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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Man And His Ancestor, by Charles Morris
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Man And His Ancestor
+       A Study In Evolution
+
+Author: Charles Morris
+
+Release Date: April 2, 2009 [EBook #28471]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAN AND HIS ANCESTOR ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Carla Foust, and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+
+Printer errors have been changed and are listed at the end. All other
+inconsistencies are as in the original.
+
+
+
+
+   MAN AND HIS ANCESTOR
+
+   _A STUDY IN EVOLUTION_
+
+   BY
+
+   CHARLES MORRIS
+
+   AUTHOR OF "CIVILIZATION: AN HISTORICAL REVIEW
+   OF ITS ELEMENTS," "THE ARYAN RACE," ETC.
+
+   New York
+
+   THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+   LONDON: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.
+
+   1900
+
+   _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+   COPYRIGHT, 1900,
+   BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+   Norwood Press
+   J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith
+   Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It would be difficult to find any intelligent person in this age of the
+world who has not some theory or opinion in regard to the origin of man,
+and perhaps almost as difficult to find any such person who can give a
+good and sufficient reason for the faith that is in him. This is
+especially the case with those who look upon man as a product of
+evolution, a natural outgrowth from the world of lower life, since here
+simple faith or ancient authority is not sufficient, as in the creation
+hypothesis, but scientific evidence and logical argument are necessary.
+It is to enable this class of readers to test the quality and
+sufficiency of their belief that this book has been prepared.
+
+The question of the evolutionary origin of man has been by no means
+neglected by recent authors, yet it has been dealt with chiefly as a
+side issue in works of a more extended purpose, and largely in technical
+language, simple to the scientist, but difficult to the general reader.
+The only work that makes this subject its leading theme, Darwin's
+"Descent of Man," adds to it a still longer treatise on "Sexual
+Selection," so that the subject of man's evolutionary origin cannot be
+said to have been yet dealt with for itself alone. Darwin's work,
+moreover, is now nearly thirty years old, and to this extent antiquated,
+while at best it cannot be considered as well suited for general
+reading.
+
+These considerations have given rise to the present work, in which an
+effort has been made to present the subject of man's origin in a popular
+manner, to dwell on the various significant facts that have been
+discovered since Darwin's time, and to offer certain lines of evidence
+never before presented in this connection, and which seem to add much
+strength to the general argument.
+
+The subject is one of such widespread interest as to make it probable
+that a plain and brief presentation of it will be acceptable, both to
+enable those who are evolutionists in principle to learn on what grounds
+their acceptance of this phase of evolution stands, and to aid those who
+are at sea on the whole subject of man's origin to reach some fixed
+conclusion. For these purposes this little book has been set afloat,
+with the hope that it may carry some doubters to solid land and teach
+some believers the fundamental elements of their faith.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+   CHAPTER                                    PAGE
+
+      I. EVOLUTION VERSUS CREATION               1
+
+     II. VESTIGES OF MAN'S ANCESTRY              5
+
+    III. RELICS OF ANCIENT MAN                  21
+
+     IV. FROM QUADRUPED TO BIPED                39
+
+      V. THE FREEDOM OF THE ARMS                54
+
+     VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE        68
+
+    VII. THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE                100
+
+   VIII. HOW THE CHASM WAS BRIDGED             111
+
+     IX. THE FIRST STAGE OF HUMAN EVOLUTION    130
+
+      X. THE CONFLICT WITH NATURE              158
+
+     XI. WARFARE AND CIVILIZATION              195
+
+    XII. THE EVOLUTION OF MORALITY             206
+
+   XIII. MAN'S RELATION TO THE SPIRITUAL       225
+
+
+
+
+MAN AND HIS ANCESTOR
+
+I
+
+EVOLUTION VERSUS CREATION
+
+
+In any consideration of the origin of man we are necessarily restricted
+to two views: one, that he is the outcome of a development from the
+lower animals; the other, that he came into existence through direct
+creation. No third mode of origin can be conceived, and we may safely
+confine ourselves to a review of these two claims. They are the
+opposites of each other in every particular. The creation doctrine is as
+old almost as thinking man; the evolutionary doctrine belongs in effect
+to our own generation. The former is not open to evidence; the latter
+depends solely upon evidence. The former is based on authority; the
+latter on investigation. The doctrine of direct creation can merely be
+asserted, it cannot be argued; the statement once made, there is nothing
+more to be said; it is an _ipse dixit_ pure and simple. The doctrine of
+evolution, on the contrary, founded as it must be on ascertained facts,
+is fully open to argument, and depends for its acceptance on the
+strength and validity of the evidence in its favor.
+
+If the doctrine of the direct creation of man had been originally
+presented in our own day, proof of the assertion would have been at once
+demanded, and the only evidence admissible would have been that of
+witnesses of the act of creation. There could, of course, have been no
+human witnesses, as there would have been no preceding human beings, and
+witnesses not human have, in the present day, no standing in our courts.
+As the case stands, however, the doctrine arose in an age when man did
+not trouble himself about evidence, but was content to accept his
+opinions on authority; and this, strangely enough, is held by many to be
+a strong point in its favor, it gaining, in their minds, authenticity
+from antiquity. It is claimed, indeed, to be sustained by divine
+authority, but this is a claim that has no warrant in the words of the
+statement itself, and one to which no form of words could give warrant.
+To establish it, direct and incontestable evidence from the creative
+power itself would be necessary, and it need scarcely be said that no
+such evidence exists. It is not easy, indeed, to conceive what form such
+evidence could take. It would certainly need to be something far more
+convincing than a statement in a book.
+
+It might have been better for civilized mankind if the opening pages of
+Genesis had never been written, since they have played a potent part in
+checking the development of thought. As the case now stands, the
+cosmological doctrines they contain can no longer claim even a shadow of
+divine authority, since they have been distinctly traced back to a human
+origin. It has been recently discovered that they are simply a
+restatement of the Babylonian cosmology, as given in a literary
+production ages older than the Bible, an epic poem of very remote date.
+They are, doubtless, an outgrowth of the cosmological ideas of early
+man, and those who accept them must do so on the basis of belief in
+their probability; it is no longer permissible to claim for them the
+warrant of divine origin.
+
+Modern science stringently demands facts in support of any assertion,
+the word "faith" having no place in its lexicon. Facts are absolutely
+and necessarily wanting in support of the creation doctrine, and the
+only argument its advocates can advance is one that deals in negatives,
+and demands its acceptance on the ground that the opposite doctrine has
+not been proved. Such an argument is valueless. Disproof of one
+statement is never proof of another. Its effect is simply to leave both
+unproved, and neither, therefore, in condition for acceptance. In the
+present case the weight of disproof is small. The facts in support of
+the evolution hypothesis are multitudinous, and many of them of great
+cogency; the facts against it are few, and none of them absolute. It is
+simply argued that some questions remain unsolved, and that there are
+facts which seem inconsistent with the Darwinian theory of development,
+and which no supplementary hypotheses have explained. But no advocates
+of evolution hold that the Darwinian theory is final. Evolution is a
+growing doctrine. It has been expanding ever since it was first
+promulgated. Various seeming difficulties have been explained away, and
+it is quite possible that all may disappear as investigation widens. No
+such arguments add any weight to the opposite view, which has not and
+never could have any standing in science, since it is impossible to
+adduce any facts to sustain it. We shall therefore dismiss it from
+further consideration, and proceed to state certain general facts in
+favor of the evolutionary hypothesis of the origin of man.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+VESTIGES OF MAN'S ANCESTRY
+
+
+When, some centuries ago, men began to find fossil remains of animals in
+the rocks, a severe shock was given to the prevailing doctrine of the
+recent creation of the earth. The adherents of the old theology made
+strenuous efforts to explain away this unwelcome circumstance. The
+shells found had been dropped by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem;
+they were mineral simulations of shells; they had been created by the
+Deity and placed where found; they were anything but what they appeared
+to be, the existing evidences of a long ancient period of animal life
+reaching back very far beyond the assumed date of creation.
+
+It need scarcely be said that these explanations, especially the one
+that God had created fossil forms to deceive man, for some
+incomprehensible purpose, could not long be maintained. Some of them
+were inconsistent with the facts, others with common sense, and in due
+time it was everywhere admitted that the earth is of remote duration and
+has been inhabited by animals and plants for untold ages. Its structure
+revealed its history; its annals were found to be written in the rocks;
+its anatomy was full of the evidences of its origin.
+
+When, not many years ago, men began to find the fossil remains of
+ancient structures in the body of man himself, theology was brought face
+to face with a problem as difficult to explain, from its special point
+of view, as that of the fossils in the rocks. As the latter had
+threatened and finally disproved the doctrine of the special creation of
+the earth, so the former assailed the doctrine of the special creation
+of man, and annihilated it in the minds of many eminent scientists. It
+formed a prominent argument in favor of the theory of organic evolution,
+and as such calls for consideration here, as a suitable groundwork for
+our special theme.
+
+The structures referred to may justly be called fossil, since they
+present strong evidence of being the useless remains of structures which
+played an active part in the bodies of some former animals. A
+significant example of this exists in the vermiform appendix, a narrow,
+blind tube descending from the caecum of man, and detrimental instead of
+useful, since it is the seat of the frequently fatal disease known as
+appendicitis. This tube, usually from three to six inches long and of
+the thickness of a goose quill, is occasionally absent in man,
+occasionally of considerable size. It is quite large, as compared with
+the other intestines, in the human embryo, but ceases to grow after a
+certain stage of development. The caecum is extremely long in some of the
+lower vegetable-eating animals, and the vermiform appendix seems to be a
+rudiment of the formerly extended portion of this organ. It is large in
+the anthropoid apes, especially in the orang, in which it is very long
+and spirally convoluted. Its survival in man as a useless and dangerous
+aborted organ is a powerful argument in favor of his descent from the
+lower animals.
+
+In the brain of man and many of the lower vertebrates, hanging by two
+peduncles, or strands of nerve fibre, from the thalami, or beds of the
+optic nerve, is a small rounded or heart-shaped body of about the size
+of a pea, known as the pineal gland. It is so destitute of any evident
+function that Descartes, in lack of any more probable explanation of its
+presence, ascribed to it the noble duty of serving as the seat of the
+soul. Late research has been more successful in tracking this organ to
+its lair. It is larger in the embryo than in the adult man, still larger
+in some lower vertebrates, and in certain lizards has been found to
+exist as an eye, its parts plainly distinguishable under the microscope.
+It is placed in the middle of the forehead, between the other eyes, and
+was no doubt an active organ of vision in some ancient batrachians.
+
+The pineal eye, as it is now named, once useful, long useless, has
+persisted as a fossil structure through a far extended line of
+development. No more convincing evidence that man gained his body
+through descent from the lower animals could be asked for than the
+survival in the human brain of this wonderfully significant remnant of
+a formerly useful organ. Like various other vestiges of ancient organs,
+it is not only useless but detrimental. It occasionally enlarges and
+becomes the seat of large and complicated tumors, which may cause death
+by their compression of the brain.
+
+Two other structures common to most of the vertebrate animals exist in
+man, though they render him little or no service. These are the thymus
+and thyroid glands, apparently vestigial structures. The thymus gland
+attains a considerable development in the embryo and shrinks away to the
+merest vestige in the adult. It begins to form early in the embryo life
+as an epithelial ingrowth from the throat, and extends from the neck
+into the chest. It continues to grow after birth, but later begins to
+shrink and nearly disappears in the adult.
+
+The thyroid gland has a somewhat similar origin, it beginning as an
+ingrowth from the lower section of the pharynx and extending down to the
+lower part of the neck. It subsequently loses its connection with the
+pharynx, and in adult life is a bilobed structure on either side of the
+windpipe. Like the thymus it is a ductless gland, abundantly supplied
+with blood-vessels, and possesses a vast number of small cavities, lined
+with cells and containing an insoluble jelly. So far as appears, both
+these glands are useless, or nearly so, to man; or if the thyroid
+performs any useful service it is a minor and obscure one. Such
+functions as it may have could probably be performed by some of the
+other organs, while it is positively detrimental as the seat of goitre.
+This unsightly disease is due to its enlargement, either by a great
+increase of its blood-vessels or a development of the capsules and
+increase of their contained jelly. Dr. S. V. Clevenger considers these
+organs to have had a branchial or respiratory origin, saying that there
+are many reasons for believing them to be rudimentary gills. Owen says
+that the thymus appears in vertebrates with the establishment of the
+lung as the main or exclusive respiratory organ. It is wanting in all
+fishes, also in the gill-bearing batrachians, siren and proteus. The
+thyroid appears in fishes, and Gegenbaur believes that it may have been
+a useful organ to the Tunicata in their former state of existence.
+
+Dr. Clevenger, in the _American Naturalist_ for January, 1884, points
+out another curious structure in man, whose significance does not seem
+to have been previously observed. This is a strange and striking fact
+relating to the formation of the veins. It is well known that these
+organs possess valves, which permit the free upward flow of the blood
+toward the heart, but resist its descent through the action of gravity,
+in this way aiding its return from the extremities. The rule holds good
+throughout the quadrupeds that the vertical veins possess valves, while
+they are absent from the horizontal veins, in which they would be of no
+utility. But the singular fact exists that in the human trunk the valves
+occur in the horizontal and are absent from the vertical veins. In other
+words, they exist where they are useless for their apparent purpose and
+are absent where they would be useful.
+
+The only conclusion that can reasonably be drawn from this strange fact
+is that we are here dealing with a fossilized structure, a functionless
+survival. It leads irresistibly to the inference that man has descended
+from a quadruped ancestor, and that when his body took the upright
+position the structure of the veins, not being seriously detrimental,
+remained unchanged. Those which had been vertical became horizontal, and
+retained their now useless valves; those which had been horizontal
+became vertical, and remained destitute of valves. The veins of the arms
+and legs, vertical in both forms, retained their valves.
+
+Dr. Clevenger points out that the intercostal veins, which carry blood
+almost horizontally backward to the azygos veins and which would run
+vertically upward in quadrupeds, possess valves. These are not only
+useless to man, but when he lies upon his back they are an actual
+hindrance to the free flow of the blood. In like manner, the inferior
+thyroid veins, whose blood flows into the innominate, are obstructed by
+valves at the point of junction.
+
+We quote from him as follows: "There are two pairs of valves in the
+external jugular and one pair in the internal jugular, but in
+recognition of their uselessness they do not prevent regurgitation of
+blood nor liquids from passing upward. An apparent anomaly exists in the
+absence of valves from parts where they are most needed, as in the venae
+cavae, spinal, iliac, haemorrhoidal, and portal. The azygos veins have
+imperfect valves. Place men upon 'all fours' and the law governing the
+presence and absence of valves is at once apparent, applicable, so far
+as I have been able to ascertain, to all quadrupedal and quadrumanous
+animals: _Dorsal veins are valved; cephalad, ventrad, and caudad veins
+have no valves._"
+
+Of the few exceptions to this rule, he considers the valves of the
+jugular veins as in process of becoming obsolete, and the rudimentary
+azygos valves as a recent development. Valves in the haemorrhoidal veins
+would be out of place in quadrupeds, but their absence in man is a
+serious defect in his organization, since the resulting engorgement of
+blood gives rise to the distressing disease known as piles. The presence
+of valves would obviate this.
+
+No one can argue that this useless and, to some extent, injurious
+condition is a designed result of creation. There could not, indeed, be
+stronger evidence that man has descended from a quadruped ancestor. Dr.
+Clevenger points out other serious results of the upright position of
+the body, from which quadrupeds are free. One of these is the liability
+to inguinal hernia, or rupture, which leads to much suffering and
+frequent death in man. Prolapsis uteri is another, and a third to which
+he particularly alludes is difficulty in parturition.
+
+It has been suggested above that the thyroid gland may possibly be of
+some minor functional importance, and that the thymus is developed in
+the embryo sufficiently to be functional. As regards the latter, no one
+is likely to maintain that an act of direct creation would include the
+production of an organ of some slight and obscure utility to the embryo
+and useless in later life. The strong probability is that this gland
+belongs in the same category with other embryonic survivals yet to be
+pointed out. As regards the seeming function of the thyroid, it may be
+said that the surviving relic of an ancient functional organ is quite
+capable of varying in structure and taking upon itself a new function,
+of minor value, which in its absence would be left undone or be
+performed by some of the other organs.
+
+A highly interesting example of this exists in the swim-bladder of the
+fish, which there is good reason to believe is a survival of an ancient
+structure used for quite a different purpose. It was originally
+developed, in the opinion of the writer,[1] as an air-breathing organ,
+in a very ancient semi-amphibious class of fishes, from which the
+existing bony fishes have descended. When the latter resumed the
+gill-breathing habit, this organ lost its original function, and its
+subsequent history is a curious and significant one. In some modern
+fishes it has quite disappeared. In others it exists as a minute and
+useless remnant, no larger than a pea. In many it has been converted
+into the swim-bladder, and in this form serves a useful purpose, but
+varies very greatly in shape and size. Finally, in a few instances, it
+retains some measure of its probably original function of air-breathing.
+It is a fact of much significance, that those fishes without a
+swim-bladder do not seem to be at any disadvantage from its absence, but
+are able to make their way vertically through the water quite as well as
+those which possess this organ. The presumption, therefore, is that it
+is of little utility to the fish, and that its employment for this
+purpose is a mere resultant of its survival and character. Such an organ
+could never have been evolved as an aid in swimming, since its shrinkage
+to a useless rudiment in some cases and its complete extinction in
+others show that this function is in no sense a necessary one. It is
+there and has lost its old use, and is, in some cases, adapted to
+another purpose; that is all that can be said.
+
+Man is the one hairless mammal,--or hairless except on a few parts of
+his body. Yet the whole body is covered with a thin growth of hair,
+useless for any purpose of protection, and only explainable as a
+survival from the mammalian covering. The occasional considerable
+development of the hair is an indication pointing to such an origin.
+This applies not only to individuals, but to tribes or races, as in the
+instances of the Ainos of Japan and some of the Pygmies of Africa. The
+disappearance of the hair in man has been traced to no well established
+cause. Darwin's view that it may have been a result of sexual selection
+seems the most probable explanation. Certainly this is the case with the
+beard, whose absence in women shows it to be of no utility, and whose
+presence in man is in accord with the many structures in male animals
+apparently due to this form of selection.
+
+Darwin has pointed out and explained a very curious peculiarity of the
+hair in man, which is absolutely inexplicable except on the theory of
+descent. This is the fact that the hairs on man's arms are directed
+toward the elbow from above and below, thus growing in opposite
+directions on the upper and lower arms. The same peculiarity exists in
+the larger anthropoid apes and in some of the gibbons, but is not found
+in the lower mammals. In the apes it is believed to be due to the habit
+of protecting the head from rain by covering it with the hands, the
+hairs turning so that the rain can run downward freely in both
+directions toward the bent elbow. This is so useless in man that it can
+be explained only as a survival.
+
+There are some other survivals in man of ancient structures to which a
+passing allusion must suffice. In man's eye is a minute membrane, the
+semilunar fold, which is absolutely useless in his economy. There is
+every reason to believe that this is the rudiment of a membrane which is
+fully developed in many animals, and is especially useful to birds, the
+nictitating membrane, or third eyelid. Again, the muscles which move the
+skin in many animals, especially in horses, have left inactive remnants
+in many parts of the human body. These are normally active only in the
+forehead, where they serve to lift the eyebrows, but they occasionally
+become active elsewhere. Thus there are some persons who can move the
+skin of the scalp. Darwin cites some who could throw heavy books from
+the head in this manner. The same may be said of the rudimentary muscles
+of the ear. There are persons who can move their ears in the same way as
+is done by the lower animals. Again, the whole external ear may be
+looked upon as a rudimentary structure, since it does not appear to aid
+the hearing in man. As regards the pointed ear of man's probable
+ancestor, Darwin calls attention to what seems a trace in man of the
+lost tip.
+
+Carrying this consideration farther, it may be asked, Of what use are
+the five toes to man? Would not a solid foot have answered the purpose
+of walking quite as well? But as survivals their presence is fully
+accounted for, since they are indispensable to many of the lower
+animals. Question may also be made of the utility of the large number of
+bones in the wrist and heel of man. Equal flexibility of the joint could
+certainly have been obtained with a smaller number of bones. It is only
+when these are traced back to their probable origin in the walking
+organs of the fish ancestor of the batrachians that their presence
+becomes explainable. They are apparently survivals of a very ancient
+structure, originated for swimming, and adapted to walking.
+
+As regards the wrist of man, a curious prediction that a certain bone
+found in some of the lower animals, the _os centrale_, would be found in
+man has been made and verified, it being discovered as a very small
+rudiment in the human embryo. The tail, so common a feature in the lower
+animals, but absent from the higher apes and from man, has not vanished
+without leaving its traces. In the human embryo it is plainly indicated;
+and while it vanishes in man beyond the embryo stage, it is simply
+hidden beneath the skin, where its vertebrae are still apparent, usually
+three, sometimes four or five, in number. In addition to this, the
+muscles which move the tail have left traces of their presence, which
+not infrequently develop into true muscles.
+
+In the human embryo, indeed, we find ourselves in the midst of highly
+significant indications of man's origin. The body of man passes in its
+early development through a series of stages, in each of which it
+resembles the mature or the embryo state of certain animals lower in the
+stage of existence. It begins its existence as a simple cell, analogous
+in form to the amoeba, one of the lowest living creatures, and later
+assumes the gastrula form supposed to have been that of the earliest
+many-celled animals. From this state it progresses by successive stages,
+each of which has some relation in form to a lower class.
+
+The most significant of these is that in which the embryo is closely
+assimilated to the fish, by the possession of gill slits. There are four
+of these openings in the neck of the human foetus, and they are at times
+so persistent that children have been born with them still open, so that
+fluids taken in at the mouth could trickle out at the neck, the opening
+being sufficient to admit a thin probe.[2] These slits are utilized in
+the developing embryo, one of them being devoted to an important duty,
+that of conversion into the external and middle ear. Thus the opening
+for hearing is an adaptation of what was once an opening for breathing.
+Occasionally an ear-like outgrowth appears on the neck, indicative of
+the attempt of a second slit to develop into an ear. The purpose of the
+gill slits is made more apparent by the presence in the embryo of gill
+arches of the blood-vessels, like those normal to the fish. These
+disappear in common with the slits.
+
+The temporary appearance of these gill slits is the strongest evidence
+that could well be demanded that the human embryo passes through the
+various stages which the adult has assumed in its long development in
+past time, and that one of these stages was the fish. And these form
+only one of the evidences of man's origin to be found in the embryo.
+Another which may be mentioned is the wool-like hair which covers the
+foetus, and whose presence is incomprehensible except on the theory of
+descent. Its most probable explanation is that it appears as a passing
+survival of the first permanent coat of hair of the lower mammals.
+
+In the milk teeth of man we have another useless and often annoying
+survival of an ancient state of the dental organs. We cannot well
+imagine that in any direct creation a set of temporary teeth would have
+been provided as preliminary to a permanent set--an utterly useless
+provision. But when we find that in a lower stage of animal life the old
+teeth are periodically succeeded by new ones, we can understand how a
+trace of this condition has persisted in the mammalia.
+
+Other evidences of man's origin in the lower animals could be drawn from
+the phenomena of atavism, or arrest of development in parts or organs of
+the body. Atavism is usually confined within the line of human descent,
+conditions appearing in many of us which belonged to some of our human
+ancestors a few generations, occasionally many generations, in the past.
+But conditions now and then appear which are abnormal to man, but which
+are normal to some of the lower animals. This tendency is exhibited by
+all organisms. In an occasional horse the long-lost stripes of the
+zebra-like ancestor reappear. Now and then a blue pigeon, like the
+ancestral form, crops up in a pure breed of domesticated birds. Even in
+the details of anatomy some long-vanished character suddenly appears.
+
+Many instances of this in man might be cited, embracing various features
+of the muscular and other internal organs. The abnormality of club-foot
+may be pointed to as a reversion to the shape of the foot in the
+anthropoid apes. This, however, is a retention of a condition existing
+in the foetus of man, the foot being drawn up and the sole turned inward
+and upward. It is simply a passing testimony to the ancestral condition
+of man.
+
+Again, we have the fact that man possesses normally only twelve ribs,
+one less than is found in the gorilla and the chimpanzee. This leads to
+the possibility that man may have lost a rib in his development, and in
+significant evidence of this is the fact that occasionally a thirteenth
+rib appears in the human framework.
+
+The functionless organs in men are, as above said, closely analogous to
+the fossils in the rocks, in that both point back to a period in which
+they were active, vital forms occupying a definite place in the long
+line of animal life or animal structure. The argument that God directly
+created the fossils is no more absurd than the one that He directly
+created these useless and at times detrimental organs. It is impossible
+to offer a reason for such a futile exercise of creative power, unless
+that it was intended to make it falsely appear that man arose from the
+world of life below him. Will any one in this age assert that God placed
+useless and dangerous structures in the body of man for the incredible
+purpose of deceiving him in regard to his origin? And will it be further
+asserted that the Deity placed similar stumbling-blocks to the human
+reason in the embryo, in order to deceive those who should extend their
+researches to this low level? It would be difficult to conceive of a
+more preposterous idea, yet there is no other escape from what seems a
+self-evident fact, that man is a product of evolution from the lower
+animals, and bears the marks of his ancestry thick upon him.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: "On the Air Bladder of Fishes." Proceedings of the Academy
+of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1885.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Sutton, "Evolution and Disease."]
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+RELICS OF ANCIENT MAN
+
+
+If now, instead of seeking for evidences of man's ancestry within the
+human body, in survivals of ancient anatomical structures, we seek for
+them within the crust of the earth, we find ourselves confronted with
+evidences of a great antiquity of the human race, partly in implements
+of human manufacture, partly in ancient or fossilized bones of primitive
+man. These indicate not only great remoteness of origin, but also a very
+gradual advance from the lowest stage of inventive ability to the high
+level now attained.
+
+These relics of primitive man are divided by Dana into ten varieties,
+(1) Buried human bones; (2) stone arrow and lance heads, hatchets,
+pestles, etc.; (3) flint chips, left in the manufacture of implements;
+(4) arrow heads and other implements made of bone and deer horn; (5)
+bones, teeth, and shells bored or notched by human hands; (6) cut or
+carved wood; (7) bone, horn, ivory, or stone graven with figures, or cut
+into the shapes of animals; (8) marrow bones broken longitudinally to
+obtain the marrow for food; (9) fragments of charcoal and other
+indications of the use of fire; (10) fragments of pottery.
+
+Relics of the kinds above cited have been found at intervals for many
+years past, but their age and significance were doubted, and only within
+some forty years has the great antiquity of man upon the earth been
+generally acknowledged by scientists. The most important early find of
+ancient implements was made by Boucher de Perthes in 1841 and
+subsequently, in the high level gravels of the valley of the Somme, in
+Picardy, France. In deep layers of these gravels, which were deposited
+at a period when the river occupied a wider and higher channel than at
+present, he found rude flint weapons and tools, bearing plain evidences
+of human workmanship, and mingled with the teeth and bones of animals,
+both of living and extinct species. Among the bones were those of the
+mammoth and the hairy rhinoceros, species evidently contemporary with
+man, though they have long since vanished from the earth. At a somewhat
+earlier date, implements of men, mingled with bones of the cave-bear,
+cave-lion, hyena, and other species, had been found in the caves of
+France and Belgium. These were frequently buried beneath deposits of
+stalagmite and other materials that must have taken a long time to
+accumulate.
+
+The significance of these discoveries was long in forcing itself upon
+the attention of scientific men. Nearly twenty years passed before
+Boucher de Perthes could get the noted geologists of France and England
+to investigate the Somme gravels. When they did so they were quickly
+convinced of the genuine antiquity of these relics, and announced it as
+a fact beyond question that man had lived in the Somme valley and
+fashioned rude implements out of flint during what was known as the
+Quaternary or Drift Period of geology.
+
+The discoveries here made set men actively at work investigating
+elsewhere. Excavations were made in other high level gravels, caverns
+were carefully and minutely examined, Kent's Cavern, England, was dug
+out to its rock bottom, dozens of important finds resulted, and the
+antiquity of man was proved to extend back from thousands to tens of
+thousands, if not to hundreds of thousands, of years. And the
+coexistence of man with the animals whose bones accompanied his relics
+was proved by unquestionable evidence, for drawings and carved forms of
+these animals were found, proving incontestably that man had gazed upon
+their living forms. Thus the sketch of a mammoth, showing the long hair
+which served to protect this animal from the cold, was found engraved
+upon a piece of mammoth ivory, and one of a group of reindeer on a piece
+of reindeer horn. There were also drawings of the cave-bear, the seal,
+etc., and one very interesting group showing the aurochs, a number of
+trees, and a man with a snake apparently biting his heel. The carvings
+consisted of the horn handle of a dagger, cut into the shape of a
+reindeer, and other forms.
+
+That these relics belong to a far distant age is proved by the strongest
+evidence. It must suffice here to give some of the more striking of
+these proofs of antiquity. The flint hatchets found at St. Acheul,
+France, were obtained from a gravel bed which lay below twelve feet of
+sand and marl. On the surface was a layer of soil, in which were graves
+of the Gallo-Roman period, showing that it had been there for at least
+fifteen hundred years. The time needed for the slow accumulation of the
+whole series of deposits must have been very considerable.
+
+A much more decisive proof of antiquity is given by the position in
+which this and similar gravel beds lie. They are found along the sides
+of rivers at a height often of a hundred or two hundred feet above the
+flood level of the streams. When they were deposited, the rivers must
+have run at this elevation, so that time has since elapsed sufficient
+for the streams to cut down their valleys to the present depths. The
+streams may have formerly been of greater volume, and had superior
+cutting powers, and they may have been aided by the ice of the Glacial
+Age, yet, however we estimate, the conclusion is inevitable that the men
+who dropped their implements into those gravels must have lived upon the
+earth ages before the beginning of historical times.
+
+The presence there of remains of animals which ages ago perished from
+the earth is another circumstance indicative of high antiquity. These
+embrace the mammoth,--the great hairy elephant of prehistoric times,--an
+extinct hair-clad rhinoceros, the large and powerful cave-bear and
+cave-lion, the great Irish elk, and still other animals of whose
+existence we know only by their bones. Others, which existed in common
+with men of later date, are the reindeer and the musk-ox, species of
+which now inhabit the coldest regions of the north, and whose presence
+in southern Europe at that era seems to indicate a much colder climate
+than that of historic times.
+
+The evidences of human antiquity here briefly presented are accompanied
+by indications of a gradual development of the human intellect. If man
+has "fallen from his high estate," he has left no traces of this high
+estate on his downward path. We possess abundant indications of his
+upward climb, we find none of a preceding descent. If we base our
+opinions on known facts, the theory of development is the only one that
+can be sustained; the doctrine of a fall is absolutely without warrant
+outside the pages of Genesis.
+
+The successive stages of man's mental development, as indicated in the
+work of his hands, are well and clearly marked. At the lowest level we
+find tools and weapons of the palaeolithic or old stone age, made of
+roughly chipped stone, rude in form, and never ground or polished. These
+present some evidence of gradual improvement, but we must go to a
+higher level to find implements of a decidedly higher order, the neatly
+shaped and polished stone implements of the neolithic or new stone age.
+With the coming of these appears a much greater diversity in tools and
+weapons, and evidences of a growing skill in manufacture and a
+considerably greater power of invention. Still higher lie the deposits
+of the bronze age, in which metal replaces stone in human implements.
+Finally appears the age of iron, that in which we still remain. We need
+merely refer in passing to the lake-dwellings of Switzerland, with their
+many interesting relics of man during the later stone, the bronze, and
+the early iron eras; and the kitchen-middens, or refuse-heaps, of the
+Danish islands and elsewhere, which extend from the old stone age far
+down toward the historic period.
+
+These are but a portion of the evidences of man's antiquity and his
+gradual progress in the arts of manufacture. Others have been found in
+many parts of the earth. Many of them exist in America, proving that man
+resided on this continent at a very distant era. When we consider that
+late discoveries in Babylonia appear to carry back the age of
+civilization and historical relics to some ten thousand years, and that
+semi-civilization must have extended very considerably beyond that time,
+the vista of man's gradual progress seems to recede interminably and the
+era of primitive man to stretch backward to an enormously remote
+period. In truth, discoveries have been made which are claimed to carry
+man back beyond the Quaternary and into the Tertiary Period of geology,
+since cut and scratched bones have been found in Pliocene deposits,
+which some geologists of experience believe to have been the work of
+human hands. Still more remote are some seemingly chipped flints and
+bones cut in a way that suggests human action, which have been found in
+deposits of the very far-distant Miocene Age. The immense remoteness of
+this epoch and the rudeness of the work have cast much doubt on the
+human origin of these remains, though their authenticity as the work of
+man has been accepted by several competent observers, among them the
+able anthropologist, Quatrefages.
+
+If we confine ourselves, however, to the conclusions regarding ancient
+man which are generally accepted, we must say that he has not been
+clearly traced back beyond the Glacial Period, though some of the relics
+found in the older river gravels and in the lowest cave accumulations
+may well be of pre-glacial age. Many geologists believe that he reached
+Europe as early as the extinct mammals with which he was contemporaneous
+there, but how far back in time this would carry his advent it is
+impossible to say.
+
+Coming now to the consideration of more immediate human relics, the
+bones of man himself, it must be said that well-authenticated remains
+of palaeolithic or early neolithic man are not numerous. As long as man
+left his bones to the unaided agencies of nature, they were little
+likely to be preserved. Of the anthropoid apes of Europe, probably
+numerous in individuals, a few remains of one or two species alone
+survive. Of pre-glacial man none remain, but this may merely indicate
+that he has shared the fate of numerous other species that died out and
+left no trace. It was only when the growing cold drove man from the open
+woods to seek shelter in caves that remnants of his body were likely to
+be preserved, and only when a growing sense of human dignity led to the
+art of sepulture that the preservation of his bones became assured.
+
+The burial art was seemingly not practised by the hunters of the
+river-drift period or by men of still earlier date. The only remains of
+primitive man known are those found in caves and rock shelters. A number
+of human skulls have been discovered in these situations, and in a few
+instances skeletons have been exhumed. In the neolithic period interment
+became more common and more carefully performed, and the progress of
+this period is marked by many remains of man, which in later times were
+buried in elaborately constructed stone sepulchres, sometimes massive in
+materials and covered by great earth-mounds.
+
+What is meant by the Glacial Age is probably well-known to most readers,
+but its close relations to ancient man render it important for those
+who are not familiar with its meaning that a passing description of it
+should here be given. It will suffice to say that there are found over
+much of the northern portions of America and Europe accumulations of
+clays, sands, and gravels, sometimes laid down in stratified beds,
+sometimes rudely piled together. In these occur blocks of stone, large
+and small, and other blocks, occasionally of great size, are found in
+isolated localities. The solid rocks which lie beneath these heaps are
+often scratched or polished, as if the material had been pushed over
+them with great force.
+
+All geologists now believe that these accumulations were made by ice, at
+some remote period when a very cold climate prevailed in the northern
+hemisphere, and great glaciers slowly made their way southward, grinding
+and rending as they went, and burying the land under their mountain-like
+heaps, which sometimes were a mile or more in depth. In North America
+the glacial ice pushed southward to the 40th degree of north latitude.
+In Europe it extended to the Alpine region, but failed to reach the
+countries bordering on the Mediterranean.
+
+The elaborate and minute investigation of the glacial deposits has made
+it highly probable that there were two glacial eras, two periods in
+which the ice pushed down far to the south, and that these were
+separated by a period in which the ice retreated and an age of warmer
+weather intervened. This is known as the interglacial period. So far as
+can be positively ascertained, all the authentic relics of man belong to
+the Glacial Age. They seem first to become numerous in the interglacial
+period, and continue to increase and become diversified as we descend
+lower in time. How long ago it was that the sea of ice began its
+downflow over the earth it is impossible to say. Some place it back six
+hundred thousand or seven hundred thousand years. Some seek to bring it
+down to a quite recent date. It is still so uncertain and such a matter
+of controversy that the utmost we are able definitely to say is that it
+was very long ago.
+
+While there is no positive proof that men dwelt in Europe before the
+coming on of the glacial chill, we have no just reason to doubt it. That
+he lived there during glacial times is unquestionable, and we may be
+very well assured that a naked tropical animal, destitute of the hairy
+covering of the other animals, would not have chosen that frozen period
+to migrate to the north. The fact that he was there during the ice age
+seems satisfactory evidence that he was there before that age, during
+the mild climate of late Tertiary times, and that--for a reason which we
+shall hereafter consider--he was caught there and unable to retreat, and
+was forced to adapt himself to the new conditions.
+
+During the warm preceding period he probably wandered as a hunter
+through the European forests. But with the gradual coming on of a wintry
+chill, as the advance of the ice began, shelter of some kind became
+necessary, and he sought refuge in caves. From being a forest wanderer
+he became a troglodyte. Everywhere in southwestern Europe we find traces
+of this period of man's existence. There is hardly a cave or rock
+shelter in that region within which he has not left his marks. He made
+his way to England, which was probably then connected by land with
+Europe, and dwelt long in its caverns. His period of cave residence,
+indeed, appears to have been a very extended one. While it continued,
+deposits many feet in depth gradually accumulated on the floors of the
+caverns, slowly filling them up. And that, in some cases at least, this
+cave residence ended a very long time ago, we are assured, for since
+then a great thickness of stalagmite, which is deposited with extreme
+slowness, has spread over the lower cave deposits and sealed them in.
+
+It is in these caves that we find, not only the rude stone spearheads,
+scrapers, hammers, etc., the bone awls, borers, and other implements of
+palaeolithic man, but the bones of man himself. And it is significant of
+his primitive condition that these earliest relics indicate a man of a
+very low grade of development, mentally far above the ape, it is true,
+but mentally and physically much below modern man.
+
+The most ape-like of those human remains is the famous Neanderthal
+skull, found in 1856 in a limestone cavern of the Neanderthal Valley,
+between Duesseldorf and Elberfeld, in Rhenish Prussia. The relics
+discovered consist of the brain cap, two femori, two humeri, and other
+fragments. The fragment of the skull attracted wide attention by its
+bestial aspect, it presenting a low, narrow and receding forehead, and
+an enormous thickness of the bony ridges over the eyes, like that seen
+in the gorilla. This skull, which was associated with remains of the
+cave-bear, hyena, and rhinoceros, is, with one exception, the most
+ape-like human relic yet found. Yet its cranial capacity is far above
+that of the highest apes, and is assimilated with that of Hottentot and
+Polynesian skulls.
+
+It has been maintained that this is a pathological specimen, and does
+not represent normal man. But this theory has been disproved by the fact
+that other skulls of similar cranial characters are now known,
+indicating that the Neanderthal cranium represents a type of man, not an
+abnormal individual. In the Spy Cavern, in the province of Namur,
+Belgium, there were found, in 1886, two nearly perfect skeletons of a
+man and a woman, both of them with very prominent eye ridges, low,
+retreating foreheads, and large orbits. This was strikingly the case
+with the woman. The lower jaws in both were heavy, while the woman was
+almost destitute of a chin--a marked ape-like characteristic. The tibia
+was shorter than in any known race and stouter than in most. Its curious
+feature was the articulation with the femur, which was such that to
+maintain the equilibrium the head and body must have been thrown
+forward, as is the case in the anthropoid apes.
+
+In the cave of Naulette, near Dinant, Belgium, has been found the lower
+jaw of a man of decidedly ape-like aspect. Its prognathism or protrusion
+is extreme, and the canine teeth were very strong, while the molars were
+evidently large and increased in size backward, a non-human
+characteristic. At La Denise, in the upper Loire, France, have been
+found the frontal bones of a man like the Neanderthal man in type, the
+forehead being depressed and retreating, and the superciliary ridges
+large and thick. Several other skulls of this general type are known,
+but the above will suffice as examples.
+
+Remains of palaeolithic man of considerably higher type are not wanting.
+In the rock shelter of Cro-Magnon, France, were found the bones of three
+men, one woman, and one child, of more advanced character. These,
+however, are of late date and may have been early neolithic. At Engis,
+near Liege, Belgium, a deeply buried skull, associated with many remains
+of extinct animals, has been dug up, which is by no means ape-like in
+character. A still superior example of palaeolithic man is the skeleton
+found in a cavern at Mentone, east of Nice, France, which represents a
+man six feet in height, with rather large head, high forehead, and very
+large facial angle (85 deg.). The cave contained bones of extinct animals,
+but no trace of the reindeer.
+
+There is no occasion to speak here of the many remains of neolithic man
+that have been exhumed. Sparse in the early part of the age of polished
+stone weapons, they gradually became numerous, and merged into the human
+remains of late prehistoric times. The American continent is not without
+its relics of ancient man, the most famous of which is the Calaveras
+skull, found in 1886 in the auriferous gravels of Calaveras County,
+California, at an extraordinary depth. The miners, in excavating a
+shaft, passed through several layers of lava and gravel, forming a total
+thickness of seventy-nine feet of lava and a considerable thickness of
+gravel, making nearly one hundred and thirty feet in all. At this depth
+a skull was found imbedded in the gravel, which, if authentic, must have
+been overflowed by several successive thick outpours of lava in the
+ancient volcanic era of that region. As its authenticity is, however,
+still a matter of controversy, nothing further need here be said about
+it.
+
+Leaving these evidences of human antiquity, we come to the most
+remarkable and significant of all the known relics of man, if indeed it
+is man, for it seems to many a link between man and the ape,--not yet
+human, while no longer simian. This is the fossil find made by Dr.
+Eugene Dubois in 1891 on the banks of the Bengawan River, Java, and
+named by him _Pithecanthropus erectus_, he maintaining that it
+represents a new genus of upright animals, or even a new family. The
+remains found by him consisted of the upper part of a skull, a molar
+tooth, and a femur, possibly not belonging to a single individual, as
+they were somewhat separated. These were exhumed from a stratum of
+volcanic tufa, claimed to be of Tertiary age, but perhaps Quaternary,
+and lay at a depth of some forty feet beneath the surface.
+
+The femur very closely resembles that of a human being of average size,
+and its shape, articulating surface, and other characters show clearly
+that the animal stood habitually erect. The principal significance lies
+in the tooth and the cranium. The former is like that of the chimpanzee
+in shape, but less rugose on its grinding surface. It seems to lie
+between the ape and the human type of dentition. The cranium has a low,
+depressed arch, with a very narrow frontal region and highly developed
+superciliary ridges. The cranial capacity was apparently about one
+thousand, that of man being from thirteen hundred to fourteen hundred.
+It is therefore said to be "the lowest human cranium yet described, very
+nearly as much below the Neanderthal as that is below the normal
+European."
+
+Professor O. C. Marsh, in a paper on the subject in the _American
+Journal of Science_, for February, 1895, agrees with Dr. Dubois in his
+view of the distinct position of this form in the animal kingdom, and
+says that the discoverer "has proved the existence of a new prehistoric
+anthropoid form, not human, indeed, but in size, brain power, and erect
+posture much nearer man than any animal hitherto discovered, living or
+extinct."
+
+We have here given a short review of a long story. The evidences of
+man's former existence upon the earth are multitudinous, but any
+extended consideration of them is aside from our purpose, which is
+merely to show that the proofs of man's descent found in his physical
+structure are strengthened by evidences which he has left strewn behind
+him in his long march down the ages. Only a single conclusion can be
+drawn from these vestiges of man excavated from caves and gravels,
+namely, that they indicate a gradual and steady progression upward from
+a very low condition, while they nowhere give evidence of the
+traditional fall of man.
+
+This is certainly the case with the relics of human workmanship. They
+begin with the rudest chipped stones, and very slowly improve in form
+and finish and become more varied, as we move upward in our search. The
+ground and polished stones follow, and the variety of implements
+considerably increases, until at length the age of metal, with its
+developed industries, is reached. The only seeming evidence of superior
+intellect to be found in this gradual progress is that of the drawings
+and carvings left us by one group of palaeolithic men. But the actual
+mental development indicated by these becomes problematical when we
+consider that similar drawings are made to-day by the Bushmen of South
+Africa, a race of men occupying a very low mental stage. From this fact
+we may fairly conclude that the possession of a simple graphic art does
+not necessarily indicate any considerable intellectual advance.
+
+If we consider the remains of man himself, the few bones which mark his
+early pathway through time, a similar conclusion must be drawn.
+Beginning with Pithecanthropus, which science is yet in doubt whether to
+class with the apes or with men, we pass upward to the bestial
+Neanderthal man and his fellows of the same low type. Of the sparse
+remains of palaeolithic man that exist, the most are of this degraded
+type. The cranial capacity is usually not small. They had the full brain
+development of man. But this simply assimilates them with the low races
+of existing savages, many of whom have not developed the simple art of
+chipping stone to form weapons and yet have brains of normal human
+weight.
+
+In truth, the influences under which the development of the brain took
+place were not what we now call intellectual. Developing man used his
+mental powers actively in his dealings with the hostile forces of
+surrounding nature, and nearly all the forces of evolution were brought
+to bear upon the organ of the mind, the body remaining practically
+unchanged. His senses became acute, his cunning and alertness high, his
+use of weapons skilful, but his field of mental exercise was still the
+outer world, and the inner world of thought remained in its embryo
+state. The more recent development of the mind has been in its
+intellectual powers, while its physical aptitudes have somewhat
+declined. This has not yielded any marked increase in the dimensions of
+the brain, but it may have had a decided effect upon the proportion of
+its parts, the regions of the cerebrum devoted to intellectual activity
+probably increasing at the expense of the motor and sensory regions,
+while the convolutions may have grown considerably more complicated.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+FROM QUADRUPED TO BIPED
+
+
+In the question which now confronts us, that of the evolution of man
+from the lower world of animals, it is necessary first to state in what
+particulars he has evolved, what are the conditions which distinguish
+him from the lower animals. Four marked distinctions may be named: his
+erect attitude, with the freeing of the fore limbs from use as agents in
+locomotion; his employment of natural objects, instead of his bodily
+organs, as tools and weapons; his development of vocal language; and his
+great mental superiority, with the general use of the mind in his
+dealings with nature.
+
+In none of these particulars does man stand quite alone; in all of them
+an affinity with the lower animals exists. Steps of progress in these
+directions have been made by many animals, though none of them have
+gained any considerable advance. In man's strikingly developed social
+habit and organization he has no close counterpart among the
+vertebrates, but several among the insects. And it is of much interest
+to find that in the highest field of man's progress, his employment of
+the mind in his dealings with nature, he is chiefly emulated by such
+lowly-organized creatures as the ants and the bees.
+
+We do not need to look far among the lower animals for the species which
+come nearest to man in structure and which seem to have immediately
+preceded him in the line of descent. We find these forms in the monkeys
+or apes, and especially in their highest representatives, the anthropoid
+apes. These possess in a partial degree all the special characteristics
+of man. They are social in habit; some of them are semi-erect in
+posture, and their fore limbs partly freed from use in locomotion; they
+possess some imperfect means of vocal communication; they employ the
+mind to some extent in place of the body; in short, they seem arrested
+forms on the road from brute to man, signal-posts on the highway of
+evolution. In physical organization their approach to man is singularly
+close. In anatomy man and the higher apes are in most respects
+counterparts of each other. The principal anatomical distinction has
+been considered to be in the foot, which from the opposable character of
+the great toe was classed by Cuvier with the hand, the apes being named
+Quadrumana, or four-handed, and man Bimana, or two-handed. Fuller
+research has shown that this distinction does not exist, the foot of the
+ape being found to agree far more closely with the foot than with the
+hand of man. Estimated according to use, the hand is, in the whole
+order, the special prehensile organ; the foot, however prehensile it
+may be, is predominantly a walking organ. And the opposability of the
+great toe is approached in some men, who have great mobility in this
+organ, and can use it for grasping.
+
+In regard to the brain, the organ of the mind, the difference between
+the higher apes and man is almost solely one of comparative size, the
+lower intelligence of the apes being indicated by the smaller size of
+their brains. The largest ape brain is scarcely half the size of the
+smallest human brain. But anatomically they are nearly identical. All
+the structural features of the brain are common to both, and the details
+are largely filled out in the anthropoid apes, the convolutions being
+all present and the pattern of arrangement the same. The brain of the
+orang may be said to be like that of man in all respects except size and
+the greater symmetry of its convolutions, which are less complicated
+with minor convolutions than in man. In truth, the difference between
+the brains of man and the orang is almost insignificant as compared with
+the difference between those of the orang and the lowest apes. Mr. E. W.
+Taylor, who has recently made an exhaustive study of the minute anatomy
+of the brain of the chimpanzee, remarks, "The similarity between the
+brain of the anthropoid apes and of man is one of the most singular and
+interesting facts of which we have knowledge."
+
+In any attempt, then, to consider the origin of man from the point of
+view of evolution, we are irresistibly drawn to the ape tribe as the
+next lower link in the long chain of development, and are led to
+consider the characteristics of the apes as the intermediate stage
+between the quadruped and the biped, the bridge crossing this great gulf
+in organic development. This is by no means to suggest that some one of
+the existing anthropoid apes is the direct ancestor of man. Such an idea
+has never been entertained by scientists. These animals cannot even
+fairly be considered as brothers to man's ancestor, but must be looked
+upon as more or less distant cousins, with a physical organization less
+favorable to high development than that of man. Man's ancestry lies much
+farther back in time, and his progenitor must have been constituted
+differently from any of the existing large apes.
+
+In the ape tribe we are able to trace nearly every step by which the
+gulf between quadruped and biped has been crossed, from the quadrupedal
+baboon to the nearly erect gibbon. And in seeking to follow this
+development through its successive stages, the first point to be
+considered is how the apes gained their special power of grasping, that
+characteristic to which they undoubtedly owe the partial freedom of
+their hands and their tendency to assume the erect attitude.
+
+The most distinguishing characteristic of the apes and of the nearly
+related lemurs has not hitherto been definitely pointed out. This is
+that they form the only group of strictly arboreal animals. The tree is
+not alone their native habitat, but they are specially adapted to it in
+their organs of motion, a fact which cannot be affirmed of any other
+animal group. If we consider, for instance, the squirrels, one of the
+best-known groups of tree-living animals, we find them to be members of
+the great order of rodents, whose native habitat is the land surface.
+Though the squirrels have taken to the trees, there has been no adaptive
+change in the structure of their limbs and feet. The same may be said of
+almost all tree-dwellers except the lemurs and apes. The sloth, indeed,
+is specially adapted in organization to an arboreal residence, but this
+change is individual, not tribal, this animal being an aberrant form of
+the ground-dwelling edentata. In the apes and lemurs, on the contrary,
+the ground-dwellers are the aberrant forms, stray wanderers from the
+host. Nearly all the species live in trees, to which they are specially
+adapted by the formation of their feet. It remains to inquire how this
+deviation in structure arose, what were the steps of development of the
+grasping foot and hand, the special characteristic of this group.
+
+In considering this question, the first fact to appear is that the apes
+and lemurs are plantigrade animals. Their natural tendency is to walk on
+the sole of the foot, a habit which few other tribes of animals
+possess. Most of the larger animals walk on the knuckles or the toes,
+and develop claws or hoofs, but the ancestral form of the ape, ages in
+the past, was doubtless a sole-walking quadruped, its toes apparently
+provided with nails instead of claws. What the story of this very
+ancient quadruped was we are quite unable to say. It may, in the
+exigencies of existence, have come to a parting of the ways; a section
+of the group, drawn by a love of fruit, developing the climbing habit;
+the remaining section continuing on the ground and following a separate
+line of evolution. Perhaps only a single species took to the trees; for
+it is quite possible for a single form, in a new and advantageous
+habitat, to vary in time into a great number of species.
+
+Of all this we can know nothing: but of one thing we may feel assured,
+which is that the plantigrade foot is the only one that could have
+developed into a grasping organ; such a development being impossible to
+the digitigrade or the hoofed animals. One can readily see how the habit
+of walking on the sole might tend to a spreading of the toes, in order
+to obtain a wider and firmer footing. And it is equally easy to see how
+a free and wide motion in the great toe would aid in this result. The
+animal may have been at first light in weight and able to support itself
+on its unchanged foot, but as it increased in size and weight it would
+need a firmer grasp, and the final result of spreading its toes for
+this purpose may well have been the opposable great toe.
+
+It must be borne in mind, in this consideration, that the apes differ
+from the other tree-dwellers in being destitute of claws. The squirrels,
+the opossums, and other arboreal animals have sharp claws, by whose aid
+they can easily cling to the surface of the bark-covered boughs. The
+nails of the apes are incapable of affording them this service, and it
+is not easy to perceive how a foot like theirs could become adapted to
+locomotion in the trees otherwise than by the gaining of mobile action
+and grasping power in the toes.
+
+The existing habits of the ape tribe lead us to the conclusion that the
+ancestral animal may have soon begun to seek support from upper limbs.
+The plantigrade foot is one capable of readily curving into an organ of
+support, and in the case of the forefoot the toes would tend to spread
+and gain flexibility of motion, and the first toe to become opposable to
+the others and yield a more complete grasping power. It does not seem
+difficult to comprehend, from this point of view, how the feet of a
+five-toed plantigrade animal may in time have developed into grasping
+organs, since there would be required only an increased flexibility of
+the joints, and a wider and fuller movement of the great toes. That such
+a change took place in this instance the facts appear to indicate, the
+most simple and probable explanation of the development of the grasping
+power in the hands and feet of the ape being seemingly that given above.
+
+The relation of the lemurs to the apes is not clearly defined. It may be
+an ancestral one, or the two animals may represent distinct lines of
+descent. In the latter case we would have two lines of animal evolution
+in which the grasping power was gained and adaptation to arboreal life
+completed. Whatever their relationship, they both possess the opposable
+thumb as the hall-mark of their arboreal habitat, and whenever found
+walking on the ground they may be looked upon as estrays from their
+native place of residence.
+
+Once the grasping power was gained, the first step of change from the
+quadrupedal to the semi-erect attitude was completed. The process may
+have begun in the effort to fit the sole of the foot to the rounded
+surface of boughs; or its first stage may have been in the seizing of
+overhead branches with the flexible hand; or both influences may have
+acted simultaneously. We see the result only, we cannot trace the exact
+process; but we have as an outcome the adoption of a method of
+locomotion different from that of all other tree-dwellers, the forefoot
+developing into the hand with its opposable thumb, and the hindfoot
+gaining a similar grasping power in the toes.
+
+The power of walking on a lower limb and grasping an upper one once
+attained, a succeeding step in evolution quickly appeared, and one of
+prime importance to our inquiry. The animal had ceased to be in a full
+sense a quadruped, while not yet a biped, and a variation in the length
+of its limbs was almost sure to take place. This is an ordinary result
+when animals cease to walk on all fours. In the leaping kangaroo and
+jerboa a shortening of the arms and lengthening of the legs appear. Here
+the arms are relieved from duty and a double duty is laid on the legs,
+with the consequence stated. In the ancient dinosaurian reptiles,
+upright walkers, the same was the case. Those varied from quite small to
+very large animals, but in all known instances the fore limbs were
+greatly reduced in size. A similar condition may be seen in the birds,
+the bones of whose fore-limbs have largely aborted from lack of
+employment as walking organs.
+
+In the case of the apes and lemurs, while a similar effect has taken
+place, an interesting difference appears, due to the difference in
+conditions. In these animals the fore limbs are not freed from duty as
+organs of locomotion. In many cases, on the contrary, they have an extra
+duty put upon them, with the result that they have grown longer instead
+of shorter. Very likely these animals differed considerably in the past,
+as they do to-day, in the degree of use of their legs and arms. Many of
+them walk in the quadruped manner, either on the ground or in trees.
+Others make much use of their hands and arms in grasping and swinging.
+Great differences in the use of the arms and legs may have arisen in
+different species. In some, the legs may have been mainly trusted to for
+support, and the hands used for steadying. In others the arms may have
+been the chief locomotive organs and the feet have given steadiness.
+Here the legs may have grown the longer, there the arms, the limbs
+developing in accordance with their degree of employment. In the lower
+monkeys and the lemurs, the bones of the pelvis are altogether
+quadrupedal in character. This is not the case in the higher forms, and
+in the highest apes the pelvic bones approach those of man.
+
+Highly interesting examples of these varied results may be seen in the
+existing anthropoid apes. In all of them it would appear that the arm
+was a prominent factor in locomotion, for in each instance it is longer
+than the leg,--but it differs in proportional length in every instance.
+It is shortest in the chimpanzee, somewhat longer in the gorilla, still
+longer in the orang, and remarkably long in the gibbon. In all these
+instances the fact that the arms exceed the legs in length indicates
+that they must have played a large and important part in the work of
+locomotion, and especially so in the case of the gibbon. It is well
+known, in fact, that the gibbons progress very largely by the aid of
+their arms, swinging from limb to limb and from tree to tree with
+extraordinary strength and facility. The legs lend their aid in this,
+but the arms are the principal organs of motion, and seem to have
+developed in length accordingly.
+
+As regards the other anthropoid species, Wallace's observations on the
+habits of the orang are of interest. This animal usually walks on all
+fours on the branches in a semi-erect crouching attitude, but our
+naturalist saw one moving by the use of its arms alone. In passing from
+tree to tree the arms come actively into play. The animal seizes a
+handful of the overlapping boughs of the two trees and swings easily
+across the intervening space. While seeming to move very deliberately,
+its actual speed was found to be about six miles an hour.
+
+The organization of man, as he now exists, shows an interesting and
+important deviation from that of the manlike apes, and one which serves
+as strong evidence that none of these apes occupied a place in his line
+of descent. This is that he is a long-legged and short-armed animal, a
+condition the reverse of that seen in the anthropoid apes. While man's
+hands reach barely to the middle of the thigh, those of the chimpanzee
+reach below the knee, of the gorilla to the middle of the leg, of the
+orang to the ankle, and of the gibbon to the ground. All these apes have
+short legs and long arms. Man, on the contrary, has long legs and short
+arms.
+
+The natural presumption from this interesting fact is that man's
+ancestor, which we may provisionally call the man-ape, differed
+essentially in its mode of progression from the other apes. The smaller
+forms of these usually move on all fours in the trees, though the arms
+are always ready for a swing or a climb. The anthropoid apes also show a
+tendency to a similar mode of progression, though with a difference in
+their mode of walking, which, as we shall see later on, is never that of
+the quadruped. As for the man-ape, it may have originally walked in the
+same manner as the related species, if we surmise that the variation in
+the length of the limbs was a subsequent development. Certainly after
+its limbs attained the proportions of those of man, its facility of
+swinging from tree to tree must have been diminished, while it would
+have found it inconvenient to move in the crouching attitude of the
+orang and its fellows. Its easiest attitude must then have been the
+erect one, and its motion a true biped walk, not the swinging and
+jumping movement of the other anthropoids. In short, the development of
+man's ancestor into a short-armed animal, however and whenever it took
+place, could not but have interfered seriously with its ease of motion
+in the trees. Though this change may have begun in the trees, it
+probably had its full development only after the animal made the ground
+its habitual place of residence.
+
+It is of interest to find that all the existing large apes are
+arboreal, the gorilla being the least so, probably on account of its
+weight. Though they all descend at times to the ground, their awkward
+motion on the surface shows them to be out of their element, while they
+move with ease and rapidity in the trees. The organization of man
+renders it questionable if his primeval ancestor was arboreal to any
+similar extent. The indications would seem to be that it made the ground
+its habitual place of residence at an early period in its history, and
+that the result of this new habit and of its erect attitude was a change
+in the relative length of its limbs.
+
+That this animal dwelt mainly in trees in the first stage of its
+existence, and possessed a powerful grasping power in its hands, we have
+corroborative evidence in recent studies of child life. The human
+infant, in its earliest days of life, displays a remarkable grasping
+power, being able to sustain its weight with its hands for a number of
+seconds, or a minute or more, at an age when its other muscles are
+flabby and powerless. It appears in this to repeat a habit normal to the
+ancestral infant, an instinct developed to prevent a fall from its home
+among the boughs.
+
+Yet it is doubtful if the man-ape long remained a specially arboreal
+animal. The varied length of arm in the anthropoid apes was doubtless of
+early origin, and in all probability man's ancestor had originally a
+shorter arm than its related species. If so, this must have rendered it
+less agile in trees than other forms. If we could see this ancient
+creature in its arboreal home, we should probably find it more inclined
+to stand erect than the other apes, walking on a lower limb, and
+steadying itself by grasping an upper limb. This would be a more natural
+and easy mode of progression to a short-armed animal than the crouching
+attitude of the orang or the swinging motion of the gibbon, and its
+effect would be to make the erect attitude to a large extent habitual
+with this animal.
+
+In short, man's ancestor may have become in considerable measure a biped
+while still largely a dweller in the trees, and to that degree set its
+arms free for other duties than that of locomotion. Like the other apes,
+it probably often descended to the ground, where its habit of walking
+erect on the boughs rendered the biped walk an easy one, or where this
+habit may have been originally acquired. While this is conjectural, it
+is supported by facts of organization and existing habit, and for the
+reasons given it seems highly probable that the ancestor of man took to
+a land residence at an early period in its history, climbing again for
+food or safety, but dwelling more and more habitually on the earth's
+surface. Even at this remote era it may have become essentially human in
+organization, its subsequent changes being mainly in brain development,
+and only to a minor extent in physical form and structure.
+
+Fossil apes have not been found farther back than the Miocene Age of
+geology. It is quite probable, however, that they may yet be found in
+Eocene strata, since examples of their highest representatives, the
+anthropoid or manlike apes, have been found in Miocene rocks. The fact
+that these large apes are now few in number of species, is no proof that
+many forms of them may not have formerly existed, and among these we may
+class the ancestor of man.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+THE FREEDOM OF THE ARMS
+
+
+Man's ancestor is by no means the only form of ape that has made the
+earth's surface its place of residence. The baboon is one example of a
+number of forms that dwell habitually upon the ground, though they have
+not lost their agility in climbing. But these species have returned to
+the quadruped habit, to which the equal length of their limbs adapts
+them. All the anthropoid apes dwell to some extent upon the ground, but
+these can neither be called quadrupeds nor bipeds, their usual mode of
+progression being an awkward compromise between the two. The same may be
+said of one of the lemurs, the propithecus, the only member of its tribe
+that attempts to move in the erect attitude. It does not walk, however,
+but progresses by a series of jumps, its arms being held erect, as if
+for balancing.
+
+Of the apes, though many can stand upright, the gibbon is the only one
+that attempts to walk in this position. This is a true walk, though not
+a very graceful one. The animal maintains a fairly upright posture, but
+walks with a waddling motion, its body rocking from side to side. Its
+soles are placed flat on the ground, with the great toes spread
+outward. Its arms either hang loosely by its side, are crossed over its
+head, or are held aloft, swaying like balancing poles and ready to seize
+any overhead support. Its walk is quickly changed to a different motion
+if any occasion for haste arises. At once its long arms are dropped to
+the ground, the knuckles closed, and it progresses by a swinging or
+leaping motion, the body remaining nearly erect, but being swung between
+the arms.
+
+None of the other anthropoid apes ever walk erect, though they assume at
+times the upright posture. But though they use all their limbs as
+walking organs, they show no tendency to revert to the habit of the
+quadrupeds. Their motion is like that of the gibbon when in haste, a
+series of jumps or swings between the supporting arms. The shortness of
+their arms, however, prevents them from standing erect, like the gibbon,
+in doing this; and they bend forward to a degree depending on the length
+of their arms, the chimpanzee the most, the orang the least.
+
+As a rule, the flat sole of the foot is set on the ground, with the toes
+extended, as in man, but the toes are sometimes doubled under in
+walking. The orang rarely touches the ground with the sole or the closed
+toes, but walks on the outer edge of the foot, the feet being bent
+inward as if clasping the rounded sides of a bough. The other species
+have a tendency in the same direction, the legs being bowed and the
+gait rolling. In using the hands in walking, the closed knuckles are
+usually placed on the ground, though occasionally the open palm is
+employed. The whole movement of these animals is strikingly awkward, and
+goes to indicate that there can be no satisfactory compromise between
+life in the tree and on the ground.
+
+The significant fact in these attempts to walk is that none of the
+anthropoid apes show any inclination to revert to the quadruped habit.
+Their attitude is in all cases an approach toward the erect one, which
+posture is attained by the gibbon. The arms are used not as walking but
+as swinging organs. Evidently their mode of life in the trees has
+overcome all tendency toward the quadruped motion in these apes and
+developed a tendency toward the biped. But none of them have gained the
+muscular development of the leg known as the calf, nor an adjustment of
+the joints to the erect attitude, since none but the gibbon walks erect,
+and it does so only at occasional intervals.
+
+The conclusion to be derived from all this is that the man-ape was in
+its early days much more truly a biped than are any of the species
+named. Like them, it had no tendency to revert to the quadruped habit.
+The shortness of its arms was unsuited to this, while rendering it
+impossible for the animal to progress in the semi-erect, swinging
+fashion of the other anthropoid apes. As a result of its bodily
+formation, it may have begun to walk erect at a very remote date, with
+a consequent straightening of the joints and muscular development of the
+legs. When this condition was fully attained, it was practically a man
+in physical conformation, though mentally still an ape, and with a long
+development of the brain to pass through before it could reach the human
+level of mind.
+
+The far-reaching conclusions here reached are all based on one important
+fact, the shortness of man's arms as compared with the disproportionate
+length of arm in the anthropoid apes. This, for the reasons given,
+rendered the adaptation of the man-ape to life in the trees inferior to
+that of the long-armed apes; while, as has just been said, it unfitted
+it to walk on the ground either as a quadruped or in the jumping method
+of its fellow anthropoids. In short, the biped attitude was much the
+best suited to its organization and the one it was most likely to
+assume. This once adopted as its habitual posture, efficiency in walking
+would be gained by practice.
+
+When once this animal became a ground walker, its facility of motion in
+the trees was in a measure lost. When the feet became accustomed to the
+flat surface of the ground, they became less capable of grasping the
+rounded surface of the bough. Fitness to the one situation entailed loss
+of fitness to the other. The feet of the apes can clasp the bough
+firmly, by curving around its opposite sloping sides, and to this these
+animals doubtless owe their bowed legs and their disposition to walk on
+the outer edge of the foot. This disposition the man-ape lost as its
+foot fitted itself to the surface of the ground. It was probably
+retained in a measure by the young, after it had been lost by the mature
+form, and is still manifested in the position of the foot in the human
+embryo.
+
+These considerations bring us to an important question: Why did the
+man-ape gain a length of arm not the best suited to its arboreal
+habitat? Why, in fact, do changes in physical structure ever take place?
+How does an animal succeed in passing from one mode of life to another,
+when during the transition period it is imperfectly adapted to either,
+and therefore at a seeming disadvantage in the struggle for existence?
+The study of animal development has given rise to certain difficult
+problems of this character, some of which have been solved by showing
+that the supposed disadvantage did not arise, or that it was balanced by
+some equal advantage. In this way a considerable gap in life conditions
+has perhaps occasionally been crossed. Small gaps have doubtless been
+frequently passed over in the same manner.
+
+In the case of the anthropoid apes, we perceive a considerable variation
+in the length of the arms, from the very long arms of the gibbon to the
+comparatively short ones of the chimpanzee. These differences are
+probably the result of some difference in their life habits, and accord
+with the possibility of a still shorter arm in the man-ape. There is,
+however, some reason to believe, as we shall show later on, that the arm
+of this animal was longer and the leg shorter than in man himself, their
+comparative length perhaps not differing greatly from that of the
+chimpanzee. Aside from all other considerations, the use of the legs as
+the sole organs of locomotion could not well fail to produce this
+result, the legs growing longer and stronger in consequence of the
+increased duty laid upon them, and the arms growing shorter and weaker
+through their release from duty in locomotion. The case does not differ
+in character from those of the dinosauria and the kangaroos, in both of
+which instances a release of the arms from duty in walking was followed
+by a considerable decrease in length and strength, while the legs grew
+proportionally stronger.
+
+If any disadvantage attended the shortening of the arms of the man-ape,
+to the extent that this may have taken place in the tree, it was
+probably correlated with some advantage. In the various instances of
+short-armed animals cited this appears to have been the case, and it was
+probably so in man's ancestral form. While the hands continued useful in
+grasping and enabling the animal to maintain its place on the boughs,
+they may have been gradually diverted to some other service, with the
+result that the animal found the tree less desirable than before as a
+place of residence and sought the ground instead. This would be
+particularly the case if the new duty was one best exercised upon the
+ground.
+
+Shall we offer a suggestion as to this new use? Such changes are usually
+the result of some change of habit in the animal, frequently one that
+has to do with its food. Change of diet or of the mode of obtaining food
+is the most potent influencing cause of change of habit in animals, and
+the one that first calls for consideration.
+
+The apes are frugivorous animals, though not exclusively so. Carnivorous
+tendencies are displayed by many of them. They rob birds' nests of their
+eggs and young, they capture and devour snakes and other small animals.
+In zooelogical gardens monkeys are often observed to catch and eat mice.
+It is evident that many of them might readily become carnivorous to a
+large extent under suitable conditions. The large apes are usually
+frugivorous, but some of them eat animal food. This is the case with
+both the chimpanzee and the gorilla. The latter, while living usually on
+fruit and often making havoc in the sugar-cane plantations and
+rice-fields of the natives, also eats birds and their eggs, small
+mammals and reptiles, and is said to devour large animals when found
+dead, though it does not attempt to kill them for food. The young
+gorilla which was kept in captivity at Berlin became quite omnivorous in
+its diet.
+
+With all this readiness to eat animal food, none of the existing apes
+are carnivorous to any large extent, but the fact of this inclination
+makes it not improbable that some of the apes of the past may have been
+much more so. It is quite within the limits of probability, for
+instance, that the man-ape at an early date became omnivorous in its
+diet. Its change in structure may well have been the result of a decided
+change in diet, such as that from fruit to flesh food. Such a radical
+change as that from vegetable to animal food would certainly demand a
+more active employment of the arms as agents in capture. Fruits and nuts
+wait to be pulled; animals must be caught before they can be eaten. The
+former is an easy matter to an arboreal animal; the latter might prove a
+difficult one, especially if large animals were to be captured.
+
+In short, the pursuit and capture of any of the larger animals for prey
+could not fail to modify to a great degree the use of the arms. Their
+employment in locomotion would interfere seriously with their utility in
+this direction. To succeed in capturing nimble prey by an animal with
+the ape form of hands a considerable freedom of the arms would be
+necessary, and the feet would have to be mainly, if not wholly, depended
+upon for motion. The ape has not the sharp claws of the carnivora with
+which to seize and hold its prey. It must have been obliged to use its
+palms for this purpose, and this it could not well have done unless they
+were free in their action.
+
+It is conceivable, indeed, that the man-ape may have run down its prey,
+or sprung upon it from covert, and seized it with the hands, but there
+is good reason to believe that this was not its mode of capture. The
+organization of the ape tribe gives it a characteristic action which is
+not to be found in any other group of the vast animal kingdom, that of
+handling and throwing missiles. In this it necessarily stands alone,
+since no other animal has a grasping palm. The power is one of prime
+importance, for without it we cannot perceive how man could ever have
+emerged from the general animal kingdom. The use of missiles is by no
+means uncommon with the monkeys. We cannot safely accept the story that
+American monkeys will throw cocoanuts from tree-tops at those who hurl
+stones at them from below, from the fact that the cocoanut seems too
+heavy and too firmly fixed to its support for the strength of those
+small species, but it is not uncommon for them to throw lighter objects.
+Yet in doing this they usually seem to have no idea of aim, but toss the
+missile aimlessly into the air. Of the large apes, the orang will break
+off branches and fling them at its tormentors, or will throw the thick
+husks of the durian fruit, but with similar lack of aim. The most
+skilful in this exercise are some species of baboons, which can hurl
+branches, stones, or hard clods with much dexterity.
+
+It is of interest to find existing apes availing themselves of their
+grasping power in this manner, since it leads us irresistibly to the
+conclusion that the man-ape may have done the same thing. The species
+which use missiles fail to take aim for two reasons, one that they
+employ them only occasionally, often in imitation of human action, the
+other that their arms are ill suited to this motion from their constant
+employment in another duty. In the case of the man-ape we may justly
+look for a more effective result, since if the arms became relieved from
+duty in locomotion they were free to gain facility of action in other
+directions.
+
+If in addition to this the man-ape began to use missiles with a definite
+purpose in view, that of striking down animal prey, so that the use of
+such weapons became habitual instead of occasional, it would soon gain
+some power of aim and a growing strength and skill in the throwing
+motion. It is quite probable, also, that an early use of weapons was in
+the form of clubs, which were retained in the grasp to strike down the
+prey when overtaken. In this case, we may imagine our primitive biped
+running swiftly after its prey, club in hand, striking at it when within
+reach; or, if it should prove too swift, hurling the club or a stone
+through the air with the hope of bringing it down in this manner. Such a
+flinging action, if now and then successful, would be likely soon to
+become habitual; while the arm would grow accustomed to this new motion,
+and attain skill in taking aim. We may reasonably infer, also, that the
+club would be used for defence as well as for offence, in case the
+man-ape were in its turn pursued by larger animals. Instead of fleeing
+to the nearest tree, it might now stand its ground and beat off its
+enemy.
+
+All must admit the probability, in a large tribe of animals with
+grasping power in their hands, and in the habit of using missiles
+occasionally, of one or more species coming to use them habitually. All
+the anthropoid apes are certainly intelligent enough to do this, if it
+should prove advantageous to them. Its principal advantage, however,
+would seem to be to a species that became largely carnivorous and needed
+to capture running or flying prey.
+
+The habit of using implements is one of supreme importance in animal
+evolution. To it we owe man as he exists to-day. While animals confined
+themselves to their natural weapons of teeth and claws, their
+development must have remained a very slow one and been confined within
+narrow limits. When they once began to add to their natural powers those
+of surrounding nature, by the use of artificial weapons, the first step
+in a new and illimitable range of evolution was taken. From that day to
+this, man has been occupied in unfolding this method, and has advanced
+enormously beyond his primal state. A crude and simple use of weapons
+gave him, in time, supremacy over all the lower animals. An advanced use
+of weapons and tools has given him, in a measure, supremacy over nature
+herself, and raised him to a stage almost infinitely beyond that of the
+animal which trusts solely to teeth and claws.
+
+So far as we know, only one of the innumerable species of animals
+attained this development; unless, indeed, the various races of men had
+more than one ape ancestor. For the appearance of man there became
+necessary, first, the development of an order of animals with power of
+grasp in their hands; and, second, the development of one or more biped
+species, with hands freed from duty as walking organs and capable of use
+in other directions. A third necessity was very probably the exchange of
+the frugivorous for the carnivorous habit, which would act as a
+predisposing agency in inducing the animal to desert the tree for the
+ground, and to employ weapons in the chase. The final result of all this
+would be an erect, walking, and running animal, with arms and hands
+quite free from their old duty, except during an occasional return to
+the tree, and with the necessary straightening of joints and development
+of supporting muscles.
+
+What has been advanced above is, no doubt, largely a series of
+assumptions and conjectures, few of which are sustained by known facts.
+But as the matter stands, no other method of dealing with it can be
+adopted, since the facts in the case have in great part vanished. What
+we know positively is that man exists, and that in physical structure
+he is very closely related to the anthropoid apes. What we have
+excellent reason to feel assured of is that man has descended from the
+lower animals, and in all probability from an ape-like ancestor. We know
+that one or more species of anthropoid apes have become extinct, and can
+reasonably conjecture that one ancient species became modified into the
+form of man. We know that human remains have been found that, to some
+small extent, fill the gap between man and the ape. Correlative evidence
+exists in the variations in length of limb in the existing anthropoids,
+their efforts to walk upright, their varied degree of dependence upon
+the arms for locomotion, and the occasional use of missiles by these and
+lower forms. To these may be added the carnivorous tastes shown by many
+members of the ape family, with the indication that more decided
+carnivorous habits might readily be assumed.
+
+Taking the stand that such a partly carnivorous anthropoid ape, biped in
+structure, appeared and made the ground its usual place of residence, we
+find ourselves on the direct trail of man. Long ago as this may have
+been, and far and difficult as was the journey to be made, the way was
+thenceforth straight and well-defined. Such an animal, living largely on
+animal food, and using weapons superior to its natural ones in the
+capture of prey, was essentially a man, however low may still have been
+its level of intelligence. Its feet were firmly fixed upon the upward
+track, and only time and stress of circumstance were needed to carry it
+upward to the high level of civilized man.
+
+We may, indeed, go further than this. We are in a measure justified in
+saying what this man-ape was like, this creature which had left its
+early home in the trees and began to walk upright upon the earth,
+pursuing the larger animals and capturing them for food. It was probably
+much smaller than existing man, little if any more than four feet in
+height and not more than half the weight of man. Its body was covered,
+though not profusely, with hair, the hair of the head being woolly or
+frizzly in texture, and the face provided with a beard. The complexion
+was not jet black, like the typical negro, but of a dull brown hue, the
+hair being somewhat similar in color. The arms were lank and rather
+long, the back much curved, the chest flat and narrow, the abdomen
+protruding, the legs rather short and bowed, the walk a waddling motion,
+somewhat like that of the gibbon. It had small, deep-set eyes, greatly
+protruding mouth with gaping lips, huge ears, and in general a very
+ape-like aspect. Our warrant for this description of man's ancestor must
+be left for a later portion of our work. We shall only say here that it
+is based on known fact, not on fancy.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
+
+
+The full adoption of the erect attitude gave the ancestor of man an
+immense motor supremacy over the lower animals, for it completely
+released his fore limbs from duty as organs of support and set them free
+for new and superior purposes. In all the animal kingdom below man there
+exists but a single form that emulates him in this possession of a
+grasping organ which takes no part in walking or in other modes of
+locomotion. This is the elephant, whose nose and upper lip have
+developed into an enormous and highly flexible trunk, with delicate
+grasping powers. The possession of this organ may have had much to do
+with the intellectual acumen of the elephant. Yet it is far inferior in
+its powers to the arm and hand of man; while the form, size, and food of
+the elephant stand in the way of the progress which might have been made
+by an animal possessed of such an organ in connection with a better
+suited bodily structure.
+
+For a period of many millions of years the world of vertebrate life
+continued quadrupedal, or where a variation from this structure took
+place the fore limbs remained to a large extent organs of locomotion.
+Finally a true biped appeared. For a period of equal duration the mental
+progress of animals was exceedingly slow. Then, with almost startling
+suddenness, a highly intellectual animal appeared. Thus the coming of
+man indicated, in two directions, an extraordinary deviation from the
+ordinary course of animal development. Both physically and mentally
+evolution seemed to take an enormous leap, instead of proceeding by its
+usual minute steps, and in the advent of man we have a phenomenon
+remarkable alike in the development of the body and the mind.
+
+So far our attention has been directed to the evolution of the human
+body, now we must consider that of the human mind. In seeking through
+the animal kingdom for the probable ancestor of man in his bodily
+aspect, we were drawn irresistibly to the ape tribe, as the only one
+that made any near approach to him in structure. In considering the case
+from the point of view of mental development we find a similar
+irresistible drawing toward the apes, as the most spontaneously
+intelligent of the mammalia. While many of the lower animals are capable
+of being taught, the ape stands nearly alone in the power of thinking
+for itself, the characteristic of self-education.
+
+Innumerable testimonials could be quoted from observers in evidence of
+the superior mental powers of the apes. Hartmann says of them that
+"their intelligence sets them high above other mammals," and Romanes
+that they "certainly surpass all other animals in the scope of their
+rational faculty." It is scarcely necessary here to give extended
+examples of ape intelligence. Hundreds of instances are on record, many
+of them showing remarkable powers of reasoning for one of the lower
+animals. The ape, it is true, is not alone in its teachableness. Nearly
+all the domestic animals can be taught, the dog and the elephant to a
+considerable degree. And evidences of reasoning out some subject for
+themselves now and then appear in the domesticated species; but these
+are rare instances, not frequent acts as in the case of the apes.
+
+The apes, indeed, rarely need teaching. They observe and imitate to an
+extent far beyond that displayed by any others of the lower animals, and
+the more remarkable from the fact that in nearly every instance the
+animals concerned began life in the wild state, and had none of the
+advantages of hereditary influence possessed by the domesticated dog and
+horse. Among the most interesting examples of spontaneous acts of
+intelligence of the ape tribe are those related by Romanes, in his
+"Animal Intelligence," of the doings of a cebus monkey, which he kept
+for several months under close observation in his own house. Instead of
+selecting general examples of ape actions, we may cite some of the
+doings of this intelligent creature.
+
+The cebus did not wait to be shown how to do things, but was an adept in
+devising ways to do them himself. He had the monkey love of mischief
+well developed, and not much that was breakable came whole from his
+hands. When he could not break an egg cup by dashing it to the ground,
+he hammered it on the post of a brass bedstead until it was in
+fragments. In breaking a stick, he would pass it down between a heavy
+object and the wall, and break it by hanging on its end. In destroying
+an article of dress, he would begin by carefully pulling out the
+threads, and afterward tear it to pieces with his teeth. His nuts he
+broke with a hammer precisely as a man would have done and without being
+shown its use. Ridicule was not pleasant to him; he strongly resented
+being laughed at, and would throw anything within reach at his tormentor
+and with a skill and force not usual with monkeys. Taking the missile in
+both hands and standing erect, he would extend his long arms behind his
+back and hurl the article by bringing them forcibly forward.
+
+If any object he wanted was too far away to reach, he would draw it
+toward him with a stick. Failing in this, he was observed to throw a
+shawl back over his head, and then fling it forward with all his
+strength, holding it by two corners. When it fell over the object, he
+brought this within reach by drawing in the shawl. In his gyrations,
+the chain by which he was fastened often became twisted around some
+object. He would now examine it intently, pulling it in opposite ways
+with his fingers until he had discovered how the turns ran. This done,
+he would carefully reverse his motions until the chain was quite
+disentangled.
+
+The most striking act of intelligence told of this creature was his
+dealings with a hearth-brush which fell into his hands, and of which the
+handle screwed into the brush. It took him no long time to find out how
+to unscrew the handle. When this was achieved, he at once began to try
+and screw it in again. In doing so he showed great ingenuity. At first
+he put the wrong end of the handle into the hole, and turned it round
+and round in the right direction for screwing. Finding this would not
+work, he took it out and tried the other end, always turning in the
+right direction. It was a difficult feat to perform, as he had to turn
+the screw with both hands, while the flexible bristles of the brush
+prevented it from remaining steady. To aid his operations he now held
+the brush with one foot, while turning with both hands. It was still
+difficult to make the first turn of the screw, but he worked on with
+untiring perseverance until he got the thread to catch, and then screwed
+it in to the end. The remarkable thing was that he never tried to turn
+the handle in the wrong direction, but always screwed it from left to
+right, as if he knew that he must reverse the original motion. The feat
+accomplished, he repeated it, and continued to do so until he could
+perform it easily. Then he threw the brush aside, apparently taking no
+more interest in that over which he had worked so persistently. No man
+could have devoted himself more earnestly to learn some new art, and
+become more indifferent to it when once learned. These are a few only of
+the many acts of intelligence observed by Mr. Romanes in the doings of
+this animal. They will suffice as examples of what we mean by
+spontaneous intelligence. The cebus did not need to be shown how to do
+things; it worked them out for itself much as a man would have done,
+performing acts of an intricacy far beyond any ever observed in other
+classes of animals in captivity. It may be said further that the
+displays of spontaneous intelligence shown by dogs, cats, and similar
+animals have usually been intended in some way for the advantage of the
+animal; few or none are on record which indicate a mere desire to know
+without ulterior advantage; no persevering effort, like that with the
+brush, which is purely an instance of self-instruction.
+
+Examples of intelligence of this advanced character could be cited from
+observation of monkeys of various species. The anthropoid apes have not
+been brought to any large extent under observation, but are notable for
+their intelligence in captivity. It is not easy to observe them in a
+state of nature, and nearly all we know is that the orang makes itself
+a nightly bed of branches broken off and carefully laid together, and is
+said to cover itself in bed with large leaves, if the weather is wet.
+The chimpanzee has a similar habit, and the gorilla is said to build
+itself a nest in which the female and the young sleep, the old male
+resting at the foot of the tree, on guard against their dangerous foe,
+the leopard.
+
+It is the young animals of these species which are the most social and
+docile and most approach man in appearance. As they grow older, their
+specific characters become more marked. Fierce and sullen as is the old
+gorilla, the young of this species is playful and affectionate in
+captivity and is given to mischievous tricks. The one that was kept for
+a time in Berlin showed much good-nature, playfulness, and intelligence,
+and some degree of monkey mischievousness. It was very cunning in
+carrying out its plans, particularly in stealing sugar, of which it was
+very fond.
+
+The chief examples of anthropoid intelligence are told of the
+chimpanzee, which has been most frequently kept in captivity. It is
+usually lively and good-tempered and is very teachable. Some of the
+stories of its intelligence may be apocryphal, as those told by Captain
+Grandpre of a chimpanzee which performed all the duties of a sailor on
+board ship, and of one that would heat the oven for a baker and inform
+him when it was of the right temperature. But there are authenticated
+stories of chimpanzee intelligence which give it a high standing in
+this respect among the lower animals.
+
+The emotional nature of the ape is also highly developed. It displays an
+affection equal to that of the dog, and a sympathy surpassing that of
+any other animal below man. The feeling displayed by monkeys for others
+of their kind in pain is of the most affecting nature, and Brehm relates
+that in the monkeys of certain species kept under confinement by him in
+Africa, the grief of the females for the loss of their young was so
+intense as to cause their death. More than once an ardent hunter has
+seen such examples of tender solicitude among monkeys for the wounded
+and of grief for the dead as to resolve never to fire at one of the race
+again.
+
+James Forbes, in his "Oriental Memoirs," relates a striking instance of
+this kind. One of a shooting party had killed a female monkey in a
+banian tree, and carried it to his tent. Forty or fifty of the tribe
+soon gathered around the tent, chattering furiously and threatening an
+attack, from which they were only diverted by the display of the
+fowling-piece, whose effects they seemed perfectly to understand. But
+while the others retreated, the leader of the troop stood his ground,
+continuing his threatening chatter. Finding this of no avail, he came to
+the door of the tent, moaning sadly, and by his gestures seeming to beg
+for the dead body. When it was given, he took it sorrowfully up in his
+arms and carried it away to the waiting troop. That hunter never shot a
+monkey again.
+
+This deep feeling for the dead is probably not common among monkeys. The
+gibbon, for instance, is said to take no notice of the dead. It is,
+however, highly sympathetic to injured and sick companions, and this
+feeling seems common to all the apes. No human being could show more
+tender care of wounded or helpless companions than has often been seen
+in members of this affectionate tribe of animals.
+
+Without giving further examples of the intelligence and sympathy of the
+apes, we may say that they possess in a marked degree the mental powers
+to which man owes so much, viz. observation and imitation. The ape is
+the most curious of the lower animals--that is, it possesses the faculty
+of observation in an unusual degree. What we call curiosity in the ape
+is the basic form of the characteristic which we call attention or
+observation in man. Its seeming great activity in the ape is what might
+naturally be expected in an observant animal when removed from its
+natural habitat to a location where all around it is new and strange.
+Man under like circumstances is as curious as the ape, while the latter
+in its native trees probably finds little to excite its special
+attention. In both man and the ape it needs novelty to excite curiosity.
+
+Again, the ape is imitative in a high degree. This faculty also it does
+not share with the lower animals, but does with man, imitation being
+one of the methods by which he has attained his supremacy. Observation,
+imitation, education, are the three levers in the development of the
+human intellect. The first two of these the ape possesses in a marked
+degree. It is susceptible also to the last, being very teachable.
+Education certainly exists to some extent among the apes in their
+natural habitat, perhaps to as great an extent as it did in primitive
+man. In the latter case it is doubtful if there was much that could be
+called designed education, the young gaining their degree of knowledge by
+observing and imitating their elders. The same is certainly the case
+among the apes.
+
+We may reasonably ask what there is in the life and character of the
+apes to give them this mental superiority over the remaining lower
+animals. It is certainly not due to the arboreal life and powers of
+grasp of these animals, for in those respects they resemble the lemurs,
+which are greatly lacking in intelligence. Whether the monkeys emerged
+from the lemurs or the two groups developed side by side is a question
+as yet unsettled; at all events they are closely similar in conditions
+of existence. Yet while the monkeys are the most intelligent and
+teachable of animals, the lemurs are among the least intelligent of the
+mammalia. There is here a marked distinction which is evidently not due
+to difference of structure or habitat, and must have its origin in some
+other characteristic, such as difference in life habits.
+
+There is certainly nothing in the diet of the ape to develop
+intelligence. The frugivorous and herbivorous animals do not need
+cunning and shrewdness to anything like the extent necessary in
+carnivorous animals. They do not need to pursue or lie in wait for prey;
+and they escape from their enemies mainly through strength, speed,
+concealment, or other physical powers or methods. Escape may
+occasionally develop mental alertness, but does not usually do so.
+Certainly if the alert, watchful, suspicious habits of the apes are due
+to the requisite of avoiding dangerous enemies, we might naturally look
+for similar habits in the lemurs, which are similarly situated. And if
+we consider the wide distribution of the apes throughout the tropics of
+both hemispheres, and their great diversity in species and condition, it
+seems very unlikely that in all these localities their relations with
+other animals would be such as to develop the mental alertness which
+they so generally display. The fact appears to be that, while this may
+be a cause, it is not a leading cause, of mental development in animals,
+and that we must seek elsewhere for the origin of animal intelligence.
+
+Research, indeed, leads us to examples of intelligence where we should
+least expect to find it. Among the mammalia we perceive one marked
+example in the beavers, the only one in the great class of the rodents,
+with their nine hundred or more of species. But we must go still lower,
+to the insects, for the most striking examples, finding them alone in
+the ants, the bees, and the termites, among the vast multitude of insect
+forms. Less marked instances appear in the elephants, in some of the
+birds, and in certain other gregarious animals.
+
+From these examples, and what is elsewhere known of animal intelligence,
+one broad conclusion may be drawn, that all the strikingly intelligent
+animals are strongly social in their habits, and that no decided display
+of intelligence is to be found among solitary species. This conclusion
+becomes almost a demonstration in the case of the ants and bees. The
+ants, for instance, comprise hundreds of species, spread over most of
+the world, mainly social, but occasionally solitary. The social species,
+while varying greatly in habit, all display powers of intelligence, and
+these so diversified as to indicate many separate lines of evolution.
+The solitary ants, on the contrary, manifest no special intelligence,
+and do not rise above the general insect level. The same may be said of
+the bees. The hive bee, the most communal in habit, shows the highest
+traits of intelligent activity. The bees which form smaller groups and
+the social wasps stand at a lower level, and the solitary bees and wasps
+sink to the ordinary insect plane. We arrive at like conclusions from
+observation of the social termites, or white ants, some species of
+which are remarkable for their intelligent cooeperation and division of
+duties.
+
+Examples similar in kind may be drawn from the vertebrates. Among the
+birds there are none more quick-witted than the social crows, none with
+less display of intelligence than the solitary carnivorous species.
+Birds are rather gregarious than social. There are few species whose
+association is above that of mere aggregation in flight. Those more
+distinctively social usually have special habits which indicate
+intelligence--as in the often cited instances of their seemingly trying
+and executing delinquents. Among the carnivorous mammals the social dog
+or wolf tribe displays the intelligent habit of mutual aid. The horses,
+oxen, deer, and other gregarious hoofed animals have a degree of
+division of duties, but their intelligence is of a lower grade than that
+of the dogs and the elephants. On the whole, it may be affirmed that the
+social habit is frequently accompanied by instances of special
+intelligence to which we find no counterpart among the solitary forms,
+and that the highest manifestations of intelligence in the lower animals
+are found in those forms which possess communal habits, as the ants,
+bees, termites, and beavers.
+
+One important characteristic of the communal animals is that they become
+mentally specialized. They round up their powers, build barriers of
+habit over which they cannot pass, perform the same acts with such
+interminable iteration that what began as intellect sinks back into
+instinct. Each individual has fixed duties and is confined within a
+limited circle of acts, whose scope it cannot pass, or only to the
+minutest extent.
+
+The non-communal social animals, on the contrary, are not thus
+restricted. Their intelligence is of a generalized character, and is
+capable of developing in new channels. None are tied down to special
+duties, each possesses the full powers of all, and they are thus more
+open to a continued growth of the intellect than the communal forms. To
+this class belongs the ape. Its intelligence is general, not special;
+broadly capable of development, not narrowed and bound in by the
+limitation of certain fixed and special duties.
+
+The suggestions above offered point to three grades of community among
+animals, which may be designated the communal, the social, and the
+solitary. Among these there are, of course, many stages of transition
+from one to the other. The specially communal, including the ants, bees,
+termites, and beavers, are those in which there is almost a total loss
+of individuality, each member working for the good of the community as a
+unit, not for its personal advantage. The result consists in organized
+industries, division and specialization of duties, a common home, food
+stock, etc. At a lower level in animal life, that of the hydroid polyps,
+communism has become so complete that the community has grown into an
+actual individual, the members not being free, but acting as organs of
+an aggregate mass, in which each performs some special duty for the good
+of the community.
+
+The social animals differ from the communal in that the individuality of
+the members is fully preserved. There is some measure of work for the
+group, some degree of mutual aid, some evidence of leadership and
+subordination, but these are confined to a few exigencies of life, while
+in most of the details of existence each member of the group acts for
+itself. The solitary animals are those which do not form groups larger
+than that of the family, and into whose life the principle of mutual
+aid, outside the immediate family relations, does not enter. Each acts
+for itself alone, and intercourse between the individuals of the species
+is greatly restricted.
+
+The advantages of social habits among animals are evident. There is
+excellent reason to believe that all animals, and especially such
+advanced forms as the vertebrates and the higher arthropods, have some
+power of mental development, some facility in devising new methods of
+action to meet new situations. Though their reasoning power may be
+small, it is not quite lacking, and many examples of the exercise of the
+faculty of thought could be cited if necessary.
+
+What we are here concerned with, is the final result of such exercises
+of individual thought powers. In the case of the solitary forms, such
+new conceptions die with the individual. Though they may exert an
+influence on the development of the nervous system, and aid in the
+hereditary transmission of more active brain powers, they are lost as
+special ideas, fail to be taken up and repeated by other members of the
+species. This is not the case with the social animals. Each of these has
+some faculty of observation and some tendency to imitation, and useful
+steps of advance made by individuals are likely to be observed and
+retained as general habits of the community. Anything of importance that
+is gained may be preserved by educative influences. The facility of
+mental communication between these creatures is perhaps much greater
+than is generally supposed, and acts of importance which are not
+directly observed might in many cases be transmitted through repetition
+for the benefit of the group. We know this to be the main agency in
+human progress. New ideas are of rare occurrence with man. Ideas of
+permanent value do not occur to one per cent., perhaps not to one
+hundredth of one per cent., of civilized mankind, yet few of such ideas
+are lost, and that which has proved of advantage to an individual soon
+becomes the common possession of a community.
+
+Among the lower animals new and advantageous ideas are probably of
+exceedingly rare occurrence. When they do occur, their advantage to
+solitary forms is very slight, being that of minute steps of brain
+development and hereditary transmission of the same. To social forms
+they are doubly advantageous, since, while they tend to brain
+development, they may also be preserved in their original form, and
+transmitted directly to members of the group. They are still more
+advantageous to the communal animals, from the closer intercourse of
+these, and their constant association in acts of mutual aid. But in the
+latter instance their influence is usually exerted for the benefit of
+the community as a unit, while in the case of social animals it is of
+advantage to the individual.
+
+The result of such a process of evolution in the case of the communal
+animals is a strict specialism. A series of acts of advantage to the
+community are slowly developed, and are repeated so frequently that they
+become instinctive, while a fixed circle of duties arises, through whose
+links it is almost impossible to break. There is no reason to believe
+that the individual initiative is wanting. The varied round of duties of
+a community of ants, for instance, could only have arisen through step
+after step of progress from the condition of the solitary ants. If such
+steps have been made, others may be made, and are likely to be preserved
+if found advantageous. The ant individual preserves its powers of
+observation and thought and may initiate new processes. But most of the
+ant communities are already so excellently adapted to the conditions of
+their life as to leave little opportunity for improvement, so that the
+adoption of new and advantageous habits are certain to be exceedingly
+rare.
+
+It is an interesting fact that communalism has been confined to animals
+of comparatively low organization. The most complete examples of it
+exist in the polyps and some other low forms, in which each community
+has become a compound individual, the members remaining attached to the
+parent stock. The next higher examples to be met are the frequently
+cited ants and bees, belonging to the lowly organized class of
+arthropoda, yet, through the advantage of association and mutual aid,
+developing actions and habits only found elsewhere in the human race.
+The only example among vertebrates is that of the beavers, members of
+the low order of rodents. With these the results are less varied and
+intricate than with the ants, in accordance with the much smaller size
+of the community. All the higher vertebrates are either social or
+solitary in habit, and among them the narrow specialism of the communal
+forms does not exist. Each individual works in large measure for itself,
+its mental powers remain generalized, and it is not tied down to the
+performance of a series of fixed hereditary acts from which escape is
+well-nigh impossible.
+
+Of the social animals, man presents the most complete type, and the one
+from which we can best deduce the conditions of the class. A human
+community is made up of individuals of many degrees of intellectual
+ability, the mass remaining at a low level, the few attaining a high
+level. Yet those of high powers of intellect set the standard for the
+whole, teach the lower either by precept or example, and aid effectively
+in advancing the standard of the community. A rope or chain is said to
+be as weak as its weakest part. A human community, on the contrary, may
+be said to be as strong as its strongest part. The standing of the whole
+is dependent upon the thoughts and acts of the few, from whom the
+general mass receive new ideas and gain new habits. The existing
+intellectual and industrial position of mankind is very largely a result
+of ideas evolved by individuals age after age, and preserved as the
+mental property of the whole. Destroy the books and works of art and
+industry of any community, cut off its intellectual leaders, remove from
+the general mind the results of education, and it would at once fall
+back to a low level and be obliged to begin again its slow climb upward.
+The intellectual standing of any civilized nation depends upon two
+things: the preservation in books, in memory, and in works of art and
+industry, of the ideas of ancient workers and thinkers; and the mental
+activity of living thinkers and inventors, whose work takes its start
+from this standpoint of stored-up thought. Rob any community of all its
+basic ideas, and it would quickly retrograde to a primitive condition
+of thought and organization, from which it might need many centuries to
+emerge.
+
+It has been said above that man is the highest example of the social
+animal. While that is the truth, it is not the whole truth. He is at the
+same time the highest example of the communal animal. Mutual aid,
+organization into strictly rounded communities, labor for the good of
+the whole, is as declared in him as in the most developed community of
+the ants, and we admire the work of the latter simply because they
+repeat at a lower level the work of man. In truth, in man we have a
+splendid example of the existence of the individual initiative in
+connection with the communal organization. Specialism exists in a
+hundred forms. Some nations have been tied down by it to conditions
+almost as fixed as those of the ants. But generalism exists in as full a
+measure, new ideas are constantly modifying or replacing the old, and
+the communism of man is a progressive one, steadily borne upward on the
+wings of new ideas. Individual thought has the fullest swing, and it is
+to the system of special reward for useful thought and act that man owes
+much of his great advance. On the other hand, reward without useful
+service has been one of the leading agencies that have acted to check
+human progress.
+
+The lower animals do not possess the advantage of man in his power of
+preserving the thoughts and products of the past as a foundation for
+new steps of progress. Memory may aid them to a slight degree, but they
+have no special means of recording useful ideas. This cannot fairly be
+said of the communal forms, which possess the result of the labors of
+former generations as useful object lessons. But in the higher animals
+no means exist for the permanent preservation of ideas, and each step of
+progress must be due to the direct influence of living individuals and
+the indirect result of natural selection.
+
+This is one cause of the slow mental advance of the lower animals. A
+second is the deficiency in educational influences, which have had so
+much to do with human progress. Education is not quite wanting in the
+brute creation. There are many instances on record of instruction given
+by the adults to the young. But this agency is in its embryo stage, and
+its influence must be small. Again, each tribe of lower animals is apt
+to fall into a fixed circle of life acts, to become so closely adapted
+to some situation or condition that any change of habits would be likely
+to prove detrimental. This is a state of affairs tending to produce
+stagnation and vigorously to check advance. Many instances of this could
+be cited from human history, while it is the common condition with the
+animals below man.
+
+To return to the apes, the considerations above taken lead to the
+conclusion that it is chiefly, if not solely, to their social habits
+that they owe their mental quickness. While only in minor traits
+communal, they are eminently social, and have doubtless derived great
+advantage from this. The lemurs, which share their habitat and resemble
+them in organization, are markedly unsocial, and are as mentally dull as
+the apes are mentally quick. Possibly, the thought powers of the apes
+once set in train, there may have been something in the exigencies of
+arboreal life that quickened their powers of observation; but we are
+constrained to believe that the main influence to which they owe their
+development is that of social habits, in which they stand at a high, if
+not the highest, level among the distinctly social animals.
+
+The thought capacities of the ape intellect are general, not special.
+The mind of these animals remains free and capable of new thought in new
+situations. It is fully alive to the needs and dangers of arboreal life,
+and advances no farther in its native habitat because there is nothing
+more of importance to be learned. But while fixed it is not stagnant.
+When the ape is taken from its native woods and put among the many new
+conditions arising on shipboard and in human habitations, we quickly
+perceive indications of its mental alertness. Its faculties of
+observation and imitation are actively exercised, and new habits and
+conceptions are quickly gained. Could the apes be made to breed freely
+in captivity, so that a domestic race, comparable to that of the dogs,
+could be obtained, their mental powers might, perhaps, be cultivated to
+an extraordinary degree, yielding instances of thought approaching that
+of man. The ape is especially notable for its tendency to attempt new
+acts of itself, not waiting to be taught, as in the case of other
+domesticated animals. In short, it seems by all odds to be the animal
+best fitted mentally to serve as the basis of a high intellectual
+development, as it is the best fitted physically to change from the
+attitude of the quadruped to that of the biped.
+
+The anthropoid apes in general manifest a reversion from the social
+toward the solitary state, this condition reaching its ultimate in the
+orang, which is one of the most solitary of animals. The smaller forms
+are the most social, the gibbons being decidedly so. There is very good
+reason to believe that the man-ape was highly social, if we may judge
+from what we find in all races of men, and all grades, from the savage
+to the civilized. This animal was thus in a position to avail itself of
+all the advantages of the social habit, and to gain the mental
+development thence arising. How long ago it was when it left the trees
+and made its home upon the ground, it is impossible to say. It may have
+been as far back as the early Pliocene or the late Miocene Period, or
+even earlier. As yet its brain was probably no more developed than in
+the case of the other anthropoids, perhaps less so than in the existing
+species. But in its new habitat it was exposed to a series of novel
+conditions that must have exerted a healthful and stimulating influence
+upon its mind.
+
+If it had remained in the trees we should probably to-day have only a
+man-ape still. Leaving their safe shelter for the ground, it became
+exposed to new dangers and was forced to fit itself to fresh conditions.
+Prowling carnivorous animals haunted its new place of residence, and
+these it had to avoid by speed or alertness of motion, or combat them by
+strength and the use of weapons. The carnivorous tastes which it had in
+all probability gained, made it a creature of the chase, pursuing swift
+animals, capturing them by fleetness or stratagem, or bringing them down
+with the aid of clubs and missiles. Such a new series of duties and
+dangers could not fail to exert a vigorous influence upon a brain
+already quick of thought and susceptible to fresh impressions, and we
+may well conceive that the man-ape then entered upon a new and rapid
+phase of mental progress, its brain developing in powers and growing in
+dimensions as it slowly became adapted to its new situation and grew
+able to cope with fresh demands and critical exigencies.
+
+There is still another influence which has had its share, perhaps a very
+prominent share, in the intellectual development of animals, yet which
+no writer seems to have considered from this point of view. The
+probable effect of this influence needs to be taken into account, in
+conclusion of this section of our subject. It is that of the comparative
+agency of the senses in the development of the mind, and the effects
+likely to arise from the dominance of some one of the senses.
+
+In the lowest animals touch was the predominant, if not the only sense,
+taste perhaps being associated with it. But these senses, which demand
+actual contact with objects, obviously could give none but the narrowest
+conception of the conditions of nature. The other senses, sight,
+hearing, and smell, give intimations of the existence and conditions of
+more or less distant objects, and their development greatly widened the
+scope of outreach in animals and must have exerted a powerful influence
+upon the growth of mental conditions.
+
+It need scarcely be said that the sense which gives the fullest and most
+extended information about existing things is necessarily the one that
+acts most effectively upon the mind, and that this sense is that of
+sight. Hearing and smell yield us information concerning certain local
+conditions of objects, but sight extends to the limits of the universe,
+while in regard to near objects it has the advantage of being
+practically instantaneous in action and much fuller in the information
+it conveys. Sight, therefore, is evidently the most important of the
+senses, so far as the broadening of the mental powers is concerned, and
+any animal in which it is predominant must possess a great advantage in
+this respect over those species controlled to any great degree by one of
+the lower senses.
+
+It may be said here that sight only slowly gained dominance in animal
+life. Though the eye, as an organ of vision, is found at a low level in
+the animate scale, the indications are that it long played a subordinate
+part, and has gained its full prominence only in man. During long ages
+life was confined to the sea, hosts of beings dwelling in the
+semi-obscurity of the under waters, and great numbers at too great a
+depth for light to reach them. To vast multitudes of these sight was
+partly or completely useless. The same may be said of hearing, the
+under-water habitat being nearly or completely a soundless one. The only
+one of the higher senses likely to be of general use to these oceanic
+forms is that of smell, and it may be that their knowledge of distant
+objects was mainly gained through sensitiveness to odors.
+
+Of invertebrate land animals the same must be said. The land mollusks
+and the great order of insects and other land arthropods only to a minor
+extent dwell in the open light. Very many species haunt the
+semi-obscurity of trees or groves, hide among the grasses, lurk under
+bark, sticks, and stones, or dwell through most of their lives
+underground. Hosts of others are nocturnal. To only a small percentage
+of insects can sight be of any great utility, while hearing seems also
+to be of slight importance. Smell is probably the principal sense
+through which these animals gain information of distant objects.
+
+There is existing evidence that the sense of smell in some insects is
+remarkably acute. The imprisoned female of certain nocturnal species,
+for instance, will attract the males from a comparatively immense
+distance, under conditions in which neither sight nor hearing could have
+been brought into play. The emission of odors and acute sensibility to
+them is the only presumable agency at work in those instances. As
+regards the most intelligent of the insects, the ants and the termites,
+the former are largely subterranean, the latter not only subterranean,
+but blind. In the one case, sight can play only a minor part, in the
+other, it plays no part at all. Touch and smell seem to be the dominant
+senses in these animals, and the degree of intelligence they display
+shows of how high a development these senses are susceptible. Yet the
+intelligence arising from them must necessarily be local and limited in
+its application; it cannot yield the breadth of information and degree
+of mental development possible under the dominance of sight.
+
+In the vertebrates we find a fully developed and broadly capable organ
+of vision, and it might be hastily assumed that in those animals sight
+is the dominant sense. But there are numerous facts which lead to a
+different conclusion. Many of the vertebrates are nocturnal, many dwell
+in obscure situations, many in the total darkness of caverns,
+underground tunnels and excavations, or the ocean's depths. To all these
+sight must be of secondary importance. Hearing also can be of no
+superior value, and the dominant sense must be that of smell. In the
+bats there would appear to be a remarkably acute power of touch, if we
+may judge from the facility with which they can avoid obstacles at full
+flight after their eyes have been removed.
+
+It might, however, be supposed that in the higher land vertebrates sight
+is predominant, and that the diurnal mammals depend principally upon
+their eyes for their knowledge of nature. But there are facts which
+throw doubt upon this supposition. These facts are of two kinds,
+external and internal. That the quadrupeds, in general, are highly
+sensitive to odors is well known, and also that they trust very largely
+to the sense of smell. Hunters are abundantly aware of this, and have to
+be quite as careful to avoid being smelt by their game as to avoid being
+seen. We have abundant evidence of the remarkable acuteness of this
+sense in so high an animal as the dog, which can follow its prey for
+miles by scent alone, and can distinguish the odors, not only of
+different species, but of different individuals, being capable of
+following the trail of one person amid the tracks of numerous others.
+
+The internal evidence of this fact is equally significant. In the
+vertebrates, in general, the olfactory lobe of the brain is largely
+developed, much exceeding in size the lobe of the optic nerve. It forms
+the anterior portion of the cerebrum, and in many instances constitutes
+a large section of that organ, being marked off from it by only a slight
+surface depression. If we can fairly judge, then, by anatomical
+evidence, the sense of smell plays a very prominent part in the life of
+all the lower vertebrates. If we take our domestic animals as an
+example, the olfactory lobe of the horse is considerably larger than
+that of man, though the brain, as a whole, is very much smaller, so
+that, comparatively, this organ constitutes a much larger portion of the
+total brain. The other domestic animals yield similar evidence of the
+great activity of the sense of smell.
+
+While there is no doubt that sight is an active sense in all the higher
+quadrupeds, it evidently divides this activity with smell to a much
+greater degree than is the case with man, in whom smell plays a minor
+part, sight a major part, among the organs of sense.
+
+This fact shows its effect in the comparative mental development of man
+and the lower animals. Man, depending so largely on vision, gains the
+broadest conception of the conditions of nature, with a consequent great
+expansion of the intellect. The quadrupeds, depending to a considerable
+degree upon smell for their conceptions of nature, are much narrower in
+their range of information and lower in their mental development. As
+regards the ape family, it occupies a position between man and the
+quadrupeds, and its intellectual activity may well be due in great
+measure to an increased trust in sight and a decreased trust in smell in
+gaining its conception of nature.
+
+The question may arise, Why, if sight has this superiority over smell,
+did it not long since gain predominance, and relegate smell to a minor
+position? It may be answered that the superiority of sight is not
+complete. In one particular this sense is inferior to smell. The leading
+agency in the development of the sense organs of animals has been the
+struggle for existence, including escape from enemies, and the
+perception of food-animals or material. In these processes acuteness of
+smell plays a very important part. It has, moreover, the advantage of
+gathering information from all directions, while sight is very limited
+in its range. The eye is so subject to injury that its multiplication
+over the body would be rather disadvantageous than otherwise, while,
+localized as it is, a movement of the head is necessary to any breadth
+of vision, and the whole body must rotate to bring the complete horizon
+under observation. It seems evident, from these considerations, that
+sight is much inferior to smell in the timely perception of many forms
+of danger. Light comes in straight lines only, and a movement of the
+body is necessary to perceive perils lying outside these lines. Odors,
+on the contrary, spread in all directions, and make themselves manifest
+from the rear as well as the front.
+
+In all probability this fact has had much to do with the continued
+dependence of animals on smell. In fishes and reptiles a full sweep of
+vision is so slowly gained that some more active sentinel sense is
+requisite to safety. In mammals the head rotates more easily, but
+valuable time is lost in the rotation of the whole body. These animals,
+therefore, depend on both sight and smell, in some cases equally, in
+some more fully on one or the other of these senses. When we reach the
+semi-upright ape, we have to do with a form capable of turning the body
+and observing the whole surrounding circle of objects more quickly and
+readily than any quadruped. As a result, these animals have grown to
+depend more fully on vision and less on smell than the quadrupeds.
+Finally, in fully erect man, the power of quick turning and alert
+observation of the whole circle of the horizon reaches its ultimate, and
+in man sight has become in a large degree the dominant sense, and smell
+has fallen to a minor place.
+
+With this change in the relations of the senses has come a change in the
+degree of mental development. It is highly probable that the dependence
+of the apes on vision instead of smell has had much to do with their
+mental activity, quickness of observation, and active curiosity. In man
+there can be no question that it has played a great part in the rapid
+development of his intellectual powers, and in the extraordinary breadth
+of his conception of nature as compared with that of the lower animals.
+While hearing and smell advise us of neighboring conditions only, and
+have their chief utility as aids to the preservation of existence, sight
+makes us aware of the conditions of nature in remote localities,
+extending far beyond the limits of the earth. While this sense plays its
+part as one of the protective agencies, it is still more useful as an
+agent in the acquisition of knowledge in general, and has much to do
+with the development of the intellectual faculties. We may look,
+therefore, upon the increasing dominance of the sense of sight as a
+leading agency in the making of man as a thinking being, and may ascribe
+to this in a considerable measure the thirst for information and faculty
+of imitation so marked in the apes.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
+
+
+One of the characteristics of man, of which we spoke as among those to
+which his high development is due, is that of language. There is nothing
+that has had more to do with the mental progress of the human race than
+facility in the communication of thought, and in this vocal language is
+the principal agent and in the fullest measure is the instrument of the
+mind. Human speech has, in these modern times, become remarkably
+expressive, indicating all the conditions, relations, and qualities, not
+only of things, but of thoughts and ideal conceptions. And the utility
+of language has been enormously augmented by the development of the arts
+of writing and printing. Originally thought could only be communicated
+by word of mouth and transmitted by the aid of the memory. Now it can be
+recorded and kept indefinitely, so that no useful thought of able
+thinkers need be lost, but every valuable idea can be retained as an
+educative influence through unnumbered ages.
+
+In this instrumentality, which has been of such extraordinary value to
+man, the lower animals are strikingly deficient. They are not quite
+devoid of vocal language, though it is doubtful if any of the sounds
+made by them have a much higher linguistic office than that of the
+interjection. But emotional sounds, to which these belong, are not
+destitute of value in conveying intelligence. They embrace cries of
+warning, appeals to affection, demands for help, calls for food
+supplies, threats, and other indications of passion, fear, or feeling.
+And the significance of these vocal sounds to animals may often be
+higher than we suppose. That is, they may not be limited to the vague
+character of the interjection, but may occasionally convey a specific
+meaning, indicative of some object or some action. In other words, they
+may advance from the interjection toward the noun or the verb, and
+approach in value the verbal root, a sound which embraces a complete
+proposition. Thus a cry of warning may be so modulated as to indicate to
+the hearer, "Beware, a lion is coming!" or to convey some other specific
+warning. We know that accent or tone plays a great part in Chinese
+speech, the most primitive of existing forms, a variation in tone quite
+changing the meaning of words. The same may be the case with the sounds
+uttered by animals to a much greater extent than we suppose.
+
+We know this to be the case with some of the birds. The common fowl of
+our poultry yards has a variety of distinct calls, each understood by
+its mates, while special modulations of some call or cry are not
+uncommon among birds. The mammalia are not fluent in vocal powers,
+their range of tones being limited, yet they certainly convey definite
+information to one another. Recent observers have come to the conclusion
+that the apes do, to a certain extent, talk with one another. The
+experiments to prove this have not been very satisfactory, yet they seem
+to indicate that the woodland cries of the apes possess a certain range
+of definite meaning.
+
+We are utterly ignorant of what powers of speech the man-ape possessed.
+It must, in its developed state as a land-dwelling, wandering, and
+hunting biped, have needed a wider range of utterance than during its
+arboreal residence. It was exposed to new dangers, new exigencies of
+life affected it, and its old cries very probably gained new meanings,
+or new cries were developed to meet new perils or conditions. In this
+way a few root words may have been gained, rising above the value of the
+interjection, and expressing some degree of definite meaning, though
+still at the bottom of the scale of language, the first stepping stones
+from the vague cry toward the significant word.
+
+Between this stage and that of human language an immense gap supervenes,
+a broad abyss which it seems at first sight impossible to bridge. As the
+facts stand, however, it has been largely bridged by man himself. Side
+by side with the highly intricate languages which now exist, are
+various primitive forms of speech which take us far back toward the
+origin of human language. So advanced a people as the Chinese speak a
+language practically composed of root words, the higher forms of
+expression being attained by simple devices in the combination of these
+primitive word forms. The same may be said, in a measure, of ancient
+Egyptian speech. We can conceive of an early state of affairs in which
+these devices of word compounding were not yet employed, and in which
+each word existed as a separate expression, unmodified by association
+with any other word. Among the savage races of the earth very crude
+forms of language often exist, the methods of associating words into
+sentences being of the simplest character, though few surpass the
+Chinese in simplicity of system.
+
+But all this represents an advanced stage of language evolution, a
+development of thought and its instrument which has taken thousands of
+years to complete. We cannot fairly judge from it what the speech of
+primitive man may have been, for in every case there has been a long
+process of development; aided, no doubt, in many cases, by educative
+influences acting from the more advanced upon the speech of the less
+advanced races.
+
+If we seek to analyze any of these languages, the most intricate as well
+as the least advanced, we find ourselves in most instances able to
+isolate the root word as the basic element of speech. From this simple
+form all the more developed forms seem to have arisen. Take away their
+combining devices, and the root words fall apart like so many beads of
+speech, each with a defined significance of its own and fully capable of
+existing by itself. The Aryan and the Chinese especially offer
+themselves to this analytic method. Strip off the suffixes and affixes
+from Aryan words, get down to the germinal forms from which these words
+have grown, isolate these germs of speech, and we find ourselves in a
+language of root forms, each of which has grown vague and wide in
+significance as the modifying elements that limited its meaning have
+been removed. In the Chinese the problem is a much simpler one. We need
+simply to take the existing words out of their place in the sentence and
+let them stand alone, and we have root words at first hand. We may go
+through the whole range of human speech and, with more or less
+difficulty, arrive at a similar result. In short, the evidence seems
+conclusive that the language of mankind began in the use of isolated
+words of vague and broad significance, and that all the subsequent
+development of language consisted in the combination of these words,
+with a modification and limitation of their meaning, the families of
+speech differing principally in the method of combination devised.
+
+It must, indeed, be said that in isolating the root forms of modern
+languages we reach conditions still far removed from those of primitive
+speech. These roots are in a measure packed with meaning. Time has added
+to their significance, and they lack the simplicity they probably once
+possessed. In particular, they have gained ideal senses, entered in a
+measure into that broad language of the mind which has been gradually
+added to the language of outer nature. The recognition of the existence
+of mind and thought doubtless came somewhat late in human development.
+Man long knew only his body and the world that surrounded it. Step by
+step only did he discover his mind. And when it became necessary to
+speak of mental conditions, no new language was invented, but old words
+were broadened to cover the new conditions. The mind is analogous to the
+body in its operations, ideas are analogues of things, and it was
+usually necessary only to add to the physical significance of words the
+corresponding ideal significance. In this way a secondary language
+slowly grew up, underlying and subtending the primary language, until
+the words invented to express the world of things were employed to
+include as vast a world of thoughts.
+
+In getting down, then, to the language of primitive man we are obliged
+to divest the root forms of speech of all this ideal significance, and
+confine them to their physical meanings. In dealing with the languages
+of the least advanced existing tribes of mankind, indeed, little of this
+is requisite. The language of the mind with them has not yet begun its
+growth or is in its first simple stages. Only half the work of the
+evolution of language is completed. There is, indeed, no tribe so
+undeveloped as to use the primitive forms of speech. The most savage of
+the races of mankind have made some progress in the art of combining
+words, gained some ideas of syntax and grammatical forms. Yet in certain
+instances the progress has been very slight, and in all we can see the
+living traces of the earlier method of speech from which they emerged.
+
+It is to the ability to think abstractly and to form words with an
+abstract significance that human language owes much of its high
+development. But this ability is largely confined to civilized mankind,
+savages being greatly or wholly lacking in it. This deficiency is
+indicated in their modes of speech. Thus a native of the Society
+Islands, while able to say "dog's tail," "sheep's tail," etc., has no
+separate word for tail. He cannot abstract the general term from its
+immediate relations. In the same way the uncivilized Malay has twenty
+different words to express striking with various objects, as with thick
+or thin wood, a club, the fist, the palm, etc., but he has no word for
+"striking" as an isolated thought. We find the same deficiency in the
+speech of the American Indians. A Cherokee, for instance, has no word
+for "washing," but can express the different kinds of washing by no less
+than thirteen distinct words.
+
+All this indicates a primitive stage in the evolution of language, one
+in which every word had its immediate and local application, while in
+each word a whole story was told. The power of dividing thought into its
+separate elements was not yet possessed. As thought progressed men got
+from the idea of "dog" to that of "dog's tail." They could not think of
+the part without the whole. Then they reached a word for "dog's tail
+wags." But the idea of "wags" as an abstract motion was beyond their
+powers of thought. They could not think of action, but only of some
+object in action. The language of the American Indians was an immediate
+derivation from this mode of word formation, every proposition, however
+intricate it might be, constituting a single word, whose component parts
+could not be used separately. The mode of speech here indicated is one
+form of development of the root. Other forms are the compounding of the
+Chinese and the Mongolian and the inflection of the Aryan and the
+Semitic, all pointing directly back to the root form as their unit of
+growth.
+
+The inference to be drawn from all this is that the language of
+primitive man consisted of isolated words, sounds which may originally
+have been mere cries or calls, but which gradually gained some
+definiteness of meaning, as signifying some of the varied conditions of
+the outer world. This is the conclusion to which philologists have now
+very generally come. The recognition that language consists of root
+words, variously modified and combined, leads back irresistibly to a
+period in which those roots had not yet begun to be modified and
+combined. The roots are the hard, persistent things in human speech.
+Grammatical expedients are the net in which these roots have been caught
+and confined. Free them from the net, and it falls to pieces, while the
+roots remain intact, the solid and persistent primitive germs of speech.
+
+Yet in isolating root language as the basis of grammatical language we
+go far toward closing the gap between animal and human speech. It is
+still, doubtless, of considerable width, yet the distinction is no
+longer one of kind, but is simply one of degree. Primitive man had a
+much greater scope of language than is possessed by any of the lower
+animals, and the vocal sounds used had a clearer and more definite
+significance; but their nature was the same. They doubtless began in
+calls and cries like those in use by animals, and though these had
+increased in number and gained more distinct meanings, the difference in
+character was not great. In short, the analytic method employed by
+modern philologists has gone far to remove the supposed vast distinction
+between brute and human speech, and has traced back the language of man
+to a stage in which it is nearly related in character to the language of
+animals. The distinction has been brought down to one of degree,
+scarcely one of kind. A direct and simple process of evolution was
+alone needed to produce it, and through that evolution man undoubtedly
+passed in his progress upward from his ancestral stage.
+
+The language of the lower animals is a vowel form of speech. It lacks
+the consonantal elements, the characteristic of articulation. In this
+man seems to have at first agreed with them. The infant begins its vocal
+utterances with simple cries; only at a later age does it begin to
+articulate. If we may judge from the development of language in the
+child, man began to speak with the use of sounds native to the vocal
+organs, and progressed by a process of imitation, endeavoring to
+reproduce the sounds heard around him: the voices of animals, the sounds
+of nature, etc. This tendency to imitate is not peculiar to man. It
+exists in many birds, and in some attains a marked development. The
+mocking bird, for instance, has an extraordinary flexibility of the
+vocal organs and power of imitating the voices of other birds. The
+parrot and some other birds go farther in this direction, being capable
+of using articulate language and clearly repeating words used by man.
+
+None of the mammalia possess this facility. It is not found in the apes,
+and probably was not possessed by the ancestor of man. But it is not
+difficult to believe that in the efforts of the latter to gain a greater
+variety of vocal utterance, its organs of speech became more flexible,
+and in time it gained the power of articulation.
+
+There are races of existing men whose powers of language seem still in
+the transition stage between articulate and inarticulate speech. This
+seems the case with the Bushmen and Hottentots of South Africa, whose
+vocal utterances consist largely of a series of peculiar clicks that are
+certainly not articulate speech, though on the road toward it. The
+Pygmies of the Central African forests seem similarly to occupy an
+intermediate position in the development of language. Those who have
+endeavored to talk with them speak of their utterance as being
+inarticulate in sound. It appears to be a sort of link between
+articulate and inarticulate speech. In short, the great abyss which was
+of old thought to lie between the languages of man and the lower animals
+has largely vanished through the labors of philologists, and we can
+trace stepping-stones over every portion of the wide gap. The language
+of man has not alone been evidently a product of evolution, but also one
+of development from the vocal utterances of the lower animals; and the
+man-ape, in its slow and long progress from brute into man, seems to
+have gradually developed that noble instrument of articulate speech
+which has had so much to do with subsequent human progress.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+HOW THE CHASM WAS BRIDGED
+
+
+In his bodily formation the man-ape differed little from man. The
+differences which existed were probably of a minor character, no greater
+than could readily exist within the limits of a species. If this
+assertion be questioned, it seems sufficient to call attention to the
+recent researches into the anatomy of the anthropoid apes, which differ
+in species, if not in genera, from man, yet are closely similar to him
+in all their main features of organization. Even in the brain, to whose
+great development man owes his superiority, the only marked difference
+is in size. Structurally, the distinctions are unimportant. If, then,
+these distant relatives so closely resemble man in physical frame, his
+immediate relative in the line of descent must have approached him still
+more closely in organization. After this ancestor had become a true,
+surface-dwelling biped, the differences in structure were probably so
+slight that physically the two forms were in effect identical. The
+man-ape was, as there is reason to believe, considerably smaller than
+man, perhaps about equal in size and stature to the chimpanzee, but
+that does not constitute a specific difference. There may have been some
+differences in the skeletal and muscular structure. The vocal organs,
+for instance, probably differed, the evolution of language in man being
+accompanied with certain changes in the larynx. The skull was certainly
+much more ape-like. Yet variations of this kind, due to differences in
+mode of life, are minor in importance, and may easily come within the
+limits of a species. While the great features of organization remain
+intact, small changes, due to new exigencies of life, may take place
+without affecting the zooelogical position of an animal. The most
+striking difference between man-ape and man, that of the development of
+the brain to two or three times its size and weight, is similarly
+unessential in classification while the brain remains unchanged in
+structure. That it has remained unchanged we may safely deduce from the
+close similarity between the brain of man and those of the existing
+anthropoid apes. The cause of the increase in size is so evident that it
+need only be referred to. Since the era of the man-ape, almost the whole
+sum of the forces of development have been centred in the mental powers
+of this animal, with the result that the brain has grown in size and
+functional capacity, while the remainder of the body has remained
+practically unchanged.
+
+That man as an animal has descended from the lower life realm, none who
+are familiar with the facts of science now think of denying. This has
+attained to the scientist, and to many non-scientists, the level of a
+self-evident proposition. But that man as a thinking being has descended
+from the lower animals is a different matter, concerning which opinion
+is by no means in unison. Even among scientists some degree of
+difference of opinion exists, and such a radical evolutionist as Alfred
+Russell Wallace finds here a yawning gap in the line of descent, and is
+inclined to look upon the intellect of man as a direct gift from the
+realm of spirits. His explanation, it is true, is more difficult than
+the problem itself. There are no facts to sustain it, and even if he
+were not able to see how man's mind could be developed by natural
+selection, it is a sort of _reductio ad absurdum_ to call in the angels
+to bridge the chasm.
+
+Romanes has dealt with the subject from a different and more scientific
+point of view, and seems to have succeeded in showing that man's
+intellect at its lowest level is not different in kind from the brute
+intellect at its highest level. Controversy on this subject is too apt
+to be based on the difference between the intellect of the brute and
+that of enlightened man, in disregard of the great mental gap which
+exists between the latter and the thought powers of the lowest savage.
+In the preceding section an effort was made to show how crude and
+imperfect must have been the language of primitive man. Its imperfection
+was a fair gauge of that of his powers of thought. His intellect stood
+at a very low level, seemingly no further above that of the highest apes
+than it was below that of enlightened man.
+
+In fact, enormous as is the interval between the mind of the brute and
+that of the man of modern civilization, the whole long line of mental
+development can be traced, with the exception of a comparatively small
+interval. This is the gap between the intellect of the anthropoid ape
+and that of primitive man, the one important last chapter in the story
+of mental evolution. Supernaturalism, driven from its strongholds of the
+past, has taken its last stand upon this broken link, claiming that here
+the line of descent fails, and that the gap could not have been filled
+without a direct inflow of intellect from the world of spirits or an
+immediate act of creation from the Deity.
+
+This view of the case is not likely to be accepted as final. Science has
+bridged so many gaps in the kingdom of nature that it is not likely to
+retire baffled from this one, but will continue its investigations in
+place of accepting conclusions that have not the standing even of
+hypothesis, since they are unsupported by a single known fact. At first
+sight, indeed, the facts which bear upon this question seem stubborn
+things to explain by the evolution theory. The gap in intellect between
+the highest apes and the lowest man is a considerable one, which no
+existing ape seems likely ever to cross. However the anthropoid apes
+gained their degree of mental ability, it does not appear to be on the
+increase. They are in a state of mental stagnation and may have remained
+so for millions of years. Something similar, indeed, can be said of the
+lowest savages. They also are mentally stagnant. The indications are
+that for thousands, or tens of thousands, of years in the past their
+intellectual progress has been almost nothing. Yet it is beyond
+reasonable question that the advanced thinker of to-day has evolved from
+an ancestor as low in the mental scale as this savage, probably much
+lower; and this renders it very conceivable that a similar process of
+evolution covered the interval between the ape intellect and that of
+primitive man.
+
+Somewhere, at some time in the far past, the mental stagnation of man
+was broken, and the development of the mind began its long progression
+toward enlightenment. This was not in the localities in which the lower
+savages are now found, the equatorial forests of Africa and South
+America and other realms of savage life, the change in all probability
+taking place elsewhere, under new and severe exigencies of life.
+Similarly we have much justification in saying that somewhere, at some
+time, the mental stagnation of the ape was broken, and the long
+development of the mind from ape to man began. This did not take place
+in the instances of the existing anthropoids, and, as in the analogous
+case of civilized man, its influencing cause must be looked for in
+exigencies of existence acting upon some form different in character and
+habitat from these apes.
+
+The existing anthropoid apes may justly be compared in condition with
+the existing low savages. In both cases a satisfactory adaptation to
+their situation has been gained. These apes are still arboreal and
+frugivorous, as their remote ancestors were. They have for ages been in
+a state of close adaptation to their life conditions, and the influences
+of development have been largely wanting. Such evolution as took place
+must have been extremely slow. In like manner the lowest savages live in
+intimate relations with the conditions surrounding them. All problems of
+food-getting, habitation, climate, etc., have long since been solved,
+and in the tropical forests in which so many of them dwell they are in
+thorough accord with the situation. Mentally, therefore, they are
+practically at a standstill and have remained so for thousands of years.
+The two cases are parallel ones. We can safely say that the later
+development of man took place in other situations and under other
+conditions. We may fairly say the same in regard to the ape. Vigorous
+influences must have been brought to bear upon the ancestor of man as
+the instigating causes of its mental development into man; and similarly
+vigorous influences must have been brought to bear upon primitive man to
+set in train his mental development into intellectual man. And the
+general character of these influences in both cases may readily be
+pointed out. An extraordinary development has taken place in the human
+intellect within a few thousands, or tens of thousands, of years,
+yielding the difference which exists between the cultivated man of
+to-day and the debased savage who probably preceded him, and whose
+counterpart still exists. This has undoubtedly been due to influences of
+the highest potency. If we can show that influences of equal potency
+acted upon man's ancestor, we shall have done much toward indicating how
+the ape brain may have grown into the brain of man.
+
+In both cases the main agency was in all probability that of conflict.
+Both ape and man, as we take it, developed through some form of warfare.
+In the former case it was warfare with the animal kingdom; in the latter
+it was warfare with the conditions of nature and with hostile man. Each
+of these has been potent in its effects, and to each we owe the
+completion of a great stage in the evolution of man.
+
+In the tropics, the home of the anthropoid apes of to-day and, probably,
+of the animal we have named the man-ape, war between man and nature
+scarcely exists. Nature is not hostile to man. There is no occasion for
+clothing and little for habitation. Food is abundant for the sparse
+populations. Little exertion is called for to sustain life. Mental
+stagnation is very likely to supervene. Yet there, as elsewhere,
+conflict has had much to do with such mental progress as exists. Mastery
+in warfare is due to superior mental resources, which gradually arise
+from the exigencies of conflict, and manifest themselves in greater
+shrewdness or cunning, superior ability in leadership, better
+organization, fuller mutual aid, and the invention of more destructive
+weapons and more efficient tools. War acts vigorously on men's minds,
+peace acts sluggishly. In the former case man's most valued possession,
+his life, is in jeopardy, and his utmost powers are exerted for its
+preservation. Every resource within his power is brought to bear to save
+himself from wounds or death and to destroy his enemies. If the foes are
+equal physically, victory is apt to come to those which are superior
+mentally, which are quicker at devising new expedients, more alert in
+providing against danger, more skilful in the use of weapons, abler in
+combining their forces to act in unison. In short, the whole story of
+mankind tells us that mental evolution has been greatly aided by the
+influences of warfare, the reaction upon the mind of the effort at
+self-preservation, the destruction of those at a lower level of
+intellectual alertness, the preservation of the abler and more
+energetic, the effect of conflict in bringing into activity all the
+resources of the intellect, and the hereditary transmission of the
+powers of mind thus developed. It is, undoubtedly, to war between man
+and man, and the conflict with the adverse conditions of nature in the
+colder regions of the earth, that man's development from his lowest to
+his highest intellectual state has been largely due. This is by no means
+to say that war is still necessary for this result. Other influences are
+now at work, of equal or superior potency, and while the conflict with
+nature and the conditions of society is still of importance, war between
+man and man is no longer necessary as a mental stimulant. The time was,
+and that not very far in the past, when it was an essential element in
+human development.
+
+If we descend to the lowest existing savages, however, it is to find
+this agency almost non-existent. We can perceive in them no organized
+warfare and no alert conflict with nature. They are as yet at the very
+beginning of this stage of evolution, and it certainly exerts little
+influence upon them. Nature is not adverse, life needs little thought or
+exertion, they accept the world as they find it, without question or
+revolt, and their thoughts and habits are as unchangeable as the laws of
+the Medes and Persians. But the fact that active warfare does not now
+exist among the lowest tribes of mankind, does not argue that such a
+state has never existed. In truth, we maintain that primitive man is the
+outcome of an active and long-continued warfare, and that his settled
+and sluggish condition to-day is the ease that follows victory. He has
+conquered and is at rest after his labors.
+
+For if we compare primitive man with the anthropoid apes, it is to find
+one striking and important difference between them. The anthropoids are
+at a level in position with their animal neighbors. Man is lord and
+master of the animal kingdom, the dominant being in the world of life.
+He has no rival in this lordship, but stands alone in his relation to
+the animal kingdom. He is feared and avoided by the largest and
+strongest beasts of field and forest. He does not fight defensively, but
+offensively, and whatever his relation to his fellow-man, he admits no
+equal in the world of life below him. He is the only animal that has
+made a struggle for lordship. The gorilla is said to attack the lion and
+drive it from its haunts. If it does so, it is not with any desire for
+mastery, but simply to rid itself of a dangerous neighbor. The battle
+for dominion has been confined to man, and in the winning of it no small
+degree of mental development must have taken place.
+
+The supremacy of man was not gained without a struggle, and that a
+severe and protracted one. The animal kingdom did not yield readily to
+man's lordship, and the war must have been long and bitter, settled as
+the relations now seem. Rest has succeeded victory. The lower animals
+are now submissive to man, or retire before him in dread of his strength
+and resources, and the strain upon his powers has ceased. So far as
+this phase of evolution is concerned the influences aiding the mental
+development of man have lost their strength. The warfare is over, and
+man reigns supreme over the kingdom of life.
+
+Of all animals the man-ape was the best adapted for such a struggle. The
+other anthropoid apes, while favored by the formation of their hands,
+lacked that freedom of the arms to which man mainly owes his success. No
+other animal has ever appeared with arms freed from duty in locomotion
+and at the same time endued with the power of grasping, and these are
+the features of organization to which the evolution of the human
+intellect was wholly due in its first stages. The man-ape was not able
+to contend successfully with the larger animals by aid of its natural
+weapons. Its diminutive size, its lack of tearing claws, and its lesser
+powers of speed, left it at a disadvantage, and had it attempted to
+conquer by the aid of its strength and the seizing and rending powers of
+teeth and nails, its victory over the larger animals would never have
+been won. Even with the aid of the cunning and alertness of the apes,
+their power of observation, their combination for defence and attack,
+and their general mental superiority to the tenants of the animal world,
+their supremacy in the event of their becoming carnivorous must have
+been confined to the smaller creatures, and could not have been
+established over the larger animals of their native habitat except
+through the aid of other than their natural powers.
+
+It was by the use of artificial weapons that the conquest was gained.
+The tendency to use missiles as weapons of offence and defence, which is
+shown by various species of monkeys, was in all probability greatly
+developed by the man-ape, the only carnivorous member, if our premises
+are correct, of the whole extensive family of the apes, and the only one
+with the free use of its hands and arms. By the use of weapons of this
+kind the powers of offence of this animal were enormously increased. As
+skill was acquired in their use, and more efficient weapons were
+selected or formed, the man-ape steadily advanced in controlling
+influence, and the lower animal world became more and more subordinated.
+No doubt the struggle was a protracted one. The previously dominant
+animals did not submit without a severe and long-continued contest.
+Thousands of years may have passed before the larger animals were
+subdued, for it is probable that the invention of superior weapons by an
+animal of low mental powers was a very slow process. Each stage of
+invention gave higher success, but these stages were very deliberate
+ones.
+
+However this be, we can be assured that the superiority of the ancestral
+man lay in his mental resources, and that his victory was due to the
+employment of his mind rather than of his body. As a result, the
+developing influence of the conflict was exerted upon his brain, the
+organ of the mind, far more than upon his physical frame, and this organ
+gradually increased in size, while the body as a whole remained
+practically unchanged. The conflict began with the man-ape on a level in
+power and dominance with animals of its own size and inferior to those
+of greater size and strength. It ended with man dominant over all the
+lower animals. Such a progress, if made by any animal through variation
+in physical structure, must have caused radical and extraordinary
+changes in size, strength, and utility of the natural organs of offence.
+If made, as in the instance in question, through development of the
+organ of the mind alone, it could not but have produced a great increase
+in the size and power of this organ; and the dimensions of the brain in
+primitive man, as compared with those of the brain in the anthropoid
+apes, do not seem too great for the magnitude of the result.
+
+The conflict ended, a new animal, man, finally and fully emerged from
+the family of the apes and settled down in the restful consciousness of
+victory, with a much larger brain and greatly superior mental powers
+than were possessed at the beginning of the struggle, yet in physical
+aspect not greatly changed from his ancestral form after it had first
+fully gained the erect attitude. The powers gained enabled early man
+easily to hold the position he had won, and there was no further
+special strain upon his faculties until a new contest began, that
+between man and nature, supplemented by a still more vital struggle,
+that between man and man.
+
+To return to the point from which we set out, it may be said that, as
+the man-ape gained facility in walking in the erect attitude, and its
+hands and arms became fully adapted to the use of weapons, its standing
+in the animal kingdom changed essentially from that before held. Fear
+and flight ended, retreat ceased, attack began, pursuit succeeded
+flight, and the great battle for mastery entered upon its long course.
+An element which aided materially in the victory was the social habit of
+the animal in question, and the mutual aid which the members of any
+group gave one another. Educative influences also naturally follow
+association, every invention or improvement devised by one becomes the
+property of the whole, and nothing of importance once gained is lost.
+
+The stages of this progress were, undoubtedly, in their outer aspect,
+stages of improvement in weapons. We seem to see ancestral man, in his
+early career as a carnivorous animal, seizing the stones and sticks that
+came readily to hand, and flinging them with some little skill at his
+prey, in the same manner as we can perceive the baboon doing the same
+thing. In like manner we observe him breaking off branches from the
+trees and using them as clubs. One of the first steps of development
+from this crude stage in the use of weapons would be the selection of
+stones suited by size and shape for throwing, and the choice of clubs of
+suitable length and thickness, the latter being stripped of their twigs.
+
+For a long time fresh weapons, those immediately at hand, would be
+seized and used for every new conflict; but as the idea of the
+superiority of some weapons to others arose, a second stage of evolution
+must have begun. The selected club, broken from the tree and prepared
+for use with some care, and thus embodying a degree of choice and labor,
+would be too valuable to fling idly away, and might be retained for
+future use, the first personal possession of inchoate man. Similarly,
+stones carefully chosen for their suitability for throwing would be
+probably kept, and a small store of them collected. In short, we may
+conceive of the man-ape thus gathering a magazine of weapons,--clubs and
+stones,--sought or shaped during hours of leisure for use in hours of
+conflict. In this way our animal ancestor doubtless slowly became a
+skilful hunter, carrying his weapons with him in the chase, and using
+them efficiently in the conquest of prey.
+
+A third stage in this progress was reached when to some wise-headed old
+man-ape came the idea of combining the two forms of weapon in use, of
+fastening in some way the stone to the club in order that a more
+effective blow might be struck. The vegetable kingdom furnishes natural
+cords, flat stones with more or less cutting edges could be chosen and
+bound to the end of the club, and the earliest form of the battle-axe
+would be produced. With its formation the man-ape made another important
+step of progress and added greatly to his powers of offence. Stage by
+stage he was bringing his animal competitors under his control.
+
+The formation of an axe or hatchet, however crude it may have been,
+would naturally lead to another step in advance. With it the ancestral
+man had passed beyond the possession of a weapon into the possession of
+a tool. The shaping of his clubs previously had been done by a rude
+tearing or hammering off of their twigs. These could now be cut off, and
+in addition the club might be wrought into a better shape. Manufacture
+had begun. Our ancestor stood at one end of a long line, at the other
+end of which we behold the steam-engine, the electric motor, and an
+interminable variety of other instruments.
+
+Primitive manufacture was not confined to the shaping of wood. The
+shaping of stone followed in due time. If a tree branch could be made
+more suitable for its purpose by cutting it into shape with a rude stone
+axe or hatchet, a stone of better shape might be obtained by hammering.
+Doubtless the chipping effect of striking stone upon stone had been
+often observed before the idea arose that this could be made useful, and
+that where stones of the desired shape were not to be found, the shape
+of those at hand might in this way be improved.
+
+If we seek for some turning-point, some stage of progress, in which the
+man-ape fairly emerged into man, perhaps it would be well to select that
+which we have now reached, that in which the animal in question, which
+had hitherto used the objects of nature in their natural form, first
+gained the idea of manufacture and began to shape these objects by the
+use of tools. In truth, the dividing line between man-ape and man was
+imperceptibly fine. Various points of demarcation might be chosen, each
+founded on some important step in evolution. But among them all that in
+which the effort to convert the objects of nature into better weapons by
+the use of tools is perhaps the best, as it was probably the first step
+in that long process of manufacture to which man owes his wonderful
+advance.
+
+With this early effort at manufacture, man had reached a stage in which
+he was first able to make a permanent record of his existence upon the
+earth--aside from that of the very infrequent preservation of his bones
+as fossil remains. A chipped stone is a permanent object. Even a very
+rudely shaped one bears some indications of its origin upon its surface,
+some marks pointing back to man in his early days. Unfortunately for
+anthropologists, natural agencies sometimes produce effects resembling
+those achieved by man's hands, and some degree of skill in manufacture
+and well-marked design is necessary before one can be sure that a
+seeming stone weapon has not been shaped by nature instead of man.
+Within a recent period research for the evidence of early man in the
+shape of chipped stones has been diligently made, with an abundance of
+undoubted and a number of doubtful results. Some of these reach very far
+back in time, and if actually the work of man he must have lived upon
+the earth as a manufacturing animal for years that may be numbered by
+the million. Seemingly chipped stones have been found that belong to the
+remote Miocene geological age. With the latter are some scratches upon
+bones that also seem the work of tools. But these Miocene relics are
+questionable. They do not seem to surpass the shaping power of nature
+herself. Unless some more indubitable relics are found, we must place
+the advent of man as a tool-using animal at a much later date. How far
+back he may have existed as a man-like biped is another question, which
+we are not likely soon to solve.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to pursue this branch of our subject farther.
+We have reached one end of a line of development, the succeeding course
+of which is well known. From the earliest rudely chipped stones and
+flints that are certainly the work of man, we can easily trace his
+progress upward through better examples of the chipped and later through
+those of the polished stone implement, until the age of metal began.
+And with these stones have been found many other indications of the
+progressing powers of man, in the shaping of bone, the invention and use
+of a considerable variety of implements and ornaments, and the earliest
+efforts of art, as stated in a preceding section. There is no occasion
+to go into the detail of these steps of progress. When they are reached,
+this section of our work ends. We are concerned here simply with man's
+ancestor and man in his earliest stage of existence, not with man in his
+later course of development.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE FIRST STAGE OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+
+The question has often been asked, if man has descended from an ape
+ancestor why is it that no traces of this ancestral form have been found
+in a fossil state? If man has gone through such an extended course of
+development, why has he left no remains? This question, looked upon as
+unanswerable by many of those who ask it, is really of minor importance.
+A half-dozen answers, each of considerable weight, could easily be made
+to it. In the first place, it may be said that the absence of remains
+referred to is far from a single instance, but one out of thousands. It
+is generally admitted that the species of animals found fossil are very
+far from representing all the species that have existed upon the earth,
+and probably form but a minute percentage of them. In the second place,
+the remains of man's ancestor have not been sought for in its native
+locality, the tropical regions. In the third place, man belongs to the
+class of animals least likely to be preserved in the fossil state, since
+they dwell in the depths of forests and at a distance from the lakes and
+streams in whose muddy bottoms the remains of so many animals have been
+fossilized. Another answer is, that of the various species of anthropoid
+apes that probably existed in the past, a few relics only of a single
+species have been found. If there were this one species alone, its
+number of individuals must have reached into the millions, yet of those
+hosts only a few fugitive bones are known to exist. There could not well
+be a more striking instance of the imperfection of the geological
+record. The sparse remains of Dryopithecus, the species in question,
+with some few other fossils of doubtfully anthropoid species, save us
+from a total blank, and open the vista to a myriad of active arboreal
+creatures which had their dwelling-place in the old-time European
+forests, but have almost utterly vanished from human knowledge.
+
+These are not the only answers that can be made to the question
+propounded. Though the bones of the man-ape have not been found, relics
+of several stages of developing man exist. Most significant among these,
+until recently, was the celebrated Neanderthal skull, which in facial
+aspect departs widely from the ordinary human and approaches the simian
+type. More significant still is the Pithecanthropus cranium, indicative
+of an animal that stood midway between man and ape, a creature fully
+erect in posture, as its thigh bone proves, but with a brain that had
+attained but the halfway stage of development. In this notable find we
+seem to see man in the making, the body already fully man-like, the
+brain advanced much beyond the stage of the ape intellect, but still far
+below that of man. It is the remnant of a creature significantly on the
+dividing line between man-ape and man.
+
+So much for the response to the question as hitherto made. As the case
+stands, we are not obliged to stop at this point. Within the latter
+section of the nineteenth century discoveries have been made which fit
+in admirably with our argument. Rediscoveries, perhaps, we should call
+them, for they were imperfectly known in ancient times, but only
+recently have they fairly come within human ken. We refer to the Pygmy
+tribes of the African forests, not definitely offered hitherto as aids
+to the elucidation of this problem, yet which seem to adapt themselves
+closely to it, and certainly help essentially in filling the gap between
+civilized man and his ape-like ancestor.
+
+We have already said that there appear to have been two separate and
+distinct stages in the evolution of man: one, that of his conflict with
+the animal world, ending in his mastery of the brute creation; the
+second that of his conflict with nature, ending in his mastery of the
+resources of the earth. Overlapping and succeeding the second there has
+been a third, that of the conflict of man with man, ending in the
+survival of the fittest of the human race. In the discussion of this
+problem, as hitherto made, these distinct stages of evolution, with
+their intermediate resting stages, have not been recognized; argument
+being based on man as a whole, and no thought directed to the
+possibility that existing man may represent several separate processes
+of development, with broad lapses between. The argument we propose to
+offer is that man as he was at the completion of his first stage, that
+of the subjugation of the animal world, and before the beginning of the
+conflict with nature, still exists, the first derivation from the
+man-ape, living in the location and possessing much of the appearance
+and many of the habits of this ancestral form.
+
+Late travellers in Africa have found more than trees and streams in the
+forest depths. They have found there a distinct and peculiar race of
+men, negro-like in many particulars, yet differing from the negroes in
+others, and specially marked by their dwarfish stature, which is
+indicated in the name of Pygmies, usually given them. These diminutive
+beings were known as long ago as the days of Homer, and their legendary
+combats with the cranes are spoken of by him in his poems. He was not
+aware of what is known now, that these forest dwarfs would disdain the
+cranes as antagonists, and are quite capable of overcoming the lordly
+elephant. In truth, they know no equals in the forest, and, while
+destitute of any knowledge of agriculture, are the most skilful,
+considering the primitive character of their weapons, of the hunters of
+the earth.
+
+The forest is the home of the Pygmy, as in all probability it was of the
+man-ape. He dwells in its deepest recesses, its moist and sultry depths,
+and pines when removed from his native realm in the heart of the tropic
+woods. In truth, he is almost as fully arboreal as was his tree-dwelling
+ancestor and as are his forest relatives, the anthropoid apes of to-day;
+not inhabiting the limbs of trees, indeed, but living under their shade,
+and forming the true man of the woodland, the nomad hunters of the vast
+equatorial forests. It must be said, however, that this is not wholly
+the case. There are tribes seemingly belonging to this race in South
+Africa who dwell in the open desert, but retain there, in great measure,
+the habits of their forest kin.
+
+The first of modern travellers to see the Pygmies was Du Chaillu, in his
+journey through the African woodlands in 1867. He describes them as
+averaging four feet seven inches in height, their complexion of a pale
+yellow brown, the hair of their head short, but their bodies covered
+with a thick growth of hair, as if the loss of their ancestral covering
+had not been completed. The tribe seen by him was known as the Obongo,
+and dwelt in Ashango Land, occupying the forest region between the
+Gaboon and the Congo.
+
+Dr. Schweinfurth, whose exploration extended from 1868 to 1870, was the
+next to meet these nomads of the forests, of whom he has given an
+interesting description in his "Heart of Africa." He met with them in
+the country of the Manbuttoo, on the Welle River, between three degrees
+and four degrees north latitude. The tribe seen by him, known as the
+Akka, was made up of very diminutive individuals, none being over four
+feet ten inches high, and some only four feet. Their bodies were in due
+proportion to their height, so that they resembled half-grown boys in
+size.
+
+The Akkas, as described by him, have large heads, huge ears, and very
+prognathous faces. Their arms are long and lank, the chest flat and
+narrow, widening below to support a huge hanging abdomen, the legs short
+and bandy, and the walk a waddling motion, there being a sort of lurch
+with each step. In this latter respect they recall the gibbon in its
+effort to walk. The gaping aspect of the mouth has a suggestive
+resemblance to that of the ape. They are also ape-like in their
+incessant play of countenance, twitching of eyebrows, rapid gestures of
+hands and feet, nodding and wagging of the head, and remarkable agility.
+Their skin is of a dull brown color, "like partly roasted coffee," and
+destitute of the covering of hair seen by Du Chaillu on the Obongos. The
+hair of the head and the beard is scanty and of woolly texture.
+
+Stanley, who frequently met those forest dwarfs in his expedition for
+the relief of Emin Pacha, gives much information concerning them in his
+"In Darkest Africa." He found, indeed, two types of dwarfs, one the
+Wambutti, who were of attractive aspect, having large, round eyes, full
+and prominent round faces with broad foreheads, jaws slightly
+prognathous, hands and feet small, figures well formed though
+diminutive, and complexion of a brick red hue. The other type, the Akka,
+he describes as having "small, cunning, monkey eyes, close and deeply
+set." One woman described by him had "protruding lips overhanging her
+chin, a prominent abdomen, narrow flat chest, sloping shoulders, long
+arms, feet strongly turned inward, and very short lower legs." She was
+"certainly deserving of being classed as an extremely low, degraded,
+almost a bestial type of a human being." The language of the Akka is of
+a very undeveloped type, and seems a link between articulate and
+inarticulate speech.
+
+Stanley, in his journey down the Congo, heard many stories of the forest
+dwarfs, who were described to him as a yard high, with long beards and
+large heads. Other traditional accounts of them similarly speak of their
+long beards, though Stanley saw none answering to this description. The
+first individual seen by him in this journey was four feet six and a
+half inches high, and measured thirty inches round the chest. He was of
+a light chocolate color, with a thin fringe of whiskers, his legs bowed
+and with thin shanks, the calf being undeveloped. His body was covered
+with a thick, fur-like hair, nearly half an inch long, in this respect
+agreeing with those described by Du Chaillu.
+
+The Batwas, seen and measured by Dr. Ludwig Wolfe in the middle Congo
+basin in 1886, were of an average height of four feet three inches. They
+resemble the Akka in general appearance, and have longish heads, long
+narrow faces, and small reddish eyes. They bounded through the tall
+herbage "like grasshoppers" and were remarkably agile in climbing.
+
+For several years past there have been rumors of a race of Pygmies in
+the interior of the Cameroons, but these reports were not verified until
+the year 1898, when the Bulu expedition of the German military force
+succeeded, with much difficulty, in seeing several individuals of this
+race, secured through the aid of a native chief. One woman was measured
+and proved to be just four feet high. The color was from chocolate-brown
+to copperish, except the palms, which were of a yellowish white. The
+hair was deep black, thick, and frizzled; the skull broad and high; the
+lips full and swollen. Like other Pygmy tribes, these are very shy,
+wandering from place to place in the forest, and avoiding frequented
+routes of travel. They are skilful hunters and collect much rubber,
+which they dispose of to the negro tribes.
+
+In the same year Mr. Albert B. Lloyd made a journey in Central Africa,
+following Stanley's route down the Congo. He was alone, with the
+exception of a few carriers, and had the good fortune of passing through
+the country of the Pygmies and that of the cannibals of the Aruwimi
+without conflict or injury, entering into cordial relations with both
+peoples. He journeyed for three weeks in the Pygmy forest and had
+excellent opportunities for examining its inhabitants.
+
+After entering the great primeval forest Mr. Lloyd went west for five
+days without the sight of a Pygmy. Suddenly he became aware of their
+presence by mysterious movements among the trees, which he at first
+attributed to the monkeys. Finally he came to a clearing and stopped at
+an Arab village, where he met a great number of the diminutive nomads.
+"They told me," says Mr. Lloyd, "that, unknown to me, they had been
+watching me for five days, peering through the growth of the forest.
+They appeared very much frightened, and even when speaking covered their
+faces. I asked a chief to allow me to photograph the dwarfs, and he
+brought a dozen together. I was able to secure a snap-shot, but did not
+succeed in the time exposure, as the Pygmies would not stand still. Then
+I tried to measure them, and found not one over four feet in height. All
+were fully developed, the women somewhat slighter than the men. I was
+amazed at their sturdiness. The men have long beards, reaching halfway
+down the chest. They are very timid, and will not look a stranger in
+the face, their bead-like eyes constantly shifting. They are, it struck
+me, fairly intelligent. I had a long talk with a chief, who conversed
+intelligently about their customs in the forest and the number of the
+tribesmen. Both men and women, except for a tiny strip of bark, were
+quite nude. The men were armed with poisoned arrows. The chief told me
+the tribes were nomadic, and never slept two nights in the same place.
+They just huddle together in hastily thrown-up huts. Memories of a white
+traveller,--Mr. Stanley, of course,--who crossed the forest years ago,
+still linger among them."
+
+The discovery of these forest Pygmies has directed attention to the
+Bushmen of South Africa, a desert-dwelling race, long known though
+comparatively little regarded in their ethnological significance. They
+are now by many regarded as an outlying branch of the forest Pygmies,
+the chief difference being in the shape of the skull, which is rather
+long in the Bushmen, rather short in the Pygmies. These degraded
+wanderers inhabit an area extending from the inner ranges of the
+mountains of Cape Colony, through the central Kalahari desert, to near
+Lake Ngami, and thence northwestward to the Ovambo River. Into these,
+the most barren portions of the South African deserts, they have been
+driven by the encroachments of Kaffirs, Hottentots, and Europeans.
+
+They closely resemble the Akka tribes of the north, averaging about four
+and a half feet in height, and possessing deep-set, crafty eyes, small
+and depressed nose, and a generally repulsive countenance. Their
+complexion is of a dirty yellow. Their hair grows in small, woolly
+tufts. In the vicinity of Lake Ngami, Livingstone found them to be of
+larger stature and darker color, while Baines measured some in this
+region who were five feet six inches in height. In disposition the
+Bushmen are strikingly wild, malicious, and intractable, while their
+cerebral development is classed by Humboldt as belonging to almost the
+lowest class of the human species.
+
+Close in affinity with the Bushmen, and in various respects unlike the
+dark races around them, are the Hottentots, the original inhabitants of
+Cape Colony, a race of herdsmen who are much superior in culture to the
+degraded desert nomads. They are not dwarfish, being of medium stature,
+but they resemble the Bushmen in complexion, in which and in general
+cast of features they present some similarity to the Chinese. Their
+hair, like that of the Bushmen, grows in tufts, with spaces between, and
+they are like them in language, their method of speech consisting
+largely in a series of clicking sounds. Their manner of talking has been
+compared to the clucking of a hen, and by the Dutch to the "gobbling of
+a turkeycock." The Hottentots present every appearance of being a
+developed branch of the Pygmy family, or the result of a cross between
+Bushmen and negroes.
+
+These tribes of dwarfs, now extended throughout the equatorial forests
+and over the South African deserts, were probably once far more
+widespread, inhabiting much of the continent and reaching as far as
+Madagascar, where a branch of them, known as Kinios or Quinias, are
+thought still to exist. They extended north to the Mediterranean, and
+have left their representatives in Morocco in a tribe of dwarfs, about
+four feet high, who differ widely in appearance from all other people of
+that country. As to their origin, there is a diversity of opinion. Some
+anthropologists look upon them as a primeval race, distinct from the
+negroes, who came among them later. Professor Virchow, on the contrary,
+is of the opinion that their only important difference from the negroes
+is that of size, and regards them as the remains of a primitive
+population from whom the negroes have descended.
+
+In a preceding section a statement was made as to what was the probable
+general appearance of the man-ape. It was based upon the physical aspect
+of the Pygmies, whom we hold to form the immediate derivative of man's
+ape ancestor, and to have made no radical change in personal appearance,
+if we may judge from the various ape-like characteristics which they
+still present. Mentally they have made a very considerable advance, and
+have reached the stage of men of low intellectual powers; but while
+their brains have been growing their bodies have not greatly changed,
+and the marks of their origin are thick upon them. There has probably
+been little change in size, the diminutive stature and small bodily
+dimensions being in accord with their incessant activity, while the
+difficulties of traversing the thick growth of the tropical forest may
+have helped to keep them small. As it is, they are of about half the
+size of civilized man, the weight of a full grown adult male being
+probably not over ninety pounds.
+
+Taking the Pygmies as a whole, it may be said that, though many of the
+Akkas are disproportionate in shape and tottering in gait, on the whole
+these people are well made, their protuberant paunch being probably a
+result of their habits of eating. Captain Guy Burrows says that a Pygmy
+will eat twice as much as would suffice a full-grown man, and that one
+of them will devour a whole stalk of bananas at a meal, with other food.
+Some tribes are described as physically and mentally degenerate, and
+prognathism is in many cases strongly declared, the lower part of the
+face having an ape-like contour, and the protruding chin, that feature
+peculiar to man, being very deficient. In their great abdominal
+development the adult Akkas resemble the children of Arabs and negroes.
+This, therefore, seems the retention of a primitive feature which has
+become a passing characteristic in the more advanced types of mankind.
+
+The Pygmies are not destitute of intelligence, and are capable of
+receiving some of the elements of education. Two of them were brought to
+Italy about 1875, who within two years' time learned to read and write
+and to speak Italian with much fluency. They showed themselves superior
+in school studies to European children of ten or twelve years of age,
+and one of them became somewhat proficient in music. In their habits
+they resembled children, being sensitive and impulsive, fond of play,
+and very quick in their motions. Their readiness in gaining the elements
+of education is in accord with experience in the case of other savages.
+It is when studies requiring abstruse thought are reached that the
+facility in acquisition of the savage races comes to an end.
+
+With this consideration of the characteristics and habitat of the
+Pygmies we may proceed to a review of their habits. The weapons which
+they seem to have developed during their long upward progress, and to
+which their supremacy over the wild beasts of the forest is probably
+due, consist of two, the bow and arrow and the spear. The bow and arrow
+are small and insignificant in appearance, and would be of little value
+but for the poison which the Pygmies have somehow learned how to obtain,
+and which makes them dreaded, not only by beasts, but by men. Wherever
+found, from the deserts of the south to the forest of the Welle and
+Aruwimi on the north, the poisoned arrow is a mark of affinity as
+decided in its way as their physical resemblance. Its wide distribution
+goes to indicate that it was the general weapon of the Pygmies ages ago,
+when, presumably, they had all Africa for their own, and ruled supreme
+over the animal world in that continent.
+
+It is true, indeed, that the use of the poisoned arrow is not peculiar
+to them, but is a somewhat common possession of savage tribes in all
+parts of the earth. This makes it quite possible that it was not
+original with the Pygmies, but was derived by them from other tribes. On
+the other hand, in view of its great value in giving them supremacy over
+the lower animals, it may well have been a primeval Pygmy invention, and
+these tribes the original source of its existing wide distribution.
+
+They possess more than one poison; one being a dark substance of the
+color and consistence of pitch, which is supposed to be made out of a
+species of arum. It is laid in the splints of their wooden arrows, or
+spread thickly upon their iron arrowheads, when they possess these.
+Another poison is of a pale glue color, which is supposed by Stanley to
+be made of crushed red ants. When fresh these poisons are deadly,
+producing excessive faintness, palpitation of the heart, nausea, and
+deep pallor, soon followed by death. In Stanley's experience one man
+died within a minute, from a mere pin prick in the breast. Others lived
+during different intervals, extending up to one hundred hours. The
+difference in virulence seems to have depended on the degree of
+freshness of the venom, which apparently lost its strength as it became
+dry.
+
+The possession of a weapon so deadly as this, together with the agility
+and daring and the unerring marksmanship of the forest dwarfs, seem
+sufficient to give them absolute control of the animals of the African
+wilds. The lion, the elephant, and the buffalo, the largest and fiercest
+of the beasts of field and forest, are powerless before the virulent
+venom of the arrows of the Pygmies, and doubtless for ages they have
+held dominion as the fearless rulers of wood and wild. Captain Burrows
+says of the skill with the bow of the Pygmy that "he will shoot three or
+four arrows, one after the other, with such rapidity that the last will
+have left the bow before the first has reached its goal."
+
+The bow and spear are not their only means of obtaining food. They have
+certain of the arts of the trapper, perhaps original with them, perhaps
+borrowed from their larger neighbors. They sink pits in the pathways of
+their game, covering them with light sticks and leaves and sprinkling
+earth over the whole. They build hut-like structures, and lay nuts or
+plantains beneath, for the purpose of tempting chimpanzees, baboons, or
+other apes. A slight movement causes the hut to fall on the incautious
+animals. Bow traps are placed along the tracks of civets, ichneumons,
+and rodents, which snap and strangle them. The Pygmies do not hesitate
+to attack the elephant, spearing it from beneath, and hunting it for its
+ivory, which they trade with the settled tribes. In short, they are of
+unsurpassed agility, and are the best of woodsmen and hunters, their
+skill being taken advantage of by the settled tribes, who trade with
+them vegetables, tobacco, spears, knives, and arrows for meat, honey,
+the feathers of birds, the ivory of the elephant, and other forest
+spoil. So destructive are they of game that they would soon denude the
+surrounding forest if they stayed long in one spot, so that they are
+compelled to move frequently. Schweinfurth speaks of them as cruel and
+fond of tormenting animals.
+
+They serve the settled natives in other ways, acting as scouts and
+informing them of the coming of strangers while still distant. Every
+forest road runs through their camps, their villages command every
+crossway, and no movement can take place in the forest without their
+knowledge, while they are adept in the art of concealment.
+
+The superior woodcraft, the malicious disposition, and the poisoned
+arrows and good marksmanship of these forest folks make them formidable
+enemies, and the settled tribes hold them in dread and are glad to keep
+on good terms with them. Yet they find them much of a nuisance, since
+their dwarfish neighbors claim free access to their gardens and
+plantain fields, where they help themselves to fruit in return for small
+supplies of meat and furs. In short, they are human parasites on the
+larger natives, who suffer from their extortions, yet fear to provoke
+their enmity. Burrows says that they will never steal, but that they pay
+very inadequately for the plantains they take, leaving a very small
+package of meat in return for an ample supply of food.
+
+The Pygmies build their camps two or three miles away from the negro
+villages, living in groups of sixty to eighty families. A large clearing
+may have eight to twelve of these Pygmy camps around it, with perhaps
+two thousand inmates. Their dwellings are of the shape of an oval cut
+lengthwise, and are built in a rude circle, the residence of the chief
+occupying the centre. The doors are two or three feet high. On every
+track leading to the camp, at about one hundred yards' distance, is a
+sentry house large enough to hold two of the little folks, its doorway
+looking up the track from the camp. While wandering in the forest they
+build the flimsiest of leaf shelters.
+
+The intelligence of the Pygmies is of a very low order. In the arts
+which they have been developing for ages they are experts, they are
+thoroughly familiar with the habits of animals, and as hunters they are
+unsurpassed. But in intellect they are decidedly lacking. They are
+destitute of agriculture, possess no animals except a few dogs, and
+have none of the elements of culture. The Bushmen, for instance, can
+count only up to two; all beyond that is "many." Yet this low tribe of
+desert nomads is, as we have said, skilled in the art of drawing, its
+sketches of men and animals being widely distributed through Cape
+Colony.
+
+The Pygmies seem greatly lacking in the social sentiments. Burrows, in
+his "Land of the Pygmies," says that they do not possess even the most
+ordinary ties of family affection. Such common and natural feelings of
+affinity as those between mother and son, brother and sister, etc.,
+seemed to be wanting in them.
+
+It is a fact of great interest that the Pygmy race does not seem
+confined to Africa, for tribes of men resembling the Pygmies in stature
+and in various other particulars are found in widely removed localities,
+as in Malacca, the Andaman Islands, and the Philippine Archipelago,
+while there are indications that they once spread widely over this
+island region of the earth. Those of the Philippines, known as Negritos
+or Aetas, have been somewhat closely observed and may be briefly
+described.
+
+The Negritos are similar in stature to the Pygmies of Africa, the men
+averaging four feet eight inches high, and they are like them in general
+appearance. They are darker in complexion, some being as sable as
+negroes, and all of them darker than the African Pygmies. Their features
+are coarse and ill-shaped, their nose depressed, lips full, hair black
+and frizzled. In body, like the Pygmies, they are thin and
+spindle-legged. The calf of the leg is not developed in any of these
+dwarfish people. The Negritos possess one marked and significant
+characteristic,--the separation of the great toe. This, while it has not
+the full power of movement shown in the apes, is much more separated
+from the others than in the whites, and can be readily used in grasping.
+By its aid the Negrito can not only pick up small objects, but can
+descend the rigging of a ship head downward, holding on like a monkey by
+his toes. It may be said that among uncivilized and barefoot people the
+great toe is usually very mobile. The artisans of Bengal can weave, the
+Chinese boatmen can row, with its aid, and it adds much to facility in
+climbing.
+
+The Negritos wear little clothing, have no fixed abodes, and pass a
+wandering life in the forests, living on game, honey, wild fruits, roots
+of the arum, and other forest food. Their weapons consist of a bamboo
+lance, a bow of palm wood, and a quiver of poisoned arrows. It is
+certainly a striking fact that, wherever found, from South Africa to the
+Far East, the Pygmy tribes possess the art of poisoning their weapons.
+This art is not practised by the surrounding peoples, and is the
+strongest evidence of a community of origin. It seems to point back to a
+remote period when the Pygmy peoples spread far through the tropics of
+the Eastern hemisphere, though in the region now under consideration
+they have almost vanished through the assaults of the Malays.
+
+The Negritos are very alert physically, being remarkably fleet of foot,
+while they can climb like monkeys. They live in groups of about fifty
+families, shelter being obtained by a simple erection of sloping poles
+and leaves, though in their more settled locations they built bamboo
+huts like those of the Malays. They are a short-lived race, seldom
+living more than forty years. Mentally, they are stupid and apparently
+incapable of improvement, seeming to stand at the foot of the human
+scale. Attempts to instruct them have been made, but all proved
+failures. Efforts to make agriculturists of them have proved similarly
+futile. They are hereditarily hunters, and hunters they are likely to
+remain.
+
+The only Eastern locality of which the Pygmy race remained in full
+possession until recent times is that of the Andaman Islands. This is no
+longer the case. Great Britain made a penal settlement of these islands
+after the mutiny in India, and as a consequence the Mincopies, as their
+native inhabitants are called, have begun to disappear. These islanders
+are rather taller than the Philippine Negritos, ranging from four and a
+half to five feet in height, but otherwise there is a somewhat close
+resemblance between them. Their color is dark brown or black, their hair
+woolly, and inclined to grow in tufts, like that of the Bushmen. The
+head, though large in proportion to the body, is really very small and
+of low cranial capacity. That of the men is only 1244 cubic centimetres,
+as contrasted with 1554 cubic centimetres of a large number of male
+Parisians measured by Broca. That of the women differs in the same
+proportion. Flower says that the Mincopies rank lowest among the human
+races in this respect; but it must be remembered that the brain usually
+decreases in size with decrease in stature.
+
+Small as these islanders are, however, their strength is relatively
+great. They use with ease bows which the strongest English sailors
+cannot string, though practice may have much to do with this facility.
+And they can send arrows with a force that seems out of accord with
+their size. Their agility is remarkable. Travellers speak of the speed
+of the bullet in describing their running--doubtless with some
+exaggeration. Their senses are strikingly acute. It is said that they
+can distinguish fruits by their odor when hidden in the foliage of the
+jungle, and have wonderful powers of sight and hearing. As in the case
+of the Aetas, their life is short, though the age of puberty is nearly
+as great as with us. Fifty is extreme old age with these people, and
+twenty-two is said to be their average length of life.
+
+Mentally, they are at a low level, the lowest, in the opinion of Owen,
+among the races of mankind. In counting they have words for only one
+and two, but can count up to ten by touching the nose with each of the
+fingers in succession, saying each time, "this one also." Their language
+is of a primitive type, and in various respects they manifest low
+intelligence. Yet, as in the case of the Akkas mentioned, they can be
+taught to the level of other children of twelve or fourteen years. Their
+mind, in the opinion of Dr. Brander, seems rather to be asleep than
+incapable. One child was taught to read and write, and to speak English
+fluently, and gained some knowledge of arithmetic; and this was not an
+exceptional case.
+
+It does not seem at all remarkable, when we consider the ease with which
+monkeys can be taught many arts and acts new to them, that those
+dwarfish men, like other savages, greatly superior as they are in brain
+power to the apes, should be capable of acquiring the minor elements of
+education. It is not what they can be taught, but what they have taught
+themselves, that we must consider in assigning them to their comparative
+place in intellectual development. In this respect the Mincopies are on
+a very low plane. They have not even acquired the art of making a fire,
+though this is almost universal with mankind. All they know is how to
+keep a fire alive, and in this they are very assiduous. It is probable
+that they may have obtained fire at first from volcanoes on neighboring
+islands.
+
+They are lacking, like the Pygmy races in general, in the art of
+chipping stone, one of the earliest arts acquired by man. Their only
+means of shaping stone is to put it into the fire until it breaks or
+splinters, when they can use the sharp splinters for their purposes.
+They are quite destitute of the art of drawing, and have no means of
+communicating their thoughts except by speech.
+
+Yet with these deficiencies, they have made some progress in the
+industrial arts. They make wooden vessels, and can produce pottery which
+stands the fire and in which they cook most of their food. They make
+nets of considerable size, which they use to fish with in the narrow
+streams. They have arrows and harpoons, whose points are fastened to the
+shaft by a long cord. The fish or land animal struck unwinds this cord
+in trying to get away, and its speed being checked by the shaft which it
+drags along, it is easily caught.
+
+The Mincopies possess boats, and these seem to have been early
+possessions of the Negrito populations, by whose aid they were able to
+migrate from island to island. Their canoes have nautical qualities
+which have astonished English sailors. At one time they were probably
+bold and daring fishermen and navigators, until driven to the forests
+and mountains by the invasion of the Malays.
+
+As the Pygmies were in all probability the aborigines of Africa, so the
+Negritos appear to have been the aboriginal people of the Eastern
+islands, if not of India. Quatrefages, in his work "The Pygmies," finds
+reason to believe that even at the present day traces of them, pure or
+mixed, can be found from southeast New Guinea to the Andaman Islands,
+and from the Sunda Islands to Japan. On the continent their range
+extends, according to him, "from Annam and the peninsula of Malacca to
+the western Ghauts, and from Cape Comorin to the Himalayas."
+
+In one part of India the Negrito-like population are called
+_Bander-lokh_ (literally "man-ape") by the neighboring tribes. The
+Semangs of Malacca are jet-black in color, with thick lips, flat nose,
+and protruding abdomen. In regard to the characteristic of prognathism,
+it is possessed in various degrees, the most pronounced instance being
+seen in the photograph of one of the Kalangs of Java, a tribe which has
+recently become extinct. The face of this individual is strikingly
+ape-like in profile.
+
+Everywhere that these dwarfish people are found, whether in Africa,
+India, or Malaysia, they present the appearance of being an aboriginal
+race, now largely annihilated by the incursions of larger and
+better-armed people, but once widespread and numerous. As to their place
+of origin, whether in Africa, India, or the island region, it is useless
+to speculate, as the facts on which an opinion could be based are not
+known. Wherever found they are in close relation to the black races, the
+negroes of Africa, the Papuans of Polynesia, and evidences of a
+considerable degree of mixture of races exist. This is especially the
+case in Polynesia and India, where the Negritos appear to shade off into
+the full-sized blacks through an intermediate series of half-breeds.
+
+Yet one fact of ethnological importance needs to be mentioned. The
+Negritos and Pygmies are everywhere brachycephalic, or short-headed,
+with the exception of the Bushmen, who are dolichocephalic, or partially
+so. Negroes and Papuans are strongly dolichocephalic. In this respect
+the Pygmy peoples agree more closely with the short-headed Mongolian or
+yellow races than with the long-headed negro or black races, though in
+general features they come near the latter.
+
+In truth, this race of dwarfs may be the primitive stock from which the
+Mongolians branched off on the one hand, and the Negroes on the other,
+since they are in some measure intermediate between the two. Latham says
+of the Rajmalis mountaineers, "Some say their physiognomy is Mongolian,
+others that it is African." Quatrefages is strongly of the opinion that
+the negro is of Indian origin, and reached Africa through migration. He
+bases his opinion on the negroid characters of existing tribes in India,
+Persia, and elsewhere in Asia, and on the similar characters of the
+aboriginal Polynesians. As regards the Pygmies, they probably spread
+over the whole of this section of the earth at a period of remote
+antiquity, and very long ago developed the racial differences which
+appear to exist between separate tribes. Distinctions of this kind can
+be seen in the East, and a marked one is pointed out by Stanley between
+the Wambutti and the Akka, as already stated.
+
+Wherever found the Pygmies are hunters, usually making the deep forest
+their home, and are masters through their agility, cunning, and deadly
+weapons of the whole world of lower animals. Physically they are
+probably not far removed from the man-ape, their remote ancestor, for
+they retain various ape-like characters, as in aspect of face, shape of
+body, occasional hairiness, diminutive size, shortness of legs,
+imperfect development of the calf, occasional waddling gait in walking,
+and the other particulars above pointed out. There are certainly
+abundant reasons for believing them to be, as we have suggested, the
+final result of the first great conflict in the evolution of man, that
+with the lower animals.
+
+This assured mastery once gained, the occasion for further development
+of this people ceased while they remained in the forest habitat which
+they had inherited from their ape ancestors. Here the problem of food
+getting was fully solved and there was nothing to instigate any new step
+in evolution. The period of conflict ended, a period of rest supervened,
+and, so far as the Pygmies are concerned, this period still continues.
+Though later races, their probable descendants, have left the forest
+and set up new stages of development through new conflicts with adverse
+conditions, the Pygmies remain in their resting state, and, if left to
+themselves, might continue in this state for ages in the future as they
+have done for ages in the past. As the case now stands, however,
+annihilation threatens some of them, while educative and other
+influences from without may bring to an end the physical and mental
+isolation of the others.
+
+In considering the Pygmies as they exist to-day, in fact, it is
+impossible to say how far their habits and possessions are original with
+themselves and how far they have been derived from others. There can be
+no question that they have been influenced by the customs of surrounding
+peoples of higher culture, and that they have received implements and
+methods from without. To get down to the pure Pygmy, as an outcome of
+evolution within himself, we would need to strip off all these
+adventitious aids, if we could distinguish them from the conditions
+native to the race, and thus behold him as he was before he fell under
+the influence of men of higher grade. Were it possible to isolate him in
+this way, and present his original self, we should have before us an
+ethnological specimen of the highest interest and importance, as the
+ultimate resultant of the first great stage in the evolution of man from
+his ape ancestor.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE CONFLICT WITH NATURE
+
+
+It has been a frequently debated question whether man comprises a single
+species or two or more species of animal descent. If a line be drawn
+from the Gold Coast in tropical Africa to the steppes of Tartary in
+central Asia, it will present two markedly distinct races of men at its
+two extremities. At its southwestern end we find the most long-headed,
+prognathous, frizzly-haired, dark-skinned race of mankind. At its
+northeastern end is the most round-headed, orthognathous,
+straight-haired, and yellow-skinned race. Midway between these appear
+intermediate peoples, with heads round, oval, or oblong, hair straight
+or curly, skin fair or dark, faces upright or protruding, men possibly,
+to judge from their physical character, a result of the amalgamation of
+these two distinct races.
+
+These differences may be the result of original difference in species or
+may be due to climatic and other influences of nature. Some writers
+accept the one view, some the other, and neither is sustained by any
+great weight of facts. The Pygmy race presents somewhat similar
+differences. Usually round-headed, these small men are in some
+instances long-headed, while such marked distinctions appear at times
+that Stanley classed two neighboring tribes as separate races. Here they
+present features of the Mongolian, there they are similar to the Negro.
+This goes to indicate that the distinction between the Negro and the
+Mongolian began far back in time, but it does not prove that it is the
+result of original difference in species, or that two distinct forms of
+ape separately developed into man. While this is quite possible, the
+theory of a single species has been most widely accepted. The chief
+writers on the subject think that the differences arose during that
+undeveloped stage of mankind when resistance to the transforming
+influences of nature was still weak, and when the structure of the human
+frame may have yielded readily to agencies which would have little or no
+effect upon it now.
+
+Of one thing we can be sure, which is that there was a wide migration of
+the apes in remote times. Leaving the tropics, many species spread to
+the north, extending into Europe, which at that time seems to have been
+connected by land bridges with Africa, and spreading far through Asia.
+There was probably nothing at that time in atmospheric conditions to
+check such a migration. The Tertiary climate of Europe is believed to
+have been quite mild. And the ape family is by no means necessarily
+confined to warm regions. Monkeys are found to-day at high elevations
+on the mountains of India, enduring the chill of ten thousand feet of
+altitude.
+
+Of the migration to Europe abundant evidence exists, fossil remains of
+monkeys having been found in many localities of that continent. Among
+these residents of early Europe was at least one representative of the
+anthropoid apes, the fossil species known as Dryopithecus, from the
+middle Miocene deposits of St. Gaudens, France. This species, apparently
+most nearly allied to the chimpanzee, was taller than any existing ape.
+Two or three other fossil remains, possibly of anthropoid apes of
+smaller size, have been found, and Europe seems to have been well
+supplied with apes of a considerable degree of development at a remote
+geological period. Among those may have been the form we have designated
+the man-ape, the ancestor of the human race, though no fossil relic
+attributable to such a species has been recognized.
+
+Coming down to a much lower period, we begin to find traces of man,
+first in his rudely chipped and later in his polished stone weapons and
+tools. And the bones of man himself appear, extending through what is
+known as the Quaternary or Pleistocene period. Nearly all these remains
+have been preserved by the art of burial, a fact indicating some degree
+of mental progress, though their residence in caves and the rudeness of
+their implements are evidence that the race was still low in culture.
+
+An interesting fact in connection with these ancient human remains is
+that most of them indicate a small race, with narrow skulls and
+prognathous jaws, recalling the Pygmies in general structure. This rude
+and small race continued until a late period of prehistoric time. It
+extended down from the cave bear and mammoth period through the later
+reindeer period, as is proved by discoveries made in the caves of the
+Belgian province of Namur. And there is good reason to believe that it
+continued into the age of bronze, for the small size of the handles of
+bronze weapons show they must have been intended for men with small
+hands.
+
+These diminutive people seem to have been not over four feet eight
+inches high. They were not alone, however. Men of normal height were in
+Europe with them. The northward migration of the Pygmies seems to have
+been accompanied or followed by that of a full grown people. Yet the
+Pygmies have held their own in Europe as in Africa, with certain
+modifications. In Sicily and Sardinia, which form part of a supposed
+former land bridge between Africa and Europe, a small people about five
+feet high still exist, whom Dr. Kollman looks upon as representing a
+distinct race, the predecessors of the tall Europeans. In the Lapps of
+northern Europe we possess another small race, possibly the lineal
+descendents of the Quaternary Pygmies. Everywhere the small man has
+been forced to retire into forests, deserts, and icy barrens before the
+taller and stronger man. The folk-lore of Europe is full of traditions
+of a race of dwarfs, and its conflict with men of larger mould, and
+there are various indications that this race was once widespread.
+
+What has been said here of the migration of man into Europe and his
+development in that country is preliminary to a consideration of the
+second great stage of human development, that due to the conflict with
+nature. The conflict with the animal world appears to have ended in the
+production of a dwarfish, forest-dwelling variety of man, in the lowest
+human stage of mental evolution. The conflict with nature ended in the
+development of a full-sized variety of man, dwelling largely in the open
+country and much superior in intellect, as indicated by his higher
+powers of thought and advanced degree of organization.
+
+The conflict with nature took several forms, in accordance with the
+conditions of the several regions inhabited by man. Its result was to
+subdue nature to the use and benefit of mankind, and the methods, in the
+tropical localities of original man, consisted in the reduction of
+animals to the domestic state and a similar domestication of food
+plants. In other words, one of its early stages was the development of
+the herding habit, while a far more important one was that of the
+appearance of the agricultural industries. In Europe a third and still
+more vigorous influence supervened, that of the conflict with cold and
+man's gradual adaptation to the conditions of a frigid climate.
+
+If the nomad dwarfs were the aboriginal men, all later races must have
+developed from them. While remaining in the forest and retaining their
+primitive habits, the Pygmies presented an instance of arrested
+evolution. For a new development to begin it was necessary to abandon
+the old locality and with it the old habits, and this they probably
+began to do at a remote period. When, indeed, the earth was their
+dominion, there was no reason for their remaining restricted to a forest
+residence, as they have been since the larger races took possession of
+the open country. We do not need to go back far in time in the East to
+find the Pygmy race in full control of the Philippine and other islands,
+and probably of Malacca and parts of Hindostan. Their present
+restriction and partial extermination have been due to the incursions of
+the warlike Malays. The Andaman Mincopies remained undisturbed until a
+recent date, and added fishing to their hunting pursuits. And the canoes
+which these islanders now possess were probably the invention of their
+race, and furnished the means by which the aborigines spread from island
+to island of those thickly studded seas.
+
+In Africa the only existing indication of a migration of the forest folk
+into the open country is found in the Bushmen and Hottentots of the far
+south. The former, confined to the desert, remain nomad hunters and
+present no step of advance beyond the Akka and other equatorial tribes.
+The Hottentots, on the contrary, have made an important step of
+progress. While still nomads and addicted to hunting, they have
+domesticated cattle and sheep and become essentially a herding people,
+though mentally the lowest race of herders on the face of the earth.
+
+With this change in habits, the Hottentots have significantly increased
+in stature. While still of medium height, they are considerably larger
+than their Bushmen kindred, to whom they present a close resemblance in
+other respects. This increase in size is a common result of a change in
+habits which insures a fuller supply of food with less strain upon the
+muscular organization in obtaining it; a fact of which the lower animal
+world is full of illustrations. The life of the forest and desert
+hunters is one of incessant activity, and their food supply is
+precarious. The Hottentots, on the contrary, take life easily and are
+inclined to indolence, their herds supplying them with food in abundance
+with little exertion. They retain enough of the primeval strain to be
+fond of hunting, and while thus engaged display the activity of their
+ancestral race, but ordinarily they pursue an idle, wandering life, and
+their increase in size may well be a result of their change in habits.
+
+The Hottentots, while still low in the human scale, are mentally a
+stage in advance of the Bushmen, they having a more developed social
+organization and superior powers of thought. The latter is indicated by
+their myths and legends, of which they have a considerable store, though
+they are in great measure destitute of religious conceptions, such
+religion as they possess taking in great part the primitive form of
+ancestor worship. Under the influence of Europeans they are gradually
+abandoning their old habits and adopting those of civilized life, but
+while improving in social and industrial conditions there is little
+evidence of intellectual advance.
+
+The development in method of food-getting displayed by the Hottentots
+was really but the completion of the old battle for dominion with the
+animal host. It consisted in subjecting some of the docile herbivora
+more fully to human mastership. The hunter has to do with hostile
+beasts, victims but not servants of man. The herder has reduced some of
+these animals to servitude, and no longer has to overcome them through
+the arduous labors of the chase. He is able to obtain, as we have said,
+more food with less exertion, a larger population can live in a limited
+district, and the beneficial effects upon the mind of a closer social
+intercourse are shown.
+
+But the most important event in this stage of evolution was the
+subjection of the plant world to man. For ages of interminable length
+this was not thought of. Fruits and other vegetable products formed
+part of man's food; but these were the growth of wild nature, and the
+plant world was left to its own will, with no effort to bring it under
+human control. There is nothing to show that the idea of agriculture
+ever entered the mind of a Pygmy. Of the plants surrounding him, far the
+greater number were useless for food, only the few were available; but
+the conception of favoring the few at the expense of the many apparently
+never occurred to him. There is, indeed, some crude and simple
+agriculture pursued by a few of the Negritos of Luzon, but evidently as
+an imitation of the Malay agriculture or as a result of direct teaching,
+certainly not as an original conception. The conflict of the Pygmies
+with nature has been confined to the animal world, and reached its
+highest level in the herding industries of the Hottentots.
+
+Where and when the subjugation of the plant world began it is impossible
+to say. It very probably had its origin in the fertile open lands of the
+tropics. But that it originated in the central region of Africa, or that
+the agriculturists of that region were of native origin, are both
+subjects open to question. The forest folk may have spread into the open
+country, there developed a crude agriculture, favored the growth of food
+plants at the expense of useless shrubs and trees, and gradually
+advanced in this new form of industry. This would be in accordance with
+the opinion of Virchow, who looks upon the negro as the descendant of
+the Pygmy. No great change was necessary to convert the one into the
+other. The Pygmy is negro-like in cast of countenance and bodily
+formation. He differs in size, in complexion, and in shape of head. But
+new conditions may have given rise to these differences. The fierce suns
+of the African lowlands may well have caused an increased deposit of
+pigment, changing the yellowish hue of the Pygmy to the deep black of
+the negro. An increase in size is a natural result when exertion
+diminishes and food increases. And a tendency for the head to change
+from the short to the long shape is shown in the Bushmen.
+
+On the other hand, certain anthropologists, of whom we may name
+Quatrefages, take an opposite view, and believe that the negroes
+migrated from Asia or the Eastern islands to Africa, being, like the
+negro-like Papuans, descendants of the sable or dark brown Negritos of
+the East. In this case agriculture may have originated in Asia and have
+been brought by migrants to Africa. All we know historically concerning
+it is that the earliest traceable seats of agriculture appear to have
+been the fertile valleys of India, Babylonia, and Egypt. But the known
+culture of the earth in these regions goes back only a few thousands of
+years, while for the first crude stages of agriculture we must probably
+measure years by tens of thousands.
+
+The degree of subjection of nature to man's needs, as displayed in
+tropical agriculture, was comparatively small, and its effect on the
+development of the human intellect, while important, was limited. It had
+the highly useful result of a great increase in population, the growth
+of village and town life, an advance in social relations, and the
+beginning of political relations. New implements were needed, better
+houses were erected, the settled condition of the people gave rise to
+direct efforts at education, and added the important element of
+commerce, in its earliest form, to the industries of mankind. The result
+must have been a fresh start in the development of the intellect, though
+one that probably soon reached its culminating point in the central
+tropics.
+
+The highest results of the development of agriculture in tropical
+countries, unaided by secondary influences, seem to have been those
+existing in the highly fertile regions of Egypt and Babylonia at the
+opening of the historical period. The density of population in those
+countries, due to their prolific production of food stuffs, gave rise to
+considerably developed political and social institutions, and laid the
+foundations for a great subsequent advance under the influence of
+warfare, invasion, and the other more potent causes of human progress.
+Only for such ulterior influences the agriculturists of these countries
+would perhaps to-day remain dormant in the stage of mental progress they
+had attained ten thousand years ago.
+
+In considering the existing conditions of the forest nomads and the
+African agriculturists, it is not safe to credit them with the
+origination of all the arts and implements they possess. The negroes,
+for instance, have been for ages in more or less close association with
+the Pygmies, and may have taught them many things which they would not
+have attained through their own limited powers of thought. The bow and
+poisoned arrow are very likely original with them. They possess this
+weapon throughout the wide range from the African Hottentots to the
+Philippine Negritos, while it is not a weapon of the surrounding
+peoples. The spear is probably also original. The same cannot safely be
+said of their traps and snares for game. These seem beyond their power
+of invention, and may well have been taught them by the negro tribes.
+Their habitations, aside from the mere leaf shelters, had probably a
+similar origin. In Africa the huts doubtless had their model in those of
+the negroes. In the Philippines they are pile-supported bamboo huts of
+the pattern of those of the Malays. If, then, we take from the forest
+folk the arts taught them or imitated by them, we reduce them to a very
+low level of intellect and a remarkable paucity of products from their
+own powers of thought.
+
+Similar reasoning may be applied to the settled natives of Africa. For
+thousands of years past they have been in contact on their northern
+borders with civilized peoples, numerous immigrants have made their way
+into the country, and a considerable degree of amalgamation has very
+likely taken place. We cannot, therefore, safely credit them with all
+the arts and implements they possess nor with all their political and
+social progress. No doubt much came to them from without, much was
+taught them from within, and a mixture of blood with superior races may
+have aided considerably in improving their stock. We are justified,
+then, in their case as in that of the Pygmies, in believing that their
+stage of mental and social development is only in part original with
+them, and is largely due to the influences of education and
+amalgamation.
+
+The pure negro is not a very numerous element of the population of
+Africa. He stands in a measure intermediate between the nomad Pygmies of
+the forest and the desert, and the mixed races who may be called negroid
+but cannot strictly be called negro. With their foreign blood, most of
+these have obtained foreign arts and elements of culture, and stand at a
+distinctly higher physical and mental level than the unamalgamated
+negro.
+
+For the pure or nearly pure negro we must seek the lowlands of the
+Guinea coast, the seat of the most pronounced existing negro type. Other
+localities are in the region of the Gaboon, along the lower Zambesi, and
+in the Benue and Shari basins. Here we find the true native African, a
+race strikingly uniform in aspect, and, next to the Pygmies, the lowest
+in physical characteristics of mankind. The features of structure in
+which the negro appears to occupy a position intermediate between the
+white man and the man-ape--lower than the former and approaching the
+latter--are the following: First, his abnormal length of arm, which
+averages about two inches longer than that of the Caucasian, and, when
+in the erect position, sometimes reaches the knee-pan, being little
+shorter proportionately than that of the chimpanzee. Second, his
+prognathism, or projection of the jaws--his index of facial angle being
+about 70, as compared with the Caucasian 82. Third, his weight of
+brain--average European 45 ounces, negro 35, highest gorilla 20. Fourth,
+his short, flat, snub nose, deeply depressed at the base, wide and with
+dilated nostrils at the extremity. Fifth, his thick protruding lips.
+Sixth, his high and prominent cheek bones. Seventh, his great thickness
+of cranium, which resists blows that would break the skull of an average
+European. Eighth, the weakness of his lower limbs, the broad, flat foot
+and low instep, the projecting heel and somewhat prehensile great toe.
+
+These characteristics the negroes possess in common with the Pygmies and
+the Negritos. Others of less significance could be named. One important
+character is that of the cranial sutures, which close much earlier in
+the negro than in higher races, thus checking the development of the
+brain while the body is still growing. To this many ascribe the mental
+inferiority of the negro race. A close observer records, as a result of
+long observation on the plantations of the southern United States, that
+"the negro children were sharp, intelligent, and full of vivacity, but
+on approaching the adult period a gradual change set in. The intellect
+seemed to become clouded, animation giving place to a sort of lethargy,
+briskness yielding to indolence." This is very probably the case with
+the Pygmies, who similarly reach a mental limit beyond which they cannot
+advance; but this limit is set in the adult period. In other words, the
+adult Pygmy is on the mental level of the negro child. If the African
+Pygmy is as short lived as his Eastern congener, he does not survive, as
+a rule, many years beyond the age of adolescence, and continues in a
+stage of childhood, mentally considered, until death.
+
+The conclusion to be derived from this interesting fact would appear to
+be that the negro has made a distinct and important advance mentally
+beyond the Pygmy, reaching at adolescence the limit of mental evolution
+which the Pygmy reaches at death. But the negro stops here, or goes
+little beyond this limit. His cranial sutures close, the growth of the
+brain is arrested, and the development of his mind comes to an end. In
+the white the brain continues to expand, and the closing of the sutures
+takes place later in life. Probably the latter is a result of the
+former, mental development having overcome the tendency of the sutures
+to close in early life. It may be further said of the negro that,
+mentally, he is emotional far more than intellectual, and unmoral rather
+than immoral, he being apparently incapable of comprehending the moral
+conceptions of advanced man.
+
+If we seek the Malaysian and Australasian region of the Eastern seas, we
+find there another branch of the negro race, similarly in contact with,
+and apparently derived from, a Pygmy stock. This Papuan race of blacks
+covers a wide island region, but, like the African race, has become
+greatly modified by mixture with alien peoples, largely of Malay origin.
+Its purest type is to be found in New Guinea, where it approaches the
+negro in general character, though with distinctive features of its own.
+
+The Papuan is of medium height; fleshy rather than muscular; color a
+sooty brown; forehead high, but narrow and retreating; nose sometimes
+flat and wide at nostrils, but oftener hooked with depressed point; lips
+thick and projecting; high cheek bones; prognathism general; hair black
+and frizzly. He is negroid in appearance, and is said to resemble the
+African of the coast region opposite Aden.
+
+We need not pursue this subject further. It will suffice to offer the
+general conclusion that the negroid race, while, through its change of
+habits from the hunting to the agricultural status, it has made an
+advance both mentally and physically beyond the Pygmy aborigines, does
+not appear to have advanced greatly in either particular, the negro
+reaching a mental limit at a low level, and being arrested physically
+while still possessing marked characteristics of the man-ape.
+
+For the higher development of man, under the stress of a more energetic
+conflict with the conditions of nature, we must seek the continent of
+Europe, whose human inhabitants had not only to subdue the wild beasts
+and teach the earth to bring forth wholesome food in place of useless
+plants, but also to battle with wintry climates, and overcome the
+adverse influences of cold, sterility of soil, and other hostile
+conditions of the northern zones.
+
+One of the chief problems of biology has long been that of the
+production of new varieties and species of animals as an effect of
+gradual variation in structure. This is believed to be ordinarily due to
+changes in the conditions of nature, animals and plants which have made
+accordant changes in structure being preserved, those which have not
+changed in accordance with the new conditions perishing. Where the
+conditions of nature remain uniform, species may persist for long ages
+unchanged, though even in the latter case changes in structure are apt
+to occur, since variation in species is not wholly dependent upon
+external changes. To a considerable extent it is due to causes existing
+within the organism itself, fortuitous variations being occasionally
+preserved when not out of harmony with the state of affairs prevailing
+in the external world. Or variation may occur through the establishment
+of new relations between the species inhabiting some locality while
+inanimate nature remains uniform, or through migration into new
+inanimate or animate surroundings. Variations, in short, may arise under
+the influence of any change in the general environment which renders
+necessary adaptive changes in structure. But this adaptation in some
+cases takes place in the mind, new actions or methods of meeting the
+contingency being adopted which render physical changes unnecessary. The
+problem is a highly complicated one, and no doubt many causes have to do
+with the multiplicity of effects.
+
+There have very likely been many occasions where the changes in
+structure took place rapidly, in consequence of sudden variations in
+natural conditions. Such rapid changes in conditions necessarily exert a
+severe stress or strain on organisms, either destroying them or causing
+an equally rapid adaptation, physical or mental. In such instances it is
+likely that many species perish, the change demanded being too great;
+others escape by migration to better fitted localities; and others, more
+mobile or less affected by the change, survive through adaptive
+variations.
+
+Of such periods of strain upon organic nature we know of only one in
+recent geological times, that known as the Glacial Age, the vast
+variation in climate which took place when the ice of the Far North
+flowed down in mighty billows over northern Europe and America, burying
+everything beneath its crushing weight, and bringing many forms of life
+to a sudden and untimely end. No doubt a considerable number of species
+of animals and plants perished before this frightful invasion. A notable
+instance among these was perhaps that of the American horse, which
+disappeared at about this period. Other species survived by a retreat to
+more tropical regions, to return after the invasion had spent its force.
+Still others may have survived by adapting themselves to the changed
+conditions, emerging as new species or well-marked varieties.
+
+Among the beings which passed unscathed through this extraordinary
+change in climate was apparently man. And it seems safe to affirm that
+man's contest with the glacial conditions, whose force was exerted upon
+his mind instead of on his body, was one of the most potent influences
+in the evolution of the human race. Man entered the contest at a low
+level of mental development; he emerged from it at a comparatively high
+level.
+
+No one to-day questions that man was an inhabitant of Europe during the
+Glacial Age. The proofs of this are too numerous and positive to be
+doubted. He may have inhabited America in the same period, though of
+this there still remains some doubt. Claims have been made of the
+discovery of evidences of man in Europe long before the glacial epoch,
+reaching as far back as the Pliocene and even the Miocene Age. But these
+claims have not been established beyond question, and the earliest
+generally acknowledged traces of man are confined to glacial Europe.
+
+Yet we are forced to acknowledge that if man existed in Europe during
+the prevalence of the ice age, he, or his ancestor, must have been there
+before that period. It is absolutely certain that no animal accustomed
+to tropical conditions would have chosen this period of extreme cold to
+migrate from the warm tropics to the frozen north. The fact that man was
+in Europe during glacial times is the very strongest evidence that he
+reached there during the milder preceding period, when a genial and
+uniform climate is believed to have prevailed throughout southern and
+central Europe. If we could accept as fact the seeming very ancient
+evidences of man's handiwork, we would be obliged to consider him an
+inmate of Europe long ages before the glacial epoch.
+
+If, as there is reason to believe, the man of Africa at that remote
+period was the ancestor of the forest-dwelling Pygmy of to-day, lower in
+mental level and more bestial in aspect than any of his descendants,
+yet much advanced in mind beyond the man-ape of earlier ages, then we
+may with some assurance accept this as the type of the primitive man of
+Europe. He could have reached there by the land bridges which are
+thought to have connected Europe and Africa at that time, one closing
+the straits at Gibraltar, the other extending south from Italy by way of
+Sicily. These were the routes by which the apes are supposed to have
+entered Europe, and by which man may well have followed in a later age.
+It is possible, indeed, that man reached the northern continent from
+another locality, the habitat of the Negrito race in southeastern Asia
+and the Malaysian islands. The fossil man-ape of Java, Pithecanthropus,
+is a strong argument that this was the region, or one of the regions, in
+which the development of man took place. However this be, we can be
+assured that primitive man was far more likely to widen his field of
+occupation through migration than any other animal, and may conjecture
+that he spread over Europe and Asia in the mild preglacial times, and
+perhaps even reached America, giving rise to the early man of that
+hemisphere.
+
+The advent of man in Europe was not probably followed by any
+considerable intellectual development. The mild and equable climate
+which at that time seems to have prevailed, was not likely to make a
+stringent demand on his mental resources. Food was very likely abundant
+and easily obtained, animals of the chase being plentiful, and edible
+roots and fruits by no means lacking. Thus he could readily obtain the
+means of subsistence by aid of the arts and weapons employed by him in
+the tropical forests. It is not unlikely that some changes, both
+physical and mental, took place, but these were probably not great.
+There may have been some change in color and form, a first step toward
+the distinctions which separate the white from the black man, and a
+degree of mental adaptation to certain exigencies of the new situation;
+but in neither direction were the variations likely to be very decided.
+
+Such, as we conceive it, was the man of early Europe, in great measure a
+counterpart of the forest nomad of the tropics of Africa and the East,
+the monarch of the animal kingdom, but not the lord of the earth. He may
+have made some progress in the contest with inanimate nature. Vegetable
+food in his new home was less abundant than in his old, and the
+instigation to agricultural pursuits was stronger. And though Europe was
+thickly wooded, it probably presented more open land than Africa. Both
+the incitement to agriculture and the facilities for its exercise were,
+in all probability, greater than in Africa, and man may have begun to
+cultivate the earth here at an earlier date than in his native realm. We
+are free at least to speculate that European man gained some slight
+knowledge of agriculture in the pre-glacial period, but this is
+doubtful, and the relics of early man yield no evidence in its favor.
+Mentally it is questionable if he was advanced beyond the level of the
+least developed negro tribes, and perhaps not beyond that of the forest
+pygmies.
+
+But at length the shadow of a mighty coming change began to fall upon
+the fair face of Europe. Year by year the winters grew colder. The ice
+sheet, which was in time to bury half of Europe under its chilly mantle,
+had begun its slow movement toward the south. It advanced very slowly.
+Centuries elapsed during its deliberate march. Had it moved with
+rapidity, few animals could have survived its effects. Some of them
+found time for changes in structure to fit themselves to the new
+conditions. Others perished as the wintry chill increased. Constituted
+for tropical warmth, they were unable to endure severe cold. The apes
+and monkeys may have been among the early victims. To-day the apes of
+Gibraltar are the only ones existing in a wild state in Europe, and it
+is doubtful if they are of an original stock. There is good reason to
+believe that escape by migration southward was cut off by the sinking of
+the ancient land bridges, so that the animals north of the Mediterranean
+had no choice between adaptation and annihilation.
+
+Among the animals thus taken prisoner by the glacial chill was European
+man. He could not escape, and was forced to remain, exposed to the
+alternatives of perishing from cold and hunger, or fitting himself to
+endure the new conditions which were coming upon his northern home,
+perhaps the most adverse to animal life that had ever been known. Man
+was about to be subjected to an extraordinary strain, which he could
+only meet by an extraordinary adaptation.
+
+The changes by which he met these new conditions were in a very small
+degree physical; they were almost wholly mental. In all animals of the
+higher orders, adaptive variations are apt to be in a measure of this
+character, the body being relieved from the need of structural change
+through some new activity of the mind. In man this was undoubtedly the
+case in great, probably in very great, measure. There may have been an
+increase in size and strength, some variations in color, in the
+breathing organs, in power of resistance of the cuticle to cold, etc.,
+but the principal physical change was in a growth of the brain and
+expansion of the cranium, giving rise to a less bestial physiognomy and
+an advanced mental power.
+
+One physical change that would seem necessary to enable an animal to
+endure severe cold, the development of a thick protective covering of
+fur or hair, did not take place in man. The change was more likely in
+the other direction, since the hairy cover which is possessed by many of
+the forest folk has disappeared. This loss of hair by man has been
+referred by Darwin to sexual selection, that powerful influence to
+which animals seem to owe so many physical structures of no apparent
+use, and some of them seemingly disadvantageous. In the case of man in
+the circumstances now under consideration, exposed without natural
+covering to the growing chill of the advancing ice sheet, the influence
+of sexual selection would certainly have found a strong counteracting
+force in natural selection, had not some other means of escaping the
+influence of the cold been found.
+
+As it was, the difficulty was undoubtedly overcame in great measure by
+the adoption of artificial clothing. The mind came to the aid of the
+body. The man who could chip a stone into the shape of an axe or spear
+head, was sufficiently advanced mentally to conceive the idea of
+covering his body with leaves fastened together in some way, with other
+vegetable fabrics, or with the skins of slain animals. Protection from
+the cold was also sought in caverns and rock shelters, and for a very
+long period man remained a cave-dweller. There is hardly a cavern in
+western Europe in which he has not left some trace of his residence.
+Where caves were not available, rude artificial shelters were probably
+built. Even the orang builds a shelter of this kind, and we can readily
+conceive of man at a very early period making himself a shelter of
+leaves and boughs, from which, as the cold increased, he might easily
+evolve a hut composed of a wooden framework covered with skins such as
+he used for clothing.
+
+When and where the most important of discoveries, that of fire, was
+made, it is impossible to say. Fire arising from natural causes, such as
+conflagrations started by lightning, no doubt early taught man the
+advantage of this agency as a protection from cold, but the artificial
+production of fire was a process too intricate to be arrived at by
+undeveloped man except as a result of accident. It has never been
+achieved, as we have seen, by the Andaman Mincopies. The rudiments of
+the fire-making art were possessed by primitive man. In chipping flints
+into arrow or lance heads sparks must frequently have been struck from
+the hard stone, and at times these may have fallen upon and kindled
+inflammable material. The rubbing requisite in shaping and polishing war
+clubs may have yielded a heat occasionally causing fire. In boring the
+holes necessary to make the needles found among primitive implements, a
+process resembling that of the fire-drill must have been employed. In
+short, it is not difficult to conceive of more than one way in which the
+fire-making art could have been gained by accident, though it may have
+been late in coming, since some, perhaps all, of the arts described were
+not attained until the Glacial Age. Once possessed, this important art
+would scarcely have been suffered to disappear. With its aid man could
+defy the effects of the glacial chill, so far as its direct action upon
+his body was concerned; and with it he also gained a new and efficient
+means of defence against carnivorous animals, which have ever since
+feared fire more than weapons.
+
+The discovery of methods of artificial fire-making was perhaps preceded
+by a utilization of the flames caused by lightning and other natural
+causes, the fire being conveyed by torches from hearth to hearth and
+kept alive with sedulous care. Even after artificial methods of
+fire-making were invented, our savage ancestors were exceedingly careful
+to keep their fires alive, as the Mincopies are to-day, and this heedful
+attention left its traces until very recent times. So important was the
+apparatus for kindling a flame deemed that in India the fire-twirl was
+made a god and became one of the chief deities of that polytheistic
+land. In many other places, especially in Persia, the element of flame
+was raised to the dignity of a deity and worshipped among the higher
+gods. Among the semi-civilized Americans the peril of the loss of fire
+gave rise to a serious religious ceremony. At certain set intervals all
+the fires within the limits of a tribe or nation were extinguished, and
+a period of gloom, despondency, and dread of the malignant powers
+succeeded. Then the "new fire" was kindled on the temple altar, and the
+flame was conveyed by swift messengers from hearth to hearth throughout
+the land. This done, the period of gloom was followed by one of general
+joy and festivity. The malignant deities were banished; the gods of
+light and warmth were dominant again; happiness and security had
+returned to man.
+
+The beginning of the use of clothing, of artificial shelter, and of fire
+formed one of the most vital periods in the history of human evolution.
+Coincident with them was the production of a much greater variety of
+implements than had been previously possessed, and many of these much
+superior to the older and ruder forms. The struggle with the glacial
+cold had roused man's mind out of its old sluggishness, and brought it
+actively into operation in devising means of counteracting the perils of
+his situation and fitting him to the new conditions of existence.
+
+Among the important steps of progress was very likely a considerable
+advance in the use of language, enabling the men of that period more
+readily to consult with and advise one another, to give adequate warning
+of danger, to aid in the chase or in industrial pursuits, to educate the
+young and impart new ideas or teach new discoveries to the old. The
+mental powers of the best-trained individuals then as now served the
+whole community, and nothing of value that was once gained was likely to
+be lost. Discovery and invention at that early period probably went on
+with interminable slowness as compared with the progress in later ages,
+yet even then new ideas, one by one, came into men's minds, and step by
+step the methods of life were improved.
+
+One important effect of the glacial chill needs to be adverted to. The
+severity of the weather was not the only thing to be provided against.
+The discovery of fire and the invention of clothing and habitation were
+not enough to insure man's preservation. For the severe cold must have
+greatly changed the conditions of the food supply, and the man of the
+period found it a difficult matter to obtain the first necessaries of
+life. The easy-going man of the earlier age, living amid an abundance of
+fruits and vegetables and surrounded by numbers of game animals, or
+dwelling beside streams which were filled with easily taken fish,
+probably found the question of subsistence one of minor importance. The
+coming on of the Glacial Age made this question one of major importance.
+The supply of fruits and vegetable substances was greatly decreased by
+the biting chill, and the number of food animals was correspondingly
+reduced; while through much of the year the effects of frost drove the
+fish from the streams, and cut off effectually this source of food. Man
+was brought into a situation in which only the most active exertion of
+his powers of thought could preserve him from annihilation.
+
+He now found the exercise of the art of hunting more difficult than ever
+before, one that needed a new development of courage, cunning,
+alertness, and endurance, the scarcity of animals obliging him to make
+long journeys and attack the strongest creatures. Whether or not he
+possessed the poisoned arrow, which the Pygmies now find so effective,
+cannot be said, but in all probability he was forced to invent new and
+more destructive weapons, a necessity that gave fresh exercise to his
+powers of invention. So far as our actual knowledge goes, the art of
+chipping stones into weapons and implements was not possessed before
+this period, and it may have been a result of the severe exigencies of
+the situation and the mental stimulation thence resulting. This art is
+not possessed by any of the Pygmies, the nearest approach to it being
+the splitting of stone by fire and using the splinters as weapons. Very
+likely preglacial man was similarly destitute of this art.
+
+Under the severe strain of the glacial conditions the weak and incapable
+doubtless succumbed to the cold and deficiency of food; the strong and
+capable survived, gained superior powers, devised new weapons and
+implements, and became adapted to a new and decidedly adverse situation.
+From long depending, in considerable measure, on his physical powers,
+man came to trust more fully than before in his mental faculties, the
+result being a much greater variation in the size and activity of his
+brain than in other portions of his physical structure. While it had
+become more difficult to find and capture food animals, he was at the
+same time in greater danger from carnivorous beasts, which were forced
+by partial starvation to overcome their dread of man. He was thus
+obliged to become as alert and ready in defence as he was in attack, to
+associate himself more fully with his fellows in his hunting excursions
+and his other labors, and to adapt the forms and forces of nature still
+more to his needs, his career as a tool-making animal being greatly
+stimulated by the necessities of his situation.
+
+It is conceivable that the art of agriculture may have been one of the
+outcomes of the situation in which man now found himself. The decrease
+in the food supply must have put all his powers of invention to the
+test, and the probable diminution in number and productiveness of food
+plants may have served as an instigation to the cultivation of useful
+plants, and the preservation of their products, where possible, for
+winter supply. It is not unlikely that in this way and under this
+stimulation agriculture began, and that it made its way subsequently
+from this locality to more southern regions. In this, however, we cannot
+go beyond conjecture.
+
+It seems useless to pursue this topic further, since the absence of
+facts forces us to confine ourselves largely to suggestions and
+probabilities. We have arrived at two definite hypotheses: first, that
+the original stage of man's progress upward from the apes was completed
+when he gained dominion over the animal kingdom and attained the
+condition of the forest pygmies; second, that an advanced stage was
+reached when he achieved the conquest of nature, so far as overcoming
+the exceedingly adverse conditions of the Glacial Age was concerned. At
+the close of this period of frigid cold man emerged as a higher being
+than the forest nomad or the agricultural people of the tropics,
+possessed of much superior arts and implements and with largely enhanced
+mental powers. The long and bitter struggle for existence through which
+he had passed had lifted him to a much higher level in the upward
+progress of life.
+
+He was a savage still, and at the close of the struggle he settled down
+into a second stage of stagnation. The conflict was at an end, he was
+the victor in the fight, he could rest upon his laurels and take life
+easy. In addition to his mechanical gains, man had advanced much in
+social and political relations, and continued to advance until his
+primitive form of organization was perfected. At the end of it all we
+find him existing under two conditions, depending upon differences in
+the character of the country in which he lived.
+
+In the steppes and deserts of Asia and the deserts of Africa he was a
+nomad herdsman, his life being spent in the care of his flocks and
+herds, his political organization the patriarchal, his possessions few,
+his needs small, his mind at rest, his progress largely at an end. Thus
+he still lives, and this organization and mode of life still persist,
+little affected by the long centuries that have passed and not greatly
+modified by the many wars in which he has been engaged. Mentally, the
+man of the steppe and the desert is to-day little advanced beyond his
+predecessors of thousands of years ago.
+
+In the more fertile regions of the earth man had become an
+agriculturist, each clan holding its section of the earth as common
+property. A different though primitive form of political organization
+arose here, that of the village community, in which there was no
+distinction of rich and poor, all men were equal in rights and
+privileges, all were content with their situation, and the mental
+condition was largely that of stagnation. This political condition we
+find to have been widespread over the earth, alike in the eastern and
+western hemispheres, as the one into which all developing agricultural
+communities emerged, and in which they persisted unchanged until forced
+to adopt new relations through a new influence still to be described. As
+the patriarchal clan is persistent on the Asiatic steppes and deserts,
+so is the village community on the Russian plains and among the Aryans
+of Hindostan. It has been generally overcome in other localities, but it
+was broadly extended until within comparatively recent times, and traces
+of it may still be found in many parts of the earth.
+
+The political organization of these primitive communities of herders and
+farmers was of the simplest. Over the herding clan a patriarchal chief
+presided, his authority based on his position as representative of the
+ancestor of the community. The head man of the agricultural clan was
+elected by the free choice of his fellows, his equals in rank and
+station. But the supposed most direct descendant from the clan ancestor
+was apt to be chosen. In both cases the political organization was of
+the family type, being but an extension of family government, and the
+widely prevailing system of ancestor worship had much to do with the
+reverence in which the chief was held and the authority which he
+exercised.
+
+The development of this phase of human progress did not stop here.
+Kingdoms and empires arose as direct resultants of this condition of
+affairs. In some localities, such as Egypt and Babylonia, the great
+fertility of the soil in the time gave rise to a dense population,
+largely gathered in towns and villages, where industries other than
+agriculture developed and closer social relations existed. The simple
+organization of the village or the clan was not sufficient for such a
+population, and a more intricate governmental system arose; but it seems
+to have been simply an extension of the older system of chieftainship,
+based on the family or paternal relation, and on the growth of religious
+influence and priestly control. It seems, in fact, to have been through
+the influence of religious ideas that men first rose to power and became
+supreme over their fellows.
+
+We have no concern here with the development of religious systems,
+other than to say that in the primitive agricultural community a
+succession of ideas of man's relation to the unseen arose, yielding, in
+addition to the widespread ancestor worship, a system of shamanism, or
+belief in the presence and power of malignant spirits, and one of
+fetichism, which developed into mythology, or worship of the great
+powers of nature. What we are concerned in is the fact that from these
+religious conceptions a priesthood everywhere arose, beginning in the
+simple conjurer or the healer by spells and incantations, and developing
+into a priestly establishment whose leading members had a vigorous
+control over the people through their beliefs, fears, and superstitions.
+
+This priestly system was the basis of the first imperial organization.
+Kingly authority was not gained at first through power over men's
+bodies, but through influence over their minds. There is much reason to
+believe that the chief of the clan or tribe, who led in its public
+worship and was looked upon as the representative of its divine
+ancestor, retained the influence thence arising as the tribe developed
+into the nation, adding the power and position of the high priest to
+that of the tribal chief.
+
+There is abundant evidence that in this simple and direct manner the
+imperial organization everywhere grew out of the primitive village and
+patriarchal systems. In the early days of Egypt, before its era of
+conquest began, the Pharaoh was the high priest of the nation, weak in
+temporal, strong in spiritual power; and the political organization in
+general probably grew out of the sacerdotal establishment. Very likely
+the Babylonian kingdom was organized in the same manner, though wars and
+changes of dynasty have obscured its early state. In China the patriarch
+of a nomad horde became emperor of a nation retaining ancestor worship
+as its chief religious system. He held, and still holds, the position of
+father of his people, the representative of the original ancestor, and
+high priest of the nation.
+
+In India the priestly establishment was differently organized. It was a
+democracy instead of an aristocracy. There was no high priest to seize
+the reins of government. As a result, no empire arose in India. A simple
+outgrowth of the tribal system developed, each tribe under its chief,
+while the priesthood as a whole remained the real rulers of the people.
+
+If we come to America, we discover a similar condition of affairs, the
+head of the religious establishment becoming everywhere the head of the
+nation. This was the case in Mexico, where the Montezuma was high
+priest, and derived his power largely from this position. It was the
+case in Peru, where the Inca was the direct representative on earth of
+the solar deity. It was the case with the agricultural communities of
+the southern United States, whose Mico was at once high priest and
+autocrat. It was doubtless the case with the Mound Builders, of whom
+these communities were probably the descendants.
+
+Such seems to have been the final outcome of the contest with nature,
+where permitted to develop in its natural and unobstructed way. A series
+of empires of a simple type of organization arose, their rulers uniting
+temporal and spiritual power, and becoming autocrats in a double sense,
+supreme lords of body and soul. It was in its nature a persistent type.
+Once reached, it tended to continue indefinitely, stagnation following
+the era of growth. But war and invasion have broken it up everywhere
+except in China, a country largely defended by nature against invasion
+and inhabited by an innately peaceful people. As the forest Pygmy group
+represents to-day the completion of the first stage of human evolution,
+so the patriarchal empire of China represents that of the second.
+Stagnation there long since succeeded development. For several thousand
+years China has almost stood still. It comes down to us as the
+fossilized representative of an antique system, physically active but
+mentally inert, its organization rigidly fixed, and not to be disturbed
+unless the empire itself is rent to pieces.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+WARFARE AND CIVILIZATION
+
+
+Long before the second phase of the evolution of man had been completed
+the third phase had begun, that of the conflict of man with man. The
+animal kingdom once subdued, and nature made man's friend and servant,
+the human race increased and multiplied until the borders of communities
+met and hostile relations arose between them. A fight for place began, a
+struggle for dominion, a fierce and incessant contest for supremacy, and
+for ages men locked arms in a terrible and merciless strife, in which
+the weak and incompetent steadily went to the wall, the strong, daring,
+and aggressive rose to power and control.
+
+It was the final act in the great drama of "natural selection," which
+had been played upon the stage of the earth since the first appearance
+of living forms; the last and most ruthless of them all, for the
+instigating cause was no longer merely the pressure for a share of the
+food supply, but to this was added the lust for power and place, the
+hunger for wealth and dominion, the insatiable appetite for autocratic
+control. Millions upon millions of men were swept away by the sword,
+and by its attendant demons, famine and pestilence; and still the
+stronger and abler climbed to the top, the weaker and inferior
+succumbed; and the intellectual evolution of man went on with enhanced
+rapidity as the harvest of the sword was gathered in, and the merciless
+reapers of men swept in successive columns over the earth, each a stage
+higher in mental ability than the preceding.
+
+This phase of human evolution is that of the era of human history.
+Before its advent man had no history. It would be as useful to attempt
+to give the history of the gorilla as of man in the early stages of his
+progress. History is the record of individuality, and in primitive times
+equality and communism prevailed, and the individual had not yet
+separated himself from the mass. Man had settled into the dull inertness
+of a stagnant pool, and the fierce winds of war were needed to break up
+his mental slothfulness and stir thought into healthful activity. There
+must be leaders before there can be history; the annals of mankind begin
+in hero worship; the relations of superior and inferior need to be
+established; and individual action and supremacy are the foundations
+upon which all history is built. Only by stirring up the deep pool of
+human life into seething turmoil and unrest could the tendency to
+stagnation be overcome, the best and most aspiring rising to the top,
+the dull and heavy sinking to the bottom, and the element of thought
+permeating the whole with its vitalizing spirit.
+
+When this phase of evolution is reached, we cease for the first time to
+deal with species and genera in the mass and begin to deal with
+individuals, who now emerge from the general group and stand above and
+apart like great signal posts on the highway of progress. These heroes
+are not alone those of the sword. They are the leaders in art, in
+literature, in science, in thought, in every domain; the men who stand,
+above, supreme and shining, and toward whose elevation the whole mass
+below surges slowly but strenuously upward. The third phase of human
+evolution, therefore, is that of the emergence of the individual as the
+leader, lawgiver, teacher of mankind, each leader forming a goal for the
+emulation of all below. And this condition is the legitimate outcome of
+war, which, terrible as it always has been, was the only agency that
+could rapidly break up the stagnancy of early communism and send man
+upward in a swirl toward the heights of civilization.
+
+To give the history of this phase of evolution would be to give the
+history of mankind, and would be aside from the purpose of this work.
+All that need be attempted, in support of our argument, is to present
+some general deductions from human history, indicating the leading
+features of the service man has received from war.
+
+Conflict between man and man was at first vague and inconsequential. It
+was only after settled and organized communities, based originally on
+the family relation, and held together by the possession of property in
+common, had been formed, that war became more effective in its results.
+The chief of these results, in the early days, were two: the breaking up
+of the old equality of power and possession, and the development of
+larger and more powerful communities. The head man of the village
+community, or the herding clan, possessed some delegated authority but
+no political supremacy over his fellows. Equality existed alike in
+theory and in fact. Battle between neighboring clans was the first step
+toward breaking this up. The conquered clan became subordinated to the
+victorious one, and the chief of the victors, as the representative of
+his clan, exercised an authority over the subject community which he did
+not possess at home. The degree of subordination differed from the mild
+form of tribute-paying to that of personal slavery. But in either case
+we see the old condition of equality vanishing, and that of class
+distinctions and the relation of superior and inferior arising, while
+the power of the chief advances from a delegated authority to an
+established supremacy.
+
+The second outcome of this early phase of war was an increase in the
+size of political groups. The conquered were forced to aid the
+conquerors in war as in peace; clans combined to resist aggression;
+minor communities grew into organized tribes; tribes developed into
+nations as a result of warlike operations. This growth in political
+organization was a necessary and inevitable result of continued warfare.
+The aggressors gathered all the strength possible. The assailed peoples
+did the same. Temporary alliances grew into permanent ones. Larger
+armies were formed, larger communities were organized, national
+development advanced at a rate tenfold, probably a hundredfold, more
+rapidly than it would have done had peaceful conditions persisted.
+
+Side by side with tribal and national consolidation went on the growth
+in leadership. The head man became a war chief, the war chief a king.
+Success made him a hero to his people. He grew to be the lord of
+conquered tribes; into his hands fell the bulk of the spoils; the
+relation of equality of possessions vanished as the plunder taken by the
+army was distributed unequally among the victors. Below the principal
+leader came his ablest followers, each claiming and receiving a
+proportionate share in the new division of power and wealth. In short,
+when the era of war had become fully inaugurated, the old social and
+political relations of mankind were broken up with great rapidity;
+equality of power was replaced by inequality, which steadily grew more
+and more declared; equality of wealth in like manner vanished; in all
+directions the individual emerged from the mass, class distinctions
+became intricate, and the relations of rich and poor, of king, noble,
+citizen, and slave, completely replaced the old communal organization of
+mankind.
+
+War was the great agent in this evolution. It might have emerged slowly
+in peace; it came with almost startling rapidity in war, and reached a
+degree of power on the one hand and subordination on the other that
+could scarcely ever have appeared had conditions of peace prevailed.
+With this growth of great nations came a rapid development in political
+science, in legal institutions, in social relations. An enormous advance
+was made, in a limited period, in the civilization of mankind; as a
+result, not of the devastation and slaughter of war, but of its
+influence upon human organization.
+
+It was the principle of reward for ability to which the leaders of men
+owed their supremacy. When nations were organized this same principle
+took another and very useful form. The distribution of wealth had become
+strikingly unequal. There were endless grades of distinction between the
+supremely wealthy and the absolutely poor. The wealthy were ready to
+lavish their money in return for articles of pleasure and luxury. The
+poor, in their thirst for a share of wealth, were strongly stimulated to
+inventive activity in producing new and desirable wares. Inequality
+became the mainspring of business activity; thought and inventive
+ingenuity were strongly exercised; a rapid progress went on in the
+production of new devices, new methods, and new articles of necessity
+and luxury; manufacture flourished, commerce increased, civilization
+appeared, the whole as a legitimate outcome of the conditions brought
+about by war.
+
+This phase of human evolution, as may be seen, was radically different
+from that already considered, arising from the development of sacerdotal
+influence and priestly power. They worked together, no doubt. The
+establishment of the great primitive empires, as a peaceful process, was
+greatly complicated by war, which tended steadily to increase the
+temporal power of the ruler and enable him in time to control by the
+sword alone. But it is interesting to find that long after the old
+system was practically overthrown its shadow still lay upon the nations.
+The powerful war monarchs of Assyria led their armies to conquest in the
+name of the national deity, whose vicegerents they claimed to be. The
+autocratic emperors of Rome went so far as to claim in some cases to be
+gods themselves. Even in modern Russia some of this dignity pertains to
+the emperor, as the supreme head of the national church. Old ideas are
+proverbially hard to kill.
+
+But the mission of the priesthood by no means stopped here. The priests
+rose to influence as the teachers as well as the leaders of the people.
+The members of this class, set aside from manual occupations, and
+devoted to thought upon the relations of man to the divine, played an
+important part in the development of the human mind. As a result of
+their speculative activity of thought the old religious systems sank
+into the background; the simple worship of primitive times was
+overshadowed by intricate mythological systems, splendid in worship and
+creed; cosmogonies and philosophies were devised; and human thought,
+once fairly set loose in this field, went on with great energy and
+imaginative fervor.
+
+Literature arose as a result of this activity of thought. It took at
+first the form of hymns, speculative essays, magical formulas, dogmas,
+ordinances of worship, etc. By degrees it grew more secular in form,
+until in the end secular literature arose. This was greatly stimulated
+by the conditions of inequality arising from war. In the same manner as
+the reward for merit in invention stimulated men to activity in the
+mechanical arts, so the hope of reward for literary production stirred
+up men to the composing of poems, histories, and other works of thought.
+In both directions, physical and mental, men were stimulated to the most
+active exertions by the conditions of inequality in wealth and power,
+and the consequent desire to obtain a share of the money lavished by the
+rich and the authority similarly lavished by the powerful.
+
+The broad general view here taken must suffice for our consideration of
+this phase of human evolution. It brings the story of the development of
+man closely up to the present stage of political and social
+organizations and relations. It may be said, in conclusion of this
+section of our work, that the powerful agency of war, so active and
+important in the past, has in great part lost its utility in the
+present, and bids fair to be brought to an end before the world is much
+older. It is no longer needed, nearly or quite all that it is capable of
+doing for mankind being accomplished, while the equally powerful
+agencies of commerce, travel, leagues of nations, and other conditions
+of modern origin have taken its place.
+
+War, while yielding many useful results, has given rise to others whose
+utility is questionable, and whose ill-effects it will take much time
+and effort to set aside. The inequality of power to which war gave rise
+continues in many parts of the world, and the inequality of wealth shows
+signs of increase instead of diminution. Once useful, they have
+developed to an injurious extent. The result is a state of unrest,
+discontent, and more or less active opposition, which constitutes a
+condition of permanent conflict, a deep dissatisfaction with existing
+institutions abnormal to a justly organized society. War has become in
+great measure useless; but the scaffolding from which it built up the
+edifice of civilization remains, and stands as a tottering ruin
+threatening to engulf mankind in its fall.
+
+Ever since the triumph of autocracy in the Roman empire, the masses of
+mankind have steadily protested against an inequality that is alien to
+the natural rights of man. For century after century the struggle
+against undue exercise of power has gone on, and the hereditary lords of
+mankind have lost, stage by stage, their usurped power, until in the
+modern republic they have been replaced by the servants and chosen
+agents of the people. But the autocracy of wealth still holds its own,
+and is growing more and more formidable, and against this the wave of
+opposition is now rising. Everywhere man is earnestly and sternly
+demanding an equitable distribution of the productions of nature and
+art. What the outcome of this demand will be it is impossible to say. It
+must inevitably lead to some readjustment of the wealth of mankind; but
+only the slow process of social evolution can decide what this shall be.
+
+We have endeavored in this brief treatise to trace the development of
+man from his primeval state as a tree-dwelling animal in the depths of
+the tropic woods, through the phases of his later condition as an erect
+surface dweller, his conflict with and dominion over the animal kingdom,
+his subsequent contest with the adverse powers of nature, and his final
+warfare with his fellows and emergence into civilization. Each of these
+contests has left its results; the first in the forest nomads of the
+eastern tropics, the second in the patriarchal herding tribes of the
+steppes and deserts, the village communities of Russia and the paternal
+empire of China, the third in the enlightened nations of Europe and
+America.
+
+For how long a period this mighty drama of evolution has continued it is
+impossible to say. Its first phase must have been of interminable
+slowness; its second, while more rapid, still very deliberate; its third
+of much greater rapidity, yet extending over several thousands of years.
+Millions of years have probably passed away since it began, yet the
+period involved is none too long for the magnitude of the results, whose
+greatness can be seen if we contrast man's mental development with that
+of the lower animals during this period. Physically, the development of
+man has been inconsiderable--much less apparently than that of many
+other animals. Mentally, it has been enormous. The whole of nature's
+influences, in new and often adverse situations, have been brought to
+bear upon man's mind, and as the result we have civilized man as
+contrasted with the anthropoid ape. And the end is not yet. The era of
+war in man's development is near its close, and a new era of peace,
+under conditions of advanced mental and physical activity, seems about
+to begin. Its outcome no man can predict, but it may far surpass in
+beneficial results all that has gone before, and carry man upward to an
+extraordinarily elevated mental plane.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF MORALITY
+
+
+The evolution of man from his animal ancestry has been a composite
+phenomenon, one by no means confined to the physical and intellectual
+conditions which we have so far considered, but embracing also features
+of moral and spiritual progress. The origin and growth of these need
+also to be reviewed, if we would present a fully rounded sketch of human
+evolution. So far as his physical form is concerned, man became
+practically completed ages ago, as the supreme effort of nature in the
+moulding and vitalizing of matter. When the arena of the struggle for
+existence became transferred from the body to the mind, variation in the
+body, once so active, rapidly declined; and with the full employment of
+the intellect in the conflict with nature, physical evolution ceased,
+except in minor particulars, and the organic structure of man became
+practically fixed. The human animal, therefore, as a physical species,
+has reached a stage of permanence. And this may be regarded as the
+supreme result of material evolution in animals; or at least it may be
+affirmed that, while man continues to exist, no member of the lower
+animal tribes can possibly develop to become his rival.
+
+But though man is not markedly distinct as a physical species from his
+anthropoid ancestor, the process of evolution has not ceased, but has
+gone on in him rapidly and immensely. The strain has simply been
+transferred from the body to the mind, and to the extent that the mental
+characteristics are more flexible and yield more readily to formative
+influences, the mind has surpassed the body in rapidity of evolutionary
+variation. Within a period during which the lower animals have remained
+almost unchanged, man has varied enormously in mental conditions, and
+to-day may be looked upon, not merely as a distinct species, but
+practically as a new order, or class, of animals, as far removed
+intellectually from the mammals below him as they are from the insects
+or mollusks.
+
+If now we turn from the physical and intellectual to the ethical stage
+of development, it will be to perceive as marked and decided a process
+of evolution. The change has, perhaps, been even greater, since in the
+lower animals the moral faculties are more rudimentary than the
+intellectual. But, on the other hand, the moral development in man has
+been much inferior to the intellectual. Therefore, though the foundation
+was lower, the edifice has not reached nearly so great a height, and man
+to-day stands in moral elevation considerably below his intellectual
+level.
+
+It was formerly the custom to look upon man as the only intellectual and
+moral animal, the forms below him being credited solely with hereditary
+instincts. This belief is no longer entertained by those familiar with
+the results of modern research. Evidences of unquestionable powers of
+thought have been traced in the lower animals, imagination and reason
+being alike indicated. The elephant, for instance, is evidently a
+thinking animal, and is capable of overcoming difficulties and adapting
+itself to new situations, using methods not unlike those which man
+himself might display under similar circumstances. Its gratitude for
+favors and remembrance of and revenge for injuries are evidences of its
+possession of the moral attributes. The recorded instances of displays
+of reason in the dog, man's constant companion, are innumerable.
+Intellectual attributes are still more pronounced in the ape tribe, as
+indicated in a preceding chapter, where it was argued that man began his
+development in intellect at a somewhat advanced stage.
+
+The same cannot be said in regard to his moral evolution. In this
+respect the level from which man emerged was a much lower one. If his
+moral growth may be symbolized as a great tree, it is one not very
+deeply rooted in the world below him. Yet it doubtless has grown out of
+the soil of animal life, and its finer tendrils and fibres may be traced
+to a considerable depth in this fertile soil.
+
+Before proceeding with this subject, it is important to devote some
+attention to the characteristics of the moral attributes, concerning
+which there is much diversity of opinion. There has been abundance of
+theorizing upon the principles of ethics, thinkers dividing themselves
+into two widely separated groups. In the one school, the intuitive, the
+principles of morality are looked upon as inherent in the soul of man,
+unfolding as the plant unfolds from its seed. In the other school, the
+inductive, morality is claimed to be founded upon selfishness, the
+moving principle of human actions being the desire to avoid pain and
+attain pleasure. Each school makes a strong argument, which goes far to
+indicate that each is based upon a truth, and therefore that neither has
+the whole truth.
+
+The fault would appear to lie in the attempt to make morality a unit. In
+our view this unity does not exist. While both schools may be partly
+right, neither would seem to be wholly right, and they appear to be
+pulling at the two ends of a single chain. Ethics, in short, may be
+regarded as composed of unlike halves, which unite centrally to form a
+whole. It may aid to reconcile the conflicting systems of theorists if
+it be held that the inductive half of ethics is the product of the
+reasoning powers and outer experience, the intuitive half the product of
+feeling and inner development; while both meet and harmonize in life as
+reason and feeling harmonize in the mind.
+
+It is interesting to find that it is the intuitive, not the inductive,
+element of the moral attributes that we find principally developed in
+the lower animals. This is the outgrowth of instinct, not of thought;
+the development of that principle of attraction which manifests itself
+in all nature, and which, when associated with consciousness, becomes
+what we know as love, affection, or sympathy. It is a powerful and
+pervading force in all matter, intelligent and unintelligent, and in
+conscious beings falls naturally among the emotions. Like all the
+passions, it is instinctive in origin, though it may come under the
+control of the intellect as the mind develops. In the lower animal world
+it is manifested as a vigorous attraction, the sexual. In the higher
+animals this attraction expands and grows complex. The attraction
+between the sexes becomes love, and in its full unfoldment may join two
+individuals together for life and influence most of their actions. To
+the attraction between the sexes should be added that between parents
+and children, the parental and filial, and that between associates, the
+tribal or social, the latter, though weaker, of the same character.
+
+With these bonds reason has nothing to do. It does not form them and
+would seek in vain to sever them. They belong to a part of the mental
+constitution which lies outside the kingdom of thought, and they,
+therefore, often act counter to the selfish consideration of personal
+safety. The love bond, indeed, in its full strength, seems to
+constitute a partial loss of individuality. Mates will suffer pain and
+endure physical injury for each other or for their offspring to as great
+an extent as if these constituted a part of themselves, and as if their
+actions were performed in self-defence.
+
+With this brief review of the philosophy of the ethical sentiments, we
+may proceed to a consideration of the facts. While the rudimentary form
+of the sentiment in question is manifest far down in the descending
+grades of animal life, it expands into what we may fairly term love or
+affection only in the higher forms. Romanes, in his "Animal
+Intelligence," remarks: "As regards emotions, it is among birds that we
+first meet with a conspicuous advance in the tenderer feelings of
+affection and sympathy. Those relating to the sexes and the care of
+progeny are in this class proverbial for their intensity, offering, in
+fact, a favorite type for the poet and moralist. The pining of the
+'love-bird' for its absent mate, and the keen distress of a hen on
+losing her chickens, furnish abundant evidence of vivid feelings of the
+kind in question. Even the stupid-looking ostrich has heart enough to
+die for love, as was the case with a male in the Rotund of the Jardin
+des Plantes, who, having lost his mate, pined rapidly away."
+
+Among social and communal animals the sentiment of sympathy widens to
+embrace all the members of the tribe, a characteristic which is very
+strongly manifested in so low an organism as the ant. As an example of
+this feeling among birds, Romanes quotes an interesting illustration
+from Edward, the naturalist. The latter had shot and wounded a tern, but
+before he could reach it, the helpless bird was carried off by its
+companions. Two of these took hold of it by the wings and flew with it
+several yards over the water. They then relinquished their burden to two
+others, and the process continued in this way until they at length
+reached a rock at some distance. When the hunter, eager for his prize,
+pursued them, the sympathetic birds again took up their wounded
+companion and flew off with it again over the water.
+
+Abundant instances of this sentiment of social affection could be quoted
+from the mammalia. It is by no means confined to members of a species,
+but may extend to very unlike species. No one needs to be told of the
+warm affection so often shown by the dog for its master, a love which
+will lead it to dare wounds or death in his service, or in the
+protection of his property. This altruistic sentiment strongly exists in
+the monkeys. Examples of the ardent feeling of these animals for their
+fellows have been given in a preceding chapter, and many more might be
+quoted, if necessary. It must suffice here to quote a single further
+instance cited by Romanes, and relating to a small monkey which was
+taken ill on shipboard, where there were several others of different
+species.
+
+"It had always been a favorite with the other monkeys, who seemed to
+regard it as the last born and the pet of the family; and they granted
+it many indulgences which they seldom conceded to one another. It was
+very tractable and gentle in its temper, and never took advantage of the
+partiality shown to it. From the moment it was taken ill, their
+attention and care of it redoubled; and it was truly affecting and
+interesting to see with what anxiety and tenderness they tended and
+nursed the little creature. A struggle often ensued between them for
+priority in these offices of affection; and some would steal one thing
+and some another, which they would carry to it untasted, however
+tempting it might be to their own palates. They would take it up gently
+in their forepaws, hug it to their breasts, and cry over it as a fond
+mother would over her suffering child."
+
+With the human race the love sentiment does not usually display the
+singleness of energy shown among the lower animals. It is affected and
+often checked in its development by an intricate series of influences,
+which act on savage and civilized man alike. The family formed the
+primitive human group, its linking elements being the sexual attraction
+between man and woman and the fervent affection between parents and
+children. These feelings, while strong in certain directions, were crude
+and uneven. In savage tribes to-day the wife is an ill-treated drudge.
+Yet the husband will protect his wife and children from danger at risk
+of his life. The maternal instinct seems still stronger. The mother
+often acts as if the child were an actual part of herself. Danger or
+injury to it produces in her a mental agony, the close equivalent of its
+fear or pain, and she will endure suffering and peril in its protection
+with an impulse beyond the control of reason.
+
+This sentiment, in a weakened form, extended from the family to the
+group; and the success of man in gaining the mastery over the other
+animals was doubtless greatly aided by the strong bond of social
+affinity existing between the members of a group. They worked together
+in a fuller sense than any other animals except the ants and bees.
+
+From the original social group another and closer community seems
+gradually to have developed, the group of kindred. This was a natural
+outgrowth from the family, whose bond of affection was extended to
+include more distant relatives, until there emerged the organized group
+of kindred known as the "Village Community," which seems everywhere to
+have preceded civilization. This bond of kindred gradually extended,
+combining men into larger and larger groups, until the clan, the horde,
+and the tribe emerged, their members all linked together by the reality
+or the fiction of common descent. Such was the form of organization that
+existed in Greece and Rome in their early days, and made its influence
+felt far down into their later history. It existed indeed, at some
+period, over almost all the earth.
+
+As the group widened, the bond of sympathy weakened. Love in the family
+found its counterpart in fellow-feeling in the tribe, in patriotism in
+the nation. It is undoubtedly true that desire for personal protection
+is one of the strong influences which bind men into societies. The hope
+of advantage in other directions and the pleasure of social intercourse
+are other combining forces. Yet below these rational elements has always
+abided the emotional element, the sympathetic attraction which binds
+kindred closely together, and which exerts some degree of influence on
+all members of the same group or nation.
+
+The development of the ethical principle in mankind is largely due to
+the extension of the sentiment of social sympathy. For ages it was
+confined to the immediate group. Such was the case even in civilized
+Greece, intellectually one of the most advanced of peoples, but morally
+very contracted. The Greeks were long divided into minor groups, with
+the warmest sentiment of patriotism uniting the members of each
+community, while their common origin bound all the Hellenes together.
+But this feeling failed to cross the borders of the narrow peninsula of
+Greece, all peoples beyond these borders being viewed as barbarians, in
+whose pleasures and pains no interest was felt, and whose misfortunes
+produced no stir of sympathy in the Grecian heart. Even Aristotle taught
+that Greeks owed no more duties to barbarians than to wild beasts, and a
+philosopher who declared that his affection extended to the whole people
+of Greece was thought to be remarkably sympathetic.
+
+The Romans were equally narrow in their early days, and not until the
+empire extended to the outer borders of the civilized world did this
+narrowness give way to a more expanded sympathy. The brotherhood of
+mankind, indeed, was taught by Socrates, Cicero, and others of the
+ancient moral philosophers, yet these seeds of philosophy fell in very
+sterile soil and took root with discouraging slowness. Philosophers
+elsewhere taught the dogma of universal love,--Confucius among the
+Chinese, Gautama among the Hindoos,--but their teachings have borne
+little fruit in the great, stagnant peoples of Asia, in whom the
+narrowness of semicivilization prevails.
+
+The teachings of Christ, whose code of morality was the intuitive one,
+"Love one another," have been far more effective. Christianity became
+the religion of Europe, since then the most progressive part of the
+world, and with every step of progress in civilization the Christ
+doctrine of charity and sympathy reached a higher and broader stage.
+To-day it has attained, in Europe and America, a wide degree of
+development, and the vast extension of human intercourse through the
+mediums of travel, commerce, and telegraphic communication is, for the
+first time in human history, beginning to lift the doctrine of the
+universal brotherhood of man from the plane of a philosophic dogma
+toward that of an established fact. The range of sympathy is narrow yet,
+selfishness predominates, the truly altruistic are the few, the feebly
+sympathetic and coldly selfish are the many; yet it must be admitted
+that there has been a great development of altruism during the
+nineteenth century, and the promise of the coming of Christ's kingdom on
+the earth is greater to-day than at any former period in the history of
+mankind.
+
+The love principle is the innate moral element of the universe. Its
+rudimentary form is the attraction between atoms, which expands into the
+attraction between spheres. We see a development of it in the magnetic
+and electric attractions, and a higher one in the sexual attraction that
+exists in the lowest organisms. Its expansion continues until it reaches
+the high level of human love and social sympathy. But throughout its
+whole development consciousness takes no part in its origin. While
+conscious of its existence, we do not consciously call it into
+existence. Men and women "fall in love"; they do not reason themselves
+into affection. Those we love become in a measure a part of ourselves,
+we feel their sufferings and endure their afflictions, not through the
+nerves of the body, but through the finer ones of the mind,--a plexus
+of spiritual nerves which stretch unseen from soul to soul. So strong is
+this sympathetic affinity that Comte was induced to look upon mankind as
+an organism, and it gave rise in the mind of Leslie Stephens to the
+conception of a common "social tissue."
+
+Love and law rule the universe. It is this second moral element, that of
+law, which we have next to consider. Inductive morality had its origin
+in experience; it assumed the form of social restriction, then of fixed
+law and precept, and culminated in the sense of duty--a conscientious
+avoidance of that which was thought to be wrong, and an earnest desire
+to do what was looked upon as right.
+
+The history of this phase of morality differs essentially from that of
+the phase we have just considered. The sense of duty, the conscientious
+sentiment, so highly developed in man, seems largely non-existent in the
+lower animals, so far as observation has taught us. Yet it is not quite
+wanting, its rudiment is there, and this rudiment is capable of
+development. It may be, indeed, that a highly developed sense of duty
+exists in the ants and bees, to judge from their diligent labors for the
+benefit of the community. But the clearest examples of conscientious
+performance of duty are those seen in the case of the dog, in which
+animal intimate association with man has developed something strongly
+approaching a conscience. A dog needs only to be well treated to
+display a sense of dignity and a self-respect analogous to these
+feelings in man. A sensitive resentment against injustice in high-caste
+and carefully nurtured dogs has often been observed; while shame for an
+act which the animal knows to be forbidden has been seen in a hundred
+instances. The sense of duty is occasionally very strongly developed.
+Many striking examples of this are on record. A dog will often defend
+his master's property with the greatest devotion, letting no temptation
+draw him away from the path of duty.
+
+An instance has been related to the writer in which an extraordinary
+display of this feeling was made. A gentleman, on coming home at night,
+found he had forgotten his key, and attempted to enter the house by the
+window of a room in which his dog was on duty as a night-watch. To his
+surprise and annoyance the animal would not permit him to enter, and
+attacked him every time he tried to climb in. The animal knew him well,
+responded to his attempts to fondle it, but the moment he made an
+attempt to enter the window it became hostile and seemed ready to spring
+upon him. In its small brain was the feeling that no one, master or
+stranger, had the right to enter that house at night by the window, and
+it was there to perform its duty without regard to persons. In the end,
+the gentleman was obliged to leave and seek shelter elsewhere.
+
+The development of the sense of duty and the growth of moral
+restriction in primitive man were probably very slow, much more so than
+the evolution of intelligence. The social habit of man doubtless
+rendered necessary, at an early period, some restraints on the actions
+of individuals, and these in time gained the strength of unwritten law;
+but many of them were scarcely what we should call moral obligations.
+Many such restrictions exist among savage tribes to-day, and to these we
+must turn for examples of their character. We, for instance, look upon
+theft and lying as immoral practices, but such is not the case with
+savages generally, most of whom will steal if the opportunity offers,
+while they will lie in so transparent and useless a manner as to
+indicate that they see nothing wrong in this practice. And yet the
+aborigines of India, many of whom are very immoral according to our
+standard, are often strongly averse to untruthfulness. "A true Gond,"
+says Mr. Grant, "will commit a murder, but he will not tell a lie." It
+is well known that truthfulness was one of the chief virtues of the
+ancient Persians, a virtue that was accompanied by much which we would
+call immoral. The Hindoo devotee is exceedingly tender of the lives of
+animals, while he is often callous to human suffering. Disregard of
+human suffering, indeed, showed itself strongly through all the past
+ages, men being slaughtered with as little compunction as if they were
+so many wild beasts, while frightful tortures were inflicted with an
+extraordinary absence of humane feeling. And these excesses were
+committed by persons who in the ordinary affairs of life were frequently
+tender in feeling and conscientious in action.
+
+In truth, moral development from this point of view has always shown a
+one-sidedness that goes far to discredit the doctrine of intuitive
+conceptions of right and wrong. The indications are strong that rules of
+conduct are not inherent in the human mind, that men become moral to the
+extent that they are taught the principles of justice, and grow
+one-sided in their ideas of virtue through incompleteness in their moral
+education. What we call sinfulness is largely a matter of custom and
+convention. Men cannot properly be said to sin when their actions are
+checked by no conscientious scruples, and what one people would consider
+atrocious instances of wrong-doing, might be looked upon as innocent and
+even estimable by a people with a different moral standard. Religion has
+much to do with this. The human sacrifices and cannibal feasts of the
+Aztec Indians, for instance, were regarded by them as good deeds,
+obligations which they owed to their gods. Yet this people had attained
+to some of the refined practices and moral ideas of civilization.
+
+The leading principles of correct human conduct are few and simple. They
+were arrived at early in the history of human thought, and little has
+since been added to them. They arose as results of human experience, as
+necessary principles of restraint in developing communities, and were
+nearly all extant in prehistoric times as the unwritten laws of social
+organization. What creed-makers did was to put these ancient axioms of
+morality on record, and offer them to the world as codes of religious
+observance. They could not have been of primitive origin, since the most
+of them do not exist among the savage tribes still with us. There is
+nothing, indeed, to show that any idea of sinfulness exists in the minds
+of the lowest savages, the rules of conduct which they possess being
+such regulations as are necessary to the existence of the most
+undeveloped community.
+
+Of the various codes of morals, much the best known to us is that given
+to the Israelites by Moses, the famous "Ten Commandments." The most of
+these--as of all such codes--were evidently legal in origin, rules
+necessary for the existence of a civilized society, restrictions
+controlling the conduct of men toward one another. It was the
+creed-makers who first gave such legal restrictions the strength of
+moral obligations, and announced that their infraction would be punished
+by divine agencies, even if they should escape human retribution.
+
+Many hurtful acts, indeed, came to be viewed as crimes alike against God
+and man, and punishable in the interests of both. Political and moral
+obligations thus shaded together; some of the evils of the world being
+punished by human agencies alone, some by divine, some by both. It must
+be said, however, that throughout the whole progress of human
+civilization the influence of moral obligations has been rising, while
+the necessity for political laws has declined in like proportion. In
+ancient times the penalties for crimes against the community were
+terribly severe, while religion threatened those who offended the divine
+powers with frightful future punishments. The necessity for such severe
+restrictions has long been decreasing, and the more vividly it is felt
+that immoral deeds or debased thoughts and purposes will be visited by a
+spiritual retribution, the less necessity is there for laws and
+penalties. Thus the limitation of human actions by government is growing
+less necessary than of old, in conformity with the growing sense of
+spiritual degradation in evil and of spiritual elevation in good deeds.
+Mild laws have succeeded the severe edicts of the past, and with a
+considerable section of the community restrictive laws have become
+useless, conscience taking the place of law. In such men the impulse to
+evil deeds dies unfulfilled, and the penalty for wrong-doing within
+themselves may be more severe than that which the community would
+inflict. In the souls of such men sits a spiritual tribunal by which
+evil thoughts are tried and punished before they can develop into evil
+acts.
+
+This consideration of the development of the moral principles and dogmas
+has been necessarily brief. In what direction it is leading must be
+evident to all, and we can with assurance look forward to a condition of
+human society in which conscience will have become a stronger element of
+the intellect than now, the sense of moral obligation a more prevailing
+sentiment, and legal restriction a less necessary governmental
+requirement.
+
+Of all the isms of the day altruism is far the noblest and most
+promising. In this opponent of selfism, this regard for the rights and
+happiness of others equally with our own, we find the link which binds
+together the two halves of the moral principle. The love sentiment on
+the one hand, the sense of duty on the other, meet and combine in the
+zeal of altruism, for which a truly developed conscience is merely
+another term. Those who have the good of others strongly at heart, who
+are truly Christian in a practical realization of the brotherhood of
+mankind, can safely be set free from all the reins of law, and trusted
+to do the right thing from innate feeling instead of outside compulsion.
+And, trusting in the future full development of the altruistic
+sentiment, we can hopefully look forward to a time in which the moral
+law will exist alone, conscience become the controlling force in human
+actions, and government let fall the whip which it has so long held in
+threat over the shrinking back of man.
+
+
+
+
+XIII
+
+MAN'S RELATION TO THE SPIRITUAL
+
+
+The purpose of this work has been to trace the evolutionary origin of
+man, in his ascent from the lower animal world to his full stature as
+the physical and intellectual monarch of the kingdom of life. But to
+round up the story of human evolution it seemed necessary to consider
+man from the moral standpoint, and it now appears equally desirable to
+review his relations to the spiritual element of the universe. Having
+dealt with the development of man as a mortal being, we have now to
+regard him as a possibly immortal being.
+
+This outlook into the supreme domain of nature lifts us, for the first
+time in our work, definitely above the lower world of life. There is
+nothing to show that the animals below man have any conception of the
+spiritual. It is true that there are various statements on record which
+seem to indicate in some animals, the horse and the dog, for instance, a
+dread of unseen powers, a recognition of some element in nature which is
+invisible to the eyes of man. But what these facts indicate, what
+influences affect the rudimentary intellect of these animals in such
+instances, no one is able to say. Though some vague recognition of
+powers or existences beyond the visible may arise in their narrow minds,
+it does not probably pass beyond the level of instinct, and doubtless
+lies almost infinitely below man's conception of the spiritual. In this
+stage of intellectual development, then, we have to do with a condition
+which seems to belong solely to man, or has but a germinal existence in
+the lower organic kingdom.
+
+In fact, primitive man may well have been as devoid of the conception of
+a realm of spirit as was his anthropoid ancestor. The lowest savages of
+to-day are almost, if not quite, lacking in such a conception, and are
+destitute of anything that can fairly be called religion. Where apparent
+religious ideas exist among them we cannot be sure to what extent they
+have been infused by civilized visitors, or how far ardent missionaries,
+in their anxiety to discover some trace of religion in savages, have
+themselves inadvertently suggested the beliefs which they triumphantly
+record. The Pygmies of Africa, the Negritos of Oceanica, and various
+debased tribes elsewhere, may possibly be quite destitute of native
+religious conceptions, at least of a higher grade than those which move
+the horse and dog to a dread of the unseen. It should be borne in mind
+that these tribes have for thousands of years been in some degree of
+contact with more developed races and subject to educative influences,
+and the crude religious conceptions which some travellers attribute to
+them may well have been derived, not original.
+
+Investigation in this field certainly gives us abundant warrant to
+believe that primitive man, on whose mind no influences of education
+could act, was destitute of religion, and that man's conception of the
+unseen arose gradually, as one important phase of the development of his
+intellect. Any attempt to trace the stages of this religious development
+is far beyond our purpose, even if we were capable of doing it. It must
+suffice to say that man everywhere, when he emerges into history as a
+semicivilized being, is abundantly supplied with mythological and other
+religious conceptions which indicate a long preceding evolution in this
+field of thought.
+
+For extended ages the realm of the unseen has been acting upon the mind
+of man; filling him with dread of malevolent and reverence for
+beneficent powers, inspiring him to acts of worship, peopling his
+imagined heavens with imagined deities, and giving rise to an
+extraordinary variety of deific tales and mythological ideas. The
+literature of this subject would fill a library in itself, and is almost
+abundant enough to supply one with reading for a lifetime. Yet it is
+largely, if not wholly, ideal; it is in great part based on false
+conceptions and misdirected imaginings; it rarely adduces evidence, and
+such evidence as is offered is always questionable; in short, scientific
+investigation and the critical pursuit of facts have taken no part in
+the development of religious systems, and a deep cloud of doubt envelops
+them all.
+
+It is by no means our purpose to seek to throw discredit on any of the
+great religions of the world. To say that they have been products of
+evolution is not to invalidate them. Much that is true and solid has
+arisen through evolution. To say that they lack scientific evidence is
+not to question their validity. Many of the subjects with which they
+deal lie beyond the reach of scientific evidence. Science has hitherto
+dealt strictly with the physical; it has made almost no effort to test
+the claims of the spiritual. In fact, the highest of these claims, that
+of the existence of a deity, must lie forever beyond its reach. God may
+exist, and science grope for Him through eternity in vain. Finite facts
+can never gauge the infinite. Proofs and disproofs alike have been
+offered of the existence of an infinite deity, but the problem remains
+unsolved. None of these proofs or disproofs are positive; they all
+depend on ideal conceptions, and ideas are always open to question;
+positive facts on either side of the argument are, and are always likely
+to be, wanting, and the belief in God must be based on other than
+scientific grounds.
+
+But when we come down to the lower levels of the domain of the spiritual
+we find ourselves on firmer ground. Here we are dealing with the finite,
+not with the infinite, and nothing that is finite can lie beyond the
+boundaries of investigation, however long it may take to reach it. The
+question of the existence of spirits, for instance,--that much mooted
+problem of the immortality, or at least of the future existence, of man,
+which forms so prominent an element in modern religion,--dwells within
+the possible reach of science, and the attempt to deal with it by
+scientific evidence may reasonably be made. When we pass beyond the
+realm of the senses we find ourselves in a kingdom peopled by stupendous
+forms and forces,--space, time, matter, energy, and perhaps infinite
+consciousness,--all in their ultimate conditions too vast for the finite
+mind to grasp, all presenting problems open to speculation, but beyond
+the reach of demonstration. But below these lie finite possibilities
+which the human mind may now be, or may become, capable of
+comprehending, and prominent among these lies the problem just
+mentioned, that of the existence of a spiritual substratum in man, a
+soul which is capable of surviving the death of the body. This is a
+subject with which all of us are deeply and intimately concerned, and it
+may be well to close this volume with a brief glance at its status as a
+scientific question.
+
+The belief in the immortality of man is comparatively modern in origin.
+There is no satisfactory evidence that any such belief existed among the
+old Jews, or that it arose in Palestine before the time of Christ. It
+arose at an earlier period in India and Persia, but everywhere it was
+late in its appearance as a well-defined doctrine. Yet, while positive
+evidence is wanting, there can be little doubt that crude and vaguely
+formulated ideas of the existence of man after death have been very long
+entertained. The traditions of all peoples that have a faith above that
+of fetichism contain stories of the apparition of spirits of human
+origin, and when we reach civilized peoples and more advanced religions
+we find these in abundance. The annals of Christendom are full of them.
+They are equally abundant in the centres of other developed forms of
+faith. If we could accept these legends of the emergence of spirits
+through the thin veil that separates time from eternity as established
+facts, the problem would no longer need solution. As it stands, however,
+the great mass of such narratives are utterly lacking in evidence of a
+character which science can admit. They are bare, unsustained
+statements, thousands of which would be far outweighed by a single one
+fortified by demonstrated facts. Occasionally, indeed, the story of an
+apparition has been closely investigated, and there are a few cases of
+this kind handed down from the past which seem reasonably well
+established. But any statement coming from prescientific days is open to
+doubt; methods of investigation then were not what they are now; the
+dogma of the existence of spirit is too important a one to be accepted
+on any but incontrovertible evidence, and the vast sum of statements of
+apparitions which have come to us from the past, or from the
+non-scientific peoples of the present, must be dismissed with the one
+verdict, not proven.
+
+There is one important fact, however, connected with the question of
+spiritual appearances, which is worthy of some consideration. It is a
+fixed rule in the history of opinions that beliefs founded on
+imagination or misconception have declined with the advance of
+enlightenment, and many conceptions, once strongly entertained, have
+faded and vanished in the light of new thought, or where retained have
+been so only by the ignorant and unreasoning. It is of interest to find
+that this has not been the case with the belief in spiritual
+manifestations. This has held its own to the present time, and, while it
+is largely sustained by the unintelligent and credulous, it can claim a
+considerable body of intelligent adherents to-day, even in the most
+enlightened nations. This belief, known as spiritism, with the
+manifestations upon which it is founded, lies open, therefore, to modern
+scientific investigation; and this has been, to some extent, applied to
+it, with, in various instances, rather startling results.
+
+It is certainly of significance to find that a number of prominent
+scientists, thoroughly skilled in the arts of investigation, have
+attacked this problem with the purpose of annihilating it, and have
+ended in becoming convinced of the truth of spiritism. It may suffice
+to mention two of the most striking instances of this. In the early days
+of the spiritist propaganda, Robert Hare, a famous chemist of
+Philadelphia, entered upon an investigation of the so-called spiritual
+phenomena with the declared purpose of proving them to be fraudulent.
+His observations were long continued, his tests varied and delicate, and
+he ended by himself ardently adopting the belief he had set out to
+abolish. Somewhat later William Crookes of London, an equally famous
+chemist and physicist, entered upon a similar investigation, and with
+like results. The tests applied by these men were strictly scientific,
+and of the exhaustive character suggested by their long experience in
+chemical investigation; and their conversion to the tenets of spiritism,
+as a result of their experiments, was a marked triumph to the advocates
+of the doctrine. Various others of admitted high intelligence, who made
+a similar investigation and were similarly converted, might be named.
+Two of the best known of these were Judge Edmonds, of the circuit court
+of New York, and Alfred Russel Wallace of England, who shared with
+Darwin the honor of originating the theory of natural selection.
+
+While these, and others of scientific education, were converted to
+spiritism, many investigators came to an opposite conclusion, while a
+similar negative result was reached in the investigations of several
+committees of scientists. The latest and most persistent attempt to
+search into the reality of phenomena of this character has been that
+made by the London Society for Psychical Research, whose investigations
+have extended over years and have yielded numerous striking and
+suggestive results. The most important conclusion at which the members
+of this society have so far arrived is the hypothesis of Telepathy, or
+the seeming power of one mind to influence the thoughts of another,
+occasionally over long distances, in a method that appears analogous to
+that of wireless telegraphy. The evidences in favor of this doctrine are
+so numerous that it has been somewhat widely accepted, and the title
+applied to it has come into general use. It indicates, if true,
+remarkable powers in the mind of man, capabilities that seem far to
+transcend those of the ordinary intellectual activities.
+
+This is one side of the case. The other side now calls for presentation.
+This is that the great body of scientists utterly reject the theory of
+spiritism, and look upon its manifestations as due to fraud,
+misconception, credulity, or some other of the weaknesses to which human
+nature is liable. As regards the opinions arrived at by the prominent
+scientists mentioned, these men are looked upon by their fellows of the
+great scientific body as mentally warped, or as having allowed
+themselves to be victimized by impostors. The fact that Professor
+Crookes has continued one of the most acute and deep searching of
+investigators into the phenomena of physics, and that his results in
+this direction are accepted without question, and that Professor Wallace
+is acknowledged to be one of the leading thinkers of the day, has not
+sufficed to clear them of the doubt which rests upon their sanity or
+their critical judgment in this particular, and the very attempt of any
+one to investigate the so-called spiritual manifestations is widely
+looked upon as an evidence of credulity or some greater mental weakness.
+
+This result may seem singular, yet it is not without abundant warrant.
+It must be borne in mind that the phenomena in question differ
+essentially in character from those with which science is usually
+concerned. The field of scientific investigation is distinctly the
+material; the facts with which it deals are those apparent to the
+senses, or which can be tested by material instruments; its discoveries
+are generally susceptible of but one interpretation; its methods are
+capable of being indefinitely repeated, and its results, if justly
+interpreted, are unvarying in character. None of these postulates fully
+applies to the spiritistic investigation. Here the conditions differ,
+the results vary, the methods can rarely be exactly repeated, conscious
+beings, instead of unconscious instruments, are the agents employed, and
+the secret thoughts and purposes of such agents are very likely to
+vitiate the result, and open a field of doubt which does not exist in
+the investigation of the inorganic world.
+
+This is one of the causes of the doubt of scientists. It is not the only
+or the chief cause. The latter is the fact that the claims of spiritism
+lift man into an entirely new domain of the universe, remove him from
+the great field of the material with which he is physically affiliated
+and to which his senses are closely adapted, and place him in a region
+beyond the scope of the senses, a vast kingdom which is held to underlie
+or subtend the physical, and which the ordinary outlook of the scientist
+fails to perceive. It requires no strain of the imagination to admit the
+existence of a new constituent of the atmosphere. It requires a great
+strain to admit the existence of a new constituent of the universe, a
+vast spiritual substratum to the domain of matter. Religion, with its
+ideal tests, has long maintained this to be a fact. Science, with its
+rigid material tests, sternly questions it, and demands that the
+existence of an inhabited spiritual realm shall be incontestably proved
+by scientific evidence before it can be accepted.
+
+This demand is a reasonable one. The world is growing rapidly more
+scientific, and the old method of arriving at conclusions is daily
+losing strength. Beliefs based on ideal or imaginative postulates, once
+strong, are now weak. Faith founded on ancient authority is active
+still, but promises to become obsolete. The way of science is growing
+to be the way of the world, and in the time to come intelligent men will
+doubtless demand incontestable evidence of any fact which they are asked
+to accept.
+
+As regards the phenomena in question, however, it cannot be said that
+they have been fairly or fully investigated by scientists. They have
+been set down as the work of charlatans, and their apparent results
+ascribed to fraud, collusion, credulity, and mental obliquity in
+general. The fact, that of the scientists who have exhaustively
+investigated the spiritistic phenomena, a considerable number have
+accepted them as valid, has had no effect upon scientists as a body,
+who, in this particular, occupy the position which they accuse
+non-scientists of maintaining, that of forming opinions without
+investigating phenomena.
+
+This attitude of the scientific world toward these problematical
+occurrences is quite comprehensible. Throughout the nineteenth century
+the attention of scientists has been almost wholly directed toward the
+investigation of the forms and forces of matter, the phenomena and
+principles of the visible universe. In this they entered, at the opening
+of the century, upon an almost virgin field, which they have wrought
+with great diligence and with remarkable results. It is very possible,
+however, that in the twentieth century no such undivided allegiance will
+be given to the phenomena of matter, but that the attention of
+scientists will be largely diverted from the physical to the psychical
+field of investigation, which may prove to be a far broader and more
+intricate domain than we now have any conception of.
+
+Psychical phenomena have attracted some attention during the recent
+century. One by one the problems of hypnotism, unconscious cerebration,
+double consciousness, telepathy, spiritism, and the like, all at first
+set down as unworthy of consideration, have forced themselves upon the
+attention of observers, and each of them has been found to present
+conditions amply worthy of investigation. This work has hitherto been
+performed by occasional individuals, but the number of workers in
+experimental psychics is steadily increasing, and their domain of
+research broadening, and we may reasonably look forward to results
+approaching, perhaps exceeding, in interest those reached in material
+investigation.
+
+There is a whole world before us, that of the mind and its phenomena,
+fully equal in interest and importance to the world of matter, and
+presenting as numerous and difficult problems. Hitherto it has largely
+been dealt with from the ideal or metaphysical standpoint; only recently
+has it been subjected to physical analysis, and already with striking
+results. During the century before us it is likely to attract a wide and
+active circle of investigators, with what results it is impossible to
+predict. This is the only way in which the problem of the existence or
+non-existence of a spiritual life can be solved to the satisfaction of
+those of a scientific turn of mind, and this solution must be left to
+the future to attain.
+
+In the present work we are concerned with man's past rather than his
+future. It is what man has come from, not what he is going to, that
+forms the subject of our inquiries. We have been led into these remarks
+simply as an outcome of a brief consideration of man's relations to the
+spiritual element of the universe, and may close our work with the
+suggestion that the problem of human evolution may be immensely greater
+than that involved in the study of the ancestry of man.
+
+
+
+
+THE DAWN OF REASON Or, Mental Traits in the Lower Animals
+
+By JAMES WEIR, Jr., M.D.
+
+_Author of "The Psychical Correlation of Religious Emotion and Sexual
+Desire" etc._
+
+16mo. Cloth. $1.25
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Review of Reviews.
+
+"This book presents evidences of mental action of the lower animals in a
+clear, simple, and brief form. The author has avoided technicalities,
+and has also resisted the temptation of the psychologist to indulge in
+metaphysics. Dr. Weir has relied for evidence on the results of his own
+independent study of biology at first hand, disregarding the second-hand
+data used by many of the authors once regarded as standard authorities
+in this department of research."
+
+The Nation:
+
+"The title raised in our mind some vague fears that we might find
+physiology and psychology mixed up inexpertly with metaphysics; but we
+see in the writer a close observer, who takes his stand on firm ground,
+and goes into the objective world of animals for his facts."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's note
+
+
+The following changes have been made to the text:
+
+Page 133: "these forests dwarfs" changed to "these forest dwarfs".
+
+Page 146: "adepts in the art of concealment" changed to "adept in the
+art of concealment".
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Man And His Ancestor, by Charles Morris
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