921. During 1921, +by reason of a short crop and the advance rate of exchange, the +remittances were reduced almost half. In January, 1922, the São Paulo +legislature on petition of the _Sociedade_ increased the tax to 200 reis +per bag to run for 3 years. In spite of this, the probability is that +another short crop and a continued low rate of exchange will keep the +Brazil contribution in 1922 down to about $180,000 net. By November, +1921, a total of $671,000 was expended on advertising. Of this, $551,000 +was contributed by the planters of São Paulo, and $120,000 by the coffee +trade of the United States. + +[347] About this time, the country was flooded with paper money, worth +about 1 to 75, forcing the price of commodities to unheard-of heights, +shoes for instance, being sold at £20 per pair. + +[348] Much of the information that follows is from an article by M.E. +Goetzinger in the _Percolator_, February, 1921. + +[349] What follows on "Trade Brooms and Panics" is from an article +prepared, under the author's direction, by C.K. Trafton, and published +in _The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_, Nov., 1920 (vol. xxxix: no. 5: p. +563). + +[350] Kauhee (or _kahvé_) is the Turkish for coffee. + +[351] Copyright, 1913. Used by special permission of the publishers, the +Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, Ind. + +[352] Copyright, 1916, by Henry Holt & Co., New York. Reprinted by +permission. + +[353] Chatfield-Taylor, II. C. _Goldoni._ New York, 1916 (p. 607). + +[354] Copyright, 1903, by G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York. Used by courtesy +of the author and the publisher. + +[355] Copyright, 1893, by Harper Bros., and 1921, by John Kendrick +Bangs. Reprinted by permission. + +[356] _Beverages Past and Present_, New York, copyright 1908. By +courtesy of G.P. Putnam's, Sons, Publishers. + +[357] _The Pot and Kettle_, Boston, 1920 (vol. iii: no. 2). + +[358] See Chapter XXXIII. + +[359] See chapter X. + +[360] See chapter X. + +[361] _Proceedings: Second Series_, 1899 (vol. xvii: no. 2; p. 390). + +[362] A mechanical contrivance that took the place of a boy. + +[363] Jardin, Édelestan. _Le Caféier et Le Café_, Paris, 1895 (p. 290). + +[364] In his patent specification, Mr. Carter said on this point: "Small +holes should be made through the roaster in sufficient number to allow +of the escape of the vapors and volatile matters which escape from the +coffee while undergoing the process of being roasted." + +[365] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1912 (vol. xxiii: no. 6: p. 592). + +[366] _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 11th Ed. (vol. 11: p. 285). + +[367] London; 1888 (vol. 1: pp. 222, 224). + +[368] de Sacy. Baron Antoine Isaac Silvestre. _Chréstomathie Arabe._ +Paris, 1806, (vol. 2). + +[369] _Scribner's Magazine_, 1918 (vol. liii: no. 5: p. 620); and +Dwight, H.G., _Constantinople, Old and New_, New York, 1915. Copyright +by Charles Scribner's Sons. + +[370] Carne, John. _Syria, the Holy Land._ London, 1836 (p. 69). + +[371] New York, 1857 (p. 276). + +[372] "The Coffee Cup and the Sugar Bowl." _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, +1921 (vol. xli: no. 6: p. 809). + +[373] Frankel, F. Hulton, Ph.D. _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1917 (vol. +xxxii: p. 142). + +[374] See chapter III. + +[375] Broadbent, Humphrey. _The Domestick Coffee Man_, London, 1722. + +[376] _Dutch New York_, 1909 (p. 132). + +[377] Earle. Alice Morse. _Customs and Fashions in Old New England_, +1909. + +[378] In 1921, Professor S.C. Prescott, in charge of the research work +for the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee at the Massachusetts +Institute of Technology, said that a brew made with the water +considerably below the boiling point, was preferable. + +[379] Meaning the pumping percolator. + +[380] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: no. 5: pp. +339-40). + +[381] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1921 (vol. xli: no. 5: p. 688). + +[382] See chapter XVII. + +[383] _Pharm. Weekbl. voor Nederl._, No. 13, 1899. _Apoth. Ztg._, 1899 +(p. 14). + +[384] _Tea and Coffee Trade Jour._, 1917 (vol. xxxiii: pp. 552-55). + +[385] Hollingworth, H.L. and Poffenberger, A.T., Jr. _The Sense of +Taste_, 1917 (p. 13). + +[386] _Not Édelestan as elsewhere in the volume_. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of All About Coffee, by William H. 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