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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin Authors, by 
+George Middleton and Thomas R. Mills
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Student's Companion to Latin Authors
+
+Author: George Middleton
+        Thomas R. Mills
+
+Release Date: March 25, 2009 [EBook #28413]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDENT'S COMPANION LATIN AUTHORS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Stefan Cramme and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
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+   +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+   | Transcriber's note:                                             |
+   |                                                                 |
+   | This e-book contains many Greek quotations. In the ASCII and    |
+   | ISO-8859-1 versions, the Greek is transliterated into Latin     |
+   | letters, which do not perfectly represent the Greek original;   |
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+   +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+The Student's Companion
+
+to Latin Authors
+
+
+by
+
+George Middleton, M.A.
+
+Lecturer in Latin, Aberdeen University; Late Scholar of
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge
+
+and
+
+Thomas R. Mills, M.A.
+
+Late Lecturer in Greek, Aberdeen University, and Classical Lecturer,
+Owens College, Manchester; formerly Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford
+
+
+_with an Introductory Note by_
+
+Prof. W. M. Ramsay, D.C.L., LL.D.
+
+Aberdeen University
+
+
+London
+Macmillan and Co., Ltd.
+New York: The Macmillan Co.
+1896
+
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+Glasgow: Printed at the University Press by
+Robert Maclehose and Co.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The object of this book is to give in a convenient form all the facts
+of importance relating to the lives and works of the principal Latin
+Authors, with full quotation of original authorities on all the chief
+points. It appears to us that these facts are not at present readily
+accessible; for the ordinary histories of literature are compelled to
+sacrifice much exact information to the demand for a critical
+appreciation of the authors. The latter aspect does not enter into the
+plan of this book, which may therefore, with advantage, be used side
+by side with any work of the kind indicated, the two supplementing one
+another. The authors have been, as far as possible, illustrated from
+their own works. Special attention has been paid to the great writers,
+as the book is meant for use in the upper forms of schools and by
+students at the Universities. We had collected a considerable amount
+of matter upon the minor authors, most of which it was thought
+advisable to omit, so as not to extend the book unduly. An attempt,
+however, has been made to retain the most important facts about these,
+whenever they illustrated one of the great authors, or whenever it was
+thought that they ought to be in the hands of a student. We have
+attempted no treatment of early Latin as seen in inscriptions and the
+like, but have started with the first literary author, Livius
+Andronicus, and have gone down to Tacitus and the younger Pliny,
+dealing with each author by himself. A section has been added on
+Suetonius. A sketch of the chief ancient authorities on Roman writers
+is given at the end of the book, as well as a selected list of
+editions, which, without being exhaustive, will, we hope, be of
+service to the average student.
+
+Apart from our own study of the authors, our principal authority has,
+of course, been the _History of Roman Literature_ by Teuffel and
+Schwabe (translated by Prof. G. C. W. Warr), and we have made an
+extensive use of editions and monographs both English and foreign,
+which are mentioned where necessary. Ennius has been quoted from
+Vahlen's edition, Plautus from the new edition of Ritschl, the
+fragments of the tragedians and comedians from Ribbeck, of Lucilius
+from L. Mueller, and of the minor poets from Baehrens, the minor
+historians from Peter's _Fragmenta_, and Suetonius' fragmentary works
+from Reifferscheid.
+
+Some of our materials were originally prepared for the Humanity
+classes in Aberdeen University, and the Latin Literary Club in
+connexion with the Honours class. We have to thank some of our pupils
+for help and criticism, particularly Mr. A. Souter, of Gonville and
+Caius College, Cambridge, and Mr. A. G. Wright, of St. John's College,
+Cambridge, the latter of whom prepared the materials for the article
+on Tibullus, and gave us some useful suggestions. We are specially
+indebted to Professor W. M. Ramsay, without whom the book would not
+have been written. Professor Ramsay has read nearly the whole of the
+work as it has passed through the press, and has all along given us
+invaluable assistance and advice. For any errors in the following
+pages we are, of course, solely responsible.
+
+ABERDEEN, September, 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.--EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS,                           1
+
+  Livius Andronicus, 1; Naevius, 4; Plautus, 7; Ennius, 26; Pacuvius,
+  34; Caecilius Statius, 37; Terence, 39; Early Minor Authors, 52; Cato,
+  53; Accius, 55; Lucilius, 58; Atta and Afranius, 64; Minor Poets after
+  Afranius, 65; Authors contemporary with Cicero's youth, 67.
+
+  CHAPTER II.--THE CICERONIAN AGE,                                    69
+
+  Cicero, 69; Q. Cicero, 89; Tiro, 90; Atticus, 90; Varro, 91; Laberius,
+  97; Bibaculus, 99; Caesar and the Corpus Caesarianum, 100; Pollio,
+  112; Nepos, 112; Lucretius, 119; Sallust, 125; Catullus, 132;
+  Contemporary Poets (Cinna, Calvus, Varro Atacinus, Publilius Syrus,
+  etc.), 140.
+
+  CHAPTER III.--THE AUGUSTAN AGE,                                    147
+
+  Virgil, 147; Horace, 163; Contemporary Poets, 180; Tibullus, 185;
+  Propertius, 191; Ovid, 200; Manilius, 213; Livy, 215; Contemporaries
+  of Livy, 223; Vitruvius, 224; Seneca the Elder, 226.
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS,                                231
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, 231; Valerius Maximus, 234; Celsus, 235;
+  Phaedrus, 237; Seneca the Younger, 240; Curtius Rufus, 256; Columella,
+  258; Pomponius Mela, 259; Persius, 260; Lucan, 264; Petronius, 272;
+  Calpurnius Siculus, 275; Aetna (Lucilius Iunior), 277; Pliny the Elder,
+  281; Valerius Flaccus, 286; Silius Italicus, 289; Statius, 291;
+  Martial, 295; Quintilian, 302; Frontinus, 310; Juvenal, 312; Pliny the
+  Younger, 326; Tacitus, 336; Suetonius, 348.
+
+  APPENDIX A.,                                                       351
+
+  APPENDIX B.,                                                       356
+
+  INDEX OF SUBJECTS,                                                 368
+
+  INDEX OF TITLES,                                                   378
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+
+The authors ask me to write a word of introduction to their book; but
+an introduction is not needed when the book supplies a want and is
+trustworthy in what it says. As to the second point, the text will
+speak for itself. On the first, a word may be permitted about my own
+experience in lecturing. The young student of Latin Literature
+requires help in two ways. In the first place, he needs guidance in
+learning to recognize and appreciate the literary merit of the
+authors. Mr. Cruttwell's, and, still better, Mr. Mackail's book, will
+serve his purpose well. They are interesting to read, and they tempt
+him on to study for himself. Mr. Mackail's book, especially, shows
+delicate literary feeling, and a remarkably catholic and true sense of
+literary merit. But, secondly, the student wants a clear statement of
+the facts, certain or probable, about the life of each author, the
+chronology of his works, and their relation to the circumstances and
+personages of the time. Neither of the books which I have named is
+satisfactory in this respect. Both of them omit a large number of
+facts and theories which the student ought to have before him: Mr.
+Cruttwell occasionally even sinks to inaccuracy.
+
+About three years ago I suggested to Mr. Middleton that he should try
+to fill up this gap with a book, in which he should bring together all
+the information that a student should have ready to his hand in
+reading the more familiar classical authors, that he should keep down
+the size of his book by omitting all that the student does not want,
+and that he should set before his readers the evidence on which each
+fact rests, so that they might be led to form opinions and judgments
+of their own. Teuffel-Schwabe's great work contains a vast deal that
+the ordinary student does not want; and it does not contain a certain
+amount which will, I believe, be found in the present book, the
+materials for which have been gathered from a wide range of reading.
+
+I am convinced that much can be done to stimulate and invigorate the
+young student's feeling for Latin literature by helping him to feel
+for himself how each author's words spring from his life, and
+conversely how facts and circumstances of his life can be elicited
+from his words. There will always remain doubts as to the facts and
+dates, _e.g._, in Horace's or in Catullus' life; but any reasoned
+theory has its interest, and is better for the pupil than no theory.
+The present book will, as I hope, be found useful as an aid to that
+method of teaching and of study, provided that both teacher and pupil
+bear in mind that it is a companion to other books--not a book
+complete in itself.
+
+W. M. RAMSAY.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION TO LATIN AUTHORS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY POETS AND PROSE WRITERS.
+
+
+
+LIVIUS ANDRONICUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Livius Andronicus, according to the poet Accius, was taken prisoner
+at the capture of Tarentum by Q. Fabius Maximus in B.C. 209, and
+exhibited his first play in B.C. 197.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 72-3, 'Accius a Q. Maximo quintum consule captum Tarenti
+scripsit Livium annis xxx. postquam eum fabulam docuisse et Atticus
+scribit et nos in antiquis commentariis invenimus: docuisse autem
+fabulam annis post xi., C. Cornelio Q. Minucio coss. ludis Iuventatis,
+quos Salinator Senensi proelio voverat.'
+
+But ancient evidence is unanimous that he was the first literary
+writer of Rome, and this is confirmed by his archaic language. Hence
+the statement of Cicero _ibid._, that Livius produced his first play
+in B.C. 240, must be accepted.
+
+'Atque hic Livius, qui primus fabulam, C. Claudio Caeci filio et M.
+Tuditano coss., docuit anno ipso antequam natus est Ennius; post Romam
+conditam autem quarto decimo et quingentesimo ... In quo tantus error
+Acci fuit, ut his consulibus xl. annos natus Ennius fuerit: cui si
+aequalis fuerit Livius, minor fuit aliquanto is, qui primus fabulam
+dedit, quam ei, qui multas docuerant ante hos consules, et Plautus et
+Naevius.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, and Gell. xvii. 21, 42.
+
+Probably Accius, finding in his authorities that Livius was taken
+prisoner at the capture of Tarentum (_i.e._ in B.C. 272), wrongly
+thought of the second capture by Fabius. In spite of Cicero's
+correction, the error of Accius was, we may infer, reproduced by
+Suetonius, and thus penetrated into Jerome, who says, yr. Abr. 1830 =
+B.C. 187, 'T. [an error] Livius tragoediarum scriptor clarus habetur,
+qui ob ingenii meritum a Livio Salinatore, cuius liberos erudiebat,
+libertate donatus est.'
+
+It is probable that Livius was the slave of C. Livius Salinator, the
+father of the victor of Sena (M. Livius Salinator), and taught the
+latter; for he must have been set free before B.C. 240, and the victor
+of Sena could hardly have been born earlier than B.C. 258. This
+connexion made M. Livius Salinator when consul, B.C. 207, select
+Livius Andronicus to prepare a hymn of expiation to the Aventine Juno,
+and, probably in the same year, to compose a hymn of thanksgiving for
+the success of Rome in the Hannibalic War. For his services the
+privileges of a guild were assigned to writers and actors.
+
+Livy xxvii. 37, 'Decrevere pontifices ut virgines ter novenae per
+urbem euntes carmen canerent ... conditum ab Livio poeta ... Carmen in
+Iunonem reginam canentes ibant illa tempestate forsitan laudabile
+rudibus ingeniis, nunc abhorrens et inconditum, si referatur.'
+
+Fest. p. 333, 'Cum Livius Andronicus bello Punico secundo scripsisset
+carmen quod a virginibus est cantatum, quia prosperius res publica
+populi Romani geri coepta est, publice attributa est ei in Aventino
+aedis Minervae, in qua liceret scribis histrionibusque consistere ac
+dona ponere, in honorem Livi, quia is et scribebat fabulas et agebat.'
+
+Livius had a twofold reason for writing, (_a_) To assist him in his
+profession as a schoolmaster he published a translation of the
+_Odyssey_; (_b_) as an actor, he wrote the plays he acted, and
+afterwards published them.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium ... quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+Livy vii. 2, 8, 'Livius ... qui ab saturis ausus est primus argumento
+fabulam serere, idem scilicet, id quod omnes tum erant, suorum
+carminum actor.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--From the scanty fragments extant and from the titles
+(_Achilles_, _Aegisthus_, and six others are known) we see that these
+were close imitations of Greek plays. Thus l. 38 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Quem ego nefrendem alui lacteam immulgens opem,'
+
+is, according to Conington, a rendering of Aesch. _Choeph._ 883-4,
+
+  +maston pros ho sy polla de brizon hama
+  ouloisoin ezemexas eutraphes gala+.
+
+2. _Comedies._--Slight fragments of three of these are extant.
+
+3. A translation of the _Odyssey_ in Saturnians.[1] This, though rough
+and incorrect, long remained a school-book. So Hor. _Ep._ ii. I, 69
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare: sed emendata videri
+  pulchraque et exactis minimum distantia miror.'
+
+For examples of translation, of. Gell, xviii. 9, 5, 'Offendi ...
+librum ... Livi Andronici, qui inscriptus est Odyssea, in quo erat
+versus primus ...,
+
+  "Virum mihi Camena | insece versutum,"
+
+factus ex illo Homeri versu,
+
+  +Andra moi ennepe, Mousa, polytropon+.'
+
+Fragments 2 and 3,
+
+  'Mea puer, quid verbi | ex tuo ore supera
+  fugit?
+      neque enim te oblitus | Lertie, sum, noster,'
+
+represent _Od._ i. 64,
+
+  +teknon emon, poion se epos phygen herkos odonton?
+  pos an epeit' Odyseos ego theioio lathoimen?+
+
+
+
+NAEVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Cn. Naevius' dates can only be given approximately as B.C. 269-199. As
+he served in the First Punic War, he cannot in any case have been born
+later than B.C. 257. He was a Campanian by birth.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 2, 'Epigramma Naevi plenum superbiae Campanae, quod
+testimonium esse iustum potuisset, nisi ab ipso dictum esset,
+
+  "Inmortales mortales si foret fas flere,
+  flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam.
+  Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro,
+  obliti sunt Romae loquier lingua Latina."'
+
+Naevius' first play was produced B.C. 235; the fact that he served as
+a soldier shows that he was not an actor.
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 45, 'Eodem anno (A.U.C. Dxix.) Cn. Naevius poeta
+fabulas apud populum dedit, quem M. Varro in libris de poetis primo
+stipendia fecisse ait bello Poenico primo, idque ipsum Naevium dicere
+in eo carmine, quod de eodem bello scripsit.'
+
+In his plays he attacked the senatorial party, particularly the
+Metelli, and was imprisoned, but afterwards released.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 15, 'Sicuti de Naevio quoque accepimus, fabulas eum in
+carcere duas scripsisse, Hariolum et Leontem, cum ob assiduam
+maledicentiam et probra in principes civitatis de Graecorum poetarum
+more dicta in vincula Romae a triumviris coniectus esset. Unde post a
+tribunis plebis exemptus est, cum in his, quas supra dixi, fabulis
+delicta sua et petulantias dictorum, quibus multos ante laeserat,
+diluisset.'
+
+Pseud.-Asconius on Cic. _in Verr. act. prior_, 29. 'Dictum facete et
+contumeliose in Metellos antiquum Naevii est, "Fato Metelli Romai
+fiunt consules," cui tunc Metellus consul (B.C. 206) iratus versu
+responderat ..., "Dabunt malum Metelli Naevio poetae."'
+
+Cf. the contemporary reference in Plaut. _Mil._ 212,
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,[2]
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant.'
+
+For Naevius' freedom of speech cf. his comedies, l. 113 (Ribbeck),
+
+  'Libera lingua loquemur ludis Liberalibus';
+
+l. 108 (on Scipio),
+
+  'Etiam qui res magnas manu saepe gessit gloriose,
+  cuius facta viva nunc vigent, qui apud gentes solus praestat,
+  eum suus pater cum palliod unod ab amica abduxit.'
+
+Naevius was banished and went to Utica, where he died, probably about
+B.C. 199. It must have been after peace was concluded (B.C. 202), as
+otherwise he could have reached Utica only by deserting to the
+enemy.[3] Jerome gives B.C. 201, Cicero B.C. 204, although he says
+Varro put the date later. The verses on Scipio quoted above could
+hardly have been written before the battle of Zama.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1816 = B.C. 201, 'Naevius comicus Uticae moritur,
+pulsus Roma factione nobilium, ac praecipue Metelli.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'His consulibus (B.C. 204), ut in veteribus
+commentariis scriptum est, Naevius est mortuus; quamquam Varro noster,
+diligentissimus investigator antiquitatis, putat in hoc erratum
+vitamque Naevi producit longius.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--There are extant seven titles and a very few
+fragments.
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are titles of about thirty-four _palliatae_,[4]
+and upwards of one hundred and thirty lines extant.
+
+Naevius seems to have adopted _contaminatio_[5] in his plays. Ter.
+_Andr._ prol. 15,
+
+  'Id isti vituperant factum atque in eo disputant
+  contaminari non decere fabulas ...
+  qui quom hunc accusant, Naevium Plautum Ennium
+  accusant.'
+
+3. _Praetextae._--Tragedies on Roman subjects, 'Clastidium' and
+'Romulus.' The _praetexta_ was invented by Naevius.
+
+4. _Bellum Punicum_, an epic poem in Saturnians, divided later into
+seven Books. About seventy-four lines are extant.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 2, 'C. Octavius Lampadio Naevii Punicum bellum, uno
+volumine et continenti scriptura expositum, divisit in septem libros.'
+
+Books i. and ii. contained the mythical origin of Rome and Carthage,
+Aeneas' flight from Troy and his sojourn at the court of Dido in
+Carthage. In Book iii. the history of the First Punic War commenced.
+The work was imitated by Ennius and Virgil, sometimes closely by the
+latter. Cf. Servius on _Aen._ i. 198-207, 'O socii,' etc. 'Et totus
+hic locus de Naevio belli Punici libro translatus est.' _Ibid._ i.
+273, 'Naevius et Ennius Aeneae ex filia nepotem Romulum conditorem
+urbis tradunt.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 2, 31, 'In principio Aeneidos tempestas
+describitur et Venus apud Iovem queritur ... Hic locus totus sumptus a
+Naevio est ex primo libro belli Punici.'
+
+
+
+PLAUTUS
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Plautus' full name, T. Maccius Plautus, was discovered by Ritschl in
+the Ambrosian (Milan) palimpsest, which gives, _e.g._ after the two
+plays named: 'T. Macci Plauti Casina explicit': 'Macci Plauti Epidicus
+explicit.' In Plaut. _Merc._ l. 6, the MS. reading _Mactici_ was
+emended by Ritschl to _Macci Titi_; and in _Asin._ prol. l. 11,
+_Maccius_ is the right reading. The MSS. read _Maccus_, which Buecheler
+(_Rhein. Mus._ 41, 12) takes to mean 'buffoon,' or 'writer of
+comedies,' from which Plautus took his family name, Maccius, on
+becoming a Roman citizen. 'M. Accius,' formerly supposed to be the
+name, is found in no MS., but 'Accius' is found in _Epitome Festi_, p.
+239, which gives us the poet's birthplace, Sarsina in Umbria, and
+suggests another derivation for his name: 'Ploti appellantur, qui sunt
+planis pedibus, unde et poeta Accius, quia Umber Sarsinas erat, a
+pedum planitie initio Plotus, postea Plautus est dictus.'
+
+In the corresponding passage of Festus, we have only '...us poeta,
+quia Umber,' etc. The name of the poet is lost, and the epitomizer has
+doubtless made a mistake.
+
+Sarsina is mentioned once by Plautus, _Mostell._ 770,
+
+  'Quid? Sarsinatis ecquast, si Umbram non habes?'
+
+The year of his birth can only be conjectured; he died B.C. 184.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 60, 'Plautus P. Claudio L. Porcio coss. mortuus est.'
+
+Jerome erroneously assigns Plautus' death to yr. Abr. 1817 = B.C. 200,
+'Plautus ex Umbria Sarsinas Romae moritur, qui propter annonae
+difficultatem ad molas manuarias pistori se locaverat; ibi quotiens ab
+opere vacaret, scribere fabulas et vendere sollicitius consueverat.'
+
+From this notice, and from the passage of Gellius below, we learn that
+Plautus lost in foreign trade the money he had made as an assistant to
+scenic artists, and had to work for his living in a flour mill at
+Rome, during which time he wrote plays, and continued to do so
+afterwards.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 14, 'Saturionem et Addictum et tertiam quamdam, cuius
+nunc mihi nomen non subpetit, in pistrino eum scripsisse, Varro et
+plerique alii memoriae tradiderunt cum, pecunia omni, quam in operis
+artificum scaenicorum pepererat, in mercatibus perdita inops Romam
+redisset et ob quaerendum victum ad circumagendas molas, quae
+"trusatiles" appellantur, operam pistori locasset.'
+
+We conclude from these varied employments that Plautus can hardly have
+been less than thirty years old when he began to write plays. His
+intimacy with the Scipios (Cic. _de Rep._ iv., apud Augustin. _Civ.
+D._ ii. 9), who fell in Spain B.C. 212, leads to the conclusion that
+he must have been well established as an author by that date, though
+none of his plays can be proved to have been written so early. If we
+suppose that his career as a playwright commenced at thirty, and that
+his acquaintance with the Scipios lasted ten years, the year of his
+birth must have been about B.C. 254. This view is supported (1) by the
+notice in Cic. _Brut._ 73, that Plautus had produced many plays by
+B.C. 197; (2) by Cic. _Cato maior_, 50, 'quam gaudebat ... Truculento
+Plautus, quam Pseudolo,' where Plautus is said to have written these
+plays as _senex_. Now the _Pseudolus_ was written B.C. 191; and
+therefore, as a man could not be called _senex_ till he was at least
+sixty, his birth must have been not later than B.C. 251.
+
+Plautus is said to have written his own epitaph.
+
+Gell. i. 24, 3, 'Epigramma Plauti, quod dubitassemus an Plauti foret,
+nisi a M. Varrone positum esset in libro de poetis primo:
+
+  "Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,
+  Scaena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque,
+  et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Plautus' plays were early criticized as to their genuineness. Gell.
+iii. 3, 1-3, after mentioning the canons of Aelius Stilo, Sedigitus,
+etc., says that Varro admitted twenty-one plays which were given by
+all the canons, and added some more. 'Nam praeter illas unam et
+viginti, quae Varronianae vocantur, quas idcirco a ceteris segregavit,
+quoniam dubiosae non erant, set consensu omnium Plauti esse
+censebantur, quasdam item alias probavit adductus filo atque facetia
+sermonis Plauto congruentis easque iam nominibus aliorum occupatas
+Plauto vindicavit.'
+
+About one hundred and thirty plays were current under the name of
+Plautus; the theory of Varro (Gell. iii. 3, 10) that these were
+written by a certain Plautius is improbable.
+
+Gell. iii. 3, 11, 'Feruntur sub Plauti nomine comoediae circiter
+centum atque triginta.'
+
+There is little doubt that the 'fabulae Varronianae' are those which
+have come down to us with the addition of the _Vidularia_, which was
+lost between the sixth and the eleventh centuries. The number of
+Varro's second class, consisting of those pieces that stood in most of
+the indices and exhibited Plautine features, Ritschl has fixed at
+nineteen, from citations in Varro _de lingua Latina_. Besides the
+genuine plays the names of thirty-two others are known.
+
+The extant plays[6] are as follows:
+
+1. _Amphitruo_, a _tragicomoedia_, the only play of Plautus of the
+kind. Prol. 59,
+
+  'Faciam ut conmixta sit haec tragicomoedia.'
+
+The original and the date are unknown. The play shows the features of
+the Sicilian _Rhinthonica_.[7] About three hundred lines have been
+lost after Act. iv., Scene 2. The scene is Thebes, which, with Roman
+carelessness or ignorance, is made a harbour; cf. ll. 629 _sqq._
+
+2. _Asinaria_ (sc. _fabula_), from the +Onagos+ of Demophilus,
+supposed to have been a writer of the New Comedy. Prol. 10-12,
+
+  'Huic nomen Graece Onagost fabulae;
+  Demophilus scripsit, Maccius vortit barbare.
+  Asinariam volt esse, si per vos licet.'
+
+Authorities assign the play to about B.C. 194. The scene is Athens.
+
+3. _Aulularia_ (from _aulula_, 'a little pot.')--Neither the original
+nor the exact time of composition is known. From Megadorus' tirade
+against the luxury of women, ll. 478 _sqq._, it has been inferred that
+the play was written after the repeal of the Oppian Law in B.C. 195.
+The end of the play is lost. The scene is Athens.
+
+4. _Captivi_, a piece without active interest (_stataria_), without
+female characters, and claiming a moral purpose; l. 1029,
+
+  'Spectatores, ad pudicos mores facta haec fabulast.'
+
+Some authorities think that the parasite (Ergasilus) is an addition to
+the original play, which may have belonged to the New Comedy. The
+scene is in Aetolia.
+
+5. _Curculio_, so called from the name of the parasite. The Greek
+original is unknown; but ll. 462-86 contain a speech from the
+Choragus, in the style of the +parabasis+ of the Old Comedy. In
+l. 509,
+
+  'Rogitationes plurumas propter vos populus scivit
+  quas vos rogatas rumpitis,'
+
+there is probably an allusion to the Lex Sempronia de pecunia credita,
+B.C. 193. The scene is Epidaurus.
+
+6. _Casina_, so called from a slave-girl introduced. The original was
+the +Kleroumenoi+ of Diphilus. Prol. 31,
+
+  'Clerumenoe vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Sortientes. Deiphilus
+  hanc Graece scripsit.'
+
+The inference from l. 979, 'Nam ecastor nunc Bacchae nullae ludunt,'
+that the play was written after the S.C. de Bacchanalibus in B.C. 186,
+is improbable; the words rather show, as Mommsen[8] believes, an
+anterior date, when it was not yet dangerous to speak of the
+Bacchanalia. Some authorities find support for the latter date in the
+words of the prologue, ll. 9-20 (written after the poet's death). The
+text of the play has suffered greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+7. _Cistellaria_.--This play contains a reference to the war against
+Hannibal then going on; ll. 197 _sqq._,
+
+             'Bene valete, et vincite
+  virtute vera, quod fecistis antidhac, ...
+  ut vobis victi Poeni poenas sufferant.'
+
+According to Ritschl, about 600 verses have been lost. The scene is
+Sicyon.
+
+8. _Epidicus_.--This play is referred to in the _Bacchides_, ll. 213-5
+(spoken by Chrysalus), where the unpopularity of the play is
+attributed to the acting of Pellio.
+
+  'Non res, sed actor mihi cor odio sauciat.
+  Etiam Epidicum, quam ego fabulam aeque ac me ipsum amo,
+  nullam aeque invitus specto, si agit Pellio.'
+
+_Epid._ 222,
+
+  'Sed vestita, aurata, ornata ut lepide! ut concinne! ut nove!' etc.,
+
+shows that the piece was written after the repeal of the Lex Oppia
+Sumptuaria, B.C. 195. The plot is complicated, and _contaminatio_ is
+assumed by some authorities. The play contains only seven hundred and
+thirty-three lines, and some believe it to be a stage edition. The
+scene is Athens.
+
+9. _Bacchides_.--The first part of this play, along with the last part
+of the _Aulularia_,[9] has been lost, as also the prefaces of the
+grammarians, so that we do not know what was in the first part. The
+original was probably Menander's +Dis exapaton+. Plautus
+appears to refer to this twice, l. 1090,
+
+  'Perii: pudet. Hocine me aetatis _ludos bis factum_ esse indigne';
+
+l. 1128,
+
+  'Pol hodie altera iam _bis detonsa_ certost.'
+
+The line, +hon hoi theoi philousin, apothneskei neos+, which
+belongs to the same play (Stobaeus, _Serm._ 120, 8) is translated in
+ll. 816-7,
+
+    'quem di diligunt
+  adulescens moritur.'
+
+The date is pretty well fixed by l. 1073,
+
+  'Quod non triumpho: pervolgatumst, nil moror.'
+
+Now, triumphs were not frequent till after the Second Punic War, and
+were especially frequent from B.C. 197 to 187. The play probably
+refers to the four triumphs of B.C. 189, and may have been brought out
+in that or the following year. The scene is Athens.
+
+10. _Mostellaria_ (sc. _fabula_, 'a play dealing with a ghost,' from
+_mostellum_, dim. of _monstrum_).--The play is quoted by Festus, p.
+166, as 'Mostellaria'; pp. 162 and 305, as 'Phasma.' According to
+Ritschl, the +Phasma+ of Philemon was Plautus' model. The
+reference to _unguenta exotica_ (l. 42) points to a late date, when
+Asiatic luxury was growing common. The play is imitated in Ben
+Jonson's _Alchemist_. The scene is Athens.
+
+11. _Menaechmi_.--If ll. 409 _sqq._, 'Syracusis ... ubi rex ... nunc
+Hierost,' were written independently by Plautus, the date must be
+before B.C. 215; but the reference may only mean that the Greek
+original was composed between 275 and 215 B.C. It has been conjectured
+that a comedy by Posidippus (possibly called +Didymoi+) was
+the original, from Athenaeus, xiv. p. 658, +oude gar an heuroi
+tis hymon doulon tina mageiron en komodia plen para Poseidippo
+mono+. Now, the _Menaechmi_ is the only play of Plautus where a cook
+is a house-slave, Cylindrus being the slave of Erotium; in his other
+plays cooks are hired from the Forum. The scene is Epidamnus.
+
+12. _Miles Gloriosus_.--In ll. 211-2 (the only personal allusion in
+Plautus),
+
+  'Nam os columnatum poetae esse indaudivi barbaro,
+  quoi bini custodes semper totis horis occubant,'
+
+we have a reference to the imprisonment of Naevius, which shows that
+the play was written before his banishment, probably B.C. 206-5 (see
+under 'Naevius'). Line 1016, 'Cedo signum, si harum Baccharum es,'
+shows that the play is anterior to B.C. 186.
+
+The original is the +Alazon+ of some Greek poet. Cf. ll. 86-7,
+
+  'Alazon Graece huic nomen est comoediae:
+  id nos Latine gloriosum dicimus.'
+
+The play, however, exhibits _contaminatio_. Two distinct actions, the
+cheating of Sceledrus (Act i.) and the cheating of the Miles (Acts ii.
+and iii.), are united rather loosely; and it has been conjectured that
+Menander's +Kolax+, or (according to Ritschl) Diphilus'
++Hairesiteiches+, was the play used. Ritschl's view is perhaps
+supported by the word _urbicape_ in l. 1055. The play is the longest
+_palliata_ preserved. The scene is Ephesus.
+
+13. _Mercator_.--The original is Philemon's +Emporos+; ll. 5-6,
+
+  'Graece haec vocatur Emporos Philemonis;
+eadem Latine Mercator Macci Titi.'
+
+Some light is thrown on the date by ll. 524-6.
+
+  '_L._ Ovem tibi eccillam dabo, natam annos sexaginta,
+  peculiarem. _P._ Mei senex, tam vetulam? _L._ Generis Graeci est.
+  Eam sei curabeis, perbonast; tondetur nimium scite.'
+
+This could not have been written before B.C. 196, the date of the
+settlement of Greece. The play shows traces of two distinct editions.
+The scene is Athens.
+
+14. _Pseudolus_.--The Greek original is unknown. The date of
+production (B.C. 191) is got from the didascalia, as restored by
+Ritschl, 'M. Iunio M. fil. pr. urb. acta Megalesiis.' The Megalesian
+games were held in that year in honour of the dedication of the temple
+which had been vowed to Cybele, B.C. 204 (Livy, xxxvi. 36). 'Pseudolus'
+= +Pseudylos+, but is connected by popular etymology with _dolus_. Cf.
+the puns in l. 1205,
+
+  'Edepol hominem verberonem Pseudolum, ut docte dolum
+  commentust';
+
+l. 1244,
+
+  'Superavit dolum Troianum atque Ulixem Pseudolus.'
+
+Several references to the play are found in Cicero: _Cato Maior_, 50
+(quoted p. 9); _Phil._ ii. 15; _pro Rosc. Com._ 20. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+15. _Poenulus_.--The original was a Greek play, +Karchedonios+,
+the author of which is unknown, as the fragments of Menander's
++Karchedonios+ do not fit in with Plautus' play. The play was called
+by Plautus 'Patruus,' but posterity went back to the older name
+'Poenulus.' Prol. 53,
+
+  'Carchedonius vocatur haec comoedia
+  Graece, Latine Patruus Pultiphagonidae.'[10]
+
+Authorities assign the play to B.C. 189. The play is considerably
+interpolated, one ending being at l. 1371, another at l. 1422, whence
+some authorities have considered ll. 1372-1422 as spurious. Ritschl
+thinks that the two endings are about the same age, and compares the
+double ending of the _Andria_ of Terence. The play is noted for the
+two Carthaginian renderings of the soliloquy of Hanno, ll. 930-9, and
+ll. 940-9. The scene is Calydon in Aetolia.
+
+16. _Persa_.--This play, the original of which is unknown, has been
+variously assigned to 197 and 186 B.C. The play shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+17. _Rudens_.--This play has been assigned to about B.C. 192. The
+original is by Diphilus; and the scene is Cyrene. Prol., 1. 32,
+
+  'Primumdum huic esse nomen urbi Diphilus
+  Cyrenas voluit.'
+
+18. _Stichus_, performed B.C. 200 _ludis plebeis_, as we learn from
+the didascalia, 'Graeca Adelphoe Menandru acta ludis plebeis Cn.
+Baebio C. Terentio aed. pl. ... C. Sulpicio C. Aurelio coss.' This
+cannot be the _Adelphi_ imitated by Terence, the fragments of which do
+not bear the least resemblance to the _Stichus_. It may be a second
+_Adelphi_ by Menander. Others read 'Philadelphoe' in the above
+didascalia. Part of the play has been lost, and it shows traces of two
+distinct editions. The scene is Athens.
+
+19. _Trinummus_.--The original was Philemon's +Thesauros+, as
+seen from the didascalia, 'Graeca Thensaurus Philemonis acta ludis
+Megalensibus.' Some indication of the date is got from l. 990,
+
+  'Vapulabis meo arbitratud et novorum aedilium.'
+
+The only festival that would suit the term _novi aediles_ is the _ludi
+Megalenses_[11] as from B.C. 266 to 153 the new magistrates entered on
+office on the Ides of March. This festival was not of a scenic
+character till B.C. 194, consequently the _Trinummus_ must be after
+that date. The mention of Syrian slaves in l. 542 also makes it
+probable that this is one of the latest works of Plautus. The scene is
+Athens.
+
+20. _Truculentus_.--The original is unknown. The play was written in
+Plautus' old age, probably about B.C. 189. The text has suffered
+greatly. The scene is Athens.
+
+21. _Vidularia_.--Only fragments are extant. It is thought to have
+been modelled on a play called +Schedia+ by Menander.
+
+_Argumenta._--These are in _senarii_, and give a summary of each play.
+Two sets are found. The first set are acrostic, and are extant for all
+the plays except the _Vidularia_ and the _Bacchides_. The second
+series was probably written by Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second
+century A.D. There are only five of them extant in the MSS., and
+fragments of other two.
+
+_Prologues._--These (which were usual in the Old and the New Comedy)
+gave the name of the piece and the author, the original and its
+author, the scene of the play, and a partial list of characters. In
+the Prologue also the poet often asked the favour of the audience.
+Prologues to fourteen plays are extant. The part of the prologue
+Plautus (like the New Comedy) assigned either to a god, as in the
+_Rudens_ to Arcturus, or to one of the characters, as in the
+_Mercator_ to a youth (cf. _Mil._ and _Amph._), or to an actor
+addressing the audience in the name of the poet, as in the
+_Truculentus_. All the prologues have suffered from interpolation, but
+those of _Amph._, _Merc._, _Rud._, and _Trin._, and the second parts
+of those of _Mil._ and _Aul._, are founded on what Plautus wrote. The
+prologues in _Cas._, _Poen._, and _Capt._, are due to later hands.
+That the prologues are interpolated is shown by their diction; the wit
+is often poor, and the language un-Plautine, or imitated closely from
+Plautus' genuine works. The prologues in their present form probably
+date from a period shortly after that in which Terence flourished,
+when there was a want of new plays, and people went back to Plautus.
+This is shown by the references to fixed seats for the spectators
+(_Poen._ 15, _Amph._ 65, and _Capt._ 11), which were forbidden by a
+S.C. passed in B.C. 154, when Cassius Longinus began to build a
+theatre of stone--a law that was not repealed till some years later.
+Cf. _Capt._ 11,
+
+  'Negat hercle ille ultimis accensus. Cedito:
+  si non ubi sedeas locus est, est ubi ambules.'
+
+_The Acts._--The plays of Plautus probably went on with few breaks,
+during which the audience were entertained with music. Cf. _Pseud._
+573,
+
+  'Tibicen vos interea hic delectaverit.'
+
+_Diverbium and Canticum._--There was no chorus in Roman comedy, but
+part of the play was set to music and sung to the flute. Some MSS.
+denote this by C (Canticum); while DV (usually placed only over iambic
+senarii) denotes dialogue or soliloquy (Diverbium). Iambic senarii
+were spoken; other metres were sung; but the scenes in septenarii
+stood midway between the dialogue and the _canticum_. Only about a
+fourth of Plautus' verses are in iambic senarii, while in Terence, who
+followed Menander in this respect, about half of the verses are in
+this form.
+
+_The Characters._--These, with the occasional exception of slaves, are
+un-Roman, and exhibit Greek traits belonging to Athens of the time of
+the New Comedy. Plautus, unlike Terence, usually alters the names used
+in the original Greek plays, and substitutes 'tell-tale names'; so
+Parmeno (+paramenon+), 'the faithful slave'; Polemo, 'the
+soldier'; Misargyrides, playfully for the _tarpessita_ (banker). The
+names are often of Latin derivation; thus Saturio, in _Pers._;
+Peniculus, in _Menaech._; Curculio, in _Curc._
+
+_The Language of Plautus_, in spite of the Greek dress his plays assume,
+represents essentially the conversational language of his time. Many
+Greek features in language are, however, retained. For words kept in the
+original Greek cf. +pausai+, +oichetai+, +euge+, +palin+, +epitheken+
+(all in the _Trin._); for Greek words Latinized cf. _gynaeceum_,
+_parasitus_, _opsonium_, _dapsilis_ (= +dapsiles+); for hybrid new
+formations based on Greek cf. _thensaurarius_, _plagipatidae_,
+_opsonari_, _pultiphagus_.
+
+_References to manners and customs._--(_a_) Many references to Greek life
+are retained from the original, especially in matters relating to dress,
+art, and money (Plautus has no reference to Roman money). Such are
+_chlamys_, _petasus_, _pallium_, _cyathus_, _cantharus_, _thermopolium_,
+_cerussa_, _melinum_ (_pigmentum_), _gynaeceum_, _balineae_,
+_ambulacrum_, _porticus_, _fores Samiae_ (_Menaech._ 178), _nummus_ (=
+drachma or didrachma), _nummi Philippei_, _mina_, _tarpessita_,
+_symbolus_, _epistula_. Cf. also _Pseud._ 146-7,
+
+  'Ut ne peristromata quidem aeque picta sint Campanica,
+  neque Alexandrina beluata tonsilia tappetia.'
+
+(_b_) There are, however, innumerable references to Roman public life
+and manners and customs, even in passages manifestly close to the
+original, although references to public events are rare.
+
+1. _Military expressions._--These, many of which are used
+metaphorically, were well adapted for an audience most of whom had seen
+service. The following are from the _Miles_: _legiones_, _imperator_,
+_peditastelli_, _rogare_, _latrocinari_, _stipendium_, _conscribere_,
+_contubernales_, _eques_, _pedes_, _machinas parare_. Cf. also _Pseud._
+148,
+
+  'Dederamque suas provincias';
+
+_Pseud._ 572,
+
+  'Dum concenturio in corde sycophantias';
+
+_Bacch._ 709,
+
+  'De ducentis nummis primum intendam ballistam in senem:
+  ea ballista si pervortam turrim et propugnacula,
+  recta porta invadam extemplo in oppidum antiquom et vetus.'
+
+All references, however, to the enrolment of mercenaries (_latrones_)
+are probably Greek and belong to the original play.
+
+2. _Political expressions._--(_a_) Names of officials, etc. So
+_tresviri_, _quaestor_, _aedilis_, _praetor_, _senatus_. Cf. _Trin._ 879,
+
+  'Census quom sum iuratori recte rationem dedi';
+
+_Pseud._ 1232,
+
+  'Centuriata habuit capitis comitia.'
+
+(_b_) Law. So _advocatus_ (_Mil._ 663), _festuca_ (_Mil._ 961), _lege
+agito_ (_Mil._ 453). Cf. _Menaech._ 571-95 (on patrons and clients);
+_Trin._ 500-4, where Roman terms of _stipulatio_ are used.
+
+3. _Festivals and localities._--References to these are rarer.
+Examples are: _Mil._ 691,
+
+  'Da, mi vir, Calendis meam qui matrem moenerem';
+
+_Trin._ 545,
+
+  'Campans genus';
+
+_Trin._ 609,
+
+  'Tam modo, inquit Praenestinus.'
+
+_Mil._ 359,
+
+  'Credo ego istoc exemplo tibi esse pereundum extra portam';
+
+a reference to the Esquiline gate, outside which slaves were executed.
+
+4. _Private life._--These references are mostly to the lower classes,
+especially slaves, with whom Plautus was very familiar. Hence words
+referring to household duties, as _promus_, _suppromus_, _cella_,
+_cellarius_, _verna_, _pulmentum_ (from _Mil._) To their patois also
+belong phrases for cheating, like _emungere_, _intervortere_, _sarcinam
+imponere_, _ducere_, _ductare_, _circumducere_, and the very large
+number of words relating to punishment, as: _furcifer_, _verbero_,
+_supplicium virgarum_, _varius virgis_, _talos frangere_, _crux_,
+_verberea statua_ (_Pseud._ 911); _gymnasium flagri_ (_Asin._ 297). Cf.
+also _Epid._ 17,
+
+  'Quid ais? perpetuen valuisti?--Varie.'
+
+From slave life come also terms of abuse like _volturius_, _scelus_,
+_odium populi_, _mers mala_, _lapis_, _saxum_. Note that cruelty in the
+treatment of slaves is peculiarly Roman; but their familiarity with
+their masters and their general situation are from Greek life.
+
+_Prosody._[12]--Plautine prosody, which reflected the variation of
+quantity found in the popular speech, was not properly understood even
+in Cicero's time.
+
+Cf. Cic. _Or._ 184, 'Comicorum senarii propter similitudinem sermonis
+sic saepe sunt abiecti ut non numquam vix in eis numerus et versus
+intellegi possit.'
+
+The chief points are as follows:
+
+1. Final -s is often lost. _Rud._ 103,
+
+  'Pater, salveto, amboque adeo. Et tu salvos sis';
+
+_Most._ 1124,
+
+  'Quoque modo dominum advenientem servos ludificatus sit.'
+
+2. A mute followed by a liquid does not make the preceding vowel long.
+Thus _agris_, _libros_, _duplex_, are iambi.
+
+3. Iambic words may become pyrrhics, on account of the stress accent
+on the first syllable. So _domi_ and _cave_ have the last syllable
+short.[13] _Trin._ 868,
+
+  'Foris pultabo. Ad nostras aedis hic quidem habet rectam viam';
+
+_Stich._ 99,
+
+  'Bonas ut aequomst facere facitis, quom tamen absentis viros.'
+
+4. The stress accent sometimes causes final syllables to be dropped,
+and so to have no effect on quantity, as in _enim_, _apud_, _quidem_,
+_parum_, _soror_, _caput_, _amant_, _habent_, etc. _Trin._ 77,
+
+  'Qui in mentem venit tibi istaec dicta dicere?'
+
+_Stich._ 18 (anapaestic),
+
+  'Haec res vitae me, soror, saturant.'
+
+No shortening, however, takes place when the accent goes back to the
+antepenult (cf. _contine_), nor in words like _aetas_, _mores_, where
+the first syllable is long, nor even in _abi_, _tene_, _tace_, and the
+like, when the chief accent is weakened, i.e., where these words are
+pronounced slowly and emphatically (especially before a pause).
+_Asin._ 543,
+
+  'Intro abi: nam te quidem edepol nihil est inpudentius.'
+
+5. This influence of the chief accent affects also combinations of two
+monosyllabic words which make an iambus, and combinations like _ego
+illi_, _age ergo_, in which the second syllable of the second word is
+elided. _Trin._ 354,
+
+  'Is est inmunis, quoi nihil est qui munus fungatur suom';
+
+_Trin._ 133,
+
+  'Non ego illi argentum redderem? Non redderes';
+
+_Stich._ 237,
+
+  'Adibo ad hominem. Quis haec est quae advorsum venit?'
+
+6. The chief accent could also affect a preceding syllable. In
+polysyllables or polysyllabic combinations, when the chief accent was
+on the third syllable, the second syllable, if long, could be
+shortened, provided the first syllable were short. _Trin._ 456,
+
+  'Ferentarium esse amicum inventum intellego';
+
+_Stich._ 59,
+
+  'Nec voluntate id facere meminit,' etc.;
+
+_Stich._ 179,
+
+  'Per annonam caram dixit me natum pater.'
+
+7. The following common words have to be separately considered, _ille_,
+_iste_, _unde_, _inde_, _nempe_. In the last three the liquid was
+practically dropped; _iste_ was pronounced as _ste_; and in _ille_ only
+one _l_ was heard, cf. _ellum_, _ellam_ (_en-illum_ = _en-ilum_ =
+_en-lum_ = _ellum_). _Frustra_ is a trochee, as in _Menaech._ 692 (at
+the end of a line), _frustra sis_; and the first _i_ of _fieri_ is
+long. Cf. _Trin._ 532,
+
+  'Si in opserendo possint interfieri.'
+
+8. An original long vowel is sometimes kept when later authors have it
+short. Examples are, _es_ (from _esse_), final _-or_, as _exertitor_,
+_fateor_, _ecastor_; verbal endings, as _eris_, _eget_, _sit_, _det_,
+_fuat_, _velit_.
+
+9. _Synizesis._ _Deus_, _meus_, _tuos_, _suos_ (nom.), _eius_, _ei_,
+_eum_, _quoius_, _quoi_, _huius_, _huic_, _rei_, etc., may be
+monosyllables; _deorum_, _meorum_, _duorum_, _fuisti_, etc., may be
+dissyllables; _diutius_, _exeundum_, etc., may be trisyllables. Other
+examples are _proin_, _proinde_, _praeoptare_, _dehortor_, _aibam_,
+_quator_.
+
+10. _Hiatus._ This occurs, though not frequently, (_a_) at the natural
+division of the metre. _Menaech._ 219,
+
+  'Sportulam cape atque argentum. | eccos treis nummos habes.'
+
+(_b_) At the natural break in the sense, especially with change of
+speakers. _Trin._ 432,
+
+  _PH._ 'Tempust adeundi.' _LE._ 'Estne hic Philto qui advenit?'
+
+The hiatus is commonest in monosyllabic words, or words ending in a
+short syllable followed by _m_, making the first syllable of an arsis
+resolved into two shorts. _Trin._ 433,
+
+  'Is herclest ipsus. Edepol _ne ego_ istum velim';
+
+_Trin._ 305,
+
+  'Qui homo cum animo inde ab ineunte aetate depugnat suo.'
+
+_Views on Plautus._--For Cicero's high opinion of Plautus cf. _de
+Off._ i. 104, 'Duplex omnino est iocandi genus: unum inliberale
+petulans, flagitiosum obscaenum, alterum elegans urbanum, ingeniosum
+facetum. Quo genere non modo Plautus noster et Atticorum antiqua
+comoedia, sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt.'
+
+Horace's unfavourable judgment is well known.
+
+_Ep._ ii, 1, 170,
+
+         'Adspice Plautus
+  quo pacto partis tutetur amantis ephebi,
+  ut patris attenti, lenonis ut insidiosi,
+  quantus sit Dossenus edacibus in parasitis,
+  quam non adstricto percurrat pulpita socco.
+  Gestit enim nummum in loculos demittere, post hoc
+  securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo.'
+
+Cf. _A.P._ 270-4. Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 99, 'In comoedia maxime
+claudicamus, licet Varro Musas, Aelii Stilonis sententia, Plautino
+dicat sermone locuturas fuisse, si Latine loqui vellent.'
+
+
+
+ENNIUS.[14]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Q. Ennius was born B.C. 239 at Rudiae in Calabria (about nineteen
+miles south of Brundisium).
+
+Gell. xvii. 21, 43, 'Consoles secuntur Q. Valerius et C. Mamilius,
+quibus natum esse Q. Ennium poetam M. Varro in primo de poetis libro
+scripsit eumque, cum septimum et sexagesimum annum haberet, duodecimum
+annalem scripsisse, idque ipsum Ennium in eodem libro dicere.' (Cf.
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3.) Enn. _Ann._ l. 440,
+
+  'Nos sumus Romani qui fuimus ante Rudini.'
+
+Servius, _in Aen._ vii. 691, '(At Messapus equom domitor): Ab hoc
+Ennius dicit se originem ducere.' (Enn. _Ann._ xviii. fr. 6.)
+
+Ennius knew Greek, Latin, and Oscan. Latin he may have known as a boy,
+since the colony of Brundisium was founded B.C. 244; the use of Greek
+had been widely spread in South Italy through the influence of the
+Greek colonies.[15]
+
+Gell. xvii. 17, 1, 'Q. Ennius tria corda habere sese dicebat, quod
+loqui Graece et Osce et Latine sciret.'
+
+Ennius came to Sardinia during the Second Punic War, probably with
+other Calabrian auxiliaries, but in what year is doubtful. Silius
+Italicus xii. 387 _sqq._, says he was centurion B.C. 215, and
+distinguished himself greatly; but his account is quite untrustworthy.
+In Sardinia he made the acquaintance of M. Porcius Cato, then
+quaestor, who induced him to come to Rome B.C. 204.
+
+Nep. _Cato_, i. 4, 'Praetor (B.C. 198) provinciam obtinuit Sardiniam,
+ex qua, quaestor superiore tempore ex Africa decedens, Q. Ennium
+poetam deduxerat.'
+
+The poet's Graecizing influence seems to have led afterwards to
+hostility between him and his patron, but in spite of this, Ennius
+appears to have cherished warm feelings towards Cato, and praised his
+exploits in the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3, 'Oratio Catonis, in qua obiecit ut probrum M.
+Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas duxisset. Duxerat autem consul
+ille in Aetoliam, ut scimus, Ennium.'
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'In caelum huius proavus Cato tollitur: magnus
+honos populi Romani rebus adiungitur.'
+
+So far as is known, Ennius was at Rome B.C. 204-189. He lived plainly,
+and supported himself by teaching Latin and Greek.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1777 = B.C. 240, 'Q. Ennius poeta Tarenti [an error]
+nascitur, qui a Catone quaestore Romam translatus habitavit in monte
+Aventino, parco admodum sumptu contentus, et unius ancillae
+ministerio.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 1, 'Livium et Ennium, quos utraque lingua domi
+forisque docuisse adnotatum est.'
+
+At Rome he was on familiar terms with the elder Scipio Africanus and
+his brother Cornelius Nasica, and their circle.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 22, 'Carus fuit Africano superiori noster Ennius;
+itaque etiam in sepulchro Scipionum putatur is esse constitutus ex
+marmore.'
+
+A pleasant story of his relations with Nasica is given by Cic. _de
+Or._ ii. 276. Two epigrams on Scipio (Nos. 2 and 3) are extant.
+
+In B.C. 189 Ennius accepted an invitation from M. Fulvius Nobilior to
+accompany him in his campaign against the Aetolians, and be a witness
+of his exploits. Fulvius' victory gave the poet materials for the
+praetexta _Ambracia_, and Book xv. of the _Annals_.
+
+Cic. _pro Arch._ 27, 'Ille qui cum Aetolis Ennio comite bellavit
+Fulvius.' Cf. Cic. _Tusc._ i. 3 (above).
+
+In B.C. 184 the poet received the Roman citizenship through the son of
+Fulvius, Q. Nobilior. Hence 'nos sumus Romani, qui fuimus ante Rudini'
+(above). He also received a grant of land at Potentia or Pisaurum from
+Fulvius, who was then _triumvir coloniae deducendae_.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 79, 'Q. Nobiliorem M. f. ..., qui etiam Q. Ennium, qui cum
+patre eius in Aetolia militaverat, civitate donavit, cum triumvir
+coloniam deduxisset.'
+
+Ennius probably spent the greater part of his days, after returning
+from the Aetolian war, at Rome; and during this period he was on
+intimate terms with the comic poet Caecilius Statius (see p. 37). He
+was often in indifferent circumstances, in spite of the grant of land
+he had received. Ennius died of gout B.C. 169.
+
+Cic. _Cato Maior_, 14, 'Annos septuaginta natus--tot enim vixit
+Ennius--ita ferebat duo quae maxima putantur onera, paupertatem et
+senectutem, ut eis paene delectari videretur.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 78, 'Hoc [C. Sulpicio Gallo] praetore ludos Apollini
+faciente, cum Thyesten fabulam docuisset, Q. Marcio Cn. Servilio coss.
+(B.C. 169) mortem obiit Ennius.'
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1849 = B.C. 168, 'Ennius poeta septuagenario maior
+articulari morbo periit, sepultusque est in Scipionis monumento via
+Appia intra primum ab urbe miliarium. Quidam ossa eius Rudiam ex
+Ianiculo translata affirmant.'
+
+For his gout cf. Enn. _Sat._ 1. 8,
+
+  'Numquam poetor nisi si podager';
+
+Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 7,
+
+  'Ennius ipse pater numquam nisi potus ad arma
+  prosiluit dicenda.'
+
+'Ennius "equi fortis et victoris senectuti comparat suam"' (Cic. _Cato
+Maior_, 14).
+
+The lines are _Ann._ xviii. fr. 7,
+
+  'Sic ut fortis equus, spatio qui saepe supremo
+  vicit Olimpia, nunc senio confectus quiescit.'
+
+His epitaph (_Epigr._ i) is quoted by Cic. _Tusc._ i. 34 and 117,
+
+  'Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam!
+    hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum;
+  Nemo me dacrumis decoret nec funera fletu
+    faxit. Cur? Volito vivus per ora virum.'
+
+According to Aelius Stilo, Ennius has depicted his own character in
+_Ann._ vii. fr. 10, wherein he portrays Servilius Geminus, the trusty
+companion of a man of position (Gell. xii. 4). For Ennius'
+self-appreciation cf. also his epitaph (if by himself) quoted above,
+and _Ann._ i. fr. 4,
+
+  'Latos per populos terrasque poemata nostra
+  clara cluebunt.'
+
+In philosophy Ennius was an eclectic. Cf. _Trag._ 1. 417,
+
+  'Philosophari est mihi necesse, at paucis: nam omnino haut placet.
+  Degustandum ex ea, non in eam ingurgitandum censeo.'
+
+His rationalism is seen in _Telamo_, fr. 1,
+
+  'Ego deum genus esse semper dixi et dicam caelitum,
+  sed eos non curare opinor, quid agat humanum genus:
+  nam si curent, bene bonis sit, male malis, quod nunc abest';
+
+_ibid._, fr. 2,
+
+  'Sed superstitiosi vates inpudentesque arioli,
+  aut inertes aut insani aut quibus egestas imperat,
+  qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam,
+  quibus divitias pollicentur, ab eis drachumam ipsi petunt.'
+
+Traces of Epicureanism are seen in _Ann._ i. fr. 13,
+
+  'Terraque corpus
+  quae dedit ipsa capit neque dispendi facit hilum.'
+
+Ennius also believed in the Pythagorean theory of metempsychosis, and
+considered that his soul had animated the body of a peacock. _Ann._ i.
+fr. 14,
+
+  'Memini me fiere pavom.'
+
+Persius 6, 10,
+
+  'Cor iubet hoc Enni postquam destertuit esse
+  Maeonides Quintus pavone e Pythagoreo.'
+
+Cf. also Lucr. i. 120-6.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Of those founded on mythology we have fragments of
+twenty-two, eight at least of which were borrowed from Euripides. The
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ ii. 34, quotes nine lines which are a literal
+translation of the beginning of the _Medea_. The date of the
+_Thyestes_, B.C. 169, is the only one known (Cic. _Brut._ 78, quoted
+p. 28). Besides these, Ennius probably wrote a praetexta on 'the Rape
+of the Sabines'; and his _Ambracia_ is probably a praetexta on the
+capture of the town by M. Fulvius Nobilior in B.C. 189 (L. Mueller
+includes it in the _Saturae_).
+
+2. _Comedies._--There are very slight fragments of the _Cupuncula_ and
+the _Pancratiastes_.
+
+3. _Saturae._--A miscellaneous collection of poems.
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 47, 'Ennius quattuor libros saturarum
+reliquit.'
+
+The reference in Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 66,
+
+  'Quam rudis et Graecis intacti carminis auctor,'
+
+is not to Ennius, as some have supposed, but to the inventor of
+_satura_, whoever he may have been.
+
+The _Saturae_ include (_a_) _Scipio_, probably a short epic. It was
+mostly written in trochaic septenarii. (_b_) _Epicharmus_ (in trochaic
+tetrameters), dealing with Pythagoreanism in the department of
+physics. (_c_) _Euhemerus_ or _Sacra Historia_, modelled on Euhemerus'
++hiera anagraphe+,[16] the doctrines of which were applied
+to the religion of Rome.
+
+Cic. _N.D._ i. 119, 'Euhemerus, quem noster et interpretatus et
+secutus est praeter ceteros Ennius.'
+
+(_d_) _Protreptica_ or _Praecepta_, containing moral maxims. (_e_)
+_Hedyphagetica_, 'On Gastronomy,' modelled on a hexameter poem by
+Archestratus (about B.C. 310). (_f_) _Sota_, so called from
++Sotades+, after whom the Sotadean metre has been named. The book
+was probably of a lascivious nature. (_g_) Epigrams; the chief of
+which are mentioned above.
+
+4. The _Annales_, an epic poem in hexameters, which dealt with the
+history of Rome down to the beginning of the Third Macedonian War. It
+contained eighteen Books; there are about six hundred lines extant.
+The following is a sketch of the contents:
+
+Book i., from Aeneas to the death of Romulus; ii., reigns of Numa
+Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius; iii., the last three
+kings; iv.-v., the republic down to the war with Pyrrhus; vi., the war
+with Pyrrhus; vii., First Punic War, etc.; viii.-ix., Second Punic
+War; x.-xii., Second Macedonian War, Cato's consulship; xiii.-xv., War
+with Antiochus, subjugation of the Aetolians; xvi.-xviii., from
+Istrian War to beginning of Third Macedonian War.
+
+_Ennius' services_ to Latin literature lay partly in introducing the
+use of the hexameter and other metres from Greek in place of the old
+Saturnian metre. His versification is, of course, rough in comparison
+with that of later writers, the principal points being
+
+(1) Harsh elisions. _Ann._ l. 199,
+
+  'Hos et ego in pugna vici victusque sum ab isdem.'
+
+(2) Quadrisyllable endings; l. 23,
+
+  'Est locus Hesperiam quam mortales perhibebant.'
+
+(3) Absence of caesura, or abrupt break, l. 188,
+
+  'Bellipotentes sunt magis quam sapientipotentes';
+
+l. 511,
+
+  'Cui par imber et ignis, spiritus et gravis terra.'
+
+(4) Omission of _-s_ in scansion, as in the last two examples.
+
+(5) Short vowels sometimes lengthened; l. 86,
+
+  'Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator.'
+
+(6) Prosaic lines (often spondaic); l. 34,
+
+  'Olli respondit rex Albai longai';
+
+l. 174,
+
+  'Cives Romani tunc facti sunt Campani.'
+
+(7) Harsh instances of tmesis; l. 586,
+
+  'Saxo cere comminuit brum':
+
+l. 605,
+
+  'Massili portabant iuvenes ad litora tanas.'
+
+(8) Apocope; l. 451
+
+  'replet te laetificum _gau_';
+
+l. 561,
+
+  'divom domus altisonum _cael_';
+
+l. 563,
+
+  'endo suam _do_' (= in suam domum).
+
+(9) Alliteration used freely; l. 113,
+
+  'O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tiranne tulisti';
+
+l. 452,
+
+  'At tuba terribili sonitu taratantara dixit.'
+
+(10) Non-elision; l. 275,
+
+  'Miscent inter sese inimicitiam agitantes.'
+
+_Influence of Ennius._--This is seen in Lucretius, and to a very great
+extent in Virgil. For Lucretius' appreciation of Ennius see Lucr. i.
+117-9. Cf. also _Ann._ l. 150,
+
+  'Postquam lumina sis oculis bonus Ancus reliquit,'
+
+and Lucr. iii. 1025,
+
+  'Lumina sis oculis etiam bonus Ancus reliquit.'
+
+Servius on Verg. _Aen._ viii. 630-4, says 'Sane totus hic locus
+Ennianus est.' Cf. Servius also on _Aen._ i. 20; xi. 608, etc. A large
+number of imitations are quoted by Macrobius, especially in _Saturn._
+Book vi. Virgil modified and refined many of Ennius' rough
+expressions. Thus _Ann._ l. 452 (above quoted), becomes, in Verg.
+_Aen._ ix. 503,
+
+  'At tuba terribilem sonitum procul aere sonoro
+  increpuit';
+
+_Ann._ l. 464,
+
+  'irarumque effunde quadrigas'
+
+becomes in Verg. _Aen._ xii. 499,
+
+  'irarumque omnes effundit habenas.'
+
+_Views on Ennius._--A very few of these may be quoted. Lucr. i. 117-9,
+
+  'Ennius ut noster cecinit qui primus amoeno
+  detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam,
+  per gentes Italas hominum quae clara clueret.'
+
+Cic. _Opt. Gen. Or._ 2, 'Licet dicere Ennium summum epicum poetam, si
+cui ita videtur.' Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 50,
+
+  'Ennius et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus,
+  ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur
+  quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea.'
+
+Propert. v. 1, 61,
+
+  'Ennius hirsuta cingat sua dicta corona.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 88, 'Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucos adoremus, in
+quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habent speciem quantam
+religionem.'
+
+
+
+PACUVIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Pacuvius, the son (not grandson as Jerome states) of Ennius'
+sister, was born at Brundisium, B.C. 220, spent most of his life at
+Rome, and died at Tarentum shortly before B.C. 130. He was a painter
+as well as a poet.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1863 = B.C. 154, 'Pacuvius Brundusinus tragoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, Ennii poetae ex filia nepos, vixitque Romae
+quoad picturam exercuit ac fabulas venditavit, deinde Tarentum
+transgressus prope nonagenarius diem obiit.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 19, 'Celebrata est in foro boario, aede Herculis,
+Pacuvii poetae pictura. Ennii sorore genitus hic fuit, clarioremque
+eam artem Romae fecit gloria scaenae.'
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus ait se et Pacuvium docuisse
+fabulam, cum ille octoginta, ipse triginta annos natus esset.'
+
+As Accius was born B.C. 170, Cicero's words imply that Pacuvius was
+born B.C. 220, and produced plays as late as B.C. 140, while from
+Jerome we may conclude that he died shortly before B.C. 130. That
+Pacuvius was taught by his uncle Ennius is shown by Varro, _Sat.
+Menipp._ 356 (Buecheler),
+
+  'Pacvi[17] discipulus dicor, porro is fuit Enni,
+   Ennius Musarum: Pompilius clueor.'
+
+He was a member of the literary circle of Laelius. Cf. Laelius' words
+in Cic. _Lael._ 24, 'In hospitis et amici mei M. Pacuvi nova fabula.'
+In his last years he was intimate with Accius: cf. Gell. xiii. 2, 'Cum
+Pacuvius, inquiunt, grandi iam aetate et morbo corporis diutino
+adfectus, Tarentum ex urbe Roma concessisset, Accius tunc, haut parvo
+iunior, proficiscens in Asiam, cum in oppidum venisset, devertit ad
+Pacuvium comiterque invitatus plusculisque ab eo diebus retentus,
+tragoediam suam, cui Atreus nomen est, desideranti legit.'
+
+Gell. i. 24, 4, gives Pacuvius' epitaph, as written by himself,
+'Epigramma Pacuvii verecundissimum et purissimum, dignumque eius
+elegantissima gravitate:
+
+  "Adulescens, tam etsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat,
+   ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est legas.
+   Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita
+   ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of twelve are known, and over four hundred
+lines of fragments are extant. The _Antiopa_, which is the best known,
+was from Euripides.
+
+Cic. _de Fin._ i. 4, 'Quis enim tam inimicus paene nomini Romano est,
+qui Enni Medeam aut Antiopam Pacuvi spernat aut reiciat quod se eisdem
+Euripidis fabulis delectari dicat?'
+
+The _Niptra_ is from Sophocles. Cic. _T.D._ ii. 49, speaking of ll.
+256-8 (Ribbeck), says, 'Pacuvius melius quam Sophocles.'
+
+Pacuvius also wrote one praetexta, _Paulus_, doubtless on L. Aemilius
+Paulus, the victor of Pydna.
+
+2. _Saturae_ (lost).
+
+Sueton. p. 20 R., 'Carmen quod ex variis poematibus constabat satura
+vocabatur, quale scripserunt Pacuvius et Ennius.'
+
+Pacuvius, like Ennius, shows interest in philosophy, and attacks
+superstition; l. 93,
+
+  'Mater est terra: ea parit corpus, animam aeter adiugat';
+
+ll. 366-75; cf. l. 372,
+
+  'Sunt autem alii philosophi, qui contra fortunam negant
+   esse ullam, sed temeritate res regi omnis autumant';
+
+ll. 83-5,
+
+        'Nam isti qui linguam avium intellegunt
+   plusque ex alieno iecore sapiunt quam ex suo,
+   magis audiendum quam auscultandum censeo.'
+
+For Pacuvius' stilted expressions, cf. Quint. i. 5, 67, 'Ceterum etiam
+ex praepositione et duobus vocabulis dure videtur struxisse Pacuvius
+
+  "Nerei repandirostrum, incurvicervicum pecus"' (l. 408);
+
+_Paulus_, l. 5
+
+  'Qua vix caprigeno generi gradilis gressio est.'
+
+Some views on Pacuvius may be referred to:
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'Itaque licet dicere et Ennium summum
+epicum poetam et Pacuvium tragicum et Caecilium fortasse comicum.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55,
+
+  'Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert
+  Pacuvius docti[18] famam senis, Accius alti';
+
+Mart. xi. 90, 5,
+
+  'Attonitusque legis "terrai frugiferai,"
+     Accius et quidquid Pacuviusque vomunt.'
+
+Cf. also Gell. vi. 14, 6; Cic. _Brut._ 258; _Or._ 36; Quint. x. 1, 97;
+Persius, 1. 76-8; Tac. _Dial._ 20.
+
+
+
+CAECILIUS STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1838 = B.C. 179, 'Statius Caecilius comoediarum
+scriptor clarus habetur, natione Insuber Gallus et Ennii primum
+contubernalis. Quidam Mediolanensem ferunt. Mortuus est anno post
+mortem Ennii [iii.] et iuxta eum in Ianiculo sepultus.'
+
+iii. is an addition by Ritschl, as we know Caecilius to have been
+alive in B.C. 166, when Terence's _Andria_ was performed. Some read
+iv. The date of his death will then be B.C. 166 or 165. Caecilius
+probably came to Rome among the Insubrian prisoners of war at some
+time between B.C. 200 and 194. The year of his birth is unknown; he is
+never mentioned, like other old writers, such as Plautus and Ennius,
+as having lived to a great age. If he died B.C. 166, we might suppose
+that he was born about B.C. 219, as that would make him of military
+age when the Insubrian war began in B.C. 200. His name as a slave was
+Statius. His patron is unknown.
+
+Gell. iv. 20, 13, 'Statius servile nomen fuit ... Caecilius quoque ille
+comoediarum poeta inclutus servus fuit; et propterea nomen habuit
+"Statius." Sed postea versum est quasi in cognomentum: appellatusque
+est Caecilius Statius.'
+
+Elsewhere he is sometimes called merely Caecilius (as Cic. _de Or._
+ii. 40), but never Statius alone.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Caecilius' works were at first unsuccessful; cf. the actor Ambivius'
+words in Ter. _Hec._ prol. ii. 6-7,
+
+  'In eis quas primum Caecili didici novas,
+  partim sum earum exactus, partim vix steti.'
+
+Later he examined plays before they were acted, as, _e.g._ Terence's
+_Andria_ in B.C. 166 (see under 'Terence,' p. 42). This implies that
+he occupied a responsible and leading position in the guild of poets.
+
+We have two hundred and ninety lines of fragments, and titles of
+forty-two comedies, sixteen of which correspond with those of plays by
+Menander. For Caecilius' imitation of Menander see Gell. ii. 23. Cf.,
+_e.g._, 'Caecilii Plocium legebamus; hautquaquam mihi et qui aderant
+displicebat... Sed enim postquam in manus Menander venit, a principio
+statim, di boni, quantum stupere atque frigere quantumque mutare a
+Menandro Caecilius visus est!'
+
+Among the views on Caecilius are:
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, '(Caecilius) malus auctor Latinitatis est'
+(probably because he was an Insubrian).
+
+Cic. _de Opt. Gen. Or._ 1, 'fortasse summus comicus.' Sedigitus ap.
+Gell. xv. 24,
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.'
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 59,
+
+  '(dicitur) vincere Caecilius gravitate.'
+
+The contemporaries of Caecilius include _Trabea_, _Atilius_ ('poeta
+durissimus,' Cic. _ad Att._ xiv. 20, 3), _Aquilius_ (possibly the
+author of the _Boeotia_, attributed by Varro to Plautus, Gell. iii. 3,
+4), _Licinius Imbrex_, _Luscius Lanuvinus_, all writers of _palliatae_.
+Our chief information about Luscius Lanuvinus is got from the
+prologues to Terence's plays (in all of which, except that of the
+_Hecyra_, he is attacked), and from Donatus' commentary on these
+passages. From Ter. _Eun._ prol. 9-13, we see that he did not tone
+down his originals to suit a Roman audience,
+
+  'Idem Menandri Phasma nuper perdidit
+  atque in Thensauro scripsit, causam dicere
+  prius unde petitur, aurum qua re sit suom,
+  quam illic qui petit, unde is sit thensaurus sibi
+  aut unde in patrium monumentum pervenerit.'
+
+Donatus _ad loc._, 'Arguit Terentius quod Luscius contra consuetudinem
+litigantium defensionem ante accusationem induxerit.'
+
+
+
+TERENCE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information is Suetonius' life of Terence,
+preserved by Donatus, who also makes a slight addition of his own.
+Jerome's notice is also based on Suetonius.
+
+P. Terentius Afer was born in Africa, and was brought in early life to
+Rome, where he was a slave of P. Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was
+educated and subsequently manumitted.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 26 R., 'P. Terentius Afer, Karthagine natus,
+serviit Romae Terentio Lucano senatori, a quo ob ingenium et formam
+non institutus modo liberaliter, sed et mature manu missus est. Quidam
+captum esse existumant: quod fieri nullo modo potuisse Fenestella
+docet, cum inter finem secundi Punici belli et initium tertii et natus
+sit et mortuus.'
+
+Terence's cognomen probably shows that he belonged to one of the
+African peoples subdued by Carthage. It may be taken as certain that
+he was not of Punic birth, and that he was brought to Rome in the
+ordinary course of the slave trade.
+
+The date of Terence's birth is not accurately known. Sueton. _ibid._
+p. 32, 'Nondum quintum atque vicesimum ingressus annum ... egressus
+urbe est neque amplius rediit,' which refers to his voyage to Greece
+in B.C. 160, would make the year of his birth to be B.C. 185. This,
+however, is an improbable assumption, which rests on the fact that
+Roman scholars attributed to him the age of his intimate friend, P.
+Scipio Africanus the younger. Thus Sueton. _ibid._ p. 27 (of Terence,
+Scipio, Laelius), says, 'quamvis et Nepos aequales omnes fuisse
+tradat'; with which contrast _ibid._ 'Fenestella ... contendens
+utroque maiorem natu fuisse.' Terence must have been some years older,
+as his first piece, the _Andria_, was produced B.C. 166. A successful
+piece like it makes it probable that he had then passed his boyhood,
+and it is likely that he was born about B.C. 190. The reproach of his
+adversary in _Heaut. Tim._ prol. 23,
+
+  '_repente_ ad studium hunc se adplicasse _musicum_,'
+
+means only that he had not made himself prominent by previous
+exercises in play-writing. Further in _H.T._ prol. 51-2, he describes
+his opponents as _adulescentuli_,
+
+  'Exemplum statuite in me, ut adulescentuli
+  vobis placere studeant potius quam sibi.'
+
+Terence was on intimate terms with P. Scipio Africanus and C. Laelius,
+who were supposed to have helped him in the composition of his plays.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 30, 'Non obscura fama est adiutum Terentium in
+scriptis a Laelio et Scipione: eamque ipse auxit, numquam nisi leviter
+se tutari conatus, ut in prologo Adelphorum (ll. 15-21),
+
+  "Nam quod isti dicunt malivoli, homines nobiles
+  hunc adiutare adsidueque una scribere,
+  quod illi maledictum vehemens esse existumant:
+  eam laudem hic ducit maxumam, quom illis placet
+  qui vobis univorsis et populo placent,
+  quorum opera in bello, in otio, in negotio
+  suo quisque tempore usust sine superbia."
+
+... Sciebat Laelio et Scipioni non ingratam esse hanc opinionem, quae
+tum magis et usque ad posteriora tempora valuit.'
+
+Sueton. p. 31, also repeats a story that C. Laelius was the author of
+the lines _H.T._ 723 _sqq._
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ vii. 3, 10, 'Terentium, cuius fabellae propter
+elegantiam sermonis putabantur a C. Laelio scribi.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 99, 'Licet Terentii scripta ad Scipionem Africanum
+referantur.'
+
+The remark that ll. 20-1 of the above extract from the _Adelph._ could
+not refer to young men like Scipio and Laelius was made even in
+antiquity.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 31, 'Santra (a grammarian of the time of Augustus)
+Terentium existimat, si modo in scribendo adiutoribus indiguerit, non
+tam Scipione et Laelio uti potuisse, qui tunc adulescentuli fuerint,
+quam C. Sulpicio Gallo, homine docto, quo console Megalensibus ludis
+initium fabularum dandarum fecerit, vel Q. Fabio Labeone et M.
+Popillio, consulari utroque ac poeta. Ideo ipsum non iuvenes designare
+qui se adiuvare dicantur, sed viros quorum operam et in bello et in
+otio et in negotio populus sit expertus.'
+
+In K. Dziatzko's opinion (second edition of _Phormio_, p. 10, Leipzig,
+1885), the expression 'homines nobiles' points to the literary circle
+of Terence, including old as well as young men, while in what follows
+he touches upon the general reputation of those noble families among
+the Roman people. There is nothing to show that Terence got more than
+general support and advice from his friends. That his diction reflects
+the conversational language of the better classes is recognized.
+
+In B.C. 166, Terence submitted to Caecilius Statius, the examiner of
+plays, his first work, the _Andria_, which was accepted, and performed
+in that year.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ pp. 28-9, 'Scripsit comoedias sex. Ex quibus primam
+Andriam cum aedilibus daret, iussus ante Caecilio recitare ad cenantem
+cum venisset, dicitur initium quidem fabulae, quod erat contemptiore
+vestitu, in subsellio iuxta lectulum residens legisse, post paucos
+vero versus invitatus ut accumberet cenasse una, dein cetera
+percucurrisse non sine magna Caecilii admiratione.'
+
+From the fact of Caecilius' not recognizing him we may conclude that
+Terence had as yet no connexion with the guild of poets. This fits in
+with _H.T._ prol. 23-4,
+
+  'Repente ad studium hunc se adplicasse musicum,
+  amicum ingenio fretum, haud natura sua.'
+
+Hence probably arose the hatred of other writers, referred to as
+_isti_ (_Andr._ 15; 21); _iniqui_ (_H.T._ 27); cf. also _Hec._ prol.
+ii. 38,
+
+  'Nolite sinere per vos artem musicam
+  recidere ad paucos.'
+
+As to further connexion between Caecilius and Terence, note (1) that
+they had a common actor Ambivius; (2) that Terence sometimes imitates
+Caecilius. Thus, according to Donatus, _Andr._ 805,
+
+  'ut quimus, aiunt, quando ut volumus non licet'
+
+is from Caecilius (l. 177 R.),
+
+  'vivas ut possis quando nec quis ut velis.'
+
+Cf. also _Adelph._ 985,
+
+  'Quod prolubium? quae istaec subitast largitas?'
+
+and Caecilius (l. 91 R.),
+
+  'Quod prolubium, quae voluptas, quae te lactat largitas?'
+
+Terence died B.C. 159, on his way home from Greece, where he had
+probably gone the year before. The place of his death is uncertain.
+Whatever plays he may have written while in Greece are lost.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._ p. 32, 'Post editas comoedias, nondum quintum atque
+vicesimum ingressus annum, causa vitandae opinionis qua videbatur
+aliena pro suis edere, seu percipiendi Graecorum instituta moresque
+quos non perinde exprimeret in scriptis, egressus urbe est neque
+amplius rediit ... Q. Cosconius redeuntem e Graecia perisse in mari
+dicit cum fabulis conversis a Menandro: ceteri mortuum esse in Arcadia
+sive Leucadiae tradunt, Cn. Cornelio Dolabella M. Fulvio Nobiliore
+coss., morbo implicatum ex dolore ac taedio amissarum sarcinarum quas
+in nave praemiserat, ac simul fabularum quas novas fecerat.'
+
+Terence's personal appearance is mentioned by Sueton. p. 33, who also
+states that he had property, and left a daughter who afterwards
+married a Roman knight. 'Fuisse dicitur mediocri statura, gracili
+corpore, colore fusco. Reliquit filiam, quae post equiti Romano
+nupsit: item hortulos xx. iugerum via Appia ad Martis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Andria_.--The particulars of its production are given above. Of
+its success, Donatus in his commentary says, 'Successu adspecta
+prospero hortamento poetae fuit ad alias conscribendas.' The
+didascalia to the _Andria_ is lost, but we can restore it as follows
+from Donatus' information, 'Incipit Andria Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. M. Fulvio M' Glabrione aedil. curul. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio.[19] Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus tota. Graeca
+Menandru. Facta i. M. Marcello C. Sulpicio cos.'
+
+The meaning of the didascalia is as follows: The piece was produced at
+the Megalesian games (held at the beginning of April) under the curule
+aediles mentioned; L. Ambivius Turpio undertook the representation;
+the music was composed (as in all Terence's comedies) by Flaccus,
+slave of Claudius, and given throughout _tibiis paribus_.[20] The Greek
+original was by Menander; it was the first work of Terence, and the
+year of production was B.C. 166.
+
+The play is adapted from Menander's +Andria+ with additions
+from his +Perinthia+. _Andr._ prol. 13,
+
+  'Quae convenere in Andriam ex Perinthia
+  fatetur transtulisse atque usum pro suis.'
+
+The prologue dates from the first performance, though Wagner and
+Ribbeck have inferred from l. 5,
+
+  'Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur,'
+
+that it was written for a second representation, possibly in B.C. 164.
+There are two endings to the play; the shorter one is genuine, the
+longer spurious, and omitted in the best MSS.
+
+2. _Heauton Timorumenos_ is from Menander's +Heauton
+timoroumenos+, 'self tormentor.' The title is referred to in l. 146,
+
+  'hic me exerceo,'
+
+l. 81,
+
+  'An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?'
+
+and prol. 5,
+
+  'Ex integra Graeca integram comoediam
+  hodie sum acturus Heauton timorumenon.'
+
+The play was produced at the Ludi Megalenses in B.C. 163, as is seen
+from the didascalia, 'Incipit Heauton Timorumenos Terenti. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. L. Cornelio Lentulo L. Valerio Flacco aedilib. curulib.
+Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Acta primum tibis
+inparib., deinde duabus dextris. Graeca Menandru. Facta ii. M'
+Iuventio Ti. Sempronio cos.'
+
+The play is called 'stataria' in prol. 36,
+
+                            'Date potestatem mihi
+  statariam agere ut liceat per silentium.'
+
+3. _Eunuchus_, 'contaminated' from Menander's +Eunouchos+ and
+his +Kolax+. _Eun._ prol. 19,
+
+                       'Nunc acturi sumus
+  Menandri Eunuchum';
+
+_ibid._ 30,
+
+  'Colax Menandrist: in east parasitus colax
+  et miles gloriosus: eas se non negat
+  personas transtulisse in Eunuchum suam
+  ex Graeca: sed eas ab aliis factas prius
+  Latinas scisse sese, id vero pernegat.'
+
+The didascalia shows that the piece was produced at the Ludi
+Megalenses in B.C. 161, and from the MSS. we may conclude that it was
+also acted in B.C. 146. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Eunuchus Terenti.
+Acta ludis Megalensib. L. Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib.
+curulib. Egit Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis
+duabus dextris _tota_. Graeca Menandru. Facta _iii._ M. Valerio C.
+Fannio cos.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 29, speaks of the success of the play,
+'Eunuchus quidem his deinceps acta est meruitque pretium quantum nulla
+antea cuiusquam comoedia, octo milia nummum.'
+
+4. _Phormio_, the fifth comedy Terence composed, and the fourth
+completely represented. It was first performed at the Ludi Romani,
+B.C. 161. The Greek original was the +Epidikazomenos+ of
+Apollodorus of Carystus. _Phorm._ prol. 24,
+
+                             'Adporto novam
+  Epidicazomenon quam vocant comoediam
+  Graeci, Latini Phormionem nominant,
+  quia primas partis qui aget, is erit Phormio
+  parasitus, per quem res geretur maxume,'
+
+The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Phormio. Acta ludis Romanis. L.
+Postumio Albino L. Cornelio Merula aedilib. curulib. Egit L. Ambivius
+Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis imparib. tota. Graeca
+Apollodoru Epidicazomenos. Facta iiii. C. Fannio M. Valerio cos.
+
+From notices in the MSS. it is probable that a second representation
+took place in B.C. 141 at the Megalesian games.
+
+5. _Hecyra_ is founded on a play by Apollodorus of Carystus, doubtless
+called +Hekyra+; cf. Donatus' preface, 'fabula Apollodori
+dicitur esse Graeca.' The first attempted representation was in B.C.
+165, at the Ludi Megalenses. _Hec._ prol. i. 1,
+
+                            'Hecyra quom datast
+  nova, ei novom intervenit vitium et calamitas,
+  ut neque spectari neque cognosci potuerit:
+  ita populus studio stupidus in funambulo
+  animum occuparat.'
+
+The second (unsuccessful) representation was at the ludi funerales of
+Aemilius Paulus in B.C. 160. _Hec._ prol. ii. 38,
+
+                                'Refero denuo.
+  Primo actu placeo. Quom interea rumor venit
+  datum iri gladiatores, populus convolat,
+  tumultuantur clamant pugnant de loco:
+  ego interea meum non potui tutari locum.'
+
+Cf. _Phorm._ prol. 31,
+
+  'Ne simili utamur fortuna, atque usi sumus
+  quom per tumultum noster grex motus locost.'
+
+The first prologue was written for the second performance; the second
+(spoken by the actor Ambivius) for the third performance, also in B.C.
+160. The didascalia is, 'Incipit Terenti Hecyra. Acta ludis
+Megalensib. S. Iulio Caesare Cn. Cornelio Dolabella aedilib. curulib.
+Egit L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis paribus
+tota. Graeca _Apollodoru_. Facta v. Cn. Octavio T. Manlio cos. Relata
+est L. Aemelio Paulo ludis funeralib. Non est placita. Tertio relata
+est Q. Fulvio L. Marcio aedilib. curulib.'
+
+6. _Adelphoe_ is founded on Menander's +Adelphoi+ with a scene
+added from Diphilus' +Synapothneskontes+. _Adelph._ prol. 6,
+
+  Synapothnescontes Diphili comoediast;
+  eam Commorientis Plautus fecit fabulam.
+  In Graeca adulescens est, qui lenoni eripit
+  meretricem in prima fabula: eum Plautus locum
+  reliquit integrum; eum hic locum sumpsit sibi
+  in Adelphos, verbum de verbo expressum extulit.'
+
+That this was the first performance is shown by _novam_ in l. 12. The
+part from Diphilus is Act ii., Scene 1. The play was produced in B.C.
+160 at the ludi funerales of L. Aemilius Paulus, as shown by the
+didascalia, 'Incipit Terenti Adelphoe. Acta ludis funeralib. L.
+Aemelio Paulo. Fecere Q. Fabius Maxumus P. Cornelius Africanus. Egit
+L. Ambivius Turpio. Modos fecit Flaccus Claudi. Tibis Sarranis tota.
+Graeca Menandru. Facta vi. M. Cornelio Cethego L. Anicio Gallo cos.'
+
+The order given above agrees essentially with the numbers denoting the
+order of production, as given in the didascaliae. We must, however,
+assume that the first representation of the _Hecyra_ remained
+unnoticed, and must give the second place (instead of the third) to
+the _H.T._, with a section of the MSS., and the third place to the
+_Eun._ with Donatus against the MSS.
+
+_Prologues._--Terence uses these as weapons against his enemies, the
+chief of whom was Luscius Lanuvinus (see under his name), who attacked
+Terence for 'contaminatio' and for want of spirit in his plays. Cf.
+_H.T._ prol. 17,
+
+  'Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas';
+
+_Phorm._ prol. 5,
+
+  'tenui esse oratione et scriptura levi.'
+
+Terence justifies repeatedly his use of 'contaminatio.' _H.T._ prol.
+16,
+
+  'Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli,
+  multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit
+  paucas Latinas: id esse factum hic non negat,
+  neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat.
+  Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi
+  licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat.'
+
+Cf. _Andria_, prol. 15-21; _Adelph._ prol. 1-14; _Eun._ prol. 31-3.
+Luscius also attacked him for not adhering more closely to his Greek
+originals, in spite of the fact that, generally speaking, Terence
+translated closely from these. Cf. _Adelph._ prol. 10-11, quoted
+above. A piece was considered to be new if it had not previously been
+presented to a Roman audience. So Terence justifies his originality in
+_Adelph._ prol. 6-14, or excuses himself on the ground that he did not
+know that a piece had been previously used: _Eun._ prol. 19-34.
+
+_Representation of the plays._--Ambivius was the chief actor in all
+the plays. He is the speaker of the prologue of _H.T._ and of the
+second prologue of _Hec._ He calls himself _senex_, cf. _H.T._ prol.
+1. For his popularity cf. _Hec._ prol. ii. 55,
+
+  'Mea causa causam accipite et date silentium.'
+
+The music was provided by Flaccus, slave of Claudius. The composer
+himself was probably the instrumentalist. Four kinds of flutes are
+mentioned as used by him: _tibiae pares_, _impares_, _sarranae_, and _duae
+dextrae_ (see note p. 45). The scene of all the plays is at Athens.
+There is no chorus. The form of the plays is modelled closely on
+Greek. More than half of the verses are iambic senarii, the next
+commonest being troch. septen. and iamb. octon. These are used in
+dialogue. Trochaic octonarii are used in lyrical parts, other lyrical
+metres being rare, and the anapaestic metre not being used. Short
+lines are also found in the middle of lyrical pieces, or at the end of
+pieces of dialogue. _Andr._ 605,
+
+  'Sed eccum video ipsum: occidi.'
+
+Single words sometimes stand at the head of a lyrical piece, as
+_Phorm._ 485 'Dorio,' which makes a line.
+
+The different kinds of scenes are under the same conditions as in
+Plautus. We have (1) scenes provided with music, probably represented
+in MSS. by C (Canticum). (2) Scenes sung as recitative, with musical
+accompaniment, in MSS. denoted by M.M.C. (perhaps for 'Modi Mutati
+Cantici'). (3) Scenes in senarii, without music, in MSS. denoted by DV
+(Diverbium). The division into scenes is very ancient; but the
+division into acts, though existing in the time of Terence (cf. _Hec._
+prol. 39, 'primo actu placeo,'), is not marked in the MSS.
+
+_Names of characters._--Terence uses only Greek names, which often
+suit the characters of the persons, and many of which are repeated in
+the different plays. Cf. Pamphilus and Glycerium, of the lovers in the
+_Andr._; Chremes (+chremptomai+, 'cough'), for an old man, in
+_Andr._, _H.T._, _Phorm._; Crito (+krino+, 'judge'), for an old
+man, in _Andr._, _Phorm._; Sosia (+sozein+), for a freedman, in
+_Andr._, _Hec._ So names of slaves as Davus (+Daos+, 'Dacian'),
+Dromo, Geta, Syrus, all in several plays.
+
+_The arguments_, consisting of twelve senarii each, were composed by
+C. Sulpicius Apollinaris in the second century A.D.
+
+_Prosody._--For the variations from later usage, see under 'Plautus.'
+Terence is, of course, more regular in this respect than Plautus.
+
+_Views on Terence._--To those given above the following may be added:
+
+Gell. vi. 14, 6, 'Exempla in Latina lingua M. Varro esse dicit
+ubertatis Pacuvium, gracilitatis Lucilium, mediocritatis
+Terentium.'[21]
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 34, 'Cicero in Limone hactenus laudat,
+
+  "Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti,
+  conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum
+  in medium nobis sedatis motibus effers,
+  quiddam come loquens atque omnia dulcia miscens";
+
+item C. Caesar,
+
+  "Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander,
+  poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator.
+  Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis,
+  comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore
+  cum Graecis, neve hac despectus parte iaceres.
+  Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi desse, Terenti."'
+
+
+
+EARLY MINOR AUTHORS.
+
+
+(_a_) POETS:
+
+The poetical contemporaries of Terence were:
+
+1. _Titinius_, the first writer of _togatae_; fifteen titles and about
+one hundred and eighty lines of fragments are extant. He probably
+began to write after Terence's death.
+
+2. _Sextus Turpilius._--We have titles of thirteen of his _palliatae_,
+six of which are probably from Menander. He died B.C. 103, probably
+about eighty.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'Turpilius comicus senex admodum
+Sinuessae moritur.'
+
+3. _Iuventius_, _Valerius_, and _Vatronius_ wrote _palliatae_; _P.
+Licinius Tegula_ a hymn to Juno, B.C. 200 (Livy xxxi. 12); _Q. Fabius
+Labeo_ (cos. B.C. 183) and _M. Popillius Laenas_ (cos. 173) were poets.
+
+
+(_b_) PROSE WRITERS:
+
+_Fabius Pictor_ was the earliest Roman historian: Liv. i. 44,
+2, 'scriptorum antiquissimus Fabius Pictor.' A relative of Q. Fabius
+Maximus Cunctator (Plut. _Fab. Max._ 18), he took part in the war with
+the Cisalpine Gauls, B.C. 225 (Eutropius, iii. 5), and after the
+battle of Cannae was sent by the Senate on a mission to the oracle of
+Delphi (Liv. xxii. 57, 5).
+
+Fabius wrote in Greek an account of the Second Punic War, prefixed to
+which was a sketch of the history of Rome from its foundation: Liv.
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui.' There was also a Latin version, made either by Fabius
+Pictor or by a namesake (Gell. v. 4, 3).
+
+The same subject was treated by _L. Cincius Alimentus_, who was
+praetor B.C. 210 (Liv. xxvi. 23, i), and took an active part in the
+war in Sicily during the next two years (Liv. xxvii. 7, 12, and
+throughout that Book). He was taken prisoner by Hannibal, and
+conversed with him: Liv. xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum
+se ab Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret ...'
+
+Both Fabius and Cincius wrote in Greek, and both gave a cursory view
+of the earlier history: Dion. Hal. i. 6, +Romaion hosoi ta
+palaia erga tes poleos Hellenike dialekto synegrapsan, hon eisi
+presbytatoi Kointos te Phabios kai Leukios Kinkios ... touton de ton
+andron hekateros hois men autos ergois paregeneto, dia ten empeirian
+akribos anegrapse, ta de archaia to meta ton ktisin tes poleos
+genomena kephalaiodos epedramen.+
+
+
+
+CATO.
+
+
+M. Porcius Cato, the Censor (B.C. 234-149), born at Tusculum, of a
+yeoman stock, was one of the most prominent figures of his time. For
+the best account of his military and political career, including his
+advancement to the Consulship (B.C. 195) and Censorship (B.C. 184),
+and his economic and social reforms, the reader may be referred to
+Mommsen, _R.H._, vol. ii. _passim_.
+
+Cato was the founder of Latin prose, and the chief opponent of the
+exaggerated Hellenism that was finding its way into Roman life and
+literature (cf. his own words quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ xxix. 14,
+'Quandoque ista gens suas litteras dabit, omnia corrumpet'); but even
+he shows traces of Greek influence. Cato is represented now only by
+(1) his treatise _De Agri Cultura_, the earliest extant work in Latin
+prose, which, besides giving instruction for the husbandman, deals
+with housekeeping, cookery, and medicine.
+
+(2) His great work was the _Origines_, the earliest history in Latin
+prose, the contents of which are enumerated by Nepos, _Cato_, 3, 3,
+'Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus
+continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde
+quaeque civitas orta sit Italica (ob quam rem omnes Origines videtur
+appellasse); in quarto autem bellum Poenicum est primum, in quinto
+secundum. Atque haec omnia capitulatim sunt dicta. Reliqua quoque
+bella pari modo persecutus est usque ad praeturam Ser. Galbae, qui
+diripuit Lusitanos (B.C. 151). Atque horum bellorum duces non
+nominavit, sed sine nominibus res notavit.[22] In eisdem exposuit quae
+in Italia Hispaniisque aut fierent aut viderentur admiranda: in quibus
+multa industria et diligentia comparet, nulla doctrina.'
+
+An attempt has been made by A. Bormann (_M. Porcii Catonis Originum
+Libri vii._, Brandenburg 1858, p. 38) to prove that the principle of
+division was geographical, and that history only came in incidentally
+in connexion with the reduction of provinces; but as Nepos was writing
+to an eminent authority on antiquities, his account is likely to be
+right. The period between the kings and the Punic Wars was probably
+omitted by Cato through want of authorities.
+
+The title _Origines_ fails to indicate the scope of the work, which
+was chiefly occupied with general history; it was probably taken, as
+Nepos suggests, from the contents of Books ii. and iii., which seem to
+have been the most novel and valuable part of the undertaking.
+(Jordan, however, takes 'Origines' as equivalent, not to the Greek
++ktiseis+, but to 'res Romanae ab origine repetitae.')
+
+(3) _Praecepta ad Filium_ was the general title of a didactic work
+containing rules for medicine, husbandry, and rhetoric (_e.g._ 'Rem
+tene, verba sequentur'). Cf. Quint. iii. 1, 19, 'Romanorum primus,
+quantum ego quidem sciam, condidit aliqua in hanc materiam (rhetoric)
+M. Cato ille Censorius.'
+
+(4) _Speeches._--Fragments of eighty speeches, out of about two
+hundred and thirty, are collected by Jordan. They are almost equally
+divided between forensic and deliberative speeches: none is known of
+earlier date than B.C. 195. Cato incorporated some of them in the
+_Origines_, _e.g._ For the Rhodians (Gell. vi. 3, 7), and Against
+Galba (Cic. _Brut._ 89).
+
+Works on civil law are attributed to Cato, and we hear also of
++apophthegmata+ (Cic. _de Off._ i. 104), _Liber de re militari_ (Gell.
+vi. 4, 5), and _Carmen de moribus_ (Gell. xi. 2, 2).
+
+
+
+ACCIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The forms Accius and Attius are both found on inscriptions, _e.g._
+from Pisaurum; but in the MSS. of Nonius Marcellus, who often quotes
+Accius, and who is careful about his forms, 'Accius' is always found,
+and generally in MSS. of other authors.
+
+L. Accius was born B.C. 170 at Pisaurum (of. Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 128,
+'Attio Pisaurense').
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1878 = B.C. 139, 'L. Accius tragoediarum scriptor
+clarus habetur, natus Mancino et Serrano coss. (B.C. 170) parentibus
+libertinis et seni iam Pacuvio Tarenti sua scripta recitavit. A quo et
+fundus Accianus iuxta Pisaurum dicitur, quia illuc inter colonos
+fuerat ex urbe deductus.'
+
+This last statement must refer to Accius' father, as the colony of
+Pisaurum was founded B.C. 184. Jerome's chronology is corroborated by
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 229, 'Accius isdem aedilibus (B.C. 140) ait se et
+Pacuvium docuisse fabulam, cum ille lxxx., ipse xxx. annos natus
+esset.'
+
+Accius' friendship and influence with leading men is shown by Cic.
+_pro Arch._ 27, 'D. Brutus, summus vir et imperator (cons. B.C. 138)
+Acci amicissimi sui carminibus templorum ac monumentorum aditus
+exornavit suorum.'
+
+_Auct. ad Herenn._ i. 24, 'Mimus quidam nominatim Accium poetam
+compellavit in scaena. Cum eo Accius iniuriarum egit'; ii. 19, 'P.
+Mucius eum qui L. Accium poetam nominaverat condemnavit.'
+
+The above shows his self-consciousness; cf. also Pliny _N.H._ xxxiv.
+19, 'Notatum ab auctoribus et L. Accium poetam in Camenarum aede
+maxima forma statuam sibi posuisse, cum brevis admodum fuisset.'
+
+For Accius' friendship with Pacuvius, see p. 35. Accius must have
+lived to about B.C. 86, as Cicero (born B.C. 106) talked with him on
+literary subjects.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 107, 'D. Brutus M. filius, ut ex familiari eius L. Accio
+poeta sum audire solitus.'
+
+His _Tereus_ was produced in B.C. 104, as is seen from
+
+Cic. _Phil._ i. 36 (B.C. 44), 'Nisi forte Accio tum plaudi et
+sexagesimo post anno palmam dari, non Bruto, putabatis.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Tragedies._--Titles of about forty-five plays, and about seven
+hundred lines of fragments are extant. The fragments show imitation of
+Aeschylus as well as of Sophocles and Euripides.
+
+2. _Praetextae._--_Aeneadae_ or _Decius_, and _Brutus_. _Decius_
+treated of the self-sacrifice of P. Decius Mus at Sentinum, B.C. 295.
+Cf. l. 15, 'Patrio exemplo et me dicabo atque animam devoro (=
+devovero) hostibus.' _Brutus_ treated of the overthrow of Tarquinius
+Superbus and the establishment of the consulship.
+
+3. _Didascalica_, in at least nine books, a history of Greek and Latin
+poetry, with special attention to the drama. The few fragments are
+mostly in Sotadean metre. Cf. Gell. vi. 9, 16, 'L. Accius in
+Sotadicorum libro I.'
+
+4. _Pragmaticon libri_ (in trochaic tetrameters) on literary subjects.
+
+5. _Praxidica_, on agriculture. Two lines on ploughing are quoted from
+'liber parergon,' i., but it is not certain whether this is an
+independent work.
+
+6. _Annales_, in hexameters.
+
+7. A work in Saturnians.
+
+Accius gave attention to points of language. Cf. Quint. i. 7, 14,
+'Semivocales geminare diu non fuit usitatissimi moris, atque e
+contrario usque ad Accium et ultra porrectas syllabas geminis, ut
+dixi, vocalibus scripserunt.'
+
+Accius, like Ennius and Pacuvius, attacks superstition. Cf. ll. 169-70,
+
+  'Nil credo auguribus, qui auris verbis divitant
+  alienas, suas ut auro locupletent domos.'
+
+That Virgil imitated Accius is mentioned by Macrob. vi. 1, 58, who
+compares, _e.g._, l. 156,
+
+  'Virtuti sis par, dispar fortunis patris,'
+
+and _Aen._ xii. 435-6,
+
+  'Disce, puer, virtutem ex me verumque laborem,
+  fortunam ex aliis.'
+
+_Views on Accius._--A few of these may be referred to. Cic. _pro
+Sest._ 120, 'Summi poetae ingenium.' Ovid. _Am._ i. 15, 19,
+
+  'Animosi Accius oris.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 97; Tac. _Dial._ 20; and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 55
+(see 'Pacuvius,' p. 37).
+
+Of the prose writers contemporary with Accius, the most important were
+the annalists _L. Cassius Hemina_ and _L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi_; the
+orators _Ti._ and _C. Graccus_, and their opponent _C. Fannius_, and
+_M. Aemilius Scaurus_, the _princeps senatus_, who also wrote an
+autobiography (Cic. _Brut._ 112). _L. Coelius Antipater_ wrote a
+history of the Second Punic War in seven Books, making use of Silenus,
+whose account was favourable to the Carthaginians (Cic. _de Div._ i.
+49). His strength lay in style (Cic. _de Or._ ii. 53); though
+painstaking, he was apt to exaggerate (Liv. xxvii. 27, 12; xxix, 25,
+3).
+
+
+
+LUCILIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Lucilius' dates are given by Jerome as B.C. 148-103.
+
+yr. Abr. 1869 = B.C. 148, 'Lucilius poeta nascitur.'
+
+yr. Abr. 1914 = B.C. 103, 'C. Lucilius satirarum scriptor Neapoli
+moritur, ac publico funere effertur anno aetatis xlvi.'
+
+If Jerome's notice were correct, Lucilius would have been only
+thirteen years old at the time of the Numantine War (B.C. 134) in
+which he served.
+
+Velleius ii. 9, 4, 'Celebre et Lucili nomen fuit qui sub P. Africano
+Numantino bello eques militaverat.'
+
+It is probable that Jerome has confused the consuls of B.C. 180, A.
+Postumius Albinus and C. Calpurnius Piso, with those of B.C. 148, Sp.
+Postumius Albinus and L. Calpurnius Piso, and that Lucilius was born
+B.C. 180. No reference is found in Lucilius to any event after B.C.
+103, so that Jerome may be right in giving that as the year of his
+death. In Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 34, Lucilius is called _senex_, which
+shows that he lived a long life.
+
+Lucilius was born at Suessa in Campania. He was an _eques_, and was
+the great-uncle of Pompey. Juv. 1, 19,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 75, '"infra Lucili censum": Constat
+enim Lucilium avonculum maiorem Pompei fuisse: etenim avia Pompei
+Lucilii soror fuerat.'
+
+Velleius ii. 29, 2, 'Fuit [Cn. Pompeius] genitus matre Lucilia,
+stirpis senatoriae.' This Lucilia was Lucilius' niece, and her father,
+Lucilius' brother, was a senator.
+
+Lucilius was very intimate with Africanus the younger and Laelius, and
+celebrated them in his works. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quin ubi se a volgo et scaena in secreta remorant
+  virtus Scipiadae et mitis sapientia Laeli,
+  nugari cum illo et discincti ludere, donec
+  decoqueretur olus, soliti.'
+
+Schol. Cruq. _ad loc._, 'Scipio Africanus et Laelius feruntur tam
+fuisse familiares et amici Lucilio, ut quodam tempore Laelio circum
+lectos triclinii fugienti Lucilius superveniens eum obtorta mappa quasi
+feriturus sequeretur.'
+
+Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 16,
+
+  'Attamen et iustum poteras et scribere fortem,
+  Scipiadam ut sapiens Lucilius.'
+
+Lucil. _Sat._ xxx. 5 (of Scipio),
+
+                   'Sicubi ad auris
+  fama tuam pugnam clarans adlata dicasset.'
+
+Such intimate association could not have existed if Lucilius had been,
+as Jerome implies, only nineteen at Scipio's death in B.C. 129.
+
+There are many references to Lucilius' attacks on public men. Cf. Hor.
+_Sat._ ii. 1, 62,
+
+                'Quid? cum est Lucilius ausus
+  primus in hunc operis componere carmina morem,
+  detrahere et pellem, nitidus qua quisque per ora
+  cederet, introrsum turpis, num Laelius et qui
+  duxit ab oppressa meritum Carthagine nomen
+  ingenio offensi aut laeso doluere Metello
+  famosisque Lupo cooperto versibus? atqui
+  primores populi arripuit populumque tributim,
+  scilicet uni aequus virtuti atque eius amicis.'
+
+Lucil. lib. incert., ll. 63-4, quoted by Cic. _N.D._ i. 64,
+
+             '"Tubulus si Lucius umquam,
+  si Lupus aut Carbo, Neptuni filius,"
+
+ut ait Lucilius, putasset esse deos, tam periurus aut tam impurus
+fuisset?'
+
+Pers. 1, 114,
+
+                    'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te Lupe, te Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis.'
+
+Juv. 1, 165,
+
+  'Ense velut stricto quotiens Lucilius ardens
+  infremuit, rubet auditor cui frigida mens est
+  criminibus, tacita sudant praecordia culpa.'
+
+_The Saturae._--There were thirty Books altogether, by whom arranged
+is unknown. Fragments are extant from all the Books, except xxi. and
+xxiv. (and possibly xxiii. and xxv.). Books i.-xx. and xxx. were in
+hexameters; xxii. in elegiacs; xxvi.-xxvii. in trochaic septenarii;
+and the next two in trochaic septenarii, iambic senarii, and
+hexameters. Books xxvi.-xxix. were published first, then Book xxx. In
+Book xxvi. Lucilius states his views of life, his poetic principles,
+what led him to write satire, etc. Cf. l. 3,
+
+  'Nunc itidem populum aucupamur istis cum scriptoribus.'
+
+Lines 7-20 contain a conversation between Lucilius and a friend who
+wishes him to engage in public life. Cf. ll. 16-7,
+
+  'Publicanu' vero ut Asiae fiam scripturarius
+  pro Lucilio, id ego nolo, et uno hoc non muto omnia.'
+
+Two divisions of the work may be recognized--(i) Books i.-xxi. (to
+which xxii.-xxv. may be an addition) in hexameters; these Books are
+referred to as one collection by Varro, _L.L._ v. 17. (2) Books
+xxvi.-xxx. in various metres.
+
+_Dates of Composition._--Hor. _Sat._ ii. 1, 62-70 (quoted above),
+shows that Lucilius attacked Lupus and Metellus while Scipio and
+Laelius were still alive, _i.e._ not after B.C. 129; xxvi., ll. 88-9,
+in which Lucilius sneers at marriage,
+
+  'Homines ipsi hanc sibi molestiam ultro atque aerumnam offerunt.
+  Ducunt uxores, producunt, quibus haec faveant, liberos,'
+
+may have special reference to the attempts of Metellus in his
+censorship (B.C. 131) to encourage it. If this is so, Books xxvi.-xxx.
+were composed about B.C. 131-129. Book i. was composed after the death
+of Carneades in B.C. 129 (cf. l. 12, 'nec si Carneaden ipsum Orcu'
+remittat'), and probably soon after the death of Lupus, on whom the
+gods are represented as sitting in judgment.
+
+Serv. ad _Aen._ x. 104, 'Totus hic locus de primo Lucili translatus
+est libro; ubi inducuntur di habere concilium et agere primo de
+interitu Lupi cuiusdam ducis in re publica, postea sententias dicere.'
+
+In B.C. 126 Lucilius was probably, along with other _peregrini_,
+banished under the law of M. Iunius Pennus, trib. pl. in that year. He
+probably returned in B.C. 124, when the law was repealed by C.
+Graccus. Bk. xi. was composed after the condemnation of L. Opimius in
+B.C. 110. Cf. ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Quintus Opimius ille, Iugurtini pater huius,
+  et formosus homo fuit et famosus, utrumque
+  primo adulescens, posterius dat rectiu' sese.'
+
+_Subjects of the Satires._--These were very varied. Besides personal
+satire, we have (1) ethical criticism, as ridicule of philosophers and
+attacks on luxury.
+
+Lib. incert. ll. 134-5 (imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 3, 132 _sqq._;
+_Ep._ i. 1, 106-8),
+
+  'Nondum etiam, qui haec omnia habebit,
+  formonsus, dives, liber, rex solu' feretur?'
+
+iv. 4-6 (cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 2, 46-8),
+
+  'O Publi, o gurges, Galloni: es homo miser, inquit,
+  cenasti in vita numquam bene, cum omnia in ista
+  consumis squilla atque acupensere cum in decimano.'
+
+(2) Travels, as the account of the journey to the Sicilian Strait,
+imitated by Hor. _Sat._ i. 5.
+
+(3) Literary criticism. Lucilius jeers at Ennius' line,
+
+  'Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret,'
+
+according to Servius ad _Aen._ xi. 601, 'Est versus Ennianus
+vituperatus a Lucilio dicente per irrisionem eum debuisse dicere
+"horret et alget."' Euripides is criticised in xxix., frag. 9. Points
+of orthography and the like are also treated of, cf. ix. 11,
+
+  'Iam puerei venere. E postremum facito atque i,
+  ut pueri plures fiant. I si faci' solum,
+  pupilli, pueri, Lucili hoc uniu' fiet.'[23]
+
+Some other points may be noted:
+
+(1) He addresses a large circle of readers, xxix. 99,
+
+  'Persium non curo legere: Laelium Decumum volo.'
+
+Cf. Cic. _de Or._ ii. 25, 'Hic [Persius] fuit enim, ut noramus, omnium
+fere nostrorum hominum doctissimus: "Laelium Decimum volo," quem
+cognovimus virum bonum et non inlitteratum sed nihil ad Persium.'
+
+(2) For his self-esteem of. xxvi. 16, (quoted above). So xxx. 1,
+
+  'Quoi sua conmittunt mortali claustra Camenae.'
+
+(3) He often mixes Greek words with Latin. Cf. v. 12,
+
+       'Hoc nolueris et debueris te
+  si minu' delectat, quod +technion+ Eisocratiumst
+  +lerodes+que totum ac +symmeirakiodes+,
+  non operam perdo.'
+
+(4) For his carelessness as to style of. Hor. _Sat._ i. 4, 9,
+
+       'In hora saepe ducentos,
+  ut magnum, versus dictabat, stans pede in uno:
+  cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles;
+  garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem,
+  scribendi recte; nam ut multum, nil moror.'
+
+For Lucilius' influence on other poets, see above; also under
+'Persius,' p. 262. For Horace's views on Lucilius, see above; also
+_Sat._ i. 4; i. 10; ii. 1.
+
+Cf. Quint. x. 1, 93, 'Satira quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus
+insignem laudem adeptus Lucilius quosdam ita deditos sibi adhuc habet
+amatores, ut eum non eiusdem modo operis auctoribus sed omnibus poetis
+praeferre non dubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio
+dissentio, qui Lucilium "fluere lutulentum" et "esse aliquid, quod
+tollere possis" putat. Nam eruditio in eo mira et libertas atque inde
+acerbitas et abundantia salis.'
+
+
+
+ATTA AND AFRANIUS.
+
+
+Writers of _togatae_ were Atta and Afranius.
+
+Sueton. p. 15 R., 'Togatas tabernarias in scaenam dataverunt praecipue
+duo, L. Afranius et T. Quintius.'
+
+T. Quintius Atta died B.C. 77, according to Jerome yr. Abr. 1940, 'T.
+Quintius Atta, scriptor togatarum, Romae moritur.'
+
+Eleven titles and about twenty lines of fragments are extant. Horace
+refers to Atta in _Ep._ ii. 1, 79 _sqq._,
+
+  'Recte necne crocum floresque perambulet Attae
+  fabula si dubitem, clament periisse pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres, ea cum reprendere coner
+  quae gravis Aesopus, quae doctus Roscius egit.'
+
+L. Afranius was probably born between B.C. 154 and 144. He was the
+chief writer of _togatae_ (Quint. x. 1, 100, 'Togatis excellit
+Afranius'), and also an orator.
+
+Cic. _Brut._ 167, 'L. Afranius poeta, homo perargutus, in fabulis
+quidem etiam ut scitis disertus.'
+
+There are extant forty-two titles (with Latin names) and more than
+four hundred lines of fragments. The plays exhibit Roman surroundings,
+and describe low life, especially of the provincial towns. Cf. the
+title _Brundusinae_, also l. 136,
+
+  'Ubi hice Moschis, quaeso, habet, meretrix Neapolitis?'
+
+Afranius imitated Menander, and probably Terence.
+
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 57,
+
+  'Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro.'
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 4, 'Afranius togatarum scriptor in ea togata,
+quae Compitalia inscribitur, non inverecunde respondens arguentibus,
+quod plura sumpsisset a Menandro,
+
+  "Fateor" inquit "sumpsi non ab illo modo,
+  sed ut quisque habuit conveniret quod mihi,
+  quod me non posse melius facere credidi
+  etiam a Latino"' (ll. 25-8).
+
+Sueton. _vit. Ter._ p. 33 R., 'Terentium Afranius omnibus comicis
+praefert.'
+
+
+
+MINOR POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) The poets immediately after Afranius include
+
+(1) Hostius.--He was perhaps the grandfather of Cynthia (Hostia),
+Propertius' mistress. Prop. iv. 20, 7,
+
+  'Est tibi forma potens; sunt castae Palladis artes,
+  splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+There are nine lines extant from his epic poem _Bellum Histricum_,
+which was probably on the war of B.C. 125. Frag. 5 (Baehrens),
+
+    'Non si mihi linguae
+  centum atque ora sient totidem vocesque liquatae,'
+
+is from _Il._ ii. 489, and is imitated by Verg. _Aen._ vi. 625 (as
+noticed by Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 3, 6).
+
+(2) Writers of epigrams--Pompilius, Valerius Aedituus, Porcius
+Licinus, and Q. Lutatius Catulus (cons. B.C. 102).
+
+(3) Q. Valerius Soranus wrote verse on philology and archaeology.
+
+(4) Volcacius Sedigitus wrote verse on literary history up to the time
+of the _fabula palliata_. He wrote _indices_ of Plautus (Gell. iii. 3,
+1), and a work _De Poetis_, which included his canon on the comic
+poets (Gell. xv. 24).
+
+  'Caecilio palmam Statio do mimico.
+  Plautus secundus facile exuperat ceteros.
+  Dein Naevius, qui fervet, pretio in tertiost.
+  Si erit, quod quarto detur, dabitur Licinio.
+  Post insequi Licinium facio Atilium.
+  In sexto consequetur hos Terentius,
+  Turpilius septimum, Trabea octavum optinet,
+  nono loco esse facile facio Luscium.
+  Decimum addo causa antiquitatis Ennium.'
+
+(_b_) The following poets wrote during Cicero's youth, B.C. 106-84:
+
+(1) Cn. Matius, author of _Mimiambi_, and a translation of the
+_Iliad_. An example of the last is Frag. I (Baehrens) = _Il._ i. 56,
+
+  'Corpora Graiorum maerebat mandier igni.'
+
+(2) Laevius, author of _Erotopaegnia_, of a lyrical character.
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ iii. 1, 2, 'Romanis utique non prius audita,
+quamvis Laevius lyrica ante Horatium scripserit; sed videntur illa non
+Graecorum lege ad lyricum characterem exacta.'
+
+About sixty lines are extant. Gell. xix. 7 speaks of Laevius' curious
+vocabulary, and instances _oblittera_ for _oblitterata_;
+_trisaeclisenex_, _dulciorelocus_, etc.
+
+(3) A. Furius of Antium. Only six lines are extant.
+
+(4) C. Iulius Caesar Strabo, a tragic writer and orator.
+
+(5) Sueius. His works are (_a_) _Moretum_, an idyll; (_b_) _Pulli_, on
+the breeding of fowls; (_c_) _Nidus_; (_d_) an epic poem, _Annales_.
+
+(6) Writers of _fabula Atellana_;[24] Novius and L. Pomponius
+(Bononiensis). Fronto p. 62 (ed. Naber), 'Elegantis Novium et
+Pomponium et id genus in verbis rusticanis et iocularibus ac
+ridiculariis.'
+
+Of Novius forty-three titles and over one hundred lines are preserved,
+and of Pomponius about seventy titles and two hundred lines. The
+well-known characters of the _fabula Atellana_ are retained, as is
+seen from the titles. Cf. _Duo Dosseni_, _Maccus Copa_ of Novius; _Bucco
+Adoptatus_, _Maccus Miles_, _Maccus Sequester_, _Maccus Virgo_ of
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+PROSE WRITERS OF THE SAME PERIOD:
+
+
+_L. Cornelius Sisenna_ (praetor B.C. 78), author of _Historiae_ of the
+Social and Civil Wars (Vell. Pat. ii. 9). Cicero thought him superior
+to his predecessors, but childish (_Brut._ 228, _De Leg._ i. 7), and
+Sallust remarks his want of frankness in speaking of Sulla's career
+(_Iug._ 95). He avoided a piecemeal and desultory treatment of events;
+cf. his own words quoted by Gell. xii. 15, 2, 'Nos una aestate in Asia
+et Graecia gesta litteris idcirco continentia mandavimus, ne
+vellicatim aut saltuatim scribendo lectorum animos impediremus.' His
+translation of the +Milesiaka+ of Aristides is mentioned by Ovid,
+_Tr._ ii. 443.
+
+Contemporary with Sisenna were _Q. Claudius Quadrigarius_, and
+_Valerius Antias_, whose narrative was coloured by partiality for the
+Valerii and for Scipio Africanus (see under 'Livy').
+
+_C. Licinius Macer_, father of the poet Calvus, was one of Livy's
+sources for the early history. Dion. Hal. (vi. 11 and vii. 1)
+complains of his carelessness and the weakness of his chronology. He
+claimed that he used original authorities, _e.g._ the _libri lintei_,
+lists of magistrates written on linen. He was a strong democrat, and
+is looked upon by Mommsen (_R.H._ iv., p. 602) as manufacturing
+authorities in support of his political views.
+
+_Sulla_ wrote memoirs of his own life (Plut. _Lucull._ 1), and
+_Lucullus_ composed in Greek a history of the Marsian War (_ibid._).
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter I
+
+
+[1] The scheme of this old national metre, which depends on accent and
+not on quantity, may be seen from the two examples given below.
+Various forms are found, but one of the commonest types is identical
+with the rhythm of the nursery rhyme,
+
+  'The queen was in the parlour, eating bread and honey.'
+
+[2] 'I have heard that a Roman poet is languishing in prison with head
+on hand'--probably a metaphor from a pillar (but the sense is far from
+certain).
+
+[3] Utica was besieged by Scipio from 204 to 202 B.C.
+
+[4] In the _fabula togata_ or _tabernaria_ the surroundings of the
+comedy were Roman, in the _fabula palliata_ Greek, as in Plautus'
+plays. _Togata_ in a wider sense included tragedy as well as comedy.
+
+[5] This term means the construction of a new play by uniting two old
+ones.
+
+[6] The references are to the revised edition of Ritschl.
+
+[7] A species of burlesque tragedy, called after its inventor
+Rhinthon, who flourished B.C. 300.
+
+[8] _R.H._ ii. p. 431 trans.
+
+[9] This shows that the ancient (rough alphabetical) order has been
+departed from. Some grammarian of the fifth century altered the
+position of the play on account of the reference to it in _Epid._
+213-5 (quoted above).
+
+[10] I.e. the 'Patruus' written by the old Roman (lit., 'son of the
+porridge-eater').
+
+[11] These games were celebrated in April. Plays were exhibited also
+at the _Ludi Romani_ (September) and the _Ludi Plebei_ (November).
+
+[12] Much of the information on this head is taken from J. Brix's
+edition of the _Trinummus_. Leipzig, 1888.
+
+[13] This is shown in the universal classical usage of _bene_, _male_,
+etc.
+
+[14] The references are to Vahlen's edition.
+
+[15] Thus the original name of Beneventum was Maleventum, i.e.
++MaloFenta+, accusative of +MaloFeis+; cf. Agrigentum from
++Akragas+, and Tarentum from +Taras+.
+
+[16] Euhemerus of Messana, who wrote about the end of the fourth
+century B.C., tried in this work to show that the worship of the gods
+arose from the worship of deified kings and heroes.
+
+[17] The Oscan form of _Pacuvi_.
+
+[18] The term _doctus_ refers to his knowledge of the Greek laws of
+artistic composition.
+
+[19] After Ambivius' name appears in most of the didascaliae 'L.
+Hatilius Praenestinus.' Probably this person was an actor at some
+later productions, and his name has in this way crept into the MSS.
+
+[20] _Tibiae_ were called _pares_ or _impares_ according as they were
+or were not of the same length and key. _Duae dextrae_ were two pipes
+both playing the treble. _Tibiae Sarranae_, from Sarra, the old Latin
+name for Tyre, were a special form of _tibiae pares_.
+
+[21] _Mediocritas_ = +to meson+, the intermediate style between
++to hadron+, 'the florid' (_ubertas_), and +to ischnon+,
+'the simple' (_gracilitas_). See W. Peterson's note on Quint. x. 1,
+44.
+
+[22] For the omission of names, cf. iv. 12 (Jordan), 'dictatorem
+Karthaginiensium magister equitum monuit' (of Hannibal and Maharbal).
+
+[23] This means that Lucilius would represent the nom. plu. by _-ei_
+and the gen. sing, by _-i_.
+
+[24] The _fabula Atellana_ was a species of farce adopted by the
+Romans from the Oscan town of Atella in Campania. See Livy, vii. 2,
+for this and the early history of the Roman drama.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE CICERONIAN AGE.
+
+
+
+CICERO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Tullius Cicero, the son of a Roman knight, was born at Arpinum on
+3rd January, B.C. 106. Jerome yr. Abr. 1911, 'M. Tullius Cicero Arpini
+nascitur matre Helvia, patre equestris ordinis ex regio Volscorum
+genere.' Cic. _ad Att._ xiii. 42, 3, 'Diem meum scis esse iii. Non.
+Ian.'
+
+He gives an account of his education in _Brut._ 306 _sqq._ In civil
+law he was a pupil, in B.C. 89, of Q. Scaevola the Augur, and
+afterwards of the pontifex of the same name (_de Am._ 1). In B.C. 88
+he studied philosophy under Philo the Academic, and rhetoric under
+Molo of Rhodes. Dialectic he practised with the Stoic Diodotus, who
+lived and died in Cicero's house (B.C. 87-5). Other teachers of Cicero
+were the poet Archias (_pro Arch._ 1), the orator Antonius (_de Or._
+ii. 3), the actors Roscius and Aesopus (Plut. _Cic._ 5), the
+rhetorician M. Antonius Gnipho (Sueton. _Gramm._ 7), and the
+philosophers Phaedrus and Zeno.
+
+After establishing a reputation at the bar by his defence of Quinctius
+and of Roscius of Ameria, he visited Asia to recruit his health and
+improve his oratorical style. On his way to the East he stayed six
+months at Athens, where he renewed his philosophical studies under
+Antiochus the Academic. In Asia he attended the leading rhetoricians,
+especially his old teacher Molo at Rhodes, who endeavoured to chasten
+the exuberance of his manner. At Rhodes he also made the acquaintance
+of the famous Stoic Posidonius (_de Fin._ i. 6). After an absence of
+two years he returned to Rome B.C. 77, and shortly afterwards married
+Terentia.
+
+Cicero, who had served in the Social War, B.C. 89 (_Phil._ xii. 27),
+began his official career in 75 as quaestor of the district of
+Lilybaeum in Sicily, where he won golden opinions from all classes
+(_pro Planc._ 64). He headed the poll at the election of aediles for
+69, and of praetors for 66 (_in Pis._ 2); as praetor he presided over
+the court for the trial of cases of _repetundae_ (_pro Clu._ 147). His
+canvass for the consulship of 63 began as early as July 65 (_ad Att._
+i. 1, 1); he was returned with C. Antonius as his colleague (_in Pis._
+3). His services to the State in 63 in the crushing of the
+Catilinarian conspiracy need not be dwelt on here: his activity as an
+orator in that year was great, and he passed a law against undue
+influence by candidates, 'Lex Tullia de ambitu' (_in Vat._ 37). He
+waived his right to a province, allowing Metellus Celer to take Gaul.
+
+In 58 the hostility of P. Clodius effected Cicero's banishment, on the
+ground that he had put the Catilinarian conspirators to death without
+trial. Retiring at first to Vibo, in Lucania, he moved successively to
+Sicily, Thurii, Tarentum, Brundisium, Dyrrhachium, Thessalonica, and
+Athens. At Dyrrhachium he resided from November 58 to August 57, when,
+after several unsuccessful efforts by his friends, a law was passed
+for his recall.
+
+In 53 he was chosen augur in succession to the younger Crassus (Plut.
+_Cic._ 36), and two years later was appointed proconsul of Cilicia,
+under the new arrangement providing for an interval of five years
+between office in Rome and the government of a province. There he
+carried on a petty warfare with the mountaineers, and captured the
+fort of Pindenissus (a success for which the Senate decreed a
+_supplicatio_), occupying the winter with judicial business in the
+towns. His absence from the centre of affairs, though it lasted only a
+year, was most distasteful to him; cf. _ad Att._ v. 11, 1, 'Ne
+provincia nobis prorogetur, per fortunas! dum ades, quidquid provideri
+potest, provide: non dici potest quam flagrem desiderio urbis, quam
+vix harum rerum insulsitatem feram.' For his just dealing with the
+provincials, cf. _ad Att._ v. 21, 5.
+
+In November, 50, Cicero returned to Italy, to find a crisis imminent,
+and finally cast in his lot with the senatorial party. He left Rome
+with the consuls and the leading _optimates_, and for some time had
+charge of the district of Capua (_ad Fam._ xvi. 11, 3, 'nos Capuam
+sumpsimus'). On 7th June, B.C. 49, he embarked to join Pompey in
+Epirus, though far from enthusiastic for his leadership (_ad Fam._
+vii. 3, 2, 'mei facti poenituit... Nihil boni praeter causam.') The
+chiefs of the party looked upon him with suspicion, and he was not
+present at the battle of Pharsalus. After Pompey's overthrow he
+returned to Brundisium, and in 47 was allowed by Caesar to return to
+Rome (_ad Fam._ xiv. 23). His mode of life at this time he thus
+describes (_ad Fam._ ix. 20, 3), 'Ubi salutatio defluxit, litteris me
+involvo, aut scribo aut lego. Veniunt etiam qui me audiant quasi
+doctum hominem, quia paullo sum quam ipsi doctior.'
+
+In 46 he divorced his wife Terentia, of whose neglect he complains,
+_ad Fam._ iv. 14, 3; and married Publilia, with whom he parted in the
+following year. In 45 he lost his only daughter Tullia, who had been
+thrice married; he tried to drown his grief by close application to
+literary work, moving about from villa to villa, and it is to this
+period that most of his philosophical works belong. In 44 he appeared
+once more in Rome, and took a prominent part in the proceedings which
+followed upon Caesar's death. April to July he spent at his various
+villas (_ad Att._ xiv. _passim_), and then decided to visit Athens,
+where his son (born B.C. 65) was studying. On 1st August he reached
+Syracuse, but hearing at Leucopetra that his presence was required at
+Rome, he gave up his plan of travel and returned to the city. With the
+series of _Philippics_ against Antony (44-3) Cicero's career closes.
+In the proscription agreed on by the triumvirs he was marked out as
+one of the chief victims. A fragment of Livy, quoted by Seneca,
+_Suas._ 6, 17, states that he fled first to Tusculum, then to Formiae,
+and took ship from Caieta, but returned to land, exclaiming, 'Moriar
+in patria saepe servata.' On his way from the shore to his villa he
+was slain by a party of Antony's soldiers, and his head was carried to
+Rome and exposed on the Rostra. The date of the assassination was 7th
+December, B.C. 43 (Tiro quoted by Tac. _Dial._ 17).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+(a) Speeches.
+
+1. The earliest extant speech is that _Pro Quinctio_, delivered B.C.
+81 (Gell. xv. 28, 3) in an action before a iudex for restitution of
+property. This was not Cicero's first appearance as an advocate: par. 4,
+'quod mihi consuevit in ceteris causis esse adiumento.'
+
+2. Next year (cf. Gell. _ibid._) Cicero made his first speech in a
+criminal case, defending Sex. Roscius of Ameria on a charge of
+parricide. By so doing he incurred the risk of Sulla's enmity, but at
+the same time established his own position. _De Off._ ii. 51, 'contra
+L. Sullae dominantis opes pro S. Roscio Amerino'; _Brut._ 312, 'prima
+causa publica, pro Sex. Roscio dicta, tantum commendationis habuit, ut
+non ulla esset quae non digna nostro patrocinio videretur.' In later
+years he criticized the 'iuvenilis redundantia' of this speech
+(_Orat._ 108).
+
+3. The speech _Pro Roscio Comoedo_, usually assigned to B.C. 76, was a
+defence of the famous actor in a civil case.
+
+4. The year 70 B.C. is memorable for the group of speeches
+('accusationis vii. libri,' _Orat._ 103), against Verres, accused of
+_repetundae_ by the Sicilians, at whose urgent entreaty Cicero
+undertook the prosecution. The preliminary question, who should
+conduct the prosecution, is argued in the _Divinatio in Caecilium_. Q.
+Caecilius Niger, Verres' quaestor, claimed the right to prosecute, but
+this manoeuvre failed. Of the six speeches _in Verrem_ only one, the
+_Actio Prima_, was delivered: Cicero, seeing that the other side were
+anxious to carry the trial over into the next year, confined himself
+to this short introductory speech (on 5th August, cf. par. 31), after
+which he called his witnesses. Their evidence was so damaging that
+Hortensius[25] threw up the defence, and Verres was sentenced to
+banishment and his property confiscated. The five Books of the _Actio
+Secunda_ were published afterwards in order that the facts might be
+thoroughly known.
+
+5. _Pro M. Fonteio_ (incomplete), for Fonteius, propraetor of Gallia
+Narbonensis B.C. 75-3, on a charge of _repetundae_. This trial perhaps
+took place B.C. 69, certainly after the equites had been placed on the
+_iudicia_ by the Lex Aurelia of 70 (cf. par. 26).
+
+6. To the same year probably belongs the speech _Pro Caecina_ in a
+civil case.
+
+7. In B.C. 66 Cicero made his first political speech, _Pro Lege
+Manilia_, or _De Imperio Cn. Pompei_, in support of the bill of the
+tribune Manilius for conferring on Pompey the command against
+Mithradates.
+
+8. In the same year he defended Cluentius, charged with murder, in the
+speech _Pro A. Cluentio Habito_. The date is fixed as the year of
+Cicero's praetorship by par. 147, 'mea quaestio de pecuniis repetundis.'
+
+9. The three speeches _De Lege Agraria_ are concerned with the bill of
+P. Servilius Rullus for the appointment of _decemviri_ with full power
+to buy and sell land and to establish colonies. The first speech
+(incomplete) was made in the Senate on 1st January, the second and
+third before _contiones_.
+
+10. The speech _Pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo_ was delivered on
+behalf of Rabirius, charged before the _comitia_ with the murder of
+the tribune Saturninus in B.C. 100. The prosecution had been
+instituted by the democratic party to vindicate the old right of
+_provocatio ad populum_, and to establish the inviolability of the
+tribunes.
+
+11. Of the four speeches _In Catilinam_, i. was delivered in the
+Senate on 8th November, and followed by Catiline's flight from Rome;
+ii. to the people on 9th November; iii. to the people on 3rd December,
+when the Allobroges gave their evidence about the conspiracy; iv. in
+the Senate, on 5th December, calling for the capital punishment of the
+conspirators.[26]
+
+12. In this crisis Cicero made one of his most graceful and witty
+speeches, the _Pro Murena_. The defendant was charged with bribery in
+his candidature for the consulship, and among the prosecutors was
+Cato.
+
+13-14. In B.C. 62 Cicero defended P. Sulla, who was accused of
+complicity with Catiline (_Pro Sulla_), and delivered the speech _Pro
+Archia_ in support of his friend's title to the Roman citizenship.
+
+15. In B.C. 59 L. Flaccus was accused of _repetundae_ as propraetor of
+Asia 62-60, and defended by Cicero in the speech _Pro Flacco_.
+
+16-19. After Cicero's return from exile he returned thanks to the
+Senate in the speech _Cum Senatui gratias egit_, 5th September B.C. 57
+(_ad Att._ iv. 1, 5), delivered from manuscript ('propter rei
+magnitudinem dicta de scripto,' _Pro Planc._ 74). The genuineness of
+the corresponding speech to the people, _Cum populo gratias egit_, is
+suspected; it is mentioned by Dio. xxxix. 9, 1, but not by Cicero
+himself. On 30th September (_ad Att._ iv. 2, 2) the speech _De Domo
+Sua_ was delivered before the _pontifices_, who decided that the site
+of Cicero's house, which Clodius had consecrated, should be restored
+to its owner. Connected with this is the speech _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_, of the year 56, rebutting the argument of Clodius that the
+declaration of the _haruspices_, 'loca sacra et religiosa profana
+haberi' (par. 9) referred to the restitution of Cicero's house.
+
+20. The speech _Pro Sestio_ is in defence of one of Cicero's friends
+who, as tribune, had worked energetically for his recall from exile,
+and was now accused _de vi_ at the instigation of Clodius. Sestius was
+acquitted in March, B.C. 56 (_ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1).
+
+21. The _Interrogatio in P. Vatinium testem_ was a successful attack
+on the credibility of Vatinius, who had been one of the chief
+witnesses against Sestius.
+
+22. _Pro M. Caelio_.--The prosecution of Caelius on a charge of
+poisoning was instigated by his former mistress, Clodia; it took place
+in B.C. 56, for Cn. Domitius, who tried the case (par. 32), was praetor
+in that year (_ad Q.F._ ii. 3, 6).
+
+23. The speech _De Provinciis Consularibus_, B.C. 56, argues that
+Caesar should be allowed to continue as proconsul of Gaul, and that
+Syria and Macedonia should be taken away from Gabinius and Piso.
+Mommsen[27] regards it as the +palinodia+ of _ad Att._ iv. 5,
+1, and contrasts Cicero's tone to Caesar in this speech with his
+attitude in the _Pro Sestio_, _In Vatinium_, and _De Haruspicum
+Responsis_.
+
+24. The speech _Pro Balbo_ deals with a case similar to that of
+Archias. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades, and the trusted
+friend of Caesar, had received the _civitas_ from Pompey, and this
+speech is in defence of his right thereto (B.C. 56).
+
+25. _In Pisonem_, an attack on Cicero's enemy (consul B.C. 58),
+delivered in the Senate B.C. 55.
+
+26. _Pro Plancio_, B.C. 54, on behalf of Cn. Plancius, accused of
+organizing clubs to secure by bribery his election to the aedileship.
+
+27. _Pro Rabirio Postumo_, B.C. 54. Rabirius was charged with
+extortion in Egypt.
+
+28. _Pro Milone_.--At the trial of Milo _de vi_ in B.C. 52 Cicero was
+so intimidated by the uproar of the rabble that his speech was a
+failure, and Milo was condemned. The speech now extant was written by
+Cicero at his leisure. Both were known to Asconius,[28] who supplies a
+valuable introduction.
+
+29. For six years we have no speech; but in 46 Cicero broke his rule
+of silence ('in perpetuum tacere,' _ad Fam._ iv. 4, 4), and in the
+speech _Pro Marcello_ thanked Caesar for allowing Marcellus, the
+consul of B.C. 51, to return to Rome.
+
+30. On 26th November B.C. 46 he pleaded before Caesar the cause of Q.
+Ligarius (_Pro Ligario_).
+
+31. In the latter part of B.C. 45 he delivered in Caesar's house the
+speech _Pro Rege Deiotaro_ on behalf of his 'hospes vetus et amicus,'
+the tetrarch of Galatia, accused of treachery to Caesar.
+
+32. Cicero's oratorical career closes with the fourteen speeches
+against Antony, called _Philippics_, after the speeches of
+Demosthenes. This title was suggested by the author himself; cf. the
+letter of Brutus (_ad Brut._ ii. 5, 4), 'iam concedo ut vel
+Philippicae vocentur, quod tu quadam epistula iocans scripsisti.' It
+was the usual title in antiquity, though Gellius (xiii. 1, 1) uses the
+alternative _Antonianae_. The _Philippics_ cover the period from 2nd
+September 44 to 22nd April 43. They were all delivered in the Senate,
+except iv. and vi., which are _contiones_, and ii., which was never
+spoken, but published as a political pamphlet after Antony had left
+Rome: for its fame cf. Juv. 10, 125,
+
+  'Te conspicuae, divina Philippica, famae,
+  volveris a prima quae proxima.'
+
+There are fragments of about twenty speeches, and the titles of thirty
+others are known. The invective _in Sallustium_, and the speech
+_Pridie quam in exilium iret_, are undoubtedly spurious.
+
+Many of the speeches were to a large extent extempore, the heads only
+being committed to writing. These notes were afterwards collected by
+Tiro (Quint. x. 7, 30-1). In publishing, Cicero occasionally omitted
+some passages of the spoken oration, _e.g._ in _Pro Mur._ 57 only the
+headings appear, 'De Postumi criminibus.' 'De Servi adulescentis': cf.
+Plin. _Ep._ i. 20, 7, 'ex his apparet illum permulta dixisse, cum
+ederet omisisse.' For the practice of reporting his speeches in
+shorthand cf. Ascon. _in Mil._ 'manet illa quoque excepta eius oratio'
+(his speech at Milo's trial). The only case in which Cicero appeared
+for the prosecution was that of Verres: the part of an accuser was
+generally distasteful to him; cf. _De Off._ ii. 50, 'duri hominis vel
+potius vix hominis videtur, periculum capitis inferre multis.'
+
+
+(b) Philosophical Works.
+
+1. _De Re Publica_, a discussion of the ideal state and the ideal
+citizen, was published before B.C. 51, for Caelius writes to Cicero in
+Cilicia, 'tui politici libri omnibus vigent' (_ad Fam._ viii. 1, 4).
+In this treatise Cicero made use of Plato, and of Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, and other Peripatetics (_de Div._ ii. 3). There were six
+Books; but until 1822 the _Somnium Scipionis_, extracted by Macrobius
+from Book vi., was the only portion of the work known to exist, with
+the exception of a few fragments. In that year Mai published at Rome,
+from a Vatican palimpsest, remains which make up about one-third of
+the whole.
+
+2. The _De Legibus_ succeeded the _De Re Publica_, as Plato's _Laws_
+came after the _Republic_. The speakers in this dialogue are Atticus,
+Cicero, and his brother Quintus. Book i. expounds the Stoic position
+that the laws of the ideal state are made by the wise man in
+accordance with the mind of God; this position is worked out in Book
+ii. in the regulations for religion, and in iii. on the duties of
+magistrates. The treatise was never completed, and was perhaps a
+posthumous publication: it is not mentioned in the list in _De
+Divinatione_ ii. 1-3, and there is no preface, though Cicero says (_ad
+Att._ iv. 16, 2) 'in singulis libris utor prooemiis.' Certainly it had
+not appeared in B.C. 46, the year of the _Brutus_ (_Brut._ 19). It was
+composed after the murder of Clodius in January, B.C. 52 (ii. 42), and
+in Pompey's lifetime (iii. 22): probably in 52, as the government of
+Cilicia and the civil war left Cicero no time for literature during
+the years 51-48.
+
+3. In the spring of 46 was written the short tract _Paradoxa_, a
+discussion of six Stoic paradoxes (_e.g._ that the wise man alone is
+free). It was addressed to Brutus, and was later than the dialogue
+which bears his name; cf. the preface, 'accipies hoc parvum opusculum,
+lucubratum his iam contractioribus noctibus, quoniam illud maiorum
+vigiliarum munus in tuo nomine apparuit.'
+
+4. The death of Tullia in February, 45, led Cicero to write, at
+Astura, a _Consolatio_, of which only fragments survive. Plin. _N.H._
+praef. 22, quotes Cicero as saying that he here followed the Greek
+philosopher, Crantor, +peri penthous+. It contained notices of
+the deaths of great men, _De Div._ ii. 22, 'clarissimorum hominum
+nostrae civitatis gravissimos exitus in Consolatione collegimus.'
+
+5. In the _Hortensius_ Cicero appeared as the champion of philosophy:
+_De Fin._ i. 2, 'philosophiae vituperatoribus satis responsum est eo
+libro, quo a nobis philosophia defensa et collaudata est, cum esset
+accusata et vituperata ab Hortensio.' It cannot be traced beyond the
+seventh century, and is now represented by a few fragments. In the
+Middle Ages it was confounded with the _Prior Academics_, the speakers
+in both dialogues being the same. The _Hortensius_ seems to have been
+written before Cicero went to Astura in March, B.C. 45: there is no
+allusion to it in his letters.
+
+6. The treatise _De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum_ discusses various
+theories of the _summum bonum_--the Epicurean in Books i.-ii., the
+Stoic in iii.-iv., the Peripatetic in v. The scene of the dialogue
+changes from Cumae to Tusculum and then to the Academy at Athens. The
+work was dedicated to Brutus in June, 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 12, 3).
+
+7. The _Academics_ appeared in two editions. Of the original edition
+Book ii., entitled _Lucullus_, has survived; the speakers in it are
+Lucullus, Catulus, Hortensius, and Cicero, and the scene, Hortensius'
+villa. Cicero was not satisfied with this arrangement (_ad Att._ xiii.
+12, 3, 'homines nobiles illi quidem, sed nullo modo philologi, nimis
+acute locuntur'), and after provisionally transferring the parts of
+Lucullus, Catulus, and Hortensius, to Cato and Brutus, he finally
+adopted the suggestion of Atticus to gratify Varro by giving him a
+share in the dialogue together with Atticus and himself (_ad Att._
+xiii. 13, 1, 'commotus tuis litteris, quod ad me de Varrone
+scripseras, totam Academiam ab hominibus nobilissimis abstuli
+transtulique ad nostrum sodalem et ex duobus libris contuli in
+quattuor'). Of this second edition in four Books we possess only Book
+i. (incomplete), and fragments of the others; the scene is at Cumae.
+The dedicatory epistle to Varro is still preserved (_ad Fam._ ix. 8).
+
+8. In the five Books of _Tusculanae Disputationes_, conversations
+between Cicero and a friend at his Tusculan villa, the subject is the
+chief essentials for happiness. Book i. inculcates the proper attitude
+towards death, ii. to grief, iii. to pain, iv. to other trials, v.
+asserts the sufficiency of virtue for happiness. The treatise is
+dedicated to Brutus, and was finished by B.C. 44, in which year (_ad
+Att._ xv. 2, 4) the first Book is known to Atticus.
+
+9. _De Natura Deorum_, in three Books, is also addressed to Brutus.
+The Epicurean, Stoic, and Peripatetic doctrines are represented by C.
+Velleius, Q. Lucilius Balbus, and C. Aurelius Cotta, respectively.
+This treatise was written after the _Tusculans_ (_de Div._ ii. 3): in
+July 45 (_ad Att._ xiii. 39, 2) Atticus is asked for the loan of
++Phaidrou peri theon+ and +peri Pallados+.
+
+10. The essay _De Senectute_, called also _Cato Maior_ after the
+principal speaker in the dialogue, was addressed to Atticus at the end
+of 45 or early in 44 (_de Div._ ii. 3; _ad Att._ xiv. 21, 3).
+
+11. To a later date in the same year belongs the _Laelius_, or _De
+Amicitia_ (_de Am._ 4 mentions the _de Sen._), in which Laelius
+discourses on friendship. In this book, according to Gell. i. 3,
+10-11, Cicero was under obligations to Theophrastus +peri philias+.
+
+12. _De Divinatione_, in two Books, forms a supplement to the _De
+Natura Deorum_. Cicero and his brother discuss, at Tusculum, the
+nature and validity of 'divinatio,' which is defined (i. 9) as 'earum
+rerum quae fortuitae putantur praedictio atque praesensio.' The date
+is 44.
+
+13. The incomplete essay _De Fato_ was written in 44, after Caesar's
+death (cf. par. 2). The conversation takes place at Puteoli, between
+Cicero and the consul-designate Hirtius.
+
+14. On 11th July of the same year Cicero sent to Atticus his treatise
+_De Gloria_, in two Books, now lost (_ad Att._ xvi. 2, 6; _de Off._
+ii. 31).
+
+15. The latest of the extant philosophical works is the _De Officiis_,
+written for the instruction of the author's son. Cicero had completed
+two Books by November, B.C. 44 (xvi. 11, 4), following the treatment
+of Panaetius, and discussing in Book i. the issue between vice and
+virtue, in Book ii. the expediency of a given action. In Book iii. he
+was indebted to Posidonius, for the discussion of apparent conflict
+between virtue and expediency.
+
+There are traces of two other treatises, _De Virtutibus_ and _De
+Auguriis_; and we possess fragments of a translation of Plato's
+_Protagoras_ and _Timaeus_, which cannot be earlier than B.C. 45 (_de
+Fin._ i. 7).
+
+Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy, claiming only that
+he renders the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to his own
+countrymen. This sort of work cost him little trouble: _ad Att._ xii.
+52, 3, '+apographa+ sunt; minore labore fiunt: verba tantum affero,
+quibus abundo.' At the same time he is not a mere translator: _de
+Fin._ i. 6, 'nos non interpretum fungimur munere, sed tuemur ea quae
+dicta sunt ab eis quos probamus, eisque nostrum iudicium et nostrum
+scribendi ordinem adiungimus.' His motives for entering upon this task
+are explained in _De Nat. Deor._ i. 7-9: (1) he desired to do a
+service to his country: 'ipsius rei publicae causa philosophiam
+nostris hominibus explicandam putavi'; (2) he sought relief for his
+own mind: 'hortata etiam est ut me ad haec conferrem animi aegritudo,
+fortunae magna et gravi conmota iniuria.' Cicero is an eclectic, with
+a leaning to the New Academy: _Tusc._ iv. 7, 'nullis unius disciplinae
+legibus adstricti, quibus in philosophia necessario pareamus.'
+Probability is all that he expects to reach: _ibid._, 'quid sit in
+quaque re maxime probabile semper requiremus.' The philosophy most
+attractive to him is that which best called forth the oratorical
+faculty: _Tusc._ ii. 9, 'mihi semper Peripateticorum Academiaeque
+consuetudo de omnibus rebus in contrarias partes differendi ...
+placuit ... quod esset ea maxima dicendi exercitatio.'[29]
+
+
+(c) Rhetorical Treatises.
+
+1. The earliest of these is _De Inventione_, or _Rhetorica_, in two
+Books, written probably for the author's own use during Sulla's
+absence in Asia B.C. 87-83. In his mature years Cicero looked back
+with contempt on this youthful effort: _de Or._ i. 5, 'quae pueris aut
+adulescentulis nobis ex commentariolis nostris incohata ac rudia
+exciderunt.' He borrows much from the _Rhet. ad Herenn._, and
+frequently mentions and criticises the views of Hermagoras; but all
+the best writers on rhetoric were laid under contribution: ii. 4,
+'omnibus unum in locum coactis scriptoribus, quod quisque commodissime
+praecipere videbatur, excerpsimus.'
+
+2. The three Books _De Oratore_ were finished in 55: _ad Att._ iv. 13,
+2, 'de libris oratoriis factum est a me diligenter: diu multumque in
+manibus fuerunt: describas licet.' They were written at a time when
+Cicero's voice was seldom heard: _ad Fam._ i. 9, 23, 'ab orationibus
+diiungo me fere referoque ad mansuetiores Musas.' The dialogue takes
+place in B.C. 91, at the Tusculan villa of L. Licinius Crassus; he and
+the rival orator, M. Antonius, are the chief speakers.
+
+3. The dialogue _Brutus_, or _De Claris Oratoribus_, after a brief
+survey of Greek oratory, criticises the Roman orators from L. Brutus
+to Cicero's own time. In spite of his intention to omit living persons
+(par. 231), he discusses Caesar, M. Marcellus, and himself. The speakers
+are Brutus, Atticus, and Cicero; and the date is probably 46, for the
+_Brutus_ is earlier than the _Orator_, which refers to it (par. 23).
+
+4. The _Orator_ or _De Optimo Genere Dicendi_ is a sequel to the _De
+Oratore_ and the _Brutus_, adding practical rules to the exposition of
+theory (_de Div._ ii. 4). It was written at the request of Brutus, to
+whom it is addressed, in the year 46 (_ad Fam._ xii. 17, 2).
+
+5. _Partitiones Oratoriae_ is a catechism on rhetoric, in which the
+questions are put to Cicero by his son.
+
+6. The _Topica_ was written in response to repeated requests from
+Trebatius for explanation of Aristotle's _Topics_. It was done by
+Cicero, without the aid of books, on his voyage from Velia to Rhegium
+in July, 44 (_Top._ 5; _ad Fam._ vii. 19).
+
+7. The short treatise _De Optimo Genere Oratorum_ was introductory to
+a version of the speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines 'on the Crown,'
+designed to show the Romans what the best Attic oratory was like.
+
+
+(d) Letters.
+
+Cicero's correspondence begins B.C. 68 with _ad Att._ i. 5, and ends
+28th July, B.C. 43. Besides seven hundred and seventy-four letters
+written by Cicero, we have ninety addressed to him by friends. The
+collection was made by friends like Tiro and Atticus: cf. _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5 (B.C. 44), 'Mearum epistularum nulla est +synagoge+, sed
+habet Tiro instar septuaginta, et quidem sunt a te quaedam sumendae:
+eas ego oportet perspiciam, corrigam; tum denique edentur.'
+
+The letters now extant fall into four groups.
+
+1. _Epistulae ad Atticum_, in sixteen Books, belonging to the years
+B.C. 68-43, and valuable for their thorough frankness (_ad Att._ viii.
+14, 2, 'ego tecum tamquam mecum loquor'). Nepos appreciates their
+supreme importance for the history of Cicero's time, although he dates
+the commencement of the correspondence wrongly: _Att._ 16, 'xvi.
+volumina epistularum ab consulatu eius usque ad extremum tempus ad
+Atticum missarum; quae qui legat, non multum desideret historiam
+contextam eorum temporum.' Atticus' own letters were not published,
+though Cicero preserved them: _ad Att._ ix. 10, 4, 'Evolvi volumen
+epistularum, quod ego sub signo habeo servoque diligentissime.'
+
+2. _Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem_, in three Books, of the years B.C.
+60-54.
+
+3. _Epistulae ad Brutum_, originally in nine Books, of which only two
+remain. The present Book i. was really Book ix., and Book ii., which
+contains letters earlier than those in Book i., may have formed part
+of the original Book viii.
+
+4. _Epistulae ad Familiares_, in sixteen Books, letters to and from
+friends, written B.C. 62-43. This title is not found in any MS. Late
+MSS. and old editions have 'Epistulae Familiares': for the title 'Ad
+Diversos' there is no authority. In the best MSS. the Books are titled
+separately by the name of the person to whom the first letter in each
+is written, _e.g._ 'M. Tulli Ciceronis epistularum ad P. Lentulum
+liber i.'
+
+For the colloquial style of the letters cf. _ad Fam._ ix. 21, 1 (to
+Paetus), 'Quid tibi ego in epistulis videor? nonne plebeio sermone
+agere tecum? nec enim semper eodem modo: quid enim simile habet
+epistula aut iudicio aut contioni? ... epistulas vero cottidianis
+verbis texere solemus.'
+
+The following works are now lost: (_a_) _Miscellaneous prose
+writings._--1. Panegyrics on Porcia (_ad Att._ xiii. 37, 3) and Cato,
+B.C. 45; and funeral orations written for other people to deliver (_ad
+Q.F._ iii. 8, 5, 'laudavit pater scripto meo').
+
+2. Memoirs of Cicero's consulship, written B.C. 60, in both Greek and
+Latin (_ad. Att._ i. 19, 10). He took great pains with this book, and
+was anxious that it should be well circulated (_ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+3. A secret history, _Anekdota_, mentioned in letters of B.C. 59 and
+44 (_ad Att._ ii. 6, 2; xiv. 17, 6).
+
+4. _Admiranda_, a collection of wonders (Pliny, _N.H._ xxxi. 51).
+
+5. _Chorographia_, a book on geography, mentioned by Priscian. The
+letters to Atticus show that Cicero was studying the subject in B.C.
+59.
+
+6. A work on law, _De iure civili in artem redigendo_ (Gell. i. 22,
+7).
+
+7. A translation of Xenophon's _Oeconomicus_, made when Cicero was
+about the age of twenty (_de Off._ ii. 87).
+
+(_b_) _Poems._--1. Cicero's earliest effort in verse was a poem in
+tetrameters, entitled _Pontius Glaucus_: Plut. _Cic._ 2, +kai
+ti poiemation eti paidos autou diasozetai Pontios Glaukos en
+tetrametro pepoiemenon+.
+
+2. In B.C. 60 he made a verse translation of the astronomical poems of
+Aratus, _ad Att._ ii. 1, 2, 'Prognostica mea ... propediem exspecta.'
+Quotations are given in _De Nat. Deor._ ii. 104 _sqq._
+
+3. In the same year he wrote a poem _De Suo Consulatu_, in three
+Books: _ad Att._ i. 19, 10, 'poema exspectato, ne quod genus a me ipso
+laudis meae praetermittatur.' A long passage from Book ii., spoken by
+the Muse Urania, is recited by Q. Cicero in _De Div._ i. 17 _sqq._
+
+4. Another poem in three Books, _De Temporibus Suis_, belonged
+probably to the year 55. Cicero writes to Lentulus in 54 (_ad Fam._ i.
+9, 23), 'scripsi versibus tres libros de temporibus meis, quos iam
+pridem ad te misissem, si esse edendos putassem.'
+
+5. In the letters to Quintus from June to December, 54, there is
+frequent mention of a poem _Ad Caesarem_. Quintus is consulted for
+information about Britain: _ad Q.F._ ii. 15, 2, 'mihi date Britanniam,
+quam pingam coloribus tuis, penicillo meo.'
+
+6. A poem on Cicero's great townsman Marius is quoted, _De Div._ i.
+106.
+
+Among others quoted are _Limon_, in which Terence was praised (see p.
+51), and _iocularis libellus_ (Quint. viii. 6, 73). Translations from
+Greek poets occur in the philosophical works, e.g. _de Fin._ v. 49,
+from Homer, _Odys._ xii. 184-191; _Tusc._ ii. 23, from various parts
+of Aeschylus, _Prom. Vinct._
+
+The ancient criticisms on Cicero's poetry are all unfavourable:
+
+_De Off._ i. 77, 'Illud optimum est, in quo invadi solere ab improbis
+et invidis audio:
+
+  "Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi."'
+
+Juv. 10, 122,
+
+  '"O fortunatam natam me consule Romam!"
+  Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic
+  omnia dixisset.'
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 21 (quoted p. 111).
+
+Quint. xi. 1, 24, 'In carminibus utinam pepercisset, quae non
+desierunt carpere maligni.'
+
+_Rhetorica ad Herennium_.--This treatise on rhetoric in four Books,
+addressed to the author's relative C. Herennius, is usually printed
+among Cicero's works, and is attributed to him by the MSS. and by
+Jerome and Priscian. But it is clearly not by Cicero, for (_a_) it
+does not agree with his own description of his early rhetorical
+writings as 'incohata ac rudia'; (_b_) the author's position, as
+described by himself, is not Cicero's. It is generally held that one
+Cornificius was the author; Quintilian (_e.g._ v. 10, 2) attributes to
+a person of that name several expressions found in the _ad Herennium_.
+He may have been the Q. Cornificius who opposed Cicero for the
+consulship in B.C. 64. The date of the treatise is probably B.C.
+86-84.
+
+
+
+QUINTUS CICERO.
+
+
+Q. Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, was born probably B.C.
+102. He was aedile in 65 (_ad Att._ i. 4, 1); praetor in 62, when he
+tried the case of Archias; propraetor of Asia 61-58 (_ad Q.F._ i. 1,
+2). He acted as _legatus_ of Pompey in Sardinia B.C. 56 (_pro Scauro_,
+39); of Caesar in Gaul, taking part in the second invasion of Britain
+(Caes. _B.G._ v.); and of his brother in Cilicia (_ad Fam._ xv. 4, 8).
+At the outbreak of the civil war he was with Marcus at Formiae and
+Capua; but after the death of Pompey there was a breach between them.
+Being proscribed by the triumvirs he took flight, but was betrayed by
+his slaves and put to death, B.C. 43 (Plut. _Cic._ 47). His wife was
+Pomponia, the sister of Atticus.
+
+For the benefit of M. Cicero in his candidature for the consulship,
+B.C. 64, Quintus wrote the _Commentariolum Petitionis_ (the title in par.
+58) or _De Petitione Consulatus_. It is in the form of a letter, and
+is headed in the best MSS. 'Q. M. Fratri S. D.' Quintus writes with
+special reference to his brother's circumstances, but most of the
+rules which he lays down are of general application. The authenticity
+of this treatise has been called in question by Eussner, who ascribes
+it to a clever imitator, partly on the ground of coincidences of
+expression with Cicero's speech _in Toga Candida_; but his arguments
+are refuted by Prof. Tyrrell (_Cicero's Correspondence_, i. pp.
+110-121).
+
+There are also extant three letters to Tiro and one to M. Cicero.
+Quintus' poetry is now represented only by twenty hexameters on the
+signs of the zodiac; but he wrote an epic poem, _Annales_ (_ad Att._
+ii. 16, 4 [Quintus] 'ita remittit ut me roget ut annales suos emendem
+et edam'), and composed tragedies with great rapidity (_ad Q.F._ iii.
+6, 7, 'quattuor tragoedias xvi. diebus absolvisse cum scribas, tu
+quidquam ab alio mutuaris?'). His admiration for Sophocles and
+Euripides appears in _De Fin._ v. 3; _ad Fam._ xvi. 8, 2.
+
+
+
+TIRO.
+
+
+M. Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, who had a high opinion of his
+worth and ability (_ad Fam._ xvi. 4, 3; _ad Att._ vii. 5, 2), wrote
+(1) a biography of his patron: Ascon. p. 49, 'ut legimus apud Tironem
+libertum Ciceronis in libro iiii. de vita eius.'
+
+(2) Editions of Cicero's speeches and letters: Gell. i. 7, 1, 'in
+oratione Ciceronis v. in Verrem, libro spectatae fidei, Tironiana cura
+atque disciplina facto.' (See also p. 85.)
+
+(3) A collection of Cicero's witticisms: Quint. vi. 3, 5, 'utinam
+libertus eius Tiro aut alius, quisquis fuit, qui iii. hac de re libros
+edidit, parcius dictorum numero indulsissent.'
+
+(4) Grammatical works, as +pandektai+, mentioned by Gell. xiii.
+9, 2.
+
+For his system of shorthand, cf. Sueton. p. 136 R., 'Romae primus
+Tullius Tiro, Ciceronis libertus, commentatus est notas, sed tantum
+praepositionum.'
+
+
+
+T. POMPONIUS ATTICUS (B.C. 109-32).
+
+
+Author of (1) _Annalis_, a chronological table of the chief events in
+Roman and foreign history, accompanied by genealogies (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 1). As it was Cicero's _De Re Publica_ that suggested its
+composition (Cic. _Brut._ 19), its date cannot be earlier than B.C.
+54. (2) Family histories, _e.g._ of the Iunii (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 3),
+published separately. (3) _De Imaginibus_, a collection of
+inscriptions in verse for the busts of celebrated men (Nepos, _Att._
+18, 5). (4) _De Consulatu Ciceronis_, in Greek (Nepos, _Att._ 18, 6),
+written B.C. 60 (Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 1).
+
+Atticus is an interesting figure on account of the large publishing
+business which he conducted (Nepos, _Att._ 13, 3); and the great care
+with which he sought out good MSS. to reproduce in his establishment
+makes him important in the history of the preservation of ancient
+literature.
+
+
+
+M. TERENTIUS VARRO.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Terentius Varro was born B.C. 116 at Reate in the Sabine country.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1901, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus et poeta
+nascitur.' Symmachus, _Ep._ i. 2, calls him 'Terentius Reatinus'; and
+he owned property in that district: _R.R._ ii. praef. 6, 'ipse
+pecuarias habui grandes, in Apulia oviarias, et in Reatino equarias.'
+
+Of his family nothing is known except that he had an uncle belonging
+to the equestrian order (Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176). His philosophical
+education was received at Athens, where he was a disciple of Antiochus
+of Ascalon: Cic. _Ac. Post._ 12, 'Aristum Athenis [Brutus] audivit
+aliquamdiu, cuius tu [Varro] fratrem Antiochum.'
+
+He took part in the war with Sertorius in Spain, B.C. 76 (Sall. _Hist._
+ii. fr. 69). In the war with the pirates, B.C. 67, he was one of
+Pompeius' lieutenants, and received a _corona navalis_ for his services.
+Varro _R.R._ ii. praef. 7, 'cum piratico bello inter Delum et Ciliciam
+Graeciae classibus praeessem.' Plin. _N.H._ vii. 115, '[Varroni] Magnus
+Pompeius piratico ex bello navalem [coronam] dedit.' Probably he was
+also with Pompeius in the war with Mithradates (Plin. _N.H._ xxxiii.
+136, xxxvii. 11; knowledge of the Caspian, vi. 38). To the coalition of
+Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus he was originally hostile, going so far as
+to write one of his satires, +Trikaranos+, against them (Appian _B.C._
+ii. 9); but in 59 he was a member of the commission appointed to
+establish Caesar's veterans in Campania: Plin. _N.H._ vii. 176, 'Varro
+auctor est xx. viro se agros dividente Capuae,' etc. He also held the
+office of tribune (Gell. xiii. 12, 6), and was aedile with Murena (Plin.
+xxxv. 173).
+
+When the civil war broke out he was one of Pompeius' lieutenants in
+Farther Spain, and resisted Caesar without success (Caes. _B.C._ ii.
+17-20). From Spain he withdrew to Epirus, where he was coldly received
+by the Pompeians (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6, 3, 'crudeliter otiosis
+minabantur, eratque eis et tua invisa voluntas et mea oratio'). We
+hear of him at Corcyra (_R.R._ i. 4), and at Dyrrhachium a few days
+before the battle of Pharsalus (Cic. _de Div._ i. 68). After Caesar's
+victory he lived quietly at his Tusculan villa (Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 6,
+4, 'his tempestatibus es prope solus in portu ... equidem hos tuos
+Tusculanenses dies instar esse vitae puto'). He was more easily
+reconciled than Cicero to the new government, and was made librarian
+by Caesar: Sueton. _Iul._ 44, 'Destinabat bibliothecas Graecas
+Latinasque quas maximas posset publicare, data M. Varroni cura
+comparandarum ac digerendarum.' This, however, did not prevent him
+writing a funeral oration on Cato's sister Porcia (Cic. _ad Att._
+xiii. 48, 2).
+
+After Caesar's death Varro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius,
+whose raid on his villa at Casinum is vividly described by Cicero
+(_Phil._ ii. 103 _sqq._). He was proscribed, but the devotion of his
+friends secured his escape (Appian _B.C._ iv. 47).
+
+His old age was spent in peace, the literary activity for which his
+whole life was remarkable being maintained to the end. At the age of
+eighty-three he was still writing: Plin. _N.H._ xxix. 65, 'Cunctarer
+in proferendo ex his remedio, ni M. Varro lxxxiii vitae anno
+prodidisset,' etc.
+
+Varro's death took place in B.C. 27, in his ninetieth year. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 1990, 'M. Terentius Varro philosophus prope nonagenarius moritur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Cicero (_ad Att._ xiii. 18) calls Varro 'homo +polygraphotatos+,'
+and Varro himself said that he had written four hundred and ninety
+Books by the end of his seventy-seventh year: Gell. iii. 10, 17,
+'Addit se quoque iam duodecimam annorum hebdomadam ingressum esse et
+ad eum diem septuaginta hebdomadas librorum conscripsisse.' A letter
+of Jerome[30] gives a list of thirty-nine works in four hundred and
+ninety Books, admitting at the same time that these were only half of
+the total number ('vix medium descripsi indicem'). The titles of
+twenty-one other works are known from various sources.
+
+1. _Agriculture._--Of this enormous number only one has survived in a
+complete form, the treatise _De Re Rustica_ in three Books, in the
+form of a dialogue. Book i. treats of agriculture; ii. of
+stock-raising; iii. of poultry, game, and fish. It was written B.C.
+37-6: _R.R._ i. 1, 1, 'Annus octogesimus admonet me ut sarcinas
+colligam ante quam proficiscar e vita.'
+
+2. _Grammar._--Of the twenty-five books _De Lingua Latina_, only v.-x.
+have been preserved, but the scope of the whole is known from Varro's
+own words. Book i. was introductory; ii.-vii. dealt with etymology;
+viii.-xiii. with inflexions; xiv.-xxv. with syntax. Varro's
+derivations are ridiculed by Quintilian i. 6, 37, 'Sed cui non post
+Varronem sit venia, qui _agrum_ quia in eo _agatur_ aliquid, et
+_graculos_ quia _gregatim_ volent dictos voluit persuadere Ciceroni?'
+From Book v. onwards the work was dedicated to Cicero, in return for
+his _Academics_; it is announced in Cic. _Ac._ i. 2, where Varro says,
+'Habeo opus magnum in manibus, idque iam pridem: ad hunc enim ipsum
+(me autem dicebat) quaedam institui, quae et sunt magna sane et
+limantur a me politius.' The date of publication was probably B.C.
+45-3.
+
+Of the minor works on grammar, some at least were prior to the _De
+Lingua Latina_: Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Plurimum poetis nostris omninoque
+Latinis et litteris luminis et verbis attulisti.' The titles known
+are, _De sermone Latino_, _De origine linguae Latinae_, _De
+similitudine verborum_, _De utilitate sermonis_, _De antiquitate
+litterarum_, +Peri charakteron+.
+
+3. _Roman History and Antiquities._ Varro's great work in this
+department was the _Antiquitates rerum divinarum humanarumque_, in
+forty-one Books. The arrangement, according to Augustine _De Civ.
+Dei_, vi. 3, was as follows: (_a_) i.-xxv. _res humanae_; i.
+introductory, ii.-vii. history of Rome down to its capture by the
+Gauls, viii.-xiii. geography of Italy, xiv.-xix. Roman Calendar, with
+dates of the chief historical events, xx.-xxv. Roman institutions, (_b_)
+xxvi.-xli. _res divinae_; the persons who sacrifice, the places, the
+times, the rites, and the gods were discussed in three Books each,
+xxvi. being introductory. The second part, at least, was addressed to
+Caesar as _pontifex maximus_. As it is mentioned by Cic. _Ac._ i. 9,
+it must have been published before B.C. 45.
+
+Minor works under this head were _Annales_, _Res urbanae_, _De gente
+populi Romani_, _De vita populi Romani_, _De familiis Troianis_,
+_Tribuum Liber_; _Aetia_ (+aitia+), explaining Roman usages, in the
+form of a catechism; +Eisagogikos+ to Pompey on the duties of a
+consul (B.C. 71), Gell. xiv. 7, 1; _De Pompeio_, _Legationum Libri_,
+_De sua vita_.
+
+4. _Geography._-(_a_) _Ephemeris navalis_, addressed to Pompey before
+his departure for Spain about B.C. 77, a weather almanack for sailors;
+_Ephemeris rustica_ or _agrestis_, for farmers. (_b_) _Libri navales_,
+perhaps identical with the above, (_c_) _De ora maritima_.
+
+5. _Law._--_De iure civili_ in fifteen Books.
+
+6. _Rhetoric._--_Rhetorica_.
+
+7. _Philosophy._-_De Forma Philosophiae_, _De Philosophia_.
+
+8. _Mathematics_, etc.-_De mensuris_, _Mensuralia_, _De principiis
+numerorum_, _Libri numerorum_, _De geometria_, _De astrologia_.
+
+9. _Disciplinae_ in nine Books, forming a complete course of education
+in the liberal arts.
+
+10. _History of Literature and the Drama._--_De poetis_, _De
+poematis_, _De lectionibus_, _De bibliothecis_, _De proprietate
+scriptorum_, _De personis_, _De descriptionibus_, _De actis scenicis_,
+_De scenicis actionibus_, _De originibus scenicis_, _Quaestiones
+Plautinae_. In the _Hebdomades_ or _Imaginum Libri_ xv. Varro gave
+short accounts in prose and verse of seven hundred famous Greeks and
+Romans, with their portraits (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 11), the title being
+derived from the arrangement in groups of seven. Aristotle's +Peplos+
+had dealt similarly with the heroes of the Trojan War, and the
+'+Peplographia+ Varronis' of Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 11, 3 is usually
+identified with the _Hebdomades_.
+
+11. +Logistorikoi+, in seventy-six Books, were probably not a
+mixture of fable and history, but essays enlivened by historical
+examples. The titles were double, the chief speaker being named as
+well as the subject of the essay, _e.g._ _Catus de liberis educandis_.
+To this work Cicero probably refers, _Ac._ i. 9, 'Philosophiam multis
+locis incohasti, ad impellendum satis, ad edocendum parum.'
+
+12. Varro's poetical works are now represented only by fragments of
+the _Saturae Menippeae_, a medley of prose and verse in one hundred
+and fifty books (Cic. _Ac._ i. 9, 'Varium et elegans omni fere numero
+poema fecisti'). They were so called by Varro himself (Gell. ii. 18,
+7, 'In satiris quas alii Cynicas, ipse appellat Menippeas'), being
+founded on the dialogues of Menippus, the Cynic of Gadara, of the
+third century B.C. Their object was to present philosophy in a popular
+dress: Cic. _Ac._ i. 8, 'Quae cum facilius minus docti intellegerent,
+iucunditate quadam ad legendum invitati.' From the way in which they
+are spoken of in the same passage ('in illis veteribus nostris'), most
+of them must have been among Varro's earliest writings. The titles are
+extremely curious, _e.g._ '+Dis paides hoi gerontes+,' 'Longe
+fugit qui suos fugit.' Quintilian considers Varro as the founder of a
+type of satire distinct from that of Lucilius, Horace, and Persius: x.
+1, 95, 'Alterum illud etiam prius satirae genus sed non sola carminum
+varietate mixtum condidit Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum
+eruditissimus.' His other poetical works were ten books of _Poemata_,
+four of _Satires_, and six of _Pseudotragoediae_ (tragi-comedy).
+
+13. _Oratory._--Varro left twenty-two Books of _Orationes_ and three
+of _Suasiones_, but he had no fame as an orator: Quint. x. 1, 95,
+'Plus scientiae collaturus quam eloquentiae.'
+
+14. _Letters._--Of these there seem to have been two collections: (_a_)
+_Epistulae Latinae_, real letters to acquaintances; (_b_) _Epistolicae
+Quaestiones_, discussing in epistolary form points of history,
+grammar, etc.
+
+The collection of maxims which passes under the name _Sententiae
+Varronis_ is of uncertain authenticity.
+
+
+
+LABERIUS.
+
+
+The date of D. Laberius' birth is got from Sueton. _Iul._ 39, 'Ludis
+D. Laberius eques Romanus mimum suum egit.' This event took place in
+B.C. 45, and in the prologue to the piece (quoted below), l. 109,
+Laberius says he is sixty years old; hence he was born about B.C. 105.
+He died in January, B.C. 43.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Laberius mimorum scriptor decimo
+mense post C. Caesaris interitum Puteolis moritur.'
+
+In B.C. 45 Laberius, although an _eques_, was, as a punishment for his
+political opinions, compelled by Caesar to perform in one of his own
+mimes, and was beaten by Publilius Syrus.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 2 _sqq._, 'Laberium asperae libertatis
+equitem Romanum Caesar quingentis milibus invitavit, ut prodiret in
+scaenam et ipse ageret mimos, quos scriptitabat. Sed potestas non
+solum si invitet sed etiam si supplicet cogit, unde se et Laberius a
+Caesare coactum in prologo testatur his versibus:
+
+  "Necessitas, cuius cursus transversi impetum
+  voluerunt multi effugere, pauci potuerunt,
+  quo me detrusit paene extremis sensibus!
+  Quem nulla ambitio, nulla umquam largitio,
+  nullus timor, vis nulla, nulla auctoritas
+  movere potuit in iuventa de statu:
+  ecce in senecta ut facile labefecit loco
+  viri excellentis mente clemente edita
+  summissa placide blandiloquens oratio!
+  Etenim ipsi di negare cui nil potuerunt,
+  hominem me denegare quis posset pati?
+  Ego bis tricenis annis actis sine nota
+  eques Romanus e Lare egressus meo
+  domum revertar mimus," etc.
+
+In ipsa quoque actione subinde se, qua poterat, ulciscebatur inducto
+habitu Syri, qui velut flagris caesus praeripientique similis
+exclamabat
+
+  "Porro Quirites libertatem perdimus"
+
+et paulo post adiecit
+
+  "Necesse est multos timeat quem multi timent."
+
+Quo dicto universitas populi ad solum Caesarem oculos et ora
+convertit, notantes inpotentiam eius hac dicacitate lapidatam. Ob haec
+in Publilium vertit favorem ... [Publilius Syrus] cum mimos componeret
+ingentique adsensu in Italiae oppidis agere coepisset, productus Romae
+per Caesaris ludos, omnes qui tunc scripta et operas suas in scaenam
+locaverant provocavit ut singuli secum posita in vicem materia pro
+tempore contenderent. Nec ullo recusante superavit omnes, in quis et
+Laberium. Unde Caesar adridens hoc modo pronuntiavit
+
+  "Favente tibi me victus es, Laberi, a Syro"
+
+statimque Publilio palmam et Laberio anulum aureum cum quingentis
+sestertiis dedit.'
+
+We have forty-three titles of mimes by Laberius, and about one hundred
+and fifty lines of fragments. From the above we see that Laberius
+criticized contemporary society with great vigour. Other features are
+
+(_a_) His invention of words.
+
+Gell. xvi. 7, 1, 'Laberius in mimis, quos scriptitavit, oppido quam
+verba finxit praelicenter.' Examples are _manuatus est_ for _furatus
+est_; _abluvium_ for _diluvium_.
+
+(_b_) His use of plebeian expressions.
+
+Gell. xix. 13, 3, 'quae a Laberio ignobilia nimis et sordentia in usum
+linguae Latinae intromissa sunt.'
+
+(_c_) His references to philosophy.
+
+Cf. l. 17,
+
+  'nec Pythagoream dogmam doctus';
+
+l. 72,
+
+  'Democritus Abderites physicus philosophus,' etc.
+
+For views on Laberius cf. Hor. _Sat._ i, 10, 5,
+
+    'Nam sic
+  et Laberi mimos ut pulchra poemata mirer.'
+
+Cic. _ad Fam._ xii. 18, 2 (written B.C. 46), 'Equidem sic iam obdurui
+ut ludis Caesaris nostri animo aequissimo viderem T. Plancum, audirem
+Laberi et Publili poemata.'
+
+Contemporaries of Laberius were the satirist Abuccius, and Egnatius,
+who wrote a didactic poem _de rerum natura_.
+
+
+
+M. FURIUS BIBACULUS.
+
+
+According to Jerome, Bibaculus was born B.C. 103, but, as he laughs at
+the old age of the grammarian Orbilius (114-c. 17 B.C.), authorities
+put the date twenty years later.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1914, 'M. Furius poeta cognomento Bibaculus Cremonae
+nascitur.'
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 9, '[Orbilius] vixit prope ad centesimum aetatis
+annum, amissa iam pridem memoria, ut versus Bibaculi docet,
+
+  "Orbilius ubinam est, litterarum oblivio?"'
+
+Bibaculus wrote poems against the monarchical party; these are
+referred to as _iambi_ by Quintilian, x. 1, 96.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Carmina Bibaculi et Catulli referta contumeliis
+Caesarum leguntur: sed ipse divus Iulius, ipse divus Augustus et
+tulere ista et reliquere.'
+
+Two epics, _Aethiopis_ and _Bellum Gallicum_ (on Iulius Caesar's
+exploits), are probably referred to by Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 36,
+
+  'Turgidus Alpinus iugulat dum Memnona, dumque
+  diffingit Rheni luteum caput.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Bibaculum quemdam poetam Gallum tangit.'
+
+Cf. Hor. _Sat._ ii. 5, 40,
+
+                'Seu pingui tentus omaso
+  Furius hibernas cana nive conspuet Alpes.'
+
+Acron _ad loc._, 'Furius Bibaculus in pragmatia belli Gallici:
+Iuppiter hibernas,' etc.
+
+It is probably from this epic that Macrob. _Saturn._ vi. 1, 31-4,
+quotes passages imitated by Virgil. So, 'Furius in primo annali
+"Interea Oceani linquens Aurora cubile."' (Cf. Virg. _Aen._ iv. 585.)
+
+Bibaculus also wrote a prose work _Lucubrationes_. (Pliny _N.H._ xxiv.
+praef.)
+
+
+
+CAESAR.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The main facts of C. Iulius Caesar's life are found in a compendious
+form in the Life by Suetonius. The ancient authorities, who are
+unanimous in stating that at the time of his death (15th March, B.C.
+44) Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year (Sueton. _Iul._ 88, Appian
+_B.C._ ii. 149, Plut. _Caes._ 69), must have placed his birth in B.C.
+100. But if this date were correct Caesar must have held the various
+magistracies two years before the legal time--a fact nowhere
+mentioned, and in itself improbable; it is therefore natural to hold
+that he was born in B.C. 102 (Mommsen, _R.H._ iv., p. 15, note). His
+birthday was 12th July (Macrob. _Saturn._ i, 12, 34).
+
+His father, C. Iulius Caesar, was praetor in B.C. 84, and died in the
+same year; Aurelia, his mother, took great interest in his education
+(Tac. _Dial._ 28). From the first Caesar was connected with the
+leaders of the democratic party in the State. Marius, who had married
+his father's sister Julia, conferred on him the office of _flamen
+Dialis_ before he was sixteen years of age; and his first wife was
+Cornelia, daughter of Cinna. His refusal to divorce her at the bidding
+of Sulla drew down upon him the enmity of the dictator; and he fled in
+disguise to the Sabine mountains, where he remained until Sulla
+reluctantly consented to spare his life.
+
+Caesar obtained his first experience of military service as a member
+of the staff of M. Thermus, propraetor of Asia, who conferred on him
+the _civica corona_ for saving the life of a fellow-soldier at the
+siege of Mytilene. After serving for a short time under Servilius
+Isauricus against the pirates in Cilicia, he returned to Rome on the
+news of Sulla's death in 78, and in the following year commenced his
+career as an orator with the prosecution of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella,
+proconsul of Macedonia, for extortion.
+
+Towards the end of that year Caesar left Rome for Rhodes--on his way
+thither being captured by pirates near Miletus--and studied for a year
+under the famous rhetorician Molo, taking part also in some operations
+on the mainland against one of the officials of Mithradates. Having
+been elected one of the _pontifices_ in the room of his uncle, C.
+Aurelius Cotta, he returned to Rome in 74, and soon became a _tribunus
+militum_. In the agitation for the restoration of the powers of the
+tribunes of the _plebs_, Caesar took a prominent part; he also
+supported the _Lex Aurelia_ of 70, which gave the _equites_ a share in
+the _iudicia_, and the _Lex Plautia_, granting an amnesty to the
+adherents of Lepidus and Sertorius.
+
+The year 68 he spent as quaestor in Farther Spain, and on his return
+to Rome strenuously advocated the claims of the Transpadane Gauls to
+the Roman franchise. His first wife having died, he married Pompeia,
+daughter of Q. Pompeius Rufus, and granddaughter of Sulla, whom he
+divorced five years later on account of her alleged adultery with P.
+Clodius. In 67 and 66 the bills of Gabinius and Manilius, conferring
+extensive military powers upon Pompey, were supported by Caesar and
+the other leading democrats.
+
+Whether Caesar was concerned in the abortive attempt of Catiline at
+revolution in 65, is a moot point. He was now aedile, and acquired
+great popularity by the splendid shows which he gave to the people,
+and by his restoration of the statue and trophies of Marius. In 64, as
+president of the _quaestio de sicariis_, he condemned some of the most
+active agents in Sulla's proscriptions. In 63 he supported the _lex
+agraria_ of P. Servilius Rullus, and brought about the prosecution of
+C. Rabirius for the murder of the tribune Saturninus. On the
+re-enactment of the _Lex Domitia de sacerdotiis_, Caesar was elected
+_pontifex maximus_. He was again suspected, probably with good ground,
+of complicity with Catiline's designs; he certainly proposed in the
+Senate that the conspirators should be punished with imprisonment
+instead of death. Praetor in 62, he worked in Pompey's cause by
+proposing that the charge of rebuilding the Capitoline temple should
+be transferred to him from the aristocratic champion Catulus, and by
+supporting the bill of the tribune Metellus Nepos for electing Pompey
+consul in absence. Next year Caesar was propraetor of Farther Spain,
+where he conquered the Lusitanians and Gallaecians, and amassed
+considerable wealth. His coalition with Pompey and Crassus procured
+for him the consulship of 59, rendered notable by the _Leges Iuliae_;
+and before he went out of office his position was secured by the _Lex
+Vatinia_, conferring on him the government of Cisalpine Gaul and
+Illyricum for five years, with the command of three legions;
+Transalpine Gaul and another legion were added by the Senate. The
+following nine years (58-50) were occupied with the subjugation of
+Gaul and the two invasions of Britain (55 and 54). At the conference
+at Luca, in the winter of 57-56, it was agreed that Caesar should be
+continued in office for a second period of five years, and be allowed
+to increase the number of his legions to ten. In 50, realizing the
+danger of his position if he returned to Rome as a private person, he
+was anxious to be a candidate for the consulship _in absentia_; but
+Pompey thwarted his plan. Caesar refused to disband his army at the
+bidding of the Senate, and crossed the Rubicon early in 49. Italy soon
+submitted; he defeated the Pompeians in Spain, captured Massilia, and
+secured Sicily and Sardinia. Landing in Epirus in 48, he was defeated
+at Dyrrhachium, and retreated to Thessaly, where he overthrew Pompey
+at Pharsalus. Then followed his victories over the king of Egypt in
+the Alexandrian war (48), Pharnaces in Asia Minor (47), the Pompeians
+and Juba at Thapsus (46), and C. and Sex. Pompeius at Munda (45).
+
+He had been created dictator in 49 and 48, with the tribunician power
+in perpetuity; and on his return to Rome in 45 he was made consul for
+ten years, dictator, and _praefectus morum_, with the title of
+_imperator_ for life. In the intervals between his campaigns he
+carried out numerous reforms, including the rectification of the
+calendar, B.C. 46 (see p. 110). His assassination by Brutus and
+Cassius and the other conspirators took place on 15th March, B.C. 44.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Bello Gallico_, in seven Books. The title used by Caesar
+himself was probably _Commentarii rerum suarum_ (as in Cic. _Brut._
+262, and Sueton. _Iul._ 56; cf. Strabo, iv. 1, 1 +hypomnemata+),
+although this does not appear in the best MSS., which give variously
+_libri_, _historiae_, or _ephemeris rerum gestarum belli Gallici_.
+
+The work describes Caesar's operations in Gaul, Germany, and Britain
+during the years B.C. 58-52, the events of each year occupying a
+separate Book. It was written and published as a whole, not in parts
+at the end of each year's campaign. Otherwise it is difficult to see
+why Cicero should not have heard of it from his brother Quintus or his
+friend Trebatius, both of whom were with Caesar; or why Hirtius should
+have spoken of the rapidity with which the work was composed (_B.G._
+viii. praef. 6, 'Ceteri quam bene atque emendate, nos etiam quam
+facile atque celeriter eos perfecerit, scimus'). This view is
+corroborated by the statement of Asinius Pollio, that there were
+mistakes in the work due to defective memory (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'quae
+... memoria lapsus perperam ediderit'); and by some expressions in the
+earlier Books pointing forward to events mentioned later (i. 28
+compared with vii. 9, and iv. 21 with vii. 76).
+
+The time of composition was probably the winter after the last
+campaign narrated in the Book (B.C. 52-51). It was certainly published
+before B.C. 46, the date of Cicero's _Brutus_, and probably before the
+rupture with Pompey, of whom Caesar speaks with approbation (vii. 6,
+'Cum iam ille urbanas res virtute Cn. Pompei commodiorem in statum
+pervenisse intellegeret').
+
+The aim of the book was twofold: (1) to provide material for professed
+historians: Hirt. _B.G._ viii. praef. 5, 'qui sunt editi, ne scientia
+tantarum rerum scriptoribus deesset'; (2) to furnish a defence of the
+author's own conduct--an object carefully kept in the background. It
+has been proved that Caesar suppressed facts which would have told
+against him at Rome (_e.g._ his rapacity, Sueton. _Iul._ 54), and the
+plausible motives which he assigns for some of his actions cannot be
+accepted as genuine. Cf. the criticism of Asinius Pollio, Sueton.
+_Iul._ 56, 'Pollio Asinius parum diligenter parumque integra veritate
+compositos putat, cum Caesar pleraque et quae per alios erant gesta
+temere crediderit, et quae per se vel consulto vel etiam memoria
+lapsus perperam ediderit, existimatque rescripturum et correcturum
+fuisse.' The style is remarkable for its brevity, directness, and the
+absence of ornament and emotion (Cic. _Brut._ 262, 'Nudi sunt, recti
+et venusti, omni ornatu orationis, tamquam veste, detracto').
+
+Among the materials used by Caesar in writing the _Commentarii_ were his
+own despatches to the Senate (ii. 35, iv. 38, vii. 90) and the reports
+of his _legati_. Late writers speak of his +ephemerides+ (_e.g._ Plut.
+_Caes._ 22), but there is no ground for supposing that he kept a regular
+diary. He depended to a great extent on his own memory (cf. Pollio's
+criticism, above).
+
+2. _De Bello Civili_, in three Books, similar in plan to the _Bell.
+Gall._ Book iii. ends abruptly with an event of no great importance,
+and, as the death of Pompey would have formed a natural ending, we
+must suppose that Caesar had intended to continue the narrative with
+the Alexandrian, Spanish, and African wars, but was prevented from
+carrying out his plan. The work was published after his death, without
+undergoing revision (Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Pollio existimat rescripturum
+et correcturum fuisse').
+
+_Other works in the Corpus Caesarianum._--Sueton. _Iul._ 56 says,
+'Alexandrini Africique et Hispaniensis [belli] incertus auctor est.
+Alii Oppium putant, alii Hirtium, qui etiam Gallici belli novissimum
+imperfectumque librum suppleverit.'
+
+Suetonius evidently believed that Hirtius was the author of _B.G._
+viii., for he introduces a quotation from the preface to that Book
+with the words, 'Hirtius ita praedicat' (_ibid._). Hirtius is also
+mentioned in the MSS. as the author of _B.G._ viii., and there is no
+reason to doubt that this is the case. That he is the author of any of
+the others is rendered doubtful by the fact that his bad health (which
+lasted to November, B.C. 44) and his position as consul would leave
+him little time for literature between the death of Caesar (15th
+March, B.C. 44) and his own death at Mutina (27th April, B.C. 43).
+Hirtius was thus able to carry out only the first part of the plan
+sketched in _B.G._ viii. praef. 2, 'Caesaris nostri commentarios rerum
+gestarum, non cohaerentibus superioribus atque insequentibus eius
+scriptis, contexui, novissimumque imperfectum ab rebus gestis
+Alexandriae confeci usque ad exitum non quidem civilis dissensionis,
+cuius finem nullum videmus, sed vitae Caesaris.'
+
+G. Landgraf, _Untersuchungen zu Caesar und seinen Fortsetzern_
+(Erlangen, 1888), arrives at the following conclusions:
+
+1. In the _Bellum Africum_ we possess the notes of Asinius Pollio, who
+took part in the war. That the work partook of the nature of a journal
+is shown by the style; _e.g._ _interim_ is used about eighty times as a
+connecting link, and dates and hours of the day are given carefully.
+Landgraf supports his position by instancing similarities of
+expression in the _Bell. Afr._ and in three letters from Pollio to
+Cicero (_ad Fam._ x. 31; 32; 33).
+
+2. Ch. 48-64 of the _Bell. Alex._ on events in Spain in B.C. 48-7 were
+sent to Hirtius by Pollio, who was governor of Hispania Ulterior in
+B.C. 45, and as such was best acquainted with these incidents.
+
+3. On the death of Hirtius, Pollio, on searching for his own papers
+(which he had lent Hirtius to help him in his work), found Hirtius'
+_Bell. Gall._ viii., and made some additions.
+
+4. The _Bell. Civ._ was in Hirtius' possession unedited at his death.
+Hirtius evidently intended to publish it along with _B.G._ viii. The
+third Book had been left unfinished by Caesar, whose notes, some of
+which were very brief, Hirtius had extended, and filled up the gaps in
+the narrative. There were also some notes on the _Bell. Alex._ The
+_Bell. Alex._ in the narrower sense (cc. 1-33) Hirtius began with, and
+in the early chapters contented himself with making small additions.
+In the later parts are found considerable additions both by Hirtius
+and by Pollio. Landgraf attempts to distinguish the work of the two:
+cc. 34-41, on the Bellum Ponticum, being mostly by Pollio, and cc.
+65-76, on the wars in Illyria and against Pharnaces, mostly by
+Hirtius.
+
+5. The authorship of the _Bellum Hispaniense_, which in style is far
+below the _Bellum Africum_, Landgraf leaves an open question.
+
+E. Woelfflin (_Sitzungsberichte der k. b. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu
+Muenchen_, 1889, pp. 323 _sqq._, and ed. of the _Bell. Afr._, 1889)
+holds the same views as Landgraf, and gives many instances of
+difference in diction between _Bell. Afr._ on the one hand, and
+_Gall._ viii. and _Alex._ on the other; _e.g._
+
+                       _Bell. Afr._    _Bell. Gall._ viii.; _Bell. Alex._
+  _suppetiae_,      -   7 times    -   never.
+  _convallis_,      -   5   "      -   _vallis_, 10 times.
+  _convulnero_,     -   9   "      -   _vulnero_ (as in Caesar).
+  _contendo_ + infin., 20   "      -   never.
+  _adorior_,        -  14   "      -   only in _Gall._ viii. 34.
+  _adgredior_,      -  never       -   14 times.
+  _grandis_,        -   7 times    -   _magnus_.
+  _subito_,         -  22   "      -   never.
+  _repente_,        -  never       -   16 times.
+  _postquam_,       -  34   "      -   not in _Gall._ viii.
+  hist. infin.,     -  24   "      -   never.
+
+On the other hand, Widmann, _Philologus_, L. (1891), p. 565, proves
+that the author of the note-book worked up in the _Bell. Afr._ was an
+officer of the 5th legion, that Pollio was not connected with the 5th
+legion, and probably did not go through the whole African war, as the
+author clearly must have done. This, of course, also proves that
+Hirtius cannot have been the author.
+
+On the whole, we think it proved that the _Bell. Afr._ was not written
+by the author of _B. Gall._ viii. and _B. Alex._, and that the author
+was not in any case Pollio. The _B. Alex._ is probably worked up from
+note-books written by several hands. The attempt to distinguish the
+work of Hirtius and another hand in _B. Gall._ viii. is against the
+evidence of Suetonius; and though several hands have co-operated in
+_B. Alex._, it is hardly possible to distinguish them precisely.
+
+The _Bell. Hisp._ is evidently the work of an eye-witness, cf. c. 29,
+'nostri ad dimicandum procedunt, id quod adversarios existimabamus
+esse facturos.' He is apt to be bombastic (c. 5, 'hic alternis non
+solum morti mortem exaggerabant, sed tumulos tumulis exaequabant'),
+and makes a ridiculous show of learning (quoting the combat of
+Achilles and Memnon, c. 25, and Ennius, c. 23, 'nostri cessere
+parumper'; c. 31, 'pes pede premitur, armis teruntur arma.')
+
+
+(3) CAESAR'S LOST WORKS.
+
+1. _De Analogia_, a treatise on grammar in two Books, dedicated to
+Cicero (Cic. _Brut._ 253) and composed in the interval between two of
+the campaigns in Gaul. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit et de Analogia
+duos libros ... In transitu Alpium, cum ex citeriore Gallia
+conventibus peractis ad exercitum rediret ... fecit.' It supported the
+view that _analogia_, not _anomalia_, should be the governing
+principle in grammar, _i.e._ that order should be introduced into the
+chaos of varying usages. Gellius i. 10, 4 has a notable quotation from
+the first Book, 'Habe semper in memoria atque in pectore, ut tamquam
+scopulum sic fugias inauditum atque insolens verbum.'
+
+2. _De Astris_, a book on astronomy, written apparently in connexion
+with the rectification of the calendar, B.C. 46, perhaps in Greek.
+Suetonius says nothing about it, but it was known to Macrobius,
+_Saturn._, i. 16, 39, 'Iulius Caesar ... siderum motus, de quibus non
+indoctos libros reliquit, ab Aegyptiis disciplinis hausit.' The _liber
+de computatione_ and _liber fastorum_, attributed to Caesar by the
+Scholiast on Lucan, x. 185, 187, may have formed part of the _De
+Astris_.
+
+3. _Anticatones_, written B.C. 45, in reply to Cicero's panegyric on
+Cato, with flattering references to Cicero himself. Sueton. _Iul._ 56,
+'Reliquit et de Analogia duos libros et Anticatones totidem. ... Sub
+tempus Mundensis proelii fecit.' Cicero expresses himself as highly
+pleased with the book, _ad Att._ xiii. 51, 'bene existimo de illis
+libris, ut tibi coram'; but his tone is different in _Topica_, 94,
+'quibus omnibus generibus usus est nimis impudenter Caesar contra
+Catonem meum.'
+
+4. _Apophthegmata_, a collection of notable sayings, probably growing
+out of the _Dicta Collectanea_ of Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and completed
+B.C. 46-5. Cic. _ad Fam._ ix. 16, 4, 'audio Caesarem, cum volumina iam
+confecerit +apophthegmaton+, si quod afferatur ad eum pro meo, quod
+meum non sit, reicere solere.'
+
+5. _Letters._--In the time of Suetonius, Caesar's official despatches
+to the Senate were extant, and also private letters to Cicero and
+other friends, _e.g._ his confidants Balbus and Oppius. In these a
+cypher was, where necessary, employed. Cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 56, and
+Gell. xvii. 9, 1.
+
+6. _Speeches._--About a dozen titles of speeches are known, but only a
+few detached words and phrases survive. As an orator, Caesar stood in
+the front rank (Sueton. _Iul._ 55). For encomiums on his style see
+Cic. _Brut._ 252, and Quintilian, x. 1, 114, who considered him second
+only to Cicero, and remarkable for _vis_, _acumen_, _concitatio_, and
+_elegantia_. The language of Tac. _Dial._ 21 is less complimentary,
+'Nisi forte quisquam aut Caesaris pro Decio Samnite aut Bruti pro
+Deiotaro rege ceterosque eiusdem lentitudinis ac teporis libros legit,
+nisi qui et carmina eorumdem miratur.'
+
+7. _Poems._--Caesar in his youth composed a poem in praise of
+Hercules, and a tragedy, _Oedipus_. Plutarch (_Caes._ 2) speaks of him
+as reciting poems of his own composition to the pirates who took him
+prisoner. On his journey from Rome to Spain, B.C. 46, he wrote a
+descriptive poem with the title of _Iter_.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 56, 'Reliquit ... poema quod inscribitur Iter ...
+[fecit] dum ab urbe in Hispaniam ulteriorem quarto et vicensimo die
+pervenit ... Feruntur et a puero et ab adulescentulo quaedam scripta,
+ut Laudes Herculis, tragoedia Oedipus, item Dicta Collectanea: quos
+omnes libellos vetuit Augustus publicari, in epistula quam brevem
+admodum ac simplicem ad Pompeium Macrum, cui ordinandas bibliothecas
+delegaverat, misit.'
+
+Pliny the younger mentions Caesar as a love poet (_Ep._ v. 3, 5). His
+poetry is spoken of by Tacitus in no flattering terms, _Dial._ 21,
+'fecerunt enim [Caesar et Brutus] et carmina et in bibliothecas
+rettulerunt, non melius quam Cicero, sed felicius, quia illos fecisse
+pauciores sciunt.'
+
+The only extant lines are those on Terence (_q.v._).
+
+
+
+C. ASINIUS POLLIO.
+
+
+C. Asinius Pollio (B.C. 76-A.D. 5), governor of Farther Spain B.C.
+44, consul B.C. 40, retired from public life after his Dalmatian
+triumph, B.C. 39. He was famous as an orator, and was the author of
+(1) A history of the civil wars from B.C. 60 (Hor. _Od._ ii. 1, 1
+_sqq._). (2) Tragedies (Verg. _Ecl._ 8, 10; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42;
+_Od._ ii. 1, 9 _sqq._) and love poems (Plin. _Ep._ v. 3, 5). (3) A
+work in which the style of Sallust was criticized (Sueton. _Gramm._
+10). His remarks on Caesar, Cicero, and Livy may be from the same book
+(Sueton. _Iul._ 56; Quint. xii. 1, 22; i. 5, 56).
+
+For Pollio's style, cf. Quint. x. 1, 113, 'A nitore et iucunditate
+Ciceronis ita longe abest ut videri possit saeculo prior.' Pollio
+founded the first public library at Rome, in the _Atrium Libertatis_,
+B.C. 38 (Plin. _N.H._ xxxv. 10), For his intimacy with the poet Cinna,
+who wrote the _Propempticon Pollionis_ in his honour, see p. 142; and
+for his patronage of Virgil and Horace, see Verg. _Ecl._ 3, 84; 8,
+6-13; Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 42. Pollio, of course, belongs to the
+Augustan Age, but is mentioned here because of his connexion with the
+_Corpus Caesarianum_.
+
+
+
+CORNELIUS NEPOS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The praenomen of Cornelius Nepos is unknown. In Pliny, _N.H._ iii.
+127, he is called 'Padi adcola,' and in Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 28, 1 (to
+Vibius Severus), he is mentioned as a townsman of T. Catius, 'Imagines
+municipum tuorum, Cornelii Nepotis et T. Cati.' Now T. Catius was an
+Insubrian (Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 16, 1), and as the only Insubrian town
+on the Padus was Ticinum, Nepos was probably born there.
+
+There is no direct evidence as to the date of his birth but we may
+infer from the following facts that he was born not long before B.C.
+100.
+
+1. Jerome puts his literary activity under B.C. 40 = yr. Abr. 1977,
+'Cornelius Nepos scriptor historicus clarus habetur.'
+
+2. A son of his died B.C. 44 while a boy, and unknown to Cicero.
+
+Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 14, 4, 'Male narras de Nepotis filio: valde
+mehercule moveor et moleste fero; nescieram omnino esse istum puerum.'
+
+3. The respect with which he looks up to Atticus, who was born B.C.
+109.
+
+4. A fragment of his _Exempla_ quoted by Pliny, _N.H._ ix. 136,
+regarding the changes of fashion in purple robes: 'Nepos Cornelius,
+qui divi Augusti principatu obiit, "Me," inquit, "iuvene violacea
+purpura vigebat, ... nec multo post rubra Tarentina. Huic successit
+dibapha Tyria... Hac P. Lentulus Spinther aedilis curulis (B.C. 63)
+primus in praetexta usus improbabatur. Qua purpura quis non iam,"
+inquit, "triclinaria facit?"'
+
+Nepos held no public office, but confined himself to literature, in
+which he was associated with Atticus. Their intimacy must have begun
+after B.C. 65, when Atticus returned to Rome from Athens, where he had
+lived more than twenty years.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6, 'P. Vergilius, Cornelius Nepos ... Non quidem hi
+senatores.'
+
+Nep. _Att._ 13, 7, 'Atque hoc non auditum, sed cognitum praedicamus:
+saepe enim propter familiaritatem domesticis rebus interfuimus.'
+
+Nepos knew Cicero, doubtless, through Atticus, but there is no
+evidence that they were intimate, except Gell. xv. 28, 1, who is
+probably mistaken, 'Cornelius Nepos ... M. Ciceronis ut qui maxime
+amicus familiaris fuit.' A fragment of a letter from Cicero to Nepos
+is quoted by Sueton. _Iul._ 55; from Nepos to Cicero by Lactant.
+_inst. div._ iii. 15, 10; and Fronto (p. 20, ed. Naber) speaks of a
+collection of Cicero's works revised by Nepos and Atticus.
+
+Nepos was on intimate terms with Catullus, whom, as coming from
+Verona, he may have known in early life. Catullus, who is mentioned by
+Nepos (_Att._ 12, 4), dedicated a collection of poems to him (Catull.
+1). Nepos was alive in B.C. 29, in which, or the following year, he
+completed the life of Atticus.
+
+As regards Nepos' character and views, Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6,
+attributes to him _sanctitas morum_. The words of Cicero, _ad Att._
+xvi. 5, 5, imply only a playful compliment, 'Et ais, "+met'
+amymona+." Tu vero +amymon+, ille [Nepos] quidem +ambrotos+.'
+
+Nepos' slight regard for philosophy is shown by a letter to Cicero
+quoted by Lactant. _inst. div._ iii. 15, 10, 'Tantum abest, ut ego
+magistram esse putem vitae philosophiam beataeque vitae perfectricem,
+ut nullis magis existimem opus esse magistris vivendi quam plerisque,
+qui in ea disputanda versantur.'
+
+Cf. also Cic. _ad Att._ xvi. 5, 5, 'Nepotis epistulam exspecto.
+Cupidus ille meorum? qui ea, quibus maxime +gaurio+, legenda non
+putet.'
+
+Philosophy, according to Nepos, ought to be practical.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 17, 3, 'Nam principum philosophorum ita percepta habuit
+praecepta, ut his ad vitam agendam, non ad ostentationem uteretur.'
+
+Nepos, as is shown by his works, supported government by the Senate.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. Erotic poems; mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 6.
+
+2. _Chronica_, in three books, embracing universal history. Catull. 1,
+
+  'Quoi dono lepidum novom libellum
+  arida modo pumice expolitum?
+  Corneli, tibi; namque tu solebas
+  meas esse aliquid putare nugas
+  iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum
+  omne aevom tribus explicare chartis,
+  doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis.'
+
+It is clear, from the above, that Nepos had mentioned Catullus in the
+work. That the mythical period was treated of is shown by Ausonius,
+_Ep._ 16, 'Apologos Titiani et Nepotis chronica quasi alios apologos
+(nam et ipsa instar sunt fabularum) ... misi ... ad institutionem
+tuorum.'
+
+From Catullus we may possibly infer that the _Chronica_ were written
+before B.C. 63[31]; _unus Italorum_ would imply that they were written
+before the similar works of Varro and Atticus.
+
+3. _Exempla_, in at least five Books, treating of the history of Roman
+manners.
+
+Gell. vi. 18, 11, 'Cornelius Nepos in libro exemplorum quinto.'
+
+4. _Life of the elder Cato_.
+
+Nep. _Cat._ 3, 5, 'Huius de vita et moribus plura in eo libro
+persecuti sumus, quem separatim de eo fecimus rogatu T. Pomponii
+Attici. Quare studiosos Catonis ad illud volumen delegamus.'
+
+5. _Life of Cicero_, written after his death (B.C. 43). Gell. xv. 28,
+2, 'in primo librorum, quos de vita illius composuit.'
+
+6. _A geographical work_, referred to by Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, etc. All
+the above works are lost.
+
+7. _De Viris Illustribus_, his last work, was dedicated to Atticus
+(praef. i); an addition to the life of Atticus was made after his
+death.
+
+_Att._ 19, 1, 'Hactenus Attico vivo edita a nobis sunt. Nunc, quoniam
+fortuna nos superstites ei esse voluit, reliqua persequemur.'
+
+From _Att._ 12, 1-2, we may conclude that the publication took place
+between B.C. 35 and 33. The addition to the life of Atticus was
+written at some time between B.C. 31 and 27, as in _Att._ 19, 2,
+Octavian is called _imperator_, but not _Augustus_, a title which he
+received in the last-mentioned year.
+
+The work contained at least sixteen Books: cf. Charis. _G.L._ i. 141
+(ed. Keil), 'Cornelius Nepos illustrium virorum libro xvi.'; and was
+divided into sections of two Books each, the first on distinguished
+foreigners, the second on distinguished Romans of the same class. We
+possess the book _de excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium_; from
+_de historicis Latinis_ the lives of Cato the Censor and Atticus, and
+fragments of the letters of Cornelia, mother of the Gracci. There are
+also mentioned the books _de regibus_ (Nep. _de reg._ 1, 1; 3, 5); _de
+excellentibus ducibus Romanorum_ (Nep. _Hann._ 13, 4); _de historicis
+Graecis_ (Nep. _Dion,_ 3, 2); _de poetis_ (Sueton. p. 31 R.); _de
+grammaticis_ (Sueton. p. 103 R.). The work probably dealt also with
+_iurisconsulti_, _oratores_, and _philosophi_. The book is biographical
+rather than historical, and is designed to compare foreigners with
+Romans, and to please, as well as instruct, those ignorant of Greek
+culture.
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Vereor ... ne non vitam eius enarrare, sed historiam
+videar scribere.'
+
+_Hann._ 13, 4, 'Tempus est ... Romanorum explicare imperatores, quo
+facilius collatis utrorumque factis, qui viri praeferendi sint, possit
+iudicari.'
+
+_Pel._ 1, 1, 'Medebor cum satietati tum ignorantiae lectorum.'
+
+_Praef._ 2, 'Hi erunt fere, qui expertes litterarum Graecarum,' etc.
+
+Besides tradition and his own recollection, Nepos mentions the
+following sources: Thucydides (_Them._ 1, 4, etc.); Xenophon (_Ag._ 1,
+1); Plato's _Symposium_ (_Alc._ 2, 2); Theopompus (_Alc._ 11, 1);
+Dinon (_Con._ 5, 4); Timaeus (_Alc._ 11, 1); Silenus, Sosilus,
+Polybius, Sulpicius Blitho, Atticus (_Hann._ 13, 1 and 3); the
+writings of Hannibal (_Hann._ 13, 2); Speeches and _Origines_ of Cato
+(_Cat._ 3, 2); Cicero's works, especially _Epp. ad Att._ (_Att._ 16,
+3). The book contains lives of twenty Greek generals from the Persian
+wars to the time of Alexander's successors; a short article on Persian
+and Macedonian kings who were also generals; and the lives of Hamilcar
+and Hannibal, Cato and Atticus. The work possesses little independent
+value, and the following are the chief faults:
+
+1. There are many mistakes in history and geography.
+
+2. The biographies, and the events recorded in them, are badly
+arranged; eulogy is employed indiscriminately, and petty anecdotes are
+too frequent.
+
+3. Important names, as Cimon and Lysander, are dismissed too briefly;
+others, as Atticus and Datames, are treated too fully. Many are left
+out altogether, as some of the leaders in the Peloponnesian war.
+
+4. Important authorities are not used: so Herodotus, for Miltiades,
+Themistocles, and Pausanias. No use is made of the _Hellenica_ of
+Xenophon.
+
+For views on Nepos, cf. Gell. xv. 28, 1, 'Cornelius Nepos rerum
+memoriae non indiligens.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ v. 4, 'Portentosa Graeciae mendacia ... quaeque alia
+Cornelius Nepos avidissime credidit.'
+
+Nepos is not mentioned by Quintilian in his list of Roman historians.
+
+In the MSS. only the _Atticus_ and the _Cato_ are ascribed to Nepos,
+the rest being entitled _Liber Aemilii Probi de excellentibus ducibus
+exterarum gentium_. It has been suggested that this arose from a
+misapprehension of _em_(_endavi_) _Probus_. There is an epigram by
+this Probus in the MSS., referring to poems of his and standing after
+the Life of Hannibal, which informs us that he was a contemporary of
+Theodosius (probably Theodosius I., A.D. 379-395). That the work
+cannot be by him is shown by the political references, which suit only
+the beginning of the empire, by the mention of Atticus in the preface,
+and by the correspondence in style between the book and the lives of
+Atticus and Cato, admittedly the work of Nepos; also by the fact that
+L. Ampelius, who probably wrote before the time of Diocletian, used
+the work in his _Liber Memorialis_.
+
+
+
+LUCRETIUS.
+
+
+Our information about Lucretius' life is very scanty. Jerome yr. Abr.
+1922 = B.C. 95, 'T. Lucretius poeta nascitur, qui postea amatorio
+poculo in furorem versus, cum aliquot libros per intervalla insaniae
+conscripsisset, quos postea Cicero emendavit, propria se manu
+interfecit anno aetatis xliiii.' (B.C. 52 or 51).
+
+Donatus, _vit. Verg._ 2, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit [Vergilius]
+usque ad virilem togam, quam xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis
+consulibus iterum duobus quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die
+Lucretius poeta decederet' (October 15).
+
+Teuffel thinks xliiii. is wrong, and would read xlii., thus giving the
+dates as B.C. 96-55, as he thinks that Jerome has fixed the date of
+birth one year too late. Munro (vol. ii. p. 1) accepts xliiii., but
+thinks that Jerome (as elsewhere) is a few years wrong in the date of
+Lucretius' birth, and gives the dates as B.C. 99-55. It is impossible
+to decide as to the date of birth, but most authorities agree on B.C.
+55 as the date of death, a view which is supported by the only
+contemporary reference to the poet: Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 11, 4 (written
+in February, B.C. 54), 'Lucreti poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt: multis
+luminibus ingeni, multae tamen artis; sed cum veneris. Virum te
+putabo, si Sallusti Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo.'
+
+The above extract is given in the reading of the MSS. Some editors
+read _non_ before _multis_, others _non_ before _multae_, but it is
+best to follow the MSS. (with Tyrrell), translating "But when you come
+(we shall talk about it). I shall consider you a hero, if you read
+Sallust's _Empedoclea_; I shall not consider you a human being."
+
+As regards Lucretius' madness, there is no absolute impossibility in
+the story. Munro (vol. ii. pp. 2, 3) accepts Jerome's account of
+Cicero's editorship; others, less probably, believe that Q. Cicero was
+editor. The first view is rendered probable by the high opinion
+Lucretius had of Cicero, as seen from the frequency with which he
+imitates his _Aratea_ (Munro on Lucr. v. 619), and from the knowledge
+Cicero shows of Lucretius' work, as in _Tusc._ i. 48.
+
+The poet's full name is given in the MSS. as T. Lucretius Carus.
+
+This is all the direct evidence regarding Lucretius' life.[32] The _de
+rerum natura_ is addressed to C. Memmius.[33] From Cic. _ad Fam._
+xiii. 1 (where Cicero tells us he employed his good offices with
+Memmius on behalf of Patro for the preservation of the gardens of
+Epicurus), it appears that he was not an Epicurean. Memmius is the
+only contemporary mentioned by Lucretius; i. 24,
+
+  'Te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse
+  quos ego de rerum natura pangere conor
+  Memmiadae nostro, quem tu, dea, tempore in omni
+  omnibus ornatum voluisti excellere rebus.'
+
+Many, arguing from the fact that Carus is not known elsewhere as a
+cognomen of the gens Lucretia, think that the poet was a freedman or a
+freedman's son, but from the tone of equality in which he addresses
+Memmius, it is more probable that he was a patrician; cf. i. 140,
+
+  'Sed tua me virtus tamen et sperata voluptas
+  suavis amicitiae quemvis sufferre laborem
+  suadet.'
+
+Several personal characteristics may be inferred from the poem:
+
+1. His earnestness and sincerity; iii. 28,
+
+  'His ibi me rebus quaedam divina voluptas
+  percipit atque horror,' etc.
+
+Cf. the importance he attaches to his subject, i. 926,
+
+  'Avia Pieridum peragro loca nullius ante
+  trita solo.'
+
+2. His admiration for the great men of the past. Cf. iii. 1024-52,
+where Ancus, the Scipios, Homer, Democritus, and Epicurus are praised;
+the introductions to Books i., iii., v., vi., on Epicurus; i. 716-33
+on Empedocles; i. 117-9 on Ennius.
+
+3. His powers of observation and love of nature. Cf. i. 716-25; ii. 29
+_sqq._, 40 _sqq._; 323-32; iv. 572 _sqq._
+
+4. His experience of women. Book iv. 1037-the end.
+
+5. His wide reading. The poem shows knowledge of Epicurus, Empedocles,
+Democritus, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoic writers,
+Thucydides, Hippocrates, Homer, Euripides. Among Latin writers Ennius,
+Naevius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, and Accius are all imitated.
+
+There is a reference to contemporary history in i. 41-3,
+
+  'Nam neque nos agere hoc patriai tempore iniquo
+  possumus aequo animo nec Memmi clara propago
+  talibus in rebus communi desse saluti.'
+
+Munro thinks that these lines were written B.C. 59, when Memmius was
+_praetor designatus_, in fierce opposition to Caesar, and on the side
+of the Senate. If this is so, the poem was probably written between
+B.C. 60 and 55. The lines on ambition and its attendant evils (as iii.
+931 _sqq._, v. 1117-35, etc.) may have been written with a special
+view to the facts of Memmius' life. Lucretius may refer to his
+recollection of the civil wars in v. 999,
+
+  'At non multa virum sub signis milia ducta
+  una dies dabat exitio.'
+
+In ii. 40 _sqq._ there is perhaps a reference to Caesar's army in the
+Campus Martius at the beginning of B.C. 58.
+
+The _de rerum natura_ is an exposition of Epicureanism, especially on
+its physical side; i. 54,
+
+  'Nam tibi de summa caeli ratione deumque
+  disserere incipiam et rerum primordia pandam,' etc.
+
+The title is taken from Epicurus' +peri physeos+, which Lucretius
+followed closely, as is evident from the account of the Epicurean
+philosophy in Diogenes Laertius, x., and from the fragments of
+Epicurean writers discovered at Herculaneum in 1752. He probably used
+as his model Empedocles' poem +peri physeos+.
+
+The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear of death and of
+the gods; iii. 37,
+
+  'Et metus ille foras praeceps Acheruntis agendus';
+
+i. 62-101; cf. l. 101,
+
+  'Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum.'
+
+Note that the invocation to Venus at the beginning of the poem is not
+inconsistent, but is an address to the universal principle of
+generation; cf. i. 21,
+
+  'Quae quoniam rerum naturam sola gubernas.'
+
+The scope of the Books is as follows: Books i. and ii. state the
+physical theories of Democritus and Epicurus. Book i. states the
+Atomic Theory of Democritus, held by Epicurus, that the world consists
+of atoms and void. The theories of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras,
+etc. are refuted; i. 740,
+
+  'Principiis tamen in rerum fecere ruinas
+  et graviter magni magno cecidere ibi casu.'
+
+Book ii. treats of the combinations of atoms, and the principle of the
+swerve introduced to explain free-will. The varieties of atoms are
+shown to be limited. In Book iii. the nature of the mind and life is
+shown to be material. _Religio_ and the fear of death (cf. ll. 978
+_sqq._) are attacked principally in this Book; iii. 830,
+
+  'Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum,
+  quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur.'
+
+Book iv. treats of the theory of _simulacra_ or images, of the senses,
+and particularly of love. Book v. treats of the formation of the earth
+and the heavenly bodies, the origin of life, and the progress of
+civilization. It is shown that nothing has been created, and that
+everything must perish. Book vi. treats of abnormal phenomena, such as
+thunder and lightning, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. The
+plague at Athens is described (from Thucydides). Books v. and vi. are
+unfinished.
+
+Ethical views are given only by the way, the poem being primarily on
+physics. Pleasure is the end of action: ii. 172, 'dux vitae dia
+voluptas.' This pleasure is the absence of disturbance (+ataraxia+),
+hence all passion (as of love, iv. 1121-40) is deprecated; ii. 14,
+
+  'O miseras hominum mentes, o pectora caeca!
+  qualibus in tenebris vitae quantisque periclis
+  degitur hoc aevi quodcumque est! nonne videre
+  nil aliud sibi naturam latrare, nisi utqui
+  corpore seiunctus dolor absit, mente fruatur
+  iucundo sensu cura semota metuque?'
+
+Lucretius, as Epicurus, is often weak in physics. Cf. v. 564 _sqq._,
+of the sun's size,
+
+  'Nec nimio solis maior rota nec minor ardor
+  esse potest, nostris quam sensibus esse videtur.'
+
+In i. 1052 _sqq._ he states well the theory of the antipodes but his
+dependence on Epicurus will not allow him to accept it. Reasons are
+sometimes given for a thing that never existed, as in iv. 710-21 for
+the fear that a lion has for a cock. Some passages come near the
+results of modern science, cf. v. 837 _sqq._ on extinct species; v.
+855 _sqq._ on the struggle for existence; v. 610-3, on the invisible
+rays of the sun.
+
+The references to Lucretius by name are few.
+
+Nep. _Att._ 12, 4, 'L. Iulium Calidum, quem post Lucreti Catullique
+mortem multo elegantissimum poetam nostram tulisse aetatem vere videor
+posse contendere.'
+
+Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 23,
+
+  'Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti,
+  exitio terras cum dabit una dies.'
+
+_Trist._ ii. 425,
+
+  'Explicat ut causas rapidi Lucretius ignis.'
+
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 76,
+
+  'docti furor arduus Lucreti.'
+
+Quint. x. 1, 87, 'Macer et Lucretius legendi quidem, sed non ut
+phrasin, id est, corpus eloquentiae faciant; elegantes in sua quisque
+materia, sed alter humilis alter difficilis.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Dial._ 23.
+
+His influence on Virgil is seen _passim_. Cf. Gell. i. 21, 7, 'Non
+verba sola sed versus prope totos et locos quoque Lucreti plurimos
+sectatum esse Vergilium videmus.'
+
+Verg. _Georg._ ii. 490 _sqq._ and _Ecl._ 6, 31 _sqq._ refer to
+Lucretius. _Georg._ ii. 490,
+
+  'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas
+  atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum
+  subiecit pedibus strepitumque Acherontis avari.'
+
+Horace has also imitated him in several places: so _Sat._ i. 3, 99-110
+(on primitive man) = Lucr. v. 1028 _sqq._; _Sat._ i. 5, 101 _sqq._ =
+Lucr. v. 82 _sqq._ Most of the poets after him, particularly Manilius,
+came under his influence.
+
+
+
+SALLUST.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Sallustius Crispus was born B.C. 86 at Amiternum, in the country of
+the Sabines, and died B.C. 35.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1931 = B.C. 86, 'Sallustius Crispus, scriptor
+historicus, in Sabinis Amiterni nascitur.' _Ibid._ 1982 = B.C. 35,
+'Sallustius diem obiit, quadriennio ante Actiacum bellum.'
+
+Sallust was of plebeian family, as is seen from the fact that he was
+afterwards _tribunus plebis_. According to the Pseud.-Cic. _in
+Sallustium declamatio_, 13-14, he led an evil life in youth, and
+brought his father with sorrow to the grave.
+
+Cf. par. 14, 'Cuiquam dubium potest esse, quin mori coegerit eum
+[patrem]?'
+
+There is a story that Milo punished him for an amour with his wife.
+
+Gell. xvii. 18, 'M. Varro ... in libro quem scripsit "Pius aut de
+pace," C. Sallustium scriptorem seriae illius et severae orationis, in
+cuius historia notiones censorias fieri atque exerceri videmus, in
+adulterio deprehensum ab Annio Milone loris bene caesum dicit et, cum
+dedisset pecuniam, dimissum.'
+
+The story is corroborated by Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15; by Macrob.
+iii. 13, 9, '_alienae_ luxuriae obiurgator et censor,' and others; and
+Sallust himself appears to admit that there was something wrong;
+_Cat._ 4, 'a quo incepto studioque me ambitio mala detinuerat.'[34]
+
+Sallust speaks of the political offices he filled, and of the class of
+men who were unsuccessful candidates about the same time--a supposed
+reference to M. Cato's candidature for the praetorship, B.C. 55.
+
+_Iug._ 4, 'Qui si reputaverint, et quibus ego temporibus magistratus
+adeptus sim et quales viri idem adsequi nequiverint,' etc.
+
+After being quaestor (Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 15), he was, in B.C. 52,
+_tribunus plebis_, when he and other two tribunes opposed Cicero in
+his defence of Milo.
+
+Ascon. _in Cic. pro Mil._ p. 33 (Kiessl. and Schoell), 'C. Sallustius
+et T. Munatius Plancus tr. pleb. inimicissimas contiones de Milone
+habebant.'
+
+In B.C. 50, Sallust was _legatus pro quaestore_ to Bibulus in Syria,
+according to Mommsen (_Hermes_, i. 171), who thinks that the Sallust
+to whom Cicero writes _ad Fam._ ii. 17 is the historian. In the same
+year he was expelled from the Senate by the censors, Appius Claudius
+and L. Piso.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 16, 'neque post illum delectum senatus vidimus
+te.'
+
+In B.C. 49, Caesar reappointed him quaestor, and he resumed his place
+in the Senate.
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 17, 'in senatum post quaesturam est reductus.'
+
+In B.C. 48, he commanded a legion in Illyria without distinction
+(Orosius vi, 15, 8), and next year he was Caesar's agent with the
+insurgent legions in Campania (Appian, _B.C._ ii. 92). In B.C. 46 he
+was praetor, and as such commanded successfully an expedition to seize
+the enemy's stores in Cercina.
+
+_Bell. Afr._ 8, 'Item C. Sallustium Crispum praetorem ad Cercinam
+insulam versus, quam adversarii tenebant, cum parte navium ire iubet.'
+(See also c. 34.)
+
+At the end of the year he was appointed proconsul of Numidia.
+
+_Ibid._ 97, 'Ibi Sallustio pro consule cum imperio relicto ipse Zama
+egressus Uticam se recepit.'
+
+As proconsul, he plundered the province, and bought, probably with the
+spoils, the _horti Sallustiani_, which afterwards belonged to the
+Roman emperors (see Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 47; _Hist._ iii. 82).
+
+Pseud.-Cic. _in Sall._ 19, 'Nonne ita provinciam vastavit, ut nihil
+neque passi sint neque exspectaverint gravius in bello socii nostri,
+quam experti sint in pace hoc Africam interiorem obtinente?'
+
+Sallust is said to have married Terentia, whom Cicero had divorced
+(Jerome _adv. Iov._ 1). Probably he had no son, as he adopted a
+grandson of his sister.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ iii. 30, 'Crispum equestri ortum loco C. Sallustius, rerum
+Romanarum florentissimus auctor, sororis nepotem in nomen adscivit.'
+
+After Caesar's death, Sallust retired from public life, and, having no
+taste for sport or agriculture, spent his leisure in writing history.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Ubi ... mihi reliquam aetatem a re publica procul habendam
+decrevi, non fuit consilium socordia atque desidia bonum otium
+conterere, neque vero agrum colundo aut venando servilibus officiis
+intentum aetatem agere; sed ... statui res gestas populi Romani
+carptim, ut quaeque memoria digna videbantur, perscribere.'
+
+Sallust, as above stated, died B.C. 35.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Catilinae Coniuratione_ (so _Cat._ 4). The book is called
+_bellum Catilinae_ by Quint. iii. 8, 9, and in some MSS.; in MSS. also
+_bellum Catilinarium_. The work was written after Caesar's death
+(_Cat._ 53-4). It is, as Mommsen (_R.H._ iv. 184, note) states, a
+political pamphlet in the interests of the democratic party (on which
+the monarchy was based), and tries to clear Caesar from the charge of
+being implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy, and collaterally
+performing the same service for C. Antonius, the uncle of the
+triumvir.
+
+Cf. _Cat._ 49, 'Sed isdem temporibus Q. Catulus et C. Piso neque
+pretio neque gratia Ciceronem inpellere potuere, uti per Allobroges
+aut alium indicem C. Caesar falso nominaretur. Nam uterque cum illo
+gravis inimicitias exercebant ... Sed ubi consulem ad tantum facinus
+inpellere nequeunt,' etc. (Cf. also Caesar's speech in _Cat._ 51.)
+
+_Cat._ 59, 'At ex altera parte C. Antonius pedibus aeger, quod proelio
+adesse nequibat, M. Petreio legato exercitum permittit.' Dion Cassius,
+xxxvii. 39, on the other hand, says that this was a pretence, Antonius
+being unwilling to fight against his old confederate.
+
+2. _Bellum Iugurthinum_. (So in MSS. and Quint. iii. 8, 9.)
+
+_Iug._ 5, 'Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus cum Iugurtha
+rege Numidarum gessit, primum quia magnum et atrox variaque victoria
+fuit, dehinc quia tunc primum superbiae nobilitatis obviam itum est.'
+
+The object of the book is to give a picture of the low state of the
+oligarchical government (cf. _Iug._ 8, 'Romae omnia venalia esse'),
+and to glorify Marius, the chief of the democratic party.
+
+Of his sources, Sallust mentions Sisenna (_Iug._ 95) for information
+about Sulla, and native authorities for African ethnography.
+
+_Iug._ 17, 'Sed qui mortales initio Africam habuerint, quique postea
+adcesserint, aut quo modo inter se permixti sint ... uti ex libris
+Punicis, qui regis Hiempsalis dicebantur, interpretatum nobis est ...
+dicam.'
+
+Sallust probably also used the memoirs of Scaurus, Sulla, and Catulus.
+
+3. _Historiae_.--This work dealt with the events from B.C. 78 to 67.
+Cf. Ausonius, p. 264 (ed. Peiper),
+
+  'Ab Lepido et Catulo iam res et tempora Romae
+  orsus his senos seriem conecto per annos.'
+
+There is no reference in the fragments to any event after B.C. 67. The
+book took up the history where Sisenna had left off, B.C. 78. Cf. i.
+_frag._ 1 (ed. Maurenbrecher), 'Res populi Romani M. Lepido Q. Catulo
+coss. ac deinde militiae et domi gestas composui.'
+
+Four speeches and two letters from the _Histories_ have been preserved
+in a collection of Sallustian speeches and letters made for rhetorical
+purposes, probably in the second century A.D. Besides these there are
+considerable fragments, chiefly from Books ii. and iii. We may
+conclude from _Iug._ 95, 'neque enim alio loco de Sullae rebus dicturi
+sumus,' that the career of Sulla was not treated of in the
+_Histories_. He is, however, repeatedly mentioned.
+
+Two works are falsely attributed to Sallust:
+
+1. _Oratio invectiva in Tullium_, composed, along with an _Oratio
+invectiva in Sallustium_ falsely ascribed to Cicero, by the same
+ancient rhetorician. The _Or. in Tull._ is quoted by Quintilian, if
+the MSS. are right, _e.g._ iv. 1, 68.
+
+2. An oration and an epistle _ad Caesarem senem de re publica_, both
+probably belonging to the imperial period.
+
+_Sallust as a historian._--1. He departed from the annalistic
+arrangement, and took a broader view of his subject, endeavouring to
+connect events together, and to trace the motives of actions.
+
+2. He shows a want of precision in his facts. Instead of giving dates,
+he often says vaguely _interea_; _isdem temporibus_; _dum haec
+aguntur_. One year in the Jugurthine war is left unaccounted for, and
+Marius is represented as consul in B.C. 105. So in geography and
+ethnography (as in the _Iugurtha_) he is not to be trusted. In _Iug._
+21 he forgets that Cirta is fifty miles from the sea, and that city is
+besieged in the usual way, though surrounded on three sides by gorges.
+
+He prides himself on his impartiality.
+
+_Cat._ 4, 'Mihi a spe, metu, partibus rei publicae animus liber erat.'
+So _Hist._ i. fr. 6.
+
+His leaning to the popular party, however, has been shown above.
+
+3. His speeches do not always suit the speaker or his audience, and
+are not historical. Thus the speech of Catiline (_Cat._ 20) does not
+suit his audience and is not authentic, and that of Marius (_Iug._ 85)
+is too learned for the speaker.
+
+4. His prefaces have little to do with what follows. Cf. Quint. iii.
+8, 9, 'C. Sallustius in bello Iugurthino et Catilinae nihil ad
+historiam pertinentibus principiis orsus est.'
+
+5. He is too fond of hackneyed moral maxims and trite sayings. Thus:
+
+_Cat._ i, 'Sed nostra omnis vis in animo et corpore sita est,' etc.
+
+_Iug._ 2, 'Nam uti genus hominum compositum ex corpore et anima est,
+ita res cunctae studiaque omnia nostra corporis alia, alia animi
+naturam secuntur.'
+
+His tone is that of a severe moralist.
+
+_Cat._ 3, 'Sed ego adulescentulus initio sicuti plerique studio ad rem
+publicam latus sum, ibique mihi multa advorsa fuere. Nam pro pudore,
+pro abstinentia, pro virtute audacia, largitio, avaritia vigebant,'
+etc.
+
+As this moralizing did not fit in with the facts of his life he was
+censured for it, as shown above.
+
+_Sallust's authorities and models._--Besides the authorities mentioned
+above, he used a _breviarium rerum omnium Romanarum_ prepared for him
+by the grammarian Ateius (Sueton. _Gramm._ 10). He is said to have
+borrowed phrases from Cato.
+
+Quint. viii. 3, 29, 'Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur:
+
+  "Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis,
+  Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae."'
+
+The similarity of Sallust's style to that of Thucydides, whom he tried
+to emulate, was remarked by the ancients.
+
+Quint. ix. 3, 17, 'Ex Graeco vero translata vel Sallustii plurima,
+quale est "volgus amat fieri"' [_Iug._ 34, a poor instance, and
+wrongly quoted]. Cf. _Cat._ 6, 'magisque dandis quam accipiundis
+beneficiis amicitias parabant,' and Thuc. ii. 40, 4, +ou gar
+paschontes eu alla drontes ktometha tous philous+: _Iug._ 73, 'in
+maius celebrare,' and Thuc. i. 10, 3, +epi to meizon kosmesai+.
+
+Sallust's popularity is shown by the numerous references to him,
+particularly in Quintilian. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 101, 'At non historia
+cesserit Graecis, nec opponere Thucydidi Sallustium verear'; par. 102,
+'immortalem illam Sallustii velocitatem.' Cf. also Martial, xiv. 191,
+'primus Romana Crispus in historia.' Tacitus is the most important
+writer influenced by Sallust. For imitations cf. Tac. _Agr._ 37, where
+part of the description of a battle is modelled on _Iug._ 101. Cf.
+also _Cat._ 43, 'facto non consulto in tali periculo opus esse,' and
+Tac. _Hist._ i. 62, 'ubi facto magis quam consulto opus esset.'
+
+
+
+CATULLUS.
+
+
+The poet's full name, C.[35] Valerius Catullus, is got from Jerome and
+other authorities quoted below, as also his birthplace, Verona, to
+which Catullus himself refers (c. 67, 34, 'Veronae meae'; 68, 27; 100,
+2). The dates of his birth and death are uncertain. Jerome gives them
+as B.C. 87-58.
+
+Yr. Abr. 1930 = B.C. 87, 'Gaius Valerius Catullus scriptor lyricus
+Veronae nascitur.'
+
+Yr. Abr. 1959 = B.C. 58, 'Catullus xxx. aetatis anno Romae moritur.'
+His early death is referred to by Ovid, _Am._ iii. 9, 61,
+
+  'Obvius huic [Tibullo] venias hedera iuvenilia cinctus
+  tempora, cum Calvo, docte Catulle, tuo';
+
+but it is quite certain that the year of his death given by Jerome as
+B.C. 58 is wrong. In c. 113, 2, the second consulship of Pompeius in
+B.C. 55 is referred to, and cc. 11 and 29 were written after Caesar's
+expedition to Britain in B.C. 55. C. 52 used to be taken as referring
+to B.C. 47, from l. 3, 'per consulatum perierat Vatinius,' but, as
+shown below, was written in B.C. 55 or 54. As no clear reference is
+found to any event after B.C. 54 (a highly important time, which would
+have been likely to produce some sarcastic poetry from Catullus), it
+is best to accept the view that Catullus lived from 87 to 54 or 53
+B.C. B. Schmidt (ed. mai. 1887, prolegomena), on the other hand, fixes
+the dates as 82-52 B.C. (accepting Jerome's account of Catullus' age),
+and attributes c. 38 (to Cornificius) to the latter year.
+
+Catullus' family was wealthy and of good position, as is seen from his
+having estates at Sirmio (c. 31) and Tibur (c. 44), and from the fact
+that his father was a friend of Julius Caesar.
+
+Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Hospitioque patris eius [Catulli], sicut
+consueverat, uti perseveravit.'
+
+Catullus went to Rome early, and there, as Schmidt thinks, was taught
+by the grammarian Valerius Cato, to whom c. 56 is probably addressed.
+From c. 68, 34-5, we see that he was settled at Rome.
+
+                'Romae vivimus: illa domus,
+  illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas.'
+
+Catullus wrote love-poetry soon after taking the _toga virilis_; c.
+68, 15,
+
+  'Tempore quo primum vestis mihi tradita purast,
+    iucundum cum aetas florida ver ageret,
+  multa satis lusi.'
+
+Catullus' love for Lesbia is the outstanding fact of his life. Her
+real name was Clodia, the sister of P. Clodius, nicknamed for her
+immorality 'quadrantaria.'
+
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'Accusent C. Catullum quod Lesbiam pro Clodia
+nominarit.'
+
+Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 427,
+
+  'Sic sua lascivo cantata est saepe Catullo
+    femina, cui falsum Lesbia nomen erat.'
+
+The name Lesbia (which scans like Clodia) may be got from Sappho, the
+Lesbian poetess, on whom c. 51 (probably the first addressed to
+Clodia) is modelled. The facts known about Clodia all fit in with what
+Catullus tells us of Lesbia. For Lesbia's beauty, cf. cc. 43 and 86;
+Clodia was called +boopis+ from her large and lustrous eyes
+(Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 9, 1; 12, 2, etc.). For her relations with her
+husband, cf. Cic. _ad Att._ ii. 1, 5 (written B.C. 60), 'Est enim
+seditiosa: cum viro bellum gerit.' A hint of the real name is got from
+c. 79, where the Lesbius mentioned is Clodius, just as Lesbia is
+Clodia,
+
+  'Lesbius est pulcer: quid ni? quem Lesbia malit
+    quam te cum tota gente, Catulle, tua.'
+
+It is probable that the acquaintance began in B.C. 61. In B.C. 62
+Clodia was the wife of Q. Caecilius Metellus Celer (Cic. _ad Fam._ v.
+2, 6), and in that year Metellus was governor of Gallia Cisalpina. Now
+from c. 83 it is evident that Lesbia's husband was in Rome when she
+began to be annoyed by Catullus' attentions. We may conclude from c.
+30 that P. Alfenus Varus introduced Catullus to Lesbia. In that poem
+Catullus blames Varus for leading him on and then leaving him in the
+lurch. M'. Allius is next mentioned (c. 68) as a friend in whose house
+Catullus met Lesbia; and cc. 2, 3, 5, and 7 probably belong to this
+fortunate period of the poet's love. C. 8 speaks of Lesbia's leaving
+him (cf. c. 92), probably on account of her husband's suspicions. Cf.
+c. 5, 1,
+
+  'Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,
+  rumoresque senum severiorum
+  omnes unius aestimemus assis.'
+
+C. 107 speaks of an unexpected reconciliation (celebrated in c. 36).
+C. 107, 5,
+
+  'Restituis cupido atque insperanti, ipsa refers te
+    nobis. O lucem candidiore nota!'
+
+When Catullus, on account of his brother's death, left Rome for
+Verona, he already knew that Lesbia had other lovers (c. 68, ll. 27
+_sqq._, 135 _sqq._). There are many poems against his rivals: c. 82,
+against Quintius; c. 40, against Ravidus; cc. 74, 80, 88-91, 116,
+against Gellius; c. 77, against Rufus, who is attacked also in cc. 59
+and 69 (this is M. Caelius Rufus, the orator, who intrigued with
+Clodia: Cic. _pro Cael._ 17, etc.); c. 79, against Lesbius (see
+above). After Catullus returned to Rome, he found that he had lost
+Lesbia's affections. C. 70 was then written,
+
+  'Nulli se dicit mulier mea nubere malle
+    quam mihi, non si se Iuppiter ipse petat.
+  Dicit: sed mulier cupido quod dicit amanti,
+    in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua.'
+
+The words of this poem show that it must have been written after the
+death of Clodia's husband Metellus, which took place in B.C. 59, and
+it was probably written soon after that event, when Catullus had
+returned to Rome from Verona.
+
+Nos. 72, 85, and especially 58, show increasing bitterness, and must,
+with the possible exception of 58, be assigned to the years B.C. 59 or
+58. In c. 76 he prays for power to give Lesbia up; cf. ll. 23-6,
+
+  'Non iam illud quaero, contra ut me diligat illa,
+    aut, quod non potis est, esse pudica velit:
+  ipse valere opto et taetrum hunc deponere morbum.
+    O di, reddite mi hoc pro pietate mea.'
+
+It is probable that the separation between the lovers occurred not
+later than B.C. 58; otherwise Catullus would not have left for
+Bithynia in the next year. In c. 11, the last poem that refers to
+Lesbia, which, from the reference to Britain in l. 12, cannot have
+been written before B.C. 55, we see that Catullus is cured of his
+passion; cf. ll. 21-4,
+
+  'Nec meum respectet, ut ante, amorem,
+  qui illius culpa cecidit velut prati
+  ultimi flos, praetereunte postquam
+              tactus aratro est.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 57 Catullus went to Bithynia on the staff of the
+propraetor C. Memmius (cc. 10 and 28). From c. 10, 29, 'meus sodalis
+Cinna est Gaius,' we see that C. Helvius Cinna accompanied him. In c.
+46, 9 he speaks of the pleasant meetings of the staff, 'O dulces
+comitum valete coetus.' C. 46 shows that Catullus left Bithynia in the
+spring of the following year: ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Iam ver egelidos refert tepores ...
+  Linquantur Phrygii, Catulle, campi.'
+
+The dirge in c. 101 shows that Catullus, on his way to Italy, visited
+his brother's tomb in the Troad, and paid the last rites to it. C. 4,
+written soon after his return to Sirmio, tells us how he made his way
+home again. About the same time was composed the address to Sirmio in
+c. 31; c. 10 proves that he soon went back to Rome.
+
+The poems against Caesar's party belong to the years B.C. 55 and 54.
+In cc. 41 and 43 Catullus calls a Transpadane girl 'decoctoris amica
+Formiani,' the reference being to Mamurra, 'the bankrupt from
+Formiae,' who had been Caesar's _praefectus fabrum_ in Gaul, and who
+may have been a successful rival of Catullus in love. C. 29, written
+probably in B.C. 54, attacked Mamurra, and also his patrons, Caesar
+and Pompey. From l. 24, 'socer generque, perdidistis omnia,' it is
+clear that the poem was written before Julia's death in September,
+B.C. 54; and from ll. 11-12,
+
+  'eone nomine, imperator unice,
+  fuisti in ultima occidentis insula,'
+
+that it was written after Caesar's first expedition to Britain in B.C.
+55. The poem is referred to by Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'Valerium Catullum,
+a quo sibi versiculis de Mamurra perpetua stigmata imposita non
+dissimulaverat, satis facientem eadem die adhibuit cenae hospitioque
+patris eius sicut consueverat uti perseveravit.'
+
+C. 52 (against Vatinius) was written B.C. 55 or 54. It used to be
+assigned to B.C. 47, when Vatinius was consul, but l. 3, 'per
+consulatum perierat Vatinius' means 'Vatinius perjures himself by his
+hope of the consulship' (his name stood on the list agreed on at Luca,
+which is mentioned by Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 8_b_, 2); and l. 2, 'Sella in
+curuli struma Nonius sedet,' cannot refer to B.C. 47, as the only
+ordinary curule magistrates in that year were P. Vatinius and Q.
+Fufius Calenus. Among other poems against personal enemies are c. 98,
+against Vettius, and c. 108, against Cominius, both of them informers;
+and c. 84, against Arrius, who aspirated his words wrongly, and who,
+from l. 7, 'hoc misso in Syriam,' is supposed to have gone out to
+Syria as _legatus_ to Crassus in B.C. 55. C. 49 is an attack on Cicero:
+
+  'Disertissime Romuli nepotum,
+  quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli,
+  quotque post aliis erunt in annis,
+  gratias tibi maximas Catullus
+  agit, pessimus omnium poeta,
+  tanto pessimus omnium poeta
+  quanto tu optimus omnium patronus.'
+
+The sting lies in the _double entendre_ in the last two lines, which
+really mean 'so much the worst poet of all poets, as you are the best
+advocate of all clients, good and bad.' So Cicero is called in a good
+sense _omnium patronus_ by Caecina in Cic. _ad Fam._ vi. 7, 4. The
+poem has special reference to B.C. 54, when Cicero defended Vatinius
+(whom he had reviled two years before in the speech _Pro Sestio_),
+when prosecuted by Catullus' friend, Calvus (cf. c. 14, 1-3); and
+thanks Cicero ironically for some criticism he had passed on his
+poems. Catullus attacks several contemporary poets; so in c. 22,
+Suffenus, who in c. 14 is coupled with Caesius and Aquinus; Volusius
+in cc. 36 and 95; cf. 36, 1, 'Annales Volusi, cacata charta.'[36]
+
+Among Catullus' friends were Veranius and Fabullus (cc. 9, 28, etc.);
+P. Alfenus Varus of Cremona (cc. 10, 22, 30), consul B.C. 39, and a
+famous _iurisconsultus_. C. 61 celebrates the marriage of L. Manlius
+Torquatus (who was praetor B.C. 49) and Vinia Aurunculeia. Several
+poems are addressed to brother poets; c. 35 is to Caecilius of Novum
+Comum; c. 38 to Cornificius, a writer of slight love poems (Ovid,
+_Trist._ ii. 436) who died B.C. 41; c. 95 is on Cinna's _Zmyrna_; cc.
+14, 50, and 96 are addressed to C. Licinius Calvus; c. 56 to Valerius
+Cato (see above); c. 65 to Hortensius Ortalus, who asked Catullus to
+translate Callimachus; c. 1, and possibly c. 102, to Cornelius Nepos.
+
+_Catullus' longer poems._--These, unlike the shorter personal poems,
+are mostly due to Alexandrian influence, to which Catullus may have
+been introduced by his teacher, Valerius Cato. To these poems Catullus
+owes his title _doctus_ (Tibull. iii. 6, 41; Martial, i. 62, 1, etc.).
+They include: c. 66, 'coma Berenices,' from Callimachus; cf. c. 65,
+ll. 15-6,
+
+  'Sed tamen in tantis maeroribus, Ortale, mitto
+    haec expressa tibi carmina Battiadae';
+
+c. 68 to Allius, also Alexandrian; c. 64, the 'Nuptials of Peleus and
+Thetis,' l. 30 of which,
+
+  'Oceanusque, mari totum qui amplectitur orbem,'
+
+is from Euphorion, fr. 158 (Meineke), +Okeanos, to pasa
+perirrytos endedetai chthon+; c. 63, the 'Attis' in Galliambic metre;
+c. 62, a translation of a Sapphic epithalamium. C. 51, and possibly
+some parts of c. 61, are from Sappho. Catullus was the first Roman to
+use the Sapphic measure (in cc. 11 and 51).
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--From the arrangement of the poems, which
+accords neither with chronology nor with subjects, and from the large
+number of lines extant (2286), which does not suit _libellus_ (c. i.
+1), it is highly probable that they were not left by Catullus as we
+find them. C. 2, beginning 'Passer, deliciae meae puellae,' was the
+first of a series of short poems. Cf. Martial, iv. 14, 13,
+
+  'Sic forsan tener ausus est Catullus
+  magno mittere passerem Maroni';[37]
+
+the book being named from its first word, like _Arma virumque_ of the
+_Aeneid_. C. 1 (to Cornelius Nepos) is the first of another series of
+short pieces (cf. the epithet _nugae_ in l. 4). Catullus doubtless
+published his larger pieces together. The traditional arrangement, due
+to a later hand, is as follows: (1) The lyric poems in various metres;
+(2) the larger poems and the elegies; (3) the shorter poems written in
+elegiacs. Catullus began to be popular as soon as his works were
+published; cf. Nep. _Att._ 12, 4 (quoted p. 124). He is imitated in
+the _Priapea_, in Ovid, in Ausonius, in the _Ciris_, in Martial, etc.
+C. 4 is closely parodied in Verg. _Catal._ 8.
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+(_a_) _Ticidas_ wrote the Hymenaeus and love-poems on Perilla. For the
+latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 433-4 and 437-8 (read by Riese
+immediately after),
+
+  'Quid referam Ticidae, quid Memmi carmen, apud quos
+    rebus adest nomen nominibusque pudor,
+  et quorum libris modo dissimulata Perillae
+    nomine nunc legitur dicta, Metelle, tuo?'
+
+(_b_) _C. Helvius Cinna_ was intimate with Catullus, who refers to him
+in c. 10 as being along with him in Bithynia in B.C. 57. See p. 136.
+From the reference to Gallia Cisalpina in Cinna, frag. I (Baehrens), we
+might conclude that he was a countryman of Catullus,
+
+  'At nunc me Cenumana per salicta
+  bigis raeda rapit citata nanis.'
+
+In Sueton. _Iul._ 52, Cinna is spoken of as a partisan of Caesar:
+'Helvius Cinna tribunus plebis,' etc.; and he is probably identical
+with the person mentioned _ibid._ 85, as put to death in mistake for a
+man of the same name shortly after the murder of Caesar: 'Plebs statim
+a funere ad domum Bruti et Cassii cum facibus tetendit, atque aegre
+repulsa, obvium sibi Helvium Cinnam per errorem nominis, quasi
+Cornelius is esset, quem graviter pridie contionatum de Caesare
+requirebat, occidit caputque eius praefixum hastae circumtulit.'
+
+Cf. especially Plutarch, _Brut._ 20, +en de tis Kinnas,
+poietikos aner, ouden tes aitias metechon, alla kai philos Kaisaros
+gegonos+, etc.[38]
+
+Weichert (_Poet. Lat. Rell._ p. 157) thinks that Plutarch has confused
+the tr. pleb. with the poet, and that Virgil's words (below) imply
+that Helvius Cinna was alive when the _Eclogue_ was written (B.C.
+41-39). The latest authorities, however, identify the two persons.
+Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35,
+
+  'Nam neque adhuc Vario videor nec dicere Cinna
+  digna, sed argutos inter strepere anser[39] olores.'
+
+Cinna's works were:
+
+1. _Zmyrna_, on the incestuous love of Myrrha for Cinyras. Cinna spent
+nine years on this poem, which was very obscure. Catull. 95,
+
+  'Zmyrna mei Cinnae nonam post denique messem
+  quam coeptast nonamque edita post hiemem.'
+
+Philargyrius ad Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35, 'Fuit autem liber obscurus adeo ut
+et nonnulli eius aetatis grammatici in eum scripserint magnamque ex
+eius enarratione sint gloriam consecuti.'
+
+2. _Propempticon Pollionis_, written on the occasion of Asinius
+Pollio's visit to Greece.
+
+3. _Epigrams and Love Poems._--For the latter cf. Ovid, _Trist._ ii.
+435 (on the erotic poets),
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser,
+    et leve Cornifici parque Catonis opus.'
+
+(_c_) _C. Licinius Macer Calvus_ was the son of the annalist C.
+Licinius Macer, and was born 28th May, B.C. 82.
+
+Cic. _ad Q.F._ ii. 4, 1, 'Macer Licinius.'
+
+Valer. Max. ix. 12, 7, 'C. Licinius Macer, Calvi pater.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 165, 'C. Mario Cn. Carbone iii. coss. a. d. v. Kal.
+Iun. M. Caelius Rufus et C. Licinius Calvus eadem die geniti sunt.'
+
+Calvus probably died B.C. 47. Cf. Cic. _ad Fam._ xv. 21, 4, written to
+C. Trebonius towards the end of that year. The letter refers to
+correspondence with Calvus, and criticizes his oratory.
+
+See also Cic. _Brut._ 279 and 283-4; and, for his relations with
+Cicero, Tac. _Dial._ 18. Calvus vied with Cicero for the first place
+in the forum. His best known speeches were _in Vatinium_, whom he
+prosecuted at least three times (B.C. 58-54).
+
+Seneca, _Controv._ vii. 4, 6-8, 'Calvus, qui diu cum Cicerone
+iniquissimam litem de principatu eloquentiae habuit, usque eo
+violentus actor et concitatus fuit, ut in media eius actione surgeret
+Vatinius reus et exclamaret: Rogo vos, iudices, num si iste disertus
+est, ideo me damnari oportet? Idem postea cum videret a clientibus
+Catonis, rei sui, Pollionem Asinium circumventum in foro caedi, imponi
+se supra cippum iussit; erat enim parvolus statura, propter quod etiam
+Catullus in hendecasyllabis (c. 53) vocat illum "salaputtium
+disertum." ... Solebat praeterea excedere subsellia sua et impetu
+latus usque in adversariorum partem transcurrere. Et carmina quoque
+eius, quamvis iocosa sint, plena sunt ingentis animi ... Compositio
+quoque eius in actionibus ad exemplum Demosthenis riget: nihil in illa
+placidum, nihil lene est, omnia excitata et fluctuantia.'
+
+Catullus also refers to Calvus in c. 14, and in c. 96, where he speaks
+of the 'mors immatura Quintiliae,' probably Calvus' wife.
+
+Of the poems about nineteen lines are extant. They included: (1)
+_ludicra_ (in hendecasyllables); (2) _epithalamia_; (3) _Io_; (4) _ad
+uxorem_; (5) _epigrammata_. For the last cf. Sueton. _Iul._ 73, 'C.
+Calvo post famosa epigrammata de reconciliatione per amicos agenti
+ultro ac prior scripsit.' (6) 'Calvi de aquae frigidae usu,' which
+forms the title of Martial xiv. 196, may have been a didactic poem.
+Other references to Calvus' poetry are: Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 431,
+
+  'Par fuit exigui similisque licentia Calvi,
+    detexit variis qui sua furta modis';
+
+Propert. iii. 34, 89,
+
+  'Haec etiam docti confessast pagina Calvi
+    cum caneret miserae funera Quintiliae';
+
+Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 16,
+
+  'Illi, scripta quibus comoedia prisca viris est,
+  hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandi: quos neque pulcher
+  Hermogenes umquam legit, neque simius iste
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+(_d_) _P. Terentius Varro Atacinus_ was born B.C. 82 in Gallia
+Narbonensis near Atax (a river, not a town, as Jerome states).
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1935 = B.C. 82, 'P. Terentius Varro vico Atace in
+provincia Narbonensi nascitur; qui postea xxxv. annum agens Graecas
+litteras cum summo studio didicit.'
+
+Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 46, 'Terentius Varro Narbonensis, qui
+Atacinus ab Atace fluvio dictus est.'
+
+Varro must have died before B.C. 35, when Horace, speaking of satire,
+wrote, _Sat._ i. 10, 46,
+
+  'Hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino
+  atque quibusdam aliis melius quod scribere possem.'
+
+Varro's works were:
+
+1. _Bellum Sequanicum_, probably an epic on Caesar's war with
+Ariovistus in B.C. 58.
+
+2. _Saturae_, mentioned only in the above passage of Horace.
+
+3. _Argonautae_, a translation from Apollonius Rhodius in four Books.
+Probus ad Verg. _Georg._ ii. 126, 'Varro qui quattuor libros de
+Argonautis edidit.'
+
+Cf. Sen. _Controv._ vii. 1, 27, 'Illos optimos versus Varronis (=
+Apoll. iii. 749-50),
+
+  "Desierant latrare canes urbesque silebant;
+  omnia noctis erant placida composta quiete."
+
+Solebat Ovidius de his versibus dicere, potuisse fieri longe meliores,
+si secundi versus ultima pars abscideretur et sic desineret "omnia
+noctis erant."'[40]
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 87; Ovid, _Am._ i. 15, 21; Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7,
+77.
+
+4. _Chorographia_, a geographical work, as the fragments show.
+
+5. _Ephemeris_.--Serv. ad Verg. _Georg._ i. 375, 'Hic locus omnis de
+Varrone est; nam et Varro et Vergilius Aratum secuti sunt.'
+
+6. _Elegies._--One line is given by Baehrens. Cf. Propert. iii. 34, 85,
+
+  'Haec quoque perfecto ludebat Iasone Varro,
+    Varro Leucadiae maxima flamma suae.'
+
+(_e_) _Publilius Syrus_ was a manumitted slave, a native of Syria,
+probably of Antioch.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 1974 = B.C. 43, 'Publilius mimographus natione Syrus
+Romae scaenam tenet.'
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxv. 199, 'Est et vilissima [creta] qua circum
+praeducere ad victoriae notam pedesque venalium trans maria advectorum
+denotare instituerunt maiores talemque Publilium Antiochium (MSS.
+lochium) mimicae scaenae conditorem et astrologiae consobrinum eius
+Manilium Antiochum, item grammaticae Staberium Erotem eadem nave
+advectos videre proavi.'
+
+An account of Publilius' manumission, and his contest with Laberius in
+B.C. 45, is given by Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 4-8, and is quoted under
+'Laberius,' p. 97.
+
+Publilius' works were:
+
+1. _Mimi._--Two titles are quoted.
+
+2. _Sententiae._--Six hundred and ninety-seven lines from his mimes
+(unconnected and alphabetically arranged) are preserved from different
+sources. Most are iambic senarii, some trochaic septenarii.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ ii. 7, 10, 'Publili sententiae feruntur lepidae et
+ad communem usum adcommodatissimae.'
+
+Cicero heard his and Laberius' plays in B.C. 46. See _ad Fam._ xii.
+18, 2, quoted under 'Laberius,' p. 99.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill._ 11, 8, 'Publilius, tragicis comicisque
+vehementior ingeniis, quotiens mimicas ineptias et verba ad summam
+caveam spectantia reliquit, inter multa alia cothurno, non tantum
+sipario fortiora, et hoc ait,
+
+  "Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest."'
+
+The lines are, like the above, proverbs of worldly wisdom, and seem to
+have been used in schools.
+
+Jerome _Ep. ad Laetam_, 107, 'Legi quondam in scholis puer,
+
+  "Aegre reprendas quod sinas consuescere."'
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter II
+
+
+[25] Q. Hortensius Hortalus (B.C. 114-50), Cicero's rival as an
+orator, and author of _Annales_ (Vell. ii. 16, 3), a _Rhetoric_
+(Quint. ii. 1, 11), and love poems (Ovid _Tr._ ii. 441).
+
+[26] According to _ad Att._ ii. 1, 3 (if genuine), Cicero intended to
+publish speeches 9-11 in a collection of 'orationes consulares' ('Hoc
+totum +soma+ curabo ut habeas').
+
+[27] _R.H._ iv. 311 (note).
+
+[28] Q. Asconius Pedianus (A.D. 3-88), probably a native of Padua,
+author of a commentary on Cicero's speeches. The extant part is on
+_Pro Cornelio de maiestate_, _In toga candida_, _In Pisonem_, _Pro
+Scauro_, and _Pro Milone_. The commentary on the Verrines and Divinatio,
+which deals almost exclusively with the language, is spurious: the true
+Asconius confines himself to the subject-matter.
+
+[29] The Epicurean philosophy was expounded in the writings of C.
+Amafinius, Rabirius, and T. Catius, whose opinions and literary style
+were alike distasteful to Cicero (_Ac._ i. 5; _ad. Fam._ xv. 19, 2).
+
+[30] F. Ritschl, _Opuscula_, iii., p. 525.
+
+[31] L. Schwabe, _Quaest. Catull._, p. 296. B. Schmidt, however (ed.
+of Catullus, p. 57), thinks that the _Chronica_ are not referred to
+here.
+
+[32] A life of Lucretius has been recently discovered by J. Masson
+(_Journal of Philology_, xxiii. 46), which was written by Girolamo
+Borgia in 1502. It gives B.C. 95-51 as the poet's dates. Several new
+points were supposed to lend it a claim to authority, such as the
+statement that he was 'matre natus diu sterili.' This, however, has
+been shown to rest on a wrong reading of Q. Serenus Sammonicus' _Liber
+Medicinalis_, xxxii., in a passage dealing with the barrenness of
+women, 'hoc poterit magni quartus [liber] monstrare Lucreti,' where
+_partus_, the reading of the oldest edition, was used. This, and other
+considerations, show that the _vita_ does not rest on any ancient
+sources, beyond those which are still extant.
+
+[33] Memmius wrote love poems (Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 433).
+
+[34] Some ascribe these stories to Lenaeus, a freedman of Pompey,
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 15.
+
+[35] Only inferior MSS. give Q., and the reading in c. 67, 12, 'verum
+istud populi, fabula, Quinte, facit,' is not to be accepted.
+
+[36] Some critics, without sufficient proof, identify Volusius with
+the inferior poet Tanusius Geminus.
+
+[37] Martial, of course, has here forgotten his dates.
+
+[38] The incident has been borrowed from Plutarch by Shakespeare,
+_Julius Caesar_, Act iii. Scene 3.
+
+[39] See p. 184.
+
+[40] This appears to us to be an indirect proof that the half lines in
+Virgil are often complete as they stand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE AUGUSTAN AGE.
+
+
+
+VIRGIL.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief authority for the life of Virgil, apart from his own
+writings and those of his contemporaries, is Donatus, whose work is
+probably based on Suetonius' _De Poetis_. Donatus' work, though not
+free from romance, is much more valuable than the Life by Probus[41]
+or the metrical account given by Phocas.[42] Some important details
+are given in the Life wrongly attributed to Servius, and in an account
+preserved in a Berne MS. of the tenth century.
+
+The poet's name is correctly given as P. Vergilius Maro in all the
+Lives. The balance of authority is decidedly in favour of the spelling
+'Vergilius'; it is always so written in the early MSS. and in
+inscriptions of the Republic and of the early centuries A.D. The
+traditional form in modern literature, 'Virgil,' is here retained.
+
+Virgil was born 15th October, B.C. 70, at Andes (identified
+traditionally with Pietole)[43] near Mantua. Donatus, _vit. Verg._,
+'Natus est Cn. Pompeio Magno et M. Licinio Crasso primum coss. iduum
+Octobrium die, in pago qui Andes dicitur et abest a Mantua non
+procul.'
+
+He was of humble extraction, his father being originally either a
+potter or a day-labourer.
+
+Probus, _vit. Verg._, 'Matre Magia Polla, patre rustico.'
+
+Donatus, 'Parentibus modicis fuit ac praecipue patre, quem quidam
+opificem figulum, plures Magi cuiusdam viatoris initio mercennarium
+mox ob industriam generum tradiderunt egregieque substantiae silvis
+coemendis et apibus curandis auxisse reculam.' (Cf. Virgil's treatment
+of bees in _Georgic_ iv.)
+
+His early years were spent at Cremona, whence in B.C. 55 he went to
+Mediolanum and then to Rome for his higher education. He studied
+philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and rhetoric; but his shyness
+prevented his being a success at the bar, where, we are told, he
+appeared only once.
+
+Donatus, 'Initia aetatis Cremonae egit usque ad virilem togam, quam
+xv. anno natali suo accepit isdem illis consulibus iterum duobus
+quibus erat natus, evenitque ut eo ipso die Lucretius poeta decederet.
+De Cremona Mediolanum et inde paulo post transiit in urbem ... Inter
+cetera studia medicinae quoque ac maxime mathematicae[44] operam
+dedit. Egit et causam apud iudices unam omnino nec amplius quam semel;
+nam et in sermone tardissimum ac paene indocto similem fuisse Melissus
+[a freedman of Maecenas] tradidit.'
+
+The Berne MS. above referred to says: 'Ut primum se contulit Romam,
+studuit apud Epidium oratorem cum Caesare Augusto.'[45] For his
+studies under the Epicurean Siron cf. _Catal._ 7, 8,
+
+  'Nos ad beatos vela mittimus portus,
+  magni petentes docta dicta Sironis,
+  vitamque ab omni vindicabimus cura.'
+
+Cf. also _Ecl._ 6, 31-40, where a brief sketch is given of the
+Epicurean theory of creation.
+
+For a few years we hear nothing of his life, but we may suppose that
+he continued his studies in literature and philosophy, probably at his
+farm, if we can draw any inference from the language of _Ecl._ 1,
+especially l. 19 _sqq._ So far as is known, he took no part in the
+civil wars. In B.C. 41, when lands were assigned to the troops of
+Antonius, Virgil was dispossessed of his property. On the
+recommendation of Asinius Pollio, who was _legatus_ of Gallia
+Transpadana, he went to Rome and obtained from Octavian the
+restitution of his land. The poet expresses his gratitude in _Ecl._ 1,
+42,
+
+  'Hic illum vidi iuvenem, Meliboee, quotannis
+  bis senos cui nostra dies altaria fumant.
+  Hic mihi responsum primus dedit ille petenti:
+  "Pascite ut ante boves, pueri, submittite tauros."'
+
+Cf. also ll. 70-3.
+
+Donatus, 'Ad bucolica transiit maxime ut Asinium Pollionem, Alphenum
+Varum, et Cornelium Gallum celebraret, quia in distributione agrorum
+qui post Philippensem victoriam[46] veteranis triumvirorum iussu trans
+Padum dividebantur, indemnem se praestitissent.'
+
+Virgil was evicted a second time in the following year, after the
+Bellum Perusinum, by the troops of Octavian. Conflicting accounts are
+given by the Lives regarding the persons who seized his land.[47]
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'Postea ortis bellis civilibus inter Antonium
+et Augustum, Augustus victor Cremonensium agros, quia pro Antonio
+senserant, dedit militibus suis. Qui cum non sufficerent, his addidit
+agros Mantuanos, sublatos non propter civium culpam, sed propter
+vicinitatem Cremonensium: unde ipse in Bucolicis (9, 28), "Mantua vae
+miserae nimium vicina Cremonae."'
+
+Virgil and his household found refuge on an estate which had once
+belonged to his old master Siron: _Catal._ 10,
+
+  'Villula, quae Sironis eras, et pauper agelle ...
+                       Tu nunc eris illi [patri]
+  Mantua quod fuerat quodque Cremona prius.'
+
+Whether he recovered his old farm is uncertain: at all events he spent
+most of his time in the south of Italy. Besides a house in Rome, he
+seems to have had a country house near Nola, and we know that the
+_Georgics_ (cf. iv. 563) were written at Naples.
+
+Donatus, 'Habuit domum Romae Esquiliis iuxta hortos Maecenatis,
+quamquam secessu Campaniae Siciliaeque plurimum uteretur.'
+
+Gell. vi. 20, 1, 'Scriptum in quodam commentario repperi ... Vergilium
+petivisse a Nolanis, aquam uti duceret in propinquum rus.'
+
+He lived a retired life, seldom visiting Rome, and devoting most of
+his time to poetical composition, in which he was regular and
+painstaking.
+
+Tac. _Dial._ 13, 'Securum et quietum Vergilii secessum, in quo tamen
+neque apud divum Augustum gratia caruit neque apud populum Romanum
+notitia: testes Augusti epistulae, testis ipse populus, qui auditis in
+theatro Vergilii versibus surrexit universus et forte praesentem
+spectantemque Vergilium veneratus est sic quasi Augustum.'
+
+Quint. x. 3, 8, 'Vergilium paucissimos die composuisse versus auctor
+est Varius.'
+
+Cf. his own expression, quoted by Gell. xvii. 10, 2, 'parere se versus
+more atque ritu ursino' (alluding to the notion that the bear licked
+its young into shape).
+
+He was already an influential member of Maecenas' literary circle, to
+which, in B.C. 39, he introduced Horace. Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                      'optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem.'
+
+By Maecenas he was introduced to Augustus,[48] who treated him with
+liberality. Cf. Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 246,
+
+  'Munera quae multa dantis cum laude tulerunt
+  dilecti tibi Vergilius Variusque poetae.'
+
+He was on intimate terms with Horace, who addresses _Od._ i. 3 to him
+on the occasion of a proposed visit to Greece. Cf. ll. 5-8,
+
+    'Navis, quae tibi creditum
+  debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis
+    reddas incolumem, precor,
+  et serves animae dimidium meae.'
+
+In B.C. 37 he formed one of the party who travelled with Horace to
+Brundisium: Hor. _Sat._ i. 5, 40 (see under 'Horace,' p. 167).
+
+For the rest of his life we hear little of Virgil in any public
+connexion. In B.C. 19 he started on a voyage to Greece and Asia,
+intending to spend three years on the revision of the _Aeneid_, but
+returned from Athens in bad health, and died at Brundisium on 21st
+September. His remains were buried near Naples. The epitaph quoted by
+Donatus is obviously not by Virgil: 'Anno aetatis lii. impositurus
+Aeneidi summam manum, statuit in Graeciam et in Asiam secedere
+triennioque continuo nihil amplius quam emendare, ut reliqua vita
+tantum philosophiae vacaret: sed cum ingressus iter Athenis
+occurrisset Augusto ab oriente Romam revertenti destinaretque non
+absistere atque etiam una redire, dum Megara vicinum oppidum
+ferventissimo sole cognoscit, languorem nactus est eumque non
+intermissa navigatione auxit, ita ut gravior aliquanto Brundisium
+appelleret, ubi diebus paucis obiit xi. Kal. Octobr. Cn. Sentio Q.
+Lucretio coss. (21st September, B.C. 19). Ossa eius Neapolim translata
+sunt tumuloque condita ... in quo distichon fecit tale:
+
+  "Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc
+    Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces."'
+
+His personal appearance and character are thus described by Donatus:
+'Corpore et statura fuit grandis, aquilo colore, facie rusticana,
+valetudine varia: nam plerumque a stomacho et a faucibus ac dolore
+capitis laborabat, sanguinem etiam saepe reiecit.' (Cf. Hor. _Sat._ i.
+5, 48,
+
+  'Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego Vergiliusque;
+  namque pila lippis inimicum et ludere crudis.')
+
+'Cibi vinique minimi, libidinis pronior ... cetera sane vita et ore et
+animo tam probum constat, ut Neapoli Parthenias volgo appellatus sit,
+ac si quando Romae, quo rarissime commeabat, viseretur in publico,
+sectantes demonstrantesque se suffugeret in proximum tectum.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+MINOR POEMS.--According to Donatus, these were: 'In Balistam ... deinde
+Catalecton et Priapia et Epigrammata et Diras, item Cirim et Culicem,
+cum esset annorum xvi.' Servius omits the boyish production 'in
+Balistam,' and adds the 'Copa.' The 'Aetna,' mentioned with doubt by
+Donatus, is, of course, not by Virgil. (1) _Catalecta_.-This seems
+better than _Catalecton_; either would mean "a collection of poems."
+Some give _Catalepton_ (= "trifles," like Aratus' work +ta
+kata lepton+). Ribbeck thinks _Catalecta_ originally included the
+_Priapea_, _Epigrammata_, and _Dirae_, but came to be restricted to
+the fourteen short pieces given in our MSS. under that title. Some of
+these, _e.g._ No. 5, are spurious. Quint. viii. 3, 28 vouches for No.
+2. Virgil's friends, Tucca and Varius, are addressed in 1 and 9, and
+10 (on Siron's villa) refers to an event in Virgil's life. In the vein
+of Catullus are 3, 4, and 8, the last being an extremely close parody
+of Catullus, c. 4. (2) _Priapea_, three in number. (3) _Dirae_,
+spurious. (4) _Ciris_. The writer's reference to himself in l. 2,
+'Irritaque expertum fallacis praemia volgi,' shows that Virgil is not
+the author. (5) _Culex_. That Virgil wrote a poem with this title is
+attested by Suetonius, Statius, and Martial; _e.g._ Mart. viii. 56, 19,
+
+  'Protinus Italiam concepit et arma virumque
+  qui modo vix Culicem fleverat ore rudi.'
+
+The poem in its present form is accepted by Ribbeck, but it does not
+correspond exactly to the account given by Donatus of the contents.
+(6) The _Copa_ Ribbeck accepts as genuine, but other critics find in
+it characteristics rather of Ovid or of Propertius. (7) The _Moretum_,
+though found in MSS., is not mentioned by Donatus or Servius, a strong
+argument against its being genuine.
+
+BUCOLICA.--These ten poems are called in the MSS. _Eclogae_ ("selected
+pieces"), and were composed B.C. 43-39. Probus, 'Scripsit Bucolica
+annos natus xxviii., Theocritum secutus.'
+
+Servius, 'Tunc ei proposuit Pollio ut carmen bucolicum scriberet, quod
+eum constat triennio[49] scripsisse et emendasse.'
+
+They were doubtless published separately as they were written, and
+afterwards collected into a volume with _Ecl._ 1 (Tityrus) coming
+first. Cf. _Georg._ iv. 565,
+
+  'Carmina qui lusi pastorum, audaxque iuventa,
+  Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi.'
+
+The present order is certainly not the chronological order.
+
+_Ecl._ 1 was written B.C. 41 as a thanksgiving to Augustus (see p.
+150).
+
+_Ecl._ 2 cannot be earlier than the end of 43 when Pollio was made
+governor of Gallia Transpadana, and possibly should not be put earlier
+than the summer of 42. The poem is written on his favourite slave
+Alexis (see Serv. _ad loc._).
+
+_Ecl._ 3 was probably written soon afterwards. Virgil refers in l. 84
+to his intimacy with Pollio,
+
+  'Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.'
+
+_Ecl._ 2 and 3 are earlier than 5. Cf. 5, 86-7,
+
+  'Haec nos "Formosum Corydon ardebat Alexim,"
+  haec eadem docuit "Cuium pecus? an Meliboei?"'
+
+_Ecl._ 4. The date is clear from l. 3,
+
+  'Si canimus silvas, silvae sint _consule_ dignae.'
+
+It must have been written in 40, when Pollio was consul. This eclogue,
+which in the Middle Age was believed to be a prophecy of the Messiah's
+coming, cannot be satisfactorily explained as referring to Pollio's
+son Saloninus, or to the expected child of Augustus, Julia.
+
+_Ecl._ 5. Spohn's view is highly probable, that it was written for the
+first celebration of Caesar's birthday in July, 42.
+
+_Ecl._ 6, to Varus, probably written B.C. 40 from Siron's villa.
+
+_Ecl._ 7 contains no allusion to contemporary events: the tone is
+purely pastoral.
+
+_Ecl._ 8 was written while Pollio was on his way back to Rome from his
+victory over the Parthini in Illyricum, for his triumph in B.C. 39.
+Cf. ll. 6 and 12.
+
+In _Ecl._ 9, written B.C. 40 at Siron's villa, the poet expresses his
+grief at the second expulsion from his farm.
+
+_Ecl._ 10 entitled 'Gallus' was written B.C. 39. For details see under
+'Gallus,' p. 182.[50]
+
+_Sources of the Eclogues._--Several of the Eclogues are modelled on
+Theocritus (cf. 'Sicelides Musae' 4, 1; 'Syracosius versus' 6, 1),
+_e.g._ _Ecl._ 8 on Theocr. 2 and 3; and close imitations are found
+throughout. The poet Euphorion of Chalcis (of third century B.C.) is
+alluded to in _Ecl._ 10, 50 in connection with Gallus. The names of
+the shepherds are mostly from Theocritus, as Tityrus, Mopsus,
+Damoetas. They are 'Arcades' (7, 4, etc.), but, like the scenery,
+exhibit traits both of Sicily and of North Italy. Thus the scenery
+never gives an accurate picture of any one locality: _e.g._ _Ecl._ 9,
+ll. 1-10, 26-7, 36, 59-60, present features of the district around
+Mantua, while in ll. 39-43 a Sicilian scene is introduced from
+Theocritus. The lofty mountains, _e.g._ 1, 84, are Sicilian, and so are
+many of the trees, as chestnut and pine, which are said not to be
+found near Mantua. For Mantuan scenery cf. _e.g._ 7, 12,
+
+  'Hic virides tenera praetexit harundine ripas
+Mincius.'
+
+The GEORGICS were written from B.C. 37 to 30 at the suggestion of
+Maecenas. Cf. i. 1.
+
+Serv. _vit. Verg._ 'Item proposuit Maecenas Georgica, quae scripsit
+emendavitque septem annis.'
+
+The poem was finished by B.C. 29. Cf. Donatus, 'Georgica reverso post
+Actiacam victoriam Augusto atque Atellae ... commoranti per continuum
+quadriduum legit.' It was written at Naples. Cf. iv. 559,
+
+  'Haec super arvorum cultu pecorumque canebam ...
+  Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat
+  Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti.'
+
+The concluding part of Book iv., originally a dirge on Cornelius
+Gallus, was afterwards altered for the myth of Aristaeus, to please
+Augustus.
+
+Serv. _ad Ecl._ 10, 1, 'Fuit Cornelius Gallus amicus Vergilii, adeo ut
+quartus Georgicorum a medio usque ad finem eius laudes teneret, quas
+postea iubente Augusto in Aristaei fabulam commutavit.'
+
+_Sources of the Georgics._--Besides his own observation, Virgil used
+the following authorities:
+
+1. Hesiod--mostly in Book i., _e.g._ ll. 276-286 (lucky and unlucky
+days). Cf. ii. 176,
+
+  'Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.'
+
+2. Books of the priests; _e.g._ i. 269 _sqq._ (what is lawful on holy
+days), i. 338 _sqq._ (Ambarvalia).
+
+3. For agriculture and natural history--Greek writers like Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, Democritus, and Xenophon; and Latin writers like Cato
+and Varro.
+
+4. Alexandrian writers for science and mythology; _e.g._ Eratosthenes
+for i. 233, 'quinque tenent caelum zonae,' etc.; i. 351-465, signs of
+weather, from the +Diosemeia+ of Aratus; iii. 425 _sqq._, the
+Calabrian serpent, from the +Theriaka+ of Nicander, whose
+writings were also used for the subject of bees in Book iv.
+
+5. Lucretius, to whom Virgil is chiefly indebted, ii. 475 _sqq._,
+especially 490 _sqq._, 'felix qui potuit,' etc., refers to Lucretius.
+The idea of Lucretius, cf. v. 206-217, that man has a perpetual
+struggle with nature, is reflected in Virgil, but modified by his
+acceptance of the argument from design. Cf. i. 99,
+
+  '_Exercet_que frequens tellurem atque _imperat_ arvis,'
+
+and the whole passage i. 118-159. Lucretian science is borrowed in
+passages like i. 89,
+
+  'Seu pluris calor ille vias et caeca relaxat
+  spiramenta, novas veniat qua sucus in herbas';
+
+l. 415-423 (of the habits of birds); iii. 242 _sqq._ (on the passion
+of love). Notice also, with Munro, Lucretian phrases like _principio_,
+_quod superest_, _his animadversis_, _nunc age_, _praeterea_, _nonne
+vides_, _contemplator_, _genitalia semina_.
+
+_Political purpose of the Georgics._--The political purpose of the
+Georgics is to help the policy of Augustus, which aimed at checking
+the depopulation of the country districts. Cf. i. 498-514, and
+especially ll. 506-7,
+
+                     'Non ullus aratro
+  dignus honos: squalent abductis arva colonis.'
+
+The Emperor is introduced throughout as the object of veneration. Cf.
+i. 24-42.
+
+_Natural scenery._--Virgil dwells on Nature in her softer aspects. Cf.
+phrases like ii. 470, 'mollesque sub arbore somni,' and the passage
+ii. 458-540 in praise of a country life. For the praise of Italy see
+the beautiful passage ii. 136-176, where special districts are
+mentioned.
+
+AENEID.--Even before the _Eclogues_ were written, Virgil had meditated
+the composition of an epic, perhaps, as Servius suggests, on the kings
+of Alba. Cf. _Ecl._ 6, 3,
+
+  'Cum canerem reges et proelia, Cynthius aurem
+  vellit et admonuit: "pastorem, Tityre, pingues
+  pascere oportet oves, deductum dicere carmen."'
+
+The idea of a poem in honour of Augustus was present to his mind when
+he wrote _Georg._ iii. 46,
+
+  'Mox tamen ardentes accingar dicere pugnas
+  Caesaris.'
+
+The _Aeneid_ was commenced B.C. 29, and remained unfinished at
+Virgil's death.
+
+Servius, _vit. Verg._, 'postea ab Augusto Aeneidem propositam scripsit
+annis undecim, sed nec emendavit nec edidit.'
+
+His method of working at the poem is thus described by Donatus,
+'Aeneida prosa prius oratione formatam digestamque in xii. libros
+particulatim componere instituit, prout liberet quidque et nihil in
+ordinem arripiens. Ut ne quid impetum moraretur, quaedam imperfecta
+transmisit, alia levissimis verbis veluti fulsit, quae per iocum pro
+tibicinibus interponi aiebat ad sustinendum opus donec solidae
+columnae advenirent.'
+
+In what order the Books were written it is impossible to decide; but
+Book vi. was not read to Augustus till after the death of the young
+Marcellus, B.C. 23.
+
+Donatus, 'Cui [Augusto] multo post perfectaque demum materia tres
+omnino libros recitavit, secundum quartum sextum, sed hunc notabili
+Octaviae adfectione, quae cum recitationi interesset ad illos de filio
+suo versus, "Tu Marcellus eris," defecisse fertur atque aegre
+focillata est.'
+
+Virgil, writing to the emperor, insists on the magnitude of the task
+he had rashly undertaken.
+
+Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 24, 11, 'Tanta incohata res est, ut paene vitio
+mentis tantum opus ingressus mihi videar, cum praesertim, ut scis,
+alia quoque studia ad id opus multoque potiora impertiar.'
+
+Although in his will Virgil left instructions to Varius (and Tucca) to
+destroy all his unpublished manuscripts, Varius was expressly desired
+by Augustus to revise and publish the _Aeneid_.
+
+Donatus, 'Egerat cum Vario, priusquam Italia decederet, ut si quid
+sibi accidisset Aeneida combureret; sed is facturum se pernegarat ...
+Edidit autem auctore Augusto Varius, sed summatim emendata, ut qui
+versus etiam imperfectos sicut erant reliquerit.'
+
+This account is corroborated by Pliny the elder, _N.H._ vii. 114,
+Gellius, and Macrobius.
+
+The rules laid down to the editors by the Emperor were, according to
+Servius, 'ut superflua demerent, nihil adderent tamen.'
+
+It seems probable that the _Aeneid_ was published B.C. 17, for it is
+in the _Carmen Saeculare_ of that year that Horace first alludes to
+the story of Aeneas (cf. l. 50, 'clarus Anchisae Venerisque sanguis'),
+and in the fourth Book of the _Odes_ (four years later) it is more
+than once introduced.
+
+The _choice of the subject_ was influenced (1) by the personal desire
+of the Emperor; (2) by the connexion of the Caesarian house with
+Venus, through Iulus;[51] cf. the invention of Atys (_Aen._ v. 568) by
+Virgil to please Augustus, whose mother was Atia; (3) by Virgil's
+design to write an epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of
+Homer.
+
+_The Aeneas Legend._--Stesichorus of Himera, among other writers, made
+Aeneas, a Homeric hero (cf. _Il._ xx. 307-8), settle in Italy; and
+Naevius is said to have adopted the legend in the form given by
+Timaeus, the Sicilian historian of the third century B.C. The legend
+probably arose from the worship of Aphrodite on the coasts of Italy,
+and was disseminated by the Greeks of Cumae to please the Romans. The
+connexion of Rome with Troy had been officially recognized for two
+hundred years (cf. Sueton. _Claud._ 25), and, though not a popular
+belief, had been accepted in literature from the time of Naevius.
+
+_Sources of the Aeneid._--1. Earlier Roman poets as Naevius, Ennius,
+Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, Hostius, Varro Atacinus, Lucretius. For
+details see under these names.
+
+2. Cato's _Origines_ and Varro's _Antiquitates_, for Italian legends
+and peoples.
+
+3. _Ius pontificium_ and _ius augurale_, as found in the books of
+sacred colleges (Macrob. i. 24, 16). Cf. the ritual meaning of
+_porricio_ (v. 776), _porrigo_ (viii. 274), the habit of praying with
+veiled head (iii. 405), prayer to Apollo of Soracte (xi. 785).
+
+4. Greek sources: (_a_) particularly the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, but
+also the Homeric Hymns and Cyclic Poems. Thus the games in Book v. =
+the games in honour of Patroclus in _Il._ xxiii.; the shield of Aeneas
+(viii. 626-731) = the shield of Achilles in _Il._ xviii.; (_b_)
+Apollonius Rhodius, for the passion of Dido = that of Medea; (_c_)
+Greek tragedies, _e.g._ the lost _Laocoon_ of Sophocles for ii. 40
+_sqq._
+
+_Religion in the Aeneid._--1. The mythology is mainly from Homer. From
+Latin myths come Faunus, Saturnus, Janus, Picus. Euhemerism is shown
+by the last three being represented as originally kings of Rome.
+
+2. The power of the gods is denoted by _fatum_ or _fata_; cf. x. 112-3,
+
+           'rex Iuppiter omnibus idem:
+  fata viam invenient.'
+
+3. The description of the lower world in Book vi. is from the descent
+into Hades in _Od._ xi., but is modified by Pythagorean ideas (vi.
+748-751, metempsychosis), Stoic ideas (vi. 724 _sqq._, pantheism, cf.
+_Georg._ iv. 219-227) and Platonic myths (_e.g._ in the _Gorgias_,
+_Phaedo_, and _Republic_), and rendered more definite by the
+introduction of heroes of the Republic. Note that Virgil emphasizes
+its mythical nature by dismissing Aeneas through the ivory gate (of
+false dreams).
+
+4. Other beliefs: (_a_) The golden bough (vi. 203-9) compared to the
+mistletoe, the symbol of the lower world with many Indo-European
+peoples; (_b_) Divinities attached to special places, _e.g._ viii.
+349-354 of the _religio_ attaching to the Capitol, ii. 351-2 guardian
+deities: cf. Carmentis, pater Tiberinus, etc.; (_c_) Worship of the
+dead, and belief in their continued influence on human affairs, iii.
+66-8, 301-5.
+
+_Political significance._--1. The pre-eminence of the Julian race and
+of Augustus himself. Cf. i. 286,
+
+  'Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,
+  imperium Oceano, famam qui terminet astris,
+  Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.'
+
+So vi. 789 _sqq._
+
+2. The idea of empire: cf. i. 33,
+
+  'Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem';
+
+and of Rome as the conqueror and civilizer of the world: vi. 851,
+
+  'Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento:
+  hae tibi erunt artes, pacisque imponere morem,
+  parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.'
+
+3. The unity of Italy with Rome is seen in Aeneas and Turnus,
+representing respectively the _pietas_ and the martial courage of a
+past age. This is brought out also by the introduction of local names.
+Cf. vii. 682-5, 710-7, 797-802.
+
+4. Virgil shows here and there contempt for pure democracy: vi. 815,
+
+                         'iactantior Ancus
+  nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris.'
+
+Cf. also i. 148-9.
+
+_Authors influenced by Virgil._--Livy, Tacitus, Ovid, Tibullus,
+Propertius, Manilius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, Statius, Valerius
+Flaccus, Martial, Juvenal, the author of _Aetna_. See under each.
+
+
+
+HORACE.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Our chief source of information about Horace is his own works, and
+some important details are added in a life of him by Suetonius.
+
+Horace's full name is Quintus (_Sat._ ii. 6, 37) Horatius (_Od._ iv.
+6, 44) Flaccus (_Sat._ ii. 1, 18). He was born 8th December, B.C. 65,
+at Venusia in Apulia, on the frontier of Lucania.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Natus est vi. Id. Decembr. L. Cotta et L.
+Torquato coss.'
+
+_Ep._ i. 20, 26-8,
+
+  'Forte meum siquis te percontabitur aevum,
+  me quater undenos sciat inplevisse Decembris
+  collegam Lepidum quo duxit Lollius anno.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 1, 34,
+
+                  'Lucanus an Appulus anceps:
+  nam Venusinus arat finem sub utrumque colonus.'
+
+There are a great many references to Apulia in Horace. So _Od._ iii.
+4, 9 _sqq._,
+
+  'Me fabulosae Volture in Appulo
+  nutricis extra limina Pulliae' (his nurse's name), etc.
+
+All Roman virtues are attributed to the Apulians, as in _Od._ i. 22,
+13; iii. 5, 9; _Epod._ ii. 39-42.
+
+Horace, though free-born (_Sat._ i. 6, 7) was the son of a freedman,
+who was by profession a collector of debts, or, according to others, a
+fishmonger. To this last story Horace probably refers with proud
+humility in _Ep._ ii. 2, 60,
+
+  'Bioneis sermonibus et sale nigro.'
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Patre, ut ipse tradit, libertino et auctionum
+coactore, ut vero creditum est, salsamentario.'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 6,
+
+  'Ut me libertino patre natum';
+
+_ibid._ 85,
+
+  'Nec timuit, sibi ne vitio quis verteret olim,
+  si praeco parvas aut, ut fuit ipse, coactor
+  mercedes sequerer.'
+
+Stories of his childhood are given, _Od._ iii. 4, 9 _sqq._; _Sat._ i.
+9, 29 _sqq._; _Sat._ ii. 2, 112 _sqq._
+
+Horace speaks highly of his father, who took him from the village
+school to Rome for his education. After speaking of his own freedom
+from vice he says (_Sat._ i. 6, 71 _sqq._),
+
+  'Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello
+  noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, ...
+  sed puerum est ausus Romam portare docendum
+  artis quas doceat quivis eques atque senator
+  semet prognatos. Vestem servosque sequentis,
+  in magno ut populo, si qui vidisset, avita
+  ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crederet illos.
+  Ipse mihi custos incorruptissimus omnis
+  circum doctores aderat.'
+
+He received instruction, both in Latin and Greek, from Orbilius,[52] a
+teacher of conservative tendencies. _Ep._ ii. 1, 69,
+
+  'Non equidem insector delendave carmina Livi
+  esse reor, memini quae plagosum mihi parvo
+  Orbilium dictare.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 41,
+
+  'Romae nutriri mihi contigit atque doceri
+  iratus Graiis quantum nocuisset Achilles.'
+
+His education was continued at Athens. _Ep._ ii. 2, 43,
+
+  'Adiecere bonae paulo plus artis Athenae,
+  scilicet ut vellem curvo dignoscere rectum
+  atque inter silvas Academi quaerere verum.'
+
+His studies were interrupted by the civil war; he joined Brutus (who
+came to Athens in August, B.C. 44), was by him appointed _tribunus
+militum_, and took part in the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42. _Ep._ ii.
+2, 46,
+
+  'Dura sed emovere loco me tempora grato
+  civilisque rudem belli tulit aestus in arma
+  Caesaris Augusti non responsura lacertis.'
+
+_Od._ ii. 7, 9,
+
+  'Philippos et celerem fugam
+  sensi, relicta non bene parmula.'
+
+In _Sat._ i. 7 Horace relates a scene at Clazomenae before Brutus and
+his staff; and in _Ep._ i. 11 he speaks, as if with personal
+knowledge, of places in Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean,
+which he probably visited then. He refers to the hardships of war in
+_Od._ ii. 6, 7; ii. 7, 1; iii. 4, 26.
+
+After the civil war his paternal property was confiscated, probably in
+B.C. 41, and his poverty compelled him to seek the post of a clerk in
+the quaestor's office, and, as he says, to write verses. (Some satires
+and epodes were then written.)
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Victis partibus, venia inpetrata, scriptum
+quaestorium comparavit.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 36,
+
+  'De re communi scribae magna atque nova te
+  orabant hodie meminisses, Quinte, reverti.'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 2, 49,
+
+  'Unde simul primum me dimisere Philippi,
+  decisis humilem pennis inopemque paterni
+  et laris et fundi paupertas inpulit, audax
+  ut versus facerem.'
+
+In the spring of B.C. 38 Horace was introduced to Maecenas[53] by
+Varius and Virgil, and became intimate with him in the winter of B.C.
+38-7.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Primo Maecenati, mox Augusto insinuatus non
+mediocrem in amborum amicitia locum tenuit. Maecenas quanto opere eum
+dilexerit satis testatur illo epigrammate:
+
+  "Ni te visceribus meis, Horati,
+  plus iam diligo, tu tuum sodalem
+  Ninnio videas strigosiorem":
+
+sed multo magis extremis iudiciis tali ad Augustum elogio: "Horati
+Flacci ut mei esto memor!"'
+
+_Sat._ i. 6, 54,
+
+                     'Optimus olim
+  Vergilius, post hunc Varius dixere quid essem ...
+  Abeo, et revocas nono post mense iubesque          (l. 61)
+  esse in amicorum numero.'
+
+In _Sat._ ii. 6, 40-58 Horace describes how intimate he was socially
+with Maecenas, who, however, did not make him a confidant in political
+matters. The most noteworthy event of this period is described in
+_Sat._ i. 5, viz. Horace's journey to Brundisium in the train of
+Maecenas and Cocceius, who went to arrange some matters between
+Augustus and Antony. His companions were Virgil, Varius, Plotius, and
+the Greek rhetorician, Heliodorus. Plotius, Virgil, and Varius are
+thus referred to (_Sat._ i. 5, 41):
+
+        'Animae quales neque candidiores
+  terra tulit neque quis me sit devinctior alter.'[54]
+
+In B.C. 34 Maecenas gave Horace an estate in the country of the
+Sabines. The question of its position was settled last century by the
+abbe Capmartin de Chaupy. The only place that suits Horace's
+description is east of Tivoli, and in the neighbourhood of Vicovaro,
+which is the same as the Varia of Horace (_Ep._ i. 14, 3), the
+market-town of his tenants. Near it is the stream Licenza, the
+Digentia of Horace, on which stands Bardela (the Mandela of Hor.).
+_Ep._ i. 18, 104,
+
+  'Me quotiens reficit gelidus Digentia rivus,
+  quem Mandela bibit, rugosus frigore pagus.'
+
+The site of his villa may be pretty closely determined from _Ep._ i.
+10, 49,
+
+  'Haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae.'
+
+Vacuna is a Sabine goddess, identified with Victoria: near the village
+an inscription has been found which was erected by Vespasian, 'Aedem
+Victoriae vetustate dilapsam sua impensa restituit,' and the natural
+inference is that this is the temple mentioned by Horace.[55] Horace
+stayed a great deal at his country-house, and his works contain many
+references to it.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Vixit plurimum in secessu ruris sui Sabini aut
+Tiburtini, domusque eius ostenditur circa Tiburni luculum.'
+
+_Sat._ ii. 6, 16,
+
+  'Ubi me in mentis et in arcem ex urbe removi.'
+
+Other references are _Ep._ i. 16, 1-14; _Od._ ii. 18, 14.
+
+Augustus having tried unsuccessfully to induce Horace to become his
+secretary, was not offended at the poet's refusal, but continued to
+bestow his favour upon him.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Augustus epistularum quoque ei officium obtulit,
+ut hoc ad Maecenatem scripto significat: "Ante ipse sufficiebam
+scribendis epistulis amicorum, nunc occupatissimus et infirmus
+Horatium nostrum a te cupio abducere. Veniet ergo ab ista parasitica
+mensa ad hanc regiam et nos in epistulis scribendis adiuvabit." Ac ne
+recusanti quidem aut succensuit quicquam aut amicitiam suam ingerere
+desiit ... unaque et altera liberalitate locupletavit.'
+
+Horace composed for Augustus the _Carmen Saeculare_; _Od._ iv. 4; iv.
+14, celebrating the victories of Augustus' step-sons over the
+Rhaetians and the Vindelici; also _Ep._ ii. 1.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Scripta quidem eius usque adeo probavit
+mansuraque perpetuo opinatus est, ut non modo Saeculare carmen
+componendum iniunxerit sed et Vindelicam victoriam Tiberii Drusique
+privignorum suorum eumque coegerit propter hoc tribus carminum libris
+ex longo intervallo quartum addere; post sermones vero quosdam lectos
+nullam sui mentionem habitam ita sit questus: "Irasci me tibi scito,
+quod non in plerisque eius modi scriptis mecum potissimum loquaris; an
+vereris ne apud posteros infame tibi sit, quod videaris familiaris
+nobis esse?" expresseritque eclogam ad se, cuius initium est:
+
+  "Cum tot sustineas et tanta negotia solus,"' etc. (_Ep._ ii. 1).
+
+Horace died 27th November, B.C. 8, and was buried near Maecenas. He
+appointed Augustus his heir.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Hor._, 'Decessit v. Kal. Decembris C. Marcio Censorino
+et C. Asinio Gallo coss. lvii. aetatis anno, herede Augusto palam
+nuncupato; ... et conditus est extremis Esquiliis iuxta Maecenatis
+tumulum.'
+
+In personal appearance Horace was 'brevis atque obesus,' according to
+Suetonius, who quotes a joke of Augustus on the subject: 'Vereri autem
+mihi videris ne maiores libelli tui sint, quam ipse es; sed tibi
+statura deest, corpusculum non deest.' Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 20, 24,
+
+  'Corporis exigui, praecanum, solibus aptum,
+  irasci celerem, tamen ut placabilis essem';
+
+_Ep._ i. 4, 15,
+
+  'Me pinguem et nitidum bene curata cute vises,
+  cum ridere voles, Epicuri de grege porcum.'
+
+Cf. also _Ep._ i. 7, 25; _Od._ iii. 14, 25.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Chronology of the Works._--(1) _Satirae_, in two Books (called
+_Sermones_ in all the MSS.).
+
+Book i. It is clear from _Sat._ ii. 6, 40 that Horace was introduced
+to Maecenas in the spring of B.C. 38. Now all the references to
+Maecenas, with the exception of the prologue in _Sat._ 1 (written
+last), are in the second half of the book, there being no mention of
+him in _Sat._ 2; 3; and 4. It is therefore probable that these three
+Satires were written when Horace knew Varius and Virgil, but not
+Maecenas, _i.e._ B.C. 40-38. _Sat._ 2 is probably the oldest we have,
+as is shown by other considerations, and by the number of archaisms it
+contains. _Sat._ 5 (on the journey to Brundisium) was written shortly
+after the spring of B.C. 37, when the events recorded took place. The
+date of the publication of the book cannot be exactly fixed, the only
+clue we have being the reference in _Sat._ i. 10, 86, to Bibulus, the
+political agent of Antony, whose presence in Rome B.C. 35 may be
+referred to. It cannot be proved that _Sat._ i. 1, 114 _sqq._, is
+imitated from Verg. _Georg._ i. 512 _sqq._, published B.C. 35.
+
+Book ii. and the _Epodes_ were published in B.C. 30 about the same
+time. We have references to Actium (B.C. 31), as in _Sat._ ii. 5, 63;
+and _Sat._ ii. 1 (written last) speaks of Augustus (ll. 11-15) as the
+hero in war, not yet the bringer of peace, and was probably therefore
+composed before the temple of Janus was shut in the beginning of B.C.
+29.
+
+(2) _Epodon liber_, B.C. 30, as above. _Epod._ 9 was written shortly
+after the battle of Actium, 2nd September, B.C. 31, before it was
+known whither Antony had fled.
+
+(3) _Carmina_ (Odes) Books i.-iii., published B.C. 23. In _Od._ i. 12,
+45,
+
+  'Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo
+  fama Marcellis,'
+
+we have a reference to the marriage in B.C. 25 of Augustus' daughter,
+Julia, to his nephew, Marcellus. Marcellus died in the autumn of B.C.
+23, and the lines must have been written before his death. _Od._ ii.
+10 and iii. 19 contain references to Licinius Murena, brother of
+Terentia, Maecenas' wife. Murena was executed for his share in the
+conspiracy of Fannius Caepio in the end of B.C. 23, and it is
+improbable that Horace could have made these references after that
+event.[56]
+
+(4) _Epistles_, Book i., published B.C. 20. The date is fixed by _Ep._
+i. 20, 26-8, already quoted, p. 164.
+
+The year referred to is B.C. 21, and the book was therefore composed
+in B.C. 20, before December of that year.
+
+(5) _Carmen Saeculare_, composed for the _Ludi Saeculares_ of B.C. 17
+(see Sueton. quoted above). An inscription commemorating these games
+was discovered in 1890 on the left bank of the Tiber, and in it Horace
+is mentioned: 'Sacrificioque perfecto pueri xxvi. quibus denuntiatum
+erat patrimi et matrimi et puellae totidem carmen cecinerunt eodemque
+modo in Capitolio. Carmen composuit Q. Horatius Flaccus.'[57]
+
+(6) _Odes_, Book iv., published B.C. 13. _Od._ 4 and 14 celebrate the
+campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Rhaetia and Vindelicia B.C. 15.
+_Od._ 2 and 5 were written just before Augustus' return, B.C. 13, from
+Gaul, where he had been since B.C. 16.
+
+(7) _Epistles_, Book ii. _Ep._ ii. 1, to Augustus, was written B.C. 14
+in response (see the quotation from Suetonius above) to the emperor's
+request for a poem addressed to himself, after seeing that no mention
+was made of him in _Ep._ ii. 2 and the _Epistula ad Pisones_. These
+are the _sermones quidam_ (both, like _Ep._ ii. 1, on literary
+criticism) referred to by Suetonius, and not Book i. of the Epistles,
+where Augustus is frequently mentioned. The date is fixed by l. 15,
+'praesenti tibi maturos largimur honores,' etc., referring to the
+worship of the _numen Augusti_, which was legalized B.C. 14, and by
+the reference in ll. 252 _sqq._ to the victories of Drusus and
+Tiberius, and their celebration in _Od._ iv. 4; iv. 14. _Ep._ ii. 2
+(to Iulius Florus) was written B.C. 18. Horace hints (l. 25, ll. 84-6)
+that he has not yet returned to lyric poetry; the epistle was
+therefore written before B.C. 17. The _Epistula ad Pisones_ or _De
+Arte Poetica_ was probably written B.C. 17 or 16 after the _Carmen
+Saeculare_, but before Horace had entered on the composition of the
+fourth Book of the Odes.
+
+The _Satires_ are called _Sermones_ in all the MSS., but as Horace
+gave this name both to his Satires (_Sat._ i. 4, 42) and to his
+Epistles (_Ep._ ii. 1, 4; 250) it is convenient to call them
+_Satirae_, the name which Horace also gives them (_Sat._ ii. 1, 1; 6,
+17), and which represent their intended scope. Horace's chief model is
+Lucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. _Sat._ i. 4, 56,
+
+               'his, ego quae nunc,
+  olim quae scripsit Lucilius.'
+
+So _Sat._ ii. 1, 28 and 74. Lucilius' influence is seen most in _Sat._
+i. 2; 5; 7; 8; ii. 2; 3; 4; 8. Horace, after the reception _Sat._ i. 2
+met with, did not, like Lucilius, attack individuals; nor did his
+position as a dependent (_Sat._ ii. 1, 60-79) allow him to do so. We
+find, therefore, no political satire in Horace, who confines himself to
+social and literary topics. He does not attack his contemporaries by
+name, but (_a_) takes some names from Lucilius, as Albucius (_Sat._ ii.
+1, 48), Opimius (_Sat._ ii. 3, 142); (_b_) invents 'tell-tale-names,' as
+Pantolabus (_Sat._ i. 8, 11), Novius (_Sat._ i. 3, 21). In _Sat._ i. 4
+and ii. 1 he defines the moral and social aim of his satire. In _Sat._
+i. 4, 1-13 he criticizes Lucilius' style; this seems to have given
+offence, and in _Sat._ i. 10 he gives reasons for his former criticism.
+Horace's Epicureanism is more pronounced in Book i. than in Book ii. In
+_Sat._ i. 1 and i. 3 (cf. ll. 99-124) the influence of Lucretius is
+seen. In i. 3 he takes up an antagonistic position to Stoicism (cf. ll.
+124-142). In ii. 3 he shows less hostility to Stoicism though he still
+criticizes it.[58] In _Sat._ ii. 7, where the slave Davus enunciates the
+Stoic doctrine, +hoti monos ho sophos eleutheros+, Davus' arguments from
+l. 75 onwards have been taken by Horace from Cic. _Parad._ 5.
+
+Horace does not pretend that his Satires (or Epistles) are poetry, and
+makes several statements to that effect. _Sat._ ii. 6, 17,
+
+  'Quid prius inlustrem satiris musaque pedestri?'
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 250,
+
+  'Sermones ... repentes per humum.'
+
+So _Sat._ i. 4, 39-44.
+
+The _Epodes_ are called _Epodi_ in the MSS. +Epodos+ was the
+name given to a piece composed of couplets, the first line of which is
+longer than the second. Horace calls them _iambi_ (_Epod._ 14, 7;
+_Od._ i. 16, 3). Their style is an imitation of that of Archilochus of
+Paros. _Ep._ i. 19, 23-5,
+
+             'Parios ego primus iambos
+  ostendi Latio, numeros animosque secutus
+  Archilochi, non res et agentia verba Lycamben.'
+
+This is seen in the personal attacks made in many of them, as well as
+in the +aischrologia+ employed, and also in the versification.
+The dates of several can be fixed. _Epod._ 16 was written B.C. 41, and
+refers to the Perusian war. Horace takes no part with either side, but
+advises his countrymen to leave Rome, like the Phocaeans of old.
+_Epod._ 7 was written B.C. 39; and _Epod._ 1, 9, and 14, about B.C.
+31. The order is strictly metrical. Epodes 1-10 are simple iambics
+(trimeter and dimeter alternately); 11-16 more complicated forms; 17,
+the last, in iambic trimeters.
+
+The _Odes_ Horace himself calls _carmina_. The metres are nearly all
+taken from Sappho and Alcaeus, the two poets whose works Horace wished
+to present to his countrymen in a Roman dress. Cf. _Od._ iii. 30,
+13-4,
+
+  'Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos
+  deduxisse modos.'
+
+The metrical differences between himself and his originals are due to
+the difference in the genius of the two languages and to the fact that
+he adopted the views on metre current in his time. Catullus' metre, on
+the other hand, was closely modelled on that of the Alexandrian poets.
+The odes are largely founded on the best Greek lyric poetry, with
+which Horace was thoroughly familiar; cf. his first intention to write
+in Greek (_Sat._ i. 10, 31-5). Alexandrian influence is little seen,
+and his mythological allusions are seldom obscure. Examples of
+imitation (which is commonest in Book i.) are: _Od._ i. 9, the
+beginning of which is from Alcaeus (so i. 10; 11; 18); i. 12
+(beginning) is from Pindar; i. 27 from Anacreon. Bacchylides is
+imitated, _e.g._ in ii. 18.
+
+_Subjects of the Odes._--1. Love and wine form the themes of many.
+_Od._ i. 6, 17,
+
+  'Nos convivia, nos proelia virginum
+  sectis in iuvenes unguibus acrium
+  cantamus.'
+
+Cf. _Od._ ii. 1, 37-40; iii. 3, 69-72.
+
+The love-poems show no trace of personal passion, and the names of the
+women whose charms are sung are taken from Greek; thus Pyrrha (a
+well-known name from Attic comedy) i. 5; Lydia, i. 13, etc.; Lalage,
+i. 22; ii. 5. Cinara (iv. 1; iv. 13) is probably the only one that
+represents a real person. Wine is celebrated, _e.g._ in i. 9; 18; 27;
+ii. 7; iii. 21. A tone of moderation is observed throughout the
+drinking-songs. It is highly probable[59] that in _Od._ i. 27, 1-4 the
+unrestrained bacchanalian spirit of Catullus (cf. c. 27) is reproved,
+
+  'Natis in usum laetitiae scyphis
+  pugnare Thracum est. Tollite barbarum
+    morem verecundumque Bacchum
+      sanguineis prohibete rixis.'
+
+2. In _Od._ i. 24 we have the beautiful dirge on the death of
+Quintilius Varus.
+
+3. _On political subjects._--The chief of these are as follows: i. 2
+(towards the end of B.C. 28); i. 12; i. 14; i. 35 (in B.C. 26); i. 37
+(in B.C. 30); ii. 1. The most important, however, are _Od._ iii. 1-6,
+which form one whole, and are written on the new name of Augustus, and
+the ideas therewith connected. They were all written about B.C.
+27.[60]
+
+In iii. 1, which is general, the rising generation is addressed by the
+prophet of the empire; ll. 3, 4,
+
+                  'Musarum sacerdos
+  virginibus puerisque canto.'
+
+The lesson of the ode is 'A moderate life is the best. Lucky is the
+man who is spared the trouble of managing the State.'
+
+iii. 2 praises courage and honesty, but with special reference to two
+institutions of Augustus: (1) the professional soldier as opposed to
+the citizen-soldier of the republic. The officers were taken from the
+two privileged classes, and there was no promotion from the ranks.
+This is the explanation of ll. 1-4,
+
+  'Angustam amice pauperiem pati
+   robustus acri militia puer
+     condiscat et Parthos ferocis
+       vexet eques,'
+
+lines which also refer to the resuscitation by Augustus of the
+citizen-cavalry. The soldier is not to trouble about politics (ll.
+17-20), and must not fear death (l. 13). (2) The new imperial
+administrative officers, employed not only in collecting taxes, but in
+administrative business of every kind. Speaking of them, Horace pays a
+tribute to loyal silence, and emphasizes the curse that clings to
+breach of faith; l. 25,
+
+  'Est et fideli tuta silentio
+    merces';
+
+l. 31,
+
+  'Raro antecedentem scelestum
+    deseruit pede Poena claudo.'
+
+iii. 3 touches intimately the political questions of the day. Pointed
+reference is made to Cleopatra; she is the _mulier peregrina_ (l. 20),
+the _Lacaena adultera_ (l. 25), who brought Troy low, and would bring
+Rome low, if she and her _famosus hospes_ (l. 26) could raise Troy
+again. The reference here is to a report current about Antony, that he
+intended to make Troy the capital. It is certain that he intended to
+restore to Cleopatra her kingdom with extended frontiers, and to make
+himself ruler of the Eastern empire. This, which would have meant the
+subjection of Rome to the Greeks and half-Greeks, was prevented by the
+'iustum et tenacem propositi virum' (l. i), who for his services is
+honoured as one of the gods; ll. 11-12,
+
+  'Quos inter Augustus recumbens
+  purpureo bibit ore nectar.'
+
+In iii. 4 the poet's personality comes out strongest. He describes his
+protection by the Muses in his early years, and this leads him to
+speak of one of the monarch's chief works of peace, his encouragement
+of literature; ll. 37-40,
+
+  'Vos Caesarem altum, militia simul
+  fessas cohortes abdidit oppidis,
+  finire quaerentem labores
+  Pierio recreatis antro.'
+
+iii. 5 is a defence of Augustus' foreign policy. Publicly he kept up
+Caesar's war policy, hence ll. 2-5,
+
+  'Praesens divus habebitur
+  Augustus adiectis Britannis
+  imperio gravibusque Persis';
+
+but that this concealed his real policy of non-intervention is shown
+by his action regarding Parthia. Hence Horace, by a speech put into
+the mouth of Regulus (l. 18 _sqq._) warns the Romans against trying to
+rescue the survivors of Crassus' army, who, by becoming captives, had
+ceased to be citizens. That some of the Senate wished to interfere in
+this matter is probably shown by ll. 45-6,
+
+  'Donec labantis consilio patres
+  firmaret auctor numquam alias dato.'
+
+iii. 6 refers (ll. 1-8) to Augustus' policy in restoring the ancient
+religion, as is seen by the fact that he rebuilt 82 temples. Lines
+21-32 refer to a law of Augustus on adultery, the date of which is
+unknown.
+
+In Book iv., Odes 2, 4, 5, 6, 14, 15, are political. They show traces
+of adulation, and sing the praises rather of the imperial family than
+of the nation. Cf. iv. 2, 37 (of Augustus),
+
+  'Quo nihil maius meliusve terris
+  fata donavere bonique divi,' etc.
+
+The _Epistles_.--_Sermones_ is the name given them by Horace; they are
+also called _Epistulae_ in the MSS. Social, ethical, and literary
+questions are treated of, and the style is much more careful than that
+of the Satires. The motto, one might say, of the book is _Ep._ i. 1,
+10.
+
+  'Nunc itaque et versus et cetera ludicra pono:
+  quid verum atque decens, curo et rogo et omnis in hoc sum.'
+
+The dates of _Ep._ ii. 1, 2, have already been mentioned. Both treat
+of literary criticism, and the first deals particularly with that of
+the drama. Iulius Florus, to whom _Ep._ ii. 2 is addressed, was the
+representative of the younger literary school at Rome. The _Epistula
+ad Pisones_ or _De Arte Poetica_ is an essay in verse on literary
+criticism, specially pointing out how necessary art is to composition.
+In it, according to Porphyrion, Horace 'congessit praecepta Neoptolemi
++tou Parianou+[61] de arte poetica, non quidem omnia, sed
+eminentissima.' Horace probably was also indebted to Aristotle's
+_Poetics_. Porphyrion says that Horace wrote the _Ars Poetica_ 'ad L.
+Pisonem qui postea urbis custos fuit eiusque liberos.' This does not
+fit in with the probable date, B.C. 17 or 16, as L. Piso was born B.C.
+49, and his sons could not have been old enough for the letter to be
+addressed to them. It is probable that Porphyrion is wrong, and that
+the _A.P._ was addressed to Cn. Piso, who served with Horace under
+Brutus, and his two sons.
+
+_Horace and nature._--Besides references to his Sabine villa, Horace
+refers to natural scenery in many passages. Such are _Epod._ 2; _Od._
+i. 7, 10; ii. 6, 13; iii. 13, 9; _Sat._ ii. 6, 1 _sqq._; _Ep._ i. 10,
+6 _sqq._, i. 16, 1 _sqq._[62] Horace is fond of comparing dangers to
+the plague of floods,[63] a plague from which Italy has always
+suffered. Cf. _Od._ i. 31, 7,
+
+         'rura quae Liris quieta
+  mordet aqua taciturnus amnis.'
+
+So _Od._ iii. 29, 32 _sqq._, and many other passages.
+
+_Popularity of Horace._--Horace's prediction that his works would
+become school-books, _Ep._ i. 20, 17,
+
+  'Hoc quoque te manet, ut pueros elementa docentem
+  occupet extremis in vicis balba senectus,'
+
+was early fulfilled. Cf. Iuv. 7, 226,
+
+  'Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset
+  Flaccus et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni.'
+
+
+
+CONTEMPORARY POETS:
+
+
+The following writers were friends of Horace:
+
+(_a_) _C. Valgius Rufus_, consul suffectus B.C. 12, belonged to the
+circle of Maecenas (Hor. _Sat._ i. 10, 82).
+
+Valgius' works, of which only a few lines are extant, included (1)
+Elegiae. Cf. Hor. _Od._ ii. 9, 9-12,
+
+  'Tu semper urges flebilibus modis
+  Mysten ademptum, nec tibi Vespero
+    surgente decedunt amores
+      nec rapidum fugiente solem.'
+
+(2) Epigrammata, (3) Miscellanies, (4) A translation of Apollodorus'
++techne+. (See Quint. iii. 1, 18.) (5) A book on herbs.
+(Pliny, _N.H._ xxv. 4.) An epic was also expected of him, but whether
+written is unknown. Tibull. iv. 1, 179,
+
+  'Est tibi, qui possit magnis se adcingere rebus,
+    Valgius; aeterno propior non alter Homero.'
+
+(_b_) _M. Aristius Fuscus_, a poet and grammarian (Porphyr. _ad Sat._
+i. 9, 60); _Od._ i. 22, and _Ep._ i. 10, are addressed to him.
+
+(_c_) The _Visci_. Comm. Cruq. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 83, 'Visci duo fratres
+fuerunt optimi poetae et iudices critici.'
+
+(_d_) _C. Fundanius_, wrote comedies (Porphyr. _ad Sat._ i. 10, 40).
+
+(_e_) _Servius Sulpicius_, a love poet (Ovid, _Trist._ ii. 441; Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86).
+
+(_f_) _Iulius Florus_ was 'saturarum scriptor' (Porphyr. _ad Hor. Ep._
+i. 3, 1). Hor. _Ep._ i. 3 and ii. 2, are addressed to him.
+
+(_g_) _Titius_ wrote Pindaric odes, and tragedies, Hor. _Ep._ i. 3,
+9-14.
+
+(_h_) _Albinovanus Celsus_. See Hor. _Ep._ i. 3, 15-7.
+
+(_i_) _C. Iullus Antonius_, B.C. 44-B.C. 2, was a son of the triumvir
+M. Antonius. The Schol. on Hor. _Od._ iv. 2, 2, says of him, "Heroico
+metro Diomedeam scripsit et nonnulla alia soluta oratione."
+
+(_k_) _Furnius_, an orator; died B.C. 37. He is mentioned by Hor.
+_Sat._ i. 10, 86.
+
+Other poets contemporary with Virgil and Horace are:
+
+(_a_) _L. Varius Rufus_ (cf. Verg. _Ecl._ 9, 35). His works were:
+
+(1) Epics (_a_) on the death of Julius Caesar (Macrob. _Saturn._ vi.
+1, 39), (_b_) in praise of Augustus. Hor. _Ep._ i. 16, 27-29 is a
+quotation from this poem (Acron _ad loc._), and it is probably
+referred to in _Od._ i. 6, 1 (to Agrippa),
+
+  'Scriberis Vario fortis et hostium
+  victor Maeonii carminis aliti,
+  quam rem cumque ferox navibus aut equis
+  miles te duce gesserit.'
+
+(2) A tragedy, _Thyestes_, praised by Quint. x. 1, 98, 'iam Varii
+Thyestes cuilibet Graecarum comparari potest.'
+
+(3) Elegies: Porphyr. ad Hor. _Od._ i. 6, 1, 'fuit L. Varius et ipse
+carminis et tragoediarum et elegiorum auctor.'
+
+(_b_) _Aemilius Macer_ was a native of Verona, and died B.C. 16:
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2001, 'Aemilius Macer Veronensis poeta in Asia
+moritur.' He was a friend of Virgil, and was the 'Mopsus' of _Ecl._ 5,
+according to Serv. _ad loc._ Ovid in his youth enjoyed his
+acquaintance; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 43, where three didactic poems are
+referred to: (1) _Ornithogonia_, on birds; (2) _Theriaca_, on venomous
+serpents; (3) _De Herbis_, on plants.
+
+For his obligations to Nicander, see under 'Virgil,' p. 158.
+Quintilian calls him 'humilis' (x. 1, 87).
+
+(_c_) _C. Cornelius Gallus_ was born at Forum Iulii B.C. 70, and died
+by his own hand B.C. 27. Jerome yr. Abr. 1990, 'Cornelius Gallus
+Foroiuliensis poeta ... xliii. aetatis suae anno propria se manu
+interficit.' Having commanded a division in the war against Antony, he
+was appointed by Octavian the first prefect of Egypt, B.C. 30, but
+incurred his anger and was banished from Caesar's house and provinces
+(Sueton. _Aug._ 66). The cause of his downfall was indiscreet language
+about Augustus, according to Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 445,
+
+  'Non fuit opprobrio celebrasse Lycorida Gallo,
+    sed linguam nimio non tenuisse mero';
+
+and _Am._ iii. 9, 63,
+
+  'Tu quoque, si falsum est temerati crimen amici,
+    sanguinis atque animae prodige, Galle, tuae.'
+
+The tenth eclogue of Virgil is a testimony to his friendship for
+Gallus, l. 2,
+
+  'Pauca meo Gallo, sed quae legat ipsa Lycoris,
+  carmina sunt dicenda; neget quis carmina Gallo?'
+
+Lines 44-49 are said by Servius, _ad loc._, to be quoted from Gallus
+('de ipsius translati carminibus'). For the tribute to Gallus in the
+original draft of _Georgic_ iv. see under 'Virgil,' p. 157.
+
+He wrote four Books of love-poems to Cytheris, the _liberta_ who
+afterwards deserted him for Antony: Serv. _ad Ecl._ x. 1, 'amorum
+suorum de Cytheride scripsit libros iv.' According to Servius he also
+translated the poems of Euphorion of Chalcis. Cf. Verg. _Ecl._ x. 50,
+
+  'Ibo et Chalcidico quae sunt mihi condita versu
+  carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avena.'
+
+Compared with Tibullus and Propertius, he was 'durior' (Quint. x. 1,
+93).
+
+(_d_) _Codrus_, mentioned by Virgil, _Ecl._ 7, 22 and 26; 5, 11, was a
+contemporary poet (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 7), and was praised by Valgius
+(Schol. Veron. _ad loc._), but nothing is known of his writings. The
+name is not Roman, and is probably a disguised form of Cordus. He is
+sometimes identified with the Iarbitas of Hor. _Ep._ i. 19, 15.
+
+(_e_) _Bavius_ and _Mevius_ were enemies of Virgil and Horace. Verg.
+_Ecl._ 3, 90,
+
+  'Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Mevi.'
+
+Horace, _Epod._ 10, prays for the shipwreck of Mevius. He wrote about
+the prodigal son of the actor Aesopus (Porphyr. ad Hor. _Sat._ ii. 3,
+239). Bavius died B.C. 35, according to Jerome.
+
+(_f_) _Anser_ wrote a poem in praise of Antony, and was rewarded with
+a grant of land (Serv. _ad Ecl._ 9, 36; Cic. _Phil._ xiii. 11). He is
+mentioned by Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 435,
+
+  'Cinna quoque his comes est, Cinnaque procacior Anser.'
+
+Servius sees an allusion to him in _Ecl._ 9, 36,
+
+  'Argutos inter strepere anser olores.'
+
+(_g_) _Domitius Marsus_. His epigram on Tibullus (see p. 186) shows
+that he was alive in B.C. 19; he was, however, dead when Ovid was
+exiled in A.D. 8.
+
+Ovid, _Ex Pont._ iv. 16, 3,
+
+  'Famaque post cineres maior venit; et mihi nomen
+    tunc quoque, cum vivis adnumerarer, erat,
+  cum foret et Marsus, magnique Rabirius oris,
+    Iliacusque Macer sidereusque Pedo.'
+
+He was a member of Augustus' literary circle. Mart. viii. 56, 21,
+
+  'Quid Varios Marsosque loquar, ditataque vatum
+    nomina, magnus erit quos numerare labor?'
+
+His works were:
+
+1. _Cicuta_, a collection of epigrams, often referred to by Martial.
+Cf. ii. 71, 3,
+
+  'aut Marsi recitas aut scripta Catulli.'
+
+2. _Amazonis_, an epic poem.[64] Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+    quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+3. _Amores_ or _Elegiae_. Mart. vii. 29, 7,
+
+  'Et Maecenati, Maro cum cantaret Alexin,
+    nota tamen Marsi fusca Melaenis erat.'
+
+4. _Fabellae_.
+
+5. _De Urbanitate_ (in prose). Quint. vi. 3, 102, 'Domitius Marsus,
+qui de urbanitate diligentissime scripsit.'
+
+(_h_) _Pupius_, a tragedian, sneered at by Hor. _Ep._ i. 1, 67,
+'lacrimosa poemata Pupi.'
+
+(_i_) _C. Melissus_, a freedman of Maecenas, invented the _trabeata_,
+a variety of the _togata_.
+
+Sueton. _Gramm._ 21, 'Fecit et novum genus togatarum inscripsitque
+trabeatas.'
+
+
+
+TIBULLUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Albius Tibullus (his praenomen was perhaps Aulus, which, from the
+abbreviation A. being followed by Albius, was lost in the MSS.) seems
+to have been born near Pedum in Latium. (1) Horace, in _Ep._ i. 4, 2,
+addressed to Tibullus, asks, 'Quid nunc te dicam facere in regione
+Pedana?' apparently referring to the 'sedes avitae' of Tibullus
+(Tibull. ii. 4, 53). (2) The Life contained in the best MSS., and
+probably to be attributed to Suetonius, calls him 'Albius Tibullus,
+eques Romanus' (codd. Paris. and Lips. 'regulis'). Baehrens
+(_Tibullische Blaetter_) holds that _Romanus_ is an erroneous
+correction of _regulis_, for which he proposes to read _R._ (=
+Romanus) _e Gabis_ (= Gabiis). Gabii was within a short distance of
+Pedum.
+
+The date of his birth can be fixed only by indirect evidence.
+
+(1) The Life says 'obiit adulescens,' and the epigram of Domitius
+Marsus, found in the best MSS., calls Tibullus 'iuvenis' at the time
+of his death, which must have occurred about the same time as
+Virgil's, in B.C. 19,
+
+  'Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle,
+    mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios,
+  ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores
+    aut caneret forti regia bella pede.'
+
+(2) Ovid (_Tr._ iv. 10, 53) says of Tibullus,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi.'
+
+Since Gallus was born B.C. 70, and Propertius about B.C. 49, the birth
+of Tibullus must have fallen between those years.
+
+(3) Tibullus accompanied Messalla when he left for Aquitania, B.C. 30
+or 29, according to the Life: 'Ante alios Corvinum Messallam oratorem
+dilexit, cuius etiam contubernalis Aquitanico bello militaribus donis
+donatus est.' Cf. Tibull. i. 7, 9,
+
+  'Non sine me est tibi partus honos; Tarbella Pyrene
+    testis et Oceani litora Santonici.'
+
+Putting together these references we may place the date of Tibullus'
+birth in B.C. 54. (The statement of the Life in the Codex
+Guelferbytanus, 'Natus est Hyrtio et Pansa coss.' is clearly wrong).
+
+He was of equestrian rank, and at one time possessed considerable
+wealth, apparently inherited from a long line of ancestors; i. 1, 41,
+
+  'Non ego divitias patrum fructusque requiro
+    quos tulit antiquo condita messis avo.'
+
+Cf. ii. 1, 1; ii. 4, 53; Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 7,
+
+  'Di tibi divitias dederunt.'
+
+His family property, however, had been greatly diminished; i. 1, 19,
+
+  'Vos quoque, felicis quondam nunc pauperis agri
+    custodes, fertis munera vestra, lares:
+  tunc vitula innumeros lustrabat caesa iuvencos;
+    nunc agna exigui est hostia parva soli.'
+
+Cf. i. 1, 5 and 37.
+
+It has been supposed that Tibullus suffered these losses in the
+agrarian disturbances of B.C. 41, and that his lands, like those of
+Virgil and Propertius, were confiscated. No town in Latium, however,
+is mentioned by Appian as having its territory thus assigned.
+Tibullus' property may possibly have been restored to him through the
+influence of Messalla.[65] Cf. Hor. _Ep._ i. 4, 11,
+
+  'Et mundus victus non deficiente crumena';
+
+also Tibull. i. 1, 77,
+
+             'Ego composito securus acervo
+  despiciam dites despiciamque famem.'
+
+Of Messalla Tibullus always speaks with the greatest affection. He
+refused at first to accompany him to the East after the battle of
+Actium, but afterwards followed him, and was forced through illness to
+remain at Corcyra: i. 1, 53,
+
+  'Te bellare decet terra, Messalla, marique,
+    ut domus hostiles praeferat exuvias:
+  me retinent vinctum formosae vincla puellae';
+
+i, 3, 3,
+
+  'Me tenet ignotis aegrum Phaeacia terris.'
+
+In the Aquitanian campaign he was Messalla's _contubernalis_, and had
+military distinctions conferred on him (see p. 186).
+
+No further particulars of Tibullus are known, save his love for his
+mistresses Delia and Nemesis, and the fact mentioned by Ovid, in a
+poem on his death, that his mother and sister survived him; _Amor._
+iii. 9, 50,
+
+    'Mater et in cineres ultima dona tulit.
+  Hinc soror in partem misera cum matre doloris
+    venit inornatas dilaniata comas.'
+
+Delia's real name was Plania (+delos+ = _planus_): cf.
+Apuleius, _Apol._ 10, 'eadem igitur opera accusent ... Tibullum quod
+ei sit Plania in animo Delia in versu.' She was a _libertina_, for the
+name is not known as a _nomen gentilicium_, and she had had a husband
+(i. 2, 41, 'coniunx tuus'), who appears to have been serving with the
+army in Cilicia: i. 2, 65,
+
+  'Ferreus ille fuit, qui te cum posset habere,
+    maluerit praedas stultus et arma sequi.
+  Ille licet Cilicum victas agat ante catervas,' etc.
+
+A divorce had probably taken place, as she was not entitled to wear
+the distinctive dress of the Roman matron; i. 6, 67,
+
+  'Sit modo casta, doce, quamvis non vitta ligatos
+    impediat crines nec stola longa pedes.'
+
+Nemesis was a _meretrix_; ii. 4, 14,
+
+  'Illa cava pretium flagitat usque manu.'
+
+She appears to be the 'immitis Glycera' of Hor. _Od._ i. 33, 2,
+addressed to Albius (so Kiessling _ad loc._). Both Delia and Nemesis
+are represented by Ovid as present at the funeral of Tibullus. _Amor._
+iii. 9, 53,
+
+  'Cumque tuis sua iunxerunt Nemesisque priorque
+    oscula nec solos destituere rogos.'
+
+Tibullus was on friendly terms with Horace, who addressed to him _Od._
+i. 33 and _Ep._ i. 4. Horace was doubtless attracted by the frank
+nature of Tibullus (_Ep._ i. 4, 1, 'Albi, nostrorum sermonum candide
+iudex'), and by the community of taste which led them both to imitate
+the classical Ionic rather than the Alexandrian elegy. Horace
+corroborates the statement of Life i. ('insignis forma cultuque
+corporis observabilis') that Tibullus had a fine presence; _ibid._ 1.
+6,
+
+  'Non tu corpus eras sine pectore: di tibi formam,
+  di tibi divitias dederunt artemque fruendi.'
+
+Ovid had met and admired him, and has numerous imitations of him in
+his poems; but the difference of age and the early death of Tibullus
+prevented any long acquaintance; Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 51,
+
+               'Nec amara Tibullo
+  tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Of friendship between Propertius and Tibullus there is no evidence:
+they never mention one another.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+Four Books of elegiac poems are attributed to Tibullus, who ranks
+first among Roman elegists in the view of Quintilian, x. 1, 93,
+'Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegans
+maxime videtur auctor Tibullus.'
+
+Book i., on the poet's love for Delia and Marathus (_El._ 7 is to
+Messalla), was published by himself, and was apparently composed in
+the years B.C. 31-27. This agrees with Ovid, _Tr._ ii. 463,
+
+                    'Legiturque Tibullus
+  et placet, et iam te principe notus erat,'
+
+if we assume that 'principe' refers to the title of Augustus.
+
+Book ii., the chief subject of which is Nemesis, appears to have been
+written several years later. It is unfinished, not having received the
+author's final revision, and was probably published soon after his
+death, certainly several years before Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ (cf.
+_A.A._ 535 _sqq._).
+
+Book iii. (six Elegies) is professedly the work of Lygdamus. No poet
+of that name is mentioned in ancient literature, and it has been
+suggested that the author may have been a young relative of Tibullus
+who used a Greek adaptation of the gentile name Albius (+lygdos+
+= white marble). He speaks as a man of good social position
+(iii. 2, 22). From the fact that he belonged to the circle of
+Messalla, his poems came to be added to those of Tibullus, whom he
+constantly imitates. There are also many reminiscences of Horace,
+Ovid, and Propertius. The six Elegies are addressed to Neaera, who was
+probably the poet's cousin and was married or betrothed to him (iii.
+1, 23; 2, 12). Lygdamus was born in the same year as Ovid, B.C. 43;
+iii. 5, 17,
+
+  'Natalem primo nostrum videre parentes,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+The remarkable coincidence between iii. 5, 15-20, and Ovid, _A.A._ ii.
+669-70, _Tr._ iv. 10, 6, _Amor._ ii. 14, 23-4, is best explained by
+Hiller (_Hermes_, xviii. 360-1), who suggests that Lygdamus may have
+composed the poem in his earlier years merely to amuse Neaera, without
+publishing it, and that after Ovid's works had appeared he may, to
+oblige a friend or patron (_e.g._ Messalinus), have published his
+collection of elegies, adding in the process of revision the lines
+copied from Ovid.
+
+The remaining poems belong to Book iii. in the MSS., but in most
+editions are printed as a separate Book iv. iv. 1, in hexameters, is
+the _Panegyricus Messallae_, written in honour of Messalla's
+consulship, B.C. 31. Its rhetorical exaggeration and want of taste
+forbid its being attributed to Tibullus, written, as it was, so
+shortly before he reached the summit of his powers. Its date puts
+Lygdamus out of question: doubtless it is by some young member of
+Messalla's circle.
+
+The rest of the Book has for its theme the love of Sulpicia, the
+daughter of Servius Sulpicius and Valeria, the sister of Messalla, for
+a young Greek named Cerinthus. _El._ 2-6 are apparently by Tibullus
+himself, who may have amused himself by turning into verse the letters
+of the young lovers. _El._ 7 is of disputed authorship; but it
+resembles the work of Sulpicia rather than that of Tibullus. _El._
+8-12 are by Sulpicia to Cerinthus. _El._ 13 purports to be by
+Tibullus. _El._ 14 is an epigram, of doubtful authorship.
+
+Two _Priapea_ are found in MSS. of Tibullus, but probably neither of
+them is by him.
+
+
+
+PROPERTIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The name by which the poet designates himself is Propertius simply;
+the praenomen Sextus rests on the authority of Donatus. The additions
+in some MSS., 'Aurelius' and 'Nauta,' are clearly erroneous.
+
+He was certainly a native of the district of Umbria, and probably of
+the town of Asisium (the modern Assisi). Cf. iv. 1, 121,
+
+  'Umbria te notis antiqua penatibus edit,
+    (mentior? an patriae tangitur ora tuae?)
+  qua nebulosa cavo rorat Mevania campo,
+    et lacus aestivis intepet Umber aquis,
+  scandentisque Asisi consurgit vertice murus,
+    murus ab ingenio notior ille tuo.'
+
+'Asisi' in l. 125 is Lachmann's emendation for 'Asis' of the MSS., and
+is rendered almost certain by the topography of the district. Asisium
+agrees better than Hispellum (the modern Spello) with the description
+in the passage quoted; with iv. 1, 65,
+
+  'Scandentes quisquis cernet de vallibus arces,
+    ingenio muros aestimet ille meo';
+
+and with the epithet 'proxima' in i. 22, 9, as Asisium is nearer than
+Hispellum to Perusia. Cf. i. 22, 3-10,
+
+  'Si Perusina tibi patriae sunt nota sepulcra,
+    Italiae duris funera temporibus, ...
+  proxima supposito contingens Umbria campo
+    me genuit terris fertilis uberibus.'
+
+At Assisi, moreover, have been found several inscriptions of the
+Propertii, one of which, C. PASSENNO | C. F. SERG. |, PAULLO |
+PROPERTIO | BLAESO,[66] probably refers to the Passennus Paullus
+mentioned by Pliny, _Ep._ vi. 15, as 'municeps Propertii.'
+
+Propertius was younger than Tibullus, and older than Ovid. His birth,
+therefore, took place between B.C. 54 and 43 (Hertzberg gives 46,
+Postgate prefers 50). Cf. Ovid, _Tr._ iv. 10, 53,
+
+  'Successor fuit hic [Tibullus] tibi, Galle; Propertius illi;
+    quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui.'
+
+He came of a family well known in the neighbourhood (cf. iv. 1, 121,
+'notis penatibus,' already quoted), but not 'noble' in the technical
+sense; ii. 34, 55,
+
+  'Aspice me, cui parva domi fortuna relictast,
+    nullus et antiquo Marte triumphus avi.'
+
+His childhood was clouded by the early death of his father, and by the
+confiscation of his estate in B.C. 41; iv. 1, 127,
+
+  'Ossaque legisti non illa aetate legenda
+    patris; et in tenues cogeris ipse lares,
+  nam tua cum multi versarent rura iuvenci,
+    abstulit excultas pertica tristis opes.'
+
+His mother then took him to Rome, where he studied law for a short
+time after assuming the _toga virilis_, but abandoned it in favour of
+poetry; iv. 1, 131,
+
+  'Mox ubi bulla rudi demissast aurea collo,
+    matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga,
+  tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo
+    et vetat insano verba tonare foro.'
+
+Meanwhile he was engaged in his first love affair with Lycinna, who is
+otherwise unknown (iii. 15, 3 _sqq._). In B.C. 29 or 28 his
+acquaintance with Cynthia began. Her real name was Hostia (Apuleius,
+_Apol._ 10, 'Accusent ... Propertium, qui Cynthiam dicat, Hostiam
+dissimulet'), and she was possibly a grand-daughter of the poet
+Hostius (p. 65). Cf. iii. 20, 8,
+
+  'Splendidaque a docto fama refulget avo.'
+
+A courtesan of the higher class, she is represented by Propertius as
+possessed of great personal charms and varied accomplishments (i. 2,
+30, 'Omnia quaeque Venus quaeque Minerva probat'), combined with many
+faults of temper and character. She had a house at Rome in the Subura,
+and we hear of her also at Tibur, where she was buried (iv. 7, 15;
+85). She was considerably older than Propertius; ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'At tu etiam iuvenem odisti me, perfida, cum sis
+    ipsa anus haud longa curva futura die.'
+
+At the end of two years the unfaithfulness of Propertius led to twelve
+months of estrangement; iii. 16, 9,
+
+  'Peccaram semel, et totum sum pulsus in annum.'
+
+Cynthia was reconciled to him about the beginning of B.C. 25; but the
+passion on both sides gradually cooled until, in 23, Propertius
+harshly cast her off (iii. 24 and 25). Possibly there was a second
+reconciliation before her death (iv. 7). The five years of bondage
+(iii. 25, 3, 'Quinque tibi potui servire fideliter annos,') will thus
+be B.C. 28, 27, 25-23.
+
+Propertius lived chiefly at Rome; but i. 18 was written near the
+Clitumnus, and in ii. 19 he promises to join Cynthia in that region.
+In iii. 21 he contemplates a voyage to Athens; l. 1,
+
+  'Magnum iter ad doctas proficisci cogor Athenas,
+  ut me longa gravi solvat amore via.'
+
+A few years earlier he had refused to accompany his friend Tullus to
+Athens and Asia (i. 6).
+
+Nothing is known of the subsequent life of Propertius, but from two
+passages in the younger Pliny it is natural to infer that he married,
+in obedience to the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 18, and had issue. Pliny,
+_Ep._ vi. 15, 'Passennus Paullus ... inter maiores suos Propertium
+numerat'; ix. 22, 'Propertium ... a quo genus ducit.'
+
+We cannot tell even when he died. He must have been alive in B.C. 16,
+because iv. 6 was written for the _ludi quinquennales_, which were
+held for the first time in that year; and iv. 11. 65, is an allusion
+to the consulship of P. Cornelius Scipio, also in B.C. 16.
+
+In personal appearance Propertius was pale and thin, and rather fond
+of dress; i. 5, 21,
+
+  'Nec iam pallorem totiens mirabere nostrum,
+    aut cur sim toto corpore nullus ego';
+
+ii. 4, 5,
+
+  'Nequiquam perfusa meis unguenta capillis,
+     ibat et expenso planta morata gradu.'
+
+He had been introduced to Maecenas after the publication of his first
+Book, but naturally was not on such intimate terms with him as older
+men like Virgil and Horace were. ii. 1 and iii. 9 are addressed to
+Maecenas. In the first of these poems Propertius declares that he is
+unequal to the composition of an epic, which his patron had urged upon
+him, but adds (l. 17)
+
+  'Quod mihi si tantum, Maecenas, fata dedissent
+    ut possem heroas ducere in arma manus, ...
+  bellaque resque tui memorarem Caesaris, et tu
+    Caesare sub magno cura secunda fores.'
+
+For poems referring to Augustus cf. ii. 10, iv. 6 (on Actium), iii. 18
+(on the death of Marcellus).
+
+Horace and Propertius do not mention each other by name. Chronology
+forbids the identification of the bore in Hor. _Sat._ i. 9 with
+Propertius, who, on the same ground, cannot be meant in _Sat._ i. 10,
+18,
+
+                     'Neque simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+But Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 87-101, is undoubtedly aimed at Propertius. Cf.
+especially l. 99,
+
+  'Discedo Alcaeus puncto illius; ille meo quis?
+  quis nisi Callimachus? Si plus adposcere visus,
+  fit Mimnermus et optivo cognomine crescit.'
+
+Though both poets belonged to the same literary circle, they differed
+widely in temperament as well as in age. With Tibullus, who was a
+member of Messalla's circle, Propertius may have had no personal
+acquaintance; at all events, neither alludes to the other.
+
+For Virgil Propertius expresses warm admiration in ii. 34, written
+during the composition of the _Aeneid_. Ovid, who calls him 'blandus'
+(_Tr._ ii. 465) and 'tener' (_A.A._ iii. 333), was an intimate friend
+of his; cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 45 (quoted p. 206). The minor poets to whom
+he writes are Ponticus (i. 7 and 9), Bassus (i. 4), and a tragic poet,
+Lynceus (a pseudonym, ii. 34, 25).
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The extant Elegies, divided in the MSS. into four Books, are probably
+all that Propertius ever wrote. On account of the disproportionate
+length of Book ii., and the number 'tres' (which, however, may be said
+in anticipation) in ii. 13, 25,
+
+  'Sat mea sat magna est si tres sint pompa libelli,
+    quos ego Persephonae maxima dona feram,'
+
+some editors make Book ii. consist only of _El._ 1-9, and assign the
+remainder (10-34) to a new Book iii. Books iii. and iv. of the MSS.
+then become iv. and v. respectively. In the most recent editions,
+however, the MSS. arrangement is retained, and it is here followed.
+
+_Book_ i.--All the Elegies in Book i., except the last two, are
+amatory. _El._ 2-10 belong to the first months of the poet's love,
+when Cynthia was gracious, though capricious. She had refused to
+accompany a rival of his, who was going to Illyricum as praetor (_El._
+8); but afterwards she left Rome for Baiae, and the rest of the Book
+is full of complaints of her harshness. _El._ 1, written after the
+year of separation, introduces the whole Book in a melancholy strain.
+
+The clearest indication of date in Book i. is 8, 21, 'Nam me non ullae
+poterunt corrumpere taedae,' where Propertius protests that he will
+never marry, in spite of the _Lex Iulia_ of B.C. 27. (He could not
+legally marry a woman of Cynthia's class.) The Book was published
+probably in B.C. 25, under the title of 'Cynthia.' Cf. ii. 24, 1,
+
+  'Cum sis iam noto fabula libro
+  et tua sit toto Cynthia lecta foro.'
+
+Her name was a recommendation for the Book, and it was probably her
+satisfaction at the fame which it brought her that caused her to
+relent towards Propertius. Cf. Mart. xiv. 189,
+
+  'Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenile Properti,
+    accepit famam, nec minus ipsa dedit.'
+
+At all events, a few months afterwards we find the old relations
+re-established; ii. 3, 3,
+
+  'Vix unum potes, infelix, requiescere mensem,
+    et turpis de te iam liber alter erit.'
+
+_Book_ ii.--Cynthia is the theme of nearly all the thirty-four poems
+of Book ii., which give lively expression to her lover's varying
+moods. Only three Elegies (1, 10, and 31) are given to other subjects.
+
+Of the few poems to which dates can be assigned, the earliest is _El._
+31 (on the dedication of the temple of the Palatine Apollo, B.C. 28),
+and the latest is _El._ 10, to Augustus (written shortly before the
+invasion of Arabia by Aelius Gallus in B.C. 24. Cf. l. 16, 'et domus
+intactae te tremit Arabiae'). The Book was therefore published B.C. 24
+at the earliest.
+
+_Book_ iii.--In this Book the poems on Cynthia form a far smaller
+proportion; 7, 12, and 22 show the warmth of the poet's friendship;
+events of national interest are treated in 4, 11, and 18. In 5, 23-47,
+Propertius looks forward to spending his later years in the study of
+natural science ('naturae perdiscere mores,' l. 25).
+
+There are few hints of the date of any of the poems in iii. _El._ 20
+is apparently as early as B.C. 28; 18 certainly belongs to B.C. 23; 4
+perhaps refers to the expedition against the Parthians planned in B.C.
+22. The last-mentioned year is the earliest possible date of
+publication.
+
+_Book_ iv., in which there is no principle of arrangement, probably
+appeared after the author's death. His archaeological tastes come out
+in four Elegies written, in imitation of the +Aitia+ of
+Callimachus, on Roman antiquities--_El._ 2 on Vertumnus, 4 on Tarpeia,
+9 on Cacus, 10 on Jupiter Feretrius. In this way Propertius fulfilled
+his promise to Maecenas, iii. 9, 49,
+
+  'Celsaque Romanis decerpta Palatia tauris
+    ordiar et caeso moenia firma Remo,
+  eductosque pares silvestri ex ubere reges,
+    crescet et ingenium sub tua iussa meum.'
+
+_El._ 7 and 8 relate to Cynthia; in 7 her ghost appears to the poet.
+_El._ 3, a letter from Arethusa to Lycotas, possibly suggested to Ovid
+the plan of his _Heroides_, just as the antiquarian poems already
+mentioned may have suggested the _Fasti_. The Book ends with a lament
+for Cornelia, daughter of Scribonia, Augustus' first wife (_El._ 11).
+
+The date of 6 and 11 is certainly not earlier than B.C. 16, while 8
+seems to have been written before the rupture with Cynthia. The
+antiquarian poems are considered by some to have been among
+Propertius' earliest efforts.
+
+Propertius was familiar with the whole range of Greek poetry--Homer
+(iii. 1, 25-34), Mimnermus (i. 9, 11), Pindar (iii. 17, 40), the
+dramatists, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius. As his models he names
+especially the Alexandrians Callimachus and Philetas, whom he claims
+to follow more closely than any of his predecessors; iii. 1, 1,
+
+  'Callimachi Manes et Coi sacra Philetae,
+    in vestrum, quaeso, me sinite ire nemus.
+  Primus ego ingredior puro de fonte sacerdos
+    Itala per Graios orgia ferre choros.'
+
+Cf. iv. 1, 64,
+
+  'Umbria Romani patria Callimachi.'
+
+In wealth of mythological illustration Propertius is peculiarly
+Alexandrian. He is continually drawing parallels and contrasts from
+Greek legend; _e.g._ i. 15, Cynthia how unlike Calypso! iii. 12, Aelia
+Galla a modern Penelope. Of Roman poets, he names as his predecessors
+in amatory verse Virgil, Varro Atacinus, Catullus, Calvus, and
+Cornelius Gallus (ii 34, 61-92). Once he dreams of writing an epic on
+the Alban kings in the vein of Ennius; iii. 3, 5,
+
+  'Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora,
+  unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit.'
+
+In Propertius love of social pleasures appears side by side with a
+strain of deep melancholy _e.g._ in. 5, 21,
+
+  Me iuvat et multo mentem vincire Lyaeo
+  et caput in verna semper habere rosa,
+
+contrasted with the numerous passages where he is thinking of the
+grave, _e.g._ ii. 1, 71,
+
+  'Quandocumque igitur vitam mea fata reposcent,
+  et breve in exiguo marmore nomen ero.'
+
+There is no greater patriot than Propertius. Cf. the denunciation of
+Cleopatra (iii. 11) and the frequency of the epithet 'Romanus.'
+
+
+
+OVID.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Ovid's own writings (especially _Tr._ iv. 10) supply nearly all the
+information we possess regarding his life. The biographies in the MSS.
+are valueless.
+
+P. Ovidius Naso was his full name, in which the MSS. agree. He speaks
+of himself as Naso simply, and Statius and Martial refer to him by
+that name; Tacitus and the two Senecas use the _nomen_ Ovidius.
+
+He was born in Sulmo, one of the three divisions of the Paelignian
+country, B.C. 43--the year in which Hirtius and Pansa fell at Mutina.
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 3,
+
+  'Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrimus undis,
+    milia qui novies distat ab urbe decem.
+  Editus hic ego sum; nec non ut tempora noris,
+    cum cecidit fato consul uterque pari.'
+
+His birthday was 20th March--the second day of the festival of the
+Quinquatria (cf. _Fast._ iii. 809-814), l. 13,
+
+  'Haec est armiferae festis de quinque Minervae,
+    quae fieri pugna prima cruenta solet.'
+
+He belonged to an equestrian family, and he frequently contrasts
+himself with those who had reached that dignity by military service or
+by possessing the requisite fortune; _ibid._ l. 7,
+
+  'Si quid id est, usque a proavis vetus ordinis heres,
+    non sum fortunae munere factus eques.'
+
+Cf. _Am._ i. 3, 7; iii. 8, 9; iii. 15, 5; _Pont._ iv. 8, 17.
+
+Along with his elder brother, he received a careful education at Rome,
+and studied also at Athens. He practised rhetoric under Arellius
+Fuscus and Porcius Latro. _Tr._ iv. 10, 15,
+
+  'Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis
+    imus ad insignes urbis ab arte viros.'
+
+_Tr._ i. 2, 77,
+
+  'Non peto quas quondam petii studiosus Athenas.'
+
+Sen. _Contr._ ii. 10, 8, 'Hanc controversiam memini ab Ovidio Nasone
+declamari apud rhetorem Arellium Fuscum, cuius auditor fuit, nam
+Latronis admirator erat, cum diversum sequeretur dicendi genus.'
+Seneca says that _Met._ xiii. 121, and _Am._ i. 2, 11, were borrowed
+from Latro.
+
+But, in spite of his father's remonstrances, Ovid preferred poetry to
+public life. _Tr._ iv. 10, 19,
+
+  'At mihi iam parvo caelestia sacra placebant,
+    inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus.
+  Saepe pater dixit, "studium quid inutile temptas?
+    Maeonides nullas ipse reliquit opes."
+  Motus eram dictis totoque Helicone relicto
+    scribere conabar verba soluta modis:
+  sponte sua carmen numeros veniebat ad aptos;
+    quicquid temptabam dicere, versus erat.'
+
+In due time he assumed the _toga virilis_, and with it the broad
+purple stripe worn by prospective senators. He also held two of the
+minor offices of the _vigintiviratus_, the preliminary to a senatorial
+career, being (1) triumvir capitalis or else triumvir monetalis, (2)
+decemvir stlitibus iudicandis. _Tr._ iv. 10, 28,
+
+    'Liberior fratri sumpta mihique toga est,
+  induiturque umeris cum lato purpura clavo';
+
+l. 33,
+
+  'Cepimus et tenerae primos aetatis honores,
+    deque viris quondam pars tribus una fui.'
+
+_Fast._ iv. 384,
+
+  'Inter bis quinos usus honore viros.'
+
+In virtue of this second office he sat in the centumviral court;[67]
+and he also acted as an arbitrator. _Tr._ ii. 93,
+
+  'Nec male commissa est nobis fortuna reorum
+    lisque decem deciens inspicienda viris.
+  Res quoque privatas statui sine crimine iudex.'
+
+He sought no higher office, having neither strength nor inclination
+for the Senate; he assumed the narrow stripe of the _eques_, and
+devoted himself to poetry and pleasure. _Tr._ iv. 10, 35,
+
+  'Curia restabat: clavi mensura coacta est:
+    maius erat nostris viribus illud onus.
+  Nec patiens corpus, nec mens fuit apta labori,
+    sollicitaeque fugax ambitionis eram.
+  Et petere Aoniae suadebant tuta sorores
+    otia, iudicio semper amata meo.'
+
+He made a tour in Asia (including Troy) and Sicily in the company of
+the poet Pompeius Macer: the date of this journey is unknown, but he
+was almost a year in Sicily. _Pont._ ii. 10, 21-29 (to Macer),
+
+  'Te duce magnificas Asiae perspeximus urbes,
+    Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis, ...
+  Hic mihi labentis pars anni magna peracta est.'
+
+_Fast._ vi. 423,
+
+  'Cura videre fuit: vidi templumque locumque,'
+
+(of the temple of Pallas at Troy).
+
+Towards the end of A.D. 8, Ovid was banished by imperial edict to
+Tomi, on the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Danube, the cause
+alleged being the publication of the _Ars Amatoria_. Ovid mentions
+this edict, but also hints at another reason, connected with the
+imperial family. _Tr._ ii. 207,
+
+  'Perdiderint cum me duo crimina, carmen et error,
+    alterius facti culpa silenda mihi;
+  nam non sum tanti renovem ut tua vulnera, Caesar,
+    quem nimio plus est indoluisse semel.
+  Altera pars superest, qua turpi carmine factus
+    arguor obscaeni doctor adulterii.'
+
+He was guilty of no crime of his own, but was banished for witnessing
+the crime of another. Cf. _Tr._ iii. 5, 49,
+
+  'Inscia quod crimen viderunt lumina, plector,
+    peccatumque oculos est habuisse meum.'
+
+It is probable that the real reason[68] of Ovid's banishment was that
+he was privy to a guilty intrigue between D. Silanus and Julia, the
+grand-daughter of Augustus. Julia was banished in A.D. 9, and Tacitus
+(_Ann._ iii. 24) tells us of the intrigue, for which Silanus (like
+Ovid) suffered _relegatio_. His knowledge of the offence was betrayed
+by friends and domestics. Cf. _Tr._ iv. 10, 101,
+
+  'Quid referam comitumque nefas famulosque nocentes?'
+
+The date of his banishment is given _Tr._ iv. 10, 95,
+
+  'Postque meos ortus Pisaea vinctus oliva
+    abstulerat decies praemia victor equus,
+  cum maris Euxini positos ad laeva Tomitas
+    quaerere me laesi principis ira iubet.'
+
+[Here an Olympiad is reckoned as five years.] His punishment was
+_relegatio_, involving banishment to a fixed spot, but not
+confiscation of property; _Tr._ ii. 135,
+
+  'Adde quod edictum, quamvis immite minaxque,
+    attamen in poenae nomine lene fuit;
+  quippe relegatus, non exul, dicor in illo,
+    privaque fortunae sunt ibi verba meae.'
+
+In Tomi he spent the remaining years of his life, far from friends and
+books; _Tr._ v. 12, 53,
+
+  'Non liber hic ullus, non qui mihi commodet aurem,
+    verbaque significent quid mea norit, adest';
+
+suffering from illness (_Tr._ iii. 3) and the climate, and fighting
+against the barbarians; _Tr._ iv. 1, 71,
+
+  'Aspera militiae iuvenis certamina fugi,
+    nec nisi lusura movimus arma manu:
+  nunc senior gladioque latus scutoque sinistram,
+    canitiem galeae subicioque meam.'
+
+On the other hand he learned the language of the people, and actually
+wrote poems in it; _Tr._ v. 12, 57,
+
+  'Ipse mihi videor iam dedidicisse Latine:
+    nam didici Getice Sarmaticeque loqui.'
+
+_Pont._ iv. 13, 19,
+
+  'A! pudet, et Getico scripsi sermone libellum,
+    structaque sunt nostris barbara verba modis,
+  et placui--gratare mihi--coepique poetae
+    inter inhumanos nomen habere Getas!
+  materiam quaeris? laudes de Caesare dixi.'
+
+For his popularity with the natives cf. _Pont._ iv. 14, 53,
+
+  'Solus adhuc ego sum vestris immunis in oris,
+    exceptis si qui munera legis habent.
+  Tempora sacrata mea sunt velata corona,
+    publicus invito quam favor imposuit';
+
+also _Pont._ iv. 9, 101.
+
+Ovid's death took place in A.D. 18: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Ovidius
+poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur.' He was
+thrice married; _Tr._ iv. 10, 69,
+
+  'Paene mihi puero nec digna nec utilis uxor
+    est data, quae tempus per breve nupta fuit;
+  illi successit quamvis sine crimine coniunx,
+    non tamen in nostro firma futura toro;
+  ultima, quae mecum seros permansit in annos,
+    sustinuit coniunx exulis esse viri.'
+
+His third wife belonged to the _gens Fabia_. Cf. _Pont._ i. 2, 138 (to
+Fabius Maximus),
+
+  'Ille ego, de vestra cui data nupta domo est.'
+
+The _filia_ mentioned _Tr._ iv. 10, 75, may have been either a
+daughter or step-daughter of Ovid's. Some think that she is the
+Perilla of _Tr._ iii. 7.
+
+Ovid's social position was of the highest, as may be inferred from his
+relations with the palace. He was intimate with Messalla, the patron
+of Tibullus, and wrote an elegy on him (now lost). Cf. _Pont._ i. 7,
+27 (to Messalinus),
+
+  'Nec tuus est genitor nos infitiatus amicos,
+    hortator studii causaque faxque mei:
+  cui nos et lacrimas, supremum in funere munus,
+    et dedimus medio scripta canenda foro.'
+
+Among the friends to whom the _Epp. ex Ponto_ are written may be
+mentioned Albinovanus, Carus, Rufus, Severus, Fabius Maximus Cotta,
+Tuticanus, the younger Macer, all poets; and other literary men of
+distinction, _e.g._ Graecinus, Atticus, Brutus, Sex. Pompeius, Gallio.
+For his intimacy with the learned Hyginus cf. Sueton. _Gramm._ 20,
+'fuit familiarissimus Ovidio poetae.'
+
+He was old enough to have seen Virgil, and hear Aemilius Macer and
+Horace recite; with Propertius, Tibullus, Ponticus, and Bassus he was
+on terms of close intimacy (_Am._ iii. 9 is a lament for Tibullus),
+_Tr._ iv. 10, 41-52,
+
+  'Temporis illius colui fovique poetas,
+    quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos.
+  Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo,
+    quaeque necet serpens, quae iuvet herba, Macer.
+  Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes,
+    iure sodalicii qui mihi iunctus erat.
+  Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis
+    dulcia convictus membra fuere mei.
+  Detinuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures,
+    dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra.
+  Vergilium vidi tantum; nec amara Tibullo
+    tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.'
+
+Besides the _rura paterna_ at Sulmo, Ovid possessed an estate on the
+_via Clodia_, near Rome; _Pont._ i. 8, 41,
+
+  'Non meus amissos animus desiderat agros
+    ruraque Paeligno conspicienda solo,
+  nec quos piniferis positos in collibus hortos
+    spectat Flaminiae Clodia iuncta viae.'
+
+He cannot have been poor, in spite of his complaints, _e.g._ _Pont._ iv.
+8, 32,
+
+  'Carpsit opes illa ruina meas.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Amores_, at first in five Books, but in a second edition reduced
+to three; cf. the motto prefixed to the Book,
+
+  'Qui modo Nasonis fueramus quinque libelli,
+  Tres sumus.'
+
+The poems are nearly all on Corinna, a name which probably does not
+stand for any real person, but merely for an abstraction around which
+Ovid groups his own fancies. To suppose, as Sidonius Apollinaris did
+(23, 157)[69] that Augustus' daughter Julia was meant, is absurd, for
+Corinna is a _meretrix_. The identity of Corinna was unknown; _Am._
+ii. 17, 28,
+
+    'Et multae per me nomen habere volunt.
+  Novi aliquam, quae se circumferat esse Corinnam';
+
+and twenty years afterwards Ovid could write (_A.A._ iii. 538),
+
+  'Et multi, quae sit nostra Corinna, rogant.'
+
+The _Amores_, in their original form, constituted Ovid's earliest
+work, written in his youth. The extant poems are not all that he wrote
+on Corinna; _Tr._ iv. 10, 57,
+
+  'Carmina cum primum populo iuvenilia legi,
+    barba resecta mihi bisve semelve fuit.
+  Moverat ingenium totam cantata per urbem
+    nomine non vero dicta Corinna mihi.
+  Multa quidem scripsi; sed quae vitiosa putavi,
+    emendaturis ignibus ipse dedi.'
+
+The lament for Tibullus (iii. 9) must have been written in Ovid's
+twenty-fourth year.
+
+2. _Heroides_.--Some of these at least were written before the second
+edition of the _Amores_, for in _Am._ ii. 18, 21-6 nine of them are
+mentioned by name. The title _Heroides_ is due to the grammarian
+Priscian; in the MSS. they are called _Epistulae_, and so Ovid himself
+refers to them, _A.A._ iii. 345,
+
+  'Vel tibi composita cantetur epistula voce:
+    ignotum hoc aliis ille novavit opus.'
+
+Of the twenty letters in our collection 1-14 are letters from heroines
+to their lovers; 15-20 are in pairs, _e.g._ Paris to Helen and Helen
+to Paris. The authenticity of these last six is doubted, partly
+because the title _Heroides_ cannot apply to half of them, and also
+because of their inferiority in style. In the use of the epistolary
+form in love poetry Ovid had no predecessor, and he himself calls
+attention to the novelty (_A.A._ above). The style shows the influence
+of Ovid's rhetorical training: the Epistles are _suasoriae_ in verse,
+and of _suasoriae_ we know that he was particularly fond (Sen.
+_Contr._ ii. 10, 12, 'Declamabat Naso raro controversias et non nisi
+ethicas: libentius dicebat suasorias. Molesta illi erat omnis
+argumentatio.'). His matter he would naturally draw from Homer, the
+_Cypria_, Apollonius Rhodius, and the Greek tragedians.
+
+3. Between the two editions of the _Amores_ he wrote the lost tragedy
+_Medea_. It was later than _Am._ iii. 1, where he pictures the Muses
+of Elegy and Tragedy as contending for his homage, and he finally
+decides (ll. 67-8),
+
+  'Exiguum vati concede, Tragoedia, tempus:
+  tu labor aeternus; quod petit illa breve est.'
+
+On the other hand, it was earlier than _Am._ ii. 18, 13,
+
+  'Sceptra tamen sumpsi, curaque tragoedia nostra
+    crevit, et huic operi quamlibet aptus eram.'
+
+The drama enjoyed a high reputation in antiquity. Cf. Quint. x. 1, 98,
+'Ovidii Medea videtur mihi ostendere, quantum ille vir praestare
+potuerit, si ingenio suo imperare quam indulgere maluisset.'
+
+4. _Medicamina Faciei Femineae_, an incomplete poem of 100 lines,
+giving directions for the toilet. Cf. _A.A._ iii. 205,
+
+  'Est mihi, quo dixi vestrae medicamina formae,
+    parvus, sed cura grande, libellus, opus.'
+
+5. _Ars Amatoria_, a didactic poem in three Books, on the art of
+love-intrigue. The title given by the MSS. is doubtless correct: Ovid
+himself speaks of 'ars amandi,' or simply 'ars' or 'artes.' It was
+written about B.C. 2, from the allusion, i. 171, to the 'naumachia' in
+that year,
+
+  'Quid, modo cum belli navalis imagine Caesar
+    Persidas induxit Cecropiasque rates?'
+
+The _Ars_ must have been in view when he wrote _Am._ ii. 18, 19,
+
+  'Quod licet, aut artes teneri profitemur amoris--
+    ei mihi, praeceptis urgeor ipse meis!'
+
+6. _Remedia Amoris_, written next, while professing to be a
+recantation of the last-named work, exhibits, if possible, a more
+immoral tone. Cf. l. 487,
+
+  'Quaeris, ubi invenias? artes, i, perlege nostras.'
+
+7. Ovid now produced a work of greater compass, the _Metamorphoses_,
+in fifteen Books of heroic verse. When it was composed is not known,
+but he had the idea of it in his mind when he wrote _Am._ iii. 12,
+21-40. At the time of his banishment the poem had been written, but
+not revised. He committed his MS. to the flames, but copies were in
+the hands of friends; _Tr._ i. 7, 13-16,
+
+  'Carmina mutatas hominum dicentia formas,
+    infelix domini quod fuga rupit opus.
+  Haec ego discedens, sicut bene multa meorum,
+    ipse mea posui maestus in igne manu.
+
+  Quae quoniam non sunt penitus sublata, sed extant,      (l. 23)
+    pluribus exemplis scripta fuisse reor.
+
+  Ablatum mediis opus est incudibus illud,                (l. 29)
+    defuit et scriptis ultima lima meis.'
+
+The poem consists of a collection of stories of the transformation of
+human beings into animals. Cf. i. 1,
+
+  'In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas
+  corpora.'
+
+The idea, title, and much of the subject-matter was borrowed from the
+Alexandrians, _e.g._ the +Metamorphoseis+ of Parthenius, the
++Heteroioumena+ of Nicander.
+
+8. In the _Fasti_, in six Books, Ovid furnishes a poetical calendar of
+the Roman year. Each month has a Book allotted to it, and he speaks of
+having written twelve Books; _Tr._ ii. 549,
+
+  'Sex ego Fastorum scripsi totidemque libellos,
+    cumque suo finem mense volumen habet.
+  Idque tuo nuper scriptum sub nomine, Caesar,
+    et tibi sacratum sors mea rupit opus.'
+
+Probably the second six Books were never completed; but there are
+references to portions of them, _e.g._ iii. 57,
+
+  'Vester honos veniet, cum Larentalia dicam;
+    acceptus Geniis illa December habet.'
+
+The _Fasti_ had been written side by side with the _Metam._ and
+interrupted at the sixth Book by Ovid's banishment. During his exile
+he added some passages, but found that his Muse was fit only for
+melancholy themes; iv. 81,
+
+  'Sulmonis gelidi--patriae, Germanice, nostrae--
+    me miserum, Scythico quam procul illa solo est!'
+
+i. 540,
+
+  'Felix, exilium cui locus ille fuit!'
+
+The design is stated at the outset, i. 1-8,
+
+  'Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum
+    lapsaque sub terras ortaque signa canam ...
+  Sacra recognosces annalibus eruta priscis,
+    et quo sit merito quaeque notata dies.'
+
+The work is thus a medley of religion, history, and astrology, and in
+its explanations of customs may be compared to the +Aitia+ of
+Callimachus. For information about religious rites, and for
+derivations of names (_e.g._ _Agnalia_, i. 317-332), he would have
+recourse to Varro; for history, to Livy (cf. ii. 193-242, the story of
+the Fabii, from Livy, ii. 49, and vi. 587, etc., the story of Tullia,
+from Livy, i. 48); for astronomy, to Clodius Tuscus.
+
+It was begun some time after Augustus regulated the Julian calendar in
+B.C. 8, and was originally addressed to Augustus, as Ovid himself says
+(_Tr._ ii. 552 above); 'Caesar' is addressed ii. 15, vi. 763, and
+elsewhere. After the death of Augustus, Ovid began to remodel it and
+dedicate it to Germanicus. Cf. i. 3,
+
+  'Excipe pacato, Caesar Germanice, voltu
+    hoc opus et timidae dirige navis iter.'
+
+But the task was stopped by his death; and while Book i. has the
+remodelled form, Books ii.-vi. remain as first written.
+
+_Poems written in exile._--9. _Tristia_, five Books of letters to
+Augustus, to Ovid's wife and friends (who, however, are not named),
+praying for pardon or for a place of exile nearer Rome. Book i. was
+written on the journey to Tomi, the other books not after A.D. 11 or
+12, Cf. v. 10, 1,
+
+  'Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Hister.'
+
+10. The _Ibis_ was written at the beginning of his exile. Cf. l. 1,
+
+  'Tempus ad hoc, lustris bis iam mihi quinque peractis.'
+
+The title was taken from the poem in which Callimachus attacked
+Apollonius Rhodius under the name of Ibis. Cf. l. 55,
+
+  'Nunc, quo Battiades inimicum devovet Ibin,
+  hoc ego devoveo teque tuosque modo.'
+
+Ovid studiously conceals the identity of the enemy whom he attacks; l.
+61,
+
+  'Et quoniam, qui sis, nondum quaerentibus edo,
+  Ibidis interea tu quoque nomen habe.'
+
+He had once been a friend of the poet, but had proved false to him,
+doubtless in connexion with the circumstances which caused his
+banishment; cf. l. 85, 'capiti male fido,' l. 130, 'perfide.' He
+persecuted Ovid's wife, and tried to get possession of his property.
+
+The conjectures that the unknown was Messalla Corvinus or the poet
+Manilius may be dismissed at once. Many hold that Hyginus is meant;
+Prof. Ellis suggests the _delator_ Cassius Severus (Tac. _Ann._ iv.
+21), or T. Labienus (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 4), or the astrologer
+Thrasyllus (Tac. _Ann._ vi. 20). To the same person probably are
+addressed _Tr._ iii. 11, iv. 9, v. 8; _Pont._ iv. 3.
+
+11. The _Epistulae ex Ponto_, in four Books, were written A.D. 12-16.
+In tone they resemble the _Tristia_, but the composition is more
+careless, and the friends to whom he writes are mentioned by name.
+
+12. _Halieuticon_, a poem on fish, in hexameters, in a fragmentary
+condition. Ovid wrote this towards the end of his life.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ xxxii. 152, 'His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita nomina quae
+apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentium, ubi
+id volumen supremis suis temporibus incohavit.'
+
+
+
+MANILIUS.
+
+
+Manilius is not mentioned by any other writer, and his own poem gives
+no particulars of his life. There is uncertainty even as to the true
+form of his name, the MSS. giving variously M. Mallius, Manlius, or
+Manilius, with the addition in one case of EQOM (probably = equitis
+Romani). In some MSS. the poem is wrongly attributed to Aratus or
+Boetius, both of whom wrote on the same subject as Manilius.
+
+Bentley conjectured that Manilius was an Asiatic Greek, but the poet
+speaks of Latin as 'nostra lingua' (ii. 889), while Greek is 'externa
+lingua' (iii. 40), and he uses no Greek constructions.
+
+His poem, the _Astronomica_, in its present form, consists of five
+Books of hexameter verse: probably a sixth Book has been lost. It may
+have been wholly composed in the reign of Tiberius, or begun under
+Augustus. Book v. was written under Tiberius, if the burning of
+Pompey's theatre in A.D. 22 is alluded to in ll. 513-515. The earlier
+Books contain nothing which might not have been written after the
+death of Augustus--the allusions to the disaster of Varus in A.D. 9
+(i. 899), and to the sojourn of Tiberius at Rhodes (iv. 764). Either
+Augustus or Tiberius may be the 'Caesar' of i. 7 and i. 386. On the
+other hand, if Ovid is referring to Manilius (as Prof. Ellis suggests)
+in _Tr._ ii. 485,
+
+  'Ecce canit formas alius iactusque pilarum,
+  hic artem nandi praecipit, ille trochi,'
+
+it would follow that the whole poem had been published before the
+death of Augustus, for the descriptions of ball-play and swimming
+occur in v. 165-171 and 420-431.
+
+Astronomy is treated only in Book i.; the rest of the poem is devoted
+to astrology. This is in accordance with the author's statement of his
+theme (i. 1-3), which he was the first Roman to treat in verse (i. 4,
+113, ii. 57). As his object is to convey instruction rather than to
+give pleasure (iii. 36-39), he does not scruple to use Greek technical
+terms (ii. 693, 829, 897, iii. 40). The subject does not lend itself
+readily to verse (i. 20, iii. 31), and the poem is intolerably dry,
+except the introductions to each Book, which reveal considerable
+poetical power. The chief peculiarities of Manilius' language are his
+strange use of prepositions and his fondness for alliteration;
+imitations of Virgil are found throughout.
+
+Manilius is a fatalist (iv. 14 and 22): still fate does not abolish
+the moral quality of actions (iv. 108-118). The universe is directed
+by a 'vis animae divina' or 'divinum numen' (i. 250, 491).
+
+
+
+LIVY.
+
+
+There is no ancient biography of Livy, and very little light is thrown
+on his life by his own writings or by allusions in other authors.
+
+Titus Livius was born at Patavium (the modern Padua) B.C. 59: Jerome
+yr. Abr. 1958, 'T. Livius Patavinus scriptor historicus nascitur.'
+(The Armenian version gives _Ol._ 180, 4 = B.C. 57.) Near Patavium
+there was a famous sulphur spring known as Aponus or Aponi fons,
+whence Martial calls the district Apona tellus (i. 61, 3, 'Censetur
+Apona Livio suo tellus'). There is no reason to suppose from this that
+Livy's birthplace was not Patavium itself, but a village Aponus, which
+is nowhere mentioned. Statius (_Silv._ iv. 7, 55) calls him 'Timavi
+alumnus.' For Livy's acquaintance with Patavium cf. x. 2, 14 and 15.
+
+From his tone we may infer that he came of a good family, and he must
+have possessed a fair income. The charge against his style of
+_Patavinitas_ implies that he spent a considerable part of his life in
+his native town, but he probably settled at Rome about B.C. 30. That
+he took no part in public life is clear from his own words: i. praef.
+5, 'Hoc laboris praemium petam, ut me a conspectu malorum, quae nostra
+tot per annos vidit aetas, tantisper certe, dum prisca illa tota mente
+repeto, avertam, omnis expers curae, quae scribentis animum etsi non
+flectere a vero, sollicitum tamen efficere posset.'
+
+He enjoyed the intimacy of Augustus, whom he himself mentions, iv. 20,
+7, 'hoc ego cum Augustum Caesarem ... se ipsum ... legisse audissem.'
+Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'T. Livius, eloquentiae ac fidei praeclarus in
+primis, Cn. Pompeium tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum eum Augustus
+appellaret; neque id amicitiae eorum offecit.' It was at Livy's
+suggestion that the future emperor, Claudius, started to compose a
+history: Sueton. _Claud._ 41, 'historiam in adulescentia, hortante T.
+Livio, Sulpicio vero Flavo etiam adiuvante, scribere adgressus est.'
+On the other hand, Caligula would have liked to remove Livy's writings
+and his bust from all the libraries, calling him 'verbosum in historia
+neglegentemque' (Sueton. _Calig._ 34).
+
+Nothing more is known of his life, except that he visited Campania,
+xxxviii. 56, 3, 'Nam et Literni monumentum monumentoque statua
+superimposita fuit, quam tempestate disiectam nuper vidimus ipsi.'
+
+He died at his native town, A.D. 17: Jerome yr. Abr. 2033, 'Livius
+historicus Patavii moritur.'
+
+He had at least one son (Quint. x. 1, 39, 'apud Livium in epistula ad
+filium scripta'), and one daughter (Sen. _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'L.
+Magius gener T. Livi').
+
+Livy wrote philosophical works, probably popular treatises like
+Cicero's, some of them in the form of dialogues.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 100, 9, 'Nomina adhuc T. Livium. Scripsit enim et dialogos,
+quos non magis philosophiae adnumerare possis quam historiae, et ex
+professo philosophiam continentis libros.'
+
+A book on rhetoric was known to Quintilian and Seneca the elder,
+apparently in the form of a letter addressed to the author's son
+(Quint. x. 1, 39, above).
+
+Quint. ii. 5, 20, 'quemadmodum Livius praecipit' (on models of style);
+Sen. _Contr._ ix. 2, 26, 'Livius de oratoribus ... aiebat' (on
+obscurity of expression); Sen. _Contr._ ix. 1, 14, 'T. Livius tam
+iniquus Sallustio fuit ut hanc ipsam sententiam ... obiceret
+Sallustio.'
+
+These minor works have perished, and of his great history only a
+portion survives.
+
+Its title, according to the oldest MSS., the summaries of the lost
+Books, and the grammarians, was _Ab urbe condita libri_; and this is
+corroborated by Livy's own language: i. praef. 1, 'si a primordio urbis
+res populi Romani perscripserim'; and by Pliny, _N.H._ praef. 16, 'T.
+Livium ... in historiarum suarum, quas repetit ab origine urbis,
+quodam volumine.' Livy refers to it loosely as _meos annales_ (xliii.
+13, 2). Separate parts may have had special titles: thus Books
+cix-cxvi. were known as _Civilis belli libri_ viii. (Codex Nazarenus
+of the Periochae).
+
+The number of Books now extant is thirty-five, viz., i.-x., which
+carry the history down to B.C. 293, and xxi.-xlv., covering the period
+B.C. 218-167. Of these xli. and xliii. are incomplete. But we possess
+summaries (_Periochae_ or _Argumenta_) of Books i.-cxlii., except
+cxxxvi. and cxxxvii., which show that the narrative was continued to
+the death of Drusus in B.C. 9. There is no evidence that it actually
+went further; but as the death of Drusus is hardly an event of
+sufficient importance to form the conclusion of so great a work, it
+has been thought that Livy may have intended to finish with the death
+of Augustus--the point from which Tacitus starts. The total number of
+Books would then have been probably one hundred and fifty.
+
+The division into Books (_libri_ or _volumina_) is due to the author:
+vi. 1, 1, 'quae ab condita urbe Romani gessere quinque libris
+exposui.' The division into decades (_i.e._ sets of ten Books) is
+first mentioned towards the end of the fifth century; it is merely a
+conventional arrangement, the subject-matter falling naturally into
+sets of fifteen Books, which again sometimes embrace three
+sub-divisions each a half-decade, or two, a half-decade and a decade.
+
+An epitome was known to Martial, xiv. 190,
+
+  'Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens,
+    quem mea non totum bibliotheca capit.'
+
+The evidence of the date of composition is as follows:
+
+(_a_) i. 19, 3, 'Bis deinde post Numae regnum [Ianus] clausus fuit,
+semel T. Manlio consule post Punicum primum perfectum bellum, iterum,
+quod nostrae aetati dei dederunt ut videremus, post bellum Actiacum ab
+imperatore Caesare Augusto pace terra marique parta.' Now, as the
+first closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus was in B.C. 29, and
+as Livy is silent as to the second closing after the Cantabrian war in
+25, it follows that this passage was written B.C. 29-25. The use of
+the title Augustus, conferred on Octavian in 27, puts the earliest
+possible date two years later. The history therefore was not begun
+before B.C. 27.
+
+(_b_) ix. 36, 1, 'Silva erat Ciminia magis tum invia atque horrenda
+quam nuper fuere Germanici saltus.' In this Niebuhr found an allusion
+to the campaigns of Drusus, B.C. 12-9, and accordingly assumed that
+the first decade was not published till B.C. 9. But the passage may
+equally well refer to earlier campaigns, _e.g._ of Julius Caesar. Nor
+can it be shown that the history of Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
+published B.C. 7, was used by Livy for Books viii.-x. Book ix. must
+have been written before B.C. 20, or Livy would have mentioned the
+recovery of the standards from the Parthians in ix. 18, 9.
+
+(_c_) xxviii. 12, 12, 'Hispania prima Romanis inita provinciarum, quae
+quidem continentis sint, postrema omnium nostra demum aetate ductu
+auspicioque Augusti Caesaris perdomita.' This was written not earlier
+than B.C. 19, if it refers to Agrippa's victory over the Cantabrians.
+
+(_d_) Book lix. mentioned the _lex de maritandis ordinibus_, and
+consequently cannot have been earlier than B.C. 18.
+
+(_e_) The books in which Pompeius figured were composed in the
+lifetime of Augustus (Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, above).
+
+(_f_) Book cxxi., according to the oldest MS. of the Periochae, was
+published after the death of Augustus; so doubtless were the remaining
+Books (A.D. 14-17).
+
+A work of such compass, and occupying so many years of the author's
+life, would naturally be published in sections. This _a priori_ view
+is corroborated by several considerations: (_a_) There are separate
+prefaces to various sections (vi. 1; xxi. 1; xxxi. 1); (_b_) Livy's
+style was censured[70] by Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5; (_c_)
+Augustus was acquainted with Livy's sympathetic treatment of Pompeius
+(see above); (_d_) Livy had great fame in his lifetime: Pliny, _Ep._
+ii. 3, 8, 'Numquamne legisti Gaditanum quemdam T. Livi nomine
+gloriaque commotum ad visendum eum ab ultimo terrarum orbe venisse
+statimque ut viderat abisse?'
+
+The historians from whom Livy derived his materials, and whom he
+himself mentions are: _Fabius Pictor_ (i. 44, 2, etc.). Livy refers to
+him six times, but it may be questioned whether he used him at
+first-hand. More probably he took his opinions on the authority of
+later annalists like Macer, Antias, and Tubero. _Cincius Alimentus_
+(xxi. 38, 3): the Cincius quoted in vii. 3, 7, may be the same, or an
+antiquarian of the Ciceronian or Augustan age; _Cato_ (xxxiv. 15, 9);
+_Calpurnius Piso_ (xxv. 39, 15); _Coelius Antipater_ (xxix. 25, 3);
+_Claudius Quadrigarius_ (vi. 42, 5, etc.); _Valerius Antias_, quoted
+thirty-five times--far more frequently than any other authority;
+_Licinius Macer_; _Aelius Tubero_ (iv. 23, 1); _Clodius Licinus_
+(xxix. 22, 10); _Rutilius_ (xxxix. 52, 1); _Polybius_; _Silenus_
+(xxvi. 49, 3), a Greek, whose account of the Second Punic War was
+favourable to the Carthaginians.
+
+A criticism of Livy's use of these sources is impossible, except in
+the case of Polybius, all the others having perished. His tone in
+alluding to the Greek historian is remarkable for its coldness: xxx.
+45, 5, 'Polybius haudquaquam spernendus auctor'; cf. xxxiii. 10, 8.
+Although Polybius is not mentioned till Book xxx., he was undoubtedly
+used throughout the third decade, as well as in the fourth and fifth.
+Livy follows him very closely. Where Livy differs from Polybius he is
+probably following the account of Coelius Antipater, who is his
+leading authority for the Second Punic War.
+
+Livy is not careful to reconcile his sources, and so frequently
+contradicts himself. His way of explaining a discrepancy between his
+authorities is by striking an average (xxvi. 49, 6, 'si aliquis
+adsentiri necesse est, media simillima veris sunt'). His irresolution
+was noted by Quintilian, ii. 4, 19, 'saepe quaeri solet de tempore, de
+loco, quo gesta res dicitur, nonnumquam de persona quoque, sicut
+Livius frequentissime dubitat.' This of course has its good side: it
+saves him from dogmatizing on uncertain points, and he has a hearty
+appreciation of the confusion in his authorities: xxxvii. 34, 5, 'is
+ubi et quando et quo casu captus sit, sicut pleraque alia, parum inter
+auctores constat.' He recognizes the value of contemporary evidence:
+xxii. 7, 4, 'Fabium aequalem temporibus huiusce belli potissimum
+auctorem habui'; xxi. 38, 3, 'L. Cincius Alimentus, qui captum se ab
+Hannibale scribit, maxime auctor moveret.' Criticism of his
+authorities is most conspicuous in the case of Valerius Antias, whom
+at first he followed in good faith; he condemns him again and again
+for exaggeration and credulity, _e.g._ xxxiii. 10, 8, 'si Valerio qui
+credat, omnium rerum immodice numerum augenti'; xxxix. 43, 1,
+'Valerius Antias, ut qui nec orationem Catonis legisset et fabulae
+tantum sine auctore editae credidisset.' He also recognizes the bias
+of Licinius Macer: vii. 9, 5, 'quaesita ea propriae familiae laus
+leviorem auctorem Licinium facit.' For the untrustworthiness of family
+records, cf. viii. 40, 4, 'vitiatam memoriam funebribus laudibus reor
+falsisque imaginum titulis, dum familiae ad se quaeque famam rerum
+gestarum honorumque fallenti mendacio trahunt.'
+
+Livy often refers to authorities whom he does not name: 'invenio apud
+quosdam,' 'satis constat'; and to tradition: 'fama est,' 'dicitur,'
+'fertur,' 'traditur.' Tradition was the sole source for events prior
+to the sack of Rome by the Gauls, cf. vi. 12, 2 _sqq._
+
+There is no trace in Livy of any use of original documents.
+
+He constantly resists the temptation to digress from his proper theme:
+_e.g._ xxxix. 48, 6, 'cuius belli et causas et ordinem si expromere
+velim, immemor sim propositi, quo statui non ultra attingere externa,
+nisi qua Romanis cohaererent rebus.'
+
+In spite of his love of truth (xxii. 7, 4, 'nihil haustum ex vano
+velim, quo nimis inclinant ferme scribentium animi': cf. Tac. _Ann._
+iv. 34, 'fidei praeclarus'), partiality blinds him to the faults of
+his own countrymen, and he fails to do justice to opponents like the
+Samnites and Carthaginians.
+
+In dealing with the legendary period he admits that his narrative has
+no trustworthy foundation, and gives it merely for what it is worth:
+Praef. 6, 'Quae ante conditam condendamve urbem poeticis magis decora
+fabulis quam incorruptis rerum gestarum monumentis traduntur, ea nec
+adfirmare nec refellere in animo est. Datur haec venia antiquitati, ut
+miscendo humana divinis primordia urbium augustiora faciat.'
+
+The numerous speeches exemplify Livy's rhetorical tendency,
+representing what he thought the speaker would have said under the
+given circumstances: iii. 67, 1, 'ibi in hanc sententiam locutum
+accipio.'
+
+His power of describing character is noted by Seneca, _Suas._ vi. 21,
+'Quoties magni alicuius viri mors ab historicis narrata est, toties
+fere consummatio totius vitae et quasi funebris laudatio redditur. Hoc
+... T. Livius benignius omnibus magnis viris praestitit.'
+
+_Religion and morality._--Livy believes in the influence of the gods
+on human affairs: ix. 1, 11, 'cum rerum humanarum maximum momentum
+sit, quam propitiis rem, quam adversis agant dis.' Superior to the
+gods is _necessitas_ (ix. 4, 16), and _fortuna_ is also powerful (ix.
+17, 3; v. 37, 1). He condemns the irreligion of his own day (x. 40,
+10, 'iuvenis ante doctrinam deos spernentem natus'), cf. iii. 20, 5;
+viii. 11, 1. He retains the old belief in prodigies and portents,
+every war being introduced by a list of them, but recognizes that many
+reported instances were fictitious: xxi. 62, 1, 'Multa ea hieme
+prodigia facta, aut, quod evenire solet motis semel in religionem
+animis, multa nuntiata et temere credita sunt.'
+
+He condemns the vices of his own age, and lauds the old Romans: Praef.
+12, 'Nuper divitiae avaritiam et abundantes voluptates desiderium per
+luxum atque libidinem pereundi perdendique omnia invexere.'
+
+_Politics._--Livy is an aristocrat, with a poor opinion of the lower
+orders: _e.g._ xxiv. 25, 8, 'Ea natura multitudinis est: aut servit
+humiliter aut superbe dominatur; libertatem, quae media est, nec
+cupere modice nec habere sciunt.' His political attitude is influenced
+to a great extent by the earlier historians, who had mostly been on
+the aristocratic side. Yet he is not a defender of the aristocratic
+party through thick and thin; and though he admired the character of
+some leading republicans, there can be no question of his loyalty to
+the Empire. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34, 'Scipionem, Afranium, hunc ipsum
+Cassium, hunc Brutum nusquam latrones et parricidas, quae nunc
+vocabula imponuntur, saepe ut insignes viros nominat.'
+
+Livy's view of Caesar is quoted by Seneca, _N.Q._ v. 18, 4, 'in
+incerto esse utrum illum nasci magis rei publicae profuerit, an non
+nasci?'
+
+_Contemporaries of Livy._--1. _Pompeius Trogus_, whose history is
+known to us only through the abridgment made by M. Iunianus Iustinus,
+probably in the time of the Antonines. Trogus was of Gallic descent.
+His grandfather had received the Roman _civitas_ from Pompey; his
+father was one of Caesar's officers, and is possibly to be identified
+with the Cn. Pompeius of Caes. _B.G._ v. 36 (Iustin. xliii. 5, 11).
+His chief work, _Historiae Philippicae_, in forty-four Books, was
+concerned chiefly with the history of Macedonia and the Diadochi; but
+it embraced also the empires of the East and the history of Greece
+down to the time of Philip, as well as Parthia, Spain, Carthage, and
+the early history of Rome.
+
+2. _Fenestella_, who died, according to Jerome, in A.D. 19 at the age
+of seventy. Nothing is known of his life, or of the poems which Jerome
+attributes to him; but he certainly wrote _Annales_ (Nonius, p. 154).
+He is also quoted as an authority on miscellaneous antiquarian and
+constitutional points.
+
+3. _M. Verrius Flaccus_, tutor to the grandsons of Augustus (Sueton.
+_Gramm._ 17), was the author of _Fasti_, fragments of which have been
+discovered near Praeneste, and which were used by Ovid for his poem of
+that name. Of Verrius' grammatical works, the greatest was that
+entitled _De verborum significatu_ (Gell. v. 17, 1), arranged
+alphabetically. It is lost, but we possess part of an abridgment (nine
+out of sixteen Books) made by _Sex. Pompeius Festus_ before the third
+century A.D. The abridgment of Festus was in turn epitomized by
+_Paulus Diaconus_ in the time of Charlemagne, and his work is extant
+in a complete form.
+
+4. _C. Iulius Hyginus_, a freedman of Augustus and librarian of the
+Palatine library (Sueton. _Gramm._ 20), wrote _De vita rebusque
+illustrium virorum_ (Gell. i. 14, 1); _Exempla_ (Gell. x. 18, 7); _De
+situ urbium Italicarum_ (Serv. _ad Verg. Aen._ iii. 553); _De familiis
+Troianis_ (ibid. v. 389); theological works, _e.g._ _De dis Penatibus_
+(Macrob. _Saturn._ iii. 4, 13); commentaries on Virgil and Helvius
+Cinna; and _De Agricultura_, a treatise to which Virgil was indebted
+(Colum. i. 1, 13). The Hyginus who wrote _Fabulae_ and _De Astrologia_
+probably lived in the second century A.D.
+
+
+
+VITRUVIUS.
+
+
+Vitruvius Pollio (the cognomen appears only in the abridgment of his
+book) served under Caesar in Africa B.C. 46; viii. 3, 25, 'C. Iulius
+Masinissae filius ... cum patre Caesari militavit. Is hospitio meo est
+usus. Ita cottidiano convictu necesse fuerat de philologia disputare ...'
+
+Under Augustus he was an officer of engineers, and was enabled to
+spend the rest of his life in comfort through the liberality of that
+prince and his sister Octavia: i. praef. 2, 'Cum M. Aurelio et P.
+Minidio et Cn. Cornelio ad apparationem ballistarum et scorpionum
+reliquorumque tormentorum refectionem fui praesto et cum eis commoda
+accepi. Quae cum primo mihi tribuisti, recognitionem per sororis
+commendationem servasti. Cum ergo eo beneficio essem obligatus, ut ad
+exitum vitae non haberem inopiae timorem ...'
+
+He wrote the treatise _De Architectura_, in ten Books, when he was no
+longer young (ii. praef. 4, 'faciem deformavit aetas'), between the
+years B.C. 16 and 13. The temple of Quirinus, mentioned iii. 2, 7, was
+built in the former year; and he speaks of only one stone theatre in
+Rome (iii. 2, 2), whereas in B.C. 13 there were three.
+
+The arrangement of the subject-matter is as follows: Book i., sciences
+on which architecture is based, chief divisions of the subject, choice
+of site, and method of laying out a town; ii., building materials; iii.,
+temples--Ionic order; iv., Doric and Corinthian orders; v., public
+buildings, _e.g._, forum, theatre; vi., private houses--construction;
+vii., decoration; viii., water-supply; ix., methods of measuring time,
+_e.g._, sun-dials; x., engines and machines used in war and in the arts.
+
+The work is dedicated to Augustus, who is addressed throughout, and is
+meant to be of practical use to him in his building operations.
+
+The body of the work is severely technical; the introductions to the
+Books are in a more ambitious style. Vitruvius writes as a
+professional man, not as a scholar: i. 1, 17, 'Non uti summus
+philosophus nec rhetor disertus nec grammaticus summis rationibus
+artis exercitatus, sed ut architectus his litteris imbutus haec nisus
+sum scribere.' He freely confesses his obligations to Greek authors,
+whom he enumerates vii. praef. 10-14. Diagrams were appended to the
+text: i. 6, 12, 'Quoniam haec a nobis sunt breviter exposita, ut
+facilius intellegantur visum est mihi in extremo volumine formas, sive
+uti Graeci +schemata+ dicunt duo explicare.'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Annaeus Seneca (for the praenomen Marcus, usually given, there is no
+authority: in the best MSS. it is Lucius, possibly through confusion
+with his son) was a native of Corduba: Mart. i. 62, 7,
+
+  'Duosque Senecas unicumque Lucanum
+    facunda loquitur Corduba.'
+
+The date of his birth is probably about B.C. 55, for he was old enough
+to have heard Cicero if the civil wars had not prevented him leaving
+his native town: _Contr._ i. praef. 11, 'Omnes magni in eloquentia
+nominis excepto Cicerone videor audisse: ne Ciceronem quidem aetas
+mihi eripuerat, sed bellorum civilium furor, qui tunc orbem totum
+pervagabatur, intra coloniam meam me continuit.'
+
+He was of equestrian rank; cf. the speech of Seneca the younger, Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 53, 'Egone, equestri et provinciali loco ortus, proceribus
+civitatis adnumeror?'
+
+Most of his life appears to have been spent in Rome, where alone he
+could have acquired his vast knowledge of contemporary rhetoric.
+Together with his countryman Porcius Latro, he attended the lectures
+of the rhetorician Marullus: _Contr._ i. praef. 22, 'Hoc Latro meus
+faciebat, ut sententias amaret. Cum condiscipuli essemus apud Marullum
+rhetorem ...' Asinius Pollio he had heard at two different periods:
+_Contr._ iv. praef. 3, 'audivi illum et viridem et postea iam senem.'
+
+Seneca's wife was Helvia, whose noble character is described by her
+son (_ad Helv._ 14, 3; 16, 3): by her he had three sons, M. Annaeus
+Novatus, L. Annaeus Seneca, and M. Annaeus Mela.
+
+He survived Tiberius; for (1) he alludes to events which happened
+after his reign, (2) Sueton. _Tib._ 73, quotes from 'Seneca' an
+account of the death of Tiberius, and we know that the elder Seneca
+wrote history: that his son did likewise there is nothing to show.
+Hence he was alive after A.D. 37. On the other hand, he was dead
+before his son's exile in A.D. 43, for Sen. _ad Helv._ 2, 5, after
+enumerating the calamities which had befallen his mother--among them
+his father's death--concludes with the words 'raptum me audisti: hoc
+adhuc defuerat tibi, lugere vivos.'
+
+Seneca was a man of stern character: for his old-world views and
+dislike of innovation cf. his son's words (_ad Helv._ 17, 3), 'Patris
+mei antiquus rigor ... Virorum optimus, pater meus, maiorum
+consuetudini deditus.' He disapproved of the higher education of
+women, 'propter istas quae litteris non ad sapientiam utuntur, sed ad
+luxuriam instruuntur.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The only extant works of Seneca are _Oratorum et Rhetorum Sententiae,
+Divisiones, Colores Controversiarum et Suasoriarum_.
+
+1. The _Controversiae_ were written at the request of his three sons,
+but were intended for a wider circle of readers: i. praef. 10,
+'Quaecumque a celeberrimis viris facunde dicta teneo, ne ad quemquam
+privatim pertineant, populo dedicabo.' Seneca here gives a criticism
+of the rhetoricians of his time, with specimens of the style of each:
+i. praef. 1, 'Exigitis rem magis iucundam mihi quam facilem; iubetis
+enim quid de his declamatoribus sentiam qui in aetatem meam inciderunt
+indicare, et si qua memoriae meae nondum elapsa sunt ab illis dicta
+colligere, ut quamvis notitiae vestrae subducti sint, tamen non
+credatis tantum de illis, sed et iudicetis.' The specimens are given
+from memory, and the arrangement is not systematic: i. praef. 4,
+'Illud necesse est impetrem, ne me quasi certum aliquem ordinem
+velitis sequi in contrahendis quae mihi occurrent.' Seneca treats only
+of those rhetoricians whom his sons had not themselves heard: i.
+praef. 4, 'Neque de his me interrogatis quos ipsi audistis, sed de his
+qui ad vos usque non pervenerunt.' His hero is Cicero, since whose
+time oratory has steadily degenerated: i. praef. 11, 'Illud ingenium
+quod solum populus Romanus par imperio suo habuit'; _ibid._ 7, 'Omnia
+ingenia quae lucem studiis nostris attulerunt tunc nata sunt: in
+deterius deinde cottidie data res est.'
+
+Of the ten Books of _Controversiae_ only five have come down to us,
+viz., i., ii., vii., ix., and x. The deficiency is to some extent
+supplied by an abridgment (_Excerpta_) made in the fourth or fifth
+century A.D., which adds thirty-nine themes to the thirty-five
+contained in the surviving part of the original work. Each Book had a
+separate preface. Those to v., vi., and viii. are entirely wanting;
+for the prefaces to ii., iii., and iv. we are indebted to the
+abridgment.
+
+The _Controversiae_ were written when Seneca was an old man, and when
+his two elder sons were preparing for public life, probably about A.D.
+20: x. praef. 1, 'Sinite me ab istis iuvenilibus studiis ad senectutem
+meam reverti'; ii. praef. 4 (to Mela), 'Fratribus tuis ambitiosa curae
+sunt foroque se et honoribus parant.'
+
+As to the date of publication, it has been argued[71] that they
+appeared after the fall of Seianus and before the death of Mamercus
+Scaurus, _i.e._, between A.D. 31 and 34. Probably, however, the
+publication did not take place till after the death of Tiberius, A.D.
+37; the protest against the burning of books (x. praef. 6-7) would
+have been as offensive to him as to Seianus.
+
+2. There is only one book of _Suasoriae_, and the beginning of it is
+lost. It gives specimens of the treatment of seven themes, _e.g._, 3,
+'Deliberat Agamemnon an Iphigeniam immolet negante Calchante aliter
+navigari fas esse.' It is certainly later than the _Controversiae_:
+_Contr._ ii. 4, 8, 'Quae dixerit suo loco reddam, cum ad suasorias
+venero.' One passage cannot have been written before A.D. 34: 2, 22,
+'Scaurum Mamercum, in quo Scaurorum familia exstincta est.' It was not
+published in the lifetime of Tiberius, for Seneca calls the accuser of
+Scaurus 'homo quam improbi animi tam infelicis ingenii' (2, 22), and
+quotes Cremutius Cordus (6, 19) whose books had been burned in
+Tiberius' time.
+
+3. Seneca wrote also on Roman history from the commencement of the
+civil wars to his own time, but left the work of publication to his
+son.
+
+L. Seneca _de vita patris_ (Haase, vol. iii. p. 436), 'Si quaecumque
+composuit pater meus et edi voluit iam in manus populi emisissem, ad
+claritatem nominis sui satis sibi ipsi prospexerat ... Quisquis
+legisset eius historias ab initio bellorum civilium, unde primum
+veritas retro abiit, paene usque ad mortis suae diem,' etc.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter III
+
+
+[41] M. Valerius Probus of Berytus (Sueton. _Gramm._ 24) who
+flourished, according to Jerome, A.D. 56, prepared critical editions
+of Lucretius, Virgil, and Horace. A commentary on the _Eclogues_ and
+_Georgics_ passes under his name, but most of it is spurious.
+
+[42] A grammarian of the fifth century A.D., who merely versifies
+Donatus.
+
+[43] On this point Professor W. M. Ramsay writes to us: 'Virgil's farm
+was certainly not at Pietole (which is two miles south of Mantua, out
+in the flat plain): for (1) the farm was a long way from the city (cf.
+_Ecl._ 9, 59 _sqq._); (2) it was beside hills (_ibid._ 7 _sqq._); (3)
+woods were on or by it (cf. Donatus "silvis coemendis"), and the flat
+fertile valley was certainly not abandoned to forests. After exploring
+the country, I felt clear that the farm was on the west bank of the
+Mincio, opposite Valeggio, where the northern hills sink to the dead
+level of the Po valley.'
+
+[44] His knowledge of science is reflected in his works. Cf.
+_Georgics_, passim, and _Ecl._ 3, ll. 40-2.
+
+[45] The latter part of this statement is worthless: Augustus was only
+a child when Virgil came to Rome.
+
+[46] Probus is manifestly wrong in saying that the distribution of
+land took place 'post _Mutinense_ bellum.'
+
+[47] For details see H. Nettleship, _Ancient Lives of Vergil_, who
+holds that there was really only one eviction.
+
+[48] The writings of Augustus are enumerated by Sueton. Aug. 85--(1)
+_Rescripta Bruto de Catone_, a reply to Brutus' pamphlet on Cato; (2)
+_Hortationes ad Philosophiam_; (3) _De Vita Sua_; (4) Life of Drusus
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 1); (5) Poems: 'Sicily' in hexameters, Epigrams and
+Fescennine verses; a tragedy, 'Ajax' (never finished).
+
+[49] Servius wrote 'triennio' perhaps because he thought only of the
+dates of _Ecl._ 1 and 10 (H. Nettleship, _ibid._).
+
+[50] C. Schaper's view is that _Ecls._ 4, 6, and 10 were not written
+till B.C. 27-25 for a second edition. He supposes _Ecl._ 6 to allude
+to the marriage of Marcellus and Julia in 25 (referring 6, 3 to the
+_Aeneid_), and _Ecl._ 10 to be a lament for Gallus, who committed
+suicide B.C. 27.
+
+[51] Iulus is properly spelt Iullus (as in inscriptions), and is for
+Iovillos, a diminutive from the stem of Iuppiter.
+
+[52] L. Orbilius Pupillus of Beneventum, who in his +Perialges+
+complained of the wrongs of his profession (Sueton. _Gramm._ 4 and 9).
+
+[53] Maecenas wrote, besides smaller prose works, a history of his own
+times (Hor. _Od._ ii. 12, 9; Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 148).
+
+[54] For Horace's relations to Propertius see _Ep._ ii. 2, 91-101, and
+under '_Propertius_,' p. 196.
+
+[55] See G. Boissier, _Nouvelles Promenades Archeologiques: Horace et
+Virgile_ (Paris, 1886).
+
+[56] Dr. A. W. Verrall's argument (_Studies in Horace_, pp. 25 _sqq._)
+that _Od._ i.-iii. were published B.C. 19 is not convincing.
+
+[57] Ed. by Mommsen in _Ephemeris Epigraphica_, 1892, p. 225.
+
+[58] For Horace's eclectic position in philosophy, cf. _Ep._ i. 1,
+14-15,
+
+  'Nullius addictus iurare in verba magistri,
+  quo me cumque rapit tempestas, deferor hospes.'
+
+[59] As suggested to us by Prof. W. M. Ramsay. For Horace's opinion of
+Catullus cf. _Sat._ i. 10, 18-9,
+
+                            'Simius iste,
+  nil praeter Calvum et doctus cantare Catullum.'
+
+[60] See Th. Mommsen, _Sitzungsberichte der koenigl. preuss. Akad. der
+Wissenschaften zu Berlin_. 24 Jan. 1889.
+
+[61] A Peripatetic of the third century B.C., who wrote a popular
+account of the literary and philosophical views of his school.
+
+[62] E. Voss, _Die Natur in der Dichtung des Horaz_ (Duesseldorf,
+1889).
+
+[63] As pointed out by A. W. Verrall, _Studies in Horace_, p. 134
+_sqq._
+
+[64] This poem is probably referred to by Hor. _Od._ iv. 4, 19-22.
+
+[65] M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, author of memoirs of the Civil War
+(Tac. _Ann._ iv. 34), love poems (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3, 5), and works on
+grammar (Quint. i. 7, 35).
+
+[66] Dessau, _Inscr. Lat. Sel._ 2925. _Serg._ stands for _Serg[ia
+tribu]_, and is not a cognomen _Sergio_.
+
+[67] See Pliny, _Ep._ v. 9, 2.
+
+[68] This question was first satisfactorily worked out by T. Dyer,
+_Classical Museum_ for 1847, p. 229 _sqq._
+
+[69] See under 'Juvenal,' p. 323.
+
+[70] Pollio accused him of Patavinitas, _i.e._ the use of
+provincialisms (_verba peregrina_, as opposed to _Latina_, Quint. i.
+5, 55, _curiose loqui_ rather than _Latine_, Quint. viii. 1, 2).
+
+[71] By A. Diepenbrock, _L. Annaeus Seneca_, p. 12 (Amsterdam, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+POST-AUGUSTAN WRITERS.
+
+
+
+VELLEIUS PATERCULUS.
+
+
+C.[72] Velleius Paterculus was born at latest B.C. 19, as he was
+quaestor-elect A.D. 6. He was descended from a distinguished family in
+Campania (Vell. ii. 16, 2; Liv. xxiii. 7 _sqq._). His father was a
+_praefectus equitum_ (ii. 104, 3). After some military experience in
+Thrace and Macedonia, Velleius accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of
+Augustus, on his mission to the East, A.D. 1. His rank at this time
+was _tribunus militum_.
+
+ii. 101, 2 (of the meeting of C. Caesar and the Parthian king), 'Sub
+initia stipendiorum meorum tribuno militum mihi visere contigit: quem
+militiae gradum ante sub patre tuo, M. Vinici, et P. Silio auspicatus
+in Thracia Macedoniaque, mox Achaia Asiaque et omnibus ad Orientem
+visis provinciis et ore atque utroque maris Pontici latere, haud
+iniucunda tot rerum, locorum, gentium, urbium recordatione fruor.'
+
+In A.D. 4, as _praefectus equitum_, he accompanied Tiberius to
+Germany: ii. 104, 3, 'Hoc tempus me, functum ante tribunatu, castrorum
+Ti. Caesaris militem fecit; quippe protinus ab adoptione missus cum eo
+praefectus equitum in Germaniam, successor officii patris mei,
+caelestissimorum eius operum per annos continuos viii. praefectus aut
+legatus spectator et pro captu mediocritatis meae adiutor fui.'
+
+In A.D. 6, when quaestor-elect, he commanded reinforcements sent from
+Rome to Tiberius in Pannonia, and at the expiration of his term of
+office as quaestor in Rome, he returned to Tiberius as a _legatus_:
+ii. 111, 3, 'Habuit in hoc quoque bello mediocritas nostra speciosi
+ministerii locum. Finita equestri militia designatus quaestor necdum
+senator aequatus senatoribus, etiam designatis tribunis plebei, partem
+exercitus ab urbe traditi ab Augusto perduxi ad filium eius. In
+quaestura deinde remissa sorte provinciae legatus eiusdem ad eumdem
+missus sum.'
+
+In A.D. 9 Velleius served in Dalmatia (ii. 115, 5), afterwards
+spending two years in Germany (ii. 104, 3 above). In the winter of
+A.D. 12-13 he took part in the triumph of Tiberius: ii. 121, 2, 'Ex
+Pannoniis Delmatisque egit triumphum ... quem mihi fratrique meo inter
+praecipuos praecipuisque donis adornatos viros comitari contigit.'
+
+Velleius was praetor-elect in A.D. 14: ii. 124, 4, 'Quo tempore mihi
+fratrique meo, candidatis Caesaris, proxime a nobilissimis ac
+sacerdotalibus viris destinari praetoribus contigit, consecutis ut
+neque post nos quemquam divus Augustus neque ante nos Caesar
+commendaret Tiberius.'
+
+The publication of his history, sixteen years later, is the only
+circumstance recorded of Velleius after this date.
+
+The _Historia Romana_, in two Books, was published A.D. 30, in the
+consulship of M. Vinicius, to whom the book is addressed (i. 8, 1, and
+often). The beginning of Book i. is lost; the first eight chapters in
+our text are occupied with a rapid survey of the history of Greece
+since the Trojan war, the Phoenician settlements in the Mediterranean,
+and the chief events in the history of the world before the foundation
+of Rome. C. 8 breaks off at the rape of the Sabine women, and there is
+a great lacuna before we reach, in c. 9, the defeat of Perseus at
+Pydna in B.C. 168. Ch. 9-13 carry the narrative down to the
+destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Book ii. commences at that point,
+and ends with the death of Livia, A.D. 29 (ii. 130, 5, 'cuius temporis
+aegritudinem auxit amissa mater').
+
+Velleius is constantly calling attention to the brevity and
+compression of his treatment, in such phrases as 'omnia transcursu
+dicenda' (ii. 55), 'artatum opus' (ii. 86), 'recisum opus' (ii. 89).
+Much that the plan of his book compels him to omit, he promises to
+publish later in a larger work, _e.g._ ii. 99, 3, 'iusto servemus
+operi,' ii. 114, 4, 'iustis voluminibus ordine narrabimus.' Even as it
+is, he occasionally pauses to describe a great character (ii. 41,
+Caesar), or to express his personal opinion (ii. 66, 3, denunciation
+of Antony for Cicero's murder). Specially noticeable are the
+digressions on the Roman colonies (i. 14-15) and provinces (ii.
+38-39), on the prominence of different types of genius at certain
+epochs (i. 16-18), and on literary history (ii. 9, the chief writers
+of the time of the Gracci; ii. 36, of the Ciceronian and Augustan
+ages; i. 5, praise of Homer; i. 7, of Hesiod). As is natural in so
+short a book, Velleius names very few authorities.
+
+The motive of the history is evidently the glorification of the
+author's old general, Tiberius, whose actual reign, however, he
+dismisses in eight chapters. Probably he felt the subject too risky,
+and devoted his strength to the earlier life of Tiberius, which
+occupies the greater part even of the chapters nominally devoted to
+the reign of Augustus (ii. 59-123). Tiberius is spoken of throughout
+in terms of unqualified praise, and no hint is given of the darker
+side of his character. Seianus also is extolled (ii. 127-8), as he was
+in high favour at the time when Velleius wrote.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS MAXIMUS.
+
+
+Nothing is known of the life of Valerius Maximus beyond the fact that
+he visited Asia in company with Sex. Pompeius, the friend of Ovid and
+of Germanicus. Pompeius was consul A.D. 14, and between A.D. 27 and 30
+became proconsul of Asia.
+
+Val. Max. ii. 6, 8, 'Consuetudinem ... illam etiam in insula Cea
+servari animadverti, quo tempore Asiam cum Sex. Pompeio petens Iulidem
+oppidum intravi.'
+
+Valerius dwells on his obligations to Pompeius in his chapter on
+friendship (iv. 7, _ext._ 2).
+
+His sole work, _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, in nine books, is a
+collection of notable incidents and sayings, classified under
+appropriate headings, for the convenience of speakers seeking
+illustrations for their subject-matter. Cf. the preface, 'Urbis Romae
+exterarumque gentium facta simul ac dicta memoratu digna, quae apud
+alios latius diffusa sunt quam ut breviter cognosci possint, ab
+illustribus electa auctoribus digerere constitui, ut documenta sumere
+volentibus longae inquisitionis labor absit.'
+
+The _illustres auctores_ from whom he draws most of his material are
+Livy, Cicero (each mentioned only once), Sallust, and Trogus; but
+thirteen Latin and twenty Greek authors are mentioned by name. He
+frequently misrepresents his authorities.
+
+Each book is divided into chapters on separate topics (_e.g._ _De
+Pudicitia_), under each of which he gives (1) illustrations from Roman
+history, (2) those from the history of other nations. The latter of
+course are few in comparison.
+
+Although Iulius Paris, the epitomizer of Valerius, speaks of ten
+books, only nine are extant, and it may be doubted whether there ever
+was a tenth. Book i. is mutilated.
+
+There are only two passages which throw any light on the date of
+composition--viii. 11, _ext._ 4, a denunciation of Seianus, obviously
+written after his fall in A.D. 31; and vi. 1 praef., before the death
+of Livia, A.D. 29. The work was published at latest in A.D. 37, for it
+is dedicated to Tiberius, who is the object of the most servile
+flattery (_e.g._ ii. 9, 6); similar language is used of Iulius Caesar
+(iv. 5, 6), and Augustus (i. 7, 1), while Brutus and Cassius are
+denounced as parricides (i. 5, 7; i. 8, 8).
+
+Two abridgments of Valerius Maximus are extant.
+
+
+
+CELSUS.
+
+
+Of the life of Celsus nothing is known; but he was an older
+contemporary of Columella. Colum. iii. 17, 4, 'Iulius Atticus et
+Cornelius Celsus, aetatis nostrae celeberrimi auctores, patrem atque
+filium Sasernam secuti.'
+
+He wrote an encyclopaedic work on agriculture, medicine, war,
+rhetoric, and philosophy, but only the section on medicine is extant.
+
+Quint. xi. 12, 24, 'Cum etiam Cornelius Celsus, mediocri vir ingenio,
+non solum de his omnibus conscripserit artibus sed amplius rei
+militaris et rusticae et medicinae praecepta reliquerit.'
+
+The first part consisted of five books on agriculture: cf. Colum. i.
+1, 14, 'Cornelius totum corpus disciplinae quinque libris complexus
+est.' This section of the work was probably written in the reign of
+Tiberius, for it was known to Iulius Graecinus, whose execution took
+place under Caligula. Plin. _N.H._ xiv. 33, 'Graecinus, qui alioqui
+Cornelium Celsum transcripsit.'
+
+There are eight books _De Re Medica_. The only indication of their
+date is in iv. 7, where Celsus mentions a prescription as not found
+'in monumentis medicorum.' As this prescription is given by Scribonius
+Largus, who wrote about A.D. 47, Celsus must have written before that
+year.
+
+The section on war was used by Vegetius (_De Re Mil._ i. 8).
+
+Rhetoric was also treated in the encyclopaedia. Quintilian, who
+mentions him as one of the more careful writers on that subject (iii.
+1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit Celsus'), frequently combats his opinions
+and speaks of him rather contemptuously: _e.g._ ix. 1, 18, 'Cornelius
+Celsus nimia profecto novitatis cupidine ductus. Nam quis ignorasse
+eruditum alioqui virum credat,' etc. He may be the Celsus of Juv. 6,
+245, who (according to the Scholiast) wrote a manual of rhetoric in
+seven books.
+
+There were also six books on the history of philosophy. Augustine _de
+haeres. prol._, 'Opiniones omnium philosophorum qui sectas varias
+condiderunt usque ad tempora sua vi. non parvis voluminibus quidam
+Celsus absolvit; nec redarguit aliquem, sed tantum quid sentirent
+aperuit. Cum ferme centum philosophos nominasset,' etc.
+
+Celsus also wrote separate treatises (1) on philosophy, Quint. x. 1,
+24, 'Scripsit non parum multa Cornelius Celsus, Sextios secutus, non
+sine cultu ac nitore'; (2) on strategy (Lydus _de mag._ i. 47).
+
+
+
+PHAEDRUS.
+
+
+The title of Phaedrus' work, 'Phaedri Augusti liberti fabularum
+Aesopiarum libri,' probably means that he was a freedman of Augustus.
+Tiberius is called 'Caesar Tiberius' in ii. 6, 7; contrast the
+reference to Augustus, iii. 10, 39, 'a divo Augusto.' Phaedrus was
+born in Thrace, possibly in the district of Pieria; but the date is
+unknown; iii. prol. 17,
+
+  'Ego, quem Pierio mater enixa est iugo,
+  in quo tonanti sancta Mnemosyne Iovi
+  fecunda novies artium peperit chorum';
+
+_ibid._ 54,
+
+  'Ego, litteratae qui sum propior Graeciae,
+  cur somno inerti deseram patriae decus?
+  Threissa cum gens numeret auctores suos,
+  Linoque Apollo sit parens, Musa Orpheo.'
+
+Some wrongly take these allusions to mean that he belongs to the realm
+of poesy. That he came to Rome early is shown by the knowledge of
+Latin literature he acquired in his boyhood. Cf. iii. epil. 33, where
+he quotes Ennius,
+
+  'Ego, quondam legi quam puer sententiam,
+  "Palam mutire plebeio piaculum est,"
+  dum sanitas constabit, pulchre meminero.'
+
+After publishing two books of fables, Phaedrus was persecuted by
+Seianus, in some way unknown; iii. prol. 38,
+
+  'Ego porro illius [Aesopi] semita feci viam,
+  et cogitavi plura quam reliquerat,
+  in calamitatem deligens quaedam meam.
+  Quod si accusator alius Seiano foret,
+  si testis alius, index alius denique,
+  dignum faterer esse me tantis malis.'
+
+This persecution may have arisen from references in his fables, such
+as i. 1 (Lupus et agnus), l. 14,
+
+  'Haec propter illos scripta est homines fabula,
+  qui fictis causis innocentes opprimunt';
+
+i. 6 (Ranae ad solem), which Nisard[73] thinks refers to the ambitious
+marriage which Seianus projected with Livia, daughter of Germanicus,
+'The sun dries up the ponds; what will happen if the sun marries and
+has children?' l. 9,
+
+  'Quidnam futurum est, si crearit liberos?'
+
+Phaedrus survived the attacks made on him, and Book v. was written in
+his old age (see below).
+
+Several personal points are clear from his writings:
+
+(1) He had to meet the attacks of critics; ii. epil. 10,
+
+  'Si livor obtrectare curam voluerit,
+  non tamen eripiet laudis conscientiam.'
+
+(2) His desire for fame and his self-consciousness; iii. prol. 60,
+
+  'Ergo hinc abesto livor, ne frustra gemas,
+  quoniam sollemnis mihi debetur gloria.'
+
+(3) His contempt for money; iii. prol. 21,
+
+  'Curamque habendi penitus corde eraserim';
+
+v. 4, 7,
+
+  'Huius respectu fabulae deterritus
+  periculosum semper vitavi lucrum.'
+
+Phaedrus wrote five Books of fables. Many have certainly been lost.
+Cf. his reference to tree-fables, none of which we have; i. prol. 6,
+
+  'quod arbores loquantur, non tantum ferae.'
+
+There are, besides the five Books, thirty fables usually printed as an
+appendix, and probably composed by Phaedrus. The fables are all in
+'impure' iambic senarii, like those of Terence and Publius Syrus.
+Phaedrus followed Aesop, but, as he affirms, not slavishly; i. prol.
+1,
+
+  'Aesopus auctor quam materiam repperit,
+  hanc ego polivi versibus senariis';
+
+iv. prol. 10,
+
+                     'fabulis
+  quas Aesopias, non Aesopi, nomino.'
+
+We have the Greek originals for about a third of the fables; but
+Phaedrus speaks of his additions to Aesop; ii. prol. 8,
+
+  'Equidem omni cura morem servabo senis;
+  sed si libuerit aliquid interponere,
+  dictorum sensus ut delectet varietas,
+  bonas in partes, lector, accipias velim.'
+
+Stories from contemporary or recent history are given in ii. 6, 7;
+iii. 10; v. 7.
+
+Books i. and ii. were published under Tiberius; Book iii. was
+published after Tiberius' death (cf. iii. prol. 33), and is dedicated
+to Eutychus, who has been identified with a favourite slave of
+Caligula. Book iv. followed, addressed to Particulo (iv. prol. 10).
+Book v., addressed to Philetes, was written in the poet's old age; v.
+10, 7,
+
+             'Cui senex contra Lacon:
+  "Non te destituit animus, sed vires meae.
+  Quod fuimus, lauda, si iam damnas, quod sumus."
+  Hoc cur, Philete, scripserim, pulchre vides.'
+
+Martial is the only classical writer who refers to Phaedrus; iii. 20,
+5,
+
+  'An aemulatur improbi iocos Phaedri?'
+
+
+
+SENECA THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+L. Annaeus Seneca, the son of Annaeus Seneca, the rhetor, was born at
+Corduba in Spain. For information about his family see under 'Seneca
+the elder,' pp. 226-7. He was probably born about the beginning of our
+era, as he seems to have remembered Asinius Pollio, who died A.D. 5,
+and had passed his boyhood in A.D. 19, when the Jewish and Egyptian
+rites were expelled from Rome.
+
+Sen. _de tranquill. animi_, 17, 7, 'Qualem Pollionem Asinium
+meminimus, quem nulla res ultra decimam [horam] retinuit.'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 22, 'In Tiberii Caesaris principatum iuventae tempus
+inciderat: alienigena tum sacra movebantur.'
+
+At an early age Seneca was brought to Rome by his mother's sister, who
+was probably the wife of Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of Egypt for
+sixteen years.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius manibus in urbem perlatus sum.'
+
+Seneca's mother took a great interest in his education, which was
+conducted under Fabianus Papirius (cf. _Ep._ 100, 9, etc.) and Sotion
+the Pythagorean, of Alexandria, pupils of Sextius (for Seneca's study
+of whom see _Ep._ 64).
+
+_Ad Helv._ 15, 1, 'Vera vis materni doloris oritur ... "ubi studia,
+quibus libentius quam femina, familiarius quam mater intereram?"'
+
+_Ep._ 108, 17, 'Dicebat [Sotion] quare ille animalibus abstinuisset,
+quare postea Sextius ... par. 22. His ego instinctus abstinere animalibus
+coepi et anno peracto non tantum facilis erat mihi consuetudo, sed
+dulcis.'
+
+The elder Seneca put an end to this abstinence, which was associated
+in the popular view with foreign superstitions (see _Ep._ 108, 17-23).
+This must have happened about A.D. 19. The influence of Sotion is seen
+in passages imitated from his book _de ira cohibenda_ by Seneca.
+Seneca also studied under Attalus, a Greek Stoic, possibly about A.D.
+20.
+
+_Ep._ 108, 13-15, 'Ego certe cum Attalum audirem in vitia, in errores,
+in mala vitae perorantem, saepe misertus sum generis humani et illum
+sublimem altioremque humano fastigio credidi ... Inde mihi quaedam
+permansere, Lucili. Magno enim in omnia inceptu veneram. Deinde ad
+civitatis vitam reductus ex bene coeptis pauca servavi: inde ostreis
+boletisque in omnem vitam renuntiatum est.'
+
+Seneca speaks of his change of studies and occupations in _Ep._ 49, 2,
+'Modo apud Sotionem philosophum puer sedi. Modo causas agere coepi.
+Modo desii velle agere, modo desii posse.'
+
+In A.D. 31 Seneca was probably still at Rome; cf. _N.Q._ i. 1, 3,
+'Vidimus [prodigium] eo tempore, quo de Seiano actum est.' Lipsius'
+inference[74] that Seneca made a voyage to Egypt about this time is
+probable, though Seneca himself gives no direct information about it.
+According to this theory his host was Vitrasius Pollio, prefect of
+Egypt. While in Egypt, Seneca was attacked by illness, and escaped
+death by his aunt's care. Cf. _ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illius pio maternoque
+nutricio per longum tempus aeger convalui.' Seneca accompanied
+Vitrasius when he resigned his office and returned with his wife to
+Italy A.D. 32 (Dio, lviii. 19, 6). They suffered shipwreck, and
+Vitrasius perished.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 4, 'Sed si prudentiam perfectissimae feminae novi, non
+patietur te nihil profuturo maerore consumi et exemplum tibi suum,
+cuius ego etiam spectator fui, narrabit. Carissimum virum amiserat,
+avunculum nostrum, cui virgo nupserat, in ipsa quidem navigatione:
+tulit tamen eodem tempore et luctum et metum evictisque tempestatibus
+corpus eius naufraga evexit.'
+
+This theory is supported by the fact that Seneca wrote a work 'de ritu
+(al., situ) et sacris Aegyptiorum' (Serv. _ad Aen._ vi. 154).
+
+Through his aunt's influence Seneca obtained the quaestorship.
+
+_Ad Helv._ 19, 2, 'Illa pro quaestura mea gratiam suam extendit, et
+quae ne sermonis quidem aut clarae salutationis sustinuit audaciam,
+pro me vicit indulgentia verecundiam.'
+
+Seneca's quaestorship must have been after the death of his aunt's
+husband, in A.D. 32, as the above passage shows, and before the death of
+Tiberius in A.D. 37, as it was with Tiberius that his aunt's influence
+lay, on account of her husband's services. After his quaestorship Seneca
+appears to have married (cf. _de ira_, iii. 36, 3, etc.). His wife must
+have died before A.D. 57, as in that year Seneca married Pompeia
+Paulina; cf. Dio, lxi. 10, 3, +gamon epiphanestaton egeme+. By his first
+wife he had three sons (_ad Helv._ 2, 5).
+
+While senator, Seneca incurred the jealousy of Caligula, and in A.D.
+39 narrowly escaped death.
+
+Dio, lix. 19, 7, +ho de de Senekas ... diephthare par'
+oligon, met' adikesas ti, mete doxas, hoti diken tina en to
+synedrio parontos autou kalos eipe+. For Seneca's attacks on Caligula
+cf. _ad Helv._ 10, 4; _Apocol._ 15, etc.
+
+Sueton. _Cal._ 53, 'Peroraturus "stricturum se lucubrationis suae
+telum" minabatur; lenius comtiusque scribendi genus adeo contemnens,
+ut Senecam, tum maxime placentem, "commissiones meras" componere, et
+"harenam esse sine calce" diceret.'
+
+In A.D. 41 Seneca was banished to Corsica, through the agency of
+Messalina, on the charge of adultery with Iulia Livilla, sister of
+Caligula, but really because he was suspected of belonging to the
+faction of Agrippina.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Nec Suillius questu aut exprobratione
+abstinebat ... et Senecam increpans infensum amicis Claudii, sub quo
+iustissimum exilium pertulisset ... Se quaestorem Germanici, illum
+domus eius adulterum fuisse.'
+
+Seneca was tried before the Senate, and Claudius prevented his
+execution.
+
+_Ad Polyb._ 13, 2, 'Deprecatus est pro me senatum, et vitam mihi non
+tantum dedit, sed etiam petiit.'
+
+While in Corsica he devoted himself to literature and science. Cf. _ad
+Helv._ 20, 1 (written in exile), 'Animus omnis occupationis expers
+operibus suis vacat et modo se levioribus studiis oblectat, modo ad
+considerandam suam universique naturam veri avidus insurgit: terras
+primum situmque earum quaerit.'
+
+The _Consolatio ad Polybium_, written during this time, is full of
+flattery of Claudius.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, +ten Messalinan kai tous tou Klaudiou
+exeleutherous ethopeuen hoste kai biblion sphisin ek tes nesou
+pempsai epainous auton echon, ho meta tauta hyp' aischynes
+apeleipse+.
+
+Seneca was recalled at the beginning of A.D. 49, became Nero's tutor
+(although he wished to visit Athens), and obtained the praetorship
+through the influence of Agrippina, with whom his name was coupled by
+popular rumour.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xii. 8, 'At Agrippina, ne malis tantum facinoribus
+notesceret, veniam exilii pro Annaeo Seneca, simul praeturam inpetrat,
+laetum in publicum rata ob claritudinem studiorum eius, utque Domitii
+pueritia tali magistro adulesceret et consiliis eiusdem ad spem
+dominationis uterentur, quia Seneca fidus in Agrippinam memoria
+beneficii et infensus Claudio dolore iniuriae credebatur.'
+
+Schol. on _Iuv._ 5, 105, 'Revocatus ... etsi magno desiderio Athenas
+intenderet ab Agrippina tamen in palatium adductus.'
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 1, +ou gar apechresen auto ten Ioulian
+moicheusai, oude beltion ek tes phyges egeneto, alla kai te
+Agrippine eplesiazen.+
+
+For Seneca's tutorship cf. also Sueton. _Nero_, 52, 'Liberales
+disciplinas omnes fere puer attigit. Sed a philosophia eum mater
+avertit, monens imperaturo contrariam esse: a cognitione veterum
+oratorum Seneca praeceptor, quo diutius in admiratione sui detineret.'
+
+It is probable that Seneca was, like Nero, privy to the murder of
+Claudius in A.D. 54. Cf. his sarcasms against Claudius in his
+_Apocolocyntosis_.
+
+Sueton. _Nero_ 33 (of Nero), 'Cuius [Claudi] necis etsi non auctor, at
+conscius fuit: neque dissimulanter, ut qui boletos, in quo cibi genere
+venenum is acceperat, quasi deorum cibum, posthac proverbio Graeco
+conlaudare sit solitus.'
+
+Seneca wrote for Nero a speech which he delivered on the occasion of
+Claudius' death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 3, 'Die funeris laudationem eius princeps exorsus
+est; dum antiquitatem generis, consulatus ac triumphos maiorum
+enumerabat, intentus ipse et ceteri; liberalium quoque artium
+commemoratio, et nihil regente eo triste rei publicae ab externis
+accidisse, pronis animis audita. Postquam ad providentiam
+sapientiamque flexit, nemo risui temperare, quamquam oratio a Seneca
+composita multum cultus praeferret, ut fuit illi viro ingenium amoenum
+et temporis eius auribus accommodatum.'
+
+He acted as a check on Nero (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 6; 11), and baffled
+Agrippina's vengeance and ambition.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 2, 'Ibaturque in caedes, nisi Afranius Burrus et
+Annaeus Seneca obviam issent. (Ch. 5) Quin et legatis Armeniorum
+causam gentis apud Neronem orantibus escendere suggestum imperatoris
+et praesidere simul parabat, nisi ceteris pavore defixis Seneca
+admonuisset, venienti matri occurreret.'
+
+Seneca interfered to shelter Nero in his amour with Acte, A.D. 55, and
+used the occasion to stir up feud between Agrippina and Nero (Tac.
+_Ann._ xiii. 13). Hence followed an attack by Agrippina on Seneca.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 14, 'Audiretur hinc Germanici filia, inde debilis
+rursus Burrus et exsul Seneca, trunca scilicet manu et professoria
+lingua generis humani regimen expostulantes.'
+
+It is unlikely that Seneca opposed the murder of Britannicus (Feb.
+A.D. 55). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 17, 'Facinus cui plerique iam hominum
+ignoscebant, antiquas fratrum discordias et insociabile regnum
+aestimantes.'[75]
+
+Seneca took part shortly afterwards in the trial in which Agrippina
+was found not guilty (Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 20-21). There are many
+references to Seneca's great power and wealth at this time.[76]
+
+Cf. Dio, lxi. 4, 1, +autoi+ (Seneca and Burrus) +ten
+archen hapasan parelabon kai diokesan eph' hoson edynethesan
+arista kai dikaiotata.+
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 53 (Seneca addressing Nero in A.D. 62), 'Quartus
+decimus annus est, Caesar, ex quo spei tuae admotus sum, octavus, ut
+imperium obtines: medio temporis tantum honorum atque opum in me
+cumulasti, ut nihil felicitati meae desit nisi moderatio eius... At
+tu gratiam immensam, innumeram pecuniam circumdedisti, adeo ut
+plerumque intra me ipse volvam, "Egone, equestri et provinciali loco
+ortus, proceribus civitatis adnumeror? ... Talis hortos extruit, et
+per haec suburbana incedit, et tantis agrorum spatiis, tam lato
+faenore exuberat?"'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42 (speech of Suillius, A.D. 58), 'Qua sapientia,
+quibus philosophorum praeceptis, intra quadriennium regiae amicitiae
+ter miliens sestertium paravisset?' (Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives his wealth
+as 75,000,000 denarii).
+
+Seneca had many estates both in Italy (_Ep._ 123, 1, etc.) and abroad,
+and lent money abroad, even in Britain. His attraction to finance is
+seen in the number of metaphors he draws from that subject.
+
+Sen. _vit. beat._ 17, 2, 'Cur trans mare possides? cur plura quam
+nosti?'
+
+Dio, lxii. 2, 1 (of the rising of the Britons under Boudicca), +ho
+Senekas chilias sphisi myriadas akousin epi chrestais elpisi tokon
+daneisas, epeit' athroas te hama autas kai biaios eiseprassen.+
+
+His attack on usury (_de ben._ vii. 10, 3) is a piece of theoretic
+philosophy.
+
+In A.D. 57 Seneca was consul suffectus (Ulpian, _Dig._ xxxvi. 1). In
+A.D. 58 he brought about the downfall of the former delator, P.
+Suillius. Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 42, 'Variis deinde casibus iactatus et
+multorum odia meritus reus, haud tamen sine invidia Senecae damnatur.
+Is fuit P. Suillius.' Seneca is thought to have been implicated in
+Agrippina's murder in A.D. 59. He wrote to the Senate for Nero an
+account of her death.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 7 (Nero says after the fruitless attempt of Anicetus
+to kill Agrippina), 'Quod contra subsidium sibi nisi quid Burrus et
+Seneca expedirent? Quos statim acciverat, incertum an aperiens, et
+ante ignaros. Igitur longum utriusque silentium, ne inriti
+dissuaderent; an eo descensum credebant, ut, nisi praeveniretur
+Agrippina, pereundum Neroni esset? Post Seneca, hactenus promptius, ut
+respiceret Burrum, ac sciscitaretur an militi imperanda caedes esset.
+(Ch. 11) Ergo non iam Nero, cuius immanitas omnium questus anteibat,
+sed Seneca adverso rumore erat, quod oratione tali confessionem
+scripsisset.'
+
+The death of Burrus in A.D. 62 weakened the power of Seneca, who
+resolved to retire. His request, however, was not granted by Nero
+(Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 55-6), but he reduced his establishment, and lived
+in semi-privacy.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiv. 52, 'Mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam, quia nec
+bonis artibus idem virium erat altero velut duce amoto, et Nero ad
+deteriores inclinabat. Hi variis criminationibus Senecam
+adoriuntur ... Certe finitam Neronis pueritiam, et robur iuventae
+adesse. Exueret magistrum, satis amplis doctoribus instructus
+maioribus suis. (Ch. 56) Instituta prioris potentiae commutat,
+prohibet coetus salutantium, vitat comitantis, rarus per urbem, quasi
+valetudine infensa aut sapientiae studiis domi attineretur.'
+
+Later in A.D. 62, came an unsuccessful attempt to ruin Seneca. Tac.
+_Ann._ xiv. 65, 'Romanus secretis criminationibus incusaverat Senecam
+ut Gai Pisonis socium; sed validius a Seneca eodem crimine perculsus
+est.'
+
+In A.D. 64, on the occasion of the burning of Rome by Nero, Seneca
+wished to retire. He is said to have offered money to repair the
+disasters of the fire.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45, 'Ferebatur Seneca, quo invidiam sacrilegii a semet
+averteret, longinqui ruris secessum oravisse, et postquam non
+concedebatur, ficta valetudine, quasi aeger nervis, cubiculum non
+egressus.'
+
+Dio, lxii. 25, 3, +pasan auto ten ousian epi te ton
+oikodomoumenon prophasei kecharismenos.+
+
+The story given in Tac. _Ann._ xv. 45 of the attempt to poison Seneca
+probably arose from his abstemious habits.
+
+'Tradidere quidam venenum ei per libertum ipsius cui nomen Cleonicus
+paratum iussu Neronis, vitatumque a Seneca proditione liberti seu
+propria formidine, dum persimplici victu et agrestibus pomis, ac si
+sitis admoneret, profluente aqua vitam tolerat.'
+
+In A.D. 65 Seneca was implicated in the conspiracy of Piso, and was
+forced to commit suicide. His wife wished to die with him, but was
+prevented by Nero's orders.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 60, 'Sequitur caedes Annaei Senecae, laetissima
+principi, non quia coniurationis manifestum compererat, sed ut ferro
+grassaretur, quando veneno non processerat ... (Ch. 63) Post quae
+eodem ictu brachia ferro exsolvunt. Seneca, quoniam senile corpus et
+parco victu tenuatum lenta effugia sanguini praebebat, crurum quoque
+et poplitum venas abrumpit. Saevisque cruciatibus defessus, ne dolore
+suo animum uxoris infringeret atque ipse visendo eius tormenta ad
+impatientiam delaberetur, suadet in aliud cubiculum abscedere. Et
+novissimo quoque momento suppeditante eloquentia advocatis
+scriptoribus pleraque tradidit ... (Ch. 64) At Nero nullo in Paulinam
+proprio odio, ac ne glisceret invidia crudelitatis, inhibere
+mortem. ... Seneca interim, durante tractu et lentitudine mortis,
+Statium Annaeum, diu sibi amicitiae fide et arte medicinae probatum,
+orat, provisum pridem venenum, quo damnati publico Atheniensium
+iudicio exstinguerentur, promeret; adlatumque hausit frustra, frigidus
+iam artus, et cluso corpore adversum vim veneni. Postremo stagnum
+calidae aquae introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita voce,
+libare se liquorem illum Iovi liberatori. Exin balneo inlatus, et
+vapore eius exanimatus, sine ullo funeris sollemni crematur.'
+
+There was a rumour that some of the conspirators intended to make
+Seneca emperor.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 65, 'Fama fuit Subrium Flavum cum centurionibus
+occulto consilio, neque tamen ignorante Seneca, destinavisse, ut post
+occisum opera Pisonis Neronem Piso quoque interficeretur,
+tradereturque imperium Senecae, quasi insontibus claritudine virtutum
+ad summum fastigium delecto.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+The following prose works are extant:
+
+1. _Dialogorum libri_ xii.
+
+(1) _ad Lucilium: quare aliqua incommoda bonis viris accidant cum
+providentia sit; sive de providentia_. This was probably a late work.
+
+(2) _ad Serenum: nec iniuriam nec contumeliam accipere sapientem; sive
+de constantia sapientis_: written in the first years of Nero's reign.
+
+(3-5) _ad Novatum de ira libri_ iii., probably written in the first
+year of Claudius' reign.
+
+(6) _ad Marciam de consolatione_: written to console Marcia, the
+daughter of Cremutius Cordus, for the death of her son Metilius. The
+work may have been written in A.D. 41, as Caligula's name is
+studiously avoided.
+
+(7) _ad Gallionem de vita beata_. This book, addressed to Seneca's
+brother Gallio (Novatus), was probably written shortly after A.D. 58,
+and justifies his having wealth though a philosopher.
+
+(8) _ad Serenum de otio_. This work, like the next, was addressed to
+Annaeus Serenus, and was written probably about A.D. 62. Only a part
+of it is extant. The book discusses whether a wise man should engage
+in state affairs.
+
+(9) _ad Serenum de tranquillitate animi_, probably written soon after
+Seneca's recall.
+
+(10) _ad Paulinum de brevitate vitae_. For the date cf. 13, 8, 'Sullam
+ultimum Romanorum protulisse pomoerium.' Now, Claudius extended the
+pomoerium in A.D. 50, so this must have been written in A.D. 49, as
+the book was brought out after Seneca's return from exile.
+
+(11) _ad Polybium de consolatione_. This book was addressed in A.D. 43
+or 44 to Polybius, a favourite of Claudius, on the occasion of his
+brother's death. The date is fixed by the reference to Claudius'
+expedition to Britain in 12, 2-3. Cf. par. 3, 'Non desinam totiens tibi
+offerre Caesarem. Illo moderante terras et ostendente, quanto melius
+beneficiis imperium custodiatur quam armis, illo rebus humanis
+praeside non est periculum, ne quid perdidisse te sentias.' For
+similar flattery of Claudius, cf. 7,4; 12,5.
+
+(12) _ad Helviam matrem de consolatione_, written during his
+banishment.
+
+2. _ad Neronem Caesarem de clementia_, in three Books, two of which
+are extant. The work was written in A.D. 55-6, doubtless to show the
+public what sort of instruction Seneca had given Nero, and what sort
+of emperor they had to expect (cf. i, 1, 1). The date is settled by i.
+9, 1, '[divus Augustus] cum hoc aetatis esset quod tu nunc es,
+duodevicesimum egressus annum,' Nero having been born 15th December,
+A.D. 37. The flattery contained in ii. 1, 1-2, and elsewhere, can be
+justified to some extent by Nero's conduct at that time. Cf. Sueton.
+_Nero_, 10, 'Neque liberalitatis, neque clementiae, ne comitatis
+quidem exhibendae ullam occasionem omisit.'
+
+3. _De Beneficiis_ in seven Books, addressed to Aebutius Liberalis of
+Lugdunum. It is probable that Books i.-iv. were published first,
+shortly after the death of Claudius (who is sneered at in i. 15, 6).
+Books v.-vii. are probably a later addition. Cf. v. 1, 1, 'In
+prioribus libris videbar consummasse propositum ... Quidquid ultra
+moror, non servio materiae, sed indulgeo ... Verum quia ita vis,
+perseveremus peractis.' The eulogy of Demetrius the Cynic in vii.
+8-12, makes it probable that Book vii. at least was written in
+Seneca's last years.
+
+4. _Apocolocyntosis_, a political satire on Claudius, written shortly
+after his death in A.D. 54. The explanation of the title is given by
+Dio, lx. 35, 2, +Agrippina kai ho Neron ... es ton ouranon anegagon
+hon ek tou symposiou phoraden exenenochesan. hotheuper Loukios Iounios
+Gallion ho tou Seneka adelphos asteiotaton ti apephthenxato; synetheke
+men gar kai ho Senekas syngramma, apokolokyntosin auto hosper tina
+apathanatisin onomasas, ekeinos de en brachytato polla eipon
+apomnemoneuetai ... ephe ton Klaudion ankistro es ton ouranon
+anenechthenai+. The work does not bear this title in the MSS., and
+there is no hint of the witticism in the book itself; the St. Gall
+MS., however, has 'Divi Claudii +APOTHEOSIS+ Annei Senecae per
+Saturam,' which may be a corruption of the proper title. The title is
+derived from +kolokynte+, 'a gourd,' which was used to denote a fool.
+Seneca (_Apocol._ 6) takes the official view that Claudius died of a
+fever. The work may have been published at the Saturnalia, and written
+shortly before, as Narcissus is represented as having just arrived in
+Orcus. The personal animosity of Seneca against Caligula and Claudius
+is everywhere apparent.
+
+5. _Naturales Quaestiones_ in seven Books, addressed to Lucilius. Book
+ii. was written after A.D. 57, as in ii. 9, 2 an amphitheatre is
+mentioned which was built by Nero in that year. The work was finished
+before the end of A.D. 64, for in Book vii. there is no mention among
+other prodigies of the comet which appeared again at the end of that
+year.
+
+6. _Epistulae morales ad Lucilium_. These were addressed to Lucilius
+Iunior, the author of 'Aetna' (see p. 277). There are extant one
+hundred and twenty four letters, in twenty Books, but some Books have
+been lost, as Gell. xii. 2, 3 quotes from Book xxii. Books i.-iii.
+were probably published by Seneca, the rest after his death, generally
+in chronological order.
+
+The following poetical works are extant:
+
+1. _Epigrams._--Nine on his exile are given in the editions; probably
+only Nos. 1, 2, and 7 are genuine.
+
+2. _Tragedies._--Some of these may have been composed during Seneca's
+exile in Corsica. See _ad Helv._ 20 (quoted p. 243). The metrical
+treatment is strict, especially in the senarii. Anapaestic, glyconic,
+sapphic lines, etc., are used in the choral odes. There are only three
+actors, except in the spurious _Octavia_. The plays are: (1) _Hercules
+Furens_ and (2) _Troades_ or _Hecuba_, founded on Euripides. (3)
+_Phoenissae_ or _Thebais_. The two parts do not correspond. In ll.
+1-362, Oedipus and Antigone are on their way to Cithaeron; from l. 363
+to the end we find Iocasta and Antigone in Thebes while it is besieged
+by the Seven. (4) _Medea_, founded on Euripides. Ovid has also been
+imitated; so ll. 56 _sqq._ from Ovid, _Heroides_, 12, 137. (5)
+_Phaedra_ or _Hippolytus_. (6) _Oedipus_, after Sophocles. (7)
+_Agamemnon_, after Aeschylus. (8) _Thyestes_. (9) _Hercules Oetaeus_,
+of which the second part, at least, is spurious. (10) _Octavia_, a
+praetexta, describing the death of Octavia, Nero's wife (A.D. 62).
+Seneca himself appears in it. It cannot be by Seneca, as Nero's
+downfall (A.D. 68) is mentioned in ll. 628-36.
+
+The following works are lost or exist only in fragments:
+
+i. Poems of a light nature (Pliny, _Ep._ v. 3). 2. _De motu terrarum_,
+afterwards incorporated in _N.Q._ vi. (see _N.Q._ vi. 4, 2). 3. _De
+lapidum natura_. 4. _De piscium natura_. 5. _De ritu et sacris
+Aegyptiorum_ (see p. 242). 6. _De situ Indiae_. 7. _De forma mundi_.
+8. _Exhortationes_. 9. _De officiis_. 10. _De immatura morte_. 11. _De
+superstitione dialogus_. 12. _De matrimonio_. 13. _De amicitia_. 14.
+_De vita patris_, along with an edition of his works. 15. Speeches by
+himself or by Nero. 16. _Epistulae_ (a) _ad Novatum_, probably written
+from Corsica, (b) _ad Caesonium Maximum_. 17. A book in praise of
+Messalina, afterwards withdrawn (see p. 243). 18. _Moralis
+philosophiae libri_ (see _Ep._ 106, 2). 19. _De remediis fortuitorum_,
+addressed to Gallio. A synopsis with additions is extant. 20. _De
+paupertate_. 21. _De formula honestae vitae_, probably founded on one
+of Seneca's works. 22. _Notae_ (see Sueton. pp. 135-6 R.).
+
+The following are spurious works:
+
+1. 'Epistulae Senecae, Neronis imperatoris magistri, ad Paulum
+Apostolum et Pauli Apostoli ad Senecam.' These letters, fourteen in
+all, are accepted as genuine by Jerome, _de vir. illustr._ 12. 'Seneca
+... quem non ponerem in catalogo sanctorum, nisi me epistulae illae
+provocarent, quae leguntur a plurimis, Pauli ad Senecam et Senecae ad
+Paulum.'
+
+2. A work extant under the title of _Sententiae Rufi_ has been wrongly
+thought to correspond to Seneca's dying words mentioned in Tac. _Ann._
+xv. 63.
+
+3. The book _De moribus_ or _Monita_ contains maxims by Christian
+writers.
+
+_Views and Character._--For Seneca's training in Stoic doctrines see
+_Ep._ 108, 13 (quoted p. 241). With these views he generally
+associates himself (cf. _Ep._ 113, 1; 117, 1), but does not bind
+himself to one school.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ 45, 4, 'Non enim me cuiquam emancipavi, nullius nomen fero.
+Multum magnorum virorum iudicio credo, aliquid et meo vindico.'
+
+Especially towards the end of his life, he came under the influence of
+Demetrius the Cynic.
+
+_Ep._ 62, 3, 'Demetrium, virorum optimum, mecum circumfero et relictis
+conchyliatis cum illo seminudo loquor, ilium admiror. Quidni admirer?
+vidi nihil ei deesse.'
+
+In _de provid._ 5, 7, after quoting Demetrius' fatalistic views,
+Seneca adds, 'Fata nos ducunt, et quantum cuique temporis restat,
+prima nascentium hora disposuit.'
+
+Seneca was one of the few Romans who condemned the butcheries
+practised in the arena, and his views doubtless influenced Nero's
+conduct in A.D. 58.
+
+_Ep._ 95, 33, 'Homo, sacra res homini, iam per lusum ac iocum
+occiditur et quem erudiri ad inferenda accipiendaque volnera nefas
+erat, is iam nudus inermisque producitur satisque spectaculi ex homine
+mors est.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31, 'Edixit Caesar ne quis magistratus aut
+procurator, qui provinciam obtineret, spectaculum gladiatorum aut
+ferarum aut quod aliud ludicrum ederet.'
+
+For Seneca's love of wealth see p. 246. For his estimate of riches cf.
+_De vita beata_, 22, 5. 'Apud me divitiae aliquem locum habent, apud
+te summum ac postremum. Divitiae meae sunt, tu divitiarum es.'
+
+His simplicity of life has been already dealt with.
+
+Dio, lxi. 10, 2, gives a most unjust account of Seneca's character:
+
++panta ta enantiotata hois ephilosophei poion elenchthe. kai
+gar tyrannidos kategoron tyrannodidaskalos egineto, kai ton synonton
+tois dynastais katatrechon ouk aphistato tou palatiou ... tois te
+plousiois enkalon ousian heptakischilion kai pentakosion myriadon
+ektesato.+
+
+Seneca followed no traditional style. Cf. _Ep._ 100, 6, 'De
+compositione non constat'; _Ep._ 114, 13, 'Oratio certam regulam non
+habet.' Quintilian, x. 1, 125-131, attacks his style, though admitting
+his great powers.
+
+
+
+CURTIUS RUFUS.
+
+
+The full name is Q. Curtius Rufus, given in the MSS. of his work,
+'Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedonis Libri x.', the first two Books
+of which are lost. Curtius is not referred to by name by any ancient
+writer, but is probably identical with the Q. Curtius Rufus mentioned
+in the list prefixed to Sueton. _de claris oratoribus_ between M.
+Porcius Latro and L. Valerius Primanus. This order favours the view
+that he belonged to the reign of Claudius, a view supported by the two
+contemporary references in Curtius:
+
+iv. 4, 21 (of Tyre), 'nunc tandem longa pace cuncta refovente sub
+tutela Romanae mansuetudinis adquiescit.'
+
+x. 9, 3-6, 'Quod imperium sub uno stare potuisset, dum a pluribus
+sustinetur, ruit. Proinde iure meritoque populus Romanus salutem se
+principi suo debere profitetur, qui noctis, quam paene supremam
+habuimus, novum sidus inluxit. Huius hercule, non solis ortus lucem
+caliganti reddidit mundo, cum sine suo capite discordia membra
+trepidarent,' etc.
+
+This passage probably refers to the tumultuous scene on the night
+between 24th and 25th Jan., A.D. 41, before Claudius' accession, after
+the murder of Caligula (cf. the pun in _caliganti_), when rival
+claimants to the throne were put forward, and the Senate wished to
+restore the republic (cf. _discordia membra trepidarent_). Sen. _ad
+Polyb._ 13, 1, uses similar language of Claudius, 'Sidus hoc, quod
+praecipitato in profundum et demerso in tenebras orbi refulsit, semper
+luceat.'
+
+As Curtius says nothing but good about the reign of Claudius, he
+probably wrote shortly after his accession. The passage in iv. 4, 21
+(above) also fits in with this view, as there was little fighting in
+the Roman world from 17 to 43 A.D. His bold tone with regard to rulers
+would also suit this time, while it would have been dangerous under
+Caligula, or from 43 to 54 A.D.
+
+Cf. viii. 5, 6, 'Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa adulatio,
+perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius adsentatio quam hostis
+evertit.'
+
+This tone also renders it impossible to identify him with Curtius
+Rufus, mentioned in Tac. _Ann._ xi. 21, as governor of Africa, and as
+'adversus superiores tristi adulatione, adrogans minoribus, inter
+pares difficilis.'
+
+Seneca is supposed to have quoted his contemporary Curtius once or
+twice. Cf. Sen. _Ep._ 56, 9, 'Nihil tam certum est quam otii vitia
+negotio discuti'; and Curt. vii. 1, 4, 'Satis prudens, otii vitia
+negotio discuti.' Cf. also viii. 10, 29 with Sen. _Ep._ 59, 12.
+
+Curtius claims to transcribe his authorities carefully. Cf. ix. 1, 34,
+'Equidem plura transscribo quam credo: nam nec adfirmare sustineo, de
+quibus dubito, nec subducere quae accepi.'
+
+Curtius' statements are usually parallel to those of one or other of
+the historians of Alexander, but he appeals only twice to other
+authorities by name.
+
+ix. 8, 15, 'Clitarchus (c. 300 B.C.) est auctor.'
+
+ix. 5, 21, 'Ptolemaeum (c. 300 B.C.), qui postea regnavit, huic pugnae
+adfuisse auctor est Clitarchus et Timagenes (c. 55 B.C.). Sed ipse ...
+afuisse se missum in expeditionem memoriae tradidit.'
+
+The rhetorical tone of the work is seen in the speeches and letters.
+For the latter cf. iv. 1, 10-74. Curtius has little technical
+knowledge of war or politics. Thus Alexander's assumption of oriental
+pomp to conciliate the Asiatics is looked on as +hybris+. Cf.
+iii. 12, 18. Like Livy, he attempts to depreciate Alexander's
+abilities by unduly accentuating his good fortune.
+
+Cf. viii. 3, 1, 'Sed hanc quoque expeditionem, ut pleraque alia,
+fortuna indulgendo ei numquam fatigata pro absente transegit.'
+
+
+
+COLUMELLA.
+
+
+L. Iunius Moderatus Columella was a native of Gades: x. 185, 'mea
+[lactuca] quam generant Tartessi littore Gades.' On an inscription he
+is styled 'trib. mil. leg. vi. ferratae' (_C.I.L._ ix. 325), and it
+was probably in the course of his military service that he visited
+Cilicia and Syria: ii. 10, 18, 'hoc semen Ciliciae Syriaeque
+regionibus ipse vidi.'
+
+His uncle, M. Columella, was a leading man in the province of Baetica
+(v. 5, 15); and he himself possessed land in Italy: iii. 9, 2, 'cum et
+in Ardeatino agro, quem multis temporibus ipsi ante possedimus, et in
+Carseolano itemque in Albano generis Aminei vites huius modi notae
+habuerimus.'
+
+He was a contemporary of the younger Seneca, who is spoken of as alive
+(iii. 3, 3).
+
+His chief work is _De Re Rustica_ in twelve Books, dedicated to P.
+Silvinus--a practical treatise on husbandry for 'negotiosi agricolae'
+(ix. 2, 5). Book x., on gardening, is in hexameter verse, and was
+written at the suggestion of Silvinus and another friend, to fill the
+gap which Virgil had left in the Georgics (iv. 147-8); cf. the
+preface, 'Cultus hortorum ... sicut institueram, prosa oratione
+prioribus subnecteretur exordiis, nisi propositum expugnasset frequens
+postulatio tua, quae pervicit, ut poeticis numeris explerem Georgici
+carminis omissas partes, quas tamen et ipse Vergilius significaverat,
+posteris se memorandas relinquere.'
+
+The last two Books were added as an afterthought; xi. 1, 2, 'numerum
+quem iam quasi consummaveram voluminum excessi.'
+
+Columella wrote before A.D. 65 (see above); later than Celsus, but
+earlier than the elder Pliny.
+
+There is also extant a book _De Arboribus_, which formed Book ii. of
+an earlier treatise on agriculture: cf. i. 1, 'Quoniam de cultu
+agrorum abunde primo volumine praecepisse videmur, non intempestiva
+erit arborum virgultorumque cura.' It covers the same ground as _De
+R.R._ iii.-v.
+
+Columella also wrote 'adversus astrologos' (xi. 1, 31), and projected
+a treatise on the religious rites connected with agriculture (ii. 22,
+5, 'lustrationum ceterorumque sacrificiorum, quae pro frugibus fiunt,
+morem priscis usurpatum').
+
+
+
+POMPONIUS MELA.
+
+
+The geographer Pomponius Mela was a native of Tingentera in Spain (ii.
+96). His date can be inferred from iii. 49; the 'principum maximus'
+mentioned there as triumphing over Britain might be either Claudius
+(in A.D. 40) or Caligula (in 44); but the earlier date is favoured by
+Mela's division of Africa according to the system abolished by
+Caligula in 42 (i. 25-30). The title of his work is _De Chorographia_,
+in three Books: the dryness of its details (i. 1, 'opus impeditum et
+facundiae minime capax') is relieved by word-painting, _e.g._ the
+description of Britain, iii. 49. The only authors to whom he
+acknowledges obligations are Nepos (iii. 45) and Hanno (iii. 90).
+
+
+
+PERSIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+We possess a very full account of the life of Persius, which,
+according to the MSS., is taken from Probus' commentary on the poet,
+and may therefore be looked upon as trustworthy. According to Probus
+(from whom are taken the quotations throughout), he lived from 34 to
+62 A.D.: 'Aulus Persius Flaccus natus est pridie Non. Decembr. Fabio
+Persico L. Vitellio coss., decessit viii. Kal. Decembr. Rubrio Mario
+Asinio Gallo coss.' These dates are confirmed by Jerome.
+
+He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman
+knight who died when Persius was quite young:
+
+'Natus in Etruria Volaterris, eques Romanus, sanguine et affinitate
+primi ordinis viris coniunctus. Pater eum Flaccus pupillum reliquit
+moriens annorum fere sex.'
+
+'Fulvia Sisennia (his mother) nupsit postea Fuscio equiti Romano.'
+
+After the completion of his early education (for which see _Sat._ 3,
+44-51) he studied at Rome, where he came under the influence of the
+Stoic Annaeus Cornutus:
+
+'Studuit Flaccus usque ad annum xii. aetatis suae Volaterris, inde
+Romae apud grammaticum Remmium Palaemonem et apud rhetorem Verginium
+Flavum. Cum esset annorum xvi., amicitia coepit uti Annaei Cornuti,
+ita ut nusquam ab eo discederet; inductus aliquatenus in philosophiam
+est.'
+
+In _Sat._ 5, 21-24 and 30-51, he speaks in the highest terms of
+Cornutus as his guide in life and close friend: cf. esp. ll. 36-7,
+
+             'teneros tu suspicis annos,
+  Socratico, Cornute, sinu.'
+
+Among his other friends were Caesius Bassus (to whom _Sat._ 6 is
+addressed), Lucan, Seneca, and his own relative, Paetus Thrasea:
+
+'Cognovit per Cornutum etiam Annaeum Lucanum, aequaevum auditorem
+Cornuti. Lucanus adeo mirabatur scripta Flacci ut vix retineret se
+recitante eo cum clamore quin illa esse vera poemata diceret, sua ipse
+ludos faceret. Sero cognovit et Senecam, sed non ut caperetur eius
+ingenio ... Idem decem fere annis summe dilectus a Paeto Thrasea est,
+ita ut peregrinaretur quoque cum eo aliquando, cognatam eius Arriam
+uxorem habente.'
+
+Persius was a man of considerable means, as is shown by his will and
+his landed property:
+
+'Reliquit circa HS vicies matri et sorori; scriptis tamen ad matrem
+codicillis Cornuto rogavit ut daret sestertia ut quidam centum, ut
+alii volunt ..., et argenti facti pondo viginti, et libros circa
+septingentos sive bibliothecam suam omnem. Verum a Cornuto sublatis
+libris, pecuniam sororibus, quas heredes frater fecerat, reliquit.'
+
+'Decessit ad octavum miliarium via Appia in praediis suis ... vitio
+stomachi anno aetatis xxviii.'
+
+His character was lofty and disinterested:
+
+'Fuit morum lenissimorum, verecundiae virginalis, formae pulchrae,
+pietatis erga matrem et sororem et amitam exemplo sufficientis. Fuit
+frugi, pudicus.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. His early works, which Cornutus caused to be destroyed at his
+death, were:
+
+(_a_) A praetexta, called _Vescia_ (?).
+
+(_b_) One Book of +hodoiporika+, no doubt referring to his
+travels with Thrasea.
+
+(_c_) Some verses on Arria, the wife of Paetus.
+
+'Scripserat in pueritia Flaccus etiam praetextam Vesciam, et
++hodoiporikon+ librum unum, et paucos in socrum Thraseae in Arriam
+matrem versus ... Omnia ea auctor fuit Cornutus matri eius ut
+aboleret.'
+
+2. _Satires._ There are six of these (in hexameters), with a prologue
+(in scazons). Persius wrote slowly, and the Book was left unfinished:
+
+'Et raro et tarde scripsit. Hunc ipsum librum imperfectum reliquit.
+Versus aliqui dempti sunt ultimo libro, ut quasi finitus esset.
+Leviter retractavit Cornutus, et Caesio Basso petenti, ut ipsi
+cederet, tradidit edendum.'
+
+The prologue, and the first satire (on literary criticism)--the only
+real satire he wrote--are said to be imitated from Lucilius. The other
+five are largely Stoic dissertations in verse, and show throughout the
+influence of Cornutus and Persius' other Stoic friends. Probus says he
+attacked Nero's poetry in _Sat._ 1.
+
+'Lecto Lucilii libro x. vehementer satiras componere instituit, cuius
+libri principium imitatus est ... cum tanta recentium poetarum et
+oratorum insectatione, ut etiam Neronem ... culpaverit, cuius versus
+in Neronem cum ita se haberet:
+
+  'Auriculas asini Mida rex habet,'
+
+in eum modum a Cornuto, ipso iam tum mortuo, est emendatus:
+
+  'Auriculas asini quis non habet?' [1, 121]
+
+ne hoc Nero in se dictum arbitraretur.'
+
+_Sat._ 1, 99-102 is said to be a travesty of Nero's poetry.
+
+Very few passages, however, are quoted by the Scholiasts as modelled
+on Lucilius.
+
+Persius refers to Lucilius and Horace in 1, 114-8:
+
+              'Secuit Lucilius urbem,
+  te, Lupe, te, Muci, et genuinum fregit in illis;
+  omne vafer vitium ridenti Flaccus amico
+  tangit, et admissus circum praecordia ludit,
+  callidus excusso populum suspendere naso.'
+
+His obligations to Horace are paramount, imitations--often
+unintentional burlesques--occurring everywhere. Examples are: 1, 42,
+
+              'cedro digna locutus,
+  linquere nec scombros metuentia carmina nec tus.'
+
+from Hor. _A.P._ 331,
+
+  'carmina ... linenda cedro';
+
+and Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 269,
+
+  'Deferar in vicum vendentem tus et odores
+  et piper et quidquid chartis amicitur ineptis.'
+
+Again, 5, 103,
+
+             'exclamet Melicerta perisse
+  frontem de rebus';
+
+from Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1, 80,
+
+     'clament periise pudorem
+  cuncti paene patres.'
+
+He even borrows Horace's names: Pedius (1, 85), Natta (3, 31), Nerius
+(2, 14), Craterus (3, 65), Bestius (6, 37).
+
+The statement of Joannes Lydus (i. 41) that Persius imitated the mimic
+writer, Sophron, has little to support it.
+
+Probus says the work became immediately popular: 'Editum librum
+continuo mirari homines et diripere coeperunt.'
+
+Cf. also Quint. x. 1, 94, 'multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro
+Persius meruit'; Mart. iv. 29, 7,
+
+  'Saepius in libro memoratur Persius uno
+  quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide.'
+
+
+
+LUCAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Besides references to Lucan in other writers, especially Statius,
+Martial, and Tacitus, we have three biographies of him: (1) a short
+and defective life, probably by Suetonius, and showing his well-known
+hatred of the Annaei; (2) one by Vacca, a commentator on Lucan, who
+lived probably in the sixth century, complete and favourable; (3) one
+in Codex Vossianus ii. The last two are in part derived from the
+first.
+
+M. Annaeus Lucanus was born at Corduba in Hispania Baetica, and was
+the son of M. Annaeus Mela, a Roman knight, and nephew of M. Annaeus
+Novatus (the Gallio of Acts 18, 12-17) and L. Annaeus Seneca the
+philosopher.
+
+Vacca, _vit. Luc._, 'M. Annaeus Lucanus patrem habuit M. Annaeum Melam
+ex provincia Baetica Hispaniae interioris Cordubensem equitem Romanum,
+illustrem inter suos, notum Romae et propter Senecam fratrem, clarum
+per omnes virtutes virum, et propter studium vitae quietioris ...
+Matrem habuit et regionis eiusdem et urbis Aciliam nomine, Acilii
+Lucani filiam ... cuius cognomen huic inditum apparet.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 17, 'Mela, quibus Gallio et Seneca, parentibus
+natus ... Idem Annaeum Lucanum genuerat, grande adiumentum
+claritudinis.'
+
+Lucan was born Nov. 3, A.D. 39, and was removed to Rome when eight
+months old.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Natus est iii. Non. Novembr. C. Caesare Germanico ii.
+L. Apronio Caesiano coss. Octavum mensem agens Romam translatus est.'
+
+He had a successful school and college career. One of his teachers was
+Cornutus, through whom he knew Persius (see p. 261).
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A praeceptoribus tunc eminentissimis est eruditus
+eosque intra breve temporis spatium ingenio adaequavit ... Declamavit
+et graece et latine cum magna admiratione audientium.'
+
+His first literary success was the _laudes Neronis_ in A.D. 60; this
+led to his political advancement.
+
+Sueton. _vit. Luc._, 'Prima ingenii experimenta in Neronis laudibus
+dedit quinquennali certamine.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Ob quod puerili mutato in senatorium cultum et in
+notitiam Caesaris Neronis facile pervenit et honore vixdum aetati
+debito dignus iudicatus est. Gessit autem quaesturam, in qua cum
+collegis more tunc usitato munus gladiatorium edidit secundo populi
+favore; sacerdotium etiam accepit auguratus.'
+
+Similarly Suetonius, who also tells us that Lucan had been in Athens.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Revocatus Athenis a Nerone cohortique amicorum
+additus atque etiam quaestura honoratus, non tamen permansit in
+gratia.'
+
+The reason of the strained relations between Lucan and the emperor
+was, according to Suetonius, that Lucan had behaved rudely when
+reciting in public. Vacca says the reason lay in the jealousy felt by
+Nero, who forbade Lucan to write poetry or to plead causes.
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'Quippe et certamine pentaeterico acto in Pompei
+theatro laudibus recitatis in Neronem fuerat coronatus et ex tempore
+Orphea scriptum in experimentum adversum conplures ediderat poetas et
+tres libros, quales videmus. Quare inimicum sibi fecerat imperatorem.
+Quo ambitiosa vanitate, non hominum tantum, sed et artium sibi
+principatum vindicante interdictum est ei poetica, interdictum est
+etiam causarum actionibus.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xv. 49, 'Famam carminum eius premebat Nero
+prohibueratque ostentare, vanus adsimulatione.'
+
+Lucan replied by a poem satirizing Nero and his court.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Sed et famoso carmine cum ipsum tum potentissimos
+amicorum gravissime proscidit.'
+
+Lucan joined the conspiracy of Piso which was started A.D. 62, but was
+discovered, and compelled to commit suicide, 30th April, A.D. 65.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Paene signifer Pisonianae coniurationis extitit.'
+
+Vacca, _ibid._, 'A coniuratis in caedem Neronis socius adsumptus est,
+sed parum fauste. Deceptus est a Pisone ... Sua sponte coactus vita
+excedere venas sibi praecidit periitque pridie Kal. Maias Attico
+Vestino et Nerva Siliano coss., xxvi. aetatis annum agens.'
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xv. 70, 'Exin Annaei Lucani caedem imperat. Is, profluente
+sanguine, ubi frigescere pedes manusque et paulatim ab extremis cedere
+spiritum fervido adhuc et compote mentis pectore intellegit,
+recordatus carmen a se compositum, quo volneratum militem per eius
+modi mortis imaginem obisse tradiderat, versus ipsos rettulit, eaque
+illi suprema vox fuit.'
+
+Suetonius (corroborated by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 56) says that Lucan named
+his mother as a fellow-conspirator.
+
+'Verum detecta coniuratione nequaquam parem animi constantiam
+praestitit. Facile enim confessus et ad humillimas devolutus preces
+matrem quoque innoxiam inter socios nominavit, sperans impietatem sibi
+apud parricidam principem profuturam.... Epulatus largiter brachia ad
+secandas venas praebuit medico.'
+
+Lucan married Polla Argentaria. Statius and Martial were her friends,
+and seem to have kept up an observance of Lucan's birthday.
+
+Cf. especially Statius, _Silvae_, ii. 7, on which the author, in his
+preface to the book, says, 'Cludit volumen genethliacon Lucani, quod
+Polla Argentaria, clarissima uxorum, cum hunc diem forte
+consecraremus, imputari sibi voluit.'
+
+Martial vii. 21, 22, and 23 are written on the subject of Lucan's
+birthday.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The only extant work of Lucan is _De Bello Civili_. This is the
+title in the MSS., and in Petron. 118. The usual title comes from ix.
+985, 'Pharsalia nostra vivet,' words which come after a list of places
+in Greece and Asia immortalized by the poets, and which mean 'My story
+of Pharsalus shall live.' There is no evidence that Lucan gave the
+poem this title.
+
+2. _Lost works._ Vacca mentions the following:
+
+(_a_) In verse: Orpheus; Iliacon; Saturnalia; Catachthonion; Silvarum
+x.; tragoedia Medea (imperfecta): Salticae Fabulae, xiv.; epigrammata.
+
+(_b_) In prose: Oratio in Octavium Sagittam et pro eo; de incendio
+urbis; epistulae ex Campania.
+
+Suetonius also mentions 'Neronis laudes; famosum carmen in Neronem.'
+Stat. _Silv._ ii. 7, 62, mentions another work--'allocutio ad Pollam'
+(his wife).
+
+Lucan's works became immediately popular.
+
+Sueton. _ibid._, 'Poemata eius etiam praelegi memini, confici vero ac
+proponi, non tantum operose et diligenter, sed et inepte quoque.'
+
+Mart. xiv. 194,
+
+  'Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam:
+  sed qui me vendit bibliopola putat.'
+
+The epic poem _De Bello Civili_ in ten Books (the last incomplete)
+carries the story of the Civil War down to the point where Caesar is
+besieged in Alexandria. Vacca informs us that Lucan did not live to
+correct the last seven Books.
+
+'Ediderat ... tres libros quales videmus ... Reliqui vii. belli
+civilis libri locum calumniantibus tamquam mendosi non darent, qui
+tametsi sub vero crimine non egent patrocinio: in isdem dici, quod in
+Ovidii libris praescribitur, potest: "emendaturus, si licuisset,
+erat."'
+
+_Lucan's political views._--The first three Books were published when
+Lucan was still on good terms with Nero (cf. the gross flattery in i.
+33-66), but practically the same view of the empire is taken
+throughout the poem; only Lucan expresses his views with greater
+vigour in the last seven Books; and, while in Books i.-iii. the
+question is one between Caesar and Pompey, afterwards it is one
+between Caesar and liberty. Even in Books i.-iii. Caesar is the
+villain of the piece; Pompey embodies all that is good; Cato and
+Brutus are highly spoken of; the former stands as the ideal Stoic. The
+Senate, except in Book v. _ad init._, appears in a rather unfavourable
+light, and so does the plebs. Lucan did not want the re-establishment
+of the republican oligarchy, but acquiesced in the empire as being
+ordained by fate. This is borne out by what we know of the Pisonian
+conspiracy, the object of which was not to re-establish the republic,
+but to put some leading man like Seneca on the throne. A few
+quotations will exemplify these points:
+
+(1) The empire; iv. 691,
+
+           'Libyamque auferre tyranno
+  dum regnum te, Roma, facit';
+
+vii. 432,
+
+  'Quod fugiens civile nefas redituraque nunquam
+  libertas ultra Tigrim Rhenumque recessit';
+
+vii. 442,
+
+  'Felices Arabes Medique eoaque tellus,
+  quam sub perpetuis tenuerunt fata tyrannis.
+  Ex populis qui regna ferunt, sors ultima nostra est,
+  quos servire pudet.'
+
+(2) Pompeius; ii. 732-6,
+
+  'Non quia te superi patrio privare sepulchro
+  maluerint, Phariae busto damnantur harenae:
+  parcitur Hesperiae; procul hoc et in orbe remoto
+  abscondat fortuna nefas, Romanaque tellus
+  inmaculata sui servetur sanguine Magni.'
+
+Cf. ix. 601-4 (where apotheosis is assigned him).
+
+(3) Cato (the hero of Book ix.) and Brutus; ii. 234,
+
+  'At non magnanimi percussit pectora Bruti
+  terror';
+
+ix. 554,
+
+  'Nam cui crediderim superos arcana daturos
+  dicturosque magis quam sancto vera Catoni?'
+
+Cf. ix. 186-9.
+
+(4) Caesar; ii. 439,
+
+  'Caesar in arma furens nullas nisi sanguine fuso
+  gaudet habere vias';
+
+v. 242,
+
+  'perdere successus scelerum';
+
+vii. 593,
+
+               'nondum attigit arcem
+  iuris et humanum columen, quo cuncta premuntur,
+  egressus meruit fatis tam nobile letum.
+  Vivat et, ut Bruti procumbat victima, regnet.'
+
+Caesar's acts are sometimes unfairly represented, as in vii. 798
+_sqq._, ix. 1035 _sqq._ (on viewing Pompeius' corpse); ll. 1038-9,
+
+            'lacrimas non sponte cadentis
+  effudit gemitusque expressit pectore laeto.'
+
+_Lucan's philosophical and religious views._--His Stoicism comes out
+strongly in the poem, ix. 566-84 (speech of Cato), especially 578-80,
+
+  'Estque dei sedes, nisi terra et pontus et aer
+  et caelum et virtus? Superos quid quaerimus ultra?
+  Iuppiter est, quodcumque vides, quodcumque moveris?'
+
+vii. 814,
+
+  'Communis mundo superest rogus ossibus astra
+  mixturus.'
+
+Note especially the very frequent references to fate; i. 263-4,
+
+              'cunctasque pudoris
+  rumpunt fata moras.'
+
+The gods are not introduced as chief agents; cf. the censure of
+Petronius quoted below. Lucan prides himself on despising the gods,
+and substitutes for them his favourite divinity, Fortuna; i. 128,
+
+  'Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni';
+
+vii. 445,
+
+      'Sunt nobis nulla profecto
+  numina; cum caeco rapiantur saecula casu,
+  mentimur regnare Iovem.'
+
+_Rhetorical treatment_ is seen in (1) the vast amount of hyperbole
+employed; cf. the account of the siege of Massilia, iii. 538-762; (2)
+the geographical and mythological learning introduced. This is
+sometimes inaccurate; the best known instance is his confusion of
+Pharsalus and Philippi; cf. i. 1 and 688.
+
+_Lucan's models._--(1) For diction, chiefly Virgil.[77] Horace and
+Ovid are also imitated.
+
+(2) For history Lucan is supposed to have used Livy mostly. How far he
+used other authorities is unknown. His history is sometimes inexact.
+In ii. 478 _sqq._ the character of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus is falsely
+portrayed. So the journey of Cato to the shrine of Hammon, ix. 511
+_sqq._
+
+(3) Seneca is one of his authorities for science and philosophy. Thus
+in describing the Nile, x. 194-331, Lucan has used Seneca, _Nat.
+Quaest._ iv. 1-2. The biographer of the _Codex Vossianus_ ii.
+attributes (probably wrongly) the first seven verses of Book i. to
+Seneca.
+
+'Seneca, qui fuit avonculus eius, quia ex abrupto incohabat, hos vii.
+versus addidit: "Bella per Emathios" usque "et pila minantia pilis."'
+
+_Criticisms of Lucan._--Petronius, in introducing his parody of Lucan,
+says, par. 118, 'Ecce belli civilis ingens opus quisquis attigerit, nisi
+plenus litteris, sub onere labetur. Non enim res gestae versibus
+comprehendendae sunt, quod longe melius historici faciunt, sed per
+ambages deorumque ministeria et fabulosum sententiarum tormentum
+praecipitandus est liber spiritus.' See p. 275.
+
+Quint. x. 1, 90, 'Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiis
+clarissimus et, ut dicam quod sentio, magis oratoribus quam poetis
+imitandus.'
+
+
+
+PETRONIUS.
+
+
+The _Satirae_ of Petronius are attributed in the MSS. to Petronius
+Arbiter. It is practically certain that the author was C. Petronius,
+once proconsul of Bithynia and afterwards consul, who was long a
+member of Nero's inner circle, and who, in A.D. 66, when accused by
+Tigellinus, anticipated execution by suicide.
+
+Tac. _Ann._ xvi. 18, 'Proconsul Bithyniae, et mox consul, vigentem se
+ac parem negotiis ostendit. Dein revolutus ad vitia, seu vitiorum
+imitatione, inter paucos familiarium Neroni adsumptus est, elegantiae
+arbiter, dum nihil amoenum et molle adfluentia putat, nisi quod ei
+Petronius adprobavisset. Unde invidia Tigellini ... (Ch. 19) Forte ...
+Campaniam petiverat Caesar, et Cumas usque progressus Petronius illic
+attinebatur. Nec tulit ultra timoris aut spei moras. Neque tamen
+praeceps vitam expulit, sed incisas venas, ut libitum, obligatas
+aperire rursum, et adloqui amicos, non per seria aut quibus gloriam
+constantiae peteret ... Flagitia principis sub nominibus exoletorum
+feminarumque et novitatem cuiusque stupri perscripsit, atque obsignata
+misit Neroni.'
+
+The document mentioned above as sent to Nero has nothing to do with
+the extant _Satirae_. That C. Petronius is the author of the work is
+rendered even more certain from the fact that it was obviously written
+in Nero's time by a man of high culture and knowledge of the world.
+
+The novel contains an account of the adventures of a certain
+Encolpius, as told by himself. Encolpius comes in contact with Priapus
+in Massilia, Cumae, and Croton; and probably the wrath of Priapus (a
+parody of the wrath of Poseidon in the Odyssey) is the leading motive
+that binds the disjointed parts. Cf. ch. 139,
+
+  'Me quoque per terras, per cani Nereos aequor
+  Hellespontiaci sequitur gravis ira Priapi.'
+
+The work, the extant parts of which are from Books xv. and xvi., is in
+form a Satira Menippea,[78] alternately prose and verse. The longer
+episodes, as the supper of Trimalchio and the story of the matron of
+Ephesus, are exclusively prose. In the _Cena Trimalchionis_, where
+Encolpius and his company are entertained by a rich freedman,
+Petronius has given us a correct account of provincial life in South
+Italy. Mommsen (_Hermes_, xiii. 106) has shown that Cumae was the town
+where Trimalchio lived. It is a 'Graeca urbs' (ch. 81), and a Roman
+colony (ch. 44, etc.), so that it cannot be Naples. The chief
+magistrates are called _praetores_ (ch. 65), which suits Cumae alone
+of the towns of this district. The only objection to Cumae being the
+place is the passage in ch. 48, where an event at Cumae is given as
+something wonderful and unusual:
+
+'Nam Sibyllam quidem Cumis ego ipse oculis meis vidi in ampulla
+pendere, et cum illi pueri dicerent: +Sibylla, ti theleis?+
+respondebat illa: +apothanein thelo+.'
+
+This, however, may simply be given for comic effect. Friedlaender
+thinks _Cumis_ is a wrong reading. The date of Encolpius' adventures
+cannot be under Tiberius, for the emperor is called 'pater patriae'
+(ch. 60), a title which Tiberius refused. Mommsen thinks the dramatic
+date is under Augustus; Friedlaender,[79] towards the end of Claudius'
+or the beginning of Nero's reign. The cognomen of Trimalchio,
+Maecenatianus (ch. 71), means that he was a freedman of the well-known
+Maecenas. Trimalchio, therefore, came to Rome as a boy (ch. 29; 75)
+before Maecenas' death (B.C. 8), and was probably born about B.C. 18.
+He is represented as 'senex' (ch. 27), _i.e._ at least sixty, but may
+have been over seventy. A.D. 57 is probably the later limit of date.
+Mommsen thinks that the words (ch. 57), 'puer capillatus in hanc
+coloniam veni: adhuc basilica non erat facta,' mean that when
+Trimalchio came to Cumae it was not a Roman colony. Now, Cumae became
+a colony between 43 and 27 B.C., and, on this supposition, the supper
+of Trimalchio would have to be placed between A.D. 7 and A.D. 23, as
+it is about fifty years since Trimalchio came to Cumae. Friedlaender,
+however, thinks that the basilica would not have been put up
+immediately the town became a colony.
+
+The language of the narrative is that of the educated classes of the
+time, and is in close agreement with the style of Seneca the younger.
+The diction of Trimalchio and his fellow-freedman is the South Italian
+popular speech of the time, filled with grammatical mistakes and
+provincialisms, and rich in proverbial expressions. The longest poems
+in the work are: (1) _Troiae halosis_ (ch. 89), 65 senarii, supposed
+to be a parody of Nero's poem of the same name; (2) _De bello civili_
+(ch. 119-124), 295 hexameters, in which Lucan's style is imitated and
+sometimes parodied. Cf. ll. 26-7,
+
+  'Et laxi crines et tot nova nomina vestis,
+  quaeque virum quaerunt,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 164-5,
+
+         'Cultus gestare decoros
+  vix nuribus rapuere mares';
+
+and ll. 51-2,
+
+  'Praeterea gemino deprensam gurgite plebem
+  faenoris illuvies ususque exederat aeris,'
+
+with Lucan, i. 181,
+
+  'Hinc usura vorax, avidumque in tempora faenus.'
+
+
+
+CALPURNIUS SICULUS.
+
+
+Eleven eclogues used to be attributed to T. Calpurnius Siculus, but
+only the first seven are his work, the last four being written by M.
+Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus in the second half of the 3rd century
+A.D. A MS. now lost gave before _Ecl._ 1, 'Titi Calphurnii Siculi
+bucolicum carmen ... incipit'; and before _Ecl._ 8, 'Aurelii Nemesiani
+poetae Carthaginiensis ecloga prima incipit.'
+
+Some information about Calpurnius' life is got from his works. In 4,
+17-8, he (as Corydon) mentions a brother; in 4, 155-6, he speaks of
+his poverty; and in 4, 29 _sqq._, of Meliboeus as having come to his
+assistance when about to leave for Spain; cf. _Ecl._ 4, 36-42,
+
+  Ecce nihil querulum per te, Meliboee, sonamus;
+  per te secura saturi recubamus in umbra,
+  et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos, ultima nuper
+  litora terrarum, nisi tu, Meliboee, fuisses,
+  ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris
+  pascua Geryonis.
+
+The old theory was that Calpurnius lived in the time of Carus and his
+sons (in the second half of the 3rd century A.D.), but the facts fit
+in best with the view that he lived at the beginning of Nero's reign.
+(1) Meliboeus in _Ecl._ 4 probably stands for Seneca (others suppose
+Calpurnius Piso to be meant); 4, 53-7,
+
+  Nam tibi non tantum venturos discere nimbos
+  agricolis qualemque ferat sol aureus ortum,
+  attribuere dei, sed dulcia carmina saepe
+  concinis.
+
+These lines agree with the fact of Seneca's being the author of
+_Naturales Quaestiones_ and of tragedies. (2) _Ecl._ i. 77-83 refers
+to the comet which appeared at the beginning of Nero's reign. (3)
+References to Nero's youth and beauty, poetical gifts, the games he
+gave, and the new era of peace he introduced; 1, 42-5,
+
+  Aurea secura cum pace renascitur aetas,
+  et redit ad terras tandem squalore situque
+  alma Themis posito, iuvenemque beata secuntur
+  saecula, maternis causam qui vicit in ulnis
+
+7, 6,
+
+  quae patula iuvenis deus edit harena.
+
+Cf. also 1, 84-8; 4, 84-9; 7, 83-4. _Ecl._ 7 used to be taken as
+referring to the Colosseum, which was not commenced till about A.D.
+77; but the games may be those mentioned in Sueton. _Nero_, 11, and
+the wooden amphitheatre in 7, 23-4, may be that mentioned by Sueton.
+_Nero_, 12, and Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 31.
+
+The difference of authorship of _Ecl._ 1-7 and of _Ecl._ 8-11 is shown
+by the following: (1) Final _o_ shows classical usage in 1-7, but in
+8-11 we have _expecto_ (9, 26), _coniungo_ (10, 14), _ambo_ (9, 17),
+and the like; (2) 1-7 show only eight elisions, 7-11 show thirty-nine;
+(3) no ending like _montivagus Pan_ (10, 17) is found in 1-7; (4)
+_fateor_ and _memini_ used parenthetically are common in 1-7, and not
+found in 8-11; (5) there are no allusions to the emperor in 8-11; (6)
+_Ecl._ 9 shows imitations of _Ecl._ 2 and 3; (7) 8-11 agree in many
+points with Nemesianus' _Cynegetica_.
+
+The _Eclogues_ are modelled chiefly on Virgil and Theocritus, _e.g._
+_Ecl._ 3 on Verg. _Ecl._ 7 and Theocr. 3, 14, and 23.
+
+The poem _de laude Pisonis_ is now generally attributed to Calpurnius
+Siculus. One point of similarity with Calpurnius' other poems is the
+rareness of elision, there being only two instances (ll. 24, 259). The
+description of Piso's liberality and eloquence (ll. 32, 88, 97 _sqq._)
+and of his skill in draughts (ll. 178-96) corresponds with the
+information given by Tac. _Ann._ xv. 48 and the Schol. on Iuv. 5, 109,
+about Calpurnius Piso, who flourished under Claudius.
+
+
+
+AETNA.
+
+
+This poem, in 645 hexameter lines, is attributed to Virgil in the
+MSS., but is probably by Lucilius Iunior, to whom Seneca addresses his
+_Epistulae Morales_, _De Providentia_, and _Quaestiones Naturales_.
+Lucilius was younger than Seneca (Sen. _Ep._ 26, 7, 'iuvenior es'),
+and was born at Naples or Pompeii.
+
+Sen. _Ep._ 49, 1, 'Ecce Campania et maxime Neapolis ad Pompeiorum
+tuorum conspectum incredibile est quam recens desiderium tui
+fecerint.'
+
+Lucilius had held procuratorial offices in Alpes Graiae et Poeninae,
+Epirus, Creta et Cyrene, and Sicily.
+
+_Ibid._ 44, 2, 'Eques Romanus es et ad hunc ordinem tua te perduxit
+industria.' _Ibid._ 31, 9, 'Quo modo, inquis, isto pervenitur? Non per
+Poeninum Graiumve montem, nec per deserta Candaviae, nec Syrtes tibi
+nec Scylla aut Charybdis adeundae sunt, quae tamen omnia transisti
+procuratiunculae pretio.'[80]
+
+Sen. _N.Q._ iv. praef. 1, 'Delectat te, Lucili, Sicilia et officium
+procurationis otiosae.'
+
+For his life cf. also the words put into his mouth by Sen. _N.Q._ iv.
+praef. 15-17, which show his loyalty to his friends, 'Non mihi in
+amicitia Gaetulici (died A.D. 39) vel Gaius fidem eripuit, non in
+aliorum persona infeliciter amatorum Messalla et Narcissus ...
+propositum meum avertere potuerunt ... videbam apud Gaium tormenta,
+videbam ignes.'[81]
+
+Seneca speaks of him as a pupil in philosophy in _Ep._ 34, 2, 'Adsero
+te mihi: meum opus es.'
+
+A literary work of his is spoken of by Seneca, also a poem in which he
+mentions Alpheus and Arethusa:
+
+_Ep._ 46, 1, 'Librum tuum, quem mihi promiseras, accepi. Levis mihi
+visus est, cum esset nec mei nec tui corporis, sed qui primo adspectu
+aut T. Livi aut Epicuri posset videri ... Non tantum delectatus, sed
+gavisus sum.'
+
+_N.Q._ iii. 26, 6, 'Hoc et a te traditum est ut in poemate, Lucili
+carissime, et a Vergilio, qui adloquitur Arethusam.'
+
+A poem on Aetna is referred to in _Ep._ 79, 5-7, 'Donec pudor obstet,
+ne Aetnam describas in tuo carmine et hunc sollemnem omnibus poetis
+locum adtingas; quem quo minus Ovidius tractaret, nihil obstitit, quod
+iam Vergilius impleverat ... Aut ego te non novi aut Aetna tibi
+salivam movet: iam cupis grande aliquid et par prioribus scribere.'
+
+Some authorities think that Lucilius had meant to incorporate this
+description in a larger poem, but changed his mind, and wrote a poem
+on Aetna alone.
+
+As regards the date of the poem: (1) It was written at a time when
+imitation of Ovid was common. Cf. Sen. _N.Q._ iv. 2, 2, 'Quare non cum
+poeta meo iocor et illi Ovidium suum impingo?' (2) There is no mention
+of Vesuvius in the list of volcanoes in 1. 425 _sqq._ The poem must
+therefore have been written before A.D. 79.
+
+The following are the arguments for Lucilius having been the author:
+
+(1) The poem was written by one who knew Aetna and the vicinity. Now
+Lucilius was long procurator of Sicily.
+
+(2) Military metaphors, as ll. 464-74, would fit in with his having
+been a soldier.
+
+(3) The author speaks as if he knew the neighbourhood of Naples well.
+
+(4) However, the argument that the writer shows Epicurean views, and
+that Lucilius was an Epicurean, has little weight. (_a_) There are
+Stoical doctrines in the poem. Cf. ll. 33-5, 68-70, on the divinity of
+the stars; ll. 173-4, which maintain that the world would come back to
+its former state; ll. 536-9, where Heraclitus' doctrine of fire is
+recommended. (_b_) The _Epistulae Morales_ only show that Lucilius had a
+leaning to Epicureanism, not that he was an Epicurean. Cf. _Ep._ 23,
+9, 'Vocem tibi Epicuri tui reddere,' and other playful references.
+
+(5) The views on natural science given in the poem are sometimes the
+same as those in Sen. _N.Q._ This would fix the date of the poem
+between 65 and 79 A.D. Cf. _Aetna_, 123,
+
+  'Flumina quin etiam latis currentia rivis
+   occasus habuere suos: aut illa vorago
+   derepta in praeceps fatali condidit ore
+   aut occulta fluunt tectis adoperta cavernis
+   atque inopinatos referunt procul edita cursus';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ iii. 26, 3, 'Quaedam flumina palam in aliquem specum
+decidunt et sic ex oculis auferuntur, quaedam consumuntur paulatim et
+intercidunt. Eadem ex intervallo revertuntur recipiuntque et nomen et
+cursum.' Cf. also _Aetna_, 96,
+
+                   'Defit namque omnis hiatu,
+  secta est omnis humus penitusque cavata latebris
+  exiles suspensa vias agit';
+
+and Sen. _N.Q._ v. 14, 1, 'Non tota solido contextu terra in imum
+usque fundatur, sed multis partibus cava et caecis suspensa latebris.'
+So the story of the Catanian brothers (ll. 624-45) is told by Sen. _De
+Benef._ iii. 37, 2-3.
+
+Imitations of Lucretius abound. Cf. ll. 219 _sqq._,
+
+  'Nunc quoniam in promptu est operis natura solique,
+   unde ipsi venti, quae res incendia pascit,' etc.
+
+For the author's attacks on superstition, cf. ll. 91-3,
+
+  'Debita carminibus libertas ista; sed omnis
+   in vero mihi cura: canam quo fervida motu
+   aestuet Aetna novosque rapax sibi congerat ignes.'
+
+A version of the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus is extant, the author of which
+is called in the MSS. 'Claudius Caesar,' or 'Germanicus.' He is
+generally identified with Germanicus, the adopted son of Tiberius (so
+Jerome and Lactantius), though in modern times the poem has been
+ascribed to Domitian, who had the title of 'Germanicus' from A.D. 84.
+There are also fragments of _Prognostica_, which are independent of
+Aratus.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE ELDER.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+There is a very brief life of Pliny by Suetonius, but most of our
+information about him is derived from his own writings and the letters
+of his nephew (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5; v. 8; vi. 16; vi. 20).
+
+C. Plinius Secundus was born A.D. 23 or 24, for at the time of his
+death in A.D. 79 he was in his fifty-sixth year (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5,
+7, 'decessisse anno sexto et quinquagesimo'). His birthplace was Comum
+in Cisalpine Gaul, according to Sueton. _vit. Plin._ In an anonymous
+Life he is styled 'Veronensis,' probably on account of the phrase in
+_N.H._ praef. 1, 'Catullum conterraneum meum,' where, however, _terra_
+means Gallia, the province, not the city.
+
+Pliny was the son of an _eques_, and had a sister married to L.
+Caecilius of Novum Comum (see p. 139). He came to Rome not later than
+A.D. 35 (_N.H._ xxxvii. 81, 'Servilii Noniani quem consulem vidimus'),
+and was trained in poetry and literature, probably by P. Pomponius
+Secundus[82]; his instructors in rhetoric are not known, but he
+mentions as rhetoricians Remmius Palaemon (xiv. 49) and Arellius
+Fuscus (xxxiii. 152). In botany he learned much from Antonius Castor
+(xxv. 9).
+
+At the beginning of the reign of Claudius, Pliny was an eye-witness of
+the building operations at the harbour of Ostia, A.D. 42 (ix. 14): in
+44 he practised in the law courts. Having decided on a military
+career, he would begin, according to the regulation of Claudius
+(Sueton. _Claud._ 25), with the command of a cohort of infantry. He
+was next _praefectus alae_ (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5, 3) under Corbulo, who
+was _legatus_ of Germania Inferior, A.D. 47, in his campaign against
+the Chauci: cf. _N.H._ xvi. 2, 'Sunt vero in septemtrione visae nobis
+Chaucorum [gentes]'; and in A.D. 50 fought under Pomponius against the
+Chatti. His 'castrense contubernium' with Titus (born A.D. 41) was
+probably in 55 or 56, when he was in the army of Pompeius Paulinus:
+cf. xxxiii. 143, 'Pompeium Paulinum XII pondo argenti habuisse apud
+exercitum ferocissimis gentibus oppositum scimus.' Personal knowledge
+of Germany appears in several passages of the _N.H._, e.g. xii. 98,
+'extremo in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi'; xxii. 8, 'quem
+morem etiam nunc durare apud Germanos scio.'
+
+Pliny was present at the festivities at Lake Fucinus in A.D. 52
+(xxxiii. 63). During Nero's reign he spent some time in Campania (ii.
+180) and Cisalpine Gaul (xxxv. 20), was a spectator at the Vatican
+games in A.D. 59, and saw the building of Nero's golden house after
+the fire of A.D. 64 (xxxvi. iii).
+
+Under Vespasian Pliny was procurator in Italy, and in several of the
+provinces: Sueton. _vit._, 'Procurationes splendidissimas et continuas
+summa integritate administravit.' (_a_) Hispania Tarraconensis: Plin.
+_Ep._ iii. 5, 17, 'cum procuraret in Hispania'; (_b_) Gallia
+Narbonensis: _N.H._ ii. 150, 'ego vidi in Vocontiorum agro'; (_c_)
+Gallia Belgica: xviii. 183, 'nec recens subtrahemus exemplum in
+Treverico agro tertio ante hoc anno compertum'; (_d_) Africa: vii. 36,
+'ipse in Africa vidi.' For his intimacy with Vespasian cf. Plin. _Ep._
+iii. 5, 9, 'ante lucem ibat ad Vespasianum imperatorem ... inde ad
+delegatum sibi officium.'
+
+In A.D. 79 Pliny was in command of the fleet at Misenum, when his
+scientific interest in the eruption of Vesuvius led him to approach
+too near the volcano, with the result that he was suffocated by the
+ashes (24th August). For a detailed account of his death, see Plin.
+_Ep._ vi. 16 (to Tacitus). Cf. Sueton. _vit._, 'Periit clade
+Campaniae. Cum enim Misenensi classi praeesset, et flagrante Vesuvio
+ad explorandas propius causas liburnica pertendisset, neque
+adversantibus ventis remeare posset, vi pulveris ac favillae oppressus
+est, vel, ut quidam existimant, a servo suo occisus, quem aestu
+deficiens ut necem sibi maturaret oraverit.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+A chronological list of Pliny's writings is given by his nephew (_Ep._
+iii. 5).
+
+1. _De iaculatione equestri_.--'Hunc, cum praefectus alae militaret,
+pari ingenio curaque composuit.' This manual on the javelin as a
+cavalry weapon is mentioned by Pliny himself, _N.H._ viii. 162, 'Nos
+diximus in libro de iaculatione equestri condito.'
+
+2. _De vita Pomponii Secundi_, in two Books, a tribute to the memory
+of a valued friend, the tragic poet Pomponius. Cf. _N.H._ xiv. 56,
+'referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis.'
+
+3. _Bella Germaniae_, in twenty Books, a narrative of the Roman wars
+in Germany; begun by Pliny when serving in that country, the
+apparition of Drusus having besought him to rescue his name from
+oblivion (so Pliny the younger). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ i. 69, 'Tradit C.
+Plinius, Germanicorum bellorum scriptor.'
+
+4. _Studiosus_, in three Books or six parts, a treatise on rhetoric
+from the very rudiments. Quintilian, though surprised at some of
+Pliny's views (xi. 3, 143; 148), numbers him among the more careful
+exponents of the subject (iii. 1, 21, 'accuratius scripsit'). The book
+contained models of good style: Gell. ix. 16, 1, 'refert plerasque
+sententias quas in declamandis controversiis lepide arguteque dictas
+putat.'
+
+5. _Dubius Sermo_, in eight Books, published A.D. 67, towards the end
+of Nero's reign, when purely technical subjects alone could be treated
+without danger to an author. Cf. _N.H._ praef. 28, 'libellos quos de
+grammatica edidi.'
+
+6. _A fine Aufidii Bassi_, in thirty-one Books. At what point Bassus'
+history ended and Pliny's began is not known: but the latter certainly
+dealt with the closing years of Nero's reign (_N.H._ ii. 199, 'anno
+Neronis principis supremo, sicut in rebus eius exposuimus'), as well
+as with the times of Vespasian and Titus (_N.H._ praef. 20, 'Vos
+omnes, patrem te fratremque diximus opere iusto, temporum nostrorum
+historiam orsi a fine Aufidii Bassi'). The work was completed in A.D.
+77, but not published till after the author's death. His nephew says
+he wrote with scrupulous care: _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'historias et quidem
+religiosissime scripsit.' The book was used by Tacitus (_Ann._ xiii.
+20; xv. 53; _Hist._ iii. 28).
+
+7. _Naturae Historiae_, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny's only extant
+work. As he speaks of Titus as 'sexies consul,' the date of its
+presentation to him was A.D. 77. Book i. consists of a dedicatory
+epistle to Titus and a table of contents. The body of the work is
+arranged as follows: Book ii., the universe and the elements;
+iii.-vi., geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa; vii., anthropology
+and human physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xix., botany;
+xx.-xxvii., the use of vegetable substances in medicine;
+xxviii.-xxxii., the use of animal substances in medicine;
+xxxiii.-xxxvii., mineralogy applied to medicine and the fine arts.
+
+This work, which was meant not for continuous perusal, but for
+consultation as a book of reference, contained twenty thousand facts;
+and its preparation involved the reading of about two thousand volumes
+by one hundred authors (see _N.H._ praef. 17). The extracts he had
+made from these sources Pliny bequeathed to his nephew in one hundred
+and sixty volumes. He makes a point of acknowledging his obligations
+to other writers (praef. 21, 'in his voluminibus auctorum nomina
+praetexui, est enim benignum ... et plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per
+quos profeceris'); cf. the lists of authorities, Roman and foreign,
+prefixed to the work. Such devotion to natural science was unusual in
+men of Pliny's class, and not generally appreciated; cf. xxii. 15,
+'Plerisque ultro etiam irrisui sumus ista commentantes atque frivoli
+operis arguimur.' As a scientific writer Pliny fails because he is not
+an original investigator, and because he lacks the critical faculty.
+For his method of working see Plin. _Ep._ iii. 5.
+
+Politically, Pliny recognizes the necessity of the empire, but his
+heroes are old Romans such as Cincinnatus and Cato. His Roman and
+Italian feeling is intense: cf. xxxvii. 201, 'In toto orbe ...
+pulcherrima omnium est in rebusque merito principatum naturae obtinet
+Italia, rectrix parensque mundi altera.'
+
+His view of life is gloomy (_N.H._ ii. 25, 'nec quidquam miserius
+homine'), and through the _Naturae Historiae_ there runs a monotonous
+strain of condemnation of the immorality of his day. He is uncertain
+as to divine providence, but considers the belief in it salutary, and
+he accepts portents (ii. 92). His tendency is, in the main, Stoic; he
+was probably acquainted with Paetus Thrasea, who corresponded with
+Pomponius.
+
+
+
+VALERIUS FLACCUS.
+
+
+His full name is given in the Vatican MS. as C. Valerius Flaccus
+Setinus Balbus. It is doubtful (even if the last two names really
+belong to the poet) whether _Setinus_ means from Setia in Italy or
+from Setia in Spain. The poet's Latinity gives no evidence on the
+point. Quintilian is the only Roman writer who refers to him; x. 1,
+90, 'Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus'; which shows that he
+must have died about A.D. 90. In the beginning of the first Book of
+the _Argonautica_ (written shortly after A.D. 70), Valerius addresses
+Vespasian, referring to his exploits in Britain, and to the capture of
+Jerusalem by Titus; i. 7 _sqq._,
+
+    'Tuque o, pelagi cui maior aperti
+  fama, Caledonius postquam tua carbasa vexit
+  oceanus Phrygios prius indignatus Iulos,
+  eripe me populis et habenti nubila terrae,
+  sancte pater, veterumque fave veneranda canenti
+  facta virum. Versam proles tua pandet Idumen
+  (namque potest), Solymo nigrantem pulvere fratrem
+  spargentemque faces et in omni turre furentem.'
+
+i. 5 _sqq._ probably shows that Valerius was a quindecimvir sacris
+faciundis,
+
+  'Phoebe, mone, si Cymaeae mihi conscia vatis
+  stat casta cortina domo, si laurea digna
+  fronte viret.'
+
+Cf. the allusion in viii. 239 _sqq._ to Cybele's bath, which was under
+the management of the xv.viri; and to the rites of lustration, iii.
+417 _sqq._
+
+There are several allusions to the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D.
+79, _e.g._ iv. 507.
+
+The _Argonautica_ is in eight Books, the last being incomplete, and
+the story breaking off shortly before the death of Medea's brother,
+Absyrtus. Valerius probably meant to write twelve Books, but it is not
+known how much farther he actually proceeded in his work. There is
+evidence to show that the last Books would have differed considerably
+from the story as given by Apollonius Rhodius; _e.g._ the visit to
+Phaeacia was probably omitted, as Jason was married at Peuce (Book
+viii.).
+
+Apollonius is followed very closely, many passages being translated
+from him; thus iv. 236 = Apoll. ii. 38; vii. 404 = Apoll. in. 966.
+Valerius, however, amplifies where Apollonius is brief, and vice
+versa. Thus Apoll. ii. 948 _sqq._ is dismissed by Valerius v. 110
+_sqq._ in a few words. The character painting of Valerius is superior
+to that of the original, cf. the character of Jason and of Aeetes. So
+for his artistic work; thus his portraiture of the gradual progress of
+Medea's love is superior to Apollonius' description, and to Virgil's
+of Dido.
+
+The obligations to Virgil are paramount.
+
+(1) Verbal; as i. 55,
+
+  'Tu, cui iam curaeque vigent animique viriles,'
+
+from _Aen._ ix. 311,
+
+  'Ante annos animumque gerens curamque virilem.'
+
+Cf. 'horrentem iaculis, nec credere quivi, heu quid agat, libans
+carchesia, summa dies, miscere polum, rumpere questus,' in Book i.[83]
+
+(2) In matter. The description of Fame, ii. 116 _sqq._, is from _Aen._
+iv. The character of Styrus, the betrothed of Medea, is modelled on
+that of Turnus.
+
+After Virgil, Homer (esp. in Book vi.), Ovid, and Seneca's tragedies
+are chiefly imitated. Statius is full of imitations of Valerius.
+
+Valerius often tries to connect his subject with Rome.[84] Cf. ii.
+304,
+
+  'Iam nemus Egeriae, iam te ciet altus ab Alba
+  Iuppiter et soli non mitis Aricia regi';
+
+ii 573,
+
+  'genus Aeneadum et Troiae melioris honores.'
+
+
+
+SILIUS ITALICUS.
+
+
+The full name of Silius is got from an inscription (_C.I.L._ vi.
+1984), and is Ti. Catius Silius Italicus. Our chief information about
+his life is found in Pliny, _Epist._ iii. 7, where his recent death is
+mentioned. It was probably written A.D. 101, and as it states that
+Silius was then 75 years old, the year of his birth was A.D. 25. His
+birthplace is unknown, but was not Italica in Spain, otherwise Martial
+would have claimed him as a countryman. Pliny tells us that Silius had
+risen by acting as a _delator_ under Nero, who made him consul A.D.
+68. He had taken the side of Vitellius in the war of the succession
+A.D. 69[85] and had afterwards, as proconsul, governed Asia with
+success (under Vespasian). After this he possessed great social
+influence. Towards the end of his life, he retired to Campania, and
+gave himself up to study. The account of his learned retirement,[86]
+his reverence for Virgil,[87] the consulship of his son,[88] the death
+of his younger son,[89] and other details, are corroborated by his
+contemporary Martial.
+
+The passage of Pliny is as follows:
+
+'Modo nuntiatus est Silius Italicus in Neapolitano suo inedia finisse
+vitam. Causa mortis valetudo. Erat illi natus insanabilis clavus,
+cuius taedio ad mortem inrevocabili constantia decucurrit, usque ad
+supremum diem beatus et felix, nisi quod minorem ex liberis duobus
+amisit, sed maiorem melioremque florentem atque etiam consularem
+reliquit. Laeserat famam suam sub Nerone, credebatur sponte accusasse:
+sed in Vitelli amicitia sapienter se et comiter gesserat, ex
+proconsulatu Asiae gloriam reportaverat, maculam veteris industriae
+laudabili otio abluerat. Fuit inter principes civitatis sine potentia,
+sine invidia: salutabatur, colebatur, multumque in lectulo iacens
+cubiculo semper non ex fortuna frequenti doctissimis sermonibus dies
+transigebat, cum a scribendo vacaret. Scribebat carmina maiore cura
+quam ingenio, non numquam iudicia hominum recitationibus experiebatur.
+Novissime ita suadentibus annis ab urbe secessit, seque in Campania
+tenuit, ac ne adventu quidem novi principis inde commotus est ... Erat
++philokalos+ usque ad emacitatis reprehensionem. Plures isdem
+in locis villas possidebat adamatisque novis priores neglegebat.
+Multum ubique librorum, multum statuarum, multum imaginum, quas non
+habebat modo verum etiam venerabatur, Vergilii ante omnes, cuius
+natalem religiosius quam suum celebrabat, Neapoli maxime, ubi
+monimentum eius adire ut templum solebat. In hac tranquillitate annum
+quintum et septuagensimum excessit, delicato magis corpore quam
+infirmo; utque novissimus a Nerone factus est consul, ita postremus ex
+omnibus quos Nero consules fecerat decessit.'
+
+Silius' career as an orator is mentioned by Martial vii. 63, 5-8,
+
+  'Sacra cothurnati non attigit ante Maronis,
+    implevit magni quam Ciceronis opus.
+  Hunc miratur adhuc centum gravis hasta virorum,
+    hunc loquitur grato plurimus ore cliens.'
+
+The _Punica_ is an Epic in seventeen Books on the Second Punic War,
+and treats of events down to the battle of Zama, B.C. 202. The
+historical treatment is founded mainly on Livy, and in point of style
+Silius has followed Homer and Virgil, imitations of whom are found on
+every page. For Silius' reverence for Virgil, see above, and cf. viii.
+593,
+
+  'Mantua Musarum domus, atque ad sidera cantu
+  evecta Aonio, et Smyrnaeis aemula plectris.'
+
+Silius also follows Homer and Virgil in their mythology, bringing in
+supernatural motives in a way unsuitable to a historical subject,
+_e.g._ in xv. 20, where Scipio has, like Hercules, to choose between
+Voluptas and Virtus.
+
+The example of Hannibal's dream, iii. 163-182, will show these
+different points. The story of the dream is got from Livy xxi. 22,
+but, for _iuvenis divina specie_, Silius, like Virg. _Aen._ iv. 222
+_sqq._ and 259 _sqq._ substitutes Mercury. Individual imitations in
+the passage are: l. 172, 'Turpe duci totam somno consumere noctem,'
+from _Il._ ii. 24, +ou chre pannychion heudein boulephoron
+andra+; l. 168, 'umentem noctis umbram' is from _Aen._ iv. 7,
+'umentemque Aurora polo dimoverat umbram'; l. 174, 'iam maria effusas
+cernes turbare carinas,' from _Aen._ iv. 566, 'iam mare turbari
+trabibus ... videbis'; l. 182, 'altae moenia Romae' is from _Aen._ i.
+7; l. 181, 'respexisse veto' from _Ecl._ 8, 102, 'nec respexeris.'
+
+The Epitome of the Iliad (in 1075 hexameters), which passes under the
+name of _Homerus Latinus_, has been attributed to Silius. It is a
+close adaptation from the original.
+
+
+
+STATIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+P. Papinius Statius was born at Naples (_Silv._ i. 2, 260, 'mea
+Parthenope'), probably about A.D. 60, for he speaks of himself as on
+the threshold of life at the time of his father's death, about A.D. 80
+('limine primo fatorum,' _Silv._ v. 3, 72). The apparent discrepancy
+in _Silv._ iv. 4, 69 (written A.D. 94-5), 'Nos facta aliena canendo
+vergimur in senium,' may be explained by observing that 'senium' is
+very often used for premature age induced by study (cf. 'insenuit,'
+Hor. _Ep._ ii. 2, 82).
+
+The father of Statius came of a distinguished but not wealthy family:
+_Silv._ v. 3, 116,
+
+  'Non tibi deformes obscuri sanguinis ortus
+  nec sine luce genus, quamquam fortuna parentum
+  artior expensis.'
+
+He taught first at Naples (_ibid._ l. 146) and then at Rome (l. 176);
+and died at the age of sixty-five (l. 252) soon after the eruption of
+Vesuvius, which he had intended to make the subject of a poem (l.
+205). It was from his learned father ('genitor perdocte,' l. 3) that
+Statius derived his first impulse towards poetry, and to his training
+he acknowledges deep obligations (ll. 209-214).
+
+Statius won two prizes for poetry, at the _Augustalia_ in Naples and
+at Alba; but was unsuccessful at the Capitoline competition, probably
+in A.D. 94 (_ibid._ 225-232). In that year he seems to have removed
+from Rome to Naples, and spent there the remainder of his days:
+_Silv._ iii. 5, 12,
+
+  'Anne quod Euboicos fessus remeare penates
+  auguror et patria senium componere terra?'
+
+The date of his death is unknown. The latest event mentioned in his
+poems is the seventeenth consulship of Domitian, A.D. 95 (_Silv._ iv.
+1).
+
+Statius was married to a widow named Claudia (_Silv._ iii. 5, 51
+_sqq._), but had no children (v. 5, 79).
+
+He enjoyed the favour of Domitian ('indulgentissimus imperator,'
+_Silv._ i. praef.) who granted him a supply of water for his country
+house at Alba, and occasionally invited him to his table: _Silv._ iii.
+1, 61,
+
+  'Ast ego, Dardaniae quamvis sub collibus Albae
+  rus proprium magnique ducis mihi munere currens
+  unda domi curas mulcere aestusque levare
+  sufficerent.'
+
+_Silv._ iv. praef., 'Sacratissimis eius epulis honoratus.'
+
+He more than once promises to write an epic on Domitian's career (e.g.
+_Theb._ i. 32). The emperor's freedman Earinus (_Silv._ iii. 4) was
+one of Statius' patrons.
+
+His regard for the poet Lucan produced _Silv._ ii. 7, which is a poem
+on Lucan's birthday, addressed to his widow (see p. 267). But his
+chief admiration was reserved for the memory of Virgil: Naples and
+Alba were endeared to him by their associations with the 'great
+master' and the story of Aeneas: _Silv._ iv. 4, 53,
+
+  'Tenues ignavo pollice chordas
+  pulso, Maroneique sedens in margine templi
+  sumo animum et magni tumulis adcanto magistri.'
+
+For Alba cf. _Silv._ v. 3, 37. The _Thebais_ must recognize its
+inferiority to the _Aeneid_: _Theb._ xii. 816,
+
+  'Vive, precor; nec tu divinam Aeneida tempta,
+  sed longe sequere et vestigia semper adora.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. The _Thebais_, an epic poem in twelve Books, occupied Statius for
+twelve years: xii. 811,
+
+  'O mihi bis senos multum vigilata per annos
+  Thebai.'
+
+Cf. _Silv._ iv. 7, 26,
+
+  'Thebais multa cruciata lima.'
+
+The twelve years were probably 79-91 or 80-92 A.D. _Silv._ i. praef.
+(written 91 or 92), 'Adhuc pro Thebaide mea, quamvis me reliquerit,
+timeo.' The publication apparently did not take place till A.D. 95
+(cf. _Silv._ iv. 4, 87 _sqq._ written in that year).
+
+The subject of the poem is the strife between the brothers Eteocles
+and Polynices, and the subsequent history of Thebes to the death of
+Creon. The dedication is to Domitian. For the popularity of the
+_Thebais_ cf. Juv. _Sat._ 7, 82,
+
+  'Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae
+  Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem
+  promisitque diem. Tanta dulcedine captos
+  afficit ille animos tantaque libidine volgi
+  auditur; sed, cum fregit subsellia versu,
+  esurit, intactam Paridi nisi vendit Agaven.'
+
+2. The _Achilleis_, also dedicated to Domitian, is an incomplete epic,
+consisting of one Book and part of a second. It was later than the
+Thebaid, for Statius was working at it in A.D. 95: _Silv._ iv. 4, 93,
+
+  'Nunc vacuos crines alio subit infula nexu:
+  Troia quidem magnusque mihi temptatur Achilles.'
+
+The poem was intended to cover the whole career of Achilles, including
+his retreat in Scyros before the Trojan War, and his exploits after
+the death of Hector, which did not enter into the plan of the _Iliad_:
+cf. l. 3,
+
+      'Quamquam acta viri multum inclita cantu
+  Maeonio, sed plura vacant: nos ire per omnem
+  (sic amor est) heroa velis.'
+
+3. The _Silvae_, which represent the poet in his less serious mood,
+are occasional poems on miscellaneous subjects, published in five
+separate Books. Cf. 1, praef. 'Diu multumque dubitavi ... an hos
+libellos, ... cum singuli de sinu meo prodierint, congregates ipse
+dimitterem.' Many of them were thrown off in haste at the command of
+the Emperor or the request of friends: cf. such expressions as 'stili
+facilitas' (ii. praef.), 'libellorum temeritas,' 'hanc audaciam stili
+nostri' (iii. praef.). Of the poems in Book i. he says, 'nullum ex
+illis biduo longius tractum, quaedam et in singulis diebus effusa' (i.
+praef.). Each of the Books is introduced by a prose preface.
+
+None of the _Silvae_ appeared before A.D. 92; for Rutilius Gallicus,
+for whom i. 4 was written, died in that year, and the poem was not
+published till after his death (i. praef.). Book v. was probably a
+posthumous work: there is no proper preface, and the third and fifth
+poems are incomplete.
+
+Hexameter verse is employed for all the _Silvae_ except six. Of these,
+four are in hendecasyllabics, one in the Alcaic and one in the Sapphic
+stanza.
+
+4. The only other poem of which there is distinct evidence is the
+pantomime _Agave_, written not later than A.D. 84, the year in which
+the player Paris was put to death (Juv. _Sat._ 7, 86, quoted above).
+
+
+
+MARTIAL.[90]
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Valerius Martialis (Coquus is added in the old glossaries) was born
+at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis on 1st March in one of the years
+A.D. 38-41. His tenth Book, written A.D. 95-8, contains a poem (x. 24)
+written on his fifty-seventh birthday. Cf. ll. 4-5,
+
+  'quinquagesima liba septimamque
+  vestris addimus hanc focis acerram';
+
+ix. 52, 3,
+
+  'ut nostras amo Martias Kalendas';
+
+x. 103, 1,
+
+  'Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri
+    monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis.'
+
+His parents' names are given, v. 34, 1, 'Fronto pater, genetrix
+Flaccilla.' Martial went through the usual education at Bilbilis or at
+a neighbouring town; ix. 73, 7,
+
+  'At me litterulas stulti docuere parentes:
+    quid cum grammaticis rhetoribusque mihi?'
+
+Martial went to Rome A.D. 64, for in A.D. 98, when he left Rome, he
+gives the length of his stay as thirty-four years; x. 103, 7,
+
+  'Quattuor accessit tricesima messibus aestas,
+    ut sine me Cereri rustica liba datis,
+  moenia dum colimus dominae pulcherrima Romae.'
+
+At Rome Martial became the client of the house of the Senecas, and was
+on intimate terms with L. Calpurnius Piso, Memmius Gemellus, and
+Vibius Crispus; xii. 36, 8,
+
+  'Pisones Senecasque Memmiosque
+  et Crispos mihi redde sed priores.'
+
+The failure of Piso's conspiracy in A.D. 65 and the consequent
+downfall of the Senecas must have affected Martial's position. In A.D.
+96 Martial addresses as his patroness Argentaria Polla, Lucan's widow,
+the only surviving member of the family; x. 64, 1,
+
+  'Contigeris regina meos si Polla libellos,' etc.
+
+From her he may have got the small vineyard near Nomentum which he
+possessed by A.D. 84 (xiii. 42 and 119).
+
+Little is known of Martial's life before the reign of Domitian. He may
+have practised at the bar; cf. ii. 30, 5,
+
+  'Is mihi "dives eris, si causas egeris" inquit';
+
+and Quintilian appears to have advised this course (ii. 90). He
+probably lived as a client of great houses to which he was recommended
+by his early-developed poetical talents. Cf. i. 113, 1,
+
+  'Quaecumque lusi iuvenis et puer quondam.'
+
+In A.D. 80 he commemorated the opening by Titus of the Flavian
+Amphitheatre by a collection of poems sent to the emperor. Cf.
+_Spectac._ 32,
+
+  'Da veniam subitis: non displicuisse meretur,
+  festinat, Caesar, qui placuisse tibi.'
+
+Martial received the 'ius trium liberorum' from two of the emperors.
+This probably means that Titus bestowed it and Domitian ratified it.
+Cf. ix. 97, 5,
+
+  'tribuit quod Caesar uterque
+  ius mihi natorum.'
+
+Martial became a titular tribune, and consequently an _eques_, an
+honour probably given him by Titus; iii. 95, 9
+
+  'vidit me Roma tribunum';
+
+v. 13, 1,
+
+  'Sum, fateor, semperque fui, Callistrate, pauper,
+  sed non obscurus nec male notus eques.'
+
+Martial is unsparing in his flattery of Domitian and his freedmen. Cf.
+ix. 79, iv. 45, of Parthenius, the emperor's chamberlain; vii. 99,
+viii. 48, of Crispinus, the emperor's favourite. In A.D. 86 we find
+his poems eagerly read by the emperor. Cf. iv. 27,
+
+  'Saepe meos laudare soles, Auguste, libellos.'
+
+He obtained citizen rights for several applicants; cf. ix. 95. 11,
+
+  'Quot mihi Caesareo facti sunt munere cives';
+
+and was occasionally invited to the emperor's table; cf. ix. 91.
+Domitian, however, refused to assist him pecuniarily (vi. 10). A
+description of Martial's life as a client of great houses is found,
+_e.g._, in v. 20. Among the friends of high rank whom Martial made
+after A.D. 86 were the poet Silius Italicus (iv. 14), the future
+emperor Nerva (v. 28), the author S. Iulius Frontinus (x. 58), the
+younger Pliny (x. 19). Martial also mentions Quintilian (ii. 90) and
+other literary men from Spain, and Juvenal (vii. 24, etc.). Statius he
+never mentions, and was probably at enmity with him; cf. his sneers at
+mythological epics (x. 4, etc.), which hint indirectly at the
+_Thebais_. Martial also attacks his critics (i. 3; xi. 20, etc.),
+plagiarists (_e.g._ xi. 94), and those who wrote scurrilous verses in
+his name (_e.g._ x. 3).
+
+Martial received rewards in return for his poetry, and often begs for
+gifts, and complains of his poverty and the unproductiveness of his
+estate at Nomentum (xii. 57); v. 36,
+
+  'Laudatus nostro quidam, Faustina, libello
+    dissimulat, quasi nil debeat: imposuit';
+
+vii. 16,
+
+  'Aera domi non sunt, superest hoc, Regule, solum,
+  ut tua vendamus munera: numquid emis?'
+
+From 86 to 90 A.D. Martial lived in lodgings on the Quirinal, three
+stairs up; i. 117, 6,
+
+  'Longum est, si velit ad Pirum venire,
+  et scalis habito tribus, sed altis.'
+
+Later he had a house of his own (ix. 18, 2, etc.), and mentions his
+slaves (i. 101; v. 34, etc.). That he was still poor in A.D. 98 is
+evident from Pliny, _Ep._ iii. 21, 2, 'Prosecutus eram viatico
+secedentem: dederam hoc amicitiae, dederam etiam versiculis quos de me
+composuit.'
+
+Martial was evidently never married (ii. 92). In A.D. 98 he left Rome
+and went to Spain, where he had liberal friends, as Terentius Priscus
+(xii. 4), and Marcella (xii. 21), who gave him an estate, described in
+xii. 18. From xii. praef. we see his longing for Rome:
+
+'In hac provinciali solitudine ... bibliothecas, theatra, convictus
+... desideramus quasi destituti. Accedit his municipalium robigo
+dentium et iudici loco livor,' etc.
+
+Martial died, at latest, about A.D. 104, being from 63 to 66 years
+old.
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written not after A.D. 104), 'Audio Valerium
+Martialem decessisse et moleste fero.'
+
+Martial does not disguise the bad points of his character. Cf. his
+flattery of Domitian, and his continual begging (_passim_), his
+cynical reasons for giving panegyrics (v. 36, quoted above); the
+number of indecent poems he wrote, for which he apologizes (_e.g._ i.
+praef.). Among his good points are his 'candor,' mentioned by Pliny,
+_Ep._ iii. 21; his love of unadorned nature, _e.g._ iii. 58; his love
+for his friends, _e.g._ i. 15.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Publication of the Poems._--_Liber Spectaculorum_ was published A.D. 80,
+on the opening of Titus' Amphitheatre. The _Xenia_ and _Apophoreta_
+were two collections of inscriptions for presents at the _Saturnalia_
+in December 84 or 85 A.D. The numbering of these as Books xiii. and
+xiv. has no ancient authority. Martial furnished the other Books with
+numbers (cf. ii. 92, 1, 'primus liber'). Books i., ii., appeared
+together A.D. 86. Then came Books iii.-xi. at intervals of about a
+year to December, 96 A.D. Martial prepared a selection from Books x.
+and xi. for Nerva's use (no longer extant). This was presented along
+with xii. 5,
+
+  'Longior undecimi nobis decimique libelli
+  artatus labor est, et breve rasit opus.
+  Plura legant vacui, quibus otia tuta dedisti;
+  haec lege tu Caesar; forsan et illa leges.'
+
+Book xii. appeared at the beginning of A.D. 102. and shortly
+afterwards in an enlarged edition. An edition of all the Books
+probably did not appear till after Martial's death.
+
+For Martial's immediate popularity, cf. vi. 61,
+
+  'Laudat, amat, cantat nostros mea Roma libellos,
+  meque sinus omnis, me manus omnis habet';
+
+xi. 3, 3,
+
+  'Sed meus in Geticis ad Martia signa pruinis
+    a rigido teritur centurione liber,
+  dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus.'
+
+Pliny _Ep._ iii. 21 (written just after Martial's death), 'Erat homo
+ingeniosus acutus acer, et qui plurimum in scribendo et salis haberet
+et fellis nec candoris minus.'
+
+_Martial's Models._--His manner is very original, but some of his
+motives are taken from Greek epigrammatists, especially from
+Lucillius, who flourished under Nero. Thus iv. 53 = Lucill. 30; v. 53
+= L. 93; xii. 23 = L. 34. Many of his pieces are doubtless
+improvisations, and consequently contain careless expressions and
+errors as to facts. Thus, vii. 61, 2,
+
+  'Inque suo nullum limine limen erat';
+
+x. 2, 1,
+
+  'Festinata prior decimi mihi cura libelli
+    elapsum manibus nunc revocavit opus';
+
+x. 93, 5,
+
+  'Ut rosa delectat, metitur quae pollice primo'
+         (= the rose which has not yet been plucked).
+
+In iv. 55, 3, Arpi is given as Cicero's birthplace; in v. 30, 2, etc.,
+Calabria instead of Apulia is given as Horace's native district.
+Catullus is Martial's chief model for hendecasyllabics and
+choliambics. He mentions no other poet so often. Cf. x. 103, 5,
+
+  'Nec sua plus debet tenui Verona Catullo
+    meque velit dici non minus illa suum.'
+
+Ovid, of whom he has more than two hundred reminiscences, is Martial's
+chief pattern for elegiacs. After these Martial's chief model is
+Virgil, chiefly the _Priapea_; then Horace to a less extent;
+Propertius; and Tibullus. Domitius Marsus, Gaetulicus, Calvus, etc.,
+are mentioned frequently, and doubtless imitated.
+
+For Martial's conception of himself as a painter of manners, cf. viii.
+3, 19 (ad Musam),
+
+  'At tu Romano lepidos sale tinge libellos:
+    adgnoscat mores vita legatque suos.
+  Angusta cantare licet videaris avena,
+    dum tua multorum vincat avena tubas.'
+
+x. 4, 7,
+
+  'Quid te vana iuvant miserae ludibria chartae?
+    hoc lege, quod possit dicere vita "Meum est."
+  Non hic Centauros, non Gorgonas, Harpyiasque
+    invenies: hominem pagina nostra sapit.'
+
+Martial satirizes people under manufactured or arbitrarily chosen
+names.
+
+Cf. i. praef., 'Spero me secutum in libellis meis tale temperamentum,
+ut de illis queri non possit, quisquis de se bene senserit, cum salva
+infimarum quoque personarum reverentia ludant.'
+
+Some are tell-tale names, as Vetustilla, 'an old woman,' iii. 93;
+Dento, 'a gourmand,' v. 45; Eulogus, 'a herald,' vi. 8; but the same
+names, _e.g._ Zoilus, are often used to denote different types.
+
+The chief forms of verse used are the elegiac distich (most frequent),
+scazons, and hendecasyllabics. In vi. 65 he apologizes for using the
+pure hexameter, which is found only four times. Other metres are
+extremely rare.
+
+
+
+QUINTILIAN.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+M. Fabius Quintilianus was born at Calagurris in Spain. Auson. _prof._
+i. 7, 'Adserat usque licet Fabium Calagurris alumnum.' Cf. Jerome yr.
+Abr. 2104 (quoted below).
+
+Quintilian came at an early age to Rome, where his father was a
+rhetorician. Cf. his reminiscences:
+
+x. 1, 86, 'Utar verbis isdem quae ex Afro Domitio (died A.D. 59)
+iuvenis excepi.'
+
+v. 7, 7, 'a Domitio Afro quem adulescentulus senem colui.'
+
+vi. 1, 14, 'Nobis adulescentibus accusator Cossutiani Capitonis' (A.D.
+57), etc.
+
+From the above quotations, Quintilian must have been born somewhere
+between A.D. 35 and 40. A.D. 35 is usually given as an approximation.
+For Quintilian's father cf. ix. 3, 73, 'Et cur me prohibeat pudor uti
+domestico exemplo? Pater meus contra eum qui,' etc. He is possibly the
+person mentioned by Seneca, _Contr._ x. praef. 2, 'quo modo ...
+Quintilianus senex declamaverit.'
+
+For Quintilian's teachers of rhetoric, cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10,
+'Narrabat ille [Quintilianus], Adsectabar Domitium Afrum.' Others were
+Iulius Africanus (Quint. x. 1, 118), Servilius Nonianus (x. 1, 102),
+Galerius Trachalus (x. 1, 119), Iulius Secundus (x. 1, 120), Vibius
+Crispus (xii. 10, 11), Remmius Palaemon (Schol. ad Iuv. 6, 452). After
+his education Quintilian returned to Calagurris, but was brought back
+to Rome by Galba in A.D. 68.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2084 = A.D. 68, 'M. Fabius Quintilianus Romam a Galba
+perducitur.'
+
+Quintilian engaged as a pleader at Rome, and makes some references to
+his cases. Some of his speeches were published without his consent.
+
+vii. 2, 24, 'In causa Naevi Arpiniani ... cuius actionem et quidem
+solam in hoc tempus emiseram, quod ipsum me fecisse ductum iuvenili
+cupiditate gloriae fateor. Nam ceterae, quae sub nomine meo feruntur,
+neglegentia excipientium in quaestum notariorum corruptae minimam
+partem mei habent.'
+
+iv. 1, 19, 'Ego pro regina Berenice apud ipsam eam causam dixi.'
+
+Cf. also vii. 2, 5; ix. 2, 73-4.
+
+Quintilian was the first person who received an imperial grant as
+teacher of oratory.
+
+Jerome yr. Abr. 2104 = A.D. 88, 'Quintilianus ex Hispania
+Calagurritanus primus Romae publicam scholam et salarium e fisco
+accepit et claruit.' The date given by Jerome is much too late, as it
+is Quintilian that is alluded to by Sueton. _Vesp._ 18, 'Primus e
+fisco Latinis Graecisque rhetoribus annua centena constituit.' The
+appointment must therefore have been made by A.D. 79. The
+professorship is referred to by Mart. ii. 90, 1,
+
+  'Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae,
+    gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae.'
+
+Cf. Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 14, 10, 'Ita certe ex Quintiliano, praeceptore
+meo, audisse memini.' Quintilian's career as a teacher lasted for
+twenty years.
+
+i. prooem. 1, 'Post impetratam studiis meis quietem, quae per viginti
+annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam.'
+
+Teuffel thinks that the _Institutio_ was written A.D. 89-91, in which
+case Quintilian's career as professor was from A.D. 68 to 88;
+Peterson[91] thinks that Quintilian dated his educational work as from
+A.D. 70 to 90, and that the _Institutio_ was begun A.D. 92.
+
+Quintilian grew rich by the practice of his profession, from which he
+ultimately retired. Iuv. 7, 186,
+
+  'Hos inter sumptus sestertia Quintiliano,
+  ut multum, duo sufficient; res nulla minoris
+  constabit patri, quam filius. "Unde igitur tot
+  Quintilianus habet saltus?"'
+
+Quint. ii. 12, 12, 'quando et praecipiendi munus iam pridem deprecati
+sumus et in foro quoque dicendi, quia honestissimum finem putamus,
+desinere dum desideraremur.'
+
+After his retirement Quintilian was appointed tutor of Domitian's
+grandnephews, sons of his niece Flavia Domitilla and his cousin
+Flavius Clemens.
+
+Quint. iv. prooem. 2, 'Cum mihi Domitianus Augustus sororis suae
+nepotum delegaverit curam.'
+
+Through the influence of Clemens, he obtained the consulship.
+
+Auson. _grat. act._ p. 23 (Schenkl), 'Quintilianus consularia per
+Clementem ornamenta sortitus honestamenta potius videtur quam insignia
+potestatis habuisse.'
+
+Cf. Iuv. 7, 197,
+
+  'Si Fortuna volet, fies de rhetore consul;
+  si volet haec eadem, fies de consule rhetor.'
+
+His gratitude led him into fulsome flattery of Domitian.
+
+x. 1, 91, 'Germanicum Augustum ab institutis studiis deflexit cura
+terrarum, parumque dis visum est esse eum maximum poetarum' (cf. iv.
+prooem. 3-5).
+
+Quintilian married late in life. His wife died at the age of eighteen,
+his younger son soon afterwards at the age of five, the elder one
+subsequently at the age of nine.
+
+vi. prooem. S 2, 'Illum, de quo summa conceperam et in quo spem unicam
+senectutis reponebam, repetito volnere orbitatis amisi'; par. 9, 'Non
+flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam decimum aetatis ingressus annum,
+certos ac deformatos fructus ostenderat'; par. 4, 'erepta prius mihi
+matre eorumdem, quae nondum expleto aetatis undevicesimo anno duos
+enixa filios ...'; par. 5, 'cum omni virtute, quae in feminas cadit,
+functa insanabilem adtulit marito dolorem, tum aetate tam puellari,
+praesertim meae comparata, potest et ipsa numerari inter volnera
+orbitatis'; par. 6, 'Mihi filius minor quintum egressus annum prior
+alterum ex duobus eruit lumen.'
+
+The date of Quintilian's death is unknown. If he outlived Domitian it
+was not for long, as Pliny in the letters quoted above (the earlier
+written about A.D. 100) does not speak of Quintilian as alive.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+_Earlier works._--Quintilian refers to a work _de causis corruptae
+eloquentiae_, and to an _ars rhetorica_ in two Books. For speeches of
+his taken down and published, see vii. 2, 24, quoted p. 303.
+
+vi. prooem. 3, 'eum librum, quem de causis corruptae eloquentiae
+emisi.'
+
+i. prooem. 7, 'Duo iam sub nomine meo libri ferebantur artis
+rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc comparati. Namque alterum,
+sermone per biduum habito, pueri, quibus id praestabatur, exceperant;
+alterum pluribus sane diebus, quantum notando consequi potuerant,
+interceptum, boni iuvenes sed nimium amantes mei, temerario editionis
+honore volgaverant.'
+
+The _Institutio Oratoria_.--For the date of publication see p. 304.
+The circumstances of publication are given by Quintilian in the
+preface addressed to his bookseller Trypho.
+
+'Efflagitasti cottidiano convicio, ut libros, quos ad Marcellum meum
+de Institutione oratoria scripseram, iam emittere inciperem. Nam ipse
+eos nondum opinabar satis maturuisse, quibus componendis, ut scis,
+paulo plus quam biennium tot alioqui negotiis districtus impendi ...
+Sed si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu affirmas, permittamus vela
+ventis et oram solventibus bene precemur.'
+
+The work is dedicated to Vitorius Marcellus (to whom Statius'
+_Silvae_, Book iv., is addressed), and was originally written in view
+of the education of his son Geta.
+
+i. prooem. 6, 'Quod opus, Marcelle Vitori, tibi dicamus ... quod
+erudiendo Getae tuo ... non inutiles fore libri videbantur.'
+
+Book iv. prooem. was written when Quintilian had been appointed tutor
+to the young princes, who are mentioned along with Geta and
+Quintilian's elder son; Book vi. prooem. was written not long
+afterwards, and refers to his bereavements; in Book xii. prooem. no
+names are mentioned.
+
+The work deals with the whole education of the future orator.
+
+i. prooem. 5, 'Nec aliter, quam si mihi tradatur educandus orator,
+studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam.'
+
+Quintilian himself gives a sketch of the contents:
+
+i. prooem. 21-2, 'Liber primus ea quae sunt ante officium rhetoris
+continebit [including grammar and philology]. Secundo prima apud
+rhetorem elementa et quae de ipsa rhetorices substantia quaeruntur
+tractabimus. Quinque deinceps (iii.-vii.) inventioni, nam huic et
+dispositio subiungitur, quattuor (viii.-xi.) elocutioni, in cuius
+partem memoria ac pronuntiatio veniunt, dabuntur. Unus (xii.) accedet,
+in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est, ut qui mores eius, quae in
+suscipiendis, discendis, agendis causis ratio, quod eloquentiae genus,
+quis agendi debeat esse finis, quae post finem studia ... disseramus.'
+
+The ordinary handbooks of rhetoric are attacked.
+
+i. prooem. 24-5, 'Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia subtilitatis
+affectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est in oratione
+generosius, et omnem sucum ingeni bibunt et ossa detegunt, quae ut
+esse et adstringi nervis suis debent, sic corpore operienda sunt.
+Ideoque nos non particulam illam, sicut plerique, sed quidquid utile
+ad instituendum oratorem putabamus, in hos duodecim libros contulimus
+breviter omnia demonstraturi.'
+
+Quintilian uses his own experience and the best views of different
+authorities.
+
+vi. 2, 25, 'Quod si tradita mihi sequi praecepta sufficeret,
+satisfeceram huic parti, nihil eorum, quae legi vel didici, quod modo
+probabile fuit, omittendo; sed eruere in animo est, quae latent, et
+penitus ipsa huius loci aperire penetralia, quae quidem non aliquo
+tradente sed experimento meo ac natura ipsa duce accepi.'
+
+Quintilian insists that the orator must be a good man (cf. the
+importance he attaches to early education, i. 1, etc.).
+
+xii. 1, 1, 'Sit ergo nobis orator, quem constituimus, is qui a M.
+Catone finitur, vir bonus dicendi peritus; verum, id quod et ille
+posuit prius, et ipsa natura potius ac maius est, utique vir bonus.'
+
+Cf. i. prooem. 9-10; ii. 2 (the whole chapter); ii. 15, 1.
+
+Quintilian's exposition is founded mainly on Cicero, from whom he
+seldom differs. Cf. vii. 3, 8, 'Quamquam dissentire vix audeo a
+Cicerone.'
+
+Quintilian's illustrations are mainly drawn from classical writers.
+Upwards of four hundred and fifty passages of Cicero and about one
+hundred and forty of Virgil are referred to. Quintilian not only
+attacks the modern style, but warns his pupils against the early
+writers.
+
+ii. 5, 21-2, 'Duo autem genera maxime cavenda pueris puto: unum, ne
+quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in Graccorum Catonisque et
+aliorum similium lectione durescere velit ... Alterum, quod huic
+diversum est, ne recentis huius lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate
+prava deleniantur, ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc
+gratius, quo propius est, adament.'
+
+For Quintilian's high appreciation of Cicero see x. 1, 105-112; and
+for his antagonism to Seneca, x. 1, 125-131, and to philosophers in
+general, i. prooem. 10.
+
+For Quintilian's authorities see iii. 1, 'Prooemium de scriptoribus
+artis rhetoricae.' They include Dionysius of Halicarnassus; Caecilius;
+Chrysippus (for education; cf. i. 1, 16, etc.); Cicero; _Auctor ad
+Herenn._; Celsus, cf. iii. 1, 21, etc.; Rutilius, cf. ix. 3, 89;
+Remmius Palaemon.
+
+Literary criticism is treated of in Book X. as regards the Greek and
+Latin authors useful to the orator. The principal authority used was
+the +peri mimeseos+ of Dionysius Halicarnassius. Much of
+Quintilian's criticism is traditional, and the lists of great writers
+came ultimately from the critics of Alexandria. Roman literary critics
+referred to were Cicero (_e.g._ on the Attic orators, x. 1, 76-80) and
+Horace (x. 1, 24; 56, etc.).
+
+_Spurious works._--These include two collections of _declamationes_.
+
+1. Nineteen long pieces, ascribed to Quintilian by Jerome and others,
+but much later than Quintilian's time.
+
+2. One hundred and forty-five shorter pieces out of an original
+collection of three hundred and eighty-eight, the first half being
+lost. Some suppose they are the 'libri artis rhetoricae' (i. prooem.
+7, quoted above), but this is not likely.
+
+
+
+FRONTINUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+Iulius Frontinus (as he is called by Tacitus: inscriptions and some
+MSS. give the _praenomen_ Sextus) was born at latest A.D. 41, for he
+was _praetor urbanus_ A.D. 70.
+
+Tac. _Hist._ iv. 39, 'in senatu quem Iulius Frontinus praetor urbanus
+vocaverat ... Mox eiurante Frontino Caesar Domitianus praeturam cepit.'
+
+He served in Gaul during the revolt of Civilis, and received the
+submission of the Lingones (Front. _Strat._ iv. 3, 14[92]). Under
+Vespasian he held the consulship, and preceded Agricola in the command
+in Britain, where he conquered the Silures, probably A.D. 76-78.
+
+Tac. _Agr._ 17, 'Et Cerealis quidem alterius successoris curam
+famamque obruisset: sustinuit molem Iulius Frontinus, vir magnus,
+quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit,
+super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluctatus.'
+
+His knowledge of the tactics of Domitian (_Strat._ i. 1, 8; i. 3, 10;
+ii. 3, 23; ii. 11, 7) makes it probable that he took part in the war
+with the Chatti, A.D. 83. In 97 he became _curator aquarum_ (_Aq._
+102), and at the beginning of the following year was consul for the
+second time (_C.I.L._ iii., p. 862); cf. Martial x. 48, 20, 'bis
+Frontino consule.' In 100 he was once more consul (_C.I.L._ viii.
+7066). He also held the office of augur, in which, A.D. 103 or 104, he
+was succeeded by the younger Pliny; Plin. _Ep._ iv. 8, 'gratularis
+mihi quod acceperim auguratum ... Successi Iulio Frontino, principi
+viro.' His death then may be placed in A.D. 103.
+
+Frontinus was a friend of Martial, who addresses to him _Epig._ x. 58.
+
+We get a glimpse of his character from Pliny's words, _Ep._ ix. 19, 6,
+'Vetuit exstrui monumentum: sed quibus verbis? "Impensa monumenti
+supervacua est: memoria nostri durabit si vita meruimus."'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+During the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81-96) Frontinus composed two
+works. One of these, of which only fragments survive, dealt with the
+art of land-surveying and the laws relating to land. The other,
+written after A.D. 84, when Domitian received the title of Germanicus
+(_Strat._ ii. II, 7, 'eo bello quo victis hostibus cognomen Germanici
+meruit'), is a manual of strategy, in three Books, entitled
+_Strategemata_. It is a sequel to a previous work (now lost) on the
+theory of the art of war, and illustrates its rules by historical
+examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy. The purpose
+of the book did not require the citation of authorities, and the
+mention of Livy in ii. 5, 31 and 34, is probably spurious. Frontinus
+gives either a paraphrase retaining some of the expressions of the
+original (cf. _Strat._ i. 5, 16, with Liv. xxxv. 11, 2-13), or a bald
+summary (cf. _Strat._ ii. 5, 1, with Liv. i. 14, 6-11). See G.
+Gundermann, _Jahrb. f. class. Philol._, suppl. xvi., p. 315 _sqq._
+(1888). Some later hand has added a fourth Book, which not only
+presents marked differences in style and tone from the original three,
+but deals with an entirely different subject--the maintenance of
+discipline, and other duties of a commander.
+
+Under Nerva and Trajan (A.D. 97-98) Frontinus wrote his treatise on
+the Roman water-supply, _De Aquis Urbis Romae_. Having been appointed
+_curator aquarum_, he considered it his first duty to acquaint himself
+with the details of his department, and published the result of his
+inquiries in the hope that they might be useful to his successors (cf.
+the preface). The book was begun under Nerva (praef. 'cum ... sit nunc
+mihi ab Nerva Augusto ... aquarum iniunctum officium'), but Nerva had
+been succeeded by Trajan before it was completed (118, 'divus Nerva';
+93, 'Traianum Augustum').
+
+
+
+JUVENAL.
+
+
+The sources for Juvenal's life are (1) his works; (2) an inscription
+found at Aquinum; (3) thirteen extant _vitae_; (4) information of the
+scholiasts; (5) references in Martial and other writers.
+
+The inscription at Aquinum has been much debated; but it is safe to
+follow the opinion of Mommsen, whose experience in identifying people
+mentioned in inscriptions with historical characters depends upon a
+width of knowledge that no other person possesses. The _vitae_ are all
+early mediaeval works, probably founded on a brief account of the
+poet's life composed by some unknown ancient writer, and existing at
+the early Renaissance. The extant _vitae_ contain a very few facts
+which appear to be derived from this source, together with a number of
+inferences gathered, often incorrectly, from Juvenal's works. The most
+important statement is that regarding Juvenal's birth, which is
+contained in the _vita_ in the Codex Barberinus, 8, 18, discovered by
+J. Duerr. The date is given in such precise and accurate terms, and is
+in itself so probable as solving so many of the questions connected
+with the poet's works, that to invent it requires an amount of
+knowledge with which we cannot credit the writer of this otherwise
+very poor account. The statements of the _vitae_ must be carefully
+weighed, and accepted only when rendered probable by other
+considerations.[93]
+
+Juvenal's name is given in some of the MSS. as Decimus Iunius
+Iuvenalis. He was born A.D. 55.
+
+_Codex Barberinus_, 'Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio Iuvenale patre,
+matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio Claudio Nerone et L.
+Antistio consulibus natus est. Sororem habuit Septumuleiam, quae
+Fuscino nupsit.'
+
+The statement about his sister and mother is very doubtful; that about
+Fuscinus is a bad inference from the fact that _Sat._ 14 (on the
+education of children) is addressed to him. The name _Septumuleia_ may
+be invented from 14, 105, _septima lux_. Juvenal's sister must have
+been called Iunia after her father; the naming of a girl after her
+mother was a mediaeval idea.
+
+Juvenal was born at Aquinum, a town of the Volscians. Twelve of the
+_vitae_ agree in this, and they are confirmed by the poet's own words
+supposed to be addressed to him by his friend Umbricius: 3, 318-21,
+
+                      'Quotiens te
+  Roma tuo refici properantem reddet Aquino,
+  me quoque ad Helvinam Cererem vestramque Dianam
+  converte a Cumis.'
+
+Cf. 6, 57,
+
+  'agello cedo paterno.'
+
+This is corroborated by the inscription found at Aquinum (_C.I.L._ x.
+5382), which gives us other information about the poet:
+
+      _cere_RI . SACRVM
+  _d . iu_NIVS . IVVENALIS
+  _trib_ COH_.i_.DELMATARVM
+    II . VIR . QVINQ . FLAMEN
+         DIVI . VESPASIANI
+    VOVIT . DEDICAV_itq_VE
+    SVA                   PEC
+
+This inscription appears to have stood near the temple of Ceres
+Helvina or Elvina, dedicated by a member of the gens Elvia, references
+to which are found on inscriptions of the district.
+
+The _vitae_ say that Juvenal was the son of a freedman.[94] Cf.
+_Vitae_ i. _a_, i. _b_, ii. _c_ (Duerr): 'libertini locupletis incertum
+filius an alumnus.' _Vita_ v. (Duerr), 'ordinis ut fertur
+libertinorum.' This story is due to a misapprehension of some of
+Juvenal's references. 1, 99-102,
+
+               'Iubet a praecone vocari
+  ipsos Troiugenas (nam vexant limen et ipsi
+  nobiscum): "da praetori, da deinde tribuno."
+  Sed libertinus prior est.'
+
+_Libertinus_ here is not to be taken to mean that the entire set are
+freedmen.
+
+As to 4, 98,
+
+  'unde fit ut malim fraterculus esse gigantis,'
+
+it gives no evidence whatever of Juvenal's position. If it meant
+anything, it would rather imply that Juvenal was the son of a poor
+Italian and not of a foreign slave. So for 11, 145-6. His family was
+respectable, his means were fair, and he could afford to look down on
+upstarts in virtue both of his birth and of his property, although it
+is clear from his own works that he had in Rome the position of a
+rather humble dependent, who would be exposed to insult at the tables
+of the rich and powerful. Cf. 3, 318; 6, 57 (above); 12, 89, 'laribus
+paternis'; 1, 24,
+
+  'patricios omnes opibus cum provocet unus,
+  quo tondente gravis iuveni mihi barba sonabat.'
+
+So 10, 225.
+
+In _vita_ iv. he is said to have attained equestrian rank.
+(Tribunician rank implied equestrian). This, on the whole, is
+confirmed by the inscription, and may be founded on the original
+_vita_.
+
+Juvenal had a full course of education, first under the _litterator_
+and the _grammaticus_, then under the _rhetor._[95] Cf. 1, 15,
+
+  'Et nos ergo manum ferulae subduximus, et nos
+  consilium dedimus Sullae, privatus ut altum
+  dormiret.'
+
+This would imply a good position, and a certain command of money. Such
+_patres libertini_ as Horace's were very rare.
+
+The inscription above quoted (_divi Vespasiani_ shows that its date is
+after A.D. 79, and probably not long after) informs us that Juvenal
+was (1) 'tribunus cohortis I. Delmatarum'[96]; (2) 'duumvir
+quinquennalis'[97] and 'flamen divi Vespasiani' at Aquinum. The dates
+when Juvenal held these posts cannot be determined exactly; but we can
+infer certain points.
+
+(1) There was a _certus ordo honorum_ in municipal life, and Juvenal
+must have held the quaestorship and the aedileship before the
+_duumviratus quinquennalis_. The lower limit of entering on a
+municipal career was twenty-five, according to an order of Augustus,
+and people did not usually begin it much later; we may therefore
+conclude that these municipal posts were held by Juvenal somewhere
+between A.D. 80 and 90. The last year is approximately fixed by the
+way in which Martial in two of his epigrams (vii. 24 and 91) belonging
+to A.D. 91 or 92 speaks of Juvenal; the words show that the latter
+must have been established in Rome for some time.
+
+(2) In ordinary course Juvenal would enter the army after the
+completion of his seventeenth year. The short time he took to arrive
+at the position of tribune, and the statement of _vita_ iv. 'cum ...
+ad dignitatem equestris ordinis pervenire sua virtute meruisset,' make
+it probable that he entered the army as _petitor militiae equestris_,
+as a preliminary step towards entering on a political career.
+
+The cohors Delmatarum I., which Juvenal commanded as tribune, was in
+Britain in A.D. 106, and in A.D. 124.[98] Probably it had been
+stationed there for a period of years, and it is likely that Juvenal
+filled his tribuneship there. Now, all the _vitae_ inform us that
+Juvenal was banished under the pretext of a military command. While
+the other _vitae_ give Egypt as the place of his banishment, _vita_
+iv. gives Scotland; and it seems highly probable that _vita_ iv. has
+confused Juvenal's regular military command in Britain, and his
+banishment, late in life, to Egypt. The words are:
+
+'[Tyrannus] sub honoris praetextu fecit eum praefectum militis contra
+Scotos, qui bellum contra Romanos moverant.'
+
+This is supported by Juvenal's references to Britain. Some of these,
+like his references to Egypt, seem, in contradistinction to most of
+his references to foreign parts, to imply personal knowledge and
+observation. They are as follows:
+
+(1) 2, 159-161,
+
+           'Arma quidem ultra
+  litora Iuvernae promovimus et modo captas
+  Orcadas ac minima contentos nocte Britannos.'
+
+Here 'Iuverna' is the old name of Ireland, which is not mentioned even
+in Tacitus' _Agricola_[99]; for the Orcades cf. Tac. _Agr._ 10; and
+the excessive shortness of the summer nights mentioned in the last
+clause is especially true of the north of Scotland.
+
+(2) 10, 14,
+
+  'Quanto delphinis balaena Britannica maior.'
+
+This is also particularly applicable to the north of Scotland, whales
+being frequently seen off the Orkney and Shetland Islands.
+
+(3) 4, 141,
+
+              'Rutupinove edita fundo
+  ostrea.'
+
+(4) 14, 196,
+
+  'Castella Brigantum.'
+
+(5) 15, 111,
+
+  'Gallia causidicos docuit facunda Britannos,
+  de conducendo loquitur iam rhetore Thule.'
+
+Cf. Tac. _Agr._ 21.
+
+(6) 15, 124, 'Brittones.' This form is rarely found except in military
+inscriptions,[100] and could scarcely have been used except by one
+familiar with the camp in Britain.[101]
+
+That Juvenal came to Rome about A.D. 90 has been shown above. This
+step he may have taken to forward his promotion in the army and
+afterwards in the procuratorial service. His failure in this direction
+may have led to his pessimism. His friendship with Martial (whom,
+however, he does not mention) is shown by Mart. vii. 24 (cf. vii. 91),
+
+  'Cum Iuvenale meo quae me committere temptas,
+  quid non audebis, perfida lingua, loqui?' etc.
+
+That he was still in Rome in B.C. 101, and had the entree of the atria
+of rich nobles is shown by Mart. xii. 18, written in that year.
+
+  'Dum tu forsitan inquietus erras
+  clamosa, Iuvenalis, in Subura
+  aut collem dominae teris Dianae,
+  dura per limina te potentiorum
+  sudatrix toga ventilat vagumque
+  maior Caelius et minor fatigant,
+  me multos repetita post Decembres
+  accepit mea rusticumque fecit
+  auro Bilbilis et superba ferro.'
+
+From this we see that he lived in the Subura, the plebeian quarter.
+Cf. 3, 5,
+
+  'ego vel Prochytam praepono Suburae.'
+
+While in Rome he still possessed his land at Aquinum and also a
+property at Tibur; 11, 65,
+
+  'de Tiburtino veniet pinguissimus agro
+  haedulus.'
+
+The statement of the _vitae_ that Juvenal studied rhetoric till middle
+life is, as already stated, improbable, as being inconsistent with his
+military and municipal career; 'facundus,' applied to him by Mart.
+vii. 91, 1, does not mean 'declaiming,' but 'poetical' or
+'oratorical.'
+
+_Vitae_ i. _a_ and _b_ (and other seven) say, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit animi magis causa quam quod scholae se aut foro
+praepararet.'
+
+_Juvenal's literary life._--In the MSS. the satires are divided into
+Books, and the division seems ancient. Book i. includes _Sat._ 1-5;
+Book ii. = _Sat._ 6; Book iii. = _Sat._ 7-9; Book iv. = _Sat._ 10-12;
+Book v. = _Sat._ 13-16.
+
+Book i. was written under Trajan; certainly after A.D. 100, the date
+of the trial of Marius Priscus [102]; 1, 49,
+
+  'exul ab octava Marius bibit et fruitur dis
+  iratis.'
+
+Book ii. not earlier than A.D. 116. It is highly probable that 6, 407,
+'instantem regi Armenio Parthoque cometen,' refers to a comet seen at
+Rome in November A.D. 115; and 6, 411, 'nutare urbes, subsidere
+terras,' to the earthquake at Antioch, 13th December, A.D. 115.
+
+Book iii., probably about A.D. 120, was written under Hadrian, who is
+eulogized in 7, 1-35. Duerr thinks it probable that 7, 36-243, was
+written under Trajan, and that the introduction, in praise of Hadrian,
+was written afterwards. This is also Friedlaender's view; cf. l. 1, 'Et
+spes et ratio studiorum in Caesare tantum,' with Spart. _vit. Hadr._
+14, 8, 'poematum studiosissimus.' This also supports the view that the
+introduction was written not long after Hadrian's accession, when a
+new era for poets was supposed to be beginning.
+
+Book iv. was probably written about A.D. 125.
+
+Book v. A clue to the date is found in 13, 16-7,
+
+         'Stupet haec, qui iam post terga reliquit
+  sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule natus.'
+
+Fonteius Capito and C. Iulius Rufus were consuls A.D. 67, in which
+year the sexagenarian friend whom Juvenal addresses was born. The date
+of writing will therefore be A.D. 127.[103]
+
+Cf. also 15, 27, 'nuper consule Iunco.' Iuncus was consul A.D. 127, so
+that this satire could not have been written before A.D. 128. So 15,
+44,
+
+                 'Horrida sane
+  Aegyptos, sed luxuria, quantum ipse notavi,
+  barbara famoso non cedit turba Canopo.'
+
+Juvenal must have added these lines to the satire while he was an
+exile in Egypt, if he did not write the whole of it there. This is in
+accordance with what _vita_ v. says, 'in exilio ampliavit satyras.'
+Supposing this passage to be an addition, we may conclude that Book v.
+was written about A.D. 128, but not before that year.
+
+_Juvenal's banishment._--As before stated, all the _vitae_ but one
+give Egypt as the place of Juvenal's exile. The exact place, according
+to the scholiast on 1, 1 and 4, 38, was the Great Oasis (Hoasa:
+Hoasis). Three _vitae_ (i. _a_, _b_, iii. _c_) state that he was at
+that time _octogenarius_. This would make the date A.D. 135 or 136.
+Most of the _vitae_ give as the reason of his exile the fact that he
+wrote the lines,[104] 7, 90-2,
+
+  'Quod non dant proceres dabit histrio. Tu Camerinos
+  et Baream, tu nobilium magna atria curas?
+  Praefectos Pelopea facit, Philomela tribunos.'
+
+Now these lines, the first he ever wrote (_vita_ iii. _c_) were
+composed in his youth as an epigram on Paris, Domitian's favourite,
+probably about A.D. 81-3. The true story then is that, when Juvenal in
+A.D. 135 or 136 published a new edition of _Sat._ 7, he added these
+lines (_vitae_ i. _a_, _b_, 'ut ea quoque quae prima fecerat
+inferciret novis scriptis').[105] Now it has been inferred from Spart.
+_vit. Hadr._ 23 _sqq._ that at this time an actor had great influence
+over Hadrian, and the lines were taken as referring to him. The
+emperor in a rage banished Juvenal to Egypt _per honorem militiae_,
+writing maliciously on his commission 'Et te Philomela promovit'
+(_vita_ iv.). The banishment is assigned to the influence of Paris by
+Iohannes Malalas, p. 262 _sqq._ (Dindorf), and by Suidas. Cf. also
+_Sat._ 15, 44 _sqq._, already quoted, and Sidonius Apollinaris 9, 267
+_sqq._,
+
+  'Non qui tempore Caesaris secundi
+  aeterno incoluit Tomos reatu:
+  non qui consimili deinde casu
+  ad volgi tenuem strepentis auram
+  irati fuit histrionis exul.'
+
+_Vita_ iii. _b_, 'Tristitia et angore periit anno aetatis suae altero
+et octuagesimo.'
+
+_Vita_ v., 'Decessit longo senio confectus exul Antonino Pio
+imperatore.'
+
+If this last statement is correct, Juvenal died after reaching the age
+of eighty-two, as Antoninus came to the throne on 10th July, A.D. 138.
+It follows from this also that he must have been born in the second
+half of A.D. 55.
+
+_The Satires._--The following are the more important points regarding
+these:
+
+(1) Juvenal's reasons for writing satire are given in _Sat._ 1, ll.
+1-14. He is wearied with tragedies and epics on mythological subjects,
+'Semper ego auditor tantum?'
+
+He is resolved to follow in the footsteps of Lucilius; ll. 19-21,
+
+  'Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo,
+  per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus,
+  si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam.'
+
+His satire is due to indignation at the moral decay of the Roman
+world.
+
+l. 30, 'Difficile est satiram non scribere' (cf. ll. 63, 79).
+
+However, he does not intend to satirize the living, at least under
+their own names; and in fact he has in his mind particularly the times
+of Domitian, while most of his names are those of persons living under
+Claudius or Nero; l. 170,
+
+        'Experiar quid concedatur in illos,
+  quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.'
+
+In the first nine Satires Juvenal's bitterness is directed mainly
+against the senatorial class, possibly because they had given him no
+support in his office-seeking. Even his violent attack on women in
+_Sat._ 6 is launched chiefly against the women of the highest class.
+Note also the unjust way in which he speaks of the government of the
+provinces (_Sat._ 8, 87-139). Juvenal is very bitter against Greeks
+and Orientals, most of all against Egyptians (cf. _Sat._ 15, and his
+attacks on the Egyptian Crispinus in 4, 1-33, etc.). Cf. 3, 119-125,
+for his attacks on foreigners.
+
+(2) He claims a wide scope for his subject; 1, 85,
+
+  'Quidquid agunt homines, votum timor ira voluptas
+  gaudia discursus nostri farrago libelli est.'
+
+(3) His pessimism is very marked; cf. 1, 147,
+
+  'Nil erit ulterius, quod nostris moribus addat
+  posteritas; eadem facient cupientque minores,
+  omne in praecipiti vitium stetit. Utere velis,
+  totos pande sinus.'
+
+So 12, 48-9. His pessimism leads to extravagant language like 6, 29
+_sqq._ He is as hard on trifling foibles as on the most heinous
+offences. Cf. 6, 166 _sqq._, 185 _sqq._, 398 _sqq._, 434-56 (on
+learned ladies).
+
+(4) His rhetorical learning and style (found in all the Satires, but
+particularly in the later ones) are shown by
+
+(_a_) His metre and language. Thus we find rhetorical uses of _ergo_
+(3, 104; 281, etc.); _nunc_ (3, 268; 10, 210); _porro_ (3, 126; 11,
+9); and of other particles.
+
+(_b_) The way in which he chooses themes for his Satires, and
+subdivides them. Several of the Satires, as 5, 8, 10, 14, are
+_theses_, _i.e._ problems of a general character worked out in the
+manner of the rhetorical schools. Thus _Sat._ 5 discusses the
+question, 'Is the position of a client worth having?' _Sat._ 8, 'Has
+high birth a value in itself?' He sometimes uses the commonplaces of
+the schools, as 8, 56,
+
+             'Animalia muta
+  quis generosa putet nisi fortia?'
+
+So 8, 215-6. In the manner of a rhetorician he sometimes gives
+superabundant details. The best example of this is 10, 190-250, on the
+troubles of old age.
+
+(_c_) His knowledge of mythology, history, law, and philosophy. This
+is found mostly in the later Books. In the earlier Satires he dealt
+more with life as he had known it. In the later Satires he has
+recourse to republican times and to foreign history. His historical
+examples Friedlaender thinks he took mostly from Valerius Maximus.
+Juvenal's knowledge of philosophy was very superficial, and was
+probably got from his rhetorical training. Errors occur; thus in 13,
+121-2, Stoics and Cynics are looked upon as identical.[106]
+
+(_d_) His high-flown language referred to above.
+
+(_e_) His references to previous literature. Thus Horace is often
+referred to (cf. 7, 62 and 227); Virgil with great frequency (cf. 1,
+162; 6, 434 _sqq._; 7, 66 and 227; 7, 233 _sqq._). Mayor mentions
+Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Lucilius, Cicero, Ovid, Manilius, Valerius
+Maximus, Seneca, Lucan, and Martial among the authors imitated by
+Juvenal.
+
+
+
+PLINY THE YOUNGER.
+
+
+Pliny's full name on the inscriptions of the later period of his life
+reads 'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius Secundus.' This name he partly
+got from his mother's brother C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny the elder),
+who adopted him by will: cf. _Ep._ v. 8, 5, 'Avunculus meus idemque
+per adoptionem pater.' Pliny's name before his adoption in A.D. 79
+(see below) was P. Caecilius L. f. Ouf. Secundus. His birthplace was
+Comum, and he belonged to the Oufentina, the tribe of the people of
+Comum, as well on the side of his natural as on that of his adoptive
+father. In an inscription preserved at Como (_C.I.L._ v. 5279) Pliny's
+father, Cilo, is mentioned, and two men who are undoubtedly Cilo's
+sons, the second mentioned being Pliny the younger, who had always
+been called Secundus.
+
+'L. Caecilius L. f. Cilo iiii.vir a(edilicia) p(otestate), qui
+testamento suo (sestertium) n(ummum) xxxx. (milia) municipibus
+Comensibus legavit, ex quorum reditu quotannis per Neptunalia oleum in
+campo et in thermis et in balineis omnibus, quae sunt Comi,
+praeberentur, t(estamento) f(ieri) iussit et L. Caecilio L. f. Valenti
+et P. Caecilio L. f. Secundo et Lutullae Picti f. contubernali.'[107]
+
+For Cilo's bequests here mentioned cf. Pliny, _Ep._ i, 8, 5; Comum is
+referred to as 'patria mea' in _Ep._ iv. 30, 1. The Caecilii were a
+family of station at Comum even in Caesar's time. Cf. Catull. 35,
+
+  'Poetae tenero meo sodali
+  velim Caecilio, papyre, dicas,
+  Veronam veniat Novi relinquens
+  Comi moenia Lariumque litus.'
+
+Pliny inherited landed property there from his father and mother.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 11, 5, 'Indicavit mihi cupere se aliquid circa Larium
+nostrum possidere: ego illi ex praediis meis quod vellet ... optuli,
+exceptis maternis paternisque.'
+
+The above inscription shows that Pliny's father belonged to the
+municipal nobility, and possibly had 'equestris nobilitas.'
+
+Pliny was in his eighteenth year (_Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'agebam
+duodevicensimum annum') on 24th August, A.D. 79, when his uncle
+perished in the eruption of Vesuvius, and he was therefore born in the
+second half of 61 or in the first half of 62 A.D. Cilo died young,
+before holding the chief municipal post, and before Pliny was of age;
+and Verginius Rufus became Pliny's guardian.
+
+_Ep._ ii. 1, 8, 'Ille mihi tutor relictus adfectum parentis
+exhibuit.' Pliny was removed to Rome with his uncle, probably at the
+end of A.D. 72. While at school he wrote poetry (_Ep._ vii. 4, 2,
+quoted below), and studied philosophy and rhetoric.
+
+_Ep._ vi. 6, 3, 'Quos tunc ego frequentabam, Quintilianum, Niceten
+Sacerdotem.' Cf. also ii. 14, 10; i. 20, 4; vii. 4, etc. For literary
+studies with his uncle cf. _Ep._ vi. 20, 5, 'Posco librum Titi Livi et
+quasi per otium lego, atque etiam, ut coeperam, excerpo.'
+
+His uncle, as above stated, died on 24th August, A.D. 79, and by his
+will adopted Pliny, whose name thereafter was C. Plinius L. f. Ouf.
+Caecilius Secundus. He therefore changed his praenomen to that of his
+adoptive father, and put his former nomen among his cognomina. By his
+contemporaries he is called Plinius (cf. Martial, x. 19), or Secundus,
+as by Trajan. The name Caecilius was confined to formal inscriptions.
+
+In A.D. 80 or 81 Pliny first appeared as an advocate. Cf. _Ep._ v. 8,
+8, 'Undevicensimo aetatis anno dicere in foro coepi.' Before entering
+the Senate, he held (as stated in the chief inscription, given below)
+the decemvirate _litibus iudicandis_, the military tribunate in the
+third Gallic legion, and the title of Sevir in the Roman knighthood.
+Pliny probably held his military tribunate under Domitian (_i.e._,
+after 13th September, A.D. 81) in Syria.
+
+Cf. _Ep._ i. 10, 2, 'Hunc [Euphraten philosophum] ego in Syria, cum
+adulescentulus militarem, penitus et domi inspexi.'
+
+The date of Pliny's praetorship as A.D. 93 is settled by _Ep._ iii.
+11, 2, the events recorded in which passage are known from Tac. _Agr._
+45 to have taken place shortly after Agricola's death in August, A.D.
+93.
+
+'Fui praetor ... cum ... occisis Senecione Rustico Helvidio, relegatis
+Maurico Gratilla Arria Fannia ... mihi quoque impendere idem exitium
+certis quibusdam notis augurarer.'
+
+The words in _Ep._ vii. 16 (of Calestrius Tiro), 'Simul quaestores
+Caesaris fuimus: ille me in tribunatu liberorum iure praecessit, ego
+illum in praetura sum consecutus, cum mihi Caesar annum remisisset,'
+refer to the fact that the emperor did not insist on the year of
+absence from office between the tribunate and the quaestorship. Pliny
+was quaestor from 1st June, 89 to 31st May, 90 A.D., being nominated
+by the emperor, as shown by the above passage. He was _trib. pleb._
+from 10th December, 90 to 9th December, 91 A.D., and during his year
+of office undertook no cases. Cf. _Ep._ i. 23, 2, 'Ipse cum tribunus
+essem ... abstinui causis agendis.' By special favour he was allowed
+to take office as praetor on 1st January, A.D. 93. In this year he
+appeared before the Senate for the people of Baetica against the
+procurator Baebius Massa.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 33, esp. par. 4, 'Dederat me senatus cum Herennio Senecione
+advocatum provinciae Baeticae contra Baebium Massam.'
+
+The inscriptions of Pliny show that he was _praefectus aerarii
+militaris_ between his praetorship in 93 and his _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ (from 98 onwards), and this office he held either from 94 to
+96 or from 95 to 97 A.D. Pliny tells us that he and Cornutus Tertullus
+were designated consuls, when they had held the _praefectura aerarii
+Saturni_ for less than two years.
+
+_Paneg._ 91, 'Nondum biennium compleveramus in officio laboriosissimo
+et maximo, cum tu nobis ... consulatum obtulisti.'
+
+This _designatio_ took place on 9th January, A.D. 100, whence the
+_praefectura_ must have been entered on shortly after 9th January,
+A.D. 98. Pliny was probably nominated to it by Nerva and Trajan.
+
+Cf. _ad Trai._ 3, 'Ut primum me, domine, indulgentia _vestra_ promovit
+ad praefecturam aerarii Saturni.'
+
+Mommsen[108] believes that this praefectura was held at the same time
+as the consulship, and on to December, A.D. 101, an unusual length of
+tenure. H. F. Stobbe, however, makes the trial of Classicus, on which
+the last date depends, extend from September 99 to July 100 A.D.
+(_Philologus_, xxx. 347 _sqq._).
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Nobis praefectis aerarii consulatum ante quam
+successorem dedisti.'
+
+Pliny, along with Cornutus Tertullus, his colleague in the
+_praefectura_, was made consul A.D. 100. He held the office in
+September of that year, and the tenure was either from July 1 to
+September 30, or from September 1 to October 31.
+
+_Paneg._ 92, 'Ei nos potissimum mensi attribuisti quem tuus natalis
+exornat.'
+
+The _Panegyricus_ is a speech of thanks to Trajan spoken on this
+occasion. In A.D. 99 Pliny, along with Tacitus, appeared for the
+Africans against the proconsul Marius Priscus (see _Ep._ ii. 11 quoted
+p. 338); and in A.D. 101, while still _praefectus aerarii_, he
+appeared for the people of Baetica against the proconsul Caecilius
+Classicus.
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 2, 'Legati provinciae Baeticae questuri de proconsulatu
+Caecili Classici advocatum me a senatu petierunt.'
+
+Pliny obtained the augurship, probably in 103 or 104, in succession to
+Sex. Iulius Frontinus, who probably died in 102 or 103 A.D. Cf. _Ep._
+iv. 8, 3, 'Successi Iulio Frontino.' In 103 or 104 A.D. he appeared
+against the Bithynians for the proconsul Iulius Bassus (_Ep._ iv. 9
+etc.). He held the _cura alvei Tiberis et riparum et cloacarum urbis_
+probably from 105 to 107 A.D. See Pliny's chief inscription (below),
+and cf. _Ep._ v. 14, 1-2, 'Mihi nuntiatum est Cornutum Tertullum
+accepisse Aemiliae viae curam ... aliquanto magis me delectat mandatum
+mihi officium, postquam par Cornuto datum video.'
+
+About A.D. 106 Pliny appeared against the Bithynians for the proconsul
+Varenus Rufus (_Ep._ vi. 29, 11).
+
+From 111-2 or 112-3 A.D. Pliny was governor of Pontus and Bithynia,
+being sent out for a special purpose by the emperor as _legatus pro
+praetore consulari potestate_. Cf. the chief inscription (below) and
+the words of Trajan.
+
+_Trai._ 32, 'Meminerimus idcirco te in istam provinciam missum, quoniam
+multa in ea emendanda apparuerint.'
+
+The date of Pliny's governorship is fixed by the mention of Calpurnius
+Macer in the letters (_ad Trai._ 42; 61; 62) as the governor of the
+nearest province. Mommsen has identified him with P. Calpurnius Macer
+Caulius Rufus, who is shown by an inscription (_C.I.L._ iii. 7 and 17)
+to have been governor of Lower Moesia in 112 A.D. This is corroborated
+by the fact that no mention is made of Bithynia in the chief
+collection of letters, which was not completed till A.D. 108 at least.
+Therefore the governorship falls after that time. On the other hand,
+Pliny must have been sent out not later than A.D. 113, as in the chief
+inscription _Optimus_ does not appear in Trajan's name, and this
+cognomen he assumed in A.D. 114. Finally, the fact that Trajan was at
+Rome during Pliny's governorship points to a time between the end of
+the second Dacian War in A.D. 107 and the outbreak of the Parthian War
+in A.D. 113.
+
+Our information about Pliny ends with the close of his correspondence
+with Trajan. It is certain that he held no further office, and it is
+probable that he died before A.D. 114 in his province or shortly after
+his return to Rome.
+
+As regards municipal relations, Pliny held the post of _flamen divi
+Augusti_, according to the inscription which the corporation of
+Vercellae erected to him at his own town (_C.I.L._ v. 5667).
+
+'C. Plini[o L. f. O]uf. Caec[ilio] Secundo [c]os. augur. cur. alv.
+Tib. [et ripa]r. et cloac. urb. [praef. a]er. Sat. praef. aer. mil.
+[pr. tr. pl.] imp. sevir. eq. R. tr. m[i]l. leg. iii. Gall. x. viro
+stl. iud. fl. divi T. Aug.'
+
+For bequests to his native town see the chief inscription (below).
+Besides these are mentioned gifts in his life-time. Under Domitian
+Pliny presented his townspeople with a library (_Ep._ i, 8),
+apparently worth 1,000,000 sesterces (v. 7), and endowed it with
+100,000 sesterces. He also gave 500,000 sesterces for the support of
+freeborn boys and girls (_Ep._ i, 8); and promised to pay one-third of
+the salary of the professor of rhetoric at Comum (_Ep._ iv. 13, 5).
+
+The following is the chief inscription of Pliny (as restored by
+Mommsen), which was erected at the _Thermae_ which he presented to
+Comum (_C.I.L._ v. 5262):
+
+'C. Plinius L. f. Ouf. Caecilius _Secundus cos._ augur legat. pro pr.
+provinciae Pon_ti et Bithyniae_ consulari potesta_t_. in eam
+provinciam e_x. s. c. missus ab_ Imp. Caesar. Nerva Traiano Aug.
+German_ico Dacico p.p_. curator alvei Ti_b_eris et riparum e_t
+cloacar. urb_. praef. aerari Satu_r_ni praef. aerari mil_it. pr. trib.
+pl_. quaestor imp. sevir equitum _Romanorum_ trib. milit. leg. _iii_.
+Gallicae _x.vir stli_tib. iudicand. therm_as ex HS_ ... adiectis in
+ornatum HS ccc ... _et eo amp_lius in tutela_m_ HS CC t. f. i. _item
+in alimenta_ libertor. suorum homin. C. HS XVIII LXVI DCLXVI rei_p.
+legavit, quorum inc_rement. postea ad epulum _pl_eb. urban. voluit
+pertin_ere ... item vivus_ dedit in aliment. pueror. et puellar. pleb.
+urban. HS D _item bybliothecam et_ in tutelam bybliothecae HS C.'
+
+Pliny was also patron of Tifernum Tiberinum and of the Baetici.
+
+_Ep._ iv. 1, 4, 'Oppidum est praediis nostris vicinum, nomen Tiferni
+Tiberini, quod me paene adhuc puerum patronum cooptavit ... In hoc ego
+... templum pecunia mea exstruxi, cuius dedicationem ... differre
+longius inreligiosum est.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 4, 4, 'Legati ... inplorantes fidem meam, quam essent
+contra Massam Baebium experti, adlegantes patrocini foedus.'
+
+Pliny married three times, twice under Domitian. Cf. _ad Trai._ 2,
+'Liberos ... habere etiam tristissimo illo saeculo volui, sicut potes
+duobus matrimoniis meis credere.' For his third wife, Calpurnia, who
+died A.D. 97, see _Ep._ iv. 19. Pliny had no children, but Trajan
+conferred on him the _ius trium liberorum_ in A.D. 98. Cf. _ad Trai._
+2, 'Me dignum putasti iure trium liberorum.'
+
+_Pliny as orator and writer._--Most of Pliny's cases were before the
+_centumviri_, who dealt with inheritances: cf. _Ep._ vi. 12, 2, 'in
+harena mea, hoc est apud centumviros.' So Mart. x. 19, 14 (written
+A.D. 96),
+
+  'Totos dat tetricae dies Minervae
+  dum centum studet auribus virorum
+  hoc quod saecula posterique possint
+  Arpinis quoque comparare chartis.'
+
+For Pliny's five speeches in criminal trials before the Senate see
+above. Cf. _Ep._ vi. 29, 7 _sqq._, 'Egi quasdam a senatu iussus ...
+Adfui Baeticis contra Baebium Massam ... Adfui rursus isdem
+querentibus de Caecilio Classico ... Accusavi Marium Priscum ...
+Tuitus sum Iulium Bassum ... Dixi proxime pro Vareno.'
+
+Pliny recited his speeches before delivering them, and subsequently
+published them, sometimes with additions.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 17, 2, 'Miror quod scribis fuisse quosdam qui
+reprehenderent quod orationes omnino recitarem.'
+
+_Ep._ iii. 18, 1 (of the _Panegyricus_), 'Quod ego in senatu cum ad
+rationem et loci et temporis ex more fecissem, bono civi
+convenientissimum credidi eadem illa spatiosius et uberius volumine
+amplecti.'
+
+Pliny speaks of his early attempts at poetry:
+
+_Ep._ vii. 4, 2-3, 'Numquam a poetice (altius enim repetam) alienus
+fui; quin etiam quattuordecim natus annos Graecam tragoediam scripsi.
+Qualem? inquis: nescio: tragoedia vocabatur.'
+
+In Books i.-iii. he appears only as a lover of poetry and a patron of
+poets (cf. i. 16; iii. 15). From Book iv. (published A.D. 105) onwards
+he appears as a poet. In _Ep._ vii. 4, 6 are thirteen poor hexameter
+lines on Cicero; _ibid._ par. 7-8, 'Transii ad elegos: hos quoque non
+minus celeriter explicui: addidi iambos, facilitate corruptus ...
+Postremo placuit exemplo multorum unum separatim hendecasyllaborum
+volumen absolvere, nec paenitet. Legitur, describitur, cantatur
+etiam.' Pliny defends himself for writing light verses in _Ep._ v. 3,
+etc. In the later books he refers to another proposed collection of
+verses.
+
+_Ep._ viii. 21, 3, 'Liber fuit et opusculis varius et metris.'
+
+Pliny says he did not observe chronological order in publishing his
+letters.
+
+_Ep._ i. 1, 1, 'Collegi non servato temporis ordine (neque enim
+historiam componebam), sed ut quaeque in manus venerat.'
+
+This, however, is not convincing, as it falls in with
+Pliny's wish to give an appearance of negligence to the work, and
+besides it may apply only to Book i. Successive publication of the
+different Books is shown by many references; so _Ep._ ix. 19,
+'Significas legisse te in quadam epistula,' where _Ep._ vi. 10 is
+referred to. So also contemporaneous events are always described in
+the same Book or in two Books close together; and when a subject is
+continued in another letter, the order of the two letters fits in with
+chronology. So iii. 4 and iv. 1 deal with the building of a temple at
+Tifernum; iii. 20 and iv. 25 with ballot at elections.
+
+The following are the probable dates of publication: Book i. in A.D.
+97; Book ii. in A.D. 100; Book iii. in A.D. 101 or 102; Book iv. in
+A.D. 105; Book v. in A.D. 106; Book vi. possibly in A.D. 106; Book
+vii. in A.D. 107; Book viii. not before A.D. 109; Book ix. probably
+about the same time.
+
+The correspondence with Trajan is independent of the nine Books of
+letters. The epistles are roughly in chronological order. _Epp._ 1-14
+range from 98 to 106 A.D. _Epp._ 15 to the end were probably all
+written in Bithynia during Pliny's governorship there. Trajan's reply
+is subjoined to most of the letters. The correspondence extant
+stretches from September A.D. 111 over January A.D. 113.
+
+Pliny had intimate relations with other writers, the principal being
+Tacitus; Martial (cf. _Ep._ iii. 21); Silius Italicus (cf. _Ep._ iii.
+7). See pp. 340, 298, 289. For his literary reputation see _Ep._ ix.
+23, 2, quoted p. 338 and cf. _Ep._ i. 2, 6, 'Libelli quos emisimus
+dicuntur in manibus esse, quamvis iam gratiam novitatis exuerint; nisi
+tamen auribus nostris bibliopolae blandiuntur.'
+
+_Pliny's character._--Pliny, without being a great man, is a more
+favourable specimen of character, feeling, and gentlemanly tone, than
+almost any other Roman author. He avoided censorious writing, and most
+of the people he mentions are praised. The chief exception is Regulus
+(_Ep._ i. 5, etc.), and possibly also Iavolenus Priscus (vi. 15). When
+anybody is blamed, his name is omitted unless he is dead or has been
+banished.
+
+_Ep._ vii. 28, i, 'Ais quosdam apud te reprehendisse, tamquam amicos
+meos ex omni occasione ultra modum laudem. Agnosco crimen, amplector
+etiam. Quid enim honestius culpa benignitatis?'
+
+For his desire of praise cf. _Ep._ ix. 23, 5, 'An ... ego celebritate
+nominis mei gaudere non debeo? Ego vero et gaudeo et gaudere me dico.'
+
+For his kindness to slaves cf. _Ep._ viii. 16, 1, 'Permitto servis
+quoque quasi testamenta facere eaque ut legitima custodio' (and the
+rest of the letter).
+
+For his grief at the loss of friends cf. _Ep._ v. 21, 6, 'Sed quid ego
+indulgeo dolori? cui si frenos remittas, nulla materia non maxima est.
+Finem epistulae faciam, ut facere possim etiam lacrimis quas epistula
+expressit.'
+
+For his love of nature cf. Ep. i. 9, 6, 'O mare, o litus, verum
+secretumque +mouseion+, quam multa invenitis, quam multa
+dictatis!'
+
+Cf. also descriptions of natural scenery, as in _Epp._ ii. 17, 3; v.
+6, 13; vi. 31, 15; viii. 8.
+
+
+
+TACITUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+The historian's full name is uncertain. Other writers, _e.g._ Pliny
+the younger, call him Cornelius Tacitus, or simply Tacitus. His
+praenomen is given as P. in the best Tacitean MS. (Mediceus I.), and
+as C. in later MSS. and by Sidonius Apollinaris (_Ep._ iv. 14;
+22).[109] His birthplace is unknown. The tradition that he was born at
+Interamna in Umbria arose from the fact that the emperor Tacitus (A.D.
+275-6), who claimed descent from the historian (Vopisc. _Tac._ 10, 3),
+was born there.[110] The probable date of his birth is got from a
+comparison of two passages:
+
+_Dial._ 1, 'Disertissimorum ... hominum ... quos eamdem hanc
+quaestionem pertractantes iuvenis admodum audivi.'
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 20, 3, 'Erit rarum et insigne duos homines aetate
+dignitate propemodum aequales ... alterum alterius studia fovisse.
+Equidem adulescentulus, cum iam tu fama gloriaque floreres, te sequi,
+tibi longo sed proximus intervallo et esse et haberi concupiscebam.'
+
+The dramatic date of the Dialogue is A.D. 75 (_Dial._ 17), and at that
+time Tacitus, as _iuvenis admodum_, must have been between seventeen
+and twenty. From a consideration of the words of Pliny, who was born
+A.D. 61 or 62, the later age seems nearer the mark, and we may
+conclude that Tacitus was born A.D. 55 or 56.
+
+We have no positive information about Tacitus' family, but his
+education, political career, and marriage into a distinguished house,
+prove that he belonged to a family of station. The first person of the
+name we know of is mentioned by Pliny the elder as an _eques_, and may
+have been Tacitus' father.
+
+Pliny, _N.H._ vii. 76, 'Corneli Taciti, equitis Romani, Belgicae
+Galliae rationes procurantis.'
+
+Tacitus received the regular rhetorical training under the best
+masters.
+
+_Dial._ 2, 'M. Aper et Iulius Secundus, celeberrima tum ingenia fori
+nostri, quos ego in iudiciis non modo studiose audiebam, sed domi
+quoque et in publico adsectabar, mira studiorum cupiditate et quodam
+ardore iuvenili, ut fabulas quoque eorum et disputationes et arcana
+semotae dictionis penitus exciperem.'
+
+That Tacitus had a very great reputation as a speaker is seen from
+Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 23, 2, 'Numquam maiorem cepi voluptatem, quam nuper
+ex sermone Corneli Taciti. Narrabat sedisse se cum quodam Circensibus
+proximis: hunc post varios eruditosque sermones requisisse "Italicus
+es an provincialis?" se respondisse "nosti me, et quidem ex studiis."
+Ad hoc illum "Tacitus es an Plinius?"'
+
+In A.D. 98 (according to others, 97) Tacitus delivered the funeral
+oration over Verginius Rufus, and in A.D. 100 he and Pliny prosecuted
+Marius Priscus, proconsul of Africa, for extortion.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, 'Laudatus est [Verginius Rufus] a consule
+Cornelio Tacito: nam hic supremus felicitati eius cumulus accessit,
+laudator eloquentissimus.'
+
+_Ibid._ ii. 11, 2, 'Ego et Cornelius Tacitus, adesse provincialibus
+iussi.' par. 17, 'Respondit Cornelius Tacitus eloquentissime, et quod
+eximium orationi eius inest, +semnos+.'
+
+In A.D. 77 Tacitus was betrothed to the daughter of Agricola, then
+consul, and in A.D. 78 he married her.
+
+_Agr._ 9, 'Consul egregiae tum spei filiam iuveni mihi despondit ac
+post consulatum collocavit, et statim Britanniae praepositus est.'
+
+Tacitus gives us a clue to his political career in _Hist._ i. 1.
+
+'Dignitatem nostram a Vespasiano incohatam, a Tito auctam, a Domitiano
+longius provectam non abnuerim.'
+
+This probably means that Vespasian granted him the _latus clavus_,
+_i.e._ a place in the _ordo senatorius_, which was followed by the
+_vigintiviratus_ given by the Senate, and a commission in the army as
+_tribunus militum laticlavius_; that Titus appointed him quaestor A.D.
+80-1; and that Domitian made him tribune or aedile (about 84), and in
+A.D. 88 praetor. For the last office cf. _Ann._ xi. 11,
+
+'Is [Domitianus] edidit ludos saeculares, eisque intentius adfui
+sacerdotio quindecimvirali praeditus ac tunc praetor.'
+
+That Tacitus was absent from Rome A.D. 90-93 we may infer from what he
+says of Agricola's death (A.D. 93).
+
+_Agr._ 45, 'Nobis tam longae absentiae condicione ante quadriennium
+amissus est.'
+
+He must have returned to Rome soon afterwards, for he says in the same
+chapter: 'Mox nostrae duxere Helvidium in carcerem manus; nos Maurici
+Rusticique visus, nos innocenti sanguine Senecio perfudit.'
+
+Tacitus was appointed consul suffectus under Trajan A.D. 98 (see
+Pliny, _Ep._ ii. 1, 6, above quoted).
+
+An inscription found at Mylasa in Caria shows that Tacitus was
+proconsul of Asia about 112-116 A.D.[111]
+
+Tacitus probably died soon after the publication of the _Annals_ (A.D.
+115-7), as he did not live to write his contemplated works on the
+Augustan age and the reigns of Nerva and Trajan.
+
+_Hist._ i. 1, 'Quod si vita suppeditet, principatum divi Nervae et
+imperium Traiani ... senectuti seposui.'
+
+_Ann._ iii. 24, 'Cetera illius aetatis [Augusti] memorabo, si effectis
+in quae tetendi, plures ad curas vitam produxero.'
+
+Tacitus was on intimate terms with Pliny, eleven of whose letters are
+addressed to him. From vii. 20 and viii. 7 we see that they were in
+the habit of "exchanging proof-sheets." To the same circle belonged
+Fabius Iustus, to whom the _Dialogus_ is dedicated, and Asinius Rufus.
+
+Pliny, _Ep._ iv. 15, 1, 'Asinium Rufum singulariter amo. ... Idem
+Cornelium Tacitum arta familiaritate complexus est.'
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _Dialogus de Oratoribus_, an inquiry into the causes of the decay
+of eloquence--'cur nostra potissimum aetas deserta et laude
+eloquentiae orbata vix nomen ipsum oratoris retineat' (_Dial._ 1).
+Some critics have supposed that Tacitus meant this work to be an
+_apologia pro vita sua_, a justification of his preference for a
+literary to a rhetorical career, but this cannot be proved. That
+Tacitus is the author is clear from Pliny, _Ep._ ix. 10, 2, 'Itaque
+poemata quiescunt, quae tu inter nemora et lucos commodissime perfici
+putas'--a reference to _Dial._ 9, 'poetis ... in nemora et lucos, id
+est in solitudinem, secedendum est.' The dramatic date is given in
+_Dial._ 17 as A.D. 75; the statement there and in _Dial._ 24 that one
+hundred and twenty years have passed since Cicero's death (which would
+give A.D. 77) is made in round numbers. The date of composition is
+uncertain. It was not under Domitian, as Tacitus remained silent
+during his reign (_Agr._ 2). We can hardly suppose it to have been
+written under Nerva, as its style is so different from that of the
+_Agricola_; but it may have been written under Domitian, and published
+after his death. Some authorities put it as early as A.D. 81.[112]
+
+2. _De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae liber_, an account of the life
+of Cn. Iulius Agricola, Tacitus' father-in-law, and particularly of
+his career in Britain. It was written early in the reign of Trajan,
+and therefore after 27th Jan., 98 A.D., and probably in that year.
+
+_Agr._ 3, 'quamquam primo statim beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar
+res olim dissociabiles miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque
+cottidie felicitatem temporum Nerva Traianus.'
+
+3. _Germania_.--The Vatican MSS. give the title as _de origine et situ_
+(another MS. adds _moribus ac populis_) Germanorum. The date of
+publication, as seen from _Germ._ 37, was A.D. 98. The book is not
+mentioned in _Agr._ 3 among the proposed works of Tacitus; and it has
+therefore been supposed that the materials were collected for the
+_Histories_, and that the work was published separately on account of
+its length, and also the interest felt in Germany at the time. There
+is nothing in the theory that the book is a political pamphlet, or
+that it contains a moral purpose. Tacitus is by no means blind to the
+faults of the Germans (c. 17 _sqq._, etc.), though he compares them
+favourably in many respects with the Romans.
+
+4. _Historiae_.--The title is guaranteed by Tertull. _apol._ 16,
+'Cornelius Tacitus in quinta historiarum suarum.' The work embraced
+the time from Galba to Domitian, _i.e._ 69-96 A.D. The first four
+Books and part of the fifth are extant, and give the history of 69 and
+most of 70 A.D. In MS. Mediceus II., the only ancient MS. that
+contains _Ann._ xi.-xvi. and the _Histories_, there is no title, but
+the Books are numbered continuously as belonging to the same work. Cf.
+Jerome, _Comm. on Zacharias_, iii. 14, 'Cornelius Tacitus, qui post
+Augustum usque ad mortem Domitiani vitas Caesarum triginta voluminibus
+exaravit.' If, therefore, the _Annals_ contained sixteen Books, the
+_Histories_ must have contained fourteen, supposing Jerome's statement
+to be correct. Some authorities think the numbers were eighteen and
+twelve respectively. The work was written under Trajan (cf. _Hist._ i.
+1, 'principatum divi Nervae et imperium Traiani'), and was probably
+brought out in instalments. Pliny's letters (vi. 16; 20; vii. 33),
+written about A.D. 106-9, contain contributions to it.
+
+5. _Annales_, or rather _Ab excessu divi Augusti_, the title given by
+MS. Med. I. Tacitus often calls his work _annales_ (as in _Ann._ iv.
+32), but uses the word to signify his plan of recording events by
+their years. Cf. _Ann._ iv. 71, 'Ni mihi destinatum foret suum quaeque
+in annum referre, avebat animus antire,' etc.
+
+He occasionally apologises (as in xii. 40) for departing from this
+order for the sake of clearness. The Books, the division into which
+was made by Tacitus himself (cf. vi. 27, 'in prioribus libris'),
+usually, however, end with some important event.
+
+The _Annals_ deal with the time from the death of Augustus to that of
+Nero, _i.e._ from 14 to 68 A.D. There are extant Books i.-iv. and a
+part of v. and vi., and Books xi.-xvi., except the beginning of xi.
+and the end of xvi. We have thus lost the whole of the reign of
+Caligula and the reign of Claudius from 41-47 (part), and Nero's reign
+from the close of 66 to 68. The work was published between A.D. 115
+and 117. This is settled by _Ann._ ii. 61, 'Exin ventum Elephantinen
+ac Syenen, claustra olim Romani imperii, quod nunc rubrum ad mare
+patescit.'
+
+The conquest here spoken of was made by Trajan A.D. 115, and his
+successor Hadrian, soon after coming to the throne (August, A.D. 117),
+gave up the regions beyond the Euphrates and Tigris (Spartianus,
+_Hadri._ 5).[113]
+
+_Tacitus' views on politics, philosophy, and religion._--
+
+(1) The ideal mixed form of government Tacitus considers to be
+impracticable.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Cunctas nationes et urbes populus aut primores aut
+singuli regunt: delecta ex eis et consociata rei publicae forma
+laudari facilius quam evenire, vel si evenit, haud diuturna esse
+potest.'
+
+Tacitus is essentially a conservative. Thus he always uses _antiquus_
+and _priscus_ in a good sense (_H._ ii. 5; 64; _Ann._ vi. 32).
+
+In _Ann._ iii. 60 he speaks with pride of the republic: 'Magna eius
+diei species fuit, quo senatus maiorum beneficia, sociorum pacta,
+regum etiam, qui ante vim Romanam valuerant, decreta ipsorumque
+numinum religiones introspexit, libero, ut quondam, quid firmaret
+mutaretve.'
+
+See also the speech of C. Cassius in _Ann._ xiv. 43. As an aristocrat
+Tacitus is sometimes unjust to men of low birth, as in _Ann._ iv. 3,
+where he sneers at Seianus as 'municipali adultero,' and attaches
+great value to high birth (cf. vi. 27). He is prejudiced against
+slaves and barbarians.
+
+Tacitus theoretically prefers a republic (cf. _Ann._ vi. 42, 'Populi
+imperium iuxta libertatem, paucorum dominatio regiae libidini propior
+est'), but admits the impossibility of a restitution of the free state
+(_H._ ii. 37-8) and the necessity of empire. _H._ i. 1 (of Augustus),
+'omnem potentiam ad unum conferri pacis interfuit.'
+
+Cf. also Galba's speech in _H._ i. 16. The problem is to reconcile the
+empire with freedom (see _Agr._ 3 quoted p. 341). One's duty is to
+steer one's course _inter abruptam contumaciam et deforme obsequium_
+(_Ann._ iv. 20). Tacitus gives only modified approval to patriots like
+Paetus Thrasea (_Ann._ xiv. 12; 49) and Helvidius Priscus (_H._ iv.
+6), and on the other hand gives praise for moderation to men like
+Agricola (_Agr._ 42), M. Lepidus (_Ann._ iv. 20), L. Piso (_Ann._ vi.
+10).
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 12, 'Thrasea Paetus ... sibi causam periculi fecit,
+ceteris libertatis initium non praebuit.'
+
+_Agr._ 42, 'Non contumacia neque inani iactatione libertatis famam
+fatumque provocabat.'
+
+Tacitus blames those who despair of their own times. _Ann._ ii. 88,
+'dum vetera extollimus recentium incuriosi.' He thinks that the
+emperors, from their irresponsible position, were often gradually led
+into wickedness, their downward career being helped by flatterers and
+satellites, and draws a moral lesson from the servile Senate and the
+_delatores_, who, like the emperors themselves, received punishment
+for their conduct (_Ann._ i. 74; iii. 65 _sqq._).
+
+_Ann._ vi. 48, 'Cum Tiberius post tantam rerum experientiam vi
+dominationis convulsus et mutatus sit.'
+
+_Ann._ iv. 33, 'Pauci prudentia honesta ab deterioribus utilia ab
+noxiis discernunt, plures aliorum eventis docentur.'
+
+_Ann._ vi. 6, 'Adeo facinora atque flagitia sua ipsi quoque in
+supplicium verterant ... Quippe Tiberium non fortuna, non solitudines
+protegebant, quin tormenta pectoris suasque ipse poenas fateretur.'
+
+(2) Tacitus attaches himself to no particular school of philosophy,
+and deprecates too close an attention to the subject.
+
+_Agr._ 4, 'Memoria teneo solitum ipsum [Agricolam] narrare se prima in
+iuventa studium philosophiae acrius, ultra quam concessum Romano ac
+senatori, hausisse, ni prudentia matris incensum ac flagrantem animum
+coercuisset.'
+
+He cannot make up his mind as to freewill and predestination, but in
+spite of this doubt expressly states his desire to find out the causes
+of events.
+
+_Ann._ vi. 22, 'Sed mihi haec ac talia audienti in incerto iudicium
+est, fatone res mortalium et necessitate immutabili an forte
+volvantur' (and the rest of the chapter, where the Stoic and Epicurean
+views are mentioned). On the other hand, _H._ i. 4, 'Ut non modo casus
+eventusque rerum, qui plerumque fortuiti sunt, sed ratio etiam
+causaeque noscantur.'
+
+He expresses his belief in divine agency, particularly in the
+_Annals_, but sometimes adopts the pessimistic view that the gods take
+little interest in mankind.
+
+_Ann._ xiv. 5, 'Noctem sideribus inlustrem et placido mari quietam,
+quasi convincendum ad scelus, di praebuere.'
+
+_H._ v. 5, 'Pessimus quisque spretis religionibus patriis.'
+
+_H._ i. 3, 'Nec enim umquam atrocioribus populi Romani cladibus
+magisve iustis indiciis adprobatum est non esse curae deis securitatem
+nostram, esse ultionem.'
+
+_Ann._ xvi. 33, 'Aequitate deum erga bona malaque documenta.'
+
+He believes in the science of divination (see especially _Ann._ iv.
+58), but speaks contemptuously of the impostors found among
+soothsayers and astrologers.
+
+_H._ i. 22, 'Mathematicis ... genus hominum potentibus infidum,
+sperantibus fallax, quod in civitate nostra et vetabitur semper et
+retinebitur.'
+
+Prodigies are recognized, but mentioned only in the _Histories_ and
+the last books of the _Annals_ (from A.D. 51 onwards). See especially
+_H._ ii. 50.
+
+_Tacitus as a historian._--As regards his sources, Tacitus makes more
+use of his predecessors than he does of original documents. Among the
+latter he mentions _acta diurna_ (_Ann._ iii. 3) and _commentarii_ or
+_acta senatus_ (_Ann._ xv. 74); but these he did not make much use of,
+as they were apt to be falsified. He also refers to _publica acta_,
+probably inscriptions (_Ann._ xii. 24); Tiberius' speeches (_Ann._ i.
+81); memoirs of Agrippina, Nero's mother (_Ann._ iv. 53); and of
+Domitius Corbulo on his campaigns in Parthia (_Ann._ xv. 16). He also
+refers by name to several historians, especially in dealing with the
+times after Nero, as C. Plinius (_Ann._ i. 69, quoted p. 284),
+Vipstanus Messalla (_H._ iii. 25), Fabius Rusticus,[114] and Cluvius
+Rufus[115] (_Ann._ xiii. 20).
+
+Other writers are sparingly mentioned, as Sisenna (_H._ iii. 51),
+Caesar (_Germ._ 28). It is certain that Tacitus made use of other
+historians, but he generally refers to his sources without mentioning
+names (as _Ann._ i. 29, 'tradunt plerique'). He sometimes weighs the
+value of two conflicting accounts, or mentions a story only to reject
+it.
+
+_Ann._ iv. 11, 'Haec vulgo iactata, super id quod nullo auctore certo
+firmantur, prompte refutaveris.'
+
+Tacitus' credibility has been attacked, particularly as regards his
+representation of the characters of Tiberius and Nero, but not very
+successfully. He has, however, made mistakes, the most striking of
+which are his view of the Christians (_Ann._ xv. 44) and his account
+of the Jews (_H._ v. 2 _sqq._). The explanation is that he held the
+view current in the upper classes, and did not take the trouble to
+investigate these matters, as the Jews and Christians belonged mostly
+to the lower orders.
+
+Tacitus is not free from superstition (_Ann._ xi. 21; _H._ ii. 50,
+etc.), but one must not suppose he believes the fables he relates (as
+_Ann._ vi. 28; _H._ iv. 83) simply because he expresses no opinion of
+them.
+
+Tacitus is free from party spirit (_Ann._ i. 1, 'sine ira et studio,
+quorum causas procul habeo'; cf. _H._ i. 1) and just in his judgment,
+except in a few passages in the _Histories_, where he is rather unfair
+(i. 42, ii. 95). He is milder in the _Annals_ through advancing years,
+and from the better times he lived in. Generally he takes a lenient
+view of things, except (1) in offences against the state (cf. the
+character of Tiberius); (2) when the religious element comes in; cf.
+what he says of Claudius' marriage with his brother's daughter
+Agrippina: _Ann._ xiv. 2, 'Agrippina ... exercita ad omne flagitium
+patrui nuptiis.'
+
+He shows a somewhat lax morality occasionally, as in _Ann._ xiii. 17
+_sqq._, when speaking of Nero's murder of his brother Britannicus. In
+_Ann._ xi. 19 he approves of compassing a barbarian's death by
+treachery.
+
+For Tacitus' conception of history as dealing with great events cf.
+_Ann._ xiii. 31, 'pauca memoria digna evenere, nisi cui libeat
+laudandis fundamentis et trabibus, quis molem amphitheatri apud campum
+Martis Caesar extruxerat, volumina implere, cum ex dignitate populi
+Romani repertum sit res inlustres annalibus, talia diurnis urbis actis
+mandare.'
+
+His complaints as to his subject-matter in _Ann._ iv. 32, 'Nobis in
+arto et inglorius labor,' must not be taken too seriously.
+
+
+
+SUETONIUS.
+
+
+(1) LIFE.
+
+C. Suetonius Tranquillus was the son of Suetonius Laetus, a tribune of
+the thirteenth legion, who took part in the battle of Bedriacum, A.D.
+69 (Sueton. _Otho_, 10). His birth seems to have taken place soon
+after that year,[116] for he was 'adulescens' twenty years after
+Nero's death; _Nero_ 57, 'cum post viginti annos, adulescente me,
+exstitisset condicionis incertae qui se Neronem esse iactaret.'
+
+Suetonius was a friend of the younger Pliny, to whom he was indebted
+for a military tribuneship, which he afterwards passed on to a
+relative (Plin. _Ep._ iii. 8), and for assistance in the purchase of a
+small estate (ibid. i. 24). Pliny encouraged him to publish some of
+his writings (v. 10), and obtained for him from Trajan the _ius trium
+liberorum_ (_ad Trai._ 94).
+
+Under Hadrian he was _magister epistularum_, but was dismissed from
+office in A.D. 121. Spartianus, _Hadr._ 11, 3, 'Septicio Claro
+praefecto praetorio et Suetonio Tranquillo epistularum magistro
+multisque aliis, quod apud Sabinam uxorem in usu eius familiarius se
+tunc egerant quam reverentia domus aulicae postulabat, successores
+dedit.' The remainder of his life appears to have been devoted to
+literature.
+
+
+(2) WORKS.
+
+1. _De Vita Caesarum_, in eight Books (Books i.-vi. Iulius-Nero; vii.
+Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; viii. Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). It
+was published A.D. 119-21, as it was dedicated (according to Joannes
+Lydus) to C. Septicius Clarus, praetorian prefect, who held office
+during those years. The preface and the beginning of the life of
+Iulius are wanting. Suetonius is a conscientious and accurate writer
+(cf. his discussion of Caligula's birthplace, _Calig._ 8), and he
+makes use of good sources, e.g. the _Monumentum Ancyranum_, _Acta
+populi_, _Acta senatus_, autograph documents of the emperors (_Aug._
+87, _Nero_ 52); but there is in his work an almost entire absence of
+dates, and the personal element is, from the point of view of history,
+unduly prominent.
+
+2. _De Viris Illustribus_, including poets, orators (beginning with
+Cicero), historians (from Sallust onwards), philosophers, grammarians,
+and rhetoricians. The greater part of the section _De grammaticis et
+rhetoribus_ is extant, as well as lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan
+from the section _de poetis_, and of Pliny the elder from the section
+_de historicis_. Extracts from the rest of the work are preserved by
+Jerome. In each section there was (1) a list of the authors discussed,
+(2) a general survey of their branch of literature, (3) brief notices
+of the authors in chronological order. The publication took place,
+according to Roth, 106-113 A.D.
+
+3. Minor works, now lost (mentioned by Suidas), on Greek games, Roman
+games, the Roman year, on critical marks, on Cicero's _Republic_, on
+dress, on imprecations (+peri dysphemon lexeon etoi blasphemion kai
+pothen hekaste+), on Roman laws and customs. Some of these were probably
+only sections of the _Prata_, a miscellany in ten Books, which also
+treated of natural science and philology. The books on Greek games and
+on imprecations were almost certainly composed in Greek.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Chapter IV
+
+
+[72] The praenomen 'Gaius' is rendered highly probable by the reading
+of the _editio princeps_ and by an inscription found in Africa
+(_C.I.L._ viii. 10311).
+
+[73] _Les Poetes Latins de la Decadence_, vol. i., p. 8.
+
+[74] Antwerp edition, p. 89.
+
+[75] Tacitus does not say openly that Seneca was privy to the murder.
+On the whole he is favourable to Seneca, either because he followed
+the authority of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, or because
+Seneca perished afterwards through Nero's agency, or because he
+thought Seneca deserved his consideration.
+
+[76] Seneca's influence on the Imperial policy, especially in the
+liberal view it took regarding religion, is well brought out by Prof.
+W. M. Ramsay, in his book, _St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman
+Citizen_, pp. 354 _sqq._
+
+[77] See the very large list of parallels collected by Heitland,
+_Introduction_ to Haskins' _Lucan_, par. 51.
+
+[78] See under Varro, p. 96.
+
+[79] Ed. of _Cena Trimalchionis_, p. 7.
+
+[80] See O. Hirschfeld's note on this passage in _Roemische
+Verwaltungsgeschichte_, p. 261.
+
+[81] Messalla was a favourite of Gaius, Narcissus of Claudius.
+
+[82] Pomponius was the author of _Aeneas_ and other tragedies. Pliny
+calls him 'consularis poeta,' 'vates civisque clarissimus' (_N.H._
+vii. 80, xiii. 83). Cf. Tac. _Ann._ xii. 28.
+
+[83] Given with other examples by W. C. Summers, _Study of the
+Argonautica_ (Camb. 1894), p. 27.
+
+[84] Summers, _ibid._ p. 56.
+
+[85] Cf. Tac. _Hist._ iii. 65.
+
+[86] Mart. vii. 63.
+
+[87] Mart. xi. 48; 49.
+
+[88] Mart. viii. 66.
+
+[89] Mart. ix. 68.
+
+[90] The references are to L. Friedlaender's edition (Leipzig, 1886).
+
+[91] Ed. of Book x., Introd. p. 9 (Oxford, 1891).
+
+[92] A passage probably inserted by the pseudo-Frontinus from memoirs
+of the genuine Frontinus to give an air of authenticity to his work.
+
+[93] J. Duerr, _Das Leben Juvenals_ (Ulm, 1888). L. Friedlaender (ed. of
+Juvenal: Leipzig, 1895) attaches little importance to this and the
+other _vitae_, but his arguments do not appear to us to be convincing.
+
+[94] E. G. Hardy (ed. of Juvenal: London, 1891, introd. p. 8) thinks
+that this is supported by Juvenal's gentile name Iunius. As a
+representative of the middle classes he (thinks Hardy) could not have
+been related by blood to either of the two _gentes_ of that name.
+Hardy also states that Decimus is a common _praenomen_ of the plebeian
+_gens Iunia_, and suggests that Juvenal may have got his _praenomen_
+from them. There is no reason, however, to think that every Iunius
+must be related or associated in some way with one of these two
+_gentes_.
+
+[95] The statement of the _vitae_, 'ad mediam fere aetatem
+declamavit,' may imply no more than that he continued his studies in
+private; but it must be observed that the usual meaning of _declamare_
+is 'to attend college classes'; and the statement, in whatever way it
+is taken, must be looked upon as improbable.
+
+[96] If the number I. is right, and this appears most likely. II. is
+the only other possible reading, and it must be noted that the second
+Dalmatian cohort was in Britain at the beginning of the second
+century, and probably had been there for a considerable time. _Trib._
+in the inscription is a conjecture suggested by the _vitae_: _praef._,
+which is epigraphically possible, is preferred by some authorities.
+
+[97] E. G. Hardy thinks that A.D. 87 was one of the years when
+_duumviri quinquennales_ (appointed every five years) were elected in
+Aquinum, and hypothetically assigns Juvenal's holding of the post to
+that year.
+
+[98] _C.I.L._ vii. 1195.
+
+[99] Cf. E. G. Hardy, ed. of Juvenal.
+
+[100] Cf. E. G. Hardy, _ibid._
+
+[101] The reference in 4, 126, 'De temone Britanno excidet Arviragus,'
+proves nothing. It is the sort of reference that would be made by an
+Italian ignorant of Britain, and is, in fact, put into the mouth of
+one.
+
+[102] The view that _Sat._ i. 33 _sqq._ refers to M. Aquilius Regulus,
+who died probably A.D. 105 (Pliny, _Ep._ i. 5, 14-15), is rejected by
+Friedlaender _ad loc._
+
+[103] H. Nettleship (_Journal of Philology_, xvi., p. 45) points out
+that C. Vipstanus Apronianus and C. Fonteius Capito were consuls A.D.
+59, and suggests that this may be the year meant. This would give A.D.
+119 as the date of composition.
+
+[104] The scholiast connects with 4, 37-8.
+
+[105] This story is rejected both by Hardy and by Friedlaender.
+
+[106] Juvenal had a leaning to Stoicism: cf. _Sat._ 10 _ad fin._, and
+his references to fate, _e.g._ 7, 200; 10, 365; 12, 63. He believes in
+the gods (13, 247-9), but disbelieves the doctrines of the popular
+religion (2, 149 _sqq._).
+
+[107] The inscription records the appointment of Cilo's sons and a
+woman Lutulla as trustees of a fund, the interest of which was to be
+disbursed to the people of Comum.
+
+[108] _Hermes_, iii. 31 _sqq._
+
+[109] The inscription in Caria, formerly supposed to give P. as
+praenomen, is now shown to have been misread.
+
+[110] The inhabitants of Terni (Interamna) erected a statue to Tacitus
+as to a fellow-townsman in A.D. 1514.
+
+[111] _Bull. de Corr. Hell._, 1890, p. 621, quoted by Prof. W. M.
+Ramsay, _The Church in the Roman Empire_, p. 228.
+
+[112] One of the speakers in the Dialogue, Curiatius Maternus, was the
+author of tragedies _Medea_ and _Thyestes_, and of praetextae
+_Domitius_ and _Cato_ (_Dial._ 2-3).
+
+[113] Various attempts have been made, especially in a work published
+in London, 1878, to prove, of course unsuccessfully, that the _Annals_
+were forged in the fifteenth century by the Italian scholar Poggio
+Bracciolini.
+
+[114] Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, quoted also for the shape
+of Britain (_Agr._ 10).
+
+[115] Cluvius Rufus, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis B.C. 69 (_H._
+i. 8). Mommsen considers that he is one of the historians censured in
+_H._ ii. 101.
+
+[116] Roth gives 71, Teuffel 75 at latest.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+ON SOME OF THE CHIEF ANCIENT AUTHORITIES FOR THE HISTORY OF ROMAN
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+1. JEROME[117] (HIERONYMUS) was born about A.D. 335 at Stridon, on the
+frontiers of Dalmatia and Pannonia, and died A.D. 420 at the monastery
+of Bethlehem. His contributions to the history of Roman literature are
+to be found in his translation of the Chronicle (+chronikoi
+kanones+) of Eusebius, in which the dates are reckoned from the first
+year of Abraham (= B.C. 2016 according to his chronology), the point
+at which Eusebius commenced. On the period between the Trojan War and
+A.D. 325 Jerome not merely translated the remarks of Eusebius, as he
+had done in the earlier period, but also added numerous extracts from
+authorities on Roman history and literature. The source from which he
+derived nearly all his information on literature is universally
+admitted to have been the work of Suetonius _De Viris Illustribus_.
+With the statements in the surviving sections of that treatise the
+observations of Jerome agree, and there can be no reasonable doubt
+that he made a similar use of the parts no longer extant. It is a
+significant fact that the important authors on whom Jerome is silent,
+_e.g._ Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Pliny, are precisely those
+whom Suetonius, as a contemporary, naturally could not discuss.
+
+The statements of Jerome, based as they are on the high authority of
+Suetonius, may be regarded as in the main trustworthy. Some of them,
+however, are doubtful, and others manifestly wrong.
+
+(_a_) Jerome's plan obliged him to fix every event to a definite year;
+and this, in many cases, can only be guess-work, for Suetonius, as may
+be seen from his extant writings, was often vague in his chronology.
+
+(_b_) Comparison with the remains of Suetonius shows that Jerome's
+claim to have made his extracts with care was not always well
+grounded; _e.g._ his statement that Ennius was a native of Tarentum
+(see p. 27).
+
+(_c_) In reckoning, according to his system of dates, events dated by
+one of the many confusing systems of chronology current in ancient
+times, many openings for error presented themselves; _e.g._ he
+sometimes erred through confusing consuls of the same or similar
+names, as in the case of Lucilius (p. 59); or through confusing
+similar events, as in the case of Livius Andronicus, although the
+mistake about the latter was of long standing (p. 2). Once at least he
+seems to have confused the date of an author's _floruit_ and that of
+his death, making Plautus die in B.C. 200 instead of B.C. 184 (p. 8).
+
+2. AULUS GELLIUS[118] was born probably about A.D. 123, and studied
+under the most eminent teachers both at Rome and at Athens. Of his
+subsequent life nothing is known except that he held some judicial
+post at Rome. His work, the _Noctes Atticae_ in twenty Books (of Book
+viii. only the headings of chapters are preserved), is a miscellany of
+information on philology, philosophy, rhetoric, history, biography,
+literary criticism, natural science, and antiquities. The title is due
+to the fact that the book was commenced in the winter evenings during
+the author's residence at Athens. The arrangement of the contents
+simply follows the haphazard order of the notes which Gellius made in
+the course of his reading of Greek and Roman authors. Those authors,
+and the conversation of contemporaries, are Gellius' professed
+sources, but in some cases the author he names is evidently quoted at
+second-hand, and many of the conversations are doubtless quite
+imaginary. Our obligations to Gellius are twofold.
+
+(_a_) Innumerable extracts from ancient authors are preserved by him
+alone. (No quotations are given from post-Augustan writers--a fact
+which accords with the affected archaism of his style.)
+
+(_b_) His remarks on incidents in the lives of the Roman poets are in
+the main derived from Varro, whose work _De Poetis_ is quoted for the
+epitaph of Plautus (see p. 9); elsewhere his source is indicated
+either vaguely or not at all, e.g. iii. 3, 15, 'accepimus'; xii. 4, 5,
+'ferunt.' For literary criticism Varro is quoted: iii. 3, 9, _sqq._;
+vi. 14, 6 (see pp. 10, 51).
+
+3. NONIUS MARCELLUS,[119] a Peripatetic, of Thubursicum in Numidia, is
+identified by Mommsen with the Nonius Marcellus Herculius of _C.I.L._
+viii. 4878 (date A.D. 323); but nothing is known of his life. His
+work, _De Compendiosa Doctrina ad Filium_ in twenty Books (of Book
+xvi. the title only is known; Book xx. is fragmentary), though
+modelled on that of Gellius, is immeasurably inferior in execution.
+According to the theory usually received Nonius borrowed largely from
+Gellius; but it is possible that both compilers made independent use
+of the same authorities, viz., scholars such as Verrius Flaccus,
+Valerius Probus, and Suetonius, whose works they knew either directly
+or through abridgments. The subjects with which Nonius deals are
+grammar, lexicography, and antiquities; and he is often our sole
+authority for the titles of works as well as for brief extracts.
+
+4. AMBROSIUS THEODOSIUS MACROBIUS, doubtless identical with the
+Macrobius who held, among other high offices, the proconsulship of
+Africa A.D. 410, was probably, like Nonius, of African origin. Besides
+his commentary on the _Somnium Scipionis_ of Cicero, Macrobius wrote a
+work in seven Books on Roman literature and antiquities with the title
+of _Saturnalia_. The imaginary conversations of which it consists are
+supposed to take place during the festival of the Saturnalia at Rome
+(hence the title); and the chief subject of discussion is the poetry
+of Virgil. A remarkable feature of the book is its wealth of quotation
+from Greek and Latin authors. Macrobius, like Gellius, bases his work
+on extracts from older authorities; but, unlike him, arranges his
+matter systematically.
+
+5. AELIUS DONATUS, a grammarian who flourished at Rome about A.D. 350,
+and was one of Jerome's teachers, extracted from the lost work of
+Suetonius the Lives of Terence and Virgil, and prefixed them to his
+own commentaries on Terence and on the _Georgics_ and _Aeneid_. The
+latter is lost, and the commentary on Terence contains much that is
+not from the hand of Donatus.
+
+6. SERVIUS.--There are two versions of the Servian commentary on
+Virgil. The shorter is the work of Maurus Servius Honoratus, who was
+born about 350 A.D., and lived at Rome (Macrob. _Saturn._ i. 2, 15);
+his topographical references show that he composed his commentary
+there. Servius, whose notes are chiefly on the language of the poems,
+gives illustrative quotations from Roman authors, in some cases from
+memory and inaccurately. Donatus is the authority whom he mentions
+oftenest, but he undoubtedly made extensive use of Suetonius.
+
+The longer version contains learned additions to the work of Servius
+by an anonymous Christian writer, who deals mainly with the
+subject-matter of Virgil.
+
+7. ACRO and PORPHYRIO.--Helenius Acro (probably about 200 A.D.) was
+the author of commentaries on Horace and Terence, now lost. The
+scholia on Horace extant under Acro's name are, with few exceptions,
+taken from the commentary of Pomponius Porphyrio, which we possess in
+a mutilated form. Porphyrio, who probably belonged to the 4th cent.
+A.D., names among his sources Acro and Suetonius.
+
+For ASCONIUS see p. 77; for VALERIUS PROBUS, p. 147.
+
+
+
+Footnotes to Appendix A
+
+
+[117] See _Quaestiones Suetonianae_ in Reifferscheid's _Suetonius_,
+pp. 363 _sqq._
+
+[118] See H. Nettleship, _Lectures and Essays_ (1885), p. 248 _sqq._
+
+[119] See Nettleship, _ibid._ p. 277 _sqq._
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+SELECT LIST OF EDITIONS.
+
+
+NOTE.--All editions mentioned have explanatory notes, except those
+marked "text" (which are merely texts), and those marked "crit." (which
+have an apparatus criticus).
+
+Editions published in England and Germany have English and German
+notes respectively, unless otherwise stated.
+
+F.P.R. = Fragmenta Poetarum Romanorum, ed. E. Baehrens.
+
+  *Livius Andronicus.*
+    Plays--
+      In Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ed.
+        O. Ribbeck (vol. i. _Trag._, ii. _Com._) (crit.), Leip. '71-73
+      Do. (with Naevius' plays), L. Mueller,                 Berl. '85
+      Odisia, in E. Baehrens' Frag. Poet. Rom. (crit.),      Leip. '86
+
+  *Naevius.*
+    Bellum Punicum,      J. Vahlen,                          Leip. '54
+          "              F.P.R.
+    Plays (see above)
+
+  *Plautus.*
+    J. L. Ussing (Latin commentary),                    Copenh. '75-87
+    F. Ritschl, revised by G. Loewe, G. Goetz, and F.
+      Schoell (crit.),                                       Leip. '94
+    Amphitruo,           A. Palmer,                          Lond. '90
+    Asinaria,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '94
+    Aulularia,           W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Captivi,             J. Brix,                            Leip. '84
+    "                    W. M. Lindsay,                       Oxf. '95
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Lond. '80
+    "                    A. R. S. Hallidie,                  Lond. '95
+    Epidicus,            J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '93
+    Mostellaria,         A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '83
+    "                    E. A. Sonnenschein,                 Camb. '84
+    Menaechmi,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '91
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '92
+    Miles,               J. Brix,                            Leip. '82
+    "                    A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '86
+    "                    R. Y. Tyrrell,                      Lond. '94
+    Pseudolus,           A. O. F. Lorenz,                    Berl. '76
+    Rudens,              E. A. Sonnenschein,                  Oxf. '91
+    Stichus,             C. A. M. Fennell,                   Camb. '93
+    Trinummus,           J. Brix and M. Niemeyer,            Leip. '88
+    "                    W. Wagner,                          Camb. '90
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '96
+
+  *Ennius.*
+    F.P.R.
+    J. Vahlen                                                Leip. '54
+    Do. (with Naevius'
+      Bell. Pun.),       L. Mueller,                  St. Petersb. '85
+
+  *Pacuvius* and *Caecilius Statius.*
+    Ribbeck, _Trag._ and _Com._
+
+  *Terence.*
+    K. Dziatzko (text),                                      Leip. '84
+    W. Wagner,                                               Lond. '92
+    Andria,              A. Spengel,                         Berl. '88
+    "                    C. E. Freeman and A. Sloman,         Oxf. '93
+    "  and Eunuchus,     T. L. Papillon,                     Lond. '70
+    Heaut. Tim.,         E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. '94
+    "                    J. H. Gray,                         Camb. '95
+    Phormio,             K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '85
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '94
+    "                    J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,          Lond. '95
+    Adelphoe,            K. Dziatzko,                        Leip. '81
+    "                    A. Spengel,                         Berl. '79
+    "                    A. Sloman,                           Oxf. '92
+    "                    S. G. Ashmore,                      Lond. '93
+
+  *Cato the Elder.*
+    De Agricultura (and
+      Varro, Res Rusticae), H. Keil (crit.),              Leip. '82-91
+      Other fragments,      H. Jordan (crit.),               Leip. '60
+
+  *Accius.*
+    Ribbeck, and F.P.R.
+
+  *Lucilius.*
+    L. Mueller,                                              Leip. '72
+    C. Lachmann (crit.),                                     Berl. '76
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Atta, Afranius, Laberius.*
+    Ribbeck.
+
+  *Matius, Laevius, Bibaculus, Calvus, Cinna, Varro Atacinus.*
+    F.P.R.
+
+  *Auctor ad Herennium.*
+    C. L. Kayser,                                            Leip. '54
+    F. Marx (crit.),                                         Leip. '94
+
+  *Varro.*
+    Sat. Menipp., Logistorici,
+      Sententiae Varronis,    A. Riese (crit.),              Leip. '65
+    Sat. Menipp. (text in F. Buecheler's Petronius),         Berl. '95
+    Antiquitates (text in R. Merkel's Ovid, Fasti),          Berl. '41
+    De vita pop. Rom.,        H. Kettner (crit.),           Halle, '63
+    De gente pop. Rom.,       H. Peter (Frag. Hist. Rom.),   Leip. '83
+    De Lingua Latina,         A. Spengel (crit.),            Berl. '85
+    Res Rusticae,             H. Keil (see 'Cato').
+    Grammatical Works
+      (except _De L. L._),    A. Wilmanns (crit.),           Berl. '64
+
+  *Cicero.*
+    1. _Speeches_--
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   E. H. Donkin,                  Lond. '95
+      Pro Sex. Rosc. Amer.,   G. Landgraf,               Erlangen, '84
+      Pro Q. Rosc. Com.,      C. A. Schmidt,                 Leip. '39
+      Verrines,               C. G. Zumpt,                   Berl. '31
+      Div. in Caec. and in
+        Verr., Act. i.,       W. E. Heitland and H. Cowie,   Camb. '95
+        Verr., Act. i.,       J. R. King,                    Lond. '87
+      Div. in Caec. and in Verr.
+        Act ii., 4 and 5,     E. Thomas,                    Paris, '95
+      Pro Caecina,            C. A. Jordan,                  Leip. '47
+      De Imp. Cn. Pompei,     A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '94
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. and G. G. Ramsay,            Oxf. '89
+      Pro Cluentio,           W. Y. Fausset,                 Lond. '88
+      De Lege Agraria,        A. W. Zumpt,                   Berl. '61
+      Pro Rab. perd. reo,     W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '82
+      In Catilinam,           A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '95
+      Pro Murena,             W. E. Heitland,                Camb. '93
+      Pro Murena,             J. H. Freese,                  Lond. '94
+      Pro Sulla,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '91
+      Pro Archia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Flacco,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '83
+      Pro Sestio,             H. A. Holden,                  Lond. '95
+      In Vatinium,            C. Halm,                       Leip. '46
+      De Prov. Cons.,         G. Tischer,                    Berl. '61
+      Pro Balbo,              J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '90
+      Pro Plancio,            H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      Pro Milone,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '95
+      Pro Milone,             A. C. Clark,                    Oxf. '95
+      Pro Marcello, Ligario,
+        Deiotaro,             W. Y. Fausset,                  Oxf. '93
+      Philippics,             J. R. King.                     Oxf. '78
+      II. Phil.,              J. E. B. Mayor,                Lond. '93
+      II. Phil.,              A. G. Peskett,                 Camb. '91
+    2. _Rhetorical Works_--
+      De Oratore,             A. S. Wilkins,                  Oxf. '92
+      De Oratore,             G. Sorof,                      Berl. '82
+      De Oratore,             K. W. Piderit
+                                and O. Harnecker,         Leip. '86-90
+      De Inventione,          A. Weidner,                    Berl. '78
+      Brutus,                 K. W. Piderit
+                                and W. Friedrich,            Leip. '89
+      Brutus,                 O. Jahn and A. Eberhard,       Berl. '77
+      Orator,                 J. E. Sandys,                  Camb. '85
+      Orator,                 K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '76
+      Orator, (with De Opt.
+        Gen. Orat.),          O. Jahn,                       Berl. '69
+      Partit. Orat.,          K. W. Piderit,                 Leip. '67
+    3. _Philosophical Works_--
+      De Re Publica,          F. Osann,                     Goett. '47
+      De Legibus,             A. du Mesnil,                  Leip. '79
+      Paradoxa,               G. H. Moser,                  Goett. '46
+      De Finibus,             J. N. Madvig (Lat. comm.),   Copenh. '78
+      "                       H. Holstein,                   Leip. '73
+      Academica,              J. S. Reid,                    Lond. '85
+      Tusc. Disp.,.           R. Kuehner (Lat.),          Hanover, '74
+      "                       O. Heine,                   Leip. '92-96
+      "                       G. Tischer and G. Sorof,    Berl. '84-87
+      De Nat. Deor.,          J. B. Mayor,                Camb. '83-91
+      "                       G. F. Schoemann,               Berl. '76
+      De Senectute,           J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '94
+      " Amicitia,             J. S. Reid,                    Camb. '93
+      " Officiis,             H. A. Holden,                  Camb. '93
+      " Divinatione, De
+        Fato,                 G. H. Moser,                 Frankf. '28
+    4. _Letters_--
+      Correspondence of C.    R. Y. Tyrrell and
+                                L. C. Purser,             Dubl. '85-94
+      Selections,             A. Watson,                      Oxf. '91
+      " (C. in his
+      Letters),               R. Y. Tyrrell,                 Lond. '96
+      Epp. ad Att.,           J. G. C. Boot (Lat.)           Amst. '86
+      Epp. ad Fam.,           L. Mendelssohn (crit.),        Leip. '93
+                              C. F. W. Mueller (crit.),      Leip. '96
+    5. _Poems_--
+      F.P.R.
+      _Complete texts_--
+      J. C. Orelli, J. G. Baiter, and C. Halm,.           Zuer. '45-61
+      C. F. A. Nobbe,                                        Leip. '50
+      C. F. W. Mueller, etc.,                             Leip. '90-96
+      J. G. Baiter and C. L. Kayser,                      Leip. '60-69
+
+  *Caesar.*
+    B. Dinter (text),                                        Leip. '96
+    B. Kuebler (text),                                    Leip. '93-94
+    Bell. Gall.,          J. Bond and A. S. Walpole,         Lond. '87
+    "                     A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '78
+    Bell. Gall.,          C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          F. Kraner and W. Dittenberger,     Berl. '90
+    Bell. Gall.,          A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           C. E. Moberly,                      Oxf. '92
+    Bell. Civ.,           F. Kraner and F. Hofmann,          Berl. '90
+    Bell. Civ.,           A. Doberenz and B. Dinter,         Leip. '84
+    Bell. Civ., (Bk. i.), A. G. Peskett,                     Camb. '90
+    Bell. Alex.,          R. Schneider,                      Berl. '89
+    Bell. Afr.,           E. Woelfflin and A. Miodonski,     Leip. '89
+
+  *Nepos.*
+    C. Nipperdey and B. Lupus,                               Berl. '95
+    J. Siebelis and M. Jancovius,                            Leip. '96
+    O. Browning and W. R. Inge,                               Oxf. '88
+    E. S. Shuckburgh,                                        Camb. '95
+
+  *Lucretius.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                       Camb. '91-93
+    C. Lachmann,                                             Berl. '82
+    Books i.-iii.,            J. H. W. Lee,                  Lond. '93
+    Book v.,                  J. D. Duff,                    Camb. '96
+
+  *Sallust.*
+    Cat. and Iug.,            W. W. Capes,                    Oxf. '89
+    Cat. and Iug.,            C. Merivale,                   Lond. '84
+    Cat. and Iug., (and
+      frags. of Hist.),       R. Jacobs and H. Wirz,         Berl. '94
+    Cat.,                     A. M. Cook,                    Lond. '88
+    Hist. (text),             H. Jordan,                     Leip. '87
+    Historiarum Reliquiae,    B. Maurenbrecher,           Leip. '91-93
+
+  *Publilius Syrus.*
+    Sententiae,               W. Meyer (crit.),              Leip. '80
+    Sententiae,               R. A. H. Bickford Smith,       Camb. '95
+
+  *Catullus.*
+    A. Palmer (crit.),                                       Lond. '96
+    R. Ellis (crit.),                                         Oxf. '78
+    R. Ellis (commentary),                                    Oxf. '89
+    B. Schmidt (introd. and text),                           Leip. '87
+    F. P. Simpson (selections),                              Lond. '94
+    (With Tibullus and
+      Propertius), L. Mueller (text),                        Leip. '92
+
+  *Horace.*
+    E. C. Wickham,                                         Oxf. '90-96
+    A. Kiessling,                                         Berl. '89-95
+    J. C. Orelli, W. Hirschfelder, and W. Mewes,          Berl. '86-92
+    Satires,                  A. Palmer,                     Lond. '96
+    Odes and Epodes,          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '95
+    "                         J. Gow,                        Camb. '96
+    Epistles and A.P.,        A. S. Wilkins,                 Lond. '92
+
+  *Virgil.*
+    O. Ribbeck (crit.),                                   Leip. '94-95
+       "       (text only),                                  Leip. '95
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh (text only),               Oxf. '92
+           [The above include the minor poems.]
+    J. Conington and H. Nettleship,                       Lond. '83-84
+    T. E. Papillon and A. E. Haigh,                           Oxf. '92
+    A. Sidgwick,                                          Camb. '90-94
+    B. H. Kennedy,                                           Lond. '79
+    T. Ladewig, C. Schaper, and P. Deuticke,                 Berl. '91
+    K. Kappes,                                            Leip. '93-95
+    Aeneid (i.-vi.),          T. E. Page,                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Tibullus.*
+    E. Hiller (text),                                        Leip. '85
+    E. Baehrens (text),                                      Leip. '78
+    L. Dissen,                                              Goett. '35
+
+  *Propertius.*
+    W. A. Hertzberg,                                     Halle, '43-45
+    F. A. Paley,                                             Lond. '72
+    A. Palmer (text),                                        Lond. '80
+    J. P. Postgate (selections),                             Lond. '94
+    "             (text),                                    Lond. '94
+
+  *Ovid.*
+    A. Riese (introd.),                                   Leip. '71-89
+    Heroides,            A. Palmer,                          Lond. '74
+    "                    E. S. Shuckburgh,                   Lond. '96
+    Metam.,              J. Sibelis and F. Polle,         Leip. '92-96
+    "                    M. Haupt, O. Korn, and
+                           H. J. Mueller,                    Berl. '85
+    Fasti,               G. H. Hallam,                       Lond. '93
+    Fasti,               R. Merkel,                          Berl. '41
+    "                    H. Peter,                           Leip. '89
+    Tristia,             S. G. Owen (crit.),                  Oxf. '89
+    "     (Bks. i., iii.), S. G. Owen,                     Oxf. '90-93
+    "     and Ibis,      R. Merkel,                          Berl. '37
+    Ibis,                R. Ellis (Lat.),                     Oxf. '82
+
+  *Manilius.*
+    F. Jacob,                                                Berl. '46
+       [See also R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_, Oxf. '91.]
+
+  *Livy.*
+    W. Weissenborn and H. J. Mueller,                     Berl. '73-96
+    M. Hertz (introd. and text),                          Leip. '57-63
+    Book i.,                      J. R. Seeley,               Oxf. '81
+    Books iv., vi., ix., xxvii.,  H. M. Stephenson,       Camb. '90-94
+    Book v.,                      L. Whibley,                Camb. '94
+    Books xxi., xxii.,            M. S. Dimsdale,         Camb. '94-95
+    "                             W. W. Capes,               Lond. '95
+
+  *Trogus.*
+    A. Bielowski,                                         Lemberg, '53
+
+  *Verrius Flaccus.*
+    (Festus and Paulus),          C. O. Mueller,             Leip. '80
+
+  *Vitruvius.*
+    V. Rose and H. Mueller-Struebing (crit.),                Leip. '67
+
+  *Seneca the Elder.*
+    H. J. Mueller (text),                                  Prague, '87
+    A. Kiessling (text),                                     Leip. '72
+
+  *Velleius.*
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '76
+    D. Ruhnken, ed. C. H. Frotscher,                         Leip. '39
+
+  *Valerius Maximus.*
+    C. Kempf (text),                                         Leip. '88
+
+  *Celsus.*
+    C. Daremberg (text),                                     Leip. '59
+
+  *Phaedrus.*
+    J. Siebelis and F. A. Eckstein,                          Leip. '89
+
+  *Seneca the Younger.*
+   Prose Works,           F. Haase (text),                Leip. '93-95
+   Apocolocyntosis, in F. Buecheler's Petronius (text).
+   Tragedies,             R. Peiper and G. Richter (text),   Leip. '67
+
+  *Curtius Rufus.*
+    T. Vogel,                                                Leip. '93
+
+  *Columella.*
+    In _Scriptores Rei Rusticae_,
+                 ed. I. G. Schneider (Lat.),              Leip. 1794-7
+
+  *Asconius.*
+    A. Kiessling and R. Schoell,                             Berl. '75
+
+  *Mela.*
+    C. Frick (text),                                         Leip. '80
+
+  *Persius.*
+    O. Jahn and F. Buecheler (text),                         Berl. '93
+    J. Conington, ed. H. Nettleship,                          Oxf. '93
+
+  *Probus.*
+    H. Keil,                                                Halle, '48
+
+  *Lucan.*
+    C. Hosius (text),                                        Leip. '92
+    C. E. Haskins (introd. by W. E. Heitland),               Lond. '87
+    Book i.,          W. E. Heitland and C. E. Haskins,      Camb. '95
+    "                 Lejay,                                Paris, '94
+    Books i.-v.,      C. M. Francken (Lat.),               Leiden, '96
+
+  *Petronius.*
+    F. Buecheler (text),                                     Berl. '95
+    Cena Trimalchionis, L. Friedlaender (text, German
+                          trans., and notes),                Leip. '91
+
+  *Calpurnius Siculus.*
+    H. Schenkl (text),                                     Prague, '85
+    C. H. Keene,                                             Lond. '87
+
+  *Aetna.*
+    H. A. J. Munro,                                          'Camb. 67
+
+  *Pliny the Elder.*
+    L. van Jan and Mayhoff (text),                        Leip. '75-92
+    J. Sillig,                                         Hamburg, '51-58
+    J. Hardouin,                                           Paris, 1723
+    D. Detlefsen (crit.),                                 Berl, '66-82
+    (Selections) Chrestomathia
+                 Pliniana,  L. Urlichs,                      Berl. '57
+
+  *Valerius Flaccus.*
+    J. A. Wagner,                                          Goett. 1805
+    N. E. Lemaire,                                          Paris, '24
+    G. Thilo (text),                                        Halle, '63
+
+  *Silius Italicus.*
+    A. Drakenborch (Lat.),                               Utrecht, 1717
+    G. A. Ruperti, ed. Lemaire,                             Paris, '23
+    L. Bauer (text),                                         Leip. '90
+
+  *Statius.*
+    Silvae,                 E. Baehrens (text),              Leip. '76
+    Achilleis,              P. Kohlmann (text),              Leip. '79
+    Thebais,                                                 Leip. '84
+
+  *Martial.*
+    L. Friedlaender,                                         Leip. '86
+    (Selections,)           H. M. Stephenson,                Lond. '95
+                            F. A Paley and W. H. Stone,      Lond. '82
+
+  *Quintilian.*
+    G. L. Spalding and C. G. Zumpt,                    Leip. 1798-1834
+    F. Meister (text),                                  Prague, '86-87
+    C. Halm (crit.),                                         Leip. '69
+    Book X.,                J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '72
+    "                       W. Peterson,                      Oxf. '91
+    "                       G. T. A. Krueger,                Leip. '88
+    "                       E. Bonnell and F. Meister,       Berl. '82
+
+  *Frontinus.*
+    A. Dederich (text),                                      Leip. '55
+    Strategemata,           G. Gundermann (text),            Leip. '88
+    De Aquis,               F. Buecheler (text),             Leip. '58
+
+  *Juvenal.*
+    L. Friedlaender,                                         Leip. '95
+    A. Weidner,                                              Leip. '89
+    XIII. Satires,          J. E. B. Mayor,                  Lond. '93
+    "                       C. H. Pearson and H. A. Strong,   Oxf. '92
+    "                       E. G. Hardy,                     Lond. '95
+
+  *Tacitus.*
+    C. Halm (text),                                       Leip. '89-93
+    Dialogus,            W. Peterson,                         Oxf. '93
+    Germania,            H. Furneaux,                         Oxf. '94
+    " and Agricola,      A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb, Lond. '91-94
+    "     "              H. M. Stephenson,                   Camb. '94
+    Histories,           E. Wolff,                        Berl. '86-88
+    "                    W. A. Spooner,                      Lond. '91
+    " (Books i., ii.),   A. D. Godley,                       Lond. '94
+    Annals,              K. Nipperdey and G. Andresen,    Berl. '84-92
+    "                    A. Draeger and F. Becher,        Leip. '82-95
+    "                    H. Furneaux,                      Oxf. '83-91
+    "                    H. Furneaux (Books i.-iv.),          Oxf. '92
+
+  *Pliny the Younger.*
+    H. Keil (text),                                          Leip. '53
+    H. Keil and Th. Mommsen (crit.),                         Leip. '70
+    G. H. Schaefer,                                         Leip. 1805
+    Epistles,         G. Cortius and P. D. Longolius,    Amsterd. 1734
+    " (Book iii.),    J. E. B. Mayor,                        Lond. '89
+    " (to Trajan),    E. G. Hardy,                           Lond. '89
+
+  *Suetonius.*
+    C. L. Roth (text),                                       Leip. '75
+    C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius,                                Leip. '16
+    Julius and Augustus,                H. T. Peck,      New York, '93
+    Augustus,                           E. S. Shuckburgh,    Camb. '96
+    Praeter Caesarum libros reliquiae,  A. Reifferscheid,    Leip. '60
+
+  *Miscellaneous.*
+    Aulus Gellius,                 M. Hertz (text),          Leip. '86
+    Macrobius,                     F. Eyssenhardt (text),    Leip. '93
+    Nonius Marcellus,              L. Mueller (crit.),       Leip. '88
+    Servius,               G. Thilo and H. Hagen (crit.), Leip. '78-94
+    Grammatici Latini, H. Keil (crit.),                   Leip. '56-80
+    Corpus Poetarum Latinorum, ed. J. P. Postgate (crit.),   Lond. '94
+      [Including Ennius, Lucretius, Catullus, Horace, Virgil,
+      Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid; other parts to follow.]
+    Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Meyer (text),        Zuerich, '42
+    Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta, H. Peter (text),       Leip. '83
+    Selected Fragments of Roman Poetry, W. W. Merry,          Oxf. '91
+    Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, J. Wordsworth,    Oxf. '74
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL INDEX
+
+
+  Abuccius, 99.
+
+  Accius,
+    birth, 55;
+    literary activity, friendships with leading men, 56;
+    character, 56;
+    plays and other works, 57;
+    Accius on philology and philosophy, 57;
+    views on Accius, 58;
+    relations with Pacuvius, 35;
+    on the dates of Livius, 1;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Acro, 354.
+
+  Acta diurna and Acta senatus,
+    used by Tac. 346;
+    by Sueton. 349.
+
+  Aedituus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Aelius Stilo, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Aelius Tubero, 220.
+
+  Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Aemilius Scaurus, 58.
+
+  Aeschylus,
+    imit. by Livius, 3;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    trans. by Cic. 88.
+
+  Aesop, imit. by Phaedrus, 239.
+
+  Aesopus, actor, 69.
+
+  Aetna, _see_ Lucilius Iunior.
+
+  Afranius, L. 64.
+
+  Agricola, 338, 341.
+
+  Agrippina, 243 _sqq._;
+    her memoirs, 346.
+
+  Albinovanus Celsus, 181.
+
+  Albius, _see_ Tibullus.
+
+  Alcaeus, imit. by Hor. 174 _sqq._
+
+  Alexandrian influence on Catull. 139, 175;
+    on Virg. 157;
+    on Propert. 199;
+    on Ovid, 210.
+
+  Alimentus, Cincius, 53.
+
+  Amafinius, 83.
+
+  Ambivius Turpio, 38, 43 _sqq._
+
+  Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust, 125.
+
+  Anacreon, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Andes,
+    birthplace of Virg. 148;
+    its position, 148 note.
+
+  Andronicus, Livius,
+    dispute as to his dates, 1;
+    facts of life, 2;
+    actor and schoolmaster, 3;
+    plays, 3;
+    Odisia, 3;
+    Hor.'s reference to, 165.
+
+  Annaeus, _see_ Cornutus, Lucanus, Seneca.
+
+  Anser, 184, 141-2.
+
+  Antias, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Antioch, birthplace of Publilius Syrus, 145.
+
+  Antiochus,
+    teacher of Cicero, 70;
+    of Varro, 91.
+
+  Antipater, _see_ Coelius.
+
+  Antonius, C. Iullus, 181.
+
+  Antonius, M., the orator, 69.
+
+  Antonius Gnipho, rhetorician, 69.
+
+  Apollodorus, imit. by Ter. 46, 47.
+
+  Apollonius Rhodius,
+    trans. by Atac. 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 287.
+
+  Aquilius, 39.
+
+  Aquinum, birthpl. of Juv. 313.
+
+  Aratus,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    this trans. used by Lucr. 120;
+    imit. by Atac. 145;
+    by Virg. 157;
+    trans. by Germanicus, 281.
+
+  Archias, 69, 75, 89.
+
+  Archilochus, imit. by Hor. 174.
+
+  Argumenta,
+    to Plautus, 18;
+    to Ter. 51;
+    to Livy, 217.
+
+  Aristius Fuscus, 181.
+
+  Aristotle,
+    foll. by Cic. 79, 85;
+    by Hor. 179.
+
+  Arpinum, birthpl. of Cic. 69.
+
+  Asconius Pedianus, 77.
+
+  Asinius, _see_ Pollio.
+
+  Asisium, birthpl. of Propert. 192.
+
+  Atacinus, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Ateius, foll. by Sall. 131.
+
+  Atellana fabula, 67.
+
+  Atilius, 39.
+
+  Atta, T. Quintius, 64.
+
+  Attalus, teacher of Seneca, 241.
+
+  Atticus, T. Pomponius, 90, 85 _sqq._;
+    on chronology, 1;
+    friend of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Attius, _see_ Accius.
+
+  Augustus,
+    works, 152;
+    relations with Virg. 149, 152, 159;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._
+    with Gallus, 182;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    with Ovid, 211;
+    with Livy, 215;
+    with Vitruvius, 225.
+
+
+  Bacchanalia, 12.
+
+  Bacchylides, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Bassus, Aufidius, 284.
+
+  Bassus, poet, 196, 206.
+
+  Bavius, 183.
+
+  Bibaculus, _see_ Furius.
+
+  Bilbilis, birthpl. of Martial, 295.
+
+  Britannicus, 245.
+
+  Brundisium, birthpl. of Pacuvius, 34.
+
+  Brutus,
+    relations with Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    with Hor. 165 _sqq._;
+    Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Burrus, friend of Seneca, 245 _sqq._
+
+
+  Caecilius of Novum Comum, 139.
+
+  Caecilius Statius,
+    dates, 37;
+    comedies, 38;
+    relations with Ter. 38, 42;
+    views on Caecilius, 39;
+    friend of Ennius, 28;
+    imit. by Ter. 43.
+
+  Caelius Rufus,
+    defended by Cic. 76;
+    enemy of Catull. 135.
+
+  Caesar, C. Iulius,
+    birth, 100;
+    early connexion with democrats, 100;
+    military and civil career, 101-2;
+    supports Pompey, 102;
+    first triumvirate, conquest of Gaul, civil war, 103;
+    dictator, death, 104;
+    _De Bello Gallico_, 104;
+    its objects, style, 105;
+    _De Bello Civili_, 106;
+    other works in the Corpus Caesarianum, 106;
+    theories on their authorship, 107;
+    Caesar's lost works, incl. speeches and poems, 109;
+    criticisms on his poems, 111;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    relations with Cic. 71, 77, 109, 110;
+    with Varro, 92;
+    with Sall. 127;
+    with Laberius, 97;
+    with Catull. 137;
+    with Calvus, 143;
+    celebrated by Bibaculus, 100;
+    by Atac. 144;
+    Livy on, 223;
+    Lucan on, 268, 270;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Caesar Strabo, 66.
+
+  Calagurris, birthpl. of Quintilian, 302.
+
+  Calendar, Caesar's reform of, 104, 110.
+
+  Calidus, Iulius, 124.
+
+  Caligula, and Seneca, 242.
+
+  Callimachus,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Propert. 198-9;
+    by Ovid, 211-2.
+
+  Calpurnius Piso, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Calpurnius Siculus, T. 275;
+    discussion of his date, 276;
+    _Eclogae_ and sequel by Nemesianus, his models, _De laude Pisonis_,
+      277.
+
+  Calvus, C. Licinius Macer,
+    life, speeches, 142;
+    poems, relations with Caes. 143;
+    with Catull. 138-9, 143;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176.
+
+  Canticum, 19, 50.
+
+  Cassius Hemina, 58.
+
+  Catilinarian conspiracy, 70, 75, 102.
+
+  Catius, T. 83, 112.
+
+  Cato, M. Porcius, the censor,
+    date, 53;
+    founder of Latin prose, 53;
+    works, 54-5;
+    patron of Enn. 27;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Livy, 219;
+    imit, by Sall. 131.
+
+  Cato Uticensis, Lucan on, 269.
+
+  Cato, Valerius, teacher of Catullus, 133, 139.
+
+  Catullus, C. Valerius,
+    birth and dates, 132;
+    family and education, 133;
+    relations with Lesbia, 134;
+    voyage to Bithynia, 136;
+    attacks Caesar's party, 137;
+    relations with contemporaries, 138;
+    longer poems, Alexandrian influence, publication of poems, 139;
+    metre, 175;
+    friend of Nep. 114-5;
+    of Calvus, 138-9, 143;
+    of Cinna, 140;
+    Hor.'s opinion of, 143, 176;
+    imit. by Virg. 154;
+    by Mart. 301.
+
+  Catulus, _see_ Lutatius.
+
+  Celsus, Cornelius,
+    his encyclopaedia, 235;
+    its subdivisions, extant part _De Re Medica_, 236;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Christians, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+  Cicero, M. Tullius,
+    birth, education, at the bar, 69;
+    in the East, political career, Catilinarian conspiracy, banishment, 70;
+    recall, proconsul of Cilicia, in civil war, 71;
+    death, 73;
+    speeches, 73;
+    philosophical works, 79;
+    Cic. as a philosopher, 83;
+    rhetorical works, 83;
+    letters, 85;
+    their style, lost prose writings, 86;
+    poems, 87;
+    criticisms of his poetry, 88;
+    on chronology, 1, 9;
+    verses on Ter. 51;
+    conversed with Accius, 56;
+    criticises Sisenna, 67;
+    attacked by Catull. 138;
+    his reference to Lucr. 119;
+    editorship of Lucr. 120;
+    relations with Nep. 114;
+    with Calvus, 142;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Lucr. 120;
+    by Hor. 174;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    largely quoted by Quint. 308;
+    admired by elder Sen. 228.
+
+  Cicero, Quintus, 89.
+
+  Cincius Alimentus, 53;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Cinna, C. Helvius,
+    friend of Catull. 136-9, 140;
+    partisan of Caesar, discussion of his identity, 141;
+    poems, 141;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112.
+
+  Claudius, emperor,
+    relations with Livy, 216;
+    with Sen. 243 _sqq._
+
+  Claudius Quadrigarius, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Clodia (Lesbia), 76;
+    Catullus' relations with, 134 _sqq._
+
+  Clodius, P. 70, 76.
+
+  Clodius Licinus, 220.
+
+  Cluvius Rufus, foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Codrus, 183.
+
+  Coelius Antipater, 58;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Columella,
+    birth, military service, property, date, 258;
+    works, 258-9.
+
+  Comum, birthpl. of the two Plinii, 281, 326.
+
+  Contaminatio, 6, 13, 46 _sqq._
+
+  Corbulo, Domitius, memoirs of, 346.
+
+  Corduba, birthpl. of the two Senecas and Lucan, 226, 240, 264.
+
+  Corinna, celebrated by Ovid, 207.
+
+  Cornelius, _see_ Celsus, Gallus, Nepos, Sisenna, Tacitus.
+
+  Cornificius, 88.
+
+  Cornificius, poet, 139.
+
+  Cornutus, Annaeus,
+    teacher of Persius, 260 _sqq._;
+    of Lucan, 265.
+
+  Corvinus, _see_ Messalla.
+
+  Cremona, birthpl. of Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Crispus, _see_ Sallustius.
+
+  Curtius Rufus,
+    his date and identity, 256;
+    _Historiae Alexandri_, 257.
+
+  Cynthia (Hostia), Propertius' relations with, 65, 193, 197 _sqq._
+
+
+  Delia (Plania), Tibullus' love for, 188-9.
+
+  Demetrius the Cynic, 251, 254.
+
+  Democritus, imit. by Lucr. 123.
+
+  Demophilus, 11.
+
+  Didascaliae, 15, 17, 44 _sqq._
+
+  Diodotus, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Diphilus,
+    imit. by Plaut. 12, 15, 17;
+    by Ter. 48.
+
+  Diverbium, 19, 50.
+
+  Domitian,
+    patron of Statius, 293;
+    of Mart. 297 _sqq._;
+    of Quint. 305.
+
+  Domitius Marsus, 184;
+    epigram on Tibull. 186.
+
+  Donatus, Aelius, 354, 39, 44, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Dossenus, in fabula Atellana, 25, 67.
+
+
+  Eclecticism,
+    of Enn. 29;
+    of Cic. 83;
+    of Hor. 173.
+
+  Egnatius, 99.
+
+  Empedocles, imit. by Lucr. 122.
+
+  Ennius,
+    birth, 26;
+    in Sardinia, 26;
+    life in Rome, 27;
+    in Aetolia, a Roman citizen, death, 28;
+    character and views, 29;
+    plays, Saturae, etc. 30;
+    _Annals_, 31;
+    services to Latin literature--the hexameter, 32;
+    influence on other poets, 33;
+    views on Ennius, 34;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    in _Bell. Hisp._ 109;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    quoted by Phaedrus, 237;
+    taught Pacuv. 35.
+
+  Epicureanism, 83;
+    in Enn. 30;
+    discussed by Cic. 80 _sqq._;
+    in Lucr. 120 _sqq._
+    in Virg. 149;
+    in Hor. 170, 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 279.
+
+  Epidius, teacher of Virg. 149.
+
+  Euhemerism, 31, 162.
+
+  Euphorion, 156, 183.
+
+  Euripides,
+    imit. by Enn. 30;
+    by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Sen. 253;
+    criticised by Lucilius, 62.
+
+
+  Fabianus, Papirius, 240.
+
+  Fabius, _see_ Quintilianus.
+
+  Fabius Labeo, 42, 52.
+
+  Fabius Pictor, 52;
+    foll. by Livy, 219.
+
+  Fabius Rusticus, 245;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Fannius, 58.
+
+  Fenestella, 40, 224.
+
+  Festus, 8, 224.
+
+  Flaccus, _see_ Horatius, Persius, Valerius, Verrius.
+
+  Florus, Iulius, 181, 172, 179.
+
+  Forum Iulii, birthpl. of Gallus, 182.
+
+  Frontinus, S. Iulius,
+    military and civil career, 310;
+    works, 311-2;
+    friend of Mart. 298.
+
+  Fundanius, 181.
+
+  Furius Antias, 66.
+
+  Furius Bibaculus, 99.
+
+  Furnius, 181.
+
+  Fuscus, _see_ Aristius.
+
+
+  Gades, birthpl. of Columella, 258.
+
+  Gaetulicus, 301.
+
+  Gallio, _see_ Novatus.
+
+  Gallus, Cornelius,
+    life, 182;
+    poems, 183;
+    relations with Virg. 150, 156.
+
+  Gellius, Aulus, 352.
+
+  Geminus, _see_ Tanusius.
+
+  Germanicus Caesar, 281.
+
+  Glycera, _see_ Nemesis.
+
+  Gracci, 58.
+
+  Guilds of poets, 2, 38.
+
+
+  Hadrian,
+    banishes Juv. 322;
+    dismisses Sueton. 349.
+
+  Helvia, 227, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Helvius, _see_ Cinna.
+
+  Hemina, _see_ Cassius.
+
+  Herennium, Rhet. ad, 88;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hesiod, imit. by Virg. 157.
+
+  Hieronymus, _see_ Jerome.
+
+  Hirtius and the Corpus Caes. 106 _sqq._
+
+  Homer,
+    trans. by Livius, 3;
+    by Matius, 66;
+    by Cic. 88;
+    imit. by Hostius, 65;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    parodied by Petron. 273.
+
+  Horatius Flaccus, Q.,
+    name, birth, 163;
+    parentage, 164;
+    education, in civil war, 165;
+    clerkship, 166;
+    introduction to Maecenas, journey to Brundisium, Sabine farm, 167;
+    relations with imperial house, 168;
+    death, personal appearance, 169;
+    chronology of works, 170;
+    _Satires_, 170, 172;
+    _Odes_ and _Epodes_, 171, 174;
+    _Epistles_, 171, 172, 179;
+    _Carm. Saec._ 171;
+    _Ars Poet._ 172, 179;
+    nature of the Satires, 173;
+    Odes, models of, 174;
+    metre and subjects of, 175;
+    Epistles, subjects of, 179;
+    Hor. and nature, popularity of Hor. 180;
+    relations with Virg. 151;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 195;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    on Calvus and Catull. 143, 176;
+    on Atac. 144;
+    imit. Lucilius, 62;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    parodied Bibac. 100;
+    imit. by Persius, 263;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    foll. by Quint. 309.
+
+  Hortensius, 74.
+
+  Hostia, _see_ Cynthia.
+
+  Hostius, 65;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Hyginus, C. Iulius, 224;
+    friend of Ovid, 206.
+
+
+  Iambi = satirical verses, 100, 174.
+
+  Imbrex, Licinius, 39.
+
+  Italicus, _see_ Silius.
+
+  Iulia, grand-daughter of Augustus, 203.
+
+  Iulius, _see_ Caesar, Calidus, Florus, Frontinus, Hyginus.
+
+  Iunior, _see_ Lucilius.
+
+  Iuvenalis, D. Iunius,
+    sources for his life, 312;
+    birth, 313;
+    inscription at Aquinum, 314;
+    parentage, position, and education, 314-6;
+    military and civil career, 316;
+    in Britain, 317;
+    references to Britain, 318;
+    life in Rome, 319;
+    dates of Satires, 320;
+    banishment, 322;
+    death, 323;
+    subjects of Satires, 323;
+    pessimism, rhetorical learning and style, 324-6;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Iuventius, 52.
+
+
+  Jerome, 351;
+    mistakes of, 2, 8, 58, 99, 144.
+
+  Jews, Tacitus' view of, 347.
+
+
+  Labeo, Fabius, 42, 52.
+
+  Laberius,
+    dates, 97;
+    contest with Publ. Syrus, 97, 145;
+    mimes, 98;
+    language and views, 99.
+
+  Laelius, literary circle of, 35, 41, 59.
+
+  Laenas, _see_ Popillius.
+
+  Laevius, 66.
+
+  Lanuvinus, _see_ Luscius.
+
+  Latro, Porcius,
+    teacher of Ovid, 201;
+    friend of Sen. 227.
+
+  Lesbia, _see_ Clodia.
+
+  Libri lintei, 68.
+
+  Licinius Imbrex, 39.
+
+  Licinius Tegula, 52.
+
+  Licinius Macer, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Licinius Macer Calvus, _see_ Calvus.
+
+  Licinus, Porcius, 65.
+
+  Livius, _see_ Andronicus.
+
+  Livius, T.,
+    birth, intimacy with imperial house, 215;
+    death, 216;
+    works on philosophy and rhetoric, 216;
+    his history, the _Periochae_, number and scope of books, 217;
+    date of composition, 218;
+    publication, 219;
+    his sources, 68, 319;
+    comparison with Polybius, 220;
+    characteristics of his history, 220-1;
+    views on religion and morality, 222;
+    politics, 223;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    foll. by Ovid, 211;
+    by Val. Max. 234;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Silius, 290;
+    by Frontinus, 311.
+
+  Lucanus, M. Annaeus,
+    biographies of, 264;
+    education, _Laudes Neronis_, political advancement, breach with Nero,
+      265;
+    satirizes Nero, joins Piso's conspiracy, suicide, 266;
+    his wife, 267;
+    lost works, 267;
+    _De Bello Civili_ (Pharsalia), 267, 268 _sqq._
+    popularity of his works, 268;
+    his views on politics, 268;
+    on philosophy and religion, 270;
+    rhetorical treatment, 271;
+    his models, 271;
+    criticisms of Lucan, 272;
+    friendship with Persius, 261;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326;
+    admired by Statius, 293;
+    parodied by Petron. 275.
+
+  Lucilius,
+    date, 58;
+    birthpl. and rank, 59;
+    his friends and enemies, 59-60;
+    _Saturae_, dates of composition, 61;
+    subjects of, 62;
+    on philology, 62;
+    style and character, 63;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    by Persius, 262-3;
+    by Juv. 326.
+
+  Lucilius Iunior, 277;
+    official career, friendship with Sen. 278;
+    date and authorship of _Aetna_, 279;
+    imit. Sen. and Lucr. 280;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Lucillius, epigrammatist, 301.
+
+  Lucretius Carus, T.,
+    his dates, 119;
+    Cic.'s editorship of his works, recently discovered biography, 120;
+    position and character, 121;
+    _De rerum natura_, 122;
+    his ethics and physics, 123;
+    imit. Enn. 33;
+    imit. by Virg. 158, 161;
+    by Hor. 173;
+    in _Aetna_, 280.
+    Lucullus, 68.
+
+  Ludi Megalenses, 15, 17, 44;
+    Romani, 17;
+    plebei, 17.
+
+  Luscius Lanuvinus, 39, 49.
+
+  Lutatius Catulus, 65.
+
+  Lycinna, 193.
+
+  Lygdamus, 190.
+
+  Lynceus, 196.
+
+
+  Maccius, _see_ Plautus.
+
+  Macer, _see_ Aemilius, Calvus, Pompeius.
+
+  Macrobius, 354.
+
+  Maecenas, 166;
+    relations with Virg. 151, 157;
+    with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Valgius, 180;
+    with Propert. 195, 198.
+
+  Mamurra, Catullus' hostility to, 137.
+
+  Manilius, 213;
+    imit. Lucr. 125;
+    Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, 159, 171.
+
+  Maro, _see_ Vergilius.
+
+  Marsus, _see_ Domitius.
+
+  Martialis, M. Valerius,
+    birth, 295;
+    education, life at Rome, patrons, 296;
+    life under Domitian and Titus, 297;
+    friends of Martial, 298;
+    returns to Spain, 299;
+    character, 299;
+    publication of Epigrams, popularity, 300;
+    models, mistakes, 301;
+    satire and versification, 302;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    of Silius, 289;
+    of Frontinus, 311;
+    of Juv. 319;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. by Juv. 326.
+
+  Maternus, Curiatius, 341.
+
+  Matius, Cn. 66.
+
+  Maximus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Mediocritas of Terence, 51.
+
+  Mela, Pomponius, 259.
+
+  Melissus, 149, 185.
+
+  Memmius, C. 120, 122, 136.
+
+  Menander,
+    imit. by Plaut. 13, 15, 18;
+    by Caecilius, 38;
+    by Ter. 44 _sqq._;
+    by Turpilius, 52;
+    by Afranius, 65.
+
+  Menippea Satira, 96, 273.
+
+  Messalina, 243.
+
+  Messalla Corvinus, 187;
+    patron of Tibull. 186 _sqq._;
+    relations with Ovid, 205.
+
+  Mevius, 183.
+
+  Molo,
+    teacher of Cic. 69, 70;
+    of Caes. 102.
+
+  Murena, conspiracy of, 171.
+
+
+  Naevius, Cn.,
+    birth, 4;
+    attacks Metelli, 5;
+    banishment and death, 6;
+    plays, 6;
+    _Bellum Punicum_, 7;
+    Plautus' reference to, 14;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Naples, birthpl. of Statius, 291.
+
+  Naso, _see_ Ovidius.
+
+  Nemesianus, 275, 277.
+
+  Nemesis (Glycera), Tibullus' love for, 188, 190.
+
+  Neoptolemus, 179.
+
+  Nepos, Cornelius,
+    discussion of date, 113;
+    intimacy with Atticus, 113;
+    with Catull. 114;
+    character and views, 114;
+    minor works, 115;
+    _De viris illustribus_, 116;
+    sources, 117;
+    value of his work, 117;
+    authenticity of his works, 118;
+    on Terence, 40;
+    on Cato, 54;
+    friend of Catull. 139;
+    foll. by Mela, 259.
+
+  Nero,
+    relations with Sen. 244 _sqq._;
+    with Lucan, 265;
+    with Petron. 272;
+    with Silius, 289;
+    Calp. Sic. on, 276;
+    his poetry parodied by Persius, 262;
+    by Petron. 275.
+
+  Nicander,
+    foll. by Virg. 158;
+    by Macer, 182;
+    by Ovid, 210.
+
+  Nonius Marcellus, 353.
+
+  Novatus, M. Annaeus (= Gallio), 227, 250, 264.
+
+  Novius, 67.
+
+
+  Oppius, and the Corpus Caes. 106.
+
+  Orbilius, 99, 165.
+
+  Ovidius Naso, P.,
+    name and birth, 200;
+    rank and education, 201;
+    official career, 202;
+    travels, 203;
+    banishment, 203;
+    probable reasons for it, 203-4;
+    life at Tomi, 204-5;
+    death, 205;
+    his literary friends, 206;
+    his property, 206;
+    poems, 207;
+    relations with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Tibull. 189;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. Catull. 140;
+    Virg. 163;
+    foll. Propert. 199;
+    Verrius Flaccus, 224;
+    imit. by Sen. 253;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    on Varro Atac. 144;
+    on Gallus, 182.
+
+
+  Pacuvius,
+    birth, 34;
+    literary friends, 35;
+    tragedies, saturae, 36;
+    views and style, 36;
+    views on Pacuvius, 37;
+    imit. by Lucr. 121;
+    by Virg. 161.
+
+  Paetus Thrasea,
+    relative of Persius, 261, 286;
+    Tacitus' attitude to, 344.
+
+  Palliata fabula, 6, 10 _sqq._, 39, 44 _sqq._, 52.
+
+  Panaetius, 82.
+
+  Papinius, _see_ Statius.
+
+  Patavinitas, 215, 219.
+
+  Patavium, birthpl. of Livy, 215.
+
+  Paterculus, _see_ Velleius.
+
+  Paul, St., and Seneca, 254.
+
+  Paulus Diaconus, abridged Festus, 224.
+
+  Pedianus, _see_ Asconius.
+
+  Pedum, prob. birthpl. of Tibull. 185.
+
+  Pellio, actor of Plautus, 12.
+
+  Persius Flaccus, A.,
+    dates, birthpl., rank, education, 260;
+    his friends, property, and character, 261;
+    early works, 261;
+    Satires--their nature, 262;
+    obligations to Hor. 263;
+    popularity, 263-4;
+    imit. Lucilius, 63.
+
+  Petronius Arbiter, C.,
+    life, 272;
+    Satirae--their subject, 273;
+    dramatic scene and date, 273-4;
+    style, 274;
+    poems in the book, 275.
+
+  Phaedrus (philosopher), 69.
+
+  Phaedrus (poet),
+    life, 237;
+    persecuted by Seianus, 237;
+    personal points, 238;
+    _fabulae Aesopiae_, 239;
+    the five books, 239.
+
+  Philemon, imit. by Plaut. 14, 15, 17.
+
+  Philetas, imit. by Propert. 199.
+
+  Philo, teacher of Cic. 69.
+
+  Philology, 57, 63, 94, 307.
+
+  Phocas, 147.
+
+  Pictor, Fabius, 52.
+
+  Pindar, foll. by Hor. 175.
+
+  Pisaurum, birthpl. of Accius, 55.
+
+  Piso, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Piso, conspiracy of, 248, 266, 296.
+
+  Plania, _see_ Delia.
+
+  Plato,
+    trans. by Cic. 82;
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Virg. 162.
+
+  Plautus, T. Maccius,
+    name, 7;
+    date and pl. of birth, 8;
+    varied employments, 8, 9;
+    intimacy with the Scipios, death, 9;
+    Plautine canon, 10;
+    extant plays, 10-18;
+    argumenta, 18;
+    prologues, 18;
+    acts, diverbium, canticum, characters, 19;
+    language, 20;
+    references to Greek and Roman life, 20;
+    prosody, 22;
+    views on Plautus, 25;
+    reference to Naevius, 5.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the elder), 281;
+    education, 282;
+    military and procuratorial career, 282-3;
+    death, 283;
+    lost works, 284;
+    _Naturae Historiae_, their contents and character, 285;
+    views, 286;
+    foll. by Tac. 346.
+
+  Plinius Secundus, C. (the younger),
+    name and birthpl. 326;
+    date of birth, education, 327;
+    adoption by his uncle, 328;
+    at the bar, civil career, 328;
+    _Panegyricus_, 330;
+    governor of Pontus et Bithynia, correspondence with Trajan,
+      municipal relations, 331-333;
+    as orator and writer, 333;
+    the Epistles, 334;
+    relations with other writers, character, 335;
+    love of nature, 336;
+    friend of Silius, 289;
+    of Mart. 298;
+    of Frontinus, 310;
+    of Tac. 340;
+    of Sueton. 348.
+
+  Polla Argentaria,
+    wife of Lucan, 267;
+    patroness of Mart. 297.
+
+  Pollio, Asinius, 112;
+    criticises Caesar, 105;
+    connexion with Corpus Caes. 107 _sqq._;
+    criticises Livy, 219;
+    friend of Virg. 149, 154 _sqq._
+
+  Pollio, _see_ Vitruvius.
+
+  Polybius,
+    foll. by Nep. 117;
+    by Livy, 220.
+
+  Polybius, favourite of Claudius, 250.
+
+  Pompeius Macer, poet, 203.
+
+  Pompeius Magnus,
+    Livy a supporter of, 219;
+    Lucan's view of, 268-9.
+
+  Pompeius, _see_ Trogus.
+
+  Pompilius, 65.
+
+  Pomponius, _see_ Mela, Atticus.
+
+  Pomponius Bononiensis, 67.
+
+  Pomponius Secundus, 282, 284.
+
+  Ponticus, 196, 206.
+
+  Popillius Laenas, 42, 52.
+
+  Porcius, _see_ Cato, Latro.
+
+  Porcius Licinus, 65.
+
+  Porphyrio, 355.
+
+  Posidippus, 14.
+
+  Posidonius, 70, 82.
+
+  Praetexta fabula, 7, 30, 36, 57, 341.
+
+  Probus, M. Valerius, 147;
+    his life of Persius, 260.
+
+  Probus, Aemilius, falsely credited with Nepos' works, 118.
+
+  Prologues, 18, 49.
+
+  Propertius, Sex.,
+    name, 191;
+    birth, 192;
+    youth and education, 193;
+    relations with Lycinna and Cynthia, 193-4;
+    later life, 194-5;
+    relations with Maecenas, Augustus, and contemporary poets, 195-6;
+    elegies, 196;
+    dates and contents of the four books, 196-9;
+    his archaeological tastes, 198;
+    character, 200;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Prosody, 22, 32.
+
+  Publilius Syrus,
+    life and works, 145;
+    views on, 146;
+    contest with Laberius, 97, 145.
+
+  Pupius, 185.
+
+  Pythagoreanism,
+    in Enn. 30;
+    in Laberius, 99;
+    in Virg. 162.
+
+
+  Quadrigarius, _see_ Claudius.
+
+  Quintilianus, M. Fabius,
+    pl. of birth, 302;
+    probable date of birth, his teachers, at the bar, 303;
+    professor of oratory, date of the _Institutio_, retirement, 304;
+    tutor to Domitian's grandnephews, consul, flattery of Domitian,
+      domestic relations, 305;
+    earlier works, 306;
+    _Institutio_, 306;
+    scope of work, 307;
+    his authorities, 308;
+    spurious works, 309;
+    friend of Martial, 298;
+    teacher of Pliny the younger, 327;
+    views on Roman writers, _passim_.
+
+  Quintius, _see_ Atta.
+
+
+  Rabirius, 83.
+
+  Reate, birthpl. of Varro, 91.
+
+  Religion,
+    in Enn. 29;
+    in Pacuv. 36;
+    in Accius, 57;
+    in Lucr. 122;
+    in Virg. 161;
+    in Livy, 222;
+    in Tac. 343.
+
+  Rhinthonica, 11.
+
+  Roscius, actor, 69, 73.
+
+  Rudiae, birthpl. of Enn. 26.
+
+  Rufus, _see_ Curtius, Valgius, Varius.
+
+  Rusticus, _see_ Fabius.
+
+  Rutilius, 220.
+
+
+  Sallustius Crispus, C.,
+    dates, youth, rank, 125;
+    political and military life, 126-7;
+    retirement, 128;
+    _Bell. Cat._, object of work, 128;
+    _Bell. Iug._, object of work, 129;
+    _Hist._ 129;
+    spurious works, 130;
+    as a historian, 130;
+    authorities and models, 131;
+    style, popularity, 132;
+    criticised by Livy, 216;
+    foll. by Frontinus, 311;
+    by Val. Max. 235;
+    on Sisenna, 67.
+
+  Santra, on Terence, 42.
+
+  Sappho,
+    imit. by Catull. 139;
+    by Hor. 174.
+
+  Sarranae tibiae, 45.
+
+  Sarsina, birthpl. of Plautus, 8.
+
+  Saturae, 30, 36, 61, 64, 172, 262, 320;
+    Menippeae, 96, 273.
+
+  Saturnians, 3, 7.
+
+  Scaurus, _see_ Aemilius.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the elder, friend of Enn. 27.
+
+  Scipio Africanus the younger,
+    friend of Ter. 40;
+    of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Sedigitus, Volcacius, 66;
+    on Plautus, 10;
+    canon, 39, 66.
+
+  Seianus,
+    praised by Velleius, 234;
+    relations with Phaedrus, 237.
+
+  Seneca, Annaeus, the elder,
+    birth, rank, 226;
+    life in Rome, death, character, 227;
+    _Controversiae_, 228-9;
+    _Suasoriae_, 229;
+    his history, 230.
+
+  Seneca, L. Annaeus, the younger,
+    birth, family, education, 240;
+    voyage to Egypt, 241;
+    political advancement, 242;
+    banishment, recall, 243;
+    tutorship of Nero, privy to Claudius' murder, 244;
+    checks Nero, 245;
+    power and wealth, 246;
+    loss of power, 247;
+    wishes to retire, 248;
+    Piso's conspiracy, death of Seneca, 248;
+    extant prose works, 249;
+    extant poems, incl. tragedies, 252;
+    lost works, 253;
+    spurious works, views and character, 254;
+    style, 255;
+    imit. Curtius Rufus, 257;
+    friend of Persius, 261;
+    of Calp. Sic. 276;
+    of Lucilius Iunior, 277 _sqq._;
+    foll. by Lucan, 271;
+    imit. by Lucilius, 280;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Juv. 326;
+    patron of Mart. 296;
+    Quintilian's antagonism to, 309.
+
+  Servius, 354, 147 _sqq._
+
+  Sextius, 237, 240 _sqq._
+
+  Siculus, _see_ Calpurnius.
+
+  Silanus, D. 203.
+
+  Silius Italicus,
+    life, 289;
+    _Punica_, 290;
+    models, 291;
+    Homerus Latinus, 291;
+    friend of Mart. 298;
+    of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    on life of Ennius, 26;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Siron, 149, 150.
+
+  Sisenna, L. Cornelius, 67;
+    foll. by Sall. 129;
+    by Tac. 346.
+
+  Sophocles,
+    imit. by Pacuv. 36;
+    by Accius, 57;
+    by Virg. 161;
+    by Sen. 253.
+
+  Soranus, _see_ Valerius.
+
+  Sotadean metre, 31, 57.
+
+  Sotion, 240.
+
+  Stataria, 11, 46.
+
+  Statius, _see_ Caecilius.
+
+  Statius, P. Papinius,
+    birth, 291;
+    poetical competitions, 292;
+    patronized by Domitian, admiration for Lucan and Virgil, 293;
+    works, 293-5;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    friend of Lucan, 267;
+    sneered at by Mart. 298.
+
+  Stilo, Aelius, 10, 25, 29.
+
+  Stoicism,
+    discussed by Cic. 79 _sqq._;
+    in Virg. 162;
+    Hor.'s attitude to, 173;
+    in Sen. 241, 254;
+    in Persius, 262;
+    in Lucan, 270;
+    in _Aetna_, 279;
+    in Juv. 325.
+
+  Sueius, 66.
+
+  Suessa, birthpl. of Lucilius, 59.
+
+  Suetonius Tranquillus, C.,
+    life, 348;
+    works, 349;
+    biography of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Sulla, 68, 129.
+
+  Sulmo, birthpl. of Ovid, 200.
+
+  Sulpicia, 191.
+
+  Sulpicius, 181.
+
+  Sulpicius Apollinaris, 18, 51.
+
+  Syrus, see Publilius.
+
+
+  Tabernaria fabula, 6, 64.
+
+  Tacitus, Cornelius, 336;
+    birth and rank, 337;
+    reputation as an orator, 338;
+    political career, death, 339;
+    works, 340-3;
+    views, 343;
+    sources, 346;
+    his credibility, 347;
+    friend of Pliny the younger, 335;
+    imit. Sall. 132;
+    Virg. 163;
+    Pliny the elder, 285.
+
+  Tanusius Geminus, 138.
+
+  Tegula, Licinius, 52.
+
+  Terentius Afer, P.,
+    date and pl. of birth, 39, 40;
+    relations with Laelius, Scipio, and Caecilius, 41-2;
+    death, 43;
+    personal appearance, 44;
+    comedies, 44;
+    prologues, representation, 49;
+    names of characters, 50;
+    arguments, prosody, views on Ter. 51;
+    imit. by Afranius, 65;
+    relations with Caecilius, 38;
+    attacks on Luscius, 39.
+
+  Terentius, _see_ Varro.
+
+  Theocritus,
+    imit. by Virg. 156;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277.
+
+  Theophrastus, imit. by Cic. 79, 82.
+
+  Thrasea, _see_ Paetus.
+
+  Thucydides,
+    imit. by Sall. 132;
+    by Lucr. 123;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+  Tiberius,
+    Tac.'s view of, 344 _sqq._;
+    praised by Hor. 172;
+    by Velleius, 233;
+    by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tibiae, 45, 50.
+
+  Tibullus, Albius,
+    birth, 185;
+    rank and wealth, 186;
+    friendship with Messalla, 187;
+    relations with Delia and Nemesis, 188;
+    with other poets, 189;
+    poems, 189;
+    imit. Virg. 163;
+    friend of Ovid, 206;
+    imit. by Mart. 301.
+
+  Ticidas, 140.
+
+  Ticinum, birthpl. of Nepos, 113.
+
+  Tingentera, birthpl. of Mela, 259.
+
+  Tiro, M. Tullius, 90;
+    edits Cicero's works, 78, 85.
+
+  Titinius, 52.
+
+  Titius, 181.
+
+  Togata fabula, 6, 52, 64, 185.
+
+  Trabea, 39.
+
+  Trabeata fabula, 185.
+
+  Tragicomoedia, 10.
+
+  Tranquillus, _see_ Suetonius.
+
+  Trogus, Pompeius, 223;
+    followed by Val. Max. 235.
+
+  Tucca, 154, 160.
+
+  Tullia, 72, 80.
+
+  Tullius, _see_ Cicero, Tiro.
+
+  Turpilius, 52.
+
+  Tusculum, birthpl. of Cato, 53.
+
+
+  Vacca, biographer of Lucan, 264.
+
+  Valerius, _see_ Catullus, Probus, Martialis.
+
+  Valerius, writer of palliatae, 52.
+
+  Valerius Aedituus, 65.
+
+  Valerius Antias, 67;
+    foll. by Livy, 220.
+
+  Valerius Cato, 133.
+
+  Valerius Flaccus,
+    life, 234.
+    the _Argonautica_, 287;
+    imit. Virg. 163.
+
+  Valerius Maximus, 234;
+    his _Facta et Dicta Memorabilia_, 234;
+    foll. by Juv. 325.
+
+  Valerius Soranus, 65.
+
+  Valgius Rufus, 180.
+
+  Varius Rufus, L., 181;
+    friend of Virg. 154, 160;
+    of Horace, 166 _sqq._
+
+  Varro Atacinus, P. Terentius, 144;
+    imit. by Virg. 161.
+
+  Varro, M. Terentius,
+    birth, 91;
+    military and political career, 91-2;
+    death, 93;
+    works, 93-7;
+    on chronology, 5, 6, 26;
+    on criticism, 10, 51;
+    on Sallust, 126;
+    foll. by Virg. 157, 161;
+    by Ovid, 211;
+    friend of Cic. 81, 94.
+
+  Vatinius,
+    attacked by Cic. 76;
+    by Catull. 137;
+    by Calvus, 142.
+
+  Vatronius, 52.
+
+  Velleius Paterculus, C.,
+    military and civil career, 231-2;
+    his _Historia Romana_, 232.
+
+  Venusia, birthpl. of Hor. 163.
+
+  Vergilius Maro, P.,
+    name, 147;
+    parentage and education, 148;
+    evictions from farm, 149, 150;
+    friendship of Augustus, 149;
+    literary life, 151;
+    later years, 152;
+    personal appearance and character, 153;
+    minor poems, 153;
+    _Bucolica_, 154;
+    the separate Eclogues, 155;
+    sources, 156;
+    scenery in the Eclogues, 156;
+    _Georgics_, 157;
+    sources, 157;
+    political purpose, 158;
+    natural scenery, 158;
+    _Aeneid_, 159;
+    method of composition, 159;
+    posthumous publication, subject, why chosen, 160;
+    the Aeneas legend, 161;
+    sources of _Aeneid_, religion in _Aeneid_, 161;
+    political significance, 162;
+    influence of Virg. 163;
+    popularity of Virg. 180;
+    patronized by Pollio, 112;
+    imit. Naevius, 7;
+    Enn. 33;
+    Accius, 58;
+    Lucilius, 62;
+    Hostius, 65;
+    Bibaculus, 100;
+    Lucr. 125;
+    Catull. 140;
+    Atac. 145;
+    Hyginus, 224;
+    relations with Hor. 166 _sqq._;
+    with Aemilius Macer, 182;
+    with Gallus, 183;
+    with Propert. 196;
+    imit. by Manilius, 214;
+    by Lucan, 271;
+    by Calp. Sic. 277;
+    by Val. Flaccus, 288;
+    by Silius, 291;
+    by Statius, 293;
+    by Mart. 301;
+    by Juv. 325;
+    supplemented by Colum. 258;
+    _Aetna_ attributed to, 277;
+    quoted largely by Quint. 308;
+    half-lines in, 144.
+
+  Verona,
+    birthpl. of Catull. 132;
+    of Aemilius Macer, 182.
+
+  Verrius Flaccus, 224.
+
+  Visci, 181.
+
+  Vitruvius Pollio, 224;
+    his _Architectura_, 225.
+
+  Volaterrae, birthpl. of Persius, 260.
+
+  Volcacius, _see_ Sedigitus.
+
+  Volusius, 138.
+
+
+  Xenophon,
+    trans. by Cic. 87;
+    foll. by Nep. 117.
+
+
+  Zeno, 69.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF TITLES
+
+
+  A fine Aufidii Bassi, 284
+  Ab excessu divi Augusti, 342
+  Ab urbe condita, 217
+  Academica, 80
+  Achilleis, 294
+  Achilles, 3
+  Actis Scenicis, De, 95
+  Adelphoe, 48
+  Admiranda, 87
+  Aegisthus, 3
+  Aeneadae, 57
+  Aeneas, 282
+  Aeneid, 159
+  Aethiopis, 100
+  Aetia, 95
+  Aetna, 277
+  Agamemnon, 253
+  Agave, 295
+  Agricola, 341
+  Agricultura, De
+    (Cato), 54
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Ajax, 152
+  Alexandri Historiae, 256
+  Amazonis, 184
+  Ambracia, 30
+  Amicitia, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Amores
+    (Marsus), 185
+    (Ovid), 207
+  Amphitruo, 10
+  Analogia, De, 109
+  Andria, 44
+  +Anekdota+, 87
+  Annales of
+    Accius, 57
+    Q. Cicero, 90
+    Ennius, 31
+    Fenestella, 224
+    Hortensius, 74
+    Sueius, 66
+    Tacitus, 342
+    Varro, 95
+  Annalis, 90
+  Anticatones, 110
+  Antiopa, 36
+  Antiquitate litterarum, De, 94
+  Antiquitates, 94
+  Antonianae orationes, 78
+  Apocolocyntosis, 251
+  Apophoreta, 300
+  +Apophthegmata+
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Caes.), 110
+  Aquis urbis Romae, De, 312
+  Arboribus, De, 259
+  Archia, Pro, 75
+  Architectura, De, 225
+  Argonautae, 144
+  Argonautica, 287
+  Ars Amatoria, 209
+  Ars Poetica, 172, 179
+  Asinaria, 11
+  Astris, De, 110
+  Astrologia, De, 95
+  Astronomica, 213
+  Attis, 139
+  Auguriis, De, 82
+  Aulularia, 11
+
+  Bacchides, 13
+  Balbo, Pro, 76
+  Balistam, In, 153
+  Bella Germaniae, 284
+  Bello Civili, De (Lucan), 267
+  Bellum
+    Africum, 106
+    Alexandrinum, 106
+    Civile, 106
+    Gallicum
+      (Bibaculus), 100
+      (Caes.), 104
+    Hispaniense, 106
+    Histricum, 65
+    Iugurthinum, 129
+    Punicum, 7
+    Sequanicum, 144
+  Beneficiis, De, 251
+  Bibliothecis, De, 95
+  Boeotia, 39
+  Brevitate vitae, De, 250
+  Brundusinae, 64
+  Brutus
+    (Accius), 57
+    (Cic.), 84
+  Bucco Adoptatus, 67
+  Bucolica, 154
+
+  Caecilium, Divinatio in, 73
+  Caecina, Pro, 74
+  Caelio, Pro, 76
+  Caesarem, Ad, 87
+  Caesaris, De morte, 181
+  Captivi, 11
+  Carmen Saeculare, 171
+  Carmina
+    (Catull.), 132
+    (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  Casina, 12
+  Catachthonion, 267
+  Catalecta, 153
+  Catilinae coniuratione, De, 128
+  Catilinam, In, 75
+  Cato, 341
+  Cato Maior, 82
+  Catonis vita, 115
+  Causis corruptae eloquentiae, De, 306
+  Cena Trimalchionis, 273
+  Chorographia
+    (Atacinus), 145
+    (Cic.), 87
+    (Mela), 259
+  Chronica, 115
+  Ciceronis vita, 116
+  Cicuta, 184
+  Ciris, 154
+  Cistellaria, 12
+  Claris Oratoribus, De, 84
+  Clastidium, 7
+  Clementia, De, 251
+  Cluentio, Pro, 74
+  Coma Berenices, 139
+  Commentarii
+    (Caes.), 104
+    (Donatus, Servius, etc.), 354
+  Commentariolum petitionis, 89
+  Compendiosa doctrina, De, 353
+  Compitalia, 65
+  Consolatio, 80
+  Consolatione, De,
+    ad Marc., 250
+    ad Polyb., 250
+    ad Helv., 251
+  Constantia, De, 250
+  Consulatu, De suo, 87
+  Consulatu Ciceronis, De, 91
+  Controversiae, 228
+  Copa, 154
+  Culex, 154
+  Cum populo gratias egit, 75
+  Cum senatui gratias egit, 75
+  Cupuncula, 30
+  Curculio, 11
+  Cynegetica, 277
+
+  Decius, 57
+  Declamationes, 309
+  Deiotaro, Pro rege, 77
+  Descriptionibus, De, 95
+  Dialogus de oratoribus, 340
+  Didascalica, 57
+  Diomedea, 181
+  Dirae, 154
+  Dis penatibus, De, 224
+  Disciplinae, 95
+  Divinatione, De, 82
+  Domitius, 341
+  Domo sua, De, 76
+  Drusi vita, 152
+  Dubius sermo, 284
+  Duo Dosseni, 67
+
+  Eclogae
+    (Virg), 154
+    (Calp. Sic.), 275
+  +Eisagogikos+, 95
+  Elegiae--of
+    Atacinus, 145
+    Marsus, 29
+    Propert., 196
+    Tibull., 189
+    Valgius, 180
+    Varius, 182
+  Ephemeris, 145
+  Ephemeris navalis, Eph. rustica, 95
+  Epicharmus, 31
+  Epidicus, 12
+  Epigrammata--of
+    Calvus, 143
+    Ennius, 29
+    Lucan, 267
+    Marsus, 185
+    Martial, 300
+    Seneca, 252
+    Valgius, 181
+    Virgil, 154
+  Epistolicae quaestiones, 97
+  Epistula ad Pisones, 172, 179
+  Epistulae--
+    ad Atticum, 85
+    ad Brutum, 86
+    ad Caesonium, 253
+    ad Familiares, 86
+    ad Novatum, 253
+    ad Paulum, 254
+    ad Quintum fratrem, 86
+    ad Traianum, 335
+    ex Campania, 267
+    ex Ponto, 213
+    Latinae, 97
+    morales, 252
+    of Horace, 171, 172, 179
+    of Ovid, 208
+    of Pliny, 334
+  Epithalamia, 143
+  Epodi, 171, 174
+  Erotopaegnia, 66
+  Euhemerus, 31
+  Excellentibus ducibus, De, 116
+  Exempla
+    (Nepos), 115
+    (Hyginus), 224
+  Exhortationes, 253
+
+  Fabellae, 185
+  Fabulae Aesopiae, 239
+  Facta et dicta memorabilia, 234
+  Familiis Troianis, De
+    (Hyginus), 224
+    (Varro), 95
+  Fasti
+    (Ovid), 210
+    (Verrius), 224
+  Fato, De, 82
+  Finibus, De, 80
+  Flacco, Pro, 75
+  Fonteio, Pro, 74
+  Forma mundi, De, 253
+  Forma philosophiae, De, 95
+  Formula honestae vitae, De, 254
+
+  Gente populi Romani, De, 95
+  Geometria, De, 95
+  Georgica, 157
+  Germania, 341
+  Gloria, De, 82
+
+  Halieuticon, 213
+  Haruspicum responsis, De, 76
+  Heauton Timorumenos, 45
+  Hebdomades, 95
+  Hecuba, 253
+  Hecyra, 47
+  Hedyphagetica 31
+  Herbis, De, 182
+  Hercules Furens; Herc. Oetaeus, 253
+  Heroides, 208
+  Hippolytus, 253
+  Historia Romana, 232
+  Historiae
+    (Sall.), 129
+    (Sisenna), 67
+    (Tac.), 341
+  Homerus Latinus, 291
+  Hortationes ad philosophiam, 152
+  Hortensius, 80
+  Hymenaeus, 141
+
+  Iaculatione equestri, De, 284
+  Ibis, 212
+  Iliacon, 267
+  Imagines, 95
+  Imaginibus, De, 91
+  Immatura morte, De, 253
+  Imperio Cn. Pompei, De, 74
+  Incendio urbis, De, 267
+  Institutio oratoria, 306
+  Inventione, De, 83
+  Io, 143
+  Iocularis libellus, 88
+  Ira, De, 250
+  Iter, 111
+  Iure civili, De, 95
+  Iure civili in artem redigendo, De, 87
+
+  Laelius, 82
+  Lapidum natura, De, 253
+  Lectionibus, De, 95
+  Legationum libri, 95
+  Lege agraria, De, 74
+  Lege Manilia, Pro, 74
+  Legibus, De, 79
+  Ligario, Pro, 77
+  Limon, 88
+  Lingua Latina, De, 94
+  +Logistorikoi+, 96
+  Lucubrationes, 100
+  Lucullus, 81
+  Ludus de morte Claudi, 251
+
+  Maccus Copa, Miles, Sequester, Virgo, 67
+  Marcello, Pro, 77
+  Marius, 88
+  Matrimonio, De, 253
+  Medea
+    (Ennius), 30
+    (Lucan), 267
+    (Maternus), 341
+    (Ovid), 208
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Medicamina, 209
+  Menaechmi, 14
+  Mensuralia, 95
+  Mensuris, De, 95
+  Mercator, 15
+  Metamorphoses, 209
+  Miles Gloriosus, 14
+  Milone, Pro, 77
+  Mimi
+    (Laberius), 97
+    (Syrus), 145
+  Mimiambi, 66
+  Monita, 254
+  Moralis philosophiae libri, 254
+  Moretum
+    (Sueius), 66
+    (Virg.), 154
+  Moribus, De
+    (Cato), 55
+    (Sen.), 254
+  Mostellaria, 14
+  Motu terrarum, De, 253
+  Murena, Pro, 75
+
+  Natura deorum, De, 81
+  Naturae historiae, 285
+  Naturales quaestiones, 252
+  Navales libri, 95
+  Neronem, In, 268
+  Neronis laudes, 267
+  Nidus, 66
+  Niptra, 36
+  Noctes Atticae, 352
+  Numerorum libri, 95
+
+  Octavia, 253
+  Octavium, Or. in, 267
+  Odes (Hor.), 171, 172, 174
+  +Hodoiporika+, 261
+  Odyssea, 3
+  Oedipus
+    (Caes.), 111
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Officiis, De
+    (Cic.), 82
+    (Sen.), 253
+  Optimo genere dicendi, De, 84
+  Optimo genere oratorum, De, 85
+  Ora maritima, De, 95
+  Orator, 84
+  Oratore, De, 84
+  Origine linguae Latinae, De, 94
+  Origines, 54
+  Originibus scenicis, De, 95
+  Ornithogonia, 182
+  Orpheus, 267
+  Otio, De, 250
+
+  Pancratiastes, 30
+  +Pandektai+, 90
+  Panegyricus (Plin.), 330
+  Panegyricus Messallae, 191
+  Paradoxa, 80
+  Partitiones Oratoriae, 85
+  Paulus, 36
+  Paupertate, De, 254
+  Peleus et Thetis, 139
+  +Perialges+, 165
+  Persa, 16
+  Personis, De, 95
+  Petitione consulatus, De, 89
+  Phaedra, 253
+  Phaenomena, 281
+  Pharsalia, 267
+  Philippicae Historiae, 223
+  Philippics, 78
+  Philosophia, De, 95
+  Phoenissae, 253
+  Phormio, 46
+  Piscium natura, De, 253
+  Pisonem, In, 77
+  Pisonis, De Laude, 277
+  Plancio, Pro, 77
+  Plocium, 38
+  Poematis, De, 95
+  Poenulus, 16
+  Poetis, De
+    (Sedig.), 66
+    (Varro), 95
+  Pollam, Ad, 268
+  Pompeio, De, 95
+  Pontius Glaucus, 87
+  Ponto, Epp. ex, 213
+  Praecepta, 31
+  Praecepta ad filium, 55
+  Pragmatica, 57
+  Praxidica, 57
+  Priapea, 154, 191
+  Pridie quam in exilium iret, 78
+  Principiis numerorum, De, 95
+  Prognostica, 87, 281
+  Propempticon Pollionis, 142
+  Proprietate Scriptorum, De, 95
+  Protreptica, 31
+  Providentia, De, 250
+  Provinciis consularibus, De, 76
+  Pseudolus, 15
+  Pseudotragoediae, 96
+  Pulli, 66
+  Punica, 290
+
+  Quaestiones Plautinae, 95
+  Quinctio, Pro, 73
+
+  Rabirio Postumo, Pro, 77
+  Rabirio perd. reo, Pro, 74
+  Re medica, De, 236
+  Re militari, De, 55
+  Re publica, De, 79
+  Re rustica, De
+    (Varro), 93
+    (Colum.), 258
+  Remedia Amoris, 209
+  Remediis fortuitorum, De, 254
+  Rerum natura, De
+    (Egnatius), 99
+    (Lucretius), 120
+  Res urbanae, 95
+  Rescripta, 152
+  Rhetorica
+    (Hortens.), 74
+    (Cic.), 83
+    ad Herenn., 88
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Quint.), 306
+  Ritu et sacris Aegyptiorum, De, 253
+  Romulus, 7
+  Roscio, Pro Sex., 73
+  Roscio Comoedo, Pro, 73
+  Rudens, 16
+
+  Sacra Historia, 31
+  Sallustium, In, 78, 130
+  Salticae fabulae, 267
+  Saturae Menippeae, 96
+  Saturae
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Pacuv.), 36
+    (Lucil.), 61
+    (Atac.), 144
+    (Hor.), 170, 172
+    (Persius), 262
+    (Petron.), 272
+    (Juv.), 320, 323
+  Saturnalia (Lucan.), 267
+  Saturnalia (Macrob.), 354
+  Scenicis actionibus, De, 95
+  Scipio, 31
+  Senectute, De, 82
+  Sententiae (Varro), 97
+  Sententiae (Syrus), 145
+  Sententiae Rufi, 254
+  Sermone Latino, De, 94
+  Sermones (Hor.), 170, 172, 179
+  Sestio, Pro, 76
+  Sicilia, 152
+  Silvae (Lucan), 267
+  Silvae (Statius), 295
+  Similitudine verborum, De, 94
+  Situ Indiae, De, 253
+  Situ urbium Italicarum, De, 224
+  Somnium Scipionis, 79
+  Sota, 31
+  Spectacula, 300
+  Stichus, 17
+  Strategemata, 311
+  Studiosus, 284
+  Suasiones, 97
+  Suasoriae, 229
+  Sulla, Pro, 75
+  Superstitione, De, 253
+
+  Temporibus suis, De, 87
+  Tereus, 56
+  Thebais (Sen.), 253
+  Thebais (Stat.), 293
+  Theriaca, 182
+  Thyestes
+    (Enn.), 30
+    (Varius), 182
+    (Sen.), 253
+    (Maternus), 341
+  Topica, 85
+  Tranquillitate animi, De, 250
+  Tribuum liber, 95
+  +Trikaranos+, 92
+  Trinummus, 17
+  Tristia, 212
+  Troades, 253
+  Truculentus, 17
+  Tullium, invectiva in, 130
+  Tusculanae disputationes, 81
+
+  Urbanitate, De, 185
+  Utilitate sermonis, De, 94
+  Uxorem, Ad, 143
+
+  Vatinium, In, 76
+  Verborum significatu, De, 224
+  Verrem, In, 73
+  Vescia, 261
+  Vidularia, 18
+  Viris illustribus, De
+    (Hyg.), 224
+    (Nep.), 116
+    (Sueton.), 349
+  Virtutibus, De, 82
+  Vita beata, De, 250
+  Vita Caesarum, De, 349
+  Vita patris, De, 253
+  Vita Pomponii, De, 284
+  Vita populi Romani, De, 95
+  Vita sua, De
+    (Varro), 95
+    (Aug.), 152
+
+  Xenia, 300
+  +Charakteron, peri+, 94
+  +Chronikoi kanones+, 351
+
+  Zmyrna, 141
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+    | Transcriber's note:                                          |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:                  |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Page  29: "equs" changed to "equus"                          |
+    | Page  34: single quote added following "clueret."            |
+    | Page 161: period added following "Religion in the Aeneid"    |
+    | Page 218: single quote added following "capit."              |
+    | Page 259: "B.C." changed to "A.D."                           |
+    |           "Claudius" changed to "Caligula"                   |
+    |           "Caligula" changed to "Claudius" (twice)           |
+    | Page 263: single quote added following "ineptis."            |
+    | Page 381: "Octaviam" changed to "Octavium"                   |
+    |                                                              |
+    | Inconsistencies in hyphenation have not been normalized.     |
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Student's Companion to Latin
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